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who owns the fox theater in st louis | Fox Theatre (St. Louis) - wikipedia
www.fabulousfox.com
The Fox Theatre, a former movie palace, is a performing arts center located at 527 N. Grand Blvd. in St. Louis, Missouri. Also known as "The Fabulous Fox '', it is situated in the arts district of the Grand Center area in Midtown St. Louis, one block north of Saint Louis University. It opened in 1929 and was completely restored in 1982.
The Fox was built in 1929 by movie pioneer William Fox as a showcase for the films of the Fox Film Corporation and elaborate stage shows. It was one of a group of five spectacular Fox Theatres built by Fox in the late 1920s. (The others were the Fox Theatres in Brooklyn, Atlanta, Detroit, and San Francisco.)
When the theater opened on January 31, 1929, it was reportedly the second - largest theater in the United States, with 5,060 seats. It was one of St. Louis 's leading movie theaters through the 1960s and has survived to become a versatile performing arts venue.
The Fox was designed by an architect specializing in theaters, C. Howard Crane, in an eclectic blend of Asian decorative motifs sometimes called Siamese Byzantine. The interior is the architectural twin of another Fox Theatre built in Detroit in 1928. Reporters in 1929 described the Fox Theatres in St. Louis and Detroit as "awe - inspiringly fashioned after Hindoo (sic) Mosques of Old India, bewildering in their richness and dazzling in their appointments... striking a note that reverberates around the architectural and theatrical worlds. '' William Fox nicknamed the style the "Eve Leo Style '' in tribute to his wife, who decorated the interior with furnishings, paintings and sculpture she had bought on her trips overseas.
The Fox Theatre closed in March 1978 and was purchased by Fox Associates in 1981. The theater was restored at a price of at least $3 million and in comparison, the Fox cost $6 million to build in 1929. It reopened in September 1982 with the Broadway musical Barnum. Fox Theatricals is also the operator of the Briar Street Theater in Chicago.
The Fox seats 4,192 theatergoers plus 234 in the private Fox Club.
In September 2007, the venue celebrated the 25th anniversary of its re-opening with a concert featuring Brian Stokes Mitchell and Linda Eder and a day of the theater showing movies in a throwback to its beginnings.
The facade of the Fox briefly appears in the 1981 John Carpenter film Escape from New York as an abandoned Broadway theatre. Kurt Russell 's character, Snake, is seen approaching the theatre from the east, hearing music within, then entering. (A close look at the graffiti on the building clearly reveals the words: FOX THEATRE.) However, the shots immediately following are the interior of the Wiltern Theatre in Los Angeles.
The Theatre hosted a 60th birthday concert for St. Louis -- born, early rock and roll pioneer, Chuck Berry in 1986. Keith Richards, of The Rolling Stones, was the project 's musical director and backing band leader. Taylor Hackford incorporated the concert into a documentary film about Berry and released the film as Hail! Hail! Rock ' n ' Roll, as a feature. In the film, Berry mentions that, as a child growing up in St. Louis, he was denied entrance to the Fox to watch a film because he was black.
The Theatre played host to the politically motivated Vote for Change Tour on October 6, 2004, featuring a performance by Pearl Jam.
The Fox is also featured on an episode of stand - up comedian Kathy Griffin 's show Kathy Griffin: My Life on the D - List (Season 4, Episode 2: "Home is Where The Profit Is ''). Griffin brought the show 's crew to film her personal assistants raising more money from merchandise during a stand - up show at the theatre.
The Fox was the final stop of the Third National Tour of Les Misérables, with the final show taking place on July 23, 2006. The tour ran for 17 years, totaling 7,061 performances.
The theater 's Wurlitzer pipe organ cost $75,000 in 1929. It has four manuals, 36 ranks and 348 stops. Restoration of the organ was undertaken by Marlin Mackley in 1981.
Tom Terry was the theater 's resident organist from 1929 to 1935. The organ was not played for the public from 1935 to 1952. In 1952, Stan Kann was named resident organist. He served as organist at the Fox for 22 years and became something of a legend to theater organ aficionados.
A second Wurlitzer organ was installed in the lobby during the theater 's renovation in the 1980s. It replaced the original Möller organ which had been removed. The smaller lobby organ has two manuals and 11 ranks and had been originally installed in the Majestic Theatre in East St. Louis, Illinois in 1930.
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the exhaust fumes from automobiles are an example of | Exhaust gas - wikipedia
Exhaust gas or flue gas is emitted as a result of the combustion of fuels such as natural gas, gasoline, petrol, biodiesel blends, diesel fuel, fuel oil, or coal. According to the type of engine, it is discharged into the atmosphere through an exhaust pipe, flue gas stack, or propelling nozzle. It often disperses downwind in a pattern called an exhaust plume.
It is a major component of motor vehicle emissions (and from stationary internal combustion engines), which can also include:
Motor vehicle emissions contribute to air pollution and are a major ingredient in the creation of smog in some large cities. A 2013 study by MIT indicates that 53,000 early deaths occur per year in the United States alone because of vehicle emissions. According to another study from the same university, traffic fumes alone cause the death of 5,000 people every year just in the United Kingdom.
The largest part of most combustion gas is nitrogen (N), water vapor (H O) (except with pure - carbon fuels), and carbon dioxide (CO) (except for fuels without carbon); these are not toxic or noxious (although carbon dioxide is a greenhouse gas that contributes to global warming). A relatively small part of combustion gas is undesirable, noxious, or toxic substances, such as carbon monoxide (CO) from incomplete combustion, hydrocarbons (properly indicated as C H, but typically shown simply as "HC '' on emissions - test slips) from unburnt fuel, nitrogen oxides (NO) from excessive combustion temperatures, and particulate matter (mostly soot).
Exhaust gas temperature (EGT) is important to the functioning of the catalytic converter of an internal combustion engine. It may be measured by an exhaust gas temperature gauge. EGT is also a measure of engine health in gas - turbine engines (see below).
During the first two minutes after starting the engine of a car that has not been operated for several hours, the amount of emissions can be very high. This occurs for two main reasons:
Comparable with the European emission standards EURO III as it was applied on October 2000
In 2000, the United States Environmental Protection Agency began to implement more stringent emissions standards for light duty vehicles. The requirements were phased in beginning with 2004 vehicles and all new cars and light trucks were required to meet the updated standards by the end of 2007.
In spark - ignition engines the gases resulting from combustion of the fuel and air mix are called exhaust gases. The composition varies from petrol to diesel engines, but is around these levels:
The 10 % oxygen for "diesel '' is likely if the engine was idling, e.g. in a test rig. It is much less if the engine is running under load.
Exhaust gas from an internal combustion engine whose fuel includes nitromethane will contain nitric acid vapour, which is corrosive, and when inhaled causes a muscular reaction making it impossible to breathe. People exposed to it should wear a gas mask.
In jet engines and rocket engines, exhaust from propelling nozzles which in some applications shows shock diamonds.
In steam engine terminology the exhaust is steam that is now so low in pressure that it can no longer do useful work.
Mono - nitrogen oxides NO and NO (whether produced this way or naturally by lightning) react with ammonia, moisture, and other compounds to form nitric acid vapor and related particles. Small particles can penetrate deeply into sensitive lung tissue and damage it, causing premature death in extreme cases. Inhalation of such particles may cause or worsen respiratory diseases such as emphysema and bronchitis. It may also aggravate existing heart disease. A large scale 22 year study shows that NOx increases the changes of colorectal cancer death.
In a 2005 U.S. EPA study the largest emissions of NOx came from on road motor vehicles, with the second largest contributor being non-road equipment which is mostly gasoline and diesel stations.
The resulting nitric acid may be washed into soil, where it becomes nitrate, which is useful to growing plants.
When oxides of nitrogen (NOx) and volatile organic compounds (VOCs) react in the presence of sunlight, ground level ozone is formed, a primary ingredient in smog. A 2005 U.S. EPA report gives road vehicles as the second largest source of VOCs in the U.S. at 26 % and 19 % are from non road equipment which is mostly gasoline and diesel stations. 27 % of VOC emissions are from solvents which are used in the manufacturer of paints and paint thinners and other uses.
Ozone is beneficial in the upper atmosphere, but at ground level ozone irritates the respiratory system, causing coughing, choking, and reduced lung capacity. It also has many bad effects throughout the ecosystem.
Carbon monoxide poisoning is the most common type of fatal air poisoning in many countries. Carbon monoxide is colorless, odorless and tasteless, but highly toxic. It combines with hemoglobin to produce carboxyhemoglobin, which is ineffective for delivering oxygen to bodily tissues. In 2011, 52 % of carbon monoxide emissions were created by mobile vehicles in the U.S.
Chronic (long - term) exposure to benzene (C H) damages bone marrow. It can also cause excessive bleeding and depress the immune system, increasing the chance of infection. Benzene causes leukemia and is associated with other blood cancers and pre-cancers of the blood.
The health effects of inhaling airborne particulate matter have been widely studied in humans and animals and include asthma, lung cancer, cardiovascular issues, and premature death. Because of the size of the particles, they can penetrate the deepest part of the lungs. A 2011 UK study estimates 90 deaths per year due to passenger vehicle PM. In a 2006 publication, the U.S. Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) state that in 2002 about 1 per - cent of all PM and 2 per - cent of all PM emissions came from the exhaust of on - road motor vehicles (mostly from diesel engines).
Carbon dioxide is a greenhouse gas. Motor vehicle CO emissions are part of the anthropogenic contribution to the growth of CO concentrations in the atmosphere which according to the vast majority of the scientific community is causing climate change. Motor vehicles are calculated to generate about 20 % of the European Union 's man - made CO emissions, with passenger cars contributing about 12 %. European emission standards limit the CO emissions of new passenger cars and light vehicles. The European Union average new car CO emissions figure dropped by 5.4 % in the year to the first quarter of 2010, down to 145.6 g / km.
Vehicle exhaust contains much water vapour.
There has been research into ways that troops in deserts can recover drinkable water from their vehicles ' exhaust gases.
Emission standards focus on reducing pollutants contained in the exhaust gases from vehicles as well as from industrial flue gas stacks and other air pollution exhaust sources in various large - scale industrial facilities such as petroleum refineries, natural gas processing plants, petrochemical plants and chemical production plants. However, these are often referred to as flue gases. Catalytic converters in cars intend to break down the pollution of exhaust gases using a catalyst. Scrubbers in ships intend to remove the sulfur dioxide (SO) of marine exhaust gases. The regulations on marine sulfur dioxide emissions are tightening, however only a small number of special areas worldwide have been designated for low sulfur diesel fuel use only.
One of the advantages claimed for advanced steam technology engines is that they produce smaller quantities of toxic pollutants (e.g. oxides of nitrogen) than petrol and diesel engines of the same power. They produce larger quantities of carbon dioxide but less carbon monoxide due to more efficient combustion.
Researchers from the University of California, Los Angeles School of Public Health say preliminary results of their statistical study of children listed in the California Cancer Registry born between 1998 and 2007 found that traffic pollution may be associated with a 5 % to 15 % increase in the likelihood of some cancers. A World Health Organization study found that diesel fumes cause an increase in lung cancer.
The California Air Resources Board (C.A.R.B.) found in studies that 50 % or more of the air pollution (smog) in Southern California is due to car emissions.
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who was our second president of the united states | List of Presidents of the United States - wikipedia
The President of the United States is the elected head of state and head of government of the United States. The president leads the executive branch of the federal government and is the commander - in - chief of the United States Armed Forces. The president is indirectly elected to a four - year term by the people through the Electoral College.
Since the office was established in 1789, 44 men have served as president. The first, George Washington, won a unanimous vote of the Electoral College. Grover Cleveland served two non-consecutive terms in office, and is counted as the nation 's 22nd and 24th presidents; the incumbent, Donald Trump, is therefore the 45th president. There are currently five living former presidents. The most recent death of a former president was on December 26, 2006 with the death of Gerald Ford.
William Henry Harrison 's presidency was the shortest in American history. He died 31 days after taking office in 1841. Franklin D. Roosevelt served the longest, over twelve years, before dying early in his fourth term in 1945. He is the only U.S. president to have served more than two terms. Since the ratification of the Twenty - second Amendment to the United States Constitution in 1951, no person may be elected president more than twice, and no one who has served more than two years of a term to which someone else was elected may be elected more than once.
Of the elected presidents, four died in office of natural causes (William Henry Harrison, Zachary Taylor, Warren G. Harding, and Franklin D. Roosevelt), four were assassinated (Abraham Lincoln, James A. Garfield, William McKinley and John F. Kennedy), and one resigned (Richard Nixon). John Tyler was the first vice president to assume the presidency during a presidential term, and set the precedent that a vice president who does so becomes the fully functioning president with his own presidency, as opposed to a caretaker president. The Twenty - fifth Amendment to the Constitution put Tyler 's precedent into law in 1967. It also established a mechanism by which a mid-term vacancy in the vice presidency could be filled. Richard Nixon was the first president to fill a vacancy under this Provision when he appointed Gerald Ford to the office. Later, Ford became the second to do so when he appointed Nelson Rockefeller to succeed him. Previously, a mid-term vacancy was left unfilled.
Throughout most of its history, American politics has been dominated by political parties. The Constitution is silent on the issue of political parties, and at the time it came into force in 1789, there were no parties. Soon after the 1st Congress convened, factions began rallying around dominant Washington Administration officials, such as Alexander Hamilton and Thomas Jefferson. Greatly concerned about the capacity of political parties to destroy the fragile unity holding the nation together, Washington remained unaffiliated with any political faction or party throughout his eight - year presidency. He was, and remains, the only U.S. president never affiliated with a political party. Since Washington, every president has been affiliated with a political party at the time they assumed office.
Four presidents held other high U.S. federal offices after leaving the presidency.
Several presidents campaigned unsuccessfully for other U.S. state or federal elective offices after leaving the presidency.
Additionally, one former president, John Tyler, served in the government of the Confederate States during the American Civil War. Tyler served in the Provisional Confederate Congress from 1861 to 1862. He was elected to the Confederate House of Representatives in November 1861, but died before he could take his seat.
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where did the yin and yang symbol come from | Yin and yang - wikipedia
Model humanity:
Main philosophical traditions:
Ritual traditions:
Devotional traditions:
Salvation churches and sects:
Confucian churches and sects:
In Chinese philosophy, yin and yang (陰 陽 yīnyáng, lit. "dark - bright '', "negative - positive '') describe how seemingly opposite or contrary forces may actually be complementary, interconnected, and interdependent in the natural world, and how they may give rise to each other as they interrelate to one another. Many tangible dualities (such as light and dark, fire and water, expanding and contracting) are thought of as physical manifestations of the duality symbolized by yin and yang. This duality lies at the origins of many branches of classical Chinese science and philosophy, as well as being a primary guideline of traditional Chinese medicine, and a central principle of different forms of Chinese martial arts and exercise, such as baguazhang, taijiquan (t'ai chi), and qigong (Chi Kung), as well as appearing in the pages of the I Ching.
Duality is found in many belief systems, but Yin and Yang are parts of a Oneness that is also equated with the Tao. The term ' dualistic - monism ' or dialectical monism has been coined in an attempt to express this fruitful paradox of simultaneous unity / duality. Yin and yang can be thought of as complementary (rather than opposing) forces that interact to form a dynamic system in which the whole is greater than the assembled parts. Everything has both yin and yang aspects (for instance, shadow can not exist without light). Either of the two major aspects may manifest more strongly in a particular object, depending on the criterion of the observation. The yin yang (i.e. taijitu symbol) shows a balance between two opposites with a portion of the opposite element in each section.
In Taoist metaphysics, distinctions between good and bad, along with other dichotomous moral judgments, are perceptual, not real; so, the duality of yin and yang is an indivisible whole. In the ethics of Confucianism on the other hand, most notably in the philosophy of Dong Zhongshu (c. 2nd century BC), a moral dimension is attached to the idea of yin and yang.
The Chinese terms yīn 陰 or 阴 "shady side '' and yáng 陽 or 阳 "sunny side '' are linguistically analyzable in terms of Chinese characters, pronunciations and etymology, meanings, topography, and loanwords.
The Traditional Chinese characters 陰 and 陽 for the words yīn and yáng are both classified as radical - phonetic characters, combining the semantically significant "mound; hill '' radical 阝 or 阜 with the phonetic indicators yīn 侌 and yáng 昜. The first phonetic yīn 侌 "cloudy '' ideographically combines jīn 今 "now; present '' and yún 云 "cloud '', denoting the "今 presence of 云 clouds ''. The second phonetic yáng 昜 "bright '' originally pictured 日 the "sun '' with 勿 "rays coming down ''. This phonetic is expanded with the "sun '' radical into yáng 暘 "rising sun; sunshine ''. The "mound; hill '' radical 阝 full forms semantically specify yīn 陰 "shady / dark side of a hill '' and yáng 陽 "sunny / light side of a hill ''.
The Simplified Chinese characters 阴 and 阳 for yīn and yáng combine the same "hill '' radical 阝 with the non-phonetic yuè 月 "moon '' and rì 日 "sun '', graphically denoting "shady side of a hill '' and "sunny side of a hill ''. Compare the Classical Chinese names (which contain tài 太 "great '') for these two heavenly bodies: Tàiyīn 太陰 "moon '' and Tàiyáng 太陽 "sun ''.
The Modern Standard Chinese pronunciation of 陰 or 阴 is usually level first tone yīn "shady; cloudy '' or sometimes falling fourth tone yìn "to shelter; shade '', and 陽 or 阳 "sunny '' is always pronounced with rising second tone yáng.
Sinologists and historical linguists have reconstructed Middle Chinese pronunciations from data in the (7th century CE) Qieyun rime dictionary and later rime tables, which was subsequently used to reconstruct Old Chinese phonology from rimes in the (11th - 7th centuries BCE) Shijing and phonological components of Chinese characters. Reconstructions of Old Chinese have illuminated the etymology of modern Chinese words.
Compare these Middle Chinese and Old Chinese (with asterisk) reconstructions of yīn 陰 and yáng 陽:
Schuessler gives probable Sino - Tibetan etymologies for both Chinese words.
Yin < * ʔəm compares with Burmese ʔum "overcast; cloudy '', Adi muk - jum "shade '', and Lepcha so'yǔm "shade ''; and is probably cognate with Chinese àn < * ʔə̂mʔ 黯 "dim; gloomy '' and qīn < * khəm 衾 "blanket ''
Yang < * laŋ compares with Lepcha a-lóŋ "reflecting light '', Burmese laŋ "be bright '' and ə - laŋ "light '', and Tai plaŋ "bright ''; and is perhaps cognate with Chinese chāng < * k - hlaŋ 昌 "prosperous; bright '' (cf. Proto - Viet - Mong hlaŋ "bright ''), and bǐng < * braŋʔ 炳 "bright ''.
Yin and yang are semantically complex words.
A reliable Chinese - English dictionary gives the following translation equivalents.
Yin 陰 or 阴 Noun 1 (philosophy) negative / passive / female principle in nature 2 Surname Bound morpheme 1 the moon 2 shaded orientation 3 covert; concealed; hidden 4 7 negative 8 north side of a hill 9 south bank of a river 10 reverse side of a stele 11in intaglio Stative verb 1 overcast 2 sinister; treacherous
Yang 陽 or 阳 Bound morpheme 1 (Chinese philosophy) positive / active / male principle in nature 2the sun 4 in relief 5 open; overt 6 belonging to this world 7 (linguistics) masculine 8 south side of a hill 9 north bank of a river
The compound yinyang 陰陽 or 阴阳 means "yin and yang; opposites; ancient Chinese astronomy; occult arts; astrologer; geomancer; etc. ''.
The sinologist Rolf Stein etymologically translates Chinese yin 陰 "shady side (of a mountain) '' and yang 陽 "sunny side (of a mountain) '' with the uncommon English geographic terms ubac "shady side of a mountain '' and adret "sunny side of a mountain '' (which are of French origin).
Many Chinese place names or toponyms contain the word yang "sunny side '' and a few contain yin "shady side ''. In China, as elsewhere in the Northern Hemisphere, sunlight comes predominantly from the south, and thus the south face of a mountain or the north bank of a river will receive more direct sunlight than the opposite side.
Yang refers to the "south side of a hill '' in Hengyang 衡陽, which is south of Mount Heng 衡山 in Hunan province, and to the "north bank of a river '' in Luoyang 洛陽, which is located north of the Luo River 洛 河 in Henan.
Similarly, yin refers to "north side of a hill '' in Huayin 華 陰, which is north of Mount Hua 華山 in Shaanxi province.
English yin, yang, and yin - yang are familiar loanwords of Chinese origin.
The Oxford English Dictionary defines:
yin (jɪn) Also Yin, Yn. (Chinese yīn shade, feminine; the moon.)
a. In Chinese philosophy, the feminine or negative principle (characterized by dark, wetness, cold, passivity, disintegration, etc.) of the two opposing cosmic forces into which creative energy divides and whose fusion in physical matter brings the phenomenal world into being. Also attrib. or as adj., and transf. Cf. yang.
yang (jæŋ) Also Yang. (Chinese yáng yang, sun, positive, male genitals.)
a. In Chinese philosophy, the masculine or positive principle (characterized by light, warmth, dryness, activity, etc.) of the two opposing cosmic forces into which creative energy divides and whose fusion in physical matter brings the phenomenal world into being. Also attrib. or as adj. Cf. yin.
For the earliest recorded "yin and yang '' usages, the OED cites 1671 for yin and yang, 1850 for yin - yang, and 1959 for yang - yin.
In English, yang - yin (like ying - yang) occasionally occurs as a mistake or typographical error for the Chinese loanword yin - yang -- yet they are not equivalents. Chinese does have some yangyin collocations, such as 洋銀 (lit. "foreign silver '') "silver coin / dollar '', but not even the most comprehensive dictionaries (e.g., the Hanyu Da Cidian) enter yangyin * 陽 陰. While yang and yin can occur together in context, yangyin is not synonymous with yinyang. The linguistic term "irreversible binomial '' refers to a collocation of two words A-B that can not normally be reversed as B-A, for example, English cat and mouse (not * mouse and cat) and friend or foe (not * foe or friend). Similarly, the usual pattern among Chinese binomial compounds is for positive A and negative B, where the A word is dominant or privileged over B, for example, tiandi 天地 "heaven and earth '' and nannü 男女 "men and women ''. Yinyang meaning "dark and light; female and male; moon and sun '', however, is an exception. Scholars have proposed various explanations for why yinyang violates this pattern, including "linguistic convenience '' (it is easier to say yinyang than yangyin), the idea that "proto - Chinese society was matriarchal '', or perhaps, since yinyang first became prominent during the late Warring States period, this term was "purposely directed at challenging persistent cultural assumptions ''.
Needham discusses Yin and Yang together with Five Elements as part of the School of Naturalists. He says that it would be proper to begin with Yin and Yang before Five Elements because the former: "lay, as it were, at a deeper level in Nature, and were the most ultimate principles of which the ancient Chinese could conceive. But it so happens that we know a good deal more about the historical origin of the Five - Element theory than about that of the Yin and the Yang, and it will therefore be more convenient to deal with it first. '' He then discusses Zou Yan (鄒衍; 305 -- 240 BC) who is most associated with these theories. Although Yin and Yang are not mentioned in any of the surviving documents of Zou Yan, his school was known as the Yin Yang Jia (Yin and Yang School) Needham concludes "There can be very little doubt that the philosophical use of the terms began about the beginning of the - 4th century, and that the passages in older texts which mention this use are interpolations made later than that time. ''
In Daoist philosophy, dark and light, yin and yang, arrive in the Tao Te Ching at chapter 42. It becomes sensible from an initial quiescence or emptiness (wuji, sometimes symbolized by an empty circle), and continues moving until quiescence is reached again. For instance, dropping a stone in a calm pool of water will simultaneously raise waves and lower troughs between them, and this alternation of high and low points in the water will radiate outward until the movement dissipates and the pool is calm once more. Yin and yang thus are always opposite and equal qualities. Further, whenever one quality reaches its peak, it will naturally begin to transform into the opposite quality: for example, grain that reaches its full height in summer (fully yang) will produce seeds and die back in winter (fully yin) in an endless cycle.
It is impossible to talk about yin or yang without some reference to the opposite, since yin and yang are bound together as parts of a mutual whole (for example, there can not be the bottom of the foot without the top). A way to illustrate this idea is to postulate the notion of a race with only men or only women; this race would disappear in a single generation. Yet, men and women together create new generations that allow the race they mutually create (and mutually come from) to survive. The interaction of the two gives birth to things, like manhood. Yin and yang transform each other: like an undertow in the ocean, every advance is complemented by a retreat, and every rise transforms into a fall. Thus, a seed will sprout from the earth and grow upwards towards the sky -- an intrinsically yang movement. Then, when it reaches its full potential height, it will fall. Also, the growth of the top seeks light, while roots grow in darkness.
Certain catchphrases have been used to express yin and yang complementarity:
Yin is the black side with the white dot in it, and yang is the white side with the black dot in it. The relationship between yin and yang is often described in terms of sunlight playing over a mountain and a valley. Yin (literally the ' shady place ' or ' north slope ') is the dark area occluded by the mountain 's bulk, while yang (literally the ' sunny place ' or ' south slope ') is the brightly lit portion. As the sun moves across the sky, yin and yang gradually trade places with each other, revealing what was obscured and obscuring what was revealed.
Yin is characterized as slow, soft, yielding, diffuse, cold, wet, and passive; and is associated with water, earth, the moon, femininity, and nighttime.
Yang, by contrast, is fast, hard, solid, focused, hot, dry, and active; and is associated with fire, sky, the sun, masculinity and daytime.
The Yin - Yang symbol, having no "officially standardized '' rendition, has been the basis of much artistic variation, most of it "frivolous '' (that is, "merely '' artistic, with no philosophical / mystical meaning, e.g., tattoos).
Yin and yang also applies to the human body. In traditional Chinese medicine good health is directly related to the balance between yin and yang qualities within oneself. If yin and yang become unbalanced, one of the qualities is considered deficient or has vacuity.
In the I Ching, originally a divination manual of the Western Zhou period (c. 1000 -- 750 BC), yin and yang are represented by broken and solid lines: yin is broken (⚋) and yang is solid (⚊). These are then combined into trigrams, which are more yang (e.g. ☱) or more yin (e.g. ☵) depending on the number of broken and solid lines (e.g., ☰ is heavily yang, while ☷ is heavily yin), and trigrams are combined into hexagrams (e.g. ䷕ and ䷟). The relative positions and numbers of yin and yang lines within the trigrams determines the meaning of a trigram, and in hexagrams the upper trigram is considered yang with respect to the lower trigram, yin, which allows for complex depictions of interrelations.
The principle of yin and yang is represented in Taoism by the Taijitu (literally "Diagram of the Supreme Ultimate ''). The term is commonly used to mean the simple "divided circle '' form, but may refer to any of several schematic diagrams representing these principles, such as the swastika, common to Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism. Similar symbols have also appeared in other cultures, such as in Celtic art and Roman shield markings.
Taijiquan (Chinese: 太极 拳), a form of martial art, is often described as the principles of yin and yang applied to the human body and an animal body. Wu Jianquan, a famous Chinese martial arts teacher, described Taijiquan as follows:
Various people have offered different explanations for the name Taijiquan. Some have said: -- ' In terms of self - cultivation, one must train from a state of movement towards a state of stillness. Taiji comes about through the balance of yin and yang. In terms of the art of attack and defense then, in the context of the changes of full and empty, one is constantly internally latent, to not outwardly expressive, as if the yin and yang of Taiji have not yet divided apart. ' Others say: ' Every movement of Taijiquan is based on circles, just like the shape of a Taijitu. Therefore, it is called Taijiquan.
Footnotes
Works cited
See also: Hundred Schools of Thought
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rrna is a structural molecule that is not translated into an amino acid sequence | Ribosomal RNA - wikipedia
Ribosomal ribonucleic acid (rRNA) is the RNA component of the ribosome, and is essential for protein synthesis in all living organisms. It constitutes the predominant material within the ribosome, which is approximately 60 % rRNA and 40 % protein by weight, or 3 / 5 of ribosome mass. Ribosomes contain two major rRNAs and 50 or more proteins. The ribosomal RNAs form two subunits, the large subunit (LSU) and small subunit (SSU). The LSU rRNA acts as a ribozyme, catalyzing peptide bond formation. rRNA sequences are widely used for working out evolutionary relationships among organisms, since they are of ancient origin and are found in all known forms of life.
The ribosomal RNAs complex with proteins to form two subunits, the large subunit (LSU) and small subunit (SSU). During translation, mRNA is sandwiched between the small and large subunits, and the ribosome catalyzes the formation of a peptide bond between the two amino acids that are contained in the rRNA.
A ribosome also has three binding sites called A, P, and E.
A single mRNA can be translated simultaneously by multiple ribosomes.
Both prokaryotic and eukaryotic ribosomes can be broken down into two subunits (the S in 16S represents Svedberg units), nt = length in nucleotides of the respective rRNAs, for exemplary species Escherichia coli (prokaryote) and human (eukaryote):
Note that the S units of the subunits (or the rRNAs) can not simply be added because they represent measures of sedimentation rate rather than of mass. The sedimentation rate of each subunit is affected by its shape, as well as by its mass. The nt units can be added as these represent the integer number of units in the linear rRNA polymers (for example, the total length of the human rRNA = 7216 nt).
In prokaryotes a small 30S ribosomal subunit contains the 16S ribosomal RNA.
The large 50S ribosomal subunit contains two rRNA species (the 5S and 23S ribosomal RNAs).
Bacterial 16S ribosomal RNA, 23S ribosomal RNA, and 5S rRNA genes are typically organized as a co-transcribed operon.
There may be one or more copies of the operon dispersed in the genome (for example, Escherichia coli has seven).
Archaea contains either a single rDNA operon or multiple copies of the operon.
The 3 ' end of the 16S ribosomal RNA (in a ribosome) binds to a sequence on the 5 ' end of mRNA called the Shine - Dalgarno sequence.
In contrast, eukaryotes generally have many copies of the rRNA genes organized in tandem repeats; in humans approximately 300 -- 400 repeats are present in five clusters (on chromosomes 13, 14, 15, 21 and 22). Because of their special structure and transcription behaviour, rRNA gene clusters are commonly called "ribosomal DNA '' (note that the term seems to imply that ribosomes contain DNA, which is not the case).
The 18S rRNA in most eukaryotes is in the small ribosomal subunit, and the large subunit contains three rRNA species (the 5S, 5.8 S and 28S in mammals, 25S in plants, rRNAs).
Mammalian cells have 2 mitochondrial (12S and 16S) rRNA molecules and 4 types of cytoplasmic rRNA (the 28S, 5.8 S, 18S, and 5S subunits). The 28S, 5.8 S, and 18S rRNAs are encoded by a single transcription unit (45S) separated by 2 internally transcribed spacers. The 45S rDNA is organized into 5 clusters (each has 30 - 40 repeats) on chromosomes 13, 14, 15, 21, and 22. These are transcribed by RNA polymerase I. 5S occurs in tandem arrays (~ 200 - 300 true 5S genes and many dispersed pseudogenes), the largest one on the chromosome 1q41 - 42. 5S rRNA is transcribed by RNA polymerase III.
The tertiary structure of the small subunit ribosomal RNA (SSU rRNA) has been resolved by X-ray crystallography. The secondary structure of SSU rRNA contains 4 distinct domains -- the 5 ', central, 3 ' major and 3 ' minor domains. A model of the secondary structure for the 5 ' domain (500 - 800 nucleotides) is shown.
Translation is the net effect of proteins being synthesized by ribosomes, from a copy (mRNA) of the DNA template in the nucleus. One of the components of the ribosome (16S rRNA) base pairs complementary to a Shine -- Dalgarno sequence upstream of the start codon in mRNA.
Ribosomal RNA characteristics are important in evolution, thus taxonomy, and medicine.
These denote genes encoding for the proteins of the ribosome and are transcribed as mRNA, not rRNA.
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when do they film the price is right | The Price Is Right (U.S. game show) - Wikipedia
The Price Is Right is an American television game show created by Bob Stewart, Mark Goodson and Bill Todman. The show revolves around contestants competing to identify accurate pricing of merchandise to win cash and prizes. Contestants are selected from the studio audience when the announcer proclaims the show 's famous catchphrase, "Come on down! ''
The program premiered on September 4, 1972 on CBS. Bob Barker was the series ' longest - running host from its 1972 debut until his retirement in June 2007, when Drew Carey took over. Barker was accompanied by a series of announcers, beginning with Johnny Olson, followed by Rod Roddy and then Rich Fields. In April 2011, George Gray became the announcer. The show has used several models, most notably Anitra Ford, Janice Pennington, Dian Parkinson, Holly Hallstrom and Kathleen Bradley. While retaining some elements of the original version of the show, the 1972 version has added many new distinctive gameplay elements.
The Price Is Right has aired over 8,000 episodes since its debut and is one of the longest - running network series in United States television history. In a 2007 article, TV Guide named The Price Is Right the "greatest game show of all time. '' The show 's 46th season will premiere on September 18, 2017.
The gameplay of the show consists of four distinct competition elements, in which nine preliminary contestants (or six, depending on the episode 's running time) are eventually narrowed to two finalists who compete in the game 's final element, the "Showcase ''.
At the beginning of the show, four contestants are called from the audience by the announcer to take a spot on the front row behind bidding podiums, which are embedded into the front edge of the stage. This area is known as "Contestants ' Row ''. The announcer shouts "Come on down! '' after calling each selected contestant 's name, a phrase which has become a trademark of the show. The four contestants in Contestants ' Row compete in a bidding round to determine which contestant will play the next pricing game (the round is known as "One Bid, '' which gets its name and format from one of two types of bidding rounds that existed on the 1950s version of the show). A prize is shown and each contestant gives a single bid for the item. In the first One - Bid game of each episode, bidding begins with the contestant on the viewer 's left - to - right. In subsequent One - Bid rounds, the order of bidding still moves from the viewer 's left - to - right, but it begins with the contestant most recently called down. Contestants are instructed to bid in whole dollars since the retail price of the item is rounded to the nearest dollar and another contestant 's bid can not be duplicated. If a contestant thinks the others have overbid, he or she bids $1 on the item. The contestant whose bid is closest to the actual retail price of the prize without going over wins that prize and gets to play the subsequent pricing game. If all four contestants overbid, short buzzer tones sound, the lowest bid is announced and the bids are erased. The host then instructs the contestants to re-bid below the lowest previous bid. If a contestant bids the actual retail price, a bell rings and the contestant wins a cash bonus in addition to the prize. From the introduction of the bonus in 1977 until 1998, the "perfect bid '' bonus was $100; it was permanently increased to the current $500 in 1998. On The Price Is Right $1,000,000 Spectacular, the bonus was $1,000. After each pricing game, another contestant is called to "come on down '' to fill the spot of the contestant that won the previous round. The newest contestant bids first in each One Bid round. Contestants who fail to win a One Bid round -- thus never making it onstage to play a pricing game -- receive consolation prizes, currently $300, often sponsored by companies revealed by the announcer near the end of the show, before the Showcase.
After winning the One Bid, the contestant joins the host onstage for the opportunity to win additional prizes or cash by playing a pricing game. After the pricing game ends, a new contestant is selected for Contestants ' Row and the process is repeated. Six pricing games are played on each hour - long episode; three games per episode were played in the original half - hour format. Pricing game formats vary widely, ranging from simple dilemma games in which a contestant chooses one of two options to win to complex games of chance or skill in which guessing prices increases the odds of winning. On a typical hour - long episode, two games are played for a car, one game is played for a cash prize and the other three games offer expensive household merchandise or trips. Usually, at least one of the six games involves the pricing of grocery items, while another usually involves smaller prizes that can be used to win a larger prize package. Originally, five pricing games were in the rotation. Since then, more games have been created and added to the rotation and, starting with the 60 - minute expansion in 1975, the rate at which games premiered increased. Some pricing games were eventually discontinued, while others have been a mainstay since the show 's debut in 1972. As of 2015, the rotation is among 76 games. On the 1994 syndicated version hosted by Doug Davidson, the rules of several games were modified and other aesthetic changes were made. Notably, the grocery products used in some games on the daytime version were replaced by small merchandise prizes, generally valued at less than $100. Beginning in 2008, episodes of The Price Is Right $1,000,000 Spectacular featured rule changes to some pricing games which rewarded a $1 million bonus to the contestant if specific goals were achieved while playing the pricing game.
Since the show 's expansion to 60 minutes in 1975, each episode features two playings of the Showcase Showdown, occurring after the third and sixth pricing games. Each playing features the three contestants who played the preceding pricing games spinning "The Big Wheel '' to determine who advances to the Showcase, the show 's finale. The contestants play in the order of the value of his or her winnings thus far (including the One Bid), with the contestant who has won the most spinning last.
The wheel contains 20 sections showing values from 5 ¢ to $1.00, in increments of five cents. Contestants are allowed a maximum of two spins. The first contestant spins the wheel and may choose to stop with his or her score or spin again, adding the value of the second spin to their first. The second contestant then spins the wheel and tries to match or beat the leader 's score; if he or she fails to do so, the contestant must spin again. If the second contestant 's first spin matches or beats the score of the first contestant, he or she has the option of stopping or spinning again. The third contestant then spins; if his or her score is less than the leader then he or she will be required to spin again. In the event the second or third contestant 's first spin ties the score of the leader, he or she will be given the option of spinning again as an alternative to entering a "spin - off '' as described below.
If their total score of any contestant is less than that of the current leader, is beaten by the score of any subsequent contestant, or over $1.00, the contestant is eliminated from the game. The contestant whose score is nearest to $1.00 without going over advances to the Showcase at the end of the episode. Any spin that fails to make at least one complete revolution does not count; the contestant is given the opportunity to spin again, and if the contestant has visible difficulty in physically performing the task, the host can assist them.
If the first two contestants both spin twice and go over $1.00, the last contestant automatically advances to the Showcase and is given only one spin to determine their score; this is to ensure that a contestant advances to the showcase, avoiding a potential "triple over '' scenario in which no one would advance. Any contestant whose score equals $1.00 (from either the first spin or the sum of two spins) receives a $1,000 bonus and, since December 1978, is allowed a bonus spin. The contestant wins an additional $10,000 for landing on either 5 ¢ or 15 ¢ (which are adjacent to the $1.00 space and painted green), or an additional $25,000 for landing on $1.00. From December 1978 to September 22, 2008, the bonuses were $5,000 and $10,000 for landing on a green section and the $1.00, respectively. If the wheel stops on any other amount or fails to make at least one revolution, the contestant wins no more money. The wheel is positioned on 5 ¢ prior to the bonus spin so that it can not land on a winning prize without making a complete revolution.
Two or more contestants who are tied with the leading score compete in a "spin - off ''. Each contestant is allowed one additional spin and the contestant with the higher score advances to the Showcase. Multiple spin - offs are played until the tie is broken. Those who hit $1.00 in their spin - off spin still get $1,000 and a bonus spin. If two or more contestants tie with a score of $1.00, their bonus spins also determine their spin - off score. Only the spin - off score, not any bonus money won, determines which contestant moves on to the Showcase; thus, a person who wins the $10,000 bonus for landing on 15 ¢ would still lose the spin - off if their opponent lands on 20 ¢ or more. A tie in a bonus spin spin - off means the ensuing second spin - off will be spun with no bonuses available. Each spin must make one complete revolution in order to qualify. If a player 's bonus spin spin - off does not make a complete revolution, the contestant must spin again, and the spin will be scored as in a second round of a spin - off (no bonuses).
At the end of the episode, the two contestants with the highest winnings, or since 1975 on hour - long episodes, the two Showcase Showdown winners, advance to the Showcase. A "showcase '' of prizes (currently two or three prizes) is presented and the top winner has the option of placing a bid on the total value of the showcase or passing the showcase to the runner - up, who is then required to bid. A second showcase is then presented and the contestant who had not bid on the first showcase makes his or her bid. Unlike the One Bid, the contestant bidding on the second showcase may bid the same amount as their opponent on the first showcase, since the two contestants are bidding on different prize packages. The contestant who has bid nearer to the price of their own showcase without going over wins the prizes in his or her showcase.
Any contestant who overbids is disqualified regardless of their opponent 's result. A double overbid results in neither contestant winning a showcase. Since 1974, any contestant who comes within a specified amount from the actual retail price of their own showcase without going over wins both showcases. Until 1998, the amount was less than $100. In 1998, it became the current $250 or less.
Bob Barker began hosting The Price Is Right on September 4, 1972 and completed a 35 - year tenure on June 15, 2007. Barker was hired as host while still hosting the stunt comedy show Truth or Consequences. His retirement coincided with his 50th year as a television host. His final show aired on June 15, 2007 and was repeated in primetime, leading into the network 's coverage of the 34th Daytime Emmy Awards. In addition to hosting, Barker became Executive Producer of the show in March 1988 when Frank Wayne died and continued as such until his retirement, gaining significant creative control over the series between 2000 and his 2007 retirement. He also was responsible for creating several of the show 's pricing games, as well as launching The Price Is Right $1,000,000 Spectacular primetime spin - off. Reruns of Barker 's final season were aired throughout the summer from the Monday after his final show (June 18, 2007) until the Friday before Drew Carey 's debut as host (October 12, 2007), when the season 35 finale was re-aired. During his time as host, Barker missed only one taping of four episodes; Dennis James, then hosting the syndicated nighttime version of the show, filled in for him on these shows in December 1974. After he became a noted animal rights advocate in 1981 shortly after the death of his wife Dorothy Jo, Barker signed off each broadcast, informing viewers with the public service message, "Help control the pet population: have your pets spayed or neutered. '' Carey continued the tradition upon becoming the new host.
On October 31, 2006, Barker announced that he would retire from the show at the end of season 35. In March 2007, CBS and FremantleMedia began a search for the next host of the show. Carey, who was hosting Power of 10 at the time, was chosen and, in a July 23, 2007 interview on Late Show with David Letterman, made the announcement. Carey 's first show aired October 15, 2007. Barker has made several guest appearances since Carey took over as host: on the April 16, 2009 episode to promote his autobiography, Priceless Memories; on the December 12, 2013, as part of "Pet Adoption Week '' that coincided with his 90th birthday; and on the episode which aired on April Fools ' Day in 2015, hosting the first One Bid and pricing game as part of April Fool 's Day.
The 2013 April Fools ' show featured Carey and announcer George Gray modeling the prizes while the show 's models performed hosting and announcing duties for the day. On the April Fools ' Day episode in 2014, Craig Ferguson, Carey 's former castmate from The Drew Carey Show, and Shadoe Stevens hosted and announced, swapping places with Carey and Gray respectively, who performed the same roles on the previous night 's episode of The Late Late Show.
Johnny Olson, the announcer for many Goodson - Todman shows of the era, was the program 's original announcer until his death in October 1985. Olson was replaced by Rod Roddy in February 1986, who remained with the program until shortly before his death in October 2003. Los Angeles meteorologist Rich Fields took over as the announcer in April 2004 and stayed on until the end of season 38 in August 2010. Following a change of direction and a search for an announcer with more experience in improvisational comedy, veteran TV host George Gray was confirmed as the show 's current announcer on the April 18, 2011 episode. After Olson 's and Roddy 's deaths in 1985 and 2003, respectively and Fields ' departure in 2010, a number of announcers auditioned before a permanent replacement was hired. In addition to Roddy, Gene Wood, Rich Jeffries, and Bob Hilton auditioned to replace Olson. Former Family Feud announcer Burton Richardson, Paul Boland, and former Supermarket Sweep announcer Randy West substituted for Roddy during his illnesses. In addition to West and Richardson, Daniel Rosen, Art Sanders, Roger Rose, Don Bishop and current Wheel of Fortune announcer Jim Thornton also auditioned for the role eventually filled by Fields. Richardson substituted for Fields while he recovered from laryngitis in December 2006. In addition to Gray, TV host JD Roberto, comedians Jeff B. Davis, Brad Sherwood, and David H. Lawrence XVII, and actor / comedian Steve White also auditioned for the role.
To help display its many prizes, the show has featured several models who were known, during Barker 's time on the show, as "Barker 's Beauties ''. Some longer - tenured Barker 's Beauties included Kathleen Bradley (1990 -- 2000), Holly Hallstrom (1977 -- 1995), Dian Parkinson (1975 -- 1993), and Janice Pennington (1972 -- 2000). Pennington and Bradley were both dismissed from the program in 2000, allegedly because they had given testimony on Hallstrom 's behalf in the wrongful termination litigation she pursued against Barker and the show. Following the departures of Nikki Ziering, Heather Kozar and Claudia Jordan in the 2000s, producers decided to use a rotating cast of models (up to ten) until the middle of season 37, after which the show reverted to five regular models. Since March 2008, the models include Rachel Reynolds, Amber Lancaster and Gwendolyn Osbourne; Manuela Arbeláez joined the cast in April 2009, replacing Brandi Sherwood and James O'Halloran joined the cast in December 2014. Carey does not use a collective name for the models, but refers to them by name, hoping that the models will be able to use the show as a "springboard '' to further their careers. In a change from previous policy, the models appearing on a given episode are named individually in the show 's credits and are formally referred as "The Price Is Right models '' when collectively grouped at events. Since season 37, the show often uses a guest model for certain prizes, often crossing over from another CBS property or come courtesy of the company providing the prize. Some such models have been male, especially for musical instruments, tools, trucks and motorcycles, and used in guest appearances during the Showcase. Owing to the traditionally female demographic of daytime television shows, along with the pregnancies of Reynolds and Osbourne, CBS announced that the game show would add a male model for a week during season 41, fitting with other countries with the franchise that have used an occasional male model. The show held an internet search for the man in an online competition that featured Mike Richards, the show 's executive producer, Reynolds, Lancaster, Osbourne and Arbeláez serving as judges and mentors during the web series, narrated by Gray. Viewers selected the winner in October 2012. On October 5, 2012, CBS announced that the winner of the male model online competition was Rob Wilson of Boston, Massachusetts. Wilson appeared as a model on episodes through April 15, 2014. This contest was scheduled to be repeated in 2014, with auditions taking place during the FIFA World Cup break between May and July 2014. On December 8, 2014, CBS announced that the winner of the second male model online competition was James O'Halloran.
The game show production team of Mark Goodson and Bill Todman was responsible for producing the original as well as the revival versions of the game show. Goodson - Todman staffer Bob Stewart is credited with creating the original version of The Price Is Right. Roger Dobkowitz was the producer from 1984 to 2008, having worked with the program as a production staffer since the show 's debut after graduating from San Francisco State University. Occasionally, Dobkowitz appeared on - camera when answering a question posed by the host, usually relating to the show 's history or records. When he left the show at the end of season 36, Variety reported that it was unclear whether he was retiring or was fired, although Carey indicated in a later interview with Esquire that Dobkowitz was fired. As of 2011, the show uses multiple producers, all long - time staffers. Adam Sandler (not to be confused with the actor) is the producer of the show. Stan Blits, who joined the show in 1980 and Sue MacIntyre are the co-producers. Kathy Greco joined the show in 1975 and became producer in 2008; she announced her retirement October 8, 2010 on the show 's website, effective at the end of the December 2010 tapings. Her last episode as producer, which aired January 27, 2011, featured a theme in tribute to her. The show 's official website featured a series of videos including an interview with Greco as a tribute to her 35 years in the days leading up to her final episode. Frank Wayne, a Goodson - Todman staffer since the 1950s, was the original executive producer of the CBS version of the show. Barker assumed that role after Wayne 's death in March 1988, as previously stated. Previous producers have included Jay Wolpert, Barbara Hunter and Phil Wayne Rossi (Wayne 's son). Michael Dimich assumed the director 's chair in June 2011. Marc Breslow, Paul Alter, Bart Eskander and Rich DiPirro each served long stints previously as director. Former associate directors Andrew Felsher and Fred Witten, as well as technical director Glenn Koch, have directed episodes strictly on a fill - in basis. Sandler began directing episodes in 2012, and became the official director in 2013. Aside from Barker, the show 's production staff remained intact after Carey became host. FremantleMedia executive Syd Vinnedge was named the program 's new executive producer, with Richards becoming co-executive producer after Dobkowitz 's departure. Richards was a candidate to replace Barker as host in 2007, before Carey was ultimately chosen. Richards succeeded Vinnedge as executive producer when the 2009 -- 10 season started, with Tracy Verna Soiseth joining Richards as co-executive producer in 2010. Vinnedge remains credited as an executive consultant to the show.
Many audience members arrive early on the day of a taping, and often camp out the night before to attend. Most have already received tickets for that day 's show, although some hope to get same - day tickets. Audience members are then given the iconic name tags with a temporary identification number, which is also written on the person 's ticket. A Social Security Number (or some national I.D. number for non-U.S. audience members) is also required to be submitted. Audience members are eventually brought through in groups of twelve for brief interviews with the production staff. Contrary to popular belief, contestant names are not chosen at random; rather, the interviews determine possible selections for the nine contestants per taping from among the pool of approximately 325 audience members. Since 1988, the minimum age for audience members has been 18; prior to 1988, teenagers and children as young as 12 were present in the audience. With few exceptions, anyone at least 18 years old who attends a taping of the show has the potential to become a contestant. Those ineligible include current candidates for political office, employees of CBS Corporation or its affiliates, RTL Group or any firm involved in offering prizes for the show. Contestants who have appeared on a different game show within the previous year or either two other game shows or any version of The Price Is Right itself within the past ten years are also ineligible. The show 's staff alerts potential contestants -- in person, on the show 's website and on the tickets themselves -- to dress in "street clothes '' and not to wear costumes, such as those used to attract attention on Let 's Make a Deal, another show that featured contestants selected from the audience. Those who have attended tapings in June 2008 noted that producers disallowed audience members from wearing fake eyeglasses designed to look similar to those worn by Carey, a restriction that has since been relaxed. Instead, contestants will often wear shirts with hand - decorated slogans. Members of the Armed Forces are often in uniform. Cell phones, tape recorders, backpacks, price lists and portable electronic devices are not allowed in the studio. Prospective contestants obtain tickets by contacting a third - party ticketing operator via the show 's website, which is promoted on - air during the broadcast. Prior to 2011, ticketing was directly through CBS, originally via mail, with online ticket access added in 2005. The mail practice ended after CBS began outsourcing ticketing to the third - party operator.
Occasionally, episodes are taped with special audience restrictions. For Memorial Day in 1991, an episode was taped with an audience composed entirely of those who had served in the Armed Forces. Similar primetime episodes were taped in 2002, honoring each branch of the United States military and a sixth episode honoring police officers and firefighters. An annual military episode has been taped starting Season 38 in 2008, originally on Veteran 's Day, but moved in Season 41 (2013) to Independence Day, features an all - military audience, a Marine band playing the winner 's service anthem, and contestants being called by rank. The 2008 episode contained a unique rule in which each One Bid featured one contestant from the Army, Navy, Air Force and Marines, and One Bid winners also won a $1,000 gift card. As each contestant won his / her way onstage, he / she was replaced by a member of the same branch of service. Most civilian attendees were retired or disabled veterans or family members of military. The 2009 version eliminated the service member from the same branch replacing another after advancing from Contestants ' Row rule. Additionally, members from the United States Coast Guard were invited to the show.
Beginning in 2009, some episodes have featured special themes with two contestants competing as teams, such as married or engaged couples for Valentine 's Day and the "Ultimate Wedding Shower '' episode. There have also been episodes with children who are minors (normally not allowed to compete) teamed with a parent (for Mother 's Day and Father 's Day) or grandparent (for Grandparents Day), as well as teen drivers and students for "Ultimate Spring Break '' and "Back to School ''. In these cases the adult player (not the minor) must make all final decisions in the game play, such as when calling numbers or prices.
Two taped episodes had to be replaced as a contestant was related to a CBS employee and therefore ineligible to be on the show. The other contestants who appeared on that episode were awarded their prizes, but the episode was never aired and can not be shown because of policies imposed by Barker over prizes on the show. There have been similar instances over the years of ineligible contestants appearing on stage, but these individuals were not edited out of the final broadcast since it was discovered in post-production. Usually, these episodes air with a disclaimer from the announcer added in post-production that one of the contestants was found ineligible (not specifying which one). Standards and Practices guidelines for game shows state that if an ineligible contestant wins a One - Bid and the other contestants on Contestants ' Row at the time do not win a subsequent One - Bid, they are not considered to have made an appearance on the show and are immediately eligible again once the error has been discovered.
Except for the 30th Anniversary Special, which was taped at Harrah 's Rio in Las Vegas, Nevada, The Price Is Right has been taped in Studio 33 in CBS Television City in Hollywood, California for its entire run. The studio, which is also used for other television productions, was renamed the Bob Barker Studio in the host 's honor on the ceremonial 5,000 th episode taped in March 1998. When Carey became host, there was talk of the show traveling in the future. The program is usually produced in about an hour, although if there is a guest involved, some tapings will last longer because of question and answer sessions by the audience and the guest, which the host usually moderates. Two episodes are usually taped each day, normally with three taping days per week (Monday through Wednesday, with one episode taped at 12: 00 pm and another at 4: 00 pm). The program is taped in advance of its airdate. For example, the show broadcast on February 28, 2008 was taped on January 16. As with many other shows that start production in the summer, the lead time varies during the season, as many as fifteen weeks to as little as one day. The audience is entertained by the announcer before taping begins and in case of guests, the guest will answer questions from the audience. After the taping session, there is a drawing for a door prize. On some episodes, all members of the audience receive a prize from a sponsor or celebrity guest; those prizes are usually mentioned in the Showcase (such as a complimentary slice of Papa John 's Pizza, an NHL Winter Classic game puck, a couples ' gift box from Hershey 's or a book authored by a guest). Television and Internet viewers have also been directed to the show 's official website to enter a drawing for a similar prize offered to all viewers or another prize related to the special offer (such as the Rock of Ages signed CD). Some episodes are taped "out - of - order '' so that a specific episode will air after other episodes have aired. Notably, the Christmas Week episodes are usually taped in early December outside of the regular rotation. An episode may be taped out - of - order if a prize package reflects a trip to an event that is taking place close to the date that episode will air (primarily with CBS properties such as the Academy of Country Music Awards, NCAA Men 's Division I Basketball Championship, and various NFL on CBS games, most notably CBS Super Bowl years since Carey took over, but other games are offered). Other episodes may be aired out - of - order because of game - related incidents or situations beyond the network 's control. Most episodes which have aired out of order have occurred when the show is taped far in advance, but in the time between the show taping and its airdate, a natural disaster took place at the trip venue. This happened in June 2005 with episodes that featured trips to New Orleans (which was later struck by Hurricane Katrina), with airdates moved to May and June 2006 and again in April 2010 with episodes that featured trips to Nashville, Tennessee (due to the May 2010 Tennessee floods), with airdates moved to September 2010.
The version of the series that began in 1972 was originally "A Mark Goodson -- Bill Todman Production '' in association with CBS. After Todman died in July 1979, the unit became known as simply Mark Goodson Productions and was announced as such on The Price Is Right from 1984 to June 2007. Today, the series is produced by FremantleMedia and copyrighted by The Price Is Right Productions, Inc., a joint venture of RTL Group and CBS. For the sake of tradition and through special permission from RTL 's subsidiary FremantleMedia, the show continued to use the Mark Goodson Productions name, logo and announcement at the end of each episode until Barker 's retirement, even after FremantleMedia purchased and absorbed the Goodson - Todman holdings. The show is now credited as a FremantleMedia production.
The Price Is Right premiered on September 4, 1972 at 10: 30 am ET (9: 30 CT) on CBS, one of three game shows to debut that day, the other two being The Joker 's Wild at 10: 00 am ET and Gambit at 11: 00 am ET. The show was first billed as The New Price Is Right to distinguish itself from the earlier / original version (1956 -- 65) hosted by Bill Cullen, but it proved so popular in its own right that, in June 1973, the producers decided to drop the word "New '' from its title. On March 26, 1973, CBS moved The Price Is Right to 3: 00 pm ET, pairing it with Match Game as part of what became the highest - rated pairing in daytime. The show remained in that time slot until August 11, 1975 when it permanently returned to the morning lineup at 10: 30am ET. During one week (September 8 -- 12, 1975), the show bumped Gambit off as it experimented with sixty - minute episodes. The result of the experiment led to the permanent expansion on November 3, 1975, moving its start time to 10: 00 am EST. On March 7, 1977, The Price Is Right moved back to 10: 30am and remained there until April 23, 1979, when it assumed its 11: 00 am EST slot, where it has been since then. The format of the show has since remained virtually unchanged. New pricing games are generally added each year, while others are removed. In addition, prizes and pricing games have kept pace with inflation, with games originally designed for four - digit prices of prizes (most often cars) to be adjusted to allow for five - digit prices. While the set has been redesigned and upgraded, the show maintained a similar aesthetic element from its premiere in 1972. In season 36, CBS began offering full episodes of the show available for free viewing on the network 's website. The show also began broadcasting in high definition with The Price Is Right $1,000,000 Spectacular primetime specials (the normal daytime version continued to air in 4: 3 standard definition). The show made the full transition to HD broadcasts beginning with season 37. During the weeks of September 28, 2009, September 20 and October 4, 2010, two new episodes aired each weekday on CBS. In 2009, the additional episodes filled a gap between the cancellation of the daytime drama Guiding Light and the debut of Let 's Make a Deal. In 2010, the extra episodes aired between the cancellation of As the World Turns and the debut of The Talk. The intervening week offered a second episode of Let 's Make a Deal. The 2009 second episode aired in the time slot vacated by Guiding Light at 10: 00 am or 3: 00 pm ET / PT, depending on the affiliate 's choice. In 2010, the second episode aired in the former As the World Turns time slot, at 2: 00 pm ET / PT.
Three syndicated versions of The Price Is Right have aired. The first two followed the same format as the half - hour daytime version but were intended to air on most stations in the early evening in the pre-prime time slot, and as such they were referred by the announcer as "the nighttime Price Is Right. ''
A weekly syndicated version debuted the week after the daytime show and continued to air until September 1980. It was distributed by Viacom Enterprises, which had started as the syndication arm of CBS. When Mark Goodson devised the revival of Price for the 1972 -- 73 season, it was intended for a nighttime broadcast under new rules for early - prime syndication and Goodson named Dennis James to host the show. (When CBS commissioned a new daily daytime version, Goodson also wanted James to host the show, but CBS wanted Barker, who was hosting Truth or Consequences at the time, to take it. Barker offered to compromise by hosting The Joker 's Wild, but CBS again insisted Barker host Price instead.)
James eventually hosted a taping day (four half - hour episodes) of the daytime show in December 1974 when Barker fell ill and was unable to participate in the episode tapings. The two versions were largely similar at the beginning, as both were called The New Price Is Right. Some games had rule differences because of the larger budget and less commercial time on the nighttime show; for example, Double Prices was played for two prizes instead of one.
This version retained the 1972 half - hour format for its entire run and never adopted the daytime show 's Double Showcase rule or the Showcase Showdown added to the daytime format when it expanded to an hour in 1975. As of season two, the word "New '' was dropped from the program 's name. It was titled The Price Is Right (as the daytime show was by this time as well), often referred to on the air as "the nighttime Price Is Right. '' In most of the U.S., stations carried the syndicated Price as one of several weekly programs aired in one of the time slots in the hour before prime time which were created by the 1971 FCC Prime Time Access Rule.
Though the nighttime version originally had higher ratings, by 1975, the ratings started to drop. After the fifth nighttime season in 1977, when the contract with NBC 's owned and operated stations ended, James ' contract was not renewed. CBS ' owned and operated stations picked the show up and the decision was made to hire Barker, whose Truth or Consequences was taped two years ahead and had stopped production in 1975. The series taped its 300th and final episode on March 12, 1980 and was canceled after weekly syndicated game shows had fallen out of popularity in favor of daily offerings (such as Family Feud, which expanded to daily syndication the same year The Nighttime Price Is Right ended). With a run of eight seasons, it was one of the longest - running weekly syndicated game shows of the era and the longest - running regularly scheduled prime - time version of Price (the 1957 -- 1964 run was seven seasons).
Five years later, veteran host Tom Kennedy starred in a new daily syndicated version, which also used the traditional half - hour format and was syndicated by The Television Program Source. Like the previous syndicated series, this version had a slightly larger budget than its daytime counterpart. A perfect bid during the One - Bids won that contestant a $500 bonus (compared to $100 awarded on the daytime show during the same period); this bonus would permanently carry over to the daytime show in 1998. This version used the same models as the daytime show as well as announcer Johnny Olson, who as noted above died during the season. Unlike the daytime series, which employed a series of guest announcers until a permanent replacement was decided upon, the syndicated series brought Gene Wood in to fill in for Olson. When the daytime series decided on Rod Roddy as the permanent replacement for Olson, he took over the syndicated series from Wood as well.
Like its predecessor, this syndicated edition of Price was intended to be aired in the Prime Time Access slots on local stations. However, local stations found themselves bombarded with game shows and other series looking for spots on stations in an increasingly crowded market. This often resulted in shows like Price airing anywhere that they could be fit into a station 's programming lineup, such as in the early morning period or in late - night slots. As a consequence, the show would not be able to find its intended audience and the ratings reports would reflect this.
Price was no exception, as many of the stations that bought the series placed it in these less desirable slots and the show could not find a foothold against the popular shows of the day, such as the runaway success of the syndicated Wheel of Fortune. Compared to some of the other shows on the market during this period, Price was a modest success, but it did not meet the very high expectations stations and producers had for the series. As a result, the show was not renewed beyond its first season. A total of 170 episodes were produced, and they aired in first - run from September 9, 1985 to May 30, 1986. During the six years it held the rights to Price, the Kennedy version is the only one of the three syndicated versions that was rerun by GSN.
Eight years after the cancellation of Kennedy 's Price Is Right, a new syndicated version premiered on September 12, 1994, hosted by Doug Davidson and distributed by Paramount Domestic Television. This series featured several significant changes: eliminating Contestants ' Row, a different format for the Showcase Showdown, a Showcase featuring only one contestant, a completely different set and a much larger budget (even when compared to the two previous syndicated runs) that gave contestants the potential to win up to five times what they could win on the daytime show. However, this version found even more trouble finding an audience than the two previous syndicated series did and ended its run on January 27, 1995, after only 16 weeks of first - run shows. Several stylistic elements of this series, as well as many of its music cues, were later integrated into both the daytime version and nighttime specials.
CBS attempted to break NBC 's dominance of Thursday night prime time by The Cosby Show and Family Ties with a six - episode summer series, The Price Is Right Special, beginning in August 1986. On August 23, 1996, CBS aired an hour - long 25th Anniversary Special, using the half - hour gameplay format and featuring a number of retrospective clips. The 30th Anniversary Special was recorded at Harrah 's Rio All Suite Hotel and Casino in Las Vegas and aired on January 31, 2002. This one - time road trip enticed 5,000 potential contestants to line up for 900 available tickets, causing an incident that left one person injured. A second six - episode primetime series saluting various branches of the United States armed forces, police officers and firefighters aired during the summer of 2002, as a tribute to the heroes of the terrorist attacks of 2001. During the series The Price Is Right Salutes, spinning $1.00 in a bonus spin during the Showcase Showdown was worth $100,000 instead of the usual $10,000.
The success of the primetime series, which aired mostly in the summer, along with the rise of "million dollar '' game shows, led to CBS launching another primetime series in 2003, titled The Price Is Right $1,000,000 Spectacular. The 2007 -- 08 Writers Guild of America strike and original success in the Nielsen ratings led CBS to commission ten more episodes of the primetime series. This series introduced set changes as the show was broadcast in high definition television for the first time and the set used for these episodes (except for the black floor) was moved to the daytime show in 2008. On the primetime series, larger and more expensive prizes were generally offered than on the daytime show. The Showcase frequently offered multiple or very - expensive cars. In the first sixteen $1,000,000 Spectaculars all hosted by Barker, the payoff for landing on the $1.00 during a bonus spin in the Showcase Showdown was increased to $1 million. Beginning with the seventh special, if nobody had received a bonus spin in either Showcase Showdown, the winner of the Showcase received one bonus spin for a chance at $1 million. If both contestants overbid, an audience member was chosen at random to spin the wheel. This rule was later changed so that in the event of a double overbid, the contestant who overbid by the lower amount received the bonus spin for a chance at $1 million.
The million - dollar spin was eliminated in 2008, and instead contestants were given two ways to winning the prize. One pricing game per episode was selected as a "million - dollar game '', with a secondary objective needing to be met in order for the contestant to win the money. Contestants were also awarded the million dollar bonus if they managed to win both Showcases, and the range the players had to come within was initially increased to $1,000, then reduced to $500. This format lasted one season (2008), which was made as replacement programming.
On February 12, 2016, CBS announced that it would air three primetime Price is Right specials themed around its reality show franchises The Amazing Race, Big Brother, and Survivor along with the appearance of their respective hosts from all three franchises Phil Keoghan, Julie Chen and Jeff Probst. The episodes featured fans of the three programs playing alongside past participants from them. The specials were filmed in March 2016, and aired over three consecutive nights, May 23 -- 25, 2016.
On May 31, 2006, The Price Is Right was featured on the series Gameshow Marathon, one of seven classic game shows hosted by talk show host and actress Ricki Lake. This version combined aspects of the Barker and Davidson versions with the celebrity contestants playing three pricing games, followed by a Showcase Showdown where the two contestants with the highest scores moved on to the Showcase. The winner of the Showcase also earned a spot in Finalists ' Row. This version was announced by Fields and taped in Studio 46. It also marked the first Price Is Right episode directed by DiPirro, who replaced Eskander as the director on the daytime show in January 2009.
Road to Price is a six episode reality documentary show aired on the now - defunct CBS Innertube from September 20 to 27 in 2006. The program featured nine teenage boys driving to Los Angeles in a refurbished mini-school bus as they leave their hometown of Merrimack, New Hampshire in order to be on The Price is Right. The episode of The Price is Right featuring the cast aired September 27, 2006.
Five episodes aired on their official website priceisright.com from October 27 to November 11, 2014. The series was created in order to replace the first male Price model Rob Wilson as he pursued an acting career in the online version of the ABC daytime soap opera All My Children. During the webisode series, hopeful contestants attempt to be selected as the next male model. Judges included Mike Richards, Manuela Arbeláez, Amber Lancaster, Gwendolyn Osborne - Smith, Rachel Reynolds, Rob Wilson and former Miss America Shanna Moakler. The three finalists appeared on the CBS daytime talk show The Talk. Online voting determined the winner, and James O'Halloran became the newest cast member. He began appearing with the episode which aired December 15, 2014.
As of November 2009, the show had given away approximately $250 million in cash and prizes. Furs have not been offered as prizes since Barker 's tenure as host (although wool and leather are now permitted). Several Barker - imposed prohibitions have been lifted since his departure, such as offering products made of leather or leather seats in vehicles and showing simulated meat props on barbecues and in ovens. The show has also offered couture clothing and accessories, featuring designers such as Coach Inc., Louis Vuitton and Limited Brands in an attempt to attract a younger demographic, as well as backyard play equipment such as JumpSport Trampolines and electronics such as smartphones, personal computer systems, video game systems and entertainment centers. Other prizes which have frequently appeared on the show since its beginnings include automobiles, furniture, trips and cash. The most expensive prize offered on this version of the show was a Ferrari 458 Italia Spider sports car, priced at $285,716, that appeared on the April 25, 2013 episode during "Big Money Week ''. The prize was offered during the 3 Strikes pricing game. Prior to this, the most expensive prize was a Tesla Roadster (valued at $112,845), featured on the April 22, 2010 episode in the pricing game Golden Road.
Since the show 's debut, automobiles have been a signature prize on The Price Is Right. Most hour - long episodes have two pricing games that are each played for an automobile and in most episodes (although not all), at least one showcase will include an automobile. For special episodes, such as the 5,000 th episode, there will often be more cars offered. From 1991 to 2008, almost all automobiles offered on the show were made by companies based in the United States, specifically Detroit 's Big Three (although cars made by these companies ' foreign subsidiaries or in a joint - venture with a foreign company were also offered). The move was made by Barker, in his capacity as executive producer, as a sign of patriotism during the first Iraq war in 1991 and as a show of support to the American car industry, which was particularly struggling at that time. When Chrysler merged with German automaker Daimler - Benz in 1998 to form Daimler Chrysler AG (now simply Daimler AG after Chrysler split from the automaker; Chrysler is now controlled by Italian automaker Fiat), the foreign ownership of Chrysler did not affect carrying any Chrysler - related models. Since Barker 's retirement, cars made by foreign companies have been offered, most notably Honda, which has several factories throughout Ohio (the home state of Carey and then - announcer Fields). Through product placement, certain episodes in 2008 and 2009 featured Honda as the exclusive automobile manufacturer for vehicles offered on that episode. The major European (Volkswagen, BMW, Daimler, Fiat and Volvo) and Asian (Hyundai - Kia, Toyota, Mitsubishi, Mazda, Nissan and Honda) manufacturers have all provided cars on the show since the ban was lifted, with premium foreign cars almost exclusively used for games that generally offer higher - priced cars, such as Golden Road and 3 Strikes. Starting around 2010, vintage and classic cars have occasionally been offered as prizes for games which do not involve pricing them. Among them have been a 1955 Chevrolet Bel Air and a 1964 Bentley S3. These cars are usually offered in games where their prices are irrelevant to gameplay, such as Hole in One and Bonus Game.
The record for the largest individual total in cash and prizes on a daytime episode is held by Christen Freeman. On the October 28, 2016 episode, which aired during Big Money Week, Freeman won $210,000 in cash during a playing of Cliff Hangers. During the episode, game rules were modified to offer a top prize of $250,000, which was reduced by $10,000 for every step the mountain climber took. In addition to her One Bid prize and an additional $1,000 won during the Showcase Showdown, Freeman 's grand total was $212,879.
The record for winnings on the primetime show is currently held by Adam Rose. On February 22, 2008, the first The Price Is Right $1,000,000 Spectacular episode since Carey became host, Rose won $20,000 playing Grand Game and won both showcases, which included a Cadillac XLR convertible in his own showcase and a Ford Escape Hybrid in his opponent 's showcase, plus a $1 million bonus for being within $1,000 of the actual retail price of his own showcase, bringing his total to $1,153,908.
Terry Kniess holds the record for the closest bid on a showcase without going over, guessing the exact price of the showcase he was given. Kniess, an avid viewer of the show, recorded and watched every episode for four months prior to when he and his wife had tickets to attend in September 2008. Kniess learned that many prizes were repeatedly used (always at the same price) and began taking notes. Kniess was selected as a contestant on September 22, 2008, lost his pricing game (the only contestant to do so that episode), made it to the final showcase and guessed the exact amount of $23,743 for his showcase. Many show staffers, including Carey, were worried that the show was rigged and that Kniess was cheating. Kniess later explained that he had seen all three items of the showcase before and knew the general prices in the thousands. The 743 he used because it was his PIN, based on his wedding date and his wife 's birth month.
Carey attributed his subdued reaction to the perfect bid by saying, "Everybody thought someone had cheated. We 'd just fired Roger Dobkowitz, and all the fan groups were upset about it... I remember asking, ' Are we ever going to air this? ' And nobody could see how we could. So I thought the show was never going to air. I thought somebody had cheated us, and I thought the whole show was over. I thought they were going to shut us down, and I thought I was going to be out of a job. '' Kniess later defended his actions, claiming that he never cheated, and in the end, was awarded his prizes. (His feat can be comparable to the actions of Michael Larson, who appeared on the CBS 1980s game show Press Your Luck, and won $110,237 by memorizing the board sequence.)
The Price Is Right has received seven Daytime Emmy Awards for Outstanding Game / Audience Participation Show, in 1988, 1996, 1997, 2004, 2007, 2013 and 2016.
The Price Is Right has generally been praised and remained a stalwart in television ratings over its long history. In a 2007 article, TV Guide named the program the "greatest game show of all time. '' The introduction of the program ushered in a new era of game shows -- moving away from the knowledge - based quiz show format, creating "a noisy, carnival atmosphere that challenged cultural norms and assumptions represented in previous generations of quiz shows ''.
The show 's early reception was not as universally positive, as critics lamented the show 's stark departure from the highbrow norms of the Golden Age of Television; original nighttime host Dennis James admitted that even his own housekeeper did not watch the show for that reason, but also defended the series, saying "CBS, who never wanted game shows, just put three game shows on the air, so they know they had better join the fight or lose out, because game shows have a tremendous appeal. The critics will always look down their noses, but you ca n't have The Bell Telephone Hour on and still stay in competition (...) If you want to read books, read books. ''
Since the mid-1990s, the program production company and in some cases the executive producer (both Barker and Richards, the executive producer since September 2009) have been sued by numerous women. Most of the lawsuits involved models and other staff members in cases of sexual harassment, wrongful termination and racial discrimination. Allegations of sexual harassment brought by Parkinson led to Barker calling a press conference to admit a past consensual sexual relationship with her, while denying any harassment and alleging instead that she was only angry with him for calling off the relationship. Barker was widowed in 1981 following the death of his wife, Dorothy Jo. It has also been alleged that Barker and senior staff created a hostile work environment, particularly to those who testified for the plaintiffs suing Barker. Responding to the controversy just before his retirement, Barker told William Keck of USA Today, "(The allegations have) been such a problem. I do n't want to say anything about them. They (were) disgusting; I do n't want to mention them. '' The Barker - era lawsuits, except for one, were settled out of court. After Barker dropped his slander suit against Hallstrom, she eventually countersued and received millions in settlement. There are two lawsuits in litigation: a pregnancy discrimination suit involving Sherwood and a sexual harassment suit involving Lanisha Cole, filed in September 2011.
The Plinko board is often used by RTL Group - licensed lottery promotions, CBS affiliates and Fremantle 's Ludia video game division to promote the show. For the promotions, two fishing lines (one on each side of the board, hanging from the side down towards the center slot) are used to rig the game so the dropped chip always lands in the $10,000 slot. After an advertisement for the show 's Ludia video game was taped, the wires were mistakenly left in place for the 1: 00 pm taping of The Price Is Right on July 22, 2008. As a contestant was playing the game, three consecutive chips she dropped landed in the $10,000 slot. As the fourth chip was being dropped, a co-producer realized that the wires were still in place and stopped the chip as it bounced down the board, informing Carey of the situation. The wires were removed and the entire segment was re-shot for the show from the point where the contestant began dropping chips. CBS Standards and Practices allowed the contestant to keep the $30,000 won prior to the removal of the wires as well as the money won with the five chips after the mistake had been corrected. However, the segment that aired (when the show was broadcast on December 5, 2008) did not refer to the mistake or the amount of money won prior to the removal of the wires.
The show aired a 40th Anniversary Special on September 4, 2012. The entire audience was made up of former contestants. Barker did not appear, stating that he believed that he had been excluded for criticizing some of the prizes given away after Carey became host, such as a trip to the Calgary Stampede rodeo. Although he did not appear in person, vintage clips of Barker hosting the show were shown during the episode. Barker appeared on the show twice afterwards, once in December 2013 during Pet Adoption Week, celebrating his 90th birthday, and again on April 1, 2015 as the guest host for the first pricing game, part of an April Fool 's Day storyline involving Carey and Plinko being kidnapped to Let 's Make a Deal.
The Price Is Right has expanded beyond television to home and casino - based games.
A four - disc DVD box set, titled The Best of "The Price Is Right, '' was released on March 25, 2008. The set features four episodes of the 1956 -- 1965 Bill Cullen series, 17 episodes of the Barker 1972 -- 1975 daytime series and the final five daytime episodes hosted by Barker. In accordance with Barker 's animal - rights wishes, which remain in effect beyond his retirement, any episodes with fur coats as prizes can not be aired or released into home media formats. This includes the first three daytime shows recorded in 1972, plus most of the 1970s syndicated run. (However, none of these restrictions applies on the Carey episodes. Wool coats, meat prizes, leather merchandise and trips to rodeos have been offered as prizes and the prop in the Hole - In - One pricing game was changed to a leather golf bag in 2009 after the game picked up adidas as a sponsor.)
Seven board games have been produced. One of them was a variation of a card game, using prizes and price tags from the 1956 version. The second was based more closely on the original version of the show. Three games were produced during the 1970s by Milton Bradley, with Contestants ' Row, some pricing games and, in the case of the third version, a spinner for the Big Wheel. In the first two versions, decks of cards had various grocery items, small prizes and larger prizes. The third version simply had cards for each game that included ten sets of "right '' answers, all using the same price choices. The instruction book specified what color cards were necessary for each round. The 1986 version, again by Milton Bradley, was similar in scope to the earlier version, with new prizes and more games, but lacking the Big Wheel, similar to the Davidson version. The instruction book refers to Contestants ' Row as the "Qualifying Round '' and the pricing games as "Solo Games. '' The book also instructs players to use items priced under $100 as One Bids. The 1998 version of the game, by Endless Games, was virtually identical to the 1986 release, with the same games, prizes and even the same prices. The only changes were that the number tiles were made of cardboard bits instead of plastic and the cars from the deck of prizes with four - digit prices were removed. The 2004 version, again by Endless Games, was a complete departure from previous home versions. Instead of different prize cards and games, the game consisted of everything needed to play 45 games and enough materials to create all the games not technically included if the "host '' wished to and knew their rules. The Big Wheel spinner was also restored, this time with the numbers in the correct order. Additionally, the prices, instead of being random numbers that could change each time the game was played, were actual prices taken from episodes of the TV show. To fit everything in the box, grocery items and prizes were listed in the instruction book and games were played on dry erase boards. A spinner determined the game to be played next, although its use was not necessarily required if the "host '' wished to build his own game lineup.
In 1990, GameTek created a Price Is Right computer game for the DOS and Commodore 64 platforms and other systems to fit in their line of other game show games. A handheld Tiger game was made in 1998 with four pricing games. A DVD game with 12 pricing games, live casino show host Todd Newton and video of prizes taken directly from the show was produced by Endless Games in 2005. A 2008 DVD edition, also from Endless Games, featured many changes based on season 36 and included seven new games: Half Off, More or Less, Swap Meet, Secret X, That 's Too Much, Coming or Going and Hole in One. It also featured both host Drew Carey and announcer Rich Fields. CBS.com featured an online Price Is Right - based game in the late - 1990s, which was plugged in the closing credits of each episode. The game consisted of choosing which of the four bidders in Contestant 's Row was closest to the price of a prize without going over. Additionally, Mobliss provides a suite of pricing games for cellular phones.
On March 26, 2008, Ludia (in connection with Ubisoft) launched The Price Is Right video game for PC. A version for the Wii and Nintendo DS platforms was released in September 2008, while a version for the iOS was released in November 2008. The show 's announcer, Fields, was the host of the computer version. The virtual set in the game resembles the set used in seasons 31 to 34. During the taping of this promotion, the Plinko board was rigged so that all chips dropped landed in the highest value slot on the board. After production wrapped, the wires used to rig the board were mistakenly left in place, leading to an incident during a taping of the daytime show which had to be edited and re-shot. Ludia announced that all three platforms will receive a new version of the video game that was previewed at the Target Bullseye Lounge during the Electronic Entertainment Expo trade show on June 2 -- 4, 2009. The Price Is Right 2010 Edition was released on September 22, 2009. In the fall of 2010, Ludia developed a multi-player version for Facebook. A third Ludia adaptation, The Price Is Right Decades, featuring set designs, pricing games and prizes taken from the 1970s through 2000s; was initially released for the Wii in October 2011, with an Xbox 360 and iOS release following in November and December. The Price Is Right 2010 Edition and The Price Is Right Decades have also been released as downloads within the PlayStation Store for the PlayStation 3 in May 2010 and April 2012, respectively. Irwin Toys released an electronic tabletop version in 2008 featuring Contestant 's Row, the Big Wheel, a physical Plinko board with chips, Showcases and seven pricing games. Jakks Pacific released a Plug It in and Play version of The Price Is Right in 2009, featuring Carey and Fields.
A series of video slot machines were manufactured for North American casinos by International Game Technology. Although gameplay varies by machine, each feature themes and motifs found on the show, including the Showcase Showdown, with themes used following Carey 's start as host. Others feature pricing games as gameplay elements, including Plinko, Cliff Hangers, Punch a Bunch, Dice Game, and Money Game.
A scratchcard version of the game is being offered by several U.S. and Canadian lotteries, featuring adaptations of Plinko, Cliff Hangers, the Showcase Showdown and the Showcase. The top prize varies with each version.
After the 30th anniversary episode taped in Las Vegas in 2002, Harrah 's and RTL Group began producing live licensed shows (dubbed The Price Is Right Live!) at their venues, with several performers, including Roger Lodge, Newton and Gray hosting, with West, Rosen and Dave Walls announcing.
Schwartz, David; Ryan, Steve & Wostbrock, Fred (1999). The Encyclopedia of TV Game Shows (3rd ed.). New York: Facts on File. ISBN 0 - 8160 - 3846 - 5.
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an element which is soft and reactive metal | Alkali metal - wikipedia
Legend
The alkali metals are a group (column) in the periodic table consisting of the chemical elements lithium (Li), sodium (Na), potassium (K), rubidium (Rb), caesium (Cs), and francium (Fr). This group lies in the s - block of the periodic table of elements as all alkali metals have their outermost electron in an s - orbital: this shared electron configuration results in their having very similar characteristic properties. Indeed, the alkali metals provide the best example of group trends in properties in the periodic table, with elements exhibiting well - characterised homologous behaviour.
The alkali metals are all shiny, soft, highly reactive metals at standard temperature and pressure and readily lose their outermost electron to form cations with charge + 1. They can all be cut easily with a knife due to their softness, exposing a shiny surface that tarnishes rapidly in air due to oxidation by atmospheric moisture and oxygen (and in the case of lithium, nitrogen). Because of their high reactivity, they must be stored under oil to prevent reaction with air, and are found naturally only in salts and never as the free elements. Caesium, the fifth alkali metal, is the most reactive of all the metals. In the modern IUPAC nomenclature, the alkali metals comprise the group 1 elements, excluding hydrogen (H), which is nominally a group 1 element but not normally considered to be an alkali metal as it rarely exhibits behaviour comparable to that of the alkali metals. All the alkali metals react with water, with the heavier alkali metals reacting more vigorously than the lighter ones.
All of the discovered alkali metals occur in nature as their compounds: in order of abundance, sodium is the most abundant, followed by potassium, lithium, rubidium, caesium, and finally francium, which is very rare due to its extremely high radioactivity; francium occurs only in the minutest traces in nature as an intermediate step in some obscure side branches of the natural decay chains. Experiments have been conducted to attempt the synthesis of ununennium (Uue), which is likely to be the next member of the group, but they have all met with failure. However, ununennium may not be an alkali metal due to relativistic effects, which are predicted to have a large influence on the chemical properties of superheavy elements; even if it does turn out to be an alkali metal, it is predicted to have some differences in physical and chemical properties from its lighter homologues.
Most alkali metals have many different applications. One of the best - known applications of the pure elements is the use of rubidium and caesium in atomic clocks, of which caesium atomic clocks are the most accurate and precise representation of time. A common application of the compounds of sodium is the sodium - vapour lamp, which emits light very efficiently. Table salt, or sodium chloride, has been used since antiquity. Sodium and potassium are also essential elements, having major biological roles as electrolytes, and although the other alkali metals are not essential, they also have various effects on the body, both beneficial and harmful.
Sodium compounds have been known since ancient times; salt (sodium chloride) has been an important commodity in human activities, as testified by the English word salary, referring to salarium, money paid to Roman soldiers for the purchase of salt. While potash has been used since ancient times, it was not understood for most of its history to be a fundamentally different substance from sodium mineral salts. Georg Ernst Stahl obtained experimental evidence which led him to suggest the fundamental difference of sodium and potassium salts in 1702, and Henri Louis Duhamel du Monceau was able to prove this difference in 1736. The exact chemical composition of potassium and sodium compounds, and the status as chemical element of potassium and sodium, was not known then, and thus Antoine Lavoisier did not include either alkali in his list of chemical elements in 1789.
Pure potassium was first isolated in 1807 in England by Sir Humphry Davy, who derived it from caustic potash (KOH, potassium hydroxide) by the use of electrolysis of the molten salt with the newly invented voltaic pile. Previous attempts at electrolysis of the aqueous salt were unsuccessful due to potassium 's extreme reactivity. Potassium was the first metal that was isolated by electrolysis. Later that same year, Davy reported extraction of sodium from the similar substance caustic soda (NaOH, lye) by a similar technique, demonstrating the elements, and thus the salts, to be different. Later that year, the first pieces of pure molten sodium metal were similarly prepared by Humphry Davy through the electrolysis of molten caustic soda (now called sodium hydroxide).
Petalite (Li Al Si O) was discovered in 1800 by the Brazilian chemist José Bonifácio de Andrada in a mine on the island of Utö, Sweden. However, it was not until 1817 that Johan August Arfwedson, then working in the laboratory of the chemist Jöns Jacob Berzelius, detected the presence of a new element while analysing petalite ore. This new element was noted by him to form compounds similar to those of sodium and potassium, though its carbonate and hydroxide were less soluble in water and more alkaline than the other alkali metals. Berzelius gave the unknown material the name "lithion / lithina '', from the Greek word λιθoς (transliterated as lithos, meaning "stone ''), to reflect its discovery in a solid mineral, as opposed to potassium, which had been discovered in plant ashes, and sodium, which was known partly for its high abundance in animal blood. He named the metal inside the material "lithium ''. Lithium, sodium, and potassium were part of the discovery of periodicity, as they are among a series of triads of elements in the same group that were noted by Johann Wolfgang Döbereiner in 1850 as having similar properties.
Rubidium and caesium were the first elements to be discovered using the spectroscope, invented in 1859 by Robert Bunsen and Gustav Kirchhoff. The next year, they discovered caesium in the mineral water from Bad Dürkheim, Germany. Their discovery of rubidium came the following year in Heidelberg, Germany, finding it in the mineral lepidolite. The names of rubidium and caesium come from the most prominent lines in their emission spectra: a bright red line for rubidium (from the Latin word rubidus, meaning dark red or bright red), and a sky - blue line for caesium (derived from the Latin word caesius, meaning sky - blue).
Around 1865 John Newlands produced a series of papers where he listed the elements in order of increasing atomic weight and similar physical and chemical properties that recurred at intervals of eight; he likened such periodicity to the octaves of music, where notes an octave apart have similar musical functions. His version put all the alkali metals then known (lithium to caesium), as well as copper, silver, and thallium (which show the + 1 oxidation state characteristic of the alkali metals), together into a group. His table placed hydrogen with the halogens.
After 1869, Dmitri Mendeleev proposed his periodic table placing lithium at the top of a group with sodium, potassium, rubidium, caesium, and thallium. Two years later, Mendeleev revised his table, placing hydrogen in group 1 above lithium, and also moving thallium to the boron group. In this 1871 version, copper, silver, and gold were placed twice, once as part of group IB, and once as part of a "group VIII '' encompassing today 's groups 8 to 11. After the introduction of the 18 - column table, the group IB elements were moved to their current position in the d - block, while alkali metals were left in group IA. Later the group 's name was changed to group 1 in 1988. The trivial name "alkali metals '' comes from the fact that the hydroxides of the group 1 elements are all strong alkalis when dissolved in water.
There were at least four erroneous and incomplete discoveries before Marguerite Perey of the Curie Institute in Paris, France discovered francium in 1939 by purifying a sample of actinium - 227, which had been reported to have a decay energy of 220 keV. However, Perey noticed decay particles with an energy level below 80 keV. Perey thought this decay activity might have been caused by a previously unidentified decay product, one that was separated during purification, but emerged again out of the pure actinium - 227. Various tests eliminated the possibility of the unknown element being thorium, radium, lead, bismuth, or thallium. The new product exhibited chemical properties of an alkali metal (such as coprecipitating with caesium salts), which led Perey to believe that it was element 87, caused by the alpha decay of actinium - 227. Perey then attempted to determine the proportion of beta decay to alpha decay in actinium - 227. Her first test put the alpha branching at 0.6 %, a figure that she later revised to 1 %.
The next element below francium (eka - francium) in the periodic table would be ununennium (Uue), element 119. The synthesis of ununennium was first attempted in 1985 by bombarding a target of einsteinium - 254 with calcium - 48 ions at the superHILAC accelerator at Berkeley, California. No atoms were identified, leading to a limiting yield of 300 nb.
It is highly unlikely that this reaction will be able to create any atoms of ununennium in the near future, given the extremely difficult task of making sufficient amounts of einsteinium - 254, which is favoured for production of ultraheavy elements because of its large mass, relatively long half - life of 270 days, and availability in significant amounts of several micrograms, to make a large enough target to increase the sensitivity of the experiment to the required level; einsteinium has not been found in nature and has only been produced in laboratories, and in quantities smaller than those needed for effective synthesis of superheavy elements. However, given that ununennium is only the first period 8 element on the extended periodic table, it may well be discovered in the near future through other reactions, and indeed an attempt to synthesise it is currently ongoing in Japan. Currently, none of the period 8 elements have been discovered yet, and it is also possible, due to drip instabilities, that only the lower period 8 elements, up to around element 128, are physically possible. No attempts at synthesis have been made for any heavier alkali metals: due to their extremely high atomic number, they would require new, more powerful methods and technology to make.
The Oddo -- Harkins rule holds that elements with even atomic numbers are more common that those with odd atomic numbers, with the exception of hydrogen. This rule argues that elements with odd atomic numbers have one unpaired proton and are more likely to capture another, thus increasing their atomic number. In elements with even atomic numbers, protons are paired, with each member of the pair offsetting the spin of the other, enhancing stability. All the alkali metals have odd atomic numbers and they are not as common as the elements with even atomic numbers adjacent to them (the noble gases and the alkaline earth metals) in the Solar System. The heavier alkali metals are also less abundant than the lighter ones as the alkali metals from rubidium onward can only be synthesised in supernovae and not in stellar nucleosynthesis. Lithium is also much less abundant than sodium and potassium as it is poorly synthesised in both Big Bang nucleosynthesis and in stars: the Big Bang could only produce trace quantities of lithium, beryllium and boron due to the absence of a stable nucleus with 5 or 8 nucleons, and stellar nucleosynthesis could only pass this bottleneck by the triple - alpha process, fusing three helium nuclei to form carbon, and skipping over those three elements.
The Earth formed from the same cloud of matter that formed the Sun, but the planets acquired different compositions during the formation and evolution of the solar system. In turn, the natural history of the Earth caused parts of this planet to have differing concentrations of the elements. The mass of the Earth is approximately 5.98 × 10 kg. It is composed mostly of iron (32.1 %), oxygen (30.1 %), silicon (15.1 %), magnesium (13.9 %), sulfur (2.9 %), nickel (1.8 %), calcium (1.5 %), and aluminium (1.4 %); with the remaining 1.2 % consisting of trace amounts of other elements. Due to planetary differentiation, the core region is believed to be primarily composed of iron (88.8 %), with smaller amounts of nickel (5.8 %), sulfur (4.5 %), and less than 1 % trace elements.
The alkali metals, due to their high reactivity, do not occur naturally in pure form in nature. They are lithophiles and therefore remain close to the Earth 's surface because they combine readily with oxygen and so associate strongly with silica, forming relatively low - density minerals that do not sink down into the Earth 's core. Potassium, rubidium and caesium are also incompatible elements due to their large ionic radii.
Sodium and potassium are very abundant in earth, both being among the ten most common elements in Earth 's crust; sodium makes up approximately 2.6 % of the Earth 's crust measured by weight, making it the sixth most abundant element overall and the most abundant alkali metal. Potassium makes up approximately 1.5 % of the Earth 's crust and is the seventh most abundant element. Sodium is found in many different minerals, of which the most common is ordinary salt (sodium chloride), which occurs in vast quantities dissolved in seawater. Other solid deposits include halite, amphibole, cryolite, nitratine, and zeolite. Many of these solid deposits occur as a result of ancient seas evaporating, which still occurs now in places such as Utah 's Great Salt Lake and the Dead Sea. Despite their near - equal abundance in Earth 's crust, sodium is far more common than potassium in the ocean, both because potassium 's larger size makes its salts less soluble, and because potassium is bound by silicates in soil and what potassium leaches is absorbed far more readily by plant life than sodium.
Despite its chemical similarity, lithium typically does not occur together with sodium or potassium due to its smaller size. Due to its relatively low reactivity, it can be found in seawater in large amounts; it is estimated that seawater is approximately 0.14 to 0.25 parts per million (ppm) or 25 micromolar. Its diagonal relationship with magnesium often allows it to replace magnesium in ferromagnesium minerals, where its crustal concentration is about 18 ppm, comparable to that of gallium and niobium. Commercially, the most important lithium mineral is spodumene, which occurs in large deposits worldwide.
Rubidium is approximately as abundant as zinc and more abundant than copper. It occurs naturally in the minerals leucite, pollucite, carnallite, zinnwaldite, and lepidolite, although none of these contain only rubidium and no other alkali metals. Caesium is more abundant than some commonly known elements, such as antimony, cadmium, tin, and tungsten, but is much less abundant than rubidium.
Francium - 223, the only naturally occurring isotope of francium, is the product of the alpha decay of actinium - 227 and can be found in trace amounts in uranium minerals. In a given sample of uranium, there is estimated to be only one francium atom for every 10 uranium atoms. It has been calculated that there is at most 30 g of francium in the earth 's crust at any time, due to its extremely short half - life of 22 minutes.
The physical and chemical properties of the alkali metals can be readily explained by their having an ns valence electron configuration, which results in weak metallic bonding. Hence, all the alkali metals are soft and have low densities, melting and boiling points, as well as heats of sublimation, vaporisation, and dissociation. They all crystallise in the body - centered cubic crystal structure, and have distinctive flame colours because their outer s electron is very easily excited. The ns configuration also results in the alkali metals having very large atomic and ionic radii, as well as very high thermal and electrical conductivity. Their chemistry is dominated by the loss of their lone valence electron in the outermost s - orbital to form the + 1 oxidation state, due to the ease of ionising this electron and the very high second ionisation energy. Most of the chemistry has been observed only for the first five members of the group. The chemistry of francium is not well established due to its extreme radioactivity; thus, the presentation of its properties here is limited. What little is known about francium shows that it is very close in behaviour to caesium, as expected. The physical properties of francium are even sketchier because the bulk element has never been observed; hence any data that may be found in the literature are certainly speculative extrapolations.
The alkali metals are more similar to each other than the elements in any other group are to each other. Indeed, the similarity is so great that it is quite difficult to separate potassium, rubidium, and caesium, due to their similar ionic radii; lithium and sodium are more distinct. For instance, when moving down the table, all known alkali metals show increasing atomic radius, decreasing electronegativity, increasing reactivity, and decreasing melting and boiling points as well as heats of fusion and vaporisation. In general, their densities increase when moving down the table, with the exception that potassium is less dense than sodium. One of the very few properties of the alkali metals that does not display a very smooth trend is their reduction potentials: lithium 's value is anomalous, being more negative than the others. This is because the Li ion has a very high hydration energy in the gas phase: though the lithium ion disrupts the structure of water significantly, causing a higher change in entropy, this high hydration energy is enough to make the reduction potentials indicate it as being the most electropositive alkali metal, despite the difficulty of ionising it in the gas phase.
The stable alkali metals are all silver - coloured metals except for caesium, which has a pale golden tint: it is one of only three metals that are clearly coloured (the other two being copper and gold). Additionally, the heavy alkaline earth metals calcium, strontium, and barium, as well as the divalent lanthanides europium and ytterbium, are pale yellow, though the colour is much less prominent than it is for caesium. Their lustre tarnishes rapidly in air due to oxidation. They all crystallise in the body - centered cubic crystal structure, and have distinctive flame colours because their outer s electron is very easily excited. Indeed, these flame test colours are the most common way of identifying them since all their salts with common ions are soluble.
All the alkali metals are highly reactive and are never found in elemental forms in nature. Because of this, they are usually stored in mineral oil or kerosene (paraffin oil). They react aggressively with the halogens to form the alkali metal halides, which are white ionic crystalline compounds that are all soluble in water except lithium fluoride (Li F). The alkali metals also react with water to form strongly alkaline hydroxides and thus should be handled with great care. The heavier alkali metals react more vigorously than the lighter ones; for example, when dropped into water, caesium produces a larger explosion than potassium if the same number of moles of each metal is used. The alkali metals have the lowest first ionisation energies in their respective periods of the periodic table because of their low effective nuclear charge and the ability to attain a noble gas configuration by losing just one electron. Not only do the alkali metals react with water, but also with proton donors like alcohols and phenols, gaseous ammonia, and alkynes, the last demonstrating the phenomenal degree of their reactivity. Their great power as reducing agents makes them very useful in liberating other metals from their oxides or halides.
The second ionisation energy of all of the alkali metals is very high as it is in a full shell that is also closer to the nucleus; thus, they almost always lose a single electron, forming cations. The alkalides are an exception: they are unstable compounds which contain alkali metals in a − 1 oxidation state, which is very unusual as before the discovery of the alkalides, the alkali metals were not expected to be able to form anions and were thought to be able to appear in salts only as cations. The alkalide anions have filled s - subshells, which gives them enough stability to exist. All the stable alkali metals except lithium are known to be able to form alkalides, and the alkalides have much theoretical interest due to their unusual stoichiometry and low ionisation potentials. Alkalides are chemically similar to the electrides, which are salts with trapped electrons acting as anions. A particularly striking example of an alkalide is "inverse sodium hydride '', H Na (both ions being complexed), as opposed to the usual sodium hydride, Na H: it is unstable in isolation, due to its high energy resulting from the displacement of two electrons from hydrogen to sodium, although several derivatives are predicted to be metastable or stable.
In aqueous solution, the alkali metal ions form aqua ions of the formula (M (H O)), where n is the solvation number. Their coordination numbers and shapes agree well with those expected from their ionic radii. In aqueous solution the water molecules directly attached to the metal ion are said to belong to the first coordination sphere, also known as the first, or primary, solvation shell. The bond between a water molecule and the metal ion is a dative covalent bond, with the oxygen atom donating both electrons to the bond. Each coordinated water molecule may be attached by hydrogen bonds to other water molecules. The latter are said to reside in the second coordination sphere. However, for the alkali metal cations, the second coordination sphere is not well - defined as the + 1 charge on the cation is not high enough to polarise the water molecules in the primary solvation shell enough for them to form strong hydrogen bonds with those in the second coordination sphere, producing a more stable entity. The solvation number for Li has been experimentally determined to be 4, forming the tetrahedral (Li (H O)): while solvation numbers of 3 to 6 have been found for lithium aqua ions, solvation numbers less than 4 may be the result of the formation of contact ion pairs, and the higher solvation numbers may be interpreted in terms of water molecules that approach (Li (H O)) through a face of the tetrahedron, though molecular dynamic simulations may indicate the existence of an octahedral hexaaqua ion. There are also probably six water molecules in the primary solvation sphere of the sodium ion, forming the octahedral (Na (H O)) ion. While it was previously thought that the heavier alkali metals also formed octahedral hexaaqua ions, it has since been found that potassium and rubidium probably form the (K (H O)) and (Rb (H O)) ions, which have the square antiprismatic structure, and that caesium forms the 12 - coordinate (Cs (H O)) ion.
The chemistry of lithium shows several differences from that of the rest of the group as the small Li cation polarises anions and gives its compounds a more covalent character. Lithium and magnesium have a diagonal relationship due to their similar atomic radii, so that they show some similarities. For example, lithium forms a stable nitride, a property common among all the alkaline earth metals (magnesium 's group) but unique among the alkali metals. In addition, among their respective groups, only lithium and magnesium form organometallic compounds with significant covalent character (e.g. Li Me and MgMe).
Lithium fluoride is the only alkali metal halide that is poorly soluble in water, and lithium hydroxide is the only alkali metal hydroxide that is not deliquescent. Conversely, lithium perchlorate and other lithium salts with large anions that can not be polarised are much more stable than the analogous compounds of the other alkali metals, probably because Li has a high solvation energy. This effect also means that most simple lithium salts are commonly encountered in hydrated form, because the anhydrous forms are extremely hygroscopic: this allows salts like lithium chloride and lithium bromide to be used in dehumidifiers and air - conditioners.
Francium is also predicted to show some differences due to its high atomic weight, causing its electrons to travel at considerable fractions of the speed of light and thus making relativistic effects more prominent. In contrast to the trend of decreasing electronegativities and ionisation energies of the alkali metals, francium 's electronegativity and ionisation energy are predicted to be higher than caesium 's due to the relativistic stabilisation of the 7s electrons; also, its atomic radius is expected to be abnormally low. Thus, contrary to expectation, caesium is the most reactive of the alkali metals, not francium. All known physical properties of francium also deviate from the clear trends going from lithium to caesium, such as the first ionisation energy, electron affinity, and anion polarisability, though due to the paucity of known data about francium many sources give extrapolated values, ignoring that relativistic effects make the trend from lithium to caesium become inapplicable at francium. Some of the few properties of francium that have been predicted taking relativity into account are the electron affinity (47.2 kJ / mol) and the enthalpy of dissociation of the Fr molecule (42.1 kJ / mol). The CsFr molecule is polarised as Cs Fr, showing that the 7s subshell of francium is much more strongly affected by relativistic effects than the 6s subshell of caesium. Additionally, francium superoxide (FrO) is expected to have significant covalent character, unlike the other alkali metal superoxides, because of bonding contributions from the 6p electrons of francium.
All the alkali metals have odd atomic numbers; hence, their isotopes must be either odd -- odd (both proton and neutron number are odd) or odd -- even (proton number is odd, but neutron number is even). Odd -- odd nuclei have even mass numbers, whereas odd -- even nuclei have odd mass numbers. Odd -- odd primordial nuclides are rare because most odd -- odd nuclei are highly unstable with respect to beta decay, because the decay products are even -- even, and are therefore more strongly bound, due to nuclear pairing effects.
Due to the great rarity of odd -- odd nuclei, almost all the primordial isotopes of the alkali metals are odd -- even (the exceptions being the light stable isotope lithium - 6 and the long - lived radioisotope potassium - 40). For a given odd mass number, there can be only a single beta - stable nuclide, since there is not a difference in binding energy between even -- odd and odd -- even comparable to that between even -- even and odd -- odd, leaving other nuclides of the same mass number (isobars) free to beta decay toward the lowest - mass nuclide. An effect of the instability of an odd number of either type of nucleons is that odd - numbered elements, such as the alkali metals, tend to have fewer stable isotopes than even - numbered elements. Of the 26 monoisotopic elements that have only a single stable isotope, all but one have an odd atomic number and all but one also have an even number of neutrons. Beryllium is the single exception to both rules, due to its low atomic number.
All of the alkali metals except lithium and caesium have at least one naturally occurring radioisotope: sodium - 22 and sodium - 24 are trace radioisotopes produced cosmogenically, potassium - 40 and rubidium - 87 have very long half - lives and thus occur naturally, and all isotopes of francium are radioactive. Caesium was also thought to be radioactive in the early 20th century, although it has no naturally occurring radioisotopes. (Francium had not been discovered yet at that time.) The natural long - lived radioisotope of potassium, potassium - 40, makes up about 0.012 % of natural potassium, and thus natural potassium is weakly radioactive. This natural radioactivity became a basis for a mistaken claim of the discovery for element 87 (the next alkali metal after caesium) in 1925. Natural rubidium is similarly slightly radioactive, with 27.83 % being the long - lived radioisotope rubidium - 87.
Caesium - 137, with a half - life of 30.17 years, is one of the two principal medium - lived fission products, along with strontium - 90, which are responsible for most of the radioactivity of spent nuclear fuel after several years of cooling, up to several hundred years after use. It constitutes most of the radioactivity still left from the Chernobyl accident. Caesium - 137 undergoes high - energy beta decay and eventually becomes stable barium - 137. It is a strong emitter of gamma radiation. Caesium - 137 has a very low rate of neutron capture and can not be feasibly disposed of in this way, but must be allowed to decay. Caesium - 137 has been used as a tracer in hydrologic studies, analogous to the use of tritium. Small amounts of caesium - 134 and caesium - 137 were released into the environment during nearly all nuclear weapon tests and some nuclear accidents, most notably the Goiânia accident and the Chernobyl disaster. As of 2005, caesium - 137 is the principal source of radiation in the zone of alienation around the Chernobyl nuclear power plant. Its chemical properties as one of the alkali metals make it one of most problematic of the short - to - medium - lifetime fission products because it easily moves and spreads in nature due to the high water solubility of its salts, and is taken up by the body, which mistakes it for its essential congeners sodium and potassium.
The alkali metals are more similar to each other than the elements in any other group are to each other. For instance, when moving down the table, all known alkali metals show increasing atomic radius, decreasing electronegativity, increasing reactivity, and decreasing melting and boiling points as well as heats of fusion and vaporisation. In general, their densities increase when moving down the table, with the exception that potassium is less dense than sodium.
The atomic radii of the alkali metals increase going down the group. Because of the shielding effect, when an atom has more than one electron shell, each electron feels electric repulsion from the other electrons as well as electric attraction from the nucleus. In the alkali metals, the outermost electron only feels a net charge of + 1, as some of the nuclear charge (which is equal to the atomic number) is cancelled by the inner electrons; the number of inner electrons of an alkali metal is always one less than the nuclear charge. Therefore, the only factor which affects the atomic radius of the alkali metals is the number of electron shells. Since this number increases down the group, the atomic radius must also increase down the group.
The ionic radii of the alkali metals are much smaller than their atomic radii. This is because the outermost electron of the alkali metals is in a different electron shell than the inner electrons, and thus when it is removed the resulting atom has one fewer electron shell and is smaller. Additionally, the effective nuclear charge has increased, and thus the electrons are attracted more strongly towards the nucleus and the ionic radius decreases.
The first ionisation energy of an element or molecule is the energy required to move the most loosely held electron from one mole of gaseous atoms of the element or molecules to form one mole of gaseous ions with electric charge + 1. The factors affecting the first ionisation energy are the nuclear charge, the amount of shielding by the inner electrons and the distance from the most loosely held electron from the nucleus, which is always an outer electron in main group elements. The first two factors change the effective nuclear charge the most loosely held electron feels. Since the outermost electron of alkali metals always feels the same effective nuclear charge (+ 1), the only factor which affects the first ionisation energy is the distance from the outermost electron to the nucleus. Since this distance increases down the group, the outermost electron feels less attraction from the nucleus and thus the first ionisation energy decreases. (This trend is broken in francium due to the relativistic stabilisation and contraction of the 7s orbital, bringing francium 's valence electron closer to the nucleus than would be expected from non-relativistic calculations. This makes francium 's outermost electron feel more attraction from the nucleus, increasing its first ionisation energy slightly beyond that of caesium.)
The second ionisation energy of the alkali metals is much higher than the first as the second-most loosely held electron is part of a fully filled electron shell and is thus difficult to remove.
The reactivities of the alkali metals increase going down the group. This is the result of a combination of two factors: the first ionisation energies and atomisation energies of the alkali metals. Because the first ionisation energy of the alkali metals decreases down the group, it is easier for the outermost electron to be removed from the atom and participate in chemical reactions, thus increasing reactivity down the group. The atomisation energy measures the strength of the metallic bond of an element, which falls down the group as the atoms increase in radius and thus the metallic bond must increase in length, making the delocalised electrons further away from the attraction of the nuclei of the heavier alkali metals. Adding the atomisation and first ionisation energies gives a quantity closely related to (but not equal to) the activation energy of the reaction of an alkali metal with another substance. This quantity decreases going down the group, and so does the activation energy; thus, chemical reactions can occur faster and the reactivity increases down the group.
Electronegativity is a chemical property that describes the tendency of an atom or a functional group to attract electrons (or electron density) towards itself. If the bond between sodium and chlorine in sodium chloride were covalent, the pair of shared electrons would be attracted to the chlorine because the effective nuclear charge on the outer electrons is + 7 in chlorine but is only + 1 in sodium. The electron pair is attracted so close to the chlorine atom that they are practically transferred to the chlorine atom (an ionic bond). However, if the sodium atom was replaced by a lithium atom, the electrons will not be attracted as close to the chlorine atom as before because the lithium atom is smaller, making the electron pair more strongly attracted to the closer effective nuclear charge from lithium. Hence, the larger alkali metal atoms (further down the group) will be less electronegative as the bonding pair is less strongly attracted towards them. As mentioned previously, francium is expected to be an exception.
Because of the higher electronegativity of lithium, some of its compounds have a more covalent character. For example, lithium iodide (Li I) will dissolve in organic solvents, a property of most covalent compounds. Lithium fluoride (Li F) is the only alkali halide that is not soluble in water, and lithium hydroxide (Li OH) is the only alkali metal hydroxide that is not deliquescent.
The melting point of a substance is the point where it changes state from solid to liquid while the boiling point of a substance (in liquid state) is the point where the vapour pressure of the liquid equals the environmental pressure surrounding the liquid and all the liquid changes state to gas. As a metal is heated to its melting point, the metallic bonds keeping the atoms in place weaken so that the atoms can move around, and the metallic bonds eventually break completely at the metal 's boiling point. Therefore, the falling melting and boiling points of the alkali metals indicate that the strength of the metallic bonds of the alkali metals decreases down the group. This is because metal atoms are held together by the electromagnetic attraction from the positive ions to the delocalised electrons. As the atoms increase in size going down the group (because their atomic radius increases), the nuclei of the ions move further away from the delocalised electrons and hence the metallic bond becomes weaker so that the metal can more easily melt and boil, thus lowering the melting and boiling points. (The increased nuclear charge is not a relevant factor due to the shielding effect.)
The alkali metals all have the same crystal structure (body - centred cubic) and thus the only relevant factors are the number of atoms that can fit into a certain volume and the mass of one of the atoms, since density is defined as mass per unit volume. The first factor depends on the volume of the atom and thus the atomic radius, which increases going down the group; thus, the volume of an alkali metal atom increases going down the group. The mass of an alkali metal atom also increases going down the group. Thus, the trend for the densities of the alkali metals depends on their atomic weights and atomic radii; if figures for these two factors are known, the ratios between the densities of the alkali metals can then be calculated. The resultant trend is that the densities of the alkali metals increase down the table, with an exception at potassium. Due to having the lowest atomic weight and the largest atomic radius of all the elements in their periods, the alkali metals are the least dense metals in the periodic table. Lithium, sodium, and potassium are the only three metals in the periodic table that are less dense than water: in fact, lithium is the least dense known solid at room temperature.
The alkali metals form complete series of compounds with all usually encountered anions, which well illustrate group trends. These compounds can be described as involving the alkali metals losing electrons to acceptor species and forming monopositive ions. This description is most accurate for alkali halides and becomes less and less accurate as cationic and anionic charge increase, and as the anion becomes larger and more polarisable. For instance, ionic bonding gives way to metallic bonding along the series NaCl, Na O, Na S, Na P, Na As, Na Sb, Na Bi, Na.
All the alkali metals react vigorously or explosively with cold water, producing an aqueous solution of a strongly basic alkali metal hydroxide and releasing hydrogen gas. This reaction becomes more vigorous going down the group: lithium reacts steadily with effervescence, but sodium and potassium can ignite and rubidium and caesium sink in water and generate hydrogen gas so rapidly that shock waves form in the water that may shatter glass containers. When an alkali metal is dropped into water, it produces an explosion, of which there are two separate stages. The metal reacts with the water first, breaking the hydrogen bonds in the water and producing hydrogen gas; this takes place faster for the more reactive heavier alkali metals. Second, the heat generated by the first part of the reaction often ignites the hydrogen gas, causing it to burn explosively into the surrounding air. This secondary hydrogen gas explosion produces the visible flame above the bowl of water, lake or other body of water, not the initial reaction of the metal with water (which tends to happen mostly under water). The alkali metal hydroxides are the most basic known hydroxides.
Recent research has suggested that the explosive behavior of alkali metals in water is driven by a Coulomb explosion rather than solely by rapid generation of hydrogen itself. All alkali metals melt as a part of the reaction with water. Water molecules ionise the bare metallic surface of the liquid metal, leaving a positively charged metal surface and negatively charged water ions. The attraction between the charged metal and water ions will rapidly increase the surface area, causing an exponential increase of ionisation. When the repulsive forces within the liquid metal surface exceeds the forces of the surface tension, it vigorously explodes.
The hydroxides themselves are the most basic hydroxides known, reacting with acids to give salts and with alcohols to give oligomeric alkoxides. They easily react with carbon dioxide to form carbonates or bicarbonates, or with hydrogen sulfide to form sulfides or bisulfides, and may be used to separate thiols from petroleum. They react with amphoteric oxides: for example, the oxides of aluminium, zinc, tin, and lead react with the alkali metal hydroxides to give aluminates, zincates, stannates, and plumbates. Silicon dioxide is acidic, and thus the alkali metal hydroxides can also attack silicate glass.
The alkali metals form many intermetallic compounds with each other and the elements from groups 2 to 13 in the periodic table of varying stoichiometries, such as the sodium amalgams with mercury, including Na Hg and Na Hg. Some of these have ionic characteristics: taking the alloys with gold, the most electronegative of metals, as an example, NaAu and KAu are metallic, but RbAu and CsAu are semiconductors. NaK is an alloy of sodium and potassium that is very useful because it is liquid at room temperature, although precautions must be taken due to its extreme reactivity towards water and air. The eutectic mixture melts at − 12.6 ° C. An alloy of 41 % caesium, 47 % sodium, and 12 % potassium has the lowest known melting point of any metal or alloy, − 78 ° C.
The intermetallic compounds of the alkali metals with the heavier group 13 elements (aluminium, gallium, indium, and thallium), such as NaTl, are poor conductors or semiconductors, unlike the normal alloys with the preceding elements, implying that the alkali metal involved has lost an electron to the Zintl anions involved. Nevertheless, while the elements in group 14 and beyond tend to form discrete anionic clusters, group 13 elements tend to form polymeric ions with the alkali metal cations located between the giant ionic lattice. For example, NaTl consists of a polymeric anion (-- Tl --) with a covalent diamond cubic structure with Na ions located between the anionic lattice. The larger alkali metals can not fit similarly into an anionic lattice and tend to force the heavier group 13 elements to form anionic clusters.
Boron is a special case, being the only nonmetal in group 13. The alkali metal borides tend to be boron - rich, involving appreciable boron -- boron bonding involving deltahedral structures, and are thermally unstable due to the alkali metals having a very high vapour pressure at elevated temperatures. This makes direct synthesis problematic because the alkali metals do not react with boron below 700 ° C, and thus this must be accomplished in sealed containers with the alkali metal in excess. Furthermore, exceptionally in this group, reactivity with boron decreases down the group: lithium reacts completely at 700 ° C, but sodium at 900 ° C and potassium not until 1200 ° C, and the reaction is instantaneous for lithium but takes hours for potassium. Rubidium and caesium borides have not even been characterised. Various phases are known, such as LiB, NaB, NaB, and KB. Under high pressure the boron -- boron bonding in the lithium borides changes from following Wade 's rules to forming Zintl anions like the rest of group 13.
Lithium and sodium react with carbon to form acetylides, Li C and Na C, which can also be obtained by reaction of the metal with acetylene. Potassium, rubidium, and caesium react with graphite; their atoms are intercalated between the hexagonal graphite layers, forming graphite intercalation compounds of formulae MC (dark grey, almost black), MC (dark grey, almost black), MC (blue), MC (steel blue), and MC (bronze) (M = K, Rb, or Cs). These compounds are over 200 times more electrically conductive than pure graphite, suggesting that the valence electron of the alkali metal is transferred to the graphite layers (e.g. M). Upon heating of KC, the elimination of potassium atoms results in the conversion in sequence to KC, KC, KC and finally KC. KC is a very strong reducing agent and is pyrophoric and explodes on contact with water. While the larger alkali metals (K, Rb, and Cs) initially form MC, the smaller ones initially form MC, and indeed they require reaction of the metals with graphite at high temperatures around 500 ° C to form. Apart from this, the alkali metals are such strong reducing agents that they can even reduce buckminsterfullerene to produce solid fullerides M C; sodium, potassium, rubidium, and caesium can form fullerides where n = 2, 3, 4, or 6, and rubidium and caesium additionally can achieve n = 1.
When the alkali metals react with the heavier elements in the carbon group (silicon, germanium, tin, and lead), ionic substances with cage - like structures are formed, such as the silicides M Si (M = K, Rb, or Cs), which contains M and tetrahedral Si ions. The chemistry of alkali metal germanides, involving the germanide ion Ge and other cluster (Zintl) ions such as Ge, Ge, Ge, and ((Ge)), is largely analogous to that of the corresponding silicides. Alkali metal stannides are mostly ionic, sometimes with the stannide ion (Sn), and sometimes with more complex Zintl ions such as Sn, which appears in tetrapotassium nonastannide (K Sn). The monatomic plumbide ion (Pb) is unknown, and indeed its formation is predicted to be energetically unfavourable; alkali metal plumbides have complex Zintl ions, such as Pb. These alkali metal germanides, stannides, and plumbides may be produced by reducing germanium, tin, and lead with sodium metal in liquid ammonia.
Lithium, the lightest of the alkali metals, is the only alkali metal which reacts with nitrogen at standard conditions, and its nitride is the only stable alkali metal nitride. Nitrogen is an unreactive gas because breaking the strong triple bond in the dinitrogen molecule (N) requires a lot of energy. The formation of an alkali metal nitride would consume the ionisation energy of the alkali metal (forming M ions), the energy required to break the triple bond in N and the formation of N ions, and all the energy released from the formation of an alkali metal nitride is from the lattice energy of the alkali metal nitride. The lattice energy is maximised with small, highly charged ions; the alkali metals do not form highly charged ions, only forming ions with a charge of + 1, so only lithium, the smallest alkali metal, can release enough lattice energy to make the reaction with nitrogen exothermic, forming lithium nitride. The reactions of the other alkali metals with nitrogen would not release enough lattice energy and would thus be endothermic, so they do not form nitrides at standard conditions. Sodium nitride (Na N) and potassium nitride (K N), while existing, are extremely unstable, being prone to decomposing back into their constituent elements, and can not be produced by reacting the elements with each other at standard conditions. Steric hindrance forbids the existence of rubidium or caesium nitride. However, sodium and potassium form colourless azide salts involving the linear N anion; due to the large size of the alkali metal cations, they are thermally stable enough to be able to melt before decomposing.
All the alkali metals react readily with phosphorus and arsenic to form phosphides and arsenides with the formula M Pn (where M represents an alkali metal and Pn represents a pnictogen -- phosphorus, arsenic, antimony, or bismuth). This is due to the greater size of the P and As ions, so that less lattice energy needs to be released for the salts to form. These are not the only phosphides and arsenides of the alkali metals: for example, potassium has nine different known phosphides, with formulae K P, K P, K P, KP, K P, K P, K P, KP, and KP. While most metals form arsenides, only the alkali and alkaline earth metals form mostly ionic arsenides. The structure of Na As is complex with unusually short Na -- Na distances of 328 -- 330 pm which are shorter than in sodium metal, and this indicates that even with these electropositive metals the bonding can not be straightforwardly ionic. Other alkali metal arsenides not conforming to the formula M As are known, such as LiAs, which has a metallic lustre and electrical conductivity indicating the presence of some metallic bonding. The antimonides are unstable and reactive as the Sb ion is a strong reducing agent; reaction of them with acids form the toxic and unstable gas stibine (SbH). Indeed, they have some metallic properties, and the alkali metal antimonides of stoichiometry MSb involve antimony atoms bonded in a spiral Zintl structure. Bismuthides are not even wholly ionic; they are intermetallic compounds containing partially metallic and partially ionic bonds.
All the alkali metals react vigorously with oxygen at standard conditions. They form various types of oxides, such as simple oxides (containing the O ion), peroxides (containing the O ion, where there is a single bond between the two oxygen atoms), superoxides (containing the O ion), and many others. Lithium burns in air to form lithium oxide, but sodium reacts with oxygen to form a mixture of sodium oxide and sodium peroxide. Potassium forms a mixture of potassium peroxide and potassium superoxide, while rubidium and caesium form the superoxide exclusively. Their reactivity increases going down the group: while lithium, sodium and potassium merely burn in air, rubidium and caesium are pyrophoric (spontaneously catch fire in air).
The smaller alkali metals tend to polarise the larger anions (the peroxide and superoxide) due to their small size. This attracts the electrons in the more complex anions towards one of its constituent oxygen atoms, forming an oxide ion and an oxygen atom. This causes lithium to form the oxide exclusively on reaction with oxygen at room temperature. This effect becomes drastically weaker for the larger sodium and potassium, allowing them to form the less stable peroxides. Rubidium and caesium, at the bottom of the group, are so large that even the least stable superoxides can form. Because the superoxide releases the most energy when formed, the superoxide is preferentially formed for the larger alkali metals where the more complex anions are not polarised. (The oxides and peroxides for these alkali metals do exist, but do not form upon direct reaction of the metal with oxygen at standard conditions.) In addition, the small size of the Li and O ions contributes to their forming a stable ionic lattice structure. Under controlled conditions, however, all the alkali metals, with the exception of francium, are known to form their oxides, peroxides, and superoxides. The alkali metal peroxides and superoxides are powerful oxidising agents. Sodium peroxide and potassium superoxide react with carbon dioxide to form the alkali metal carbonate and oxygen gas, which allows them to be used in submarine air purifiers; the presence of water vapour, naturally present in breath, makes the removal of carbon dioxide by potassium superoxide even more efficient. All the stable alkali metals except lithium can form red ozonides (MO) through low - temperature reaction of the powdered anhydrous hydroxide with ozone: the ozonides may be then extracted using liquid ammonia. They slowly decompose at standard conditions to the superoxides and oxygen, and hydrolyse immediately to the hydroxides when in contact with water. Potassium, rubidium, and caesium also form sesquioxides M O, which may be better considered peroxide disuperoxides, ((M) (O) (O)).
Rubidium and caesium can form a great variety of suboxides with the metals in formal oxidation states below + 1. Rubidium can form Rb O and Rb O (copper - coloured) upon oxidation in air, while caesium forms an immense variety of oxides, such as the ozonide CsO and several brightly coloured suboxides, such as Cs O (bronze), Cs O (red - violet), Cs O (violet), Cs O (dark green), CsO, Cs O, as well as Cs O. The last of these may be heated under vacuum to generate Cs O.
The alkali metals can also react analogously with the heavier chalcogens (sulfur, selenium, tellurium, and polonium), and all the alkali metal chalcogenides are known (with the exception of francium 's). Reaction with an excess of the chalcogen can similarly result in lower chalcogenides, with chalcogen ions containing chains of the chalcogen atoms in question. For example, sodium can react with sulfur to form the sulfide (Na S) and various polysulfides with the formula Na S (x from 2 to 6), containing the S ions. Due to the basicity of the Se and Te ions, the alkali metal selenides and tellurides are alkaline in solution; when reacted directly with selenium and tellurium, alkali metal polyselenides and polytellurides are formed along with the selenides and tellurides with the Se and Te ions. They may be obtained directly from the elements in liquid ammonia or when air is not present, and are colourless, water - soluble compounds that air oxidises quickly back to selenium or tellurium. The alkali metal polonides are all ionic compounds containing the Po ion; they are very chemically stable and can be produced by direct reaction of the elements at around 300 -- 400 ° C.
The alkali metals are among the most electropositive elements on the periodic table and thus tend to bond ionically to the most electronegative elements on the periodic table, the halogens (fluorine, chlorine, bromine, iodine, and astatine), forming salts known as the alkali metal halides. The reaction is very vigorous and can sometimes result in explosions. All twenty stable alkali metal halides are known; the unstable ones are not known, with the exception of sodium astatide, because of the great instability and rarity of astatine and francium. The most well - known of the twenty is certainly sodium chloride, otherwise known as common salt. All of the stable alkali metal halides have the formula MX where M is an alkali metal and X is a halogen. They are all white ionic crystalline solids that have high melting points. All the alkali metal halides are soluble in water except for lithium fluoride (LiF), which is insoluble in water due to its very high lattice enthalpy. The high lattice enthalpy of lithium fluoride is due to the small sizes of the Li and F ions, causing the electrostatic interactions between them to be strong: a similar effect occurs for magnesium fluoride, consistent with the diagonal relationship between lithium and magnesium.
The alkali metals also react similarly with hydrogen to form ionic alkali metal hydrides, where the hydride anion acts as a pseudohalide: these are often used as reducing agents, producing hydrides, complex metal hydrides, or hydrogen gas. Other pseudohalides are also known, notably the cyanides. These are isostructural to the respective halides except for lithium cyanide, indicating that the cyanide ions may rotate freely. Ternary alkali metal halide oxides, such as Na ClO, K BrO (yellow), Na Br O, Na I O, and K Br O, are also known. The polyhalides are rather unstable, although those of rubidium and caesium are greatly stabilised by the feeble polarising power of these extremely large cations.
Alkali metal cations do not usually form coordination complexes with simple Lewis bases due to their low charge of just + 1 and their relatively large size; thus the Li ion forms most complexes and the heavier alkali metal ions form less and less (though exceptions occur for weak complexes). Lithium in particular has a very rich coordination chemistry in which it exhibits coordination numbers from 1 to 12, although octahedral hexacoordination is its preferred mode. In aqueous solution, the alkali metal ions exist as octahedral hexahydrate complexes ((M (H O)))), with the exception of the lithium ion, which due to its small size forms tetrahedral tetrahydrate complexes ((Li (H O)))); the alkali metals form these complexes because their ions are attracted by electrostatic forces of attraction to the polar water molecules. Because of this, anhydrous salts containing alkali metal cations are often used as desiccants. Alkali metals also readily form complexes with crown ethers (e.g. 12 - crown - 4 for Li, 15 - crown - 5 for Na, 18 - crown - 6 for K, and 21 - crown - 7 for Rb) and cryptands due to electrostatic attraction.
The alkali metals dissolve slowly in liquid ammonia, forming ammoniacal solutions of solvated M and e, which react to form hydrogen gas and the alkali metal amide (MNH, where M represents an alkali metal): this was first noted by Humphry Davy in 1809 and rediscovered by W. Weyl in 1864. The process may be speeded up by a catalyst. Similar solutions are formed by the heavy divalent alkaline earth metals calcium, strontium, barium, as well as the divalent lanthanides, europium and ytterbium. The amide salt is quite insoluble and readily precipitates out of solution, leaving intensely coloured ammonia solutions of the alkali metals. In 1907, Charles Krause identified the colour as being due to the presence of solvated electrons, which contribute to the high electrical conductivity of these solutions. At low concentrations (below 3 M), the solution is dark blue and has ten times the conductivity of aqueous sodium chloride; at higher concentrations (above 3 M), the solution is copper - coloured and has approximately the conductivity of liquid metals like mercury. In addition to the alkali metal amide salt and solvated electrons, such ammonia solutions also contain the alkali metal cation (M), the neutral alkali metal atom (M), diatomic alkali metal molecules (M) and alkali metal anions (M). These are unstable and eventually become the more thermodynamically stable alkali metal amide and hydrogen gas. Solvated electrons are powerful reducing agents and are often used in chemical synthesis.
Being the smallest alkali metal, lithium forms the widest variety of and most stable organometallic compounds, which are bonded covalently. Organolithium compounds are electrically non-conducting volatile solids or liquids that melt at low temperatures, and tend to form oligomers with the structure (RLi) where R is the organic group. As the electropositive nature of lithium puts most of the charge density of the bond on the carbon atom, effectively creating a carbanion, organolithium compounds are extremely powerful bases and nucleophiles. For use as bases, butyllithiums are often used and are commercially available. An example of an organolithium compound is methyllithium ((CH Li)), which exists in tetrameric (x = 4, tetrahedral) and hexameric (x = 6, octahedral) forms. Organolithium compounds, especially n - butyllithium, are useful reagents in organic synthesis, as might be expected given lithium 's diagonal relationship with magnesium, which plays an important role in the Grignard reaction. For example, alkyllithiums and aryllithiums may be used to synthesise aldehydes and ketones by reaction with metal carbonyls. The reaction with nickel tetracarbonyl, for example, proceeds through an unstable acyl nickel carbonyl complex which then undergoes electrophilic substitution to give the desired aldehyde (using H as the electrophile) or ketone (using an alkyl halide) product.
Alkyllithiums and aryllithiums may also react with N, N - disubstituted amides to give aldehydes and ketones, and symmetrical ketones by reacting with carbon monoxide. They thermally decompose to eliminate a β - hydrogen, producing alkenes and lithium hydride: another route is the reaction of ethers with alkyl - and aryllithiums that act as strong bases. In non-polar solvents, aryllithiums react as the carbanions they effectively are, turning carbon dioxide to aromatic carboxylic acids (ArCO H) and aryl ketones to tertiary carbinols (Ar'C (Ar) OH). Finally, they may be used to synthesise other organometallic compounds through metal - halogen exchange.
Unlike the organolithium compounds, the organometallic compounds of the heavier alkali metals are predominantly ionic. The application of organosodium compounds in chemistry is limited in part due to competition from organolithium compounds, which are commercially available and exhibit more convenient reactivity. The principal organosodium compound of commercial importance is sodium cyclopentadienide. Sodium tetraphenylborate can also be classified as an organosodium compound since in the solid state sodium is bound to the aryl groups. Organometallic compounds of the higher alkali metals are even more reactive than organosodium compounds and of limited utility. A notable reagent is Schlosser 's base, a mixture of n - butyllithium and potassium tert - butoxide. This reagent reacts with propene to form the compound allylpotassium (KCH CHCH). cis - 2 - Butene and trans - 2 - butene equilibrate when in contact with alkali metals. Whereas isomerisation is fast with lithium and sodium, it is slow with the heavier alkali metals. The heavier alkali metals also favour the sterically congested conformation. Several crystal structures of organopotassium compounds have been reported, establishing that they, like the sodium compounds, are polymeric. Organosodium, organopotassium, organorubidium and organocaesium compounds are all mostly ionic and are insoluble (or nearly so) in nonpolar solvents.
Alkyl and aryl derivatives of sodium and potassium tend to react with air. They cause the cleavage of ethers, generating alkoxides. Unlike alkyllithium compounds, alkylsodiums and alkylpotassiums can not be made by reacting the metals with alkyl halides because Wurtz coupling occurs:
As such, they have to be made by reacting alkylmercury compounds with sodium or potassium metal in inert hydrocarbon solvents. While methylsodium forms tetramers like methyllithium, methylpotassium is more ionic and has the nickel arsenide structure with discrete methyl anions and potassium cations.
The alkali metals and their hydrides react with acidic hydrocarbons, for example cyclopentadienes and terminal alkynes, to give salts. Liquid ammonia, ether, or hydrocarbon solvents are used, the most common of which being tetrahydrofuran. The most important of these compounds is sodium cyclopentadienide, NaC H, an important precursor to many transition metal cyclopentadienyl derivatives. Similarly, the alkali metals react with cyclooctatetraene in tetrahydrofuran to give alkali metal cyclooctatetraenides; for example, dipotassium cyclooctatetraenide (K C H) is an important precursor to many metal cyclooctatetraenyl derivatives, such as uranocene. The large and very weakly polarising alkali metal cations can stabilise large, aromatic, polarisable radical anions, such as the dark - green sodium naphthalenide, Na (C H), a strong reducing agent.
Although francium is the heaviest alkali metal that has been discovered, there has been some theoretical work predicting the physical and chemical characteristics of the hypothetical heavier alkali metals. Being the first period 8 element, the undiscovered element ununennium (element 119) is predicted to be the next alkali metal after francium and behave much like their lighter congeners; however, it is also predicted to differ from the lighter alkali metals in some properties. Its chemistry is predicted to be closer to that of potassium or rubidium instead of caesium or francium. This is unusual as periodic trends, ignoring relativistic effects would predict ununennium to be even more reactive than caesium and francium. This lowered reactivity is due to the relativistic stabilisation of ununennium 's valence electron, increasing ununennium 's first ionisation energy and decreasing the metallic and ionic radii; this effect is already seen for francium. This assumes that ununennium will behave chemically as an alkali metal, which, although likely, may not be true due to relativistic effects. The relativistic stabilisation of the 8s orbital also increases ununennium 's electron affinity far beyond that of caesium and francium; indeed, ununennium is expected to have an electron affinity higher than all the alkali metals lighter than it. Relativistic effects also cause a very large drop in the polarisability of ununennium. On the other hand, ununennium is predicted to continue the trend of melting points decreasing going down the group, being expected to have a melting point between 0 ° C and 30 ° C.
The stabilisation of ununennium 's valence electron and thus the contraction of the 8s orbital cause its atomic radius to be lowered to 240 pm, very close to that of rubidium (247 pm), so that the chemistry of ununennium in the + 1 oxidation state should be more similar to the chemistry of rubidium than to that of francium. On the other hand, the ionic radius of the Uue ion is predicted to be larger than that of Rb, because the 7p orbitals are destabilised and are thus larger than the p - orbitals of the lower shells. Ununennium may also show the + 3 oxidation state, which is not seen in any other alkali metal, in addition to the + 1 oxidation state that is characteristic of the other alkali metals and is also the main oxidation state of all the known alkali metals: this is because of the destabilisation and expansion of the 7p spinor, causing its outermost electrons to have a lower ionisation energy than what would otherwise be expected. Indeed, many ununennium compounds are expected to have a large covalent character, due to the involvement of the 7p electrons in the bonding.
Not as much work has been done predicting the properties of the alkali metals beyond ununennium. Although a simple extrapolation of the periodic table would put element 169, unhexennium, under ununennium, Dirac - Fock calculations predict that the next alkali metal after ununennium may actually be element 165, unhexpentium, which is predicted to have the electron configuration (Og) 5g 6f 7d 8s 8p 9s. Furthermore, this element would be intermediate in properties between an alkali metal and a group 11 element, and while its physical and atomic properties would be closer to the former, its chemistry may be closer to that of the latter. Further calculations show that unhexpentium would follow the trend of increasing ionisation energy beyond caesium, having an ionisation energy comparable to that of sodium, and that it should also continue the trend of decreasing atomic radii beyond caesium, having an atomic radius comparable to that of potassium. However, the 7d electrons of unhexpentium may also be able to participate in chemical reactions along with the 9s electron, possibly allowing oxidation states beyond + 1, whence the likely transition metal behaviour of unhexpentium. Due to the alkali and alkaline earth metals both being s - block elements, these predictions for the trends and properties of ununennium and unhexpentium also mostly hold quite similarly for the corresponding alkaline earth metals unbinilium (Ubn) and unhexhexium (Uhh).
The probable properties of further alkali metals beyond unhexpentium have not been explored yet as of 2015; in fact, it is suspected that they may not be able to exist. In periods 8 and above of the periodic table, relativistic and shell - structure effects become so strong that extrapolations from lighter congeners become completely inaccurate. In addition, the relativistic and shell - structure effects (which stabilise the s - orbitals and destabilise and expand the d -, f -, and g - orbitals of higher shells) have opposite effects, causing even larger difference between relativistic and non-relativistic calculations of the properties of elements with such high atomic numbers. Interest in the chemical properties of ununennium and unhexpentium stems from the fact that both elements are located close to the expected locations of islands of stabilities, centered at elements 122 (Ubb) and 164 (Uhq).
Many other substances are similar to the alkali metals in their tendency to form monopositive cations. Analogously to the pseudohalogens, they have sometimes been called "pseudo-alkali metals ''. These substances include some elements and many more polyatomic ions; the polyatomic ions are especially similar to the alkali metals in their large size and weak polarising power.
The element hydrogen, with one electron per neutral atom, is usually placed at the top of Group 1 of the periodic table for convenience, but hydrogen is not normally considered to be an alkali metal; when it is considered to be an alkali metal, it is because of its atomic properties and not its chemical properties. Under typical conditions, pure hydrogen exists as a diatomic gas consisting of two atoms per molecule (H); however, the alkali metals only form diatomic molecules (such as dilithium, Li) at high temperatures, when they are in the gaseous state.
Hydrogen, like the alkali metals, has one valence electron and reacts easily with the halogens, but the similarities end there because of the small size of a bare proton H compared to the alkali metal cations. Its placement above lithium is primarily due to its electron configuration. It is sometimes placed above carbon due to their similar electronegativities or fluorine due to their similar chemical properties.
The first ionisation energy of hydrogen (1312.0 kJ / mol) is much higher than that of the alkali metals. As only one additional electron is required to fill in the outermost shell of the hydrogen atom, hydrogen often behaves like a halogen, forming the negative hydride ion, and is very occasionally considered to be a halogen on that basis. (The alkali metals can also form negative ions, known as alkalides, but these are little more than laboratory curiosities, being unstable.) An argument against this placement is that formation of hydride from hydrogen is endothermic, unlike the exothermic formation of halides from halogens. The radius of the H anion also does not fit the trend of increasing size going down the halogens: indeed, H is very diffuse because its single proton can not easily control both electrons. It was expected for some time that liquid hydrogen would show metallic properties; while this has been shown to not be the case, under extremely high pressures, such as those found at the cores of Jupiter and Saturn, hydrogen does become metallic and behaves like an alkali metal; in this phase, it is known as metallic hydrogen. The electrical resistivity of liquid metallic hydrogen at 3000 K is approximately equal to that of liquid rubidium and caesium at 2000 K at the respective pressures when they undergo a nonmetal - to - metal transition.
The 1s electron configuration of hydrogen, while superficially similar to that of the alkali metals (ns), is unique because there is no 1p subshell. Hence it can lose an electron to form the hydron H, or gain one to form the hydride ion H. In the former case it resembles superficially the alkali metals; in the latter case, the halogens, but the differences due to the lack of a 1p subshell are important enough that neither group fits the properties of hydrogen well. Group 14 is also a good fit in terms of thermodynamic properties such as ionisation energy and electron affinity, but makes chemical nonsense because hydrogen can not be tetravalent. Thus none of the three placements are entirely satisfactory, although group 1 is the most common placement (if one is chosen) because the hydron is by far the most important of all monatomic hydrogen species, being the foundation of acid - base chemistry. As an example of hydrogen 's unorthodox properties stemming from its unusual electron configuration and small size, the hydrogen ion is very small (radius around 150 fm compared to the 50 -- 220 pm size of most other atoms and ions) and so is nonexistent in condensed systems other than in association with other atoms or molecules. Indeed, transferring of protons between chemicals is the basis of acid - base chemistry. Also unique is hydrogen 's ability to form hydrogen bonds, which are an effect of charge - transfer, electrostatic, and electron correlative contributing phenomena. While analogous lithium bonds are also known, they are mostly electrostatic. Nevertheless, hydrogen can take on the same structural role as the alkali metals in some molecular crystals, and has a close relationship with the lightest alkali metals (especially lithium).
The ammonium ion (NH) has very similar properties to the heavier alkali metals, acting as an alkali metal intermediate between potassium and rubidium, and is often considered a close relative. For example, most alkali metal salts are soluble in water, a property which ammonium salts share. Ammonium is expected to behave stably as a metal (NH ions in a sea of delocalised electrons) at very high pressures (though less than the typical pressure where transitions from insulating to metallic behaviour occur around, 100 GPa), and could possibly occur inside the ice giants Uranus and Neptune, which may have significant impacts on their interior magnetic fields. It has been estimated that the transition from a mixture of ammonia and dihydrogen molecules to metallic ammonium may occur at pressures just below 25 GPa. Under standard conditions, ammonium can form a metallic amalgam with mercury.
Other "pseudo-alkali metals '' include the alkylammonium cations, in which some of the hydrogen atoms in the ammonium cation are replaced by alkyl or aryl groups. In particular, the quaternary ammonium cations (NR) are very useful since they are permanently charged, and they are often used as an alternative to the expensive Cs to stabilise very large and very easily polarisable anions such as HI. Tetraalkylammonium hydroxides, like alkali metal hydroxides, are very strong bases that react with atmospheric carbon dioxide to form carbonates. Furthermore, the nitrogen atom may be replaced by a phosphorus, arsenic, or antimony atom (the heavier nonmetallic pnictogens), creating a phosphonium (PH) or arsonium (AsH) cation that can itself be substituted similarly; while stibonium (SbH) itself is not known, some of its organic derivatives are characterised.
Cobaltocene, Co (C H), is a metallocene, the cobalt analogue of ferrocene. It is a dark purple solid. Cobaltocene has 19 valence electrons, one more than usually found in organotransition metal complexes, such as its very stable relative, ferrocene, in accordance with the 18 - electron rule. This additional electron occupies an orbital that is antibonding with respect to the Co -- C bonds. Consequently, many chemical reactions of Co (C H) are characterized by its tendency to lose this "extra '' electron, yielding a very stable 18 - electron cation known as cobaltocenium. Many cobaltocenium salts coprecipitate with caesium salts, and cobaltocenium hydroxide is a strong base that absorbs atmospheric carbon dioxide to form cobaltocenium carbonate. Like the alkali metals, cobaltocene is a strong reducing agent, and decamethylcobaltocene is stronger still due to the combined inductive effect of the ten methyl groups. Cobalt may be substituted by its heavier congener rhodium to give rhodocene, an even stronger reducing agent. Iridocene (involving iridium) would presumably be still more potent, but is not very well - studied due to its instability.
Thallium is the heaviest stable element in group 13 of the periodic table. At the bottom of the periodic table, the inert pair effect is quite strong, because of the relativistic stabilisation of the 6s orbital and the decreasing bond energy as the atoms increase in size so that the amount of energy released in forming two more bonds is not worth the high ionisation energies of the 6s electrons. It displays the + 1 oxidation state that all the known alkali metals display, and thallium compounds with thallium in its + 1 oxidation state closely resemble the corresponding potassium or silver compounds stoichiometrically due to the similar ionic radii of the Tl (164 pm), K (152 pm) and Ag (129 pm) ions. It was sometimes considered an alkali metal in continental Europe (but not in England) in the years immediately following its discovery, and was placed just after caesium as the sixth alkali metal in Dmitri Mendeleev 's 1869 periodic table and Julius Lothar Meyer 's 1868 periodic table. (Mendeleev 's 1871 periodic table and Meyer 's 1870 periodic table put thallium in its current position in the boron group and left the space below caesium blank.) However, thallium also displays the oxidation state + 3, which no known alkali metal displays (although ununennium, the undiscovered seventh alkali metal, is predicted to possibly display the + 3 oxidation state). The sixth alkali metal is now considered to be francium. While Tl is stabilised by the inert pair effect, this inert pair of 6s electrons is still able to participate chemically, so that these electrons are stereochemically active in aqueous solution. Additionally, the thallium halides (except TlF) are quite insoluble in water, and TlI has an unusual structure because of the presence of the stereochemically active inert pair in thallium.
The group 11 metals (or coinage metals), copper, silver, and gold, are typically categorised as transition metals given they can form ions with incomplete d - shells. Physically, they have the relatively low melting points and high electronegativity values associated with post-transition metals. "The filled d subshell and free s electron of Cu, Ag, and Au contribute to their high electrical and thermal conductivity. Transition metals to the left of group 11 experience interactions between s electrons and the partially filled d subshell that lower electron mobility. '' Chemically, the group 11 metals behave like main - group metals in their + 1 valence states, and are hence somewhat related to the alkali metals: this is one reason for their previously being labelled as "group IB '', paralleling the alkali metals ' "group IA ''. They are occasionally classified as post-transition metals. Their spectra are analogous to those of the alkali metals. Their monopositive ions are paramagnetic and contribute no colour to their salts, like those of the alkali metals.
In Mendeleev 's 1871 periodic table, copper, silver, and gold are listed twice, once under group VIII (with the iron triad and platinum group metals), and once under group IB. Group IB was nonetheless parenthesised to note that it was tentative. Mendeleev 's main criterion for group assignment was the maximum oxidation state of an element: on that basis, the group 11 elements could not be classified in group IB, due to the existence of copper (II) and gold (III) compounds being known at that time. However, eliminating group IB would make group I the only main group (group VIII was labelled a transition group) to lack an A -- B bifurcation. Soon afterward, a majority of chemists chose to classify these elements in group IB and remove them from group VIII for the resulting symmetry: this was the predominant classification until the rise of the modern medium - long 18 - column periodic table, which separated the alkali metals and group 11 metals.
The coinage metals were traditionally regarded as a subdivision of the alkali metal group, due to them sharing the characteristic s electron configuration of the alkali metals (group 1: p s; group 11: d s). However, the similarities are largely confined to the stoichiometries of the + 1 compounds of both groups, and not their chemical properties. This stems from the filled d subshell providing a much weaker shielding effect on the outermost s electron than the filled p subshell, so that the coinage metals have much higher first ionisation energies and smaller ionic radii than do the corresponding alkali metals. Furthermore, they have higher melting points, hardnesses, and densities, and lower reactivities and solubilities in liquid ammonia, as well as having more covalent character in their compounds. Finally, the alkali metals are at the top of the electrochemical series, whereas the coinage metals are almost at the very bottom. The coinage metals ' filled d shell is much more easily disrupted than the alkali metals ' filled p shell, so that the second and third ionisation energies are lower, enabling higher oxidation states than + 1 and a richer coordination chemistry, thus giving the group 11 metals clear transition metal character. Particularly noteworthy is gold forming ionic compounds with rubidium and caesium, in which it forms the auride ion (Au) which also occurs in solvated form in liquid ammonia solution: here gold behaves as a pseudohalogen because its 5d 6s configuration has one electron less than the quasi-closed shell 5d 6s configuration of mercury.
The production of pure alkali metals is somewhat complicated due to their extreme reactivity with commonly used substances, such as water. From their silicate ores, all the stable alkali metals may be obtained the same way: sulfuric acid is first used to dissolve the desired alkali metal ion and aluminium (III) ions from the ore (leaching), whereupon basic precipitation removes aluminium ions from the mixture by precipitating it as the hydroxide. The remaining insoluble alkali metal carbonate is then precipitated selectively; the salt is then dissolved in hydrochloric acid to produce the chloride. The result is then left to evaporate and the alkali metal can then be isolated. Lithium and sodium are typically isolated through electrolysis from their liquid chlorides, with calcium chloride typically added to lower the melting point of the mixture. The heavier alkali metals, however, is more typically isolated in a different way, where a reducing agent (typically sodium for potassium and magnesium or calcium for the heaviest alkali metals) is used to reduce the alkali metal chloride. The liquid or gaseous product (the alkali metal) then undergoes fractional distillation for purification. Most routes to the pure alkali metals require the use of electrolysis due to their high reactivity; one of the few which does not is the pyrolysis of the corresponding alkali metal azide, which yields the metal for sodium, potassium, rubidium, and caesium and the nitride for lithium.
Lithium salts have to be extracted from the water of mineral springs, brine pools, and brine deposits. The metal is produced electrolytically from a mixture of fused lithium chloride and potassium chloride.
Sodium occurs mostly in seawater and dried seabed, but is now produced through electrolysis of sodium chloride by lowering the melting point of the substance to below 700 ° C through the use of a Downs cell. Extremely pure sodium can be produced through the thermal decomposition of sodium azide. Potassium occurs in many minerals, such as sylvite (potassium chloride). Previously, potassium was generally made from the electrolysis of potassium chloride or potassium hydroxide, found extensively in places such as Canada, Russia, Belarus, Germany, Israel, United States, and Jordan, in a method similar to how sodium was produced in the late 1800s and early 1900s. It can also be produced from seawater. However, these methods are problematic because the potassium metal tends to dissolve in its molten chloride and vaporises significantly at the operating temperatures, potentially forming the explosive superoxide. As a result, pure potassium metal is now produced by reducing molten potassium chloride with sodium metal at 850 ° C.
Although sodium is less reactive than potassium, this process works because at such high temperatures potassium is more volatile than sodium and can easily be distilled off, so that the equilibrium shifts towards the right to produce more potassium gas and proceeds almost to completion.
For several years in the 1950s and 1960s, a by - product of the potassium production called Alkarb was a main source for rubidium. Alkarb contained 21 % rubidium while the rest was potassium and a small fraction of caesium. Today the largest producers of caesium, for example the Tanco Mine in Manitoba, Canada, produce rubidium as by - product from pollucite. Today, a common method for separating rubidium from potassium and caesium is the fractional crystallisation of a rubidium and caesium alum (Cs, Rb) Al (SO) 12 H O, which yields pure rubidium alum after approximately 30 recrystallisations. The limited applications and the lack of a mineral rich in rubidium limit the production of rubidium compounds to 2 to 4 tonnes per year. Caesium, however, is not produced from the above reaction. Instead, the mining of pollucite ore is the main method of obtaining pure caesium, extracted from the ore mainly by three methods: acid digestion, alkaline decomposition, and direct reduction. Both metals are produced as by - products of lithium production: after 1958, when interest in lithium 's thermonuclear properties increased sharply, the production of rubidium and caesium also increased correspondingly. Pure rubidium and caesium metals are produced by reducing their chlorides with calcium metal at 750 ° C and low pressure.
As a result of its extreme rarity in nature, most francium is synthesised in the nuclear reaction Au + O → Fr + 5 n, yielding francium - 209, francium - 210, and francium - 211. The greatest quantity of francium ever assembled to date is about 300,000 neutral atoms, which were synthesised using the nuclear reaction given above. When the only natural isotope francium - 223 is specifically required, it is produced as the alpha daughter of actinium - 227, itself produced synthetically from the neutron irradiation of natural radium - 226, one of the daughters of natural uranium - 238.
Lithium, sodium, and potassium have many applications, while rubidium and caesium are very useful in academic contexts but do not have many applications yet. Lithium is often used in lithium - ion batteries, and lithium oxide can help process silica. Lithium stearate is a thickener and can be used to make lubricating greases; it is produced from lithium hydroxide, which is also used to absorb carbon dioxide in space capsules and submarines. Lithium chloride is used as a brazing alloy for aluminium parts. Metallic lithium is used in alloys with magnesium and aluminium to give very tough and light alloys.
Sodium compounds have many applications, the most well - known being sodium chloride as table salt. Sodium salts of fatty acids are used as soap. Pure sodium metal also has many applications, including use in sodium - vapour lamps, which produce very efficient light compared to other types of lighting, and can help smooth the surface of other metals. Being a strong reducing agent, it is often used to reduce many other metals, such as titanium and zirconium, from their chlorides. Furthermore, it is very useful as a heat - exchange liquid in fast breeder nuclear reactors due to its low melting point, viscosity, and cross-section towards neutron absorption.
Potassium compounds are often used as fertilisers as potassium is an important element for plant nutrition. Potassium hydroxide is a very strong base, and is used to control the pH of various substances. Potassium nitrate and potassium permanganate are often used as powerful oxidising agents. Potassium superoxide is used in breathing masks, as it reacts with carbon dioxide to give potassium carbonate and oxygen gas. Pure potassium metal is not often used, but its alloys with sodium may substitute for pure sodium in fast breeder nuclear reactors.
Rubidium and caesium are often used in atomic clocks. Caesium atomic clocks are extraordinarily accurate; if a clock had been made at the time of the dinosaurs, it would be off by less than four seconds (after 80 million years). For that reason, caesium atoms are used as the definition of the second. Rubidium ions are often used in purple fireworks, and caesium is often used in drilling fluids in the petroleum industry.
Francium has no commercial applications, but because of francium 's relatively simple atomic structure, among other things, it has been used in spectroscopy experiments, leading to more information regarding energy levels and the coupling constants between subatomic particles. Studies on the light emitted by laser - trapped francium - 210 ions have provided accurate data on transitions between atomic energy levels, similar to those predicted by quantum theory.
Pure alkali metals are dangerously reactive with air and water and must be kept away from heat, fire, oxidising agents, acids, most organic compounds, halocarbons, plastics, and moisture. They also react with carbon dioxide and carbon tetrachloride, so that normal fire extinguishers are counterproductive when used on alkali metal fires. Some Class D dry powder extinguishers designed for metal fires are effective, depriving the fire of oxygen and cooling the alkali metal.
Experiments are usually conducted using only small quantities of a few grams in a fume hood. Small quantities of lithium may be disposed of by reaction with cool water, but the heavier alkali metals should be dissolved in the less reactive isopropanol. The alkali metals must be stored under mineral oil or an inert atmosphere. The inert atmosphere used may be argon or nitrogen gas, except for lithium, which reacts with nitrogen. Rubidium and caesium must be kept away from air, even under oil, because even a small amount of air diffused into the oil may trigger formation of the dangerously explosive peroxide; for the same reason, potassium should not be stored under oil in an oxygen - containing atmosphere for longer than 6 months.
The bioinorganic chemistry of the alkali metal ions has been extensively reviewed. Solid state crystal structures have been determined for many complexes of alkali metal ions in small peptides, nucleic acid constituents, carbohydrates and ionophore complexes.
Lithium naturally only occurs in traces in biological systems and has no known biological role, but does have effects on the body when ingested. Lithium carbonate is used as a mood stabiliser in psychiatry to treat bipolar disorder (manic - depression) in daily doses of about 0.5 to 2 grams, although there are side - effects. Excessive ingestion of lithium causes drowsiness, slurred speech and vomiting, among other symptoms, and poisons the central nervous system, which is dangerous as the required dosage of lithium to treat bipolar disorder is only slightly lower than the toxic dosage. Its biochemistry, the way it is handled by the human body and studies using rats and goats suggest that it is an essential trace element, although the natural biological function of lithium in humans has yet to be identified.
Sodium and potassium occur in all known biological systems, generally functioning as electrolytes inside and outside cells. Sodium is an essential nutrient that regulates blood volume, blood pressure, osmotic equilibrium and pH; the minimum physiological requirement for sodium is 500 milligrams per day. Sodium chloride (also known as common salt) is the principal source of sodium in the diet, and is used as seasoning and preservative, such as for pickling and jerky; most of it comes from processed foods. The Dietary Reference Intake for sodium is 1.5 grams per day, but most people in the United States consume more than 2.3 grams per day, the minimum amount that promotes hypertension; this in turn causes 7.6 million premature deaths worldwide.
Potassium is the major cation (positive ion) inside animal cells, while sodium is the major cation outside animal cells. The concentration differences of these charged particles causes a difference in electric potential between the inside and outside of cells, known as the membrane potential. The balance between potassium and sodium is maintained by ion transporter proteins in the cell membrane. The cell membrane potential created by potassium and sodium ions allows the cell to generate an action potential -- a "spike '' of electrical discharge. The ability of cells to produce electrical discharge is critical for body functions such as neurotransmission, muscle contraction, and heart function. Disruption of this balance may thus be fatal: for example, ingestion of large amounts of potassium compounds can lead to hyperkalemia strongly influencing the cardiovascular system. Potassium chloride is used in the United States for lethal injection executions.
Due to their similar atomic radii, rubidium and caesium in the body mimic potassium and are taken up similarly. Rubidium has no known biological role, but may help stimulate metabolism, and, similarly to caesium, replace potassium in the body causing potassium deficiency. Partial substitution is quite possible and rather non-toxic: a 70 kg person contains on average 0.36 g of rubidium, and an increase in this value by 50 to 100 times did not show negative effects in test persons. Rats can survive up to 50 % substitution of potassium by rubidium. Rubidium (and to a much lesser extent caesium) can function as temporary cures for hypokalemia; while rubidium can adequately physiologically substitute potassium in some systems, caesium is never able to do so. There is only very limited evidence in the form of deficiency symptoms for rubidium being possibly essential in goats; even if this is true, the trace amounts usually present in food are more than enough.
Caesium compounds are rarely encountered by most people, but most caesium compounds are mildly toxic. Like rubidium, caesium tends to substitute potassium in the body, but is significantly larger and is therefore a poorer substitute. Excess caesium can lead to hypokalemia, arrythmia, and acute cardiac arrest, but such amounts would not ordinarily be encountered in natural sources. As such, caesium is not a major chemical environmental pollutant. The median lethal dose (LD) value for caesium chloride in mice is 2.3 g per kilogram, which is comparable to the LD values of potassium chloride and sodium chloride. Caesium chloride has been promoted as an alternative cancer therapy, but has been linked to the deaths of over 50 patients, on whom it was used as part of a scientifically unvalidated cancer treatment.
Radioisotopes of caesium require special precautions: the improper handling of caesium - 137 gamma ray sources can lead to release of this radioisotope and radiation injuries. Perhaps the best - known case is the Goiânia accident of 1987, in which an improperly - disposed - of radiation therapy system from an abandoned clinic in the city of Goiânia, Brazil, was scavenged from a junkyard, and the glowing caesium salt sold to curious, uneducated buyers. This led to four deaths and serious injuries from radiation exposure. Together with caesium - 134, iodine - 131, and strontium - 90, caesium - 137 was among the isotopes distributed by the Chernobyl disaster which constitute the greatest risk to health. Radioisotopes of francium would presumably be dangerous as well due to their high decay energy and short half - life, but none have been produced in large enough amounts to pose any serious risk.
Lithium Li Atomic Number: 3 Atomic Weight: 6.941 Melting Point: 453.85 K Boiling Point: 1615 K Specific mass: 0.534 g / cm Electronegativity: 0.98
Sodium Na Atomic Number: 11 Atomic Weight: 22.98976928 Melting Point: 371.15 K Boiling Point: 1156 K Specific mass: 0.97 g / cm Electronegativity: 0.96
Potassium Atomic Number: 19 Atomic Weight: 39.0983 Melting Point: 336.5 K Boiling Point: 1032 K Specific mass: 0.86 g / cm Electronegativity: 0.82
Rubidium Rb Atomic Number: 37 Atomic Weight: 85.4678 Melting Point: 312.79 K Boiling Point: 961 K Specific mass: 1.53 g / cm Electronegativity: 0.82
Caesium Cs Atomic Number: 55 Atomic Weight: 132.9054519 Melting Point: 301.7 K Boiling Point: 944 K Specific mass: 1.93 g / cm Electronegativity: 0.79
Francium Fr Atomic Number: 87 Atomic Weight: (223) Melting Point:? Boiling Point:? Specific mass:? Electronegativity:?
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what are the ages of the jersey shore | Jersey Shore (TV series) - wikipedia
Jersey Shore is an American reality television series that ran on MTV from December 3, 2009 to December 20, 2012 in the United States. The series follows the lives of eight housemates who spend their summer together at a vacation home: in Seaside Heights, New Jersey in seasons one, three, five and six, and in South Beach, Florida and Florence, Italy in seasons two and four, respectively.
The show debuted amid controversy regarding its use of the terms "Guido / Guidette '', its portrayal of Italian - Americans and allegations of perpetuating stereotypes, as well as scrutiny from locals of the cast who were not residents of the area.
The show became a pop culture phenomenon, with classes and conferences at universities about the show, and journalists listing it as one of the most notable shows of the time. The Shore franchise spawned several international adaptations in other countries. Four of the Jersey Shore cast members received spin - off shows on MTV, with the most successful being Snooki & JWOWW. Most of the cast would go on to appear in other reality programs or receive their own shows on various networks.
On August 12, 2017, it was announced that the cast (with the exception of Ortiz - Magro, Cortese and Guadagnino) would reunite for a one - off television special not produced by 495 Productions called Reunion Road Trip: Return to the Jersey Shore, which premiered on E! on August 20, 2017. On November 27, 2017, MTV announced that the cast (with the exception of Giancola) would be reuniting in Miami, Florida for a new reunion series titled Jersey Shore: Family Vacation. The series is set to premiere globally on April 5, 2018. According to MTV, it is considered a new series and not the seventh season of the original show.
VH1 producer Anthony Beltempo proposed the idea of a show focusing on the "guido '' lifestyle for TV, in the form of a competition series. Executive producer SallyAnn Salsano, who previously worked on A Shot at Love with Tila Tequila, devised a new concept, inspired by her own summers in a Jersey summer shore house, and retained casting director Doron Ofir to find the cast. MTV Networks President Van Toffler felt that the series "loud, young, bold '' style was better suited to MTV 's sensibilities than VH1, and MTV programming executive Tony DiSanto felt that "(After The Hills), it was time to go for a more authentic approach, like a documentary. '' Van Toffler described the casting process by saying they looked for "candor, honesty, boldness and a very combustible, chaotic mess. You could honestly say none of these people were traditionally beautiful. ''
The series follows the lives of eight housemates spending their summer in a summer share in Seaside Heights, New Jersey, known as The Jersey Shore House. Season 1 followed cast members Angelina Pivarnick, Jennifer Farley, Michael Sorrentino, Nicole Polizzi, Paul DelVecchio, Ronald Ortiz - Magro, Samantha Giancola, and Vincenzo Guadagnino at the Jersey Shore. Jersey Shore premiered on December 3, 2009, with back - to - back episodes, averaging 1.375 million viewers. Although the initial ratings were considered unimpressive to Salsano, they slowly grew in popularity, and was the subject of parody on Saturday Night Live after the third week, a turnaround that MTV executive Tony DiSanto calls "the fastest 0 to 60 I 've ever seen on a show ''. Season 1 posted strong growth every week and ranked # 1 in its time period versus all cable competition among P12 -- 34 (people 12 to 34 years old) during the first quarter of 2010, with a season high 2.6 rating for the finale. The season 1 finale audience, 4.8 million, was more than triple that of the premiere, an increase of more than 3.4 million, and was MTV 's highest rated original series telecast in almost two years. Overall, the season 1 averaged 2.7 million viewers.
In an article in Rolling Stone, it was mentioned that the house had 35 remote - controlled cameras in fixed locations, 12 hand - held ones, one IMX camera and six DV cameras. Nicole Polizzi said that:
They have cameras everywhere, all the time... You 're always being watched. You kind of get a little paranoid, because you 're like, ' Who 's watching me? '... It 's trippy. it messes with your head. But that 's why we go crazy. That 's why we fight with each other. That 's why we drink. We 're living in a house for two months with that shit. We ca n't have cellphones, TV, radio or internet... There 's no normalcy. It 's like a prison, with cameras. The only time we 're not on camera is when we 're in the shower, and that 's why we all take three - hour showers, just to get away from it all.
After Season 1, the cast negotiated pay raises, though both they and DiSanto explained that it was not contentious, and was given undue weight by the press. Rather than wait until the next New Jersey summer for Season 2, the production moved to Miami.
In January 2010, MTV announced that a second season consisting of 12 episodes had been ordered and would air that summer. It would follow all of the first - season cast as they avoided the cold northeast winter by relocating to the South Beach, Florida. In May 2010 the cast relocated back to the Jersey Shore for the rest of filming, but it was later determined that the production company had enough footage from the Miami shoot to fill the entire second season, and that the footage to be shot at the Jersey Shore would be used for a third season. The second season premiered on July 29, 2010, averaging 5.252 million viewers. Season 2 was the # 1 television series in the P12 - 34 demographic for the summer of 2010 across all TV and has also posted continued growth every week.
On July 20, 2010, MTV announced that the cast would return for a third season, with the exception of Pivarnick. Season 3 returned to the original Jersey Shore summer setting, and replaced Angelina with Deena Nicole Cortese, a longtime friend of Polizzi. The season 's January 6, 2011 premiere was viewed by a record 8.45 million viewers, making it MTV 's most viewed series telecast ever. The second episode of the season once again set a series and MTV high at the time, with 8.56 million viewers, only to set another record with the airing of the fourth episode, which garnered 8.87 million viewers.
On January 25, 2011, it was confirmed that the show had been renewed for a fourth season, to be filmed in Italy during the first half of 2011. The fourth season premiered August 4, 2011. MTV confirmed in June 2011 that the fifth season would return to Seaside Heights.
Believed complications caused by Nicole Polizzi 's pregnancy, and several cast members (including Polizzi, DelVecchio, and Farley) receiving spin - offs sparked talk about the future of the series past the fifth season, however on March 19, 2012, MTV officially confirmed that the series would return for a sixth season, with all cast members returning. Filming for the sixth season took place in mid-2012, and featured Polizzi nearly eight months pregnant. MTV said in a statement, "While things will definitely be a little different this time when they hit the boardwalk, their trademark hilarity and family dysfunction will remain the same ''.
The Jersey Shore house is the name given to the house used on MTV show Jersey Shore. Located in Seaside Heights, the house was used during the first season, starting on December 3, 2009, and was used on the show in four out of the six seasons, the exceptions being season 2 (Miami Beach, Florida) and season 4 (Florence, Italy). Since the show 's cancellation, the house is currently being rented out for days at a time.
The house was characterized by its unique decor and the hot tub. During the filming of Jersey Shore, the house was decorated with Scarface posters and Cadillac symbols and wheels. The house is also home to the duck phone, a home telephone in the form of a mallard duck. All of the furniture that is seen on the show was brought in by MTV, including the hot tub, for which they needed a permit from Seaside Heights when filming.
When filming season three onward, the home was equipped with 35 remote - controlled cameras in fixed locations throughout the home and the camera crew consisted of twelve handheld cameras, one IMX Camera, and six DV Cameras.
On February 23, 2010, Amazon.com and MTV teamed up to release Jersey Shore on DVD. The title theme, "Get Crazy '' by LMFAO has been changed. Other songs have been changed since their original air date as well. A retail release by Paramount Home Entertainment with added commentary was released on July 20. Although it is claimed the DVDs are uncensored, the video and some audio is still censored. The DVD also includes special features include deleted scenes, the reunion special, "Tips From The Situation and Snooki '', "Before the Shore '', and the "Jersey Shore Makeover with Michael Cera '', amongst others. On December 28, 2010 the Season 2 Uncensored DVD was released. On July 26, 2011 the Season 3 Uncensored DVD was released. On December 27, 2011 the Season 4 Uncensored DVD was released. On August 28, 2012 the Season 5 Uncensored DVD was released.
A soundtrack to the series was released as Jersey Shore Soundtrack by MTV and Universal Republic on July 20, 2010. Aimed to create the perfect summer playlist, the album features songs from a variety of artists including Enrique Iglesias, Pitbull, Taio Cruz, Ludacris, Lil Jon, 3OH! 3, David Guetta, Fergie, Chris Willis, Girlicious and LMFAO as well as DJs like Deadmau5, Steve Aoki, Tiësto, Diplo, Paul Oakenfold and Delvecchio. A deluxe edition of the album was also released containing a bonus CD featuring songs inspired from the first season of the show, like LMFAO 's "Get Crazy ''. The first single off the album was Enrique Iglesias ' "I Like It '', whose video also featured the Jersey Shore cast. In September 2010, Matthew Wilkening of AOL Radio ranked Delvecchio 's rap song off the soundtrack, "(It 's Time to) Beat Dat Beat '', as the # 1 Worst Song Ever on the list of the 100 Worst Songs Ever; as a bonus, Wilkening used Delvecchio 's quote as the reason for the # 1 list: "Being a guido 's a way of life. I do n't represent all Italians, I represent myself. I started this whole GTL shit (Gym, Tan, Laundry). You have to stay fresh to death. ''
A quote book titled Gym, Tanning, Laundry: The Official Jersey Shore Quote Book (ISBN 978 - 1 - 4391 - 9682 - 3) was released by MTV on June 15, 2010. The book also includes a bonus DVD with the most memorable moments from season one of the show. A sticker book titled Jersey Shore Sticker Activity Book (ISBN 0 - 7666 - 3904 - 5) was also released on the same date, as well as a 2011 wall calendar (ISBN 0 - 7407 - 9797 - 2) by Andrews McMeel Publishing.
Other merchandise relating to the show have also been released, including talking bobblehead dolls of the cast, a beach game set, Halloween costumes, a "Gym Tanning Laundry (GTL) '' labeled sports bottle, "The Situation - Official App '' for iPhone, as well as various T - shirts.
The cast of Jersey Shore appeared on the 2010 MTV Video Music Awards on September 12, 2010. Nicole Polizzi appeared on TLC 's Cake Boss episode "Snookie, Super Anthony & a Ship '' on November 8, 2010, in which she orders a cake for her mom. Polizzi also appeared on the March 14, 2011 edition of WWE Raw as the guest host and she wrestled a professional wrestling match on April 4, 2011 at WrestleMania XXVII. Jennifer Farley and Angelina Pivarnick appeared on various episodes of TNA Impact in 2011. The cast of Jersey Shore appears on MTV 's Season 4 of Disaster Date, starring Jen Lilley, Lauren Zima, Cale Hartmann, Jason Karasev, Russell Pitts, Hasan Minhaj, Diarra Kilpatrick, and Kara Luiz. Angelina Pivarnick appeared in the show NY Ink in which she got a tattoo that shows her time in Jersey Shore.
University of Chicago and the University of Oklahoma are among the educational institutions that have had classes or conferences about the show. In 2010, the cast of Jersey Shore were named on Barbara Walters ' 10 Most Fascinating People list, and the series has since been exported to dozens of countries worldwide.
In 2010, MTV received criticism from Italian American organizations for the way in which they marketed the show, as it liberally used the word Guido to describe the cast members. The term "guido '' is generally regarded as an ethnic slur when referring to Italians and Italian Americans. One promotion stated that the show was to follow, "eight of the hottest, tannest, craziest Guidos '', while yet another advertisement stated, "(the show) exposes one of the tri-state area 's most misunderstood species... the GUIDO. Yes, they really do exist! Our Guidos and Guidettes will move into the ultimate beach house rental and indulge in everything the Seaside Heights, New Jersey scene has to offer. ''
Cast members Snooki and JWoww are not ethnically Italian. Snooki is Chilean, but was adopted as an infant by Italian American parents. Jwoww is of Irish and Spanish descent. Ronnie, Sammi, and Angelina are only of partial Italian descent: Ronnie is part Puerto Rican, Sammi is part Greek, and Angelina is part Polish.
Prior to the series debut, UNICO National formally requested that MTV cancel the show. In a letter to the network, UNICO called the show a "... direct, deliberate and disgraceful attack on Italian Americans... '' UNICO National President Andre DiMino said in a statement "MTV has festooned the ' bordello - like ' house set with Italian flags and green, white and red maps of New Jersey while every other cutaway shot is of Italian signs and symbols. They are blatantly as well as subliminally bashing Italian - Americans with every technique possible... '' Around this time, other Italian - American organizations joined the fight, including the National Italian American Foundation, the Order Sons of Italy in America and the internet watch - dog ItalianAware.
MTV responded to the controversy by issuing a press release which stated in part, "the Italian - American cast takes pride in their ethnicity. We understand that this show is not intended for every audience and depicts just one aspect of youth culture. '' Since the calls for the show 's removal, several sponsors have requested that their ads not be aired during the show. These sponsors include Dell, Domino 's and American Family Insurance.
In a February 2010 interview, New Jersey Governor Chris Christie called the show "negative for New Jersey '' because most of the cast members are not from the state. According to Christie, the program "takes a bunch of New Yorkers and drops them at the Jersey Shore and tries to make America feel like this is the real New Jersey ''. Governor Christie took action against the series by trying to encourage people to experience the real Jersey Shore for themselves rather than watch it through MTV: "I can tell people: They want to know what New Jersey really is? I welcome them to come to New Jersey any time. '' A Fairleigh Dickinson University PublicMind poll released in February 2010 showed that 59 % of Americans who had seen the show had a favorable view of New Jersey compared to only 44 % of those that had not seen the show. The FDU poll repeated the national telephone survey in 2011 and showed similar results. Consequently, poll director Peter Woolley concluded that "These measures... suggest the show is n't hurting the nation 's view of the state. In fact, it may be promoting one of the state 's best features -- not Snooki, but the shore itself. ''
Nonetheless, in September 2011, Governor Christie vetoed a $420,000 tax incentive awarded to the show by the New Jersey Economic Development Authority, stating: "As chief executive, I am duty - bound to ensure that taxpayers are not footing a $420,000 bill for a project which does nothing more than perpetuate misconceptions about the state and its citizens. ''
On April 7, 2011, MTV announced it had picked up two spin - off shows featuring cast members Nicole, Jenny and Pauly, picking up twelve episodes of each show. One show focuses on Nicole and Jenny living together in their own apartment and is titled Snooki & JWoww. The other show follows Pauly jet - setting around the country for various DJ gigs and is titled The Pauly D Project. Filming for both shows started at the end of 2011 and premiered in 2012. SallyAnn Salsano of 495 Productions (Jersey Shore) is the executive producer of both spin - offs. The Pauly D Project was cancelled after one season.
Eight official similar iterations have been made, including two in the United Kingdom, one in Spain, one in Russia, one in Poland, and one in Mexico. An international crossover, MTV Super Shore, was co-produced by MTV South Europe and MTV Latin America.
Numerous pilots were planned by various unrelated production companies focused on groups of friends in other locations or of specific ethnicities. Few made it to series.
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when calls the heart when do jack and elizabeth get engaged | When Calls the Heart - wikipedia
When Calls the Heart is a Canadian - American television drama series, inspired by Janette Oke 's book of the same name from her Canadian West series, and developed by Michael Landon Jr. The series began airing on the Hallmark Channel in the United States on January 11, 2014, and on April 16, 2014 on Super Channel in Canada.
The series originally debuted as a two - hour television movie pilot in October 2013, starring Maggie Grace as young teacher Elizabeth Thatcher and Stephen Amell as North West Mounted Police officer Wynn Delaney. In the television series Erin Krakow is cast as her niece, whose name is also Elizabeth Thatcher (played by Poppy Drayton in the movie), and Daniel Lissing plays a Mountie named Jack Thornton, with Lori Loughlin reprising her role as coal mine widow Abigail Stanton.
On April 24, 2017, Krakow announced via the Hallmark Channel website that the show would return for a fifth season. The season premiered with a two - hour Christmas special that was broadcast as part of Hallmark 's Countdown to Christmas event, and continues for 10 episodes which began February 18, 2018. On March 21, 2018, Hallmark renewed the series for a sixth season.
When Calls the Heart tells the story of Elizabeth Thatcher (Erin Krakow), a young teacher accustomed to her high - society life. She receives her first classroom assignment in Coal Valley, a small coal - mining town in Western Canada which is located just south of Robb, Alberta. There, life is simple -- but often fraught with challenges. Elizabeth charms most everyone in Coal Valley, except Royal North West Mounted Police Constable Jack Thornton (Daniel Lissing). He believes Thatcher 's wealthy father has doomed the lawman 's career by insisting he be assigned in town to protect the shipping magnate 's daughter. The town of Coal Valley was renamed Hope Valley in Episode 2, Season 2 after the coal mine was closed.
Living in this 1910 coal town, Elizabeth must learn the ways of the Canadian frontier movement if she wishes to thrive in the rural west on her own. Lori Loughlin portrays Abigail Stanton, whose husband, the foreman of the mine, and her only son -- along with 45 other miners -- have recently been killed in an explosion, which turns out to have been a tragic accident waiting to happen -- a result of the mining - company site manager 's irresponsible management and lack of due care in his management of the mine. The newly widowed women find their faith tested when they must go to work in the mine to keep a roof over their heads, food on the table, and compile a wage for the town 's teacher.
The series, originally planned to be filmed in Colorado, is filmed south of Vancouver, British Columbia, on a farm surrounded by vineyards. The fictional frontier town of Coal Valley was erected in late 2013. Some of the set trimmings and a stage coach came from the Hell on Wheels set. The Thatcher home is the University Women 's Club of Vancouver.
The series was renewed for a second season, which aired from April 25 to June 13, 2015. Hallmark Channel announced in July 2015 that the series had been renewed for a third season, which aired from February 21 to April 10, 2016, with a sneak peek airing during the 2015 Christmas season.
In mid-2016, it was announced that Season 4 would premiere on the Hallmark Channel Christmas Day with a two - hour special. On April 11, 2016, Lissing and Krakow announced via the series ' Facebook page that Hallmark Channel had renewed the series for a fourth season, which aired from February 19 to April 23, 2017.
Filming for season five began in Vancouver on August 22, 2017, and ended on December 21, 2017.
The first season of the series was subsequently picked up by CBC Television for rebroadcast as a summer series in 2015. The network has since aired the second and third seasons. The series became available internationally on Netflix in August 2017.
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who is the most recently appointed and confirmed associate justice of the u.s. supreme court | Associate justice of the Supreme Court of the United States - wikipedia
Associate Justices of the Supreme Court of the United States are the members of the Supreme Court of the United States other than the Chief Justice of the United States. The number of associate justices is determined by the United States Congress and is currently set at eight by the Judiciary Act of 1869.
Like the chief justice, associate justices are nominated by the President of the United States and are confirmed by the United States Senate by majority vote. This is provided for in Article II of the Constitution, which states that the president "shall nominate, and by and with the Advice and Consent of the Senate, shall appoint... Judges of the supreme Court. '' Although the Constitution refers to them as "Judges of the Supreme Court '', the title actually used is "Associate Justice '', introduced in the Judiciary Act of 1789. Associate justices were traditionally styled "Mr. Justice '' in court opinions, but the title was shortened to "Justice '' in 1980, a year before Sandra Day O'Connor became the first female justice.
Article III of the Constitution specifies that associate justices, and all other United States federal judges "shall hold their Offices during good Behavior ''. This language means that the appointments are effectively for life, and that, once confirmed, a justice 's tenure of office ends only when they die, retire, resign, or are removed from office through the impeachment process.
Each Supreme Court justice has a single vote in deciding the cases argued before it; the chief justice 's vote counts no more than that of any other justice. However, in drafting opinions, the chief justice enjoys additional influence in case disposition if in the majority through his power to assign who writes the opinion. Otherwise, the senior justice in the majority assigns the writing of a decision. Furthermore, the chief justice leads the discussion of the case among the justices. The chief justice has certain administrative responsibilities that the other justices do not and is paid slightly more ($255,500 per year, as opposed to $244,400 per year for each associate justice).
Associate justices have seniority by order of appointment, although the chief justice is always considered to be the most senior. If two justices are appointed on the same day, the older is designated the senior justice of the two. Currently, the senior associate justice is Anthony Kennedy. By tradition, when the justices are in conference deliberating the outcome of cases before the Court, the justices state their views in order of seniority. The senior associate justice is also tasked with carrying out the chief justices 's duties when he is unable to, or if that office is vacant.
Currently, there are eight associate justices on the Court. The justices, ordered by seniority, are:
Anthony Kennedy (1936 - 07 - 23) July 23, 1936 (age 81)
Clarence Thomas (1948 - 06 - 23) June 23, 1948 (age 69)
Ruth Bader Ginsburg (1933 - 03 - 15) March 15, 1933 (age 84)
Stephen Breyer (1938 - 08 - 15) August 15, 1938 (age 79)
Samuel Alito (1950 - 04 - 01) April 1, 1950 (age 67)
Sonia Sotomayor (1954 - 06 - 25) June 25, 1954 (age 63)
Elena Kagan (1960 - 04 - 28) April 28, 1960 (age 57)
Neil Gorsuch (1967 - 08 - 29) August 29, 1967 (age 50)
An associate justice who leaves the Court after attaining the age and meeting the service requirements prescribed by federal statute (28 U.S.C. § 371) may retire in senior status rather than resign. After retirement, they keep their title, and by custom may also keep a set of chambers in the Supreme Court building, and employ law clerks. The names of retired associate justices continue to appear alongside those of the active justices in the bound volumes of Supreme Court decisions. Federal statute (28 U.S.C. § 294) provides that retired Supreme Court justices may serve -- if designated and assigned by the chief justice -- on panels of the U.S. courts of appeals, or on the U.S. district courts. Retired justices are not, however, authorized to take part in the consideration or decision of any cases before the Supreme Court (unlike other retired federal judges who may be permitted do so in their former courts); neither are they known or designated as a "senior judge ''. When, after his retirement, William O. Douglas attempted to take a more active role than was customary, maintaining that it was his prerogative to do so because of his senior status, he was rebuffed by Chief Justice Warren Burger and admonished by the whole Court.
Currently, there are three living retired associate justices: Sandra Day O'Connor, retired January 31, 2006; David Souter, retired June 29, 2009; and John Paul Stevens, retired June 29, 2010. Both O'Connor and Souter occasionally serve on panels of the Courts of Appeals of various circuits. Stevens has not performed any judicial duties.
Since the Supreme Court was established in 1789, the following 101 persons have served as an Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States:
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what is the reason of war between saudi and yemen | Saudi Arabian - led intervention in Yemen - wikipedia
Ongoing
Saudi Arabia UAE Bahrain Kuwait Qatar (until 2017) Egypt Jordan Morocco Senegal Sudan Supported by: United States
United Kingdom (intelligence, logistical support, weapons, and blockade) Canada (weapons sales) Australia (weapons sales, joint - naval exercises) Turkey China (weapons sales) Germany (weapons sales) Logistical Support: Djibouti Eritrea Somalia France
In support of: Yemen (Hadi government)
Non-state co-belligerents:
Yemen (Revolutionary Committee / Supreme Political Council)
Salman bin Abdulaziz Al Saud Mohammad bin Salman Al Saud Lt. Gen. Muhammad Al Shaalan † Maj. Gen. Abdulrahman bin Saad al - Shahrani † Brig. Gen. Ahmad Asiri Brig. Gen. Ibrahim Hamzi † Col. Abdullah al - Sahian † Col. Hassan Ghasoum Ageeli † Lt. Col. Abdullah al - Balwi † Khalifa bin Zayed Al Nahyan Mohammed bin Zayed Al Nahyan Col. Mohammed Ali al - Kitbi † / Cmdr. Mike Hindmarsh Sabah Al - Ahmad Al - Jaber Al - Sabah Hamad bin Isa Al Khalifa Khalid bin Hamad Al Khalifa (WIA) Tamim bin Hamad Al Thani (until 2017) Abdel Fattah el - Sisi Omar al - Bashir Abdullah II Mohamed VI Macky Sall
Abdrabbuh Mansur Hadi Mahmoud al - Subaihi (POW) Gen. Ali Mohsen Al - Ahmar
Mohammed Ali al - Houthi (until 2016) Saleh Ali al - Sammad (from 2016) Hussein Khairan (until 2016) Mohamed al - Atafi (from 2016) Sharaf Luqman Ali Al - Jaifi † Hussein al - Ezzi
100 warplanes and 150,000 troops 30 warplanes and one brigade. 4 warplanes and 6,000 troops 15 warplanes 300 troops 15 warplanes 10 warplanes, 1,000 troops (until 2017) 4 warships, 800 troops and warplanes 6 warplanes 6 warplanes, 1,500 troops 2,100 troops
150,000 -- 200,000 fighters 200,000 -- 250,000
451 soldiers killed 10 captured; 2 aircraft lost; 9 helicopters lost 20 M1A2S lost 1 frigate damaged 120 soldiers killed 3 aircraft lost 3 helicopters lost 1 watercraft damaged (HSV - 2 Swift) 412 soldiers killed 8 soldiers killed 1 F - 16 crashed 4 soldiers killed 1 soldier killed 1 F - 16 shot down 1 F - 16 lost 16 foreign mercenaries killed (1 1 1 10 1 1
134 soldiers killed and 292 wounded (friendly fire) 164 soldiers killed
12,907 civilians killed (Including 1,980 women and 2,768 children) According to the Legal Center for Rights and Development. 8,670 (UN) to 10,000 (CFR) killed overall in the Yemen Civil War. 500 + Saudi civilians killed on the Saudi - Yemen border
Transition and AQAP campaign (2012 -- 13)
Houthi rebellion (2014 -- 15)
Yemeni Civil War (2015 -- present)
A military intervention was launched by Saudi Arabia in 2015, leading a coalition of nine African and Middle East countries, to influence the outcome of the Yemeni Civil War in favour of the government of President Abdrabbuh Mansur Hadi. Code - named ' Operation Decisive Storm (Arabic: عملية عاصفة الحزم Amaliyyat ' Āṣifat al - Ḥazm), the intervention initially consisted of a bombing campaign on Houthi Rebels and later saw a naval blockade and the deployment of ground forces into Yemen. The Saudi - led coalition has attacked the positions of the Houthi militia and loyalists of the former President of Yemen, Ali Abdullah Saleh, allegedly supported by Iran (See Iran -- Saudi Arabia proxy conflict), in response to a request from the internationally - recognized government of President Abdrabbuh Mansur Hadi. The perception that Iran is directly controlling the Houthis is contradicted due to statement made on April 2015, by National Security Council spokeswoman Bernadette Meehan: "It remains our assessment that Iran does not exert command and control over the Houthis in Yemen ''
Fighter jets and ground forces from Egypt, Morocco, Jordan, Sudan, the United Arab Emirates, Kuwait, Qatar, Bahrain and Academi mercenaries also took part in the operation. Djibouti, Eritrea and Somalia made their airspace, territorial waters and military bases available to the coalition. The United States provided intelligence and logistical support, including aerial refueling and search - and - rescue for downed coalition pilots. It also accelerated the sale of weapons to coalition states. US and Britain have deployed their military personnel in the command and control centre responsible for Saudi - led air strikes on Yemen, having access to lists of targets. Pakistan was called on by Saudi Arabia to join the coalition, but its parliament voted to maintain neutrality. On 21 April 2015, the Saudi - led military coalition announced an end to Operation Decisive Storm, saying the intervention 's focus would "shift from military operations to the political process ''. The kingdom and its coalition partners said they would be launching political and peace efforts, which they called ' Operation Restoring Hope (Arabic: عملية إعادة الأمل Amaliyyat ' I'ādat al - ' Amal). However, the coalition did not rule out using force, saying it would respond to threats and prevent Houthi militants from operating within Yemen. Qatar was suspended from the coalition due to the 2017 Qatar diplomatic crisis.
The war has received widespread criticism and had a dramatic worsening effect on the humanitarian situation, that reached the level of a "humanitarian disaster '' or "humanitarian catastrophe ''. After the Saudi - led coalition declared the entire Saada Governorate a military target, the UN 's Humanitarian Coordinator for Yemen and Human Rights Watch said that air strikes by the Saudi - led coalition on Saada city in Yemen were in breach of international law. On 1 July UN declared for Yemen a "level - three '' emergency -- the highest UN emergency level -- for a period of six months. Human rights groups repeatedly blamed the Saudi - led military coalition for killing civilians and destroying health centers and other infrastructure with airstrikes. The de facto blockade left 78 % (20 million) of the Yemeni population in urgent need of food, water and medical aid. Aid ships are allowed, but the bulk of commercial shipping, on which the country relies, is blocked. In one occasion, coalition jets prevented an Iranian Red Crescent plane from landing by bombing Sana'a International Airport 's runway, which blocked aid delivery via air. As of 10 December, more than 2,500,000 people had been internally displaced by the fighting. Many countries evacuated more than 23,000 foreign citizens from Yemen. More than 1,000,000 people fled Yemen for Saudi Arabia, Djibouti, Somalia, Ethiopia, Sudan and Oman. The war has caused a humanitarian crisis, including a famine which has threatened over 17 million people, as well as an outbreak of cholera which has infected thousands.
Abdrabbuh Mansur Hadi, running unopposed for president, won the 2012 Yemeni elections. The Houthis (or Ansar Allah), a Zaidi Shia movement and militant group thought to be backed by Iran, took control of the Yemeni government through a series of actions in 2014 and 2015. Saudi Arabia and other countries denounced this as an unconstitutional coup d'état.
In military operations on the ground, the Houthis were supported by sections of the Yemeni armed forces loyal to former president Ali Abdullah Saleh, who was removed from power as part of the 2011 Arab Spring uprisings. Houthi leaders claimed that Saudi Arabia was trying to break the alliance between the Houthis and Saleh 's supporters; reports claimed that Saleh 's son Ahmed Ali Saleh had traveled to the Saudi capital to attempt to broker a deal to end the airstrikes. Saudi media claim that Saleh or his son had approached Riyadh seeking such a deal.
By September 2014, Houthi fighters captured Sana'a, toppling Hadi 's government. Soon after, a peace deal (known as the Peace and Partnership Agreement) was concluded between the Hadi government and the Houthis, but was not honored by either party. The deal was drafted with the intent of defining a power - sharing government. A conflict over a draft constitution resulted in the Houthis consolidating control over the Yemeni capital in January 2015. After resigning from his post alongside his prime minister and remaining under virtual house arrest for one month, Hadi fled to Aden in southern Yemen in February. Upon arriving in Aden, Hadi withdrew his resignation, saying that the actions of the Houthis from September 2014 had amounted to a "coup '' against him. By 25 March, forces answering to Sana'a were rapidly closing in on Aden, which Hadi had declared to be Yemen 's temporary capital.
During the Houthis ' southern offensive, Saudi Arabia began a military buildup on its border with Yemen. In response, a Houthi commander boasted that his troops would counterattack against any Saudi aggression and would not stop until they had taken Riyadh, the Saudi capital.
On 25 March, Hadi called on the UN Security Council to authorise "willing countries that wish to help Yemen to provide immediate support for the legitimate authority by all means and measures to protect Yemen and deter the Houthi aggression ''.
Yemen 's foreign minister, Riad Yassin, requested military assistance from the Arab League on 25 March, amid reports that Hadi had fled his provisional capital. On 26 March, Saudi state TV station Al - Ekhbariya TV reported that Hadi arrived at a Riyadh airbase and was met by Saudi Defense Minister Mohammad bin Salman Al Saud. His route from Aden to Riyadh was not immediately known.
At a summit of the Arab League held in Sharm El - Sheikh, Egypt, on 28 -- 29 March, President Hadi again repeated his calls for international intervention in the fighting. A number of League members pledged their support to Hadi 's government during that meeting.
According to the Saudi news outlet Al Arabiya, Saudi Arabia contributed 100 warplanes and 150,000 soldiers to the military operation. Reuters indicated that planes from Egypt, Morocco, Jordan, Sudan, Kuwait, the United Arab Emirates, Qatar and Bahrain were taking part.
The UAE contributed 30 fighter jets, Kuwait sent 15 (understood to be three squadrons of F / A-18 Hornet aircraft), Bahrain sent 15, Qatar 10, Jordan and Morocco six each and Sudan four.
The operation was declared over on 21 April 2015.
On March 2015 in a joint statement, the member - states of the Gulf Cooperation Council (with the exception of Oman) said they had decided to intervene against the Houthis at the request of Hadi 's government.
The coalition declared Yemeni airspace to be a restricted area, with King Salman declaring the RSAF to be in full control of the zone. Saudi Arabia began airstrikes, reportedly relying on US intelligence reports and surveillance images to select and hit targets, including weapons, aircraft on the ground and air defences. Al Jazeera reported that Mohammed Ali al - Houthi, a Houthi commander appointed in February as president of the Revolutionary Committee, was injured and three other Houthi commanders were killed by airstrikes in Sana'a.
Strikes on 26 March also hit Al Anad Air Base, a former U.S. special operations forces facility in Lahij Governorate seized by Houthis earlier in the week. The targets reportedly included the Houthi - controlled missile base in Sana'a and its fuel depot. Strikes overnight also targeted Houthis in Taiz and Sa'dah. Thousands demonstrated in Sana'a against the intervention, which ex-president Ali Abdullah Saleh also condemned. In Taiz thousands came out supporting Hadi and Saudi Arabia.
The scope of strikes expanded further on 27 March, with a radar installation in the Ma'rib Governorate and an airbase in the Abyan Governorate coming under air attack. The commander of the operation dismissed reports of civilian casualties, saying airstrikes were being carried out with precision. Additional strikes early in the next day hit targets in Al Hudaydah, Sa'dah and the Sana'a area, as well as Ali Abdullah Saleh 's main base. Rumours indicated Saleh fled to Sanhan, on the outskirts of the Houthi - controlled capital. An Aden government official said Saudi strikes destroyed a long - range missile facility controlled by the Houthis.
The Houthis claimed to have shot down a Sudanese Air Force plane over northern Sana'a and captured its pilot on 28 March. The Sudanese government denied that any of its four warplanes had come under fire or been shot down. On the previous day, the Houthis claimed to have shot down a "hostile '' Saudi drone in Sana'a.
Airstrikes hit an arms depot, military airbase and special forces headquarters in Sana'a early on 29 March. A weapons depot outside Sana'a was destroyed, causing damage to an airport and planes on the ground. Sa'dah and Al Hudaydah were targeted as well. Brigadier General Ahmed Asiri, the coalition 's spokesman, said Saudi artillery and Apache attack helicopters were mobilised to "deter '' Houthi fighters massing on the border with Saudi Arabia.
On 30 March, at least 40 people including children were killed and 200 were injured by an airstrike that hit Al - Mazraq refugee camp near a military installation in northern district of Haradh, international organizations said. Airstrikes also hit areas near the presidential palace in Sana'a, as well as Aden International Airport.
Food storage of Yemen Economic Corporation in Hodeidah was destroyed by three coalition strikes on 31 March. Airstrikes were not limited to the Yemeni mainland. Missiles struck homes on the island of Perim, according to residents who fled by boat to Djibouti.
Dozens of casualties came from an explosion at a dairy and oil factory in Al Hudaydah, which was variously blamed on an airstrike or a rocket from a nearby military base on 1 April. Medical sources reported 25 deaths, while the Yemen Army said 37 were killed and 80 wounded. Airstrikes also hit targets in Sa'dah on 1 April.
Despite persistent airstrikes, Houthi and allied units continued to advance on central Aden, backed by tanks and heavy artillery. Houthis seized the presidential palace on 2 April, but reportedly withdrew after overnight air raids early the next day. Coalition planes also airdropped weapons and medical aid to pro-Hadi fighters in Aden.
The International Committee of the Red Cross announced on 5 April that it had received permission from the coalition to fly medical supplies and aid workers into Sana'a and was awaiting permission to send a surgical team by boat to Aden. The coalition said it had set up a special body to coordinate aid deliveries to Yemen.
On 6 April, airstrikes began before sunset and struck targets in western Sana'a, Sa'dah and the Ad Dali ' Governorate, a supply route for Houthis in the Battle of Aden.
Airstrikes on 7 April hit a Republican Guard base in the Ibb Governorate, injuring 25 troops. Yemeni sources claimed three children at a nearby school were killed by the attack, while six were injured.
The Parliament of Pakistan voted against military action on 10 April, despite a request from Saudi Arabia that it join the coalition.
Airstrikes launched on 12 April, against the base of the 22nd Brigade of the Yemeni Republican Guard in the Taiz Governorate struck both the brigade and a nearby village inhabited by members of the Al - Akhdam minority community, killing eight civilians and injuring more than ten others. On 17 April, both the GCC coalition 's spokesman called by Saudi broadcaster Al - Ehkbariya TV and a commander of the pro-Hadi rebels on the ground said airstrikes had intensified, focusing on both Sana'a and Taiz. One strike on the Republican Palace in Taiz killed 19 pro-Houthi gunmen.
Egypt and Saudi Arabia committed warships to support coalition operations. Somalia offered its airspace and territorial waters. Four Egyptian Navy vessels steamed toward the Gulf of Aden after operations began. Riyadh requested access to Somali airspace and waters to carry out operations. On 27 March, the Egyptian military said a squadron of Egyptian and Saudi warships took up positions at the Bab al - Mandab strait. The Saudi military threatened to destroy any ship attempting to make port.
The Royal Saudi Navy evacuated diplomats and United Nations staff from Aden to Jeddah on 28 March.
Witnesses told Reuters that Egyptian warships bombarded Houthi positions as they attempted to advance on Aden on 30 March. Warships again fired on Houthi positions at Aden International Airport on or about 1 April.
Djibouti foreign minister Mahmoud Ali Youssouf said the Houthis placed heavy weapons and fast attack boats on Perim and a smaller island in the Bab al - Mandab strait. He warned that "the prospect of a war in the strait of Bab al - Mandab is a real one '' and said the weapons posed "a big danger '' to his country, commercial shipping traffic, and military vessels. He called on the coalition to clear the islands, which he said included missiles and long - range cannons.
On 4 April, Egyptian President Abdel Fattah el - Sisi called protecting Red Sea shipping and securing the Bab al - Mandab "a top priority for Egypt 's national security ''.
On 15 April, coalition spokesman Saudi Brigadier General Ahmed Al - Asiri, said that the its warships were focusing on protecting shipping routes and screening ships heading to port for shipments intended for the Houthis.
The US Navy provided support to the naval blockade, halting and searching vessels suspected of carrying Iranian arms to the Houthis. On 21 April, the United States announced it was deploying warships to Yemeni waters to monitor Iranian ships. The US in particular noted a convoy of Iranian vessels, which US authorities said could potentially be carrying weapons to Houthi fighters in contravention of UN sanctions. The US reported that the Iranian convoy reversed course on 23 April.
Sudan said it was stationing ground troops in Saudi Arabia. The Special Forces of the Bahrain Defence Force, Taskforce 11, were also deployed to Yemen.
Between 31 March and April, Saudi and Houthi forces reportedly traded artillery and rocket fire across the border between SA and Yemen. A Saudi border guard was killed on 2 April, the campaign 's first confirmed coalition casualty. Followed by another two soldiers killed the next day. Two Egyptian truck drivers died by Houthi artillery shelling.
SA reportedly began removing sections of the Saudi -- Yemen barrier fence along its border with the Sa'dah and Hajjah governorates on 3 April. The purpose of the removal was not immediately clear.
On 12 April, members of the Takhya tribe launched an attack on a Saudi base after several of its members died in an airstrike. Weapons and ammunition were taken.
On 19 April, as Houthi leader Abdul - Malek El - Houthi accused SA of planning to invade Yemen, Asiri claimed that coalition forces had information regarding a planned Houthi incursion into SA. A Saudi border guard died on 19 April and two others were injured from gunfire and mortar shelling across the border.
On 21 April, the Saudi Defence Ministry declared it was ending the campaign of airstrikes because it had "successfully eliminated the threat '' to its security posed by Houthi ballistic and heavy weaponry. It announced the start of a new phase codenamed Operation Restoring Hope. In a televised address, Hadi said the end of airstrikes had come at his request and thanked the Arab coalition for their support.
Earlier that day King Salman ordered the Saudi National Guard to join the military operation. Air and naval strikes continued despite the announcement that Decisive Storm had ended.
Both the Omani and Iranian governments said they welcomed the end of airstrikes. On 22 April, Oman presented a seven - point peace deal to both parties. The proposed peace treaty entailed the reinstatement of Hadi 's government and the evacuation of Houthi fighters from major cities.
On 8 May, Saudi Arabia announced a five - day ceasefire set to start on 12 May, following heavy pressure from the US. Later in the day, Saudi airplanes dropped leaflets in the Saada Governorate warning of airstrikes throughout the area. Houthi spokesman Mohamed al - Bukhaiti later told the BBC that the ceasefire had not been formally proposed and the Houthis would not respond until a plan was properly laid out. A spokesman for the Houthi - aligned military announced agreement to the ceasefire plan on 10 May, although he warned that a breach of the truce would prompt a military response.
On 13 May, humanitarian agencies said they were trying to get aid into Yemen after a five - day ceasefire took effect on Tuesday night. Ships carrying humanitarian supplies docked at the Houthi - controlled Red Sea port of Hudaydah as planes were standing by to help evacuate the injured. Meanwhile, King Salman doubled his country 's Yemen aid pledge to $540 million, funds the UN said would "meet the life - saving and protection needs of 7.5 million people affected ''.
At the operation 's announcement, coalition leadership stressed that their campaign would attempt a political solution and that they would continue the air and naval blockade. However, airstrikes resumed almost immediately following the coalition 's announcement of the end of Operation Decisive Storm.
On 22 April airstrikes continued in Taiz, where an army base was hit shortly after Houthi fighters took it over, and Aden, where an airstrike targeted Houthi tanks moving into a contested district, among other locations, such as Al Hudaydah and Ibb. The Houthis continued to fight for territory, with a Houthi spokesman saying the group would be prepared for peace talks on the condition of "a complete halt of attacks ''. The previous round of UN-sponsored talks collapsed after Houthi rebels attacked Hadi 's residence in Sana'a.
By 26 April, coalition forces were striking what they described as Houthi military targets in Sana'a and Aden and in other locations, notably in Sa'ada province near the Saudi border, nearly every night. On 26 April, after midnight, airstrikes struck Houthi and pro-Saleh positions and targets in and around Sana'a, Aden, and the Ma'rib and Ad Dali ' governorates, backing up anti-Houthi fighters in the latter three locations, with more than 90 rebels reportedly killed. Coalition warships shelled fighters near Aden 's commercial port. Saudi warplanes also targeted Houthis in the Sa'dah Governorate, while Saudi artillery fired on targets in the Hajjah Governorate along the border. The Saudi National Guard was deployed on the border.
On 28 April, Sana'a International Airport was bombed by Saudi F - 15 fighters to prevent an Iranian plane belonging to Iranian Red Crescent Society (IRCS) from landing, while it was approaching to land. The fighters had warned the plane to turn back, in an unsuccessful attempt to thwart its landing, but the Iranian pilot ignored the "illegal warnings '', saying that, on the basis of international law, his plane did not need further permission to land.
On the night of 6 May 2015, the Saudi - led coalition carried out 130 airstrikes in Yemen in a 24 - hour period. At first, coalition spokesperson Ahmed Asiri admitted that schools and hospitals were targeted but claimed that these were used as weapon storage sites. Asiri later claimed that his words had been mistranslated. The United Nations humanitarian coordinator for Yemen Johannes Van Der Klaauw said that these bombings constituted a war crime. "The indiscriminate bombing of populated areas, with or without prior warning, is a contravention international humanitarian law, '' he said. He continued to say that he was particularly concerned about airstrikes on Saada "where scores of civilians were reportedly killed and thousands were forced to flee their homes after the coalition declared the entire governate a military target ''.
The Iranian Foreign Ministry summoned the Saudi chargé d'affaires, and the Iranian Parliament and the Iranian Red Crescent Society blasted Saudi Arabia for blocking Iranian humanitarian aid.
The UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA) "strongly urged '' the coalition to stop targeting airports and seaports so that aid could reach all Yemenis.
ICRC and Médecins Sans Frontières (MSF) said they were extremely concerned about damage to the airports at Sanaa and the port city of Hodeidah.
Overnight on 29 and 30 April, SA was reported to have airdropped arms to anti-Houthi fighters in Taiz. Later in the day, the Houthi 's announced the death of 1 soldier due to airstrikes on the local police station in Al Bayda, Yemen.
On 30 April airstrikes hit five provinces. New airstrikes hit SIA, completely halting aid deliveries.
Intense airstrikes on the Al Amar area of the As Safra District killed 1 Yemeni soldier and injured 6 others. Source also reported that there were several airstrikes on farms and buildings in the Sahar District.
On 6 May coalition airstrikes targeted the Police Training Center in the Dhamar Governorate, damaging nearby houses meanwhile the civil aviation authority announced it would re-open the airport to receive aid.
Coalition airstrikes targeted the houses of Saleh in Sana'a in the early hours of 10 May, eyewitnesses said. Khabar, a Yemeni news agency allied with Saleh said that the former president and his family were unharmed.
The Moroccan government said on 10 May that one of its General Dynamics F - 16 Fighting Falcon aircraft taking part in the air campaign went missing in action over Yemen, along with its pilot. The Houthis claimed responsibility, with Yemeni state TV broadcasting a report on the jet being downed by tribal militias over the Sa'dah Governorate and showing images of the wreckage.
On 18 May Saudi - led airstrikes reportedly resumed on Houthi positions after a humanitarian ceasefire expired late on Sunday. Three coalition airstrikes hit Sa'ada on Monday. Yemen 's exiled Foreign Minister Riyadh Yassin blamed the rebel group for the renewal of hostilities. Al - Arabiya said Saudi forces shelled Houthi outposts along Yemen 's northern border after the fighters fired mortars at a Saudi army post in Najran province.
On 23 May OCHA reported that airstrikes continued in the northern governorates of Sa'ada (Baqim, Haydan, Saqayn and As Safra) and Hajjah (Abs, Hayran, Haradh, Huth, Kuhlan Affar and Sahar districts). The road connecting Haradh and Huth districts was reportedly hit. Airstrikes were also reported in Al Jawf Governorate (Bart Al Anan district).
On 27 May airstrikes hit a police station in the capital, Sana'a, killing 45 officers. The Houthi - controlled Ministry of Health announced that in total, 96 people were killed.
On 3 June the residence of a Houthi leader in Ibb province was hit by an airstrike, according to eyewitnesses.
On 12 June Saudi jets bombed the UNESCO World Heritage Site of Sana'a Old City, killing at least six people and destroying some of the ancient buildings. UNESCO Director General Irina Bokova said in a statement that she is "profoundly distressed by the loss of human lives as well as by damage inflicted on one of the world 's oldest jewels of Islamic urban landscape ''. Locals also condemned the action.
On 23 September 2015, the Saudi - led coalition destroyed a ceramics factory in the town of Matnah. One civilian was killed and others were wounded. According to the BBC, the bomb is believed to have been produced in the United Kingdom by GEC - Marconi Dynamics. The factory 's owner Ghalib al - Sawary told the BBC: "We built it over 20 years but to destroy it took only twenty minutes. '' Campaigners say this attack was a violation of the laws of war.
On 26 October 2015 Doctors Without Borders reported that a coalition airstrike had completely destroyed the Médecins Sans Frontières hospital in Saada province 's Haydan governorate, including the operating room. When the first strike hit an unused part of the hospital the facility was completely evacuated, so there were no direct casualties. However, a spokesman for the coalition forces, Brig - Gen Ahmed al - Asiri, disclaimed responsibility for the attack. "With the hospital destroyed, at least 200,000 people now have no access to lifesaving medical care, '' MSF said. "This attack is another illustration of a complete disregard for civilians in Yemen, where bombings have become a daily routine, '' said Hassan Boucenine, MSF head of mission in Yemen. The GPS coordinates of the only hospital in the Haydan district were regularly shared with the Saudi - led coalition, and the roof of the facility was clearly identified with the MSF logo, he said. UNICEF said the hospital in Saada was the 39th health center hit in Yemen since March, when the violence escalated. "More children in Yemen may well die from a lack of medicines and healthcare than from bullets and bombs, '' its executive director Anthony Lake said in a statement. He added that critical shortages of fuel, medication, electricity and water could mean many more will close. Amnesty International said the strike may amount to a war crime and called for an independent investigation.
In February 2016, the Saudis bombed the ancient citadel of Kawkaban, killing seven civilians.
On 8 October 2016, Saudi - led airstrikes targeted a hall in Sana'a where a funeral was taking place. At least 140 people were killed and about 600 were wounded. According to The Independent, one rescuer said: "The place has been turned into a lake of blood. '' After initially denying it was behind the attack, the Coalition 's Joint Incidents Assessment Team admitted that it had bombed the hall but claimed that this attack had been a mistake caused by bad information. After this attack, US national security spokesperson said that the US government was "deeply disturbed '' by the bombing and added that US support for the Saudi - led coalition was "not a blank cheque ''. He added "we have initiated an immediate review of our already significantly reduced support to the Saudi - led Coalition. '' The United Nations humanitarian co-ordinator in Yemen Jamie McGoldrick said he was "shocked and outraged '' by the "horrific '' bombing. "This violence against civilians in Yemen must stop, '' he said.
On the night of 15 February 2017, the Saudi - led coalition bombed a funeral reception near Sanaa. Initial reports suggest the bombing killed nine women and one child with ten more women reported wounded. "People heard the sound of planes and started running from the house but then the bombs hit the house directly. The roof collapsed and there was blood was everywhere, '' a resident of the village told a Reuters news agency cameraman.
On 25 April MSF said that the town of Haradh, close to the border with Saudi Arabia, had been left a ghost town and that Saudi shelling killed 11 and injured more than 70.
On 26 April the Saudi government announced that the first National Guard units had arrived in Najran, in southwestern Saudi Arabia near the border. The same day, Al - Hamdan tribe attacked Saudi positions in Najran and reported several Saudi casualties with the Saudi Arabian Interior Ministry confirming 1 dead and 2 injured. Al - Hamdan tribesmen later retreated due to heavy bombings in the area.
In early May 2015 several dozen fighters arrived on the side of anti-Houthi defenders of Aden. The force was speculated to be advance ground troops from the coalition, but Hadi 's foreign minister said they were Yemeni special forces troops retrained in Gulf Arab countries and redeployed to assist anti-Houthi militants.
Houthi fighters again struck Jizan and Najran with rockets and mortars on 11 May, in response to Saudi bombardment of the Sa'dah and Hajjah governorates. Saudi Arabia said the shelling killed one and injured three others, including two expatriates.
On 11 May Saudi Arabia deployed a tank "strike force '' to its southern border hours after Houthis fired 150 Katyusha rockets and mortars on Najran and Jizan. Hadath TV broadcast footage purportedly showing columns of military trucks carrying tanks heading towards the Kingdom 's southern frontier. The Houthis went on to repeatedly attack Jizan during 2015.
On 6 June Houthi 's fired a SCUD missile into SA, targeting the King Khaled air base. SA announced that it had shot down the missile.
On the night of 8 July, an Arab Coalition bombing killed by error over 70 soldiers loyal to president Hadi. Another 200 were injured at the Hadramut province.
On 14 October, A Scud missile attack was launched by Houthis towards a base in Asir Province, Saudi Arabia.
On 22 December 2015, a Qaher - 1 missile attack was launched by Houthies towards an Oil company in Jizan, Saudi Arabia.
On 19 February 2017 a ballistic missile from Yemen hit a power facility in Jizan.
On 3 April, CNN cited an unnamed Saudi source who claimed that Saudi special forces were on the ground in and around Aden, "coordinating and guiding '' the resistance. The Saudi government officially declined to comment on whether it had special forces, with Saudi Ambassador to the United States Adel al - Jubeir saying on 2 April that Saudi Arabia had no "formal '' troops in Aden.
The Battle of Aden came to an end with pro-Hadi forces again seized control of Aden port and moving into the city 's commercial center. On 22 July, pro-Hadi forces had retaken full control of Aden, and the Aden Airport was reopened. In late July, an offensive launched by pro-Hadi forces drove Houthi forces out of the towns neighboring Aden.
On 4 September a Houthi OTR - 21 Tochka missile hit an ammunition dump at a military base in Safer in Ma'rib Governorate killing 52 UAE, 10 Saudi and 5 Bahraini soldiers. The Safer base was being built up by coalition forces for a push against Sanaa. "It was the deadliest single attack on coalition soldiers since the start of its operation against Houthi rebels in March '' Asseri said. The attacked was the highest casualty loss in the history of the UAE military. Qatar deployed 1000 troops to Yemen after the incident.
By 8 September it was reported that the Saudi - led forces deployed in Yemen exceeded 10,000 troops and included 30 AH - 64 Apache attack helicopters.
On 14 December media reported a Houthi & Saleh Forces missile attack at a Saudi military camp south - west of the besieged city of Taiz, while sources confirmed the killings of over 150 coalition soldiers including 23 Saudi troops, 9 UAE officers and soldiers, 7 Moroccan soldiers and 42 Blackwater troops.
On 19 December 2015, reported clashes leaves over 40 Houthi Rebels and 35 Government Loyalist dead and dozens of wounded on both sides.
Saudi Arabia faced growing criticism for the Saudi - led naval and air blockade, which effectively isolated the country.
A "military source and pro-Hadi militiamen '' told the AFP on 26 April that coalition warships were participating in the shelling of Aden.
On 30 April, the Iranian navy announced it had deployed two destroyers to the Gulf of Aden to "ensure the safety of commercial ships of our country against the threat of pirates '', according to a rear admiral. According to the same source, the deployment was scheduled to last until mid-June. Iran 's deputy foreign minister, Hossein Amir - Abdollahian, told state - run Tasnim News Agency that "others will not be allowed to put our shared security at risk with military adventures ''.
On 13 April 2015, HRW wrote that some airstrikes were in apparent violation of the laws of war, such as 30 March attack on a displaced - persons camp in Mazraq that struck a medical facility and a market. Other incidents noted by HRW that had been deemed as indiscriminate or disproportionate or "in violation of the laws of war '' were: a strike on a dairy factory outside the Red Sea port of Hodaida (31 civilian deaths); a strike that destroyed a humanitarian aid warehouse of the international aid organization Oxfam in Saada; and the coalition 's blockade that kept out fuel. On 30 June 2015, HRW reported that several airstrikes were in clear violation of international law. The report confirmed 59 (including 14 women and 35 children) civilian deaths in Saada between 6 April and 11 May. The report also highlighted attacks on 6 civilian homes as well as five markets that were deliberate attacks.
In February 2016, Amnesty International (AI) reported that it had investigated the circumstances and impact of more than 30 air strikes of the Saudi Arabia - led coalition forces in Sana'a, Hodeidah, Hajjah and Sa'da. They believed that the coalition was intentionally striking civilian targets. On 24 April 2015, Amnesty International said that airstrikes hit five densely populated areas (Sa'dah, Sana'a, Hodeidah, Hajjah and Ibb), and "raise concerns about compliance with the rules of international humanitarian law. '' Their research indicates that there were at least 97 civilian deaths, including 33 children, and 157 civilians were wounded.
According to Farea Al - Muslim, direct war crimes were committed during the conflict; for example, an IDP (Internally displaced person camp was hit by a Saudi airstrike, while Houthis sometimes prevented aid workers from giving aid. The UN and human rights groups discussed the possibility that war crimes may have been committed by Saudi Arabia during the air campaign.
U.S. Representative Ted Lieu has criticized the Saudi - led attacks on Yemen: "Some of these strikes look like war crimes to me, and I want to get answers as to why the U.S. appears to be assisting in the execution of war crimes in Yemen. ''
In March 2017, Human Rights Watch (HRW) reported that "Since the start of the current conflict, at least 4,773 civilians had been killed and 8,272 wounded, the majority by coalition airstrikes... Human Rights Watch has documented 62 apparently unlawful coalition airstrikes, some of which may amount to war crimes, that have killed nearly 900 civilians, and documented seven indiscriminate attacks by Houthi - Saleh forces in Aden and Taizz that killed 139 people, including at least eight children. ''
On 8 May, a spokesperson for the Saudi - led coalition declared the entire city of Sa'dah, with a population of around 50,000 people, was a military target. According to Human Rights Watch: "This not only violated the laws - of - war prohibition against placing civilians at particular risk by treating a number of separate and distinct military objectives as a single military target, but possibly also the prohibition against making threats of violence whose purpose is to instil terror in the civilian population. ''
Human Rights Watch compiled the names and ages of some of the people killed in Saada City between 6 April and 11 May. Of the 59 people they found information on, 35 were children and 14 were women. The organisation 's analysis of air - strike locations in Sa'dah showed that bombs fell across the city including near markets, schools and hospitals.
U.N. Humanitarian Coordinator for Yemen, Johannes van der Klaauw, agreed that the Saud - led coalition 's actions breached international humanitarian law. "The indiscriminate bombing of populated areas, with or without prior warning, is in contravention of international humanitarian law, '' he said. He added that he was concerned that "scores of civilians were reportedly killed and thousands were forced to flee their homes after the coalition declared the entire governate a military target. ''
Save the Children 's Country Director in Yemen, Edward Santiago, said that the "indiscriminate attacks after the dropping of leaflets urging civilians to leave Sa'ada raises concerns about the possible pattern being established in breach of International Humanitarian Law. Warning civilians does not exonerate the coalition from their obligation to protect civilians and civilian infrastructure, and we have seen in the last days that the warnings have not been enough to spare civilian lives. At the same time, people are largely unable to flee for safety because of the de facto blockade imposed by the coalition leading to severe fuel shortages. ''
Since the Saudi - led coalition began military operations against Ansar Allah on 26 March 2015, Saudi - led coalition airstrikes unlawfully struck hospitals and other facilities run by aid organizations, according to Human Rights Watch. Médecins Sans Frontières (MSF) medical facilities in Yemen were attacked four times in three months. On 26 October 2015, HRW documented six Saudi - led airstrikes which bombed a MSF hospital in Haydan district (Sa'dah Governorate), wounding two patients. An Saudi - led coalition airstrike then hit a MSF mobile clinic on 2 December 2015, in Al Houban district (Taizz). Eight people were wounded, including two MSF staff members, and one other civilian nearby was killed. On 10 January 2016, six people were killed and seven wounded when a hospital in Sa'ada was hit by a projectile. MSF said it could not confirm whether the hospital was hit in an air strike by warplanes of the Saudi - led coalition, or by a rocket fired from the ground, and at least one other landed nearby. On 21 January 2016, an MSF ambulance was hit by an airstrike. Seven people were killed and dozens were wounded.
MSF 's director of operations Raquel Ayora said: "The way war is being waged in Yemen is causing enormous suffering and shows that the warring parties do not recognise or respect the protected status of hospitals and medical facilities. We witness the devastating consequences of this on people trapped in conflict zones on a daily basis. Nothing has been spared -- not even hospitals, even though medical facilities are explicitly protected by international humanitarian law. ''
The Saudi embassy in London, in early February 2016, advised United Nations and other aid organizations to move their offices and staff away from "regions where the Houthi militias and their supporters are active and in areas where there are military operations ''. It claimed this was in order to "protect the international organizations and their employees ''. The UN refused to pull out the humanitarian aid workers and protested against the Saudi demands. On 7 February 2016, the UN humanitarian chief Stephen O'Brien wrote to Saudi Arabia 's UN Ambassador Abdallah al - Mouallimi, pointing out that Saudi Arabia is obligated under international law to permit access, and has "duty of care obligations under the conduct of military operations for all civilians, including humanitarian workers ''.
HRW declared, on 17 February 2016, that Saudi Arabia 's warnings to stay away were insufficient to fulfil their legal obligations to protect aid stations and their occupants. James Ross, Legal and Policy Director at HRW, said: "A warning is no justification for an unlawful airstrike. They ca n't shift the blame for shirking their responsibility onto aid agencies that are struggling to address a deepening crisis. ''
After an air - strike on an MSF hospital in the Hajjah province on 15 August 2016, MSF announced the pulling of their staff from Saada and Hajjah provinces affecting 6 facilities. The group also complained that the results of previous investigations into hospital bombings by the Saudi - led coalition were never shared.
In early May 2015, Human Rights Watch accused Saudi Arabia of using US - supplied cluster munitions on at least two occasions. The Saudi military acknowledged using CBU - 105 bombs, but it claimed they were only employed against armoured vehicles and not in population centers. Yemeni security officials claimed that cluster bombs were dropped in a civilian area of the Western suburbs of the Yemeni capital Sanaa. In an earlier statement, Saudi Arabia had denied that the Saudi - led military coalition was using cluster bombs at all.
Internationally outlawed cluster bombs supplied by the USA were used by the Saudi - led military coalition and wounded civilians despite evidence of prior civilian casualties, based on multiple reports issued by HRW.
On 8 January 2016, the UN Secretary General Ban Ki - moon announced that Saudi coalition use of cluster munitions could be a war crime. HRW condemned the Saudi - led coalition for the attacks saying: "The coalition 's repeated use of cluster bombs in the middle of a crowded city suggests an intent to harm civilians, which is a war crime. These outrageous attacks show that the coalition seems less concerned than ever about sparing civilians from war 's horrors. '' A week later, Amnesty International published new evidence that appeared to confirm reports of coalition forces using US - made cluster munitions on Sana'a on 6 January 2016.
In December 2016, a Saudi spokesperson admitted that at least some of the coalition 's cluster bombs were manufactured in the United Kingdom. British prime minister Theresa May refused to answer when asked in parliament when she first became aware that UK - made cluster bombs were being used.
Amnesty International has called on Saudi Arabia to destroy its stockpile of cluster bombs and accede to the International Convention on Cluster Munitions. It also asked the Saudi - led coalition to provide the United Nations with precise locations of cluster munition attacks. The coalition has yet to do so.
A UN panel of experts said in a report for the UN Security Council in January 2016, which was leaked to The Guardian, that the Saudi - led coalition had undertaken 119 sorties in Yemen that violated international humanitarian law. The panel said it had "documented that the coalition had conducted airstrikes targeting civilians and civilian objects, in violation of international humanitarian law, including camps for internally displaced persons and refugees; civilian gatherings, including weddings; civilian vehicles, including buses; civilian residential areas; medical facilities; schools; mosques; markets, factories and food storage warehouses; and other essential civilian infrastructure, such as the airport in Sana'a, the port in Hudaydah and domestic transit routes ''. The report said: "Many attacks involved multiple airstrikes on multiple civilian objects. Of the 119 sorties, the panel identified 146 targeted objects. The panel also documented three alleged cases of civilians fleeing residential bombings and being chased and shot at by helicopters. '' While the UN experts were not allowed on the ground in Yemen, they studied satellite imagery of cities before and after attacks, that showed "extensive damage to residential areas and civilian objects ''. The UN panel concluded that "civilians are disproportionately affected '' by the fighting and deplored tactics that "constitute the prohibited use of starvation as a method of warfare ''. The report said: "The coalition 's targeting of civilians through airstrikes, either by bombing residential neighbourhoods or by treating the entire cities of Sa'dah and Maran as military targets, is a grave violation of the principles of distinction, proportionality and precaution. In certain cases, the panel found such violations to have been conducted in a widespread and systematic manner. '' The report called for an international commission, set up by the Security Council, that should "investigate reports of violations of international humanitarian law and human rights law in Yemen by all parties and to identify the perpetrators of such violations ''. Saudi Arabia had previously objected to an inquiry being set up.
Five days after the release of UN Panel of Experts report on Yemen, on 31 January 2016, the Saudi - led Arab coalition announced it had formed "an independent team of experts in international humanitarian law and weapons to assess the incidents and investigate the rules of engagement ''. The coalition said the objective was to "develop a clear and comprehensive report on each incident with the conclusions, lessons learned, recommendations and measures that should be taken '' to spare civilians.
On 16 February 2016, Adama Dieng, the U.N. 's Special Adviser on the Prevention of Genocide, and Jennifer Welsh, the Special Adviser on the Responsibility to Protect, said in a joint statement: "We now expect that commitments by the Yemeni authorities and by Saudi Arabia to conduct credible and independent investigations into all alleged violations and provide reparations to victims will be swiftly implemented. It is imperative that the international community also gives immediate consideration to the most effective means of supporting this goal, including the possibility of establishing an international independent and impartial mechanism to support accountability in Yemen. ''
In September 2016, The Washington Post reported that Saudi Arabia "appears '' to be using US - made white phosphorus munitions against Yemen, based on images and videos posted to social media. Under US regulations, white phosphorus is only allowed to be used to signal to other troops and to reduce visibility in open ground, creating a smoke - screen. It is not to be used to attack humans as it burns human flesh down to the bone, which is considered excessively cruel. A United States official said the department was looking into whether the Saudis used white phosphorus improperly.
October 2017, A Yemeni citizen died under "severe torture '' inside a secret prison run by the United Arab Emirates in the south of Yemen. As videos showed, the body of Ahmed Dubba revealed disturbing signs of torture after it was released from Khanfar Prison. According to media reports, UAE forces in Yemen had carried out a detention campaign against religious scholars and preachers who opposed their presence in the country where prisoners were subject to physical and psychological torture. According to Yemeni rights group Sam, issue of secret prisons in Yemen had become a phenomenon.
The United Nations alleged that the Saudi - led coalition had committed a war crime because the bombing was a ' double tap ' attack. This is when the first bombing is followed by a second one soon after, which aims to attack the wounded, aid workers and medical personnel tending to them. The UN report said: "The second air strike, which occurred three to eight minutes after the first air strike, almost certainly resulted in more casualties to the already wounded and the first responders. '' Saudi Foreign Minister Adel al - Jubeir said that his government was being careful to abide by humanitarian law.
According to the Save the Children group, children have died as a result of Saudi Arabia delaying aid for Yemen by month.
The coalition accused Iran of militarily and financially supporting the Houthis. On 9 April U.S. secretary of state John Kerry said there were "obviously supplies that have been coming from Iran '', with "a number of flights every single week that have been flying in '', and warned Iran to stop its alleged support of the Houthis. Iran denied these claims.
Anti-Houthi fighters defending Aden claimed they captured two officers in the Iranian Quds Force on 11 April, who had purportedly been serving as military advisers to the Houthi militias in the city. However, this claim was not repeated. Iran denied presence of any Iranian military force.
According to Michael Horton, an expert on Yemeni affairs, the notion that the Houthis are an Iranian proxy is "nonsense ''.
According to the AFP, a confidential report presented to the Security Council 's Iran sanctions committee in April 2015 claimed that Iran had been shipping weapons to the Houthi rebels since between 2009 and 2013. The panel further noted the absence of reports of any weapon shipments since 2013.
On 2 May, Abdollahian said that Tehran would not let regional powers jeopardize its security interests.
According to American officials, Iran discouraged Houthi rebels from taking over the Yemeni capital in late 2014, casting further doubt on claims that the rebels were fighting a proxy war on behalf of Iran. A spokeswoman for the US National Security Council said that it remained the council 's assessment that "Iran does not exert command and control over the Houthis in Yemen. ''
On 6 May Iran 's supreme leader, Ayatollah Ali Khamenei, said, "The Americans shamelessly support the killing of the Yemeni population, but they accuse Iran of interfering in that country and of sending weapons when Iran only seeks to provide medical and food aid. ''
On 26 September 2015, Saudi Arabia announced that an Iranian fishing boat loaded with weapons, including rockets and anti-tank shells, was intercepted and seized in the Arabian Sea, 150 miles southeast of the Omani Port of Salalah, by Arab coalition forces.
The UK and the US support the effort through arms sales and technical assistance. France had also made recent military sales to Saudi Arabia. MSF emergency coordinator Karline Kleijer called the US, France and the UK part of the Saudi - led coalition, which imposed the weapons embargo and blocked all ships from entering Yemen with supplies. Rights groups have criticized the countries for supplying arms, and accuse the coalition of using cluster munitions, which are banned in most countries. Oxfam pointed out that Germany, Iran, and Russia have also reportedly sold arms to the conflicting forces. Tariq Riebl, head of programmes in Yemen for Oxfam, said, "it 's difficult to argue that a weapon sold to Saudi Arabia would not in some way be used in Yemen, '' or "if it 's not used in Yemen it enables the country to use other weapons in Yemen. '' Amnesty International urged the US and the UK to stop supplying arms to Saudi Arabia and to the Saudi - led coalition.
In March 2015, President Barack Obama declared that he had authorized U.S. forces to provide logistical and intelligence support to the Saudis in their military intervention in Yemen, establishing a "Joint Planning Cell '' with Saudi Arabia. This includes aerial refueling permitting coalition aircraft more loitering time over Yemen, and permitting some coalition members to home base aircraft rather than relocate them to Saudi Arabia.
US supported the intervention by "providing intelligence sharing, targeting assistance, advisory and logistical support to the military intervention '', according to the state department. In April 2015, the US expanded its intelligence - sharing with the coalition. Deputy Secretary of State Tony Blinken said: "As part of that effort, we have expedited weapons deliveries, we have increased our intelligence sharing, and we have established a joint coordination planning cell in the Saudi operation centre. '' Human Rights Watch (HRW) said that evidence shows that SA had been using U.S. - supplied cluster bombs outlawed in much of the world. According to Anthony Cordesman, the US government does not want "the strategic Bab - el - Mandeb strait '' to be threatened.
According to press reporting, many in US SOCOM reportedly favor Houthis, as they have been effective at combating al - Qaeda and recently ISIL, "something that hundreds of U.S. drone strikes and large numbers of advisers to Yemen 's military had failed to accomplish ''. According to a senior CENTCOM commander, "the reason the Saudis did n't inform us of their plans is because they knew we would have told them exactly what we think -- that it was a bad idea. '' As Yemen expert Michael Horton puts it, the US had been "Iran 's air force in Iraq '', and "al - Qaeda 's air force in Yemen ''. According to an Al Jazeera report, one reason for US support may be the diplomatic logic of tamping down SA 's opposition to the Iranian nuclear deal by backing them. Another is the view among some US military commanders that countering Iran took strategic priority over combating Al - Qaeda and ISIL.
Senator John McCain, the chairman of the Senate Armed Services Committee, praised the intervention, saying, "The prospect of radical groups like Iranian - backed Houthi militants '' was "more than (U.S. Arab allies) could withstand. ''
On 30 June an HRW report stated that US - made bombs were being used in attacks indiscriminately targeting civilians and violating the laws of war. The report photographed "the remnants of an MK - 83 air - dropped 1,000 - pound bomb made in the U.S ''.
U.S. Representative Ted Lieu has been publicly raising concerns over U.S. support for Saudi - led war in Yemen. In March 2016, he sent a letter to Secretary of State John Kerry and Secretary of Defense Ash Carter. He wrote in the letter that the "apparent indiscriminate airstrikes on civilian targets in Yemen seem to suggest that either the coalition is grossly negligent in its targeting or is intentionally targeting innocent civilians ''. Following American concern about civilian casualties in the Saudi - led war in Yemen, the US military involvement is mostly ineffective due to coalition 's airstrikes targeting civilian and hospitals.
In September 2016, Senators Rand Paul and Chris Murphy worked to prevent the proposed sale of $1.15 billion in arms from the U.S. to Saudi Arabia. The U.S. Senate voted 71 to 27 against the Murphy -- Paul resolution to block the U.S. -- Saudi arms deal. CNN 's Wolf Blitzer questioned Senator Paul 's reasoning during an interview, stating that cutting off military aid would hurt the profits of the arms industry. "So for you this is a moral issue, '' he told Senator Paul on CNN. "Because you know, there 's a lot of jobs at stake. Certainly if a lot of these defense contractors stop selling war planes, other sophisticated equipment to Saudi Arabia, there 's going to be a significant loss of jobs, of revenue here in the United States. That 's secondary from your standpoint? '' Following the vote, Senate Majority Leader Mitch McConnell said: "I think it 's important to the United States to maintain as good a relationship with Saudi Arabia as possible. ''
A March 2016 Human Rights Watch report states that U.S. participation in specific military operations, such as selecting targets and aerial refueling during Saudi air raids "may make US forces jointly responsible for laws - of - war violations by coalition forces ''. In September The Guardian reported that one in three bombing raids hit civilian sites.
U.S. government lawyers have considered whether the United States is legally a "co-belligerent '' in the conflict, but have not reached a conclusion as of September 2016. Such a finding would oblige the U.S. to investigate allegations of war crimes by the Saudi coalition, and U.S. military personnel could be subject to prosecution.
On 13 October 2016, the USS Nitze fired Tomahawk missiles at Houthi - controlled radar sites "in the Dhubab district of Taiz province, a remote area overlooking the Bab al - Mandab Straight known for fishing and smuggling. ''
In January 2017, Secretary of State nominee Rex Tillerson voiced support for the Saudi Arabian - led intervention in Yemen. U.S. Secretary of Defense James Mattis asked President Donald Trump to remove restrictions on U.S. military support for Saudi Arabia. In February 2017, Mattis wanted to intercept and board an Iranian ship in the Arabian Sea to look for contraband weapons, which would have constituted an "act of war ''. In April 2017, Justin Amash, Walter Jones and other members of Congress criticized U.S. involvement in Saudi Arabian military campaign in Yemen, highlighting that Al Qaeda in Yemen "has emerged as a de facto ally of the Saudi - led militaries with whom (Trump) administration aims to partner more closely ''.
On 13 November 2017, the United States House of Representatives passed a resolution stating the US involvement in Yemen un-authorized under legislation passed by Congress to fight terrorism.
In November 2017, U.S. Senator Chris Murphy accused the United States of complicity in Yemen 's humanitarian catastrophe.
In December 2017, Trump administration urged restraint in Saudi military action in Yemen, as well as Qatar and Lebanon.
The UK is one of the largest suppliers of arms to Saudi Arabia, and London immediately expressed strong support for the Saudi - led campaign. Six months into the bombing, Oxfam said the UK was "quietly fuelling the Yemen conflict and exacerbating one of the world 's worst humanitarian crises '' by keeping its arms pipeline to Saudi Arabia open; the Campaign Against Arms Trade (CAAT) agreed that "UK arms and UK cooperation have been central to the devastation of Yemen. '' In mid-September 2015, the deputy chief executive of Oxfam complained that the government even refused to reveal to Parliament the details of the 37 arms export licences it had granted for sales to Saudi Arabia since March that year. The attack on Yemen saw sales of UK bombs for 2015 increase from £ 9m to over £ 1bn in three months. Amnesty International and Human Rights Watch have shown that UK arms are being used on civilian targets. Furthermore, the UK government has been repeatedly accused of violating domestic, EU, and international law, in particular the Arms Trade Treaty, by maintaining its flow of weapons to the Kingdom.
Despite this, it was reported in November 2015 that the UK planned a number of high - level visits to Saudi Arabia over the following three to six months with the aim of securing major arms deals.
In January 2016, it emerged that UK military advisors were assisting Saudi personnel in the selection of targets. On 2 February 2016, the International Development Select Committee finally added its call for the UK to cease exporting arms to Saudi Arabia and to end its opposition to an independent international inquiry into the way the military campaign had been conducted thus far. The committee 's call went unheeded; indeed, just weeks later, on the day the EU held a non-binding vote in favour of an arms embargo on the country because of its destructive bombing of Yemen, Prime Minister David Cameron boasted about the "brilliant '' arms, components, and other military technology that the UK would continue to sell to Saudi Arabia, Oman, and other Gulf states.
Angus Robertson, the SNP 's Parliamentary Group Leader, said David Cameron should admit to British involvement in Saudi Arabia 's war in Yemen: "Is n't it time for the Prime Minister to admit that Britain is effectively taking part in a war in Yemen that is costing thousands of civilians lives and he has not sought parliamentary approval to do this? '' A few months later, leading American security expert Bruce Riedel noted: "If the United States and the United Kingdom, tonight, told King Salman (of Saudi Arabia) ' this war has to end, ' it would end tomorrow. The Royal Saudi Air Force can not operate without American and British support. ''
As well as supplying materiel and targeting support for the bombing of Yemen, the UK has assisted the coalition diplomatically. For example, the UK response, provided by Middle East Minister Tobias Ellwood, to the leaked report of a UN panel in January 2016, which documented more than one hundred instances of coalition air strikes that had violated international law, was to say that the Saudis had made "mistakes '' and claim that other cases may have been "fabricated '' by the Houthis.
Theresa May succeeded David Cameron as prime minister in July 2016, but maintained her predecessor 's policy because, she claimed, close ties with the Saudis "keep people on the streets of Britain safe ''. In September 2016, her foreign minister, Boris Johnson, refused to block UK arms sales to Saudi Arabia, saying there remained no clear evidence of breaches of international humanitarian law by Saudi Arabia in the war in Yemen, and that it would be best for Saudi Arabia to investigate itself. Amid reports from Yemen of famine conditions and "emaciated children (...) fighting for their lives '', CAAT observed that the notion of self - investigation would rightly never pass muster if it were proposed for Russia 's bombing in support of Assad in Syria. Indeed, in October 2016, Boris Johnson commended the notion of referring allegations of Russian and Russian - backed war crimes to the International Court of Justice. The previous month, Johnson had rejected a proposal for the UN Human Rights Council to conduct an inquiry into the war in Yemen. Furthermore, Britain blocked such an inquiry from taking place.
In October 2016, it emerged that the United Kingdom was continuing to provide instruction to pilots of the Royal Saudi Air Force, both in the UK and in Saudi Arabia.
On 22 November 2015, The New York Times reported the United Arab Emirates had contracted Academi to deployed 450 Colombian, Panamanian, Salvadoran and Chilean mercenaries to Yemen in October. Colombia Reports website reported that about 800 former Colombian Armed Forces members had signed up for three months of service in Yemen in return for $1,000 per week
On 9 December, Australian media reported an Australian mercenary commander was killed in Yemen alongside six Colombian nationals after Houthi fighters and Saleh army units attacked Saudi - led forces in the country 's south - west.
A Houthi spokesman stated on 28 April that the airstrikes had killed 200 members of all pro-Houthi forces since the campaign started. In addition, UNICEF reported on 24 April that the strikes had killed 64 children.
Between 26 March and 21 April, The New York Times confirmed 18 airstrikes that resulted in civilian casualties.
According to the United Nations, between 26 March and 10 May 2015, the conflict, killed at least 828 Yemeni civilians, including 91 women and 182 children. 182 were killed between 4 and 10 May alone, with most of those due to the airstrikes.
On 6 May HRW reported that an airstrike struck a residential home in Saada, killing 27 members of one family, including 17 children and on 26 May, 7 more members of the same family were killed in another airstrike.
On 27 May nearly 100 people were killed due to airstrikes hitting Sanaa, Sa'da and Hodeida in the largest ever one - day death toll throughout the conflict.
On 28 June a coalition airstrike hit and damaged the UN compound in Aden, severely damaging the UNDP building and injuring a guard.
On 30 June HRW released a report stating that coalition airstrikes on the northern Yemeni city of Saada, a Houthi rebel stronghold, had killed dozens of civilians and wrecked homes and markets. The group said it had documented a dozen airstrikes on Saada that destroyed or damaged civilian homes, five markets, a school and a petrol station although there was no evidence of military use. "Saada City 's streets are littered with bomb craters, destroyed buildings, and other evidence of coalition airstrikes, '' HRW 's Sarah Leah Whitson said in the report and later added. "These attacks appear to be serious laws - of - war violations that need to be properly investigated. ''
On 6 July airstrikes killed over 100 people including more than 30 civilians in Al Joob, Amran. The state - run news agency said that 40 had been killed in a raid on a livestock market in al - Foyoush. Local residents also reported 30 deaths in a raid they said apparently targeted a Houthi checkpoint on the main road between Aden and Lahj. They said 10 of the dead were Houthi fighters. MSF head of mission in Yemen said "It is unacceptable that airstrikes take place in highly concentrated civilian areas where people are gathering and going about their daily lives, especially at a time such as Ramadan. ''
On 25 July airstrikes killed over 120 civilians in the town of Mokha, marking the deadliest strike yet against civilians. The airstrikes hit workers ' housing for a power plant in Mokha, flattening some of the buildings, the officials said. A fire erupted in the area, charring many of the corpses. "It just shows what is the trend now of the airstrikes from the coalition, '' said Hassan Boucenine of the Geneva - based Doctors Without Borders. "Now, it 's a house, it 's a market, it 's anything. '' He added that many of the workers had families visiting for the Eid al - Fitr holiday at the end of the holy month of Ramadan. Mokha, populated largely by fisherman, had a reputation as one of the safest places in the country embroiled in war, said Boucenine.
On 18 August AI reported that it had confirmed 141 civilian deaths from eight airstrikes.
On 15 March 2016 Saudi - led airstrikes on a market in Mastaba killed at least 119 people, including 25 children.
The attack on 8 October 2016 killed 140 people and injuring 500 persons in one of the single worst death tolls in the two - year war. There are coalitions between Saudi Arabia and his allies in the subject. Also Uk is under pressure for exporting Lucrative Arms and weapons to Saudi Arabia.
On 11 September 2015, UN Human Rights Commissioner said that of 1,527 civilians killed between 26 March and 30 June, at least 941 people were killed by airstrikes carried out by the Saudi - led coalition.
On 24 August, the UN special representative of the secretary - general for children and armed conflict said, that of 402 children killed in Yemen since late March 2015, 73 percent were victims of Saudi coalition - led airstrikes. The UN also said at this time that an average of 30 people had been killed in Yemen every single day since the beginning of the war. On top of this, more than 23,000 had been wounded.
On 27 October, the OHCHR said that out of 2,615 civilians killed between 26 March and 26 October 2015, 1,641 civilians had reportedly been killed due to airstrikes carried out by the Saudi - led coalition.
The January 2016 report of a UN panel of experts, presented to the UN security council, attributed 60 percent (2,682) of all civilian deaths and injuries in the war since 26 March 2015 to air - launched explosive weapons.
On 1 February 2016 Reuters reported: "Mortars and rockets fired at Saudi Arabian towns and villages have killed 375 civilians, including 63 children, since the start of the Saudi - led military campaign in Yemen in late March, Riyadh said. ''
On 16 September 2016, The Guardian reported: "The independent and non-partisan survey, based on open - source data, including research on the ground, records more than 8,600 air attacks between March 2015, when the Saudi - led campaign began, and the end of August this year. Of these, 3,577 were listed as having hit military sites and 3,158 struck non-military sites... The UN has put the death toll of the 18 - month war at more than 10,000, with 3,799 of them being civilians. ''
In October 2016, a densely populated funeral in Yemen was struck, leaving at least 155 dead and 525 wounded, including the senior military and security officials of the Shia Houthi and loyalists of former president Ali Abdullah Saleh. The attack was reportedly carried out by Saudi Arabia. Saudi Arabia accepts the finding of the Joint Incidents Assessment Team, a setup of coalition states to investigate complaints against coalitions ' conduct in Decisive Storm, that coalition 's bombardment at a funeral ceremony in Sana'a, in which over 140 people were killed and more than 600 injured, was based on wrong information. Reportedly, the United States is reviewing its policy of support for the Saudi - led coalition. U.S. Secretary of State John Kerry sought assurances from Saudi Arabia that incidents such as the airstrike on a civilian funeral in Sana'a will not happen again. He proposed a cease - fire and a return to talks aiming for a political resolution of the conflict. Deputy Crown Prince Mohammed bin Salman said he hoped to institute a 72 - hour cease - fire as soon as possible, provided the Houthis will agree.
In 2015 Yemen was ranked 168th out of 180 countries in the Reporters Without Borders (RSF) Press Freedom Index. According to an annual round - up published on 29 December 2015 by RSF, six journalists in Yemen (out of 67 worldwide) were killed in 2015 because of their work or while reporting. According to the Committee to Protect Journalists, at least six journalists were killed in airstrikes by the Saudi - led coalition between March 2015 and the end of January 2016.
On 17 January 2016, the freelance Yemeni journalist Almigdad Mojalli was killed in an airstrike by the Saudi - led coalition in Jaref, a Houthi - controlled district in the outskirts of Sana'a. Mojalli had gone there, working for Voice of America (VOA), to interview survivors of air strikes in Jaref in which up to 21 civilians had been killed days earlier. Rory Peck Trust honored him as "key source of information for visiting journalists '' in Yemen. Daniel Martin Varisco, President of the American Institute for Yemeni Studies and Research Professor at Qatar University, said in an obituary that Mojalli 's work "was a voice documenting the humanitarian crisis that the world outside Yemen has largely ignored '' and a voice that "has been silenced ''. RSF, CPJ, International Federation of Journalists (IFJ), Yemen Journalists ' Syndicate (YJS) and UNESCO condemned Mojalli 's death. UNESCO Director - General Irina Bokova and RSF reminded all the parties to the armed conflict in Yemen that they were required to respect and ensure the safety of all journalists by UN Security Council Resolution 2222, adopted in 2015, and by the Geneva Conventions.
On 21 January 2016, the 17 - year - old TV cameraman Hashem al - Hamran was mortally injured by an air - strike by the Saudi - led coalition in the city of Dahian (Saada Governorate), when he was filming bombing raids for the Houthi - run television channel al - Masirah TV. He died from his wounds on 22 January 2016. The YJS, the IFJ and Irina Bokova, Director General of UNESCO, condemned the killing of Hashem Al Hamran.
The director of Yemen TV, Munir al - Hakami, and his wife, Suaad Hujaira, who also worked for the state - owned, Houthi - controlled broadcaster, were killed along with their three children by a coalition air strike on 9 February 2016. They were living in a residential area nowhere near a possible military target; the killing of the two media workers was condemned by the head of UNESCO.
In terms of "numbers of people in need '' the humanitarian crisis in Yemen was "the largest in the world '', according to the UN Security Council. In August 2015, the head of the International Red Cross said, "Yemen after five months looks like Syria after five years. ''
The U.N. human rights office reported more than 8,100 civilians were killed or wounded between 26 March and the end of 2015, the vast majority from airstrikes by Saudi - led coalition forces.
At the beginning of May 2015, the Office of the UN High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR) said, that there had been "severe destruction of civilian infrastructure, including houses, in many districts '' since 26 March. Severe damage caused by attacks on Yemen 's essential civilian infrastructure such as airports in Sana'a and Hodeida by the Saudi - led military coalition was obstructing the delivery of much - needed humanitarian assistance and movement of humanitarian personnel according to the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) and Médecins Sans Frontières (MSF).
In the first weeks since 26 March massive destruction of civilian infrastructure particularly happened in Aden and Sa'da, according to OHCHR.
In August 2015, air attacks of the Saudi - led coalition on port facilities at Al - Hudaydah "in clear contravention of international humanitarian law '', said Under - Secretary - General for Humanitarian Affairs and Emergency Relief Coordinator Stephen O'Brien.
In mid-February 2016, Stephen O'Brien said the situation in Yemen was a "humanitarian catastrophe '', with 21 million people in need of some kind of aid, 7.6 million people "severely food - insecure '', and over 3.4 million children out of school. O'Brien noted the situation had not been helped by the diversion of an aid vessel by coalition forces.
On 26 March, Interior Ministry officials linked to Ansar Allah documented that 23 civilians had been killed and 24 wounded. Among the dead were 5 children, ages 2 to 13, 6 women and an elderly man. The wounded included 12 children, ages 3 to 8, and 2 women due to airstrike against Sana'a particularly in Bani Hawat, a predominantly Houthi neighborhood near Sanaa 's airports and al - Nasr, near the presidential palace. HRW documented the deaths of 11 civilians, including 2 women and 2 children, other than those provided by the Yemeni officials along with 14 more wounded, including 3 children and 1 woman. According to AI, that bombing destroyed at least 14 homes in Bani Hawat.
On 31 March, OCHA reported that 13 of 22 Governorates were affected and highlighted infrastructure effects that detailed coalition bombing of a refugee camp that killed 29 and injured 40. Fuel shortages in the south threatened water access to citizens and in Lahj, electricity and water services had not been functioning for several days. Later that day, AI reported that at least six civilians, including four children, were burned to death as a result of an airstrike. It reported that two fuel stations were destroyed. In al - Kadima area in al - Kita, several passengers were killed in a car that had stopped to refuel and a worker was injured. The third strike, apparently aimed at a passing fuel tanker, set fire to at least three civilian homes. AI then stated that "it is becoming increasingly apparent that the Saudi Arabian - led coalition is turning a blind eye to civilian deaths and suffering caused by its military intervention. ''
On 17 April, OCHA reported on the increasing deterioration of the humanitarian situation, reporting airstrikes hitting in Saada City a water tank, the electricity station, a petrol station, a plastics processing factory, a shopping centre and a housing complex. Several days earlier, airstrikes had hit private homes, the post office, a community centre, government offices, markets and vehicles. Local partners estimated about 50 dead within the past week. In Sana'a residential neighborhoods near Assir, Ayban and Faj Attan were affected due to their proximity to military camps. In Amran, airstrikes hit a petrol station, an educational institute and a bridge. According to local reports, a local water corporation in Hajjah (Abbs District) was hit. The report also stated that civilian casualties were under - reported as families without access to hospitals bury their members at home.
On 20 April coalition airstrikes hit the Fajj Atan military base, causing a large explosion that killed 38 civilians and injured over 500. The airstrike also targeted the office of Yemen Today, a TV network owned by Ali Abdullah Saleh, killing three and injuring other workers. An eye witness reported that emergency rooms were overwhelmed. The head of the ICRC in Yemen later clarified that 90 people had died during this attack.
On 21 April the BBC reported a warning from the UN about worsening health services and a dire need for medicines.
On 24 April UNICEF released a report stating that since the start of the military intervention, 115 children had been killed, with at least 64 from aerial bombardment.
According to OCHA 's fifth report, released on 26 April, humanitarian operations would come to a complete halt within two weeks and hospitals in both Sanaa and Aden would close completely due to the lack of fuel. The lack of fuel affected water supplies. Markets in affected governorates are not able to provide food, with wheat grain and flour prices rising by 42 % and 44 %, respectively. The healthcare system faced an imminent collapse with hospitals struggling to operate due to lack of medicines and supplies. Essential medicine prices increased by 300 %.
Casualties from 19 March to 22 April reached 1,080 (28 children and 48 women) and 4,352 wounded (80 children and 143 women). According to the WFP, 12 million people were food insecure, a 13 % rise.
On 29 April OCHA reported that airstrikes hit SIA on 28 April, damaging the runway and hampering aid deliveries. Airstrikes were also reported at Al Hudayda Airport and Saada. Widespread internet and phone disruptions were reported in several governorates due to the lack of fuel and electricity. On 25 April, the Yemen Public Telecommunications Corporation warned that unless the fuel crisis was resolved, telecommunication services (mobile phones, internet, and land lines) would shut down within a week. The disruption in communication was affecting information flow on humanitarian needs and operations. On 29 April, Haradh was heavily bombarded, including areas near the main hospital. Food distribution and aid would reportedly stop within a week if additional fuel could not be obtained. As of 29 April the Al Hudaydah Governorate ran out of fuel and aid operations could not be completed.
On 30 April OCHA 's Flash Update 22 reported that airstrikes hit the only main roads that connect the Sana'a Governorate with Ibb. It also indicated that over 3,410 people from Yemen had arrived in Somalia since the fighting escalated, with 2,285 arrivals registered in Puntland and 1,125 registered in the Somaliland. A further 8,900 migrants were registered in Djibouti, 4,700 of whom were third country nationals.
On 4 May coalition airstrikes hit SIA, destroying a cargo ship and other planes used to transport food and supplies. OCHA reported that several airstrikes hit the Al Hudayda airport and surrounding areas in Al Hudayda City. In Aden, the districts of Craiter and Al - Muala were without electricity, water and telecommunication for over a week according to residents.
On 5 May, in order to send humanitarian aid, van der Klaauw haggled with the coalition to stop bombing SIA. He emphasized the effects on persons with disabilities stating that over 3,000,000 people with disabilities could not meet their basic needs. The conflict forced more than 300 centres to close. He added that they were especially concerned about an airstrike that targeted a military field hospital.
On 6 May, the OCHA reported lack of fuel to support humanitarian operations beyond one week, with fuel and food prices continuing to increase. The World Food Programme declared that shortages of fuel has changed to a serious threat for hospitals and food supplies. Edward Santiago, country director for Save the Children, said in statement a short time ceasefire is not enough to allow for humanitarian supplies.
On 7 May, trade sources stated that merchant ships had been delayed weeks Yemen and in one case, following inspection and approval, a food supply ship was denied access. The food crisis increased to include over 20 million people (80 % of the population) going hungry. Airstrikes destroyed a mine factory and a communications center. Local sources reported that 13 villagers were killed due to shelling near the border.
On 18 May, HRW documented airstrikes that hit homes and markets and killed and wounded civilians. HRW documented the bombing of four markets.
On 21 May, OCHA reported airstrikes that hit two farms adjacent to a humanitarian facility in Hajjah Governorate and resulted in civilian casualties. A warehouse containing humanitarian supplies was damaged in another strike. In Sa'adah City, satellite imagery analysis identified widespread damage to infrastructure with 1,171 structures affected, damaged or destroyed. The analysis showed that as of 17 May, 35 impact craters existed within the city, mostly along the runway of Sa'ada airport. Similar imagery of Aden identified 642 affected structures, including 327 destroyed. Local partners reported that 674 schools were forced to close in Sana'a, affecting 551,000 students.
Fuel prices increased by over 500 % and food supplies by 80 % since 26 March. The continued restrictions on the arrival of goods via air and sea ports, and insecurity on roads, restricted the delivery of essential supplies. In Sana'a, security concerns due to airstrikes prevented delivery of food assistance.
On 21 May, five Ethiopian migrants were killed and two others injured in an airstrike that hit open space 500 metres from an IOM - managed Migrant Response Centre. With continued conflict and import restrictions, Emergency (IPC Phase 4) outcomes were likely in the coming month. In six governorates, reports from OCHA partners show that basic food items are no longer available (Aden, Abyan, Al Dhale'e, Al Bayda, Lahj, Sa'ada).
On 3 June, The Operations Room of the Ministry of Health in Sana'a was damaged. It manages emergency operations nationwide.
On 5 June, the Washington Post reported that several Yemeni cultural and heritage strikes had been repeatedly targeted by Saudi airstrikes. Reports stated that Al - Qahira Castle, the 1,200 - year - old al - Hadi Mosque and Dhamar Museum with over 12,500 artifacts were destroyed and the Great Dam of Marib was hit.
On 17 June, an OCHA report highlighted that food security had continued to worsen, with 19 out of 22 governorates now classified ' crisis ' or ' emergency '. Half the population was ' food insecure ' and nearly a quarter ' severely food insecure. A joint analysis of household food security by the UN Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) WFP and the Ministry of Planning and International Cooperation in Yemen (MoPIC) found that Yemen was sliding into catastrophe. More than six million Yemenis were then in a Phase 4 Emergency, and nearly 6.9 million people are in a Phase 3 Crisis: These figures indicate that Yemen was approaching a complete breakdown in food security and health.
On 26 July, the OCHA announced that airstrikes hit the residential complex of the Al Mukha Power Station in Al Mukha District, Taiz Governorate with health facilities reporting 55 deaths and 96 injuries and media reports as high as 120, all civilians.
On 27 August, the OCHA announced that airstrikes targeting that Al - Hudaydah port facilities late on 17 August and early 18 August had brought the port activities to a near halt and that the port was empty of all vessels and remained non-operational. A UN-chartered aid vessel carrying 2,230 MT of mixed food commodities left the port and was rerouted to Djibouti.
On 5 January 2016, an airstrike by the Saudi - led military coalition hit the Al Noor Center for Care and Rehabilitation of Blind, in the Safiah district of Sana'a, the capital 's only center, school, and home for people with visual disabilities. Five people were injured. Human Rights Watch and media reported, if the bomb had exploded, the damage would have been much worse. Human Rights Watch blamed both the Saudi - led coalition for hitting civilian targets and the Houthi militants battling the coalition. HRW said Houthi militants were partially to blame for using civilian sites for military purposes. Armed Houthis were stationed near the Al Noor center, putting the students at risk.
On 20 April 2016 the UN General Assembly Security Council in a report covering the period January to December 2015 "verified a sixfold increase in the number of children killed and maimed compared with 2014, totalling 1,953 child casualties (785 children killed and 1,168 injured). More than 70 per cent were boys. Of the casualties, 60 per cent (510 deaths and 667 injuries) were attributed to the Saudi Arabia - led coalition. ''
The last attack on 8 October 2016 led to kill 140 people and injuring 500 persons in one of the single worst death tolls in the two - year war. There are coalitions between Saudi Arabia and his allies in the subject. Also, the United Kingdom is under pressure for exporting Lucrative Arms and weapons to Saudi Arabia.
Saada was the governorate of origin of 500,794 IDPs (out of 2,509,068 in total) as of December 2015.
On 18 April, an airstrike in Saada hit an Oxfam warehouse, damaging humanitarian supplies and killing at least one civilian. Aid groups widely condemned the strike.
On 8 and 9 May 2015, large - scale displacement was reported in Saada to neighbouring areas, after the Saudi - led military coalition declared the entire Saada governorate a "military zone '' and started heavy airstrikes. Around 70,000 people, including 28,000 children, fled from the Governorate of Sa'ada. The Save the Children 's Country Director in Yemen, Edward Santiago, said that many more were "largely unable to flee for safety because of the de facto blockade imposed by the coalition leading to severe fuel shortages ''. On 9 May 2015, the U.N. Humanitarian Coordinator for Yemen, Johannes van der Klaauw, condemned the air strikes on Saada city as being in breach of international humanitarian law.
In August 2015 the Agency for Technical Cooperation and Development (ACTED) reported that "the crisis has taken an immeasurably heavy toll on civilians in this poor, rural governorate, causing death, injury and frequent damage and destruction of infrastructure. ''
In January 2016 the Houthi - controlled Saada area, including medical facilities run by Médecins Sans Frontières (MSF), received almost daily attacks. Michael Seawright, a Saada - based MSF project coordinator, said that they treated a high number of casualties, many with severe injuries. The Shiara hospital in Razeh District in Saada City, the only hospital with a trauma centre in the governorate of Saada and in most of northern Yemen, was hit on 10 January, and several people were killed, including medical personnel. MSF had been working in the facility since November 2015.
457.502 IDPs (out of 2,509,068 in total) originated from Sana'a Governorate and Sana'a city as of December 2015.
After the Old City of Sana'a was heavily bombed in May 2015, causing severe damage to many of its historic buildings, Director - General of UNESCO, Irina Bokova, said "I am particularly distressed by the news concerning air strikes on heavily populated areas such as the cities of Sana'a and Saa'dah. ''
Following a surge in aerial bombing raids in the Old City of Sana'a in June 2015, the UN warned, that the country 's extensive archaeological and historic heritage had been increasingly under threat. In July 2015, the Old City of Sana'a, which had sustained serious damage due to armed conflict, was added to List of World Heritage in Danger.
On 6 September 2015, Al Sabaeen paediatric hospital in Sana'a had to be evacuated after a nearby airstrike. The United Nations ' Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (UN-OCHA) described the event as "a severe blow to a tattered health system ''. Before its closure the Al Sabaeen paediatric hospital -- standing amid bombed out buildings in the center of Sana'a -- had been the primary paediatric hospital in the area. "Before the crisis it had a catchment population of about 300,000; but, since the crisis that number has risen to almost 3 million, with the entire governorate reliant on it for specialist care, '' said Save the Children spokesperson Mark Kaye.
A joint report by the UK - based charity Action on Armed Violence (AOAV) and the UN-OCHA, that concluded that airstrikes were responsible for 60 percent of civilian casualties in the first seven months of 2015, came to the result, that more than half (53 per cent) of the reported civilian toll was recorded in Sana'a and surrounding districts.
On 7 January 2016, HRW reported and condemned that the Saudi Arabia - led coalition forces had used cluster bombs on residential areas of Sanaa on 6 January. On 8 January the United Nations warned that their use could be a war crime. The UN Secretary - General Ban Ki - moon said he was "particularly concerned about reports of intense airstrikes in residential areas and on civilian buildings in Sana'a, including the Chamber of Commerce, a wedding hall and a centre for the blind ''.
In April and May 2015 mass displacement was observed primarily in Saada, Amran and Hajjah governorates as airstrikes and shelling intensified in the north of Yemen.
On 13 April, OCHA reported that (as of 11 April) more than 120,000 people were estimated to have been internally displaced since 26 March 2015.
On 17 May the UN, citing Yemen 's health services, said that as of 15 May 545,000 had been internally displaced because of the war, up from 450,000 announced on 15 May 2015.
On 1 June, the UN announced that 1,019,762 people had been internally displaced as of 28 May 2015.
On 6 July the UN announced that as of 2 July there were 1,267,590 internally displaced people in Yemen.
On 5 August, a task force of the Global Protection Cluster announced their estimate of 1,439,118 internally displaced persons from more than 250,000 households in Yemen.
On 15 October the IOM - UNHCR displacement - tracking mechanism published new data showing in the 5th RFPM report that the IDP population had reached 2,305,048 people.
The 6th RFPM report (published on 10 December 2015) gave a figure of 2,509,068 internally displaced persons. Much of the increase from the previous report, published in October, could be attributed to improved tracking methods.
On 14 June 2015, OCHA reported a large outbreak of Dengue fever that killed over 113 people and infected over 4,000. Patients could not be treated due to lack of water in affected areas. OCHA was also investigating reports of a Measles outbreak. Health officials considered the breakdown in health services, including decrease in immunization coverage, closure of health facilities and difficulty in accessing health services as possible contributing factors.
In June 2015, Oxfam 's humanitarian programme manager in Sanaa said that Saudi - led naval blockade "means it 's impossible to bring anything into the country. There are lots of ships, with basic things like flour, that are not allowed to approach. The situation is deteriorating, hospitals are now shutting down, without diesel. People are dying of simple diseases. ''
On 1 July 2015, the UN announced that Yemen was at the highest level of humanitarian disaster with over 80 % of the population needing help. UN agencies agreed to classify Yemen as a level 3 emergency as the UN Envoy for Yemen stated that Yemen is one step away from famine.
In February 2016, the OCHA reported that 21 million people (85 % of the population) were in need of some form of humanitarian assistance, 7.6 million people were "severely '' food insecure, and that more than 3.4 million children were not attending school.
On 4 October 2016, the UN children 's agency UNICEF said 1.5 million children in Yemen suffer of malnutrition, including 370,000 enduring very severe malnutrition.
In October 2016, health authorities in Yemen confirmed a cholera outbreak in Sanaa and Taiz. In June 2017, cholera cases passed 100,000 with 798 deaths in the country. The water and sanitation systems are largely inoperable The International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) and the UN, have pointed to the Saudi - led naval and aerial blockade and bombing campaign as central causes behind the preventable cholera epidemic.
"With the right medicines, these (diseases) are all completely treatable -- but the Saudi Arabia - led coalition is stopping them from getting in. ''
In December 2015, David Ottaway, a senior scholar at the Wilson Center in Washington, estimated the Saudi - led military coalition was spending $200 million a day on military operations in Yemen. His sources speculate that the Saudis are supplying most of the funding.
Following the call by the leader of the Houthi movement, Abdul - Malik al - Houthi, tens of thousands Yemenis of various socioeconomic backgrounds took to the streets of the rebel - controlled capital, Sana'a, to voice their anger at the Saudi intervention.
On 21 April, representatives of 19 Yemeni political parties and associations rejected UN Resolution 2216, stating that it encouraged terrorist expansion, intervened in Yemen 's sovereign affairs, violated Yemen 's right of self - defence and emphasized the associations ' support of the Yemeni Army.
On 23 April, a spokesman for the Houthis said UN-sponsored peace talks should continue, but only following "a complete halt of attacks '' by the coalition.
In a televised address on 24 April, Saleh called on the Houthis and other armed groups to withdraw from the territory they had seized and participate in UN-sponsored peace talks, in exchange for an end to the air campaign. Exiled Yemeni Foreign Minister rejected the peace proposal saying that Saleh had no role in the talks.
On 26 April, the General Authority for Archeology and Museums in Yemen condemned attacks targeting historical sites. The statement highlighted an attack that completely destroyed an ancient fortress in the Damt District of the Ad Dali ' Governorate. Yemeni political parties issued a letter to UN Secretary - General Ban Ki - moon requesting that he continue the peace talks. The letter emphasized that Yemen was still under attack by air, land and sea and that the existing blockade was increasing the humanitarian crisis and that education had been denied for 3 million students due to the "random attacks ''.
On 2 May, the Yemenis Forum of Persons With Disability stated that 300 centres and organizations had been forced to stop operations following the intervention. The organization denounced the air and sea blockade that "increased the suffering of the disabled greatly ''. The same day Hussein al - Ezzi, the Houthi head of foreign relations, sent a letter addressed to Secretary General Ban seeking an end to the "unjustified Saudi aggression ''. He asked the UN to seek an end to what Houthis described as blatant aggression against the country.
On 7 May, 17 humanitarian agencies stressed that life - saving aid would run out in a week and emphasized the need to remove the existing blockade. The International Non-Government Organizations Forum in Yemen appealed for allowing basic materials to enter the country immediately.
On 10 May, Houthi military spokesman Sharaf Luqman welcomed the Russian initiative, which advocated a suspension of military operations and also lifting the blockade.
Anti-Houthi groups, especially Sunnis, while supporting the intervention did not wish for the return to power of Hadi, since they viewed him as the man "who ceded control of the capital without a fight six months ago ''.
On 3 April, the Al - Islah party, the Yemeni branch of the Muslim Brotherhood, declared its support for the campaign. Supporters of the party reportedly suffered consequences, including kidnappings and raids, as a result of this declaration.
On 26 April, the foreign minister in Hadi 's government, Riad Yaseen, rejected Saleh 's calls for UN-sponsored peace talks on the ground.
On 5 April a firefight broke out between anti-government Shiite rioters and security forces in Saudi Arabia 's Shiite - minority in Eastern Province, with one police officer killed and three others injured. The firefight broke out after calls in the Eastern Province to protest against the military intervention.
On 29 April, King Salman dismissed his appointed crown prince, Muqrin of Saudi Arabia. Some regional political analysts speculated that the decision was precipitated by Muqrin 's alleged opposition to the intervention. Salman appointed Muhammad bin Nayef, who publicly announced his support of the operation, to replace Muqrin.
On 21 April, Saudi prince Al - Waleed bin Talal reportedly offered 100 Bentleys to participating pilots. The announcement was met with substantial criticism.
Among the general populace, the war was popular.
On 3 April Bahrainis protested against the war on Yemen. A prominent Bahraini opposition politician, Fadhel Abbas, was reportedly arrested by Bahraini authorities for condemning the bombing as "flagrant aggression ''.
Supporters of the Egyptian Muslim Brotherhood demonstrated against Egypt 's military intervention.
Shiite parliament member Abdul Hamid Dashti reportedly criticized the war and described it as an "act of aggression ''. A prominent Shiite lawyer, Khalid Al Shatti, was summoned by Kuwaiti authorities for his criticism of the Saudi government.
On 28 April, Kuwaiti Foreign Minister Sabah Al - Khalid Al - Sabah stated that the only solution to the Yemen crisis was political.
The Arab League, United States, Turkey, OIC and Hamas voiced support for the intervention, but the European Union, Russia and the United Nations criticised it. The United Kingdom, and France supported the intervention, and along with Canada have supplied the Saudi military with equipment.
Iran condemned intervention as "US - backed aggression ''. Iran 's U.N. Ambassador Gholamali Khoshroo said that "those who violate international law, including international humanitarian law, should be held accountable for their acts and there should be no room for impunity. '' Iraqi Prime Minister Haidar al - Abadi expressed the Iraqi government 's opposition to the intervention: "This (Yemen war) can engulf the whole region in another conflict. We do n't need another sectarian war in the region. '' The Hezbollah secretary general criticized Saudi Arabia and its allies, saying "all invaders end up being defeated ''.
Somalia 's government blamed the Saudi - led coalition for the killing of at least 42 Somali refugees off the Yemeni coast. Somali Prime Minister Hassan Ali Khayre called the attack on a boat carrying refugees "atrocious '' and "appalling:.
Asian countries including China, India, Malaysia and Pakistan, moved within days to evacuate their citizens from Yemen.
On 4 April, the ICRC called for a 24 - hour humanitarian ceasefire after the coalition blocked three aid shipments to Yemen. Russia also called for "humanitarian pauses '' in the coalition bombing campaign, bringing the idea before the United Nations Security Council in a 4 April emergency meeting. However, Saudi Arabia 's UN ambassador raised questions over whether humanitarian pauses are the best way of delivering humanitarian assistance. On 7 April, China renewed calls for an immediate ceasefire.
On 10 April, the Pakistani Parliament declined a Saudi Arabian request to join the coalition. The Parliament clarified the wish to maintain a neutral diplomatic stance.
On 16 April a group of US and UK - based Yemen scholars wrote an open letter, stating that the operation was illegal under international law and calling for the UN to enforce an immediate ceasefire.
On 19 April, international aid agency Oxfam condemned SA over airstrikes it said hit one of its warehouses containing humanitarian supplies in Saada.
Aid groups came out against the air campaign: Amnesty International said some of the coalition 's airstrikes "appear to have failed to take necessary precautions to minimize harm to civilians and damage to civilian objects ''. Reporters without Borders condemned a strike in Sanaa on 20 April that caused the deaths of four employees of Al - Yemen Al - Youm TV and injured ten others; it also condemned attacks on journalists by pro-Houthi forces.
On 4 May the UN called on the coalition to stop attacking Sanaa Airport to allow delivery of humanitarian aid. On 10 May the UN Humanitarian Coordinator for Yemen stated that the attacks on Saada province were in breach of international law. On 29 June, Secretary General Ban Ki - moon denounced a coalition airstrike that had hit a UN compound in Aden the previous day and requested a full investigation.
Human Rights Watch criticized the UN Security Council repeatedly for "remaining almost silent on coalition abuses ''. In January 2016 an unpublished United Nations panel investigating the Saudi - led bombing campaign in Yemen uncovered "widespread and systematic '' attacks on civilian targets in violation of international humanitarian law, calling UN Security Council up for an international commission of inquiry. Saudi Arabia had previously objected to an inquiry being set up, and had not been supported by Western governments.
In February 2016 the Secretary - General of the UN (UNSG) Ban Ki - moon raised strong concerns over continued Saudi - led airstrikes, saying that "coalition air strikes in particular continue to strike hospitals, schools, mosques and civilian infrastructures '' in Yemen. He urged States that are signatories to the Arms Trade Treaty to "control arms flows to actors that may use them in ways that breach of international humanitarian law ''.
In June 2016, Ban Ki - moon removed a Saudi - led coalition from a list of children 's rights violators, saying that Saudi Arabia threatened to cut Palestinian aid and funds to other UN programs if coalition was not removed from blacklist for killing children in Yemen. According to one source, there was also a threat of "clerics in Riyadh meeting to issue a fatwa against the UN, declaring it anti-Muslim, which would mean no contacts of OIC members, no relations, contributions, support, to any UN projects, programs ''.
In September 2016, British Foreign Secretary Boris Johnson was accused of blocking the UN inquiry into Saudi war crimes in Yemen.
Both al - Qaeda in the Arabian Peninsula (AQAP) and Islamic State had a presence in Yemen before the Saudi - led intervention. AQAP had controlled substantial pieces of territory for some time, while Islamic State claimed for twin bombings in Sanaa the following month that killed 140 people and injured hundreds more.
The two radical groups have used the conflict to expand and consolidate, an obvious fact accepted by the Pentagon. AQAP 's most determined opponent, the Houthis, disengaged to face rival Yemeni militias at the same time as they were being hit by coalition air strikes; Yemeni troops in the south remained in their bases instead of confronting al - Qaeda militants, fearing Saudi air strikes on any troop movements. With the destruction of much of Yemen 's military infrastructure by the coalition, even once peace is achieved, there are questions about the ability of the country to confront its Islamist militancy problem.
Within weeks of the commencement of the coalition 's campaign, AQAP had exploited the chaos to capture the south - eastern port city of Mukalla, along with nearby military, transport, and economic infrastructure. A series of prison breaks by al - Qaeda -- they emptied Mukalla 's jail of 300 prisoners and loosed 1,200 inmates in June 2015 from the central prison in Taiz -- released jailed jihadists of all ranks. Worse, Yemen 's prisons had, in preceding years, reportedly become "de facto jihadi academies '', as veteran militants were placed in cells alongside young, regular criminals.
The coalition took Yemen 's second city of Aden in July 2015. AQAP and Islamic State thereafter increased their presence in the city, "a base they could only have dreamed of before this war began '', in the words of the BBC 's Frank Gardner. Residents of Aden faced a wave of bombings and shootings that prevented efforts at stabilization. Seven months after rebel fighters from the Houthi militia had been driven from Aden, there were almost daily assassinations of judges, security officials, and police.
At the start of February 2016, AQAP recaptured Azzan, an important commercial city in Shabwa province. A few weeks later, al - Qaeda fighters and Saudi - led coalition forces were seen fighting together against Houthi rebels. But the situation is different in Aden, the AQAP / ISIS and pro-Hadi allies in Taiz that were fighting together side by side are enemies in Aden battlefield, on 29 February 2016, a suicide car killed 4 pro-Hadi troops in Shiek Othman district in Aden, the city that Hadi uses as a temporary capital.
On 25 March, Gulf Air, the Bahraini flag carrier airline announced the immediate suspension of service to Sana'a. Somali airlines such as Daallo Airlines and Jubba Airways also encountered difficulties, as they were unable to fly over Yemen after its airspace became restricted. On 15 April, Turkish Airlines suspended all Yemen flights until 1 June.
Following Hadi 's request, the administration of the Egypt - based Nilesat and Saudi - based Arabsat, two satellite communication companies, stopped broadcasting Yemeni state - run television channels that had fallen under Houthi control. The channels included Al - Yemen, Al - Eman, Saba News Agency and Aden TV. Armed Houthis closed down the Sana'a offices of four media outlets, including Al Jazeera, Yemen Shabab and Suhail channels, as well as Al - Masdar 's newspaper and website. Al - Saeeda channel was also stormed, but was allowed to remain open on the condition it not broadcast anti-Houthi material. Houthi Political Office member Mohammad Al - Bukhaiti said the channels were closed for supporting the coalition.
King Salman replaced his half - brother Muqrin as crown prince with Muhammad bin Nayef and named his son Mohammed bin Salman as defence minister, and then - Ambassador to the United States Adel al - Jubeir as foreign minister. Some reports linked the cabinet reshuffle to the war. At least one political analyst suggested that Muqrin was not supportive of the military intervention, and that this cost him his position. Prince Muqrin 's Yemeni Lineage was pointed out as another possible cause.
The exiled Yemeni government sent a request to the UN, asking for foreign troops on the ground.
On 19 June, WikiLeaks announced the intention of releasing over 500,000 Saudi diplomatic documents to the internet. In its statement, WikiLeaks referred to a recent electronic attack on the Saudi Foreign Ministry by a group calling itself the Yemen Cyber Army, but did not indicate whether they passed the documents to WikiLeaks.
On 26 August, Bob Semple, a British hostage who was held by Al Qaeda in Yemen was freed by the UAE armed forces.
On 15 May, new UN envoy to Yemen Ismail Ould Cheikh Ahmed proposed peace talks in Geneva. Rebel spokesman Hamed al - Bokheiti said the Houthis were willing to hold talks in any "neutral '' country. Five days later the Secretary - General of the United Nations, Ban Ki - moon announced that peace talks would be held in Geneva starting on 28 May and urged all parties to participate. Houthi rebels reiterated their support for the talks while exiled government officials said they would participate only if the Houthi 's withdrew from occupied cities.
On 26 May, Ban announced that the peace talks were to be postponed indefinitely after exiled Yemeni officials refused to attend until rebels withdrew from all occupied cities. However, on 6 June the UN announced that peace talks would take place on 14 June Both the exiled officials and the Houthi group confirmed their attendance.
Secretary - General Ban called for a "humanitarian pause '' during the Muslim holy month of Ramadan. Peace talks between the exiled government and the Houthis concluded in Geneva without reaching a ceasefire.
On 4 July, Houthi spokesman Mohammed Abdul Salam said in a post on his Facebook page that he had met Ahmed on Friday to discuss a Ramadan truce. The US and EU announced their support for a humanitarian truce.
On 9 July, the UN announced an unconditional truce between 10 July until the end of Eid ul Fitr on 17 July. The Special Envoy to Yemen assured the agreement of all warring factions. In a televised speech, Abdel - Malek al - Houthi, head of the Houthi 's, endorsed the truce, but doubted that the ceasefire would hold. The truce was pierced within an hour by airstrikes. Coalition spokesman later added that the coalition was not bound by the truce and that any truce would be counterproductive. It later added that it was not requested to pause by the exiled Yemeni Government.
On 8 September, Vice News revealed a leaked email by UN Envoy to Yemen Ismail Ould Cheikh Ahmed. In it, the envoy confirms that Houthi rebels and the party of former president and Houthi ally Ali Abdullah Saleh have expressed willingness to accept -- with some reservations -- a UN Security Council resolution, approved in April. This demanded the rebels "withdraw their forces from all areas they have seized, including the capital, Sanaa ''. "AA / GPC agreed to a new wording on UNSC resolution 2216 that states unequivocally that they are committed to the implementation of 2216 (see document attached) with the exception of article which infringe on Yemeni sovereignty and those related to sanctions, '' wrote Ould Cheikh Ahmed, referring to Ansar Allah (AA) -- another name for the Houthis -- and Saleh 's General People 's Congress party (GPC). "In addition, the new text includes acceptance of the return of the current government for a period of 60 days during which a government of national unity shall be formed, '' wrote the envoy in the email. According to Ould Cheikh Ahmed, during talks, the Houthis gave ground on certain language, including "mandatory support by the international community for reconstruction that was in the earlier version ''. "The latter was particularly opposed by KSA Kingdom of Saudi Arabia and GCC Gulf Cooperation Council who did not want it to be interpreted as a form of mandatory compensation, '' added the UN envoy.
On 10 September, UN Envoy to Yemen announced that all parties had agreed to peace talks. A statement from Hadi 's office following a meeting on the issue of new talks affirmed the president 's "complete support for the sincere efforts exerted by the special envoy ''. It urged Ahmed to "exert efforts to achieve the public and honest commitment on the part of the Houthis and Saleh '' to implement 14 April council resolution unconditionally. On 13 September, the exiled Yemeni government announced that it would no longer participate in the peace talks.
On 18 April, peace talks aimed at ending Yemen 's civil war that were set to begin faltered before they could start, when delegates representing Yemen 's Houthi rebels refused to attend.
On 20 April, talks convened, based on UN Security Council resolution 2216 which called for the Houthi fighters to withdraw from areas they seized since 2014 and hand heavy weapons back to the government.
On 6 August, the UN special envoy to Yemen, Ismail Ould Cheikh Ahmed, announced the suspension in Kuwait, where the talks were being held. He said that the negotiations were not a failure and that they would resume in a month at an undisclosed location. Mr. Ahmed is the second United Nations envoy to try to broker peace talks between the Houthis and other factions in Yemen since March 2015. His predecessor quit after similar peace talk efforts failed. After the breakdown of the talks, one of the Houthi negotiators, Nasser Bagazgooz, blamed the United Nations envoy for seeking what he said amounted to a military solution on behalf of the Saudi - led coalition. Previous negotiations floated the idea of forming a unity government -- composed of Houthi and former Hadi government leaders. But the exiled Hadi leaders have consistently rejected any deal that would diminish their power over Yemen, and the Houthis have said that they will reject any deal that does not give them a seat at the table.
The Saudi - led military coalition and Houthis (Ansar Allah) arrived at a swift ceasefire agreement effective 17 November 2016, as a result of efforts of U.S. Secretary of State John Kerry and Omani dignitaries.
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who plays angela montenegro's father in bones | Billy Gibbons - wikipedia
William Frederick Gibbons (born December 16, 1949) is an American musician, singer, songwriter, producer, and actor, best known as the guitarist and lead vocalist of the American rock band ZZ Top. He began his career in the Moving Sidewalks, who recorded Flash (1968) and opened four dates for the Jimi Hendrix Experience. Gibbons formed ZZ Top in late 1969 and released ZZ Top 's First Album in 1971. The albums that followed, Rio Grande Mud (1972) and Tres Hombres (1973), along with extensive touring, solidified the group 's reputation as a hard - rocking power trio.
In the 1980s and early 1990s, ZZ Top released their three biggest - selling albums: Eliminator (1983), Afterburner (1985) and Recycler (1990). A wave of music videos for the hit singles "Legs '', "Gimme All Your Lovin ' '', and "Sharp Dressed Man '', among others, became mainstays on MTV. Gibbons has made appearances with other artists and acted on television shows, most notably Bones. He was ranked at number 32 on the 2011 Rolling Stone list of the 100 Greatest Guitarists of All Time.
Gibbons was born to Frederick Royal ("Freddie '') and Lorraine (née Duffy) Gibbons in the Tanglewood neighborhood of Houston, Texas. His father was an entertainer, orchestra conductor, and concert pianist who worked alongside his second cousin, art director Cedric Gibbons, for Samuel Goldwyn at MGM Studios. A percussionist as a youth, Gibbons was sent by his father to New York City to study with Tito Puente In 1963, Gibbons received his first electric guitar following his 13th birthday, a sunburst Gibson Melody Maker, accompanied by a Fender Champ amplifier, and was influenced by guitarists such as Jimmy Reed.
While attending Warner Brothers ' art school in Hollywood, California, Gibbons engaged with his first bands including The Saints, Billy G & the Blueflames, and The Coachmen. By 18, Gibbons went forward forming an artfully designed band, conceptually inspired by friend and fellow musician, Roky Erickson and The 13th Floor Elevators, naming the group the Moving Sidewalks, penning the hit single "99th Floor '', and engaging in a friendship with Jimi Hendrix. Hendrix went on to say on The Tonight Show and The Dick Cavett Show that Gibbons would be the next hottest guitarist.
Gibbons founded the Texas psychedelic group The Moving Sidewalks, which recorded several singles and one full - length album, Flash. Gibbons and The Moving Sidewalks came to prominence opening for The Jimi Hendrix Experience during Hendrix 's first American tour as a headliner. Also notable was the Gibbons - penned song, "99th Floor, '' its title a nod to the influence on Gibbons of fellow Texans and pioneering psychedelic band The 13th Floor Elevators. He has also commented during live performances while playing the string - bending intro to "Foxy Lady '' that Hendrix taught him how to play the song when Gibbons was "about 17 '' in Dallas.
Gibbons formed ZZ Top in late 1969, and quickly settled on bassist / vocalist Dusty Hill and drummer Frank "Rube '' Beard, both being members of the band American Blues. After honing their trademark blues - rock style, they released the aptly titled ZZ Top 's First Album on London Records in 1971.
The band rolled on, intensively touring and recording / releasing albums until 1977, when they took an extended hiatus. Their long - time manager took this time to negotiate a deal that allowed the band to keep control of their previous recordings, to be distributed by their new label, Warner Bros. Records. They reunited two - and - a-half years later in order to start recording under a new Warner Bros. contract. Independently, both Dusty Hill and Billy Gibbons had grown the chest - length beards that quickly became a part of their image.
The band hit international prominence and their commercial peak with the release of 1983 's diamond - selling disc Eliminator. Eliminator was named after Gibbons ' customized 1933 Ford Coupe, which was featured in three of the band 's music videos. This vehicle is on exhibition at the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in Cleveland, Ohio. The album featured the hits "Gimme All Your Lovin ' '', "Sharp Dressed Man '', and "Legs ''.
In 1994, the band signed a multimillion - dollar, five - disc deal with RCA Records.
In 2003, a comprehensive collection of recordings from the London and Warner Bros. years entitled Chrome, Smoke & BBQ was released. In 2004, ZZ Top was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame. They have the distinction of being among a very small group of bands with a 40 - year - plus history that still has all of its original members.
Gibbons played the first slide guitar lead on the song "Dead End Streets '' on Al Jourgensen of Ministry 's side project Revolting Cocks album Cocked and Loaded. He also wrote, played guitar on and sang the song "Willin ' For Satisfaction '' from Def Leppard guitarist Vivian Campbell 's 2005 solo album Two Sides Of If.
Gibbons collaborated with the Queens of the Stone Age on the song "Burn the Witch '' from the album Lullabies to Paralyze. ZZ Top 's "Precious and Grace '' was also recorded with lead vocals provided by Mark Lanegan as a bonus track for the album. Gibbons has also claimed this was one of his favorite collaborations and "Precious and Grace '' was later added back into ZZ Top 's set lists. Gibbons was also selected to guest the follow - up album Era Vulgaris but was unable due to scheduling conflicts.
Together with The Raconteurs Gibbons performed at the 2006 MTV Video Music Awards. Gibbons was part of an ensemble chosen to play with the band, which included Lou Reed and Jim Jarmusch. The performance was heavily edited and cut short by MTV for broadcast. However, the full unedited performance is available on MTV 's Website for the VMAs. Although not a full - length performance, Gibbons can also be heard playing a few bars of the ZZ Top classic "La Grange. ''
Gibbons was one of several artists to participate together with B.B. King on the song "Tired Of Your Jive, '' from the B.B. King & Friends album. Gibbons also appeared on Nickelback 's album All the Right Reasons on the songs "Follow You Home, '' "Fight for All the Wrong Reasons '' and "Rockstar. '' Gibbons performed with Hank Williams III on the song "Trashville, '' from his album Lovesick, Broke and Driftin '.
Gibbons collaborated with Les Paul with his Les Paul & Friends American Made, World Played track "Bad Case of Loving You. '' Gibbons also performed guitar with John Mayall & Friends ' track "Put It Right Back '' from the album Along for the Ride. He was the first artist to appear on stage at Cleveland 's State theater in November 2008 at the American Music Master Tribute to Les Paul, honoring the guitar and recording innovator, who died a few months later.
Gibbons was also a guest vocalist on Kid Rock 's "Hillbilly Stomp '' from the album Kid Rock.
He was also the guitarist during singer Luis Fonsi 's presentation at the 7th Latin Grammy awards held in Madison Square Garden, New York, on November 2, 2006. Lately Gibbons also sang background vocals on former Van Halen frontman Sammy Hagar 's 2008 CD Cosmic Universal Fashion during the song "Switch on the Light. '' Gibbons collaborated with Ronnie Dunn, of Brooks & Dunn fame, for Ronnie 's first solo work, playing guitar and singing along on the song, "Honky Tonk Stomp ''. Gibbons played guitar on "Broke Down On the Brazos '', the opening track of Gov 't Mule 's 2009 album By a Thread. Gibbons played guitar on "Run Rudolph Run '', the third track of We Wish you a Metal Xmas and a Headbanging New Year compilation. Gibbons joined Jeff Beck onstage at the 2009 25th Anniversary Rock & Roll Hall of Fame Concert with a version of Jimi Hendrix 's "Foxy Lady ''. Gibbons made a special guest appearance behind Roky Erickson on Austin City Limits taped on November 12, 2007 and originally aired January 12, 2008. (ACL Season 33, Episode 12). Gibbons plays lead guitar on two songs from the 2008 Everlast album Love, War and the Ghost of Whitey Ford: "Stone in My Hand '' and "Anyone ''.
On January 22, 2010, Gibbons joined Ben Harper, Beck, Conan O'Brien, and others on the final episode of The Tonight Show with Conan O'Brien playing a Will Ferrell - led rendition of Lynyrd Skynyrd 's "Free Bird ''.
On February 19, 2011, Gibbons appeared as a guest judge at the 5th Annual Misprint Beard and Moustache Contest at the Mohawk club in Austin, Texas.
On December 15, 2012, Gibbons made a guest appearance at Social Distortion 's concert at the House of Blues on the Sunset Strip. Frontman Mike Ness brought him out for two songs, "Drug Train '' and "Black Magic ''. On November 19, 2014, Gibbons performed "Baby Please Do n't Go '' at the Vaclav Havel Bust Dedication Ceremony in the US Capitol.
On July 31, 2015 it was announced that Gibbons solo project will be named Billy Gibbons and the BFG 's featuring musicians Mike Flanigin, GG Maartine (née Martine GuiGui), Joe Hardy and Greg Morrow. Their debut album, Perfectamundo, was released on November 6, 2015.
Gibbons has a recurring role on the Fox network TV series Bones. He plays a fictionalized version of himself, as the father of Michaela Conlin 's character, Angela Pearly Gates Montenegro. He is never referred to by name on the show, though; every mention is limited to "Angela 's father ''. Conlin 's character 's middle name is the same as Gibbons ' Les Paul guitar. Gibbons 's character is extremely protective of his daughter, and he often "threatens '' or "haunts '' Angela 's husband and colleague Dr. Jack Hodgins, telling him that if he hurts Angela, he will pay. When Angela and Hodgins first broke up, he drugged and kidnapped Hodgins, during which time he also gave him a tattoo of Angela 's face on his left deltoid area. After Angela discovers the tattoo, she informs Hodgins she wants it removed (he never removed it) and angrily exclaimed when she discovered it was her dad 's doing, "I am so going to kick his Texan bad ass ''.
He has appeared in several other episodes of Bones, including one where he asks Hodgins to help him recover his car from some "biker hoods ''. In his next appearance, he argued with Hodgins over baby names. He wanted the child to be named "Staccato Mamba '', which came to him in a song, while Angela and Hodgins wanted to name him "Michael Joseph ''. (Parents and grandfather compromised on "Michael Staccato ''.) At the end of the episode, Hodgins discovers he has yet another tattoo on his right biceps, this time of his father - in - law with the word "Daddy '' across Gibbons ' beard (at which point Gibbons told Hodgins that celebratory tequila and he do not seem to mix). In a more recent episode, he asks to babysit his grandson Michael, pointing out that Angela had spent many nights when she was a baby sleeping soundly backstage while he played to sold - out stadiums. After initial reluctance of Angela and Hodgins, they agree due to the need to get some sleep, as Michael will not stop crying and go to sleep. Gibbons solves the problem by discovering the music Michael likes, including blues and boogie rock, such as ZZ Top 's "Hi Fi Mama ''.
Gibbons voiced a character in episode 60 of Metalocalypse.
Gibbons also voiced a fictionalised version of himself in Fox 's animated show King of the Hill which is set in the fictional town of Arlen, Texas. ZZ Top 's appearance on the show was due to Dusty Hill being given the role as the cousin of the show 's main character Hank Hill. Frank Beard also voiced himself for the band 's appearances on the show.
Gibbons appeared as a dining room guest in the season - 13 episode of Hell 's Kitchen.
In 2011, Gibbons joined with Texas - based Mojo Products, LLC, to launch a line of hot sauces, barbecue sauces, and other products with his own personal branding, "BFG Brand ''. The sauces were sold as BFG No. 44 via his personal website.
In late 2012, Gibbons was featured in a series of television commercials for Fiesta Mart, a Texas supermarket chain. Some of the BFG Brand sauces were seen in these commercials.
On December 14, 2005, Gibbons married long - time girlfriend Gilligan Stillwater (born Ellen J. Oetjen).
Gibbons is an avid car collector and custom car enthusiast with an extensive collection that includes a 1948 Cadillac Series 62 (known as CadZZilla), a 1962 Chevrolet Impala (known as "Slampala ''), a 1950 Ford Business Coupe, and a 1958 Ford Thunderbird. One of his earliest custom cars, a 1933 Ford Coupe (known as "Eliminator ''), was featured in three of ZZ Top 's music videos. Gibbons also published a book in 2011 about his love of cars and guitars titled Billy F Gibbons: Rock + Rock Gearhead. The November 2014 issue of Guitar World magazine featured an interview with Gibbons and fellow guitarist Jeff Beck about their mutual appreciation of "cars, guitars, and everything in between ''.
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what is the state of south dakota known for | South Dakota - wikipedia
South Dakota (/ ˌsaʊθ dəˈkoʊtə / (listen); locally: (ˌsɑʊθ dəˈko̞ɾə)) is a state in the Midwestern region of the United States. It is named after the Lakota and Dakota Sioux Native American tribes, who compose a large portion of the population and historically dominated the territory. South Dakota is the 17th most expansive, but the 5th least populous and the 5th least densely populated of the 50 United States. Once the southern part of the Dakota Territory, South Dakota became a state on November 2, 1889, simultaneously with North Dakota. Pierre is the state capital and Sioux Falls, with a population of about 171,000, is South Dakota 's largest city.
South Dakota is bordered by the states of North Dakota (on the north), Minnesota (to the east), Iowa (to the southeast), Nebraska (on the south), Wyoming (on the west), and Montana (to the northwest). The state is bisected by the Missouri River, dividing South Dakota into two geographically and socially distinct halves, known to residents as "East River '' and "West River ''.
Eastern South Dakota is home to most of the state 's population, and the area 's fertile soil is used to grow a variety of crops. West of the Missouri, ranching is the predominant agricultural activity, and the economy is more dependent on tourism and defense spending. Most of the Native American reservations are in West River. The Black Hills, a group of low pine - covered mountains sacred to the Sioux, are in the southwest part of the state. Mount Rushmore, a major tourist destination, is there. South Dakota has a temperate continental climate, with four distinct seasons and precipitation ranging from moderate in the east to semi-arid in the west. The state 's ecology features species typical of a North American grassland biome.
Humans have inhabited the area for several millennia, with the Sioux becoming dominant by the early 19th century. In the late 19th century, European - American settlement intensified after a gold rush in the Black Hills and the construction of railroads from the east. Encroaching miners and settlers triggered a number of Indian wars, ending with the Wounded Knee Massacre in 1890. Key events in the 20th century included the Dust Bowl and Great Depression, increased federal spending during the 1940s and 1950s for agriculture and defense, and an industrialization of agriculture that has reduced family farming.
While several Democratic senators have represented South Dakota for multiple terms at the federal level, the state government is largely controlled by the Republican Party, whose nominees have carried South Dakota in each of the last 13 presidential elections. Historically dominated by an agricultural economy and a rural lifestyle, South Dakota has recently sought to diversify its economy in areas to attract and retain residents. South Dakota 's history and rural character still strongly influence the state 's culture.
South Dakota is in the north - central United States, and is considered a part of the Midwest by the U.S. Census Bureau; it is also part of the Great Plains region. The culture, economy, and geography of western South Dakota have more in common with the West than the Midwest. South Dakota has a total area of 77,116 square miles (199,730 km), making the state the 17th largest in the Union.
Black Elk Peak, formerly named Harney Peak, with an elevation of 7,242 ft (2,207 m), is the state 's highest point, while the shoreline of Big Stone Lake is the lowest, with an elevation of 966 ft (294 m). South Dakota is bordered to the north by North Dakota; to the south by Nebraska; to the east by Iowa and Minnesota; and to the west by Wyoming and Montana. The geographical center of the U.S. is 17 miles (27 km) west of Castle Rock in Butte County. The North American continental pole of inaccessibility is between Allen and Kyle, 1,024 mi (1,648 km) from the nearest coastline.
The Missouri River is the largest and longest river in the state. Other major South Dakota rivers include the Cheyenne, James, Big Sioux, and White Rivers. Eastern South Dakota has many natural lakes, mostly created by periods of glaciation. Additionally, dams on the Missouri River create four large reservoirs: Lake Oahe, Lake Sharpe, Lake Francis Case, and Lewis and Clark Lake.
South Dakota can generally be divided into three regions: eastern South Dakota, western South Dakota, and the Black Hills. The Missouri River serves as a boundary in terms of geographic, social, and political differences between eastern and western South Dakota. The geography of the Black Hills, long considered sacred by Native Americans, differs from its surroundings to such an extent it can be considered separate from the rest of western South Dakota. At times the Black Hills are combined with the rest of western South Dakota, and people often refer to the resulting two regions divided by the Missouri River as West River and East River.
Eastern South Dakota generally features higher precipitation and lower topography than the western part of the state. Smaller geographic regions of this area include the Coteau des Prairies, the Dissected Till Plains, and the James River Valley. The Coteau des Prairies is a plateau bordered on the east by the Minnesota River Valley and on the west by the James River Basin. Further west, the James River Basin is mostly low, flat, highly eroded land, following the flow of the James River through South Dakota from north to south. The Dissected Till Plains, an area of rolling hills and fertile soil that covers much of Iowa and Nebraska, extends into the southeastern corner of South Dakota. Layers deposited during the Pleistocene epoch, starting around two million years ago, cover most of eastern South Dakota. These are the youngest rock and sediment layers in the state, the product of several successive periods of glaciation which deposited a large amount of rocks and soil, known as till, over the area.
The Great Plains cover most of the western two - thirds of South Dakota. West of the Missouri River the landscape becomes more arid and rugged, consisting of rolling hills, plains, ravines, and steep flat - topped hills called buttes. In the south, east of the Black Hills, lie the South Dakota Badlands. Erosion from the Black Hills, marine skeletons which fell to the bottom of a large shallow sea that once covered the area, and volcanic material all contribute to the geology of this area.
The Black Hills are in the southwestern part of South Dakota and extend into Wyoming. This range of low mountains covers 6,000 sq mi (16,000 km), with peaks that rise from 2,000 to 4,000 feet (600 to 1,200 m) above their bases. The Black Hills are the location of Black Elk Peak (7,242 ft or 2,207 m above sea level), the highest point in South Dakota and also the highest point in the United States east of the Rocky Mountains. Two billion - year - old Precambrian formations, the oldest rocks in the state, form the central core of the Black Hills. Formations from the Paleozoic Era form the outer ring of the Black Hills; these were created between roughly 540 and 250 million years ago. This area features rocks such as limestone, which were deposited here when the area formed the shoreline of an ancient inland sea.
Much of South Dakota (except for the Black Hills area) is dominated by a temperate grasslands biome. Although grasses and crops cover most of this region, deciduous trees such as cottonwoods, elms, and willows are common near rivers and in shelter belts. Mammals in this area include bison, deer, pronghorn, coyotes, and prairie dogs. The state bird, the ring - necked pheasant, has adapted well to the area after being introduced from China. Growing populations of bald eagles are spread throughout the state, especially near the Missouri River. Rivers and lakes of the grasslands support populations of walleye, carp, pike, bass, and other species. The Missouri River also contains the pre-historic paddlefish.
Due to a higher elevation and level of precipitation, the Black Hills ecology differs significantly from the plains. The mountains are thickly blanketed by various types of pines, including ponderosa and lodgepole pines, as well as spruces. Black Hills mammals include deer, elk (wapiti), bighorn sheep, mountain goats, pine marten, and mountain lions, while the streams and lakes contain several species of trout.
South Dakota has a continental climate with four distinct seasons, ranging from cold, dry winters to hot and semi-humid summers. During the summers, the state 's average high temperature is often close to 90 ° F (32 ° C), although it cools to near 60 ° F (16 ° C) at night. It is not unusual for South Dakota to have severe hot, dry spells in the summer with the temperature climbing above 100 ° F (38 ° C) several times a year. Winters are cold with January high temperatures averaging below freezing and low temperatures averaging below 10 ° F (− 12 ° C) in most of the state. The highest recorded temperature is 120 ° F (49 ° C) at Usta on July 15, 2006 and the lowest recorded temperature is − 58 ° F (− 50 ° C) at McIntosh on February 17, 1936.
Average annual precipitation in South Dakota ranges from semi-arid conditions in the northwestern part of the state (around 15 inches or 380 mm) to semi-humid around the southeast portion of the state (around 25 inches or 640 mm), although a small area centered on Lead in the Black Hills has the highest precipitation at nearly 30 inches (760 mm) per year.
South Dakota summers bring frequent, sometimes severe, thunderstorms with high winds, thunder, and hail. The state 's eastern part is often considered part of Tornado Alley, and South Dakota experiences an average of 30 tornadoes each year. Severe blizzards and ice storms occur often during winter.
South Dakota has several sites administered by the National Park Service. Two national parks have been established in South Dakota, both in the state 's southwestern part. Wind Cave National Park, established in 1903 in the Black Hills, has an extensive cave network as well as a large herd of bison. Badlands National Park was created in 1978. The park features an eroded, brightly colored landscape surrounded by semi-arid grasslands. Mount Rushmore National Memorial in the Black Hills was established in 1925. The sculpture of four U.S. Presidents was carved into the mountainside by sculptor Gutzon Borglum.
Other areas managed by the National Park Service include Jewel Cave National Monument near Custer, the Lewis and Clark National Historic Trail, the Minuteman Missile National Historic Site, which features a decommissioned nuclear missile silo and a separate missile control area several miles away, and the Missouri National Recreational River. The Crazy Horse Memorial is a large mountainside sculpture near Mt. Rushmore being built with private funds. The Mammoth Site near Hot Springs is another privately owned attraction in the Black Hills. A working paleontological dig, the site has one of the world 's largest concentrations of mammoth remains.
Humans have lived in what is today South Dakota for several thousand years. The first inhabitants were Paleoindian hunter - gatherers, and disappeared from the area around 5000 BC. Between 500 AD and 800 AD, a semi-nomadic people known as the Mound Builders lived in central and eastern South Dakota. In the 14th century, the Crow Creek Massacre occurred, in which several hundred men, women, and children were killed near the Missouri River.
By 1500, the Arikara (or Ree) had settled in much of the Missouri River valley. European contact with the area began in 1743, when the LaVérendrye brothers explored the region. The LaVérendrye group buried a plate near the site of modern - day Pierre, claiming the region for France as part of greater Louisiana. in 1762 the entire region became part of the Spanish Louisiana until 1802. By the early 19th century, the Sioux had largely replaced the Arikara as the dominant group in the area.
In 1803, the United States purchased the Louisiana Territory, an area that included most of South Dakota, from Napoleon Bonaparte, and President Thomas Jefferson organized a group commonly referred to as the "Lewis and Clark Expedition '' to explore the region. In 1817, an American fur trading post was set up at present - day Fort Pierre, beginning continuous American settlement of the area. In 1855, the U.S. Army bought Fort Pierre but abandoned it in 1857 in favor of Fort Randall to the south. Settlement by Americans and Europeans was by this time increasing rapidly, and in 1858 the Yankton Sioux signed the 1858 Treaty, ceding most of present - day eastern South Dakota to the United States.
Land speculators founded two of eastern South Dakota 's largest present - day cities: Sioux Falls in 1856 and Yankton in 1859. In 1861, the Dakota Territory was established by the United States government (this initially included North Dakota, South Dakota, and parts of Montana and Wyoming). Settlement of the area, mostly by people from the eastern United States as well as western and northern Europe, increased rapidly, especially after the completion of an eastern railway link to Yankton in 1873.
In 1874, gold was discovered in the Black Hills during a military expedition led by George A. Custer and miners and explorers began illegally entering land promised to the Lakota. Custer 's expedition took place despite the fact the US had granted the entire western half of present - day South Dakota (West River) to the Sioux in 1868 by the Treaty of Laramie as part of the Great Sioux Reservation. The Sioux declined to grant mining rights or land in the Black Hills, and war broke out after the U.S. failed to stop white miners and settlers from entering the region. Eventually the US defeated the Sioux and broke up the Great Sioux Reservation into five reservations, settling the Lakota in those areas. (In 1980, the US Supreme Court and Congress ordered payment to the Lakota for the illegal seizure of the Black Hills. The case remains unsettled, as the Lakota refuse to accept the money and instead insist on the return of the land.)
A growing population and political concerns (admitting two states meant having four new senators for the Republican Party) caused Dakota Territory to be divided in half and President Benjamin Harrison signed proclamations formally admitting South Dakota and North Dakota to the union on November 2, 1889. Harrison had the papers shuffled to obscure which one was signed first and the order went unrecorded.
On December 29, 1890, the Wounded Knee Massacre occurred on the Pine Ridge Indian Reservation. Commonly cited as the last major armed conflict between the United States and the Lakota Sioux Nation, the massacre resulted in the deaths of at least 146 Sioux, many of them women and children. 31 U.S. soldiers were also killed in the conflict.
During the 1930s, several economic and climatic conditions combined with disastrous results for South Dakota. A lack of rainfall, extremely high temperatures and inappropriate cultivation techniques produced what was known as the Dust Bowl in South Dakota and several other plains states. Fertile topsoil was blown away in massive dust storms, and several harvests were completely ruined. The experiences of the Dust Bowl, coupled with local bank foreclosures and the general economic effects of the Great Depression, resulted in many South Dakotans leaving the state. The population of South Dakota declined by more than 7 % between 1930 and 1940.
Economic stability returned with the U.S. entry into World War II in 1941, when demand for the state 's agricultural and industrial products grew as the nation mobilized for war. In 1944, the Pick -- Sloan Plan was passed as part of the Flood Control Act of 1944 by the U.S. Congress, resulting in the construction of six large dams on the Missouri River, four of which are at least partially in South Dakota. Flood control, hydroelectricity, and recreational opportunities such as boating and fishing are provided by the dams and their reservoirs.
In recent decades, South Dakota has been transformed from a state dominated by agriculture to one with a more diversified economy. The tourism industry has grown considerably since the completion of the interstate system in the 1960s, with the Black Hills becoming more important as a destination. The financial service industry began to grow in the state as well, with Citibank moving its credit card operations from New York to Sioux Falls in 1981, a move that has been followed by several other financial companies. South Dakota was the first state to eliminate caps on interest rates.
In 2007, the site of the recently closed Homestake gold mine near Lead was chosen as the location of a new underground research facility, the Deep Underground Science and Engineering Laboratory. Despite a growing state population and recent economic development, many rural areas have been struggling over the past 50 years with locally declining populations and the emigration of educated young adults to larger South Dakota cities, such as Rapid City or Sioux Falls, or to other states. Mechanization and consolidation of agriculture has contributed greatly to the declining number of smaller family farms and the resulting economic and demographic challenges facing rural towns.
The United States Census Bureau estimates the population of South Dakota was 858,469 on July 1, 2015, a 5.44 % increase since the 2010 United States Census.
As of 2015, South Dakota had an estimated population of 858,469, an increase of 44,289, or 5.44 %, since the year 2010. 7.3 % of South Dakota 's population was reported as under 5, 24 % under 18, and 14.3 % were 65 or older. Females made up approximately 50.2 % of the population. As of the 2000 census, South Dakota ranked fifth - lowest in the nation in population and population density.
Of the people residing in South Dakota, 65.7 % were born in South Dakota, 31.4 % were born in another US state, 0.6 % were born in Puerto Rico, U.S. Island areas, or born abroad to American parent (s), and 2.3 % were born in another country.
The center of population of South Dakota is in Buffalo County, in the unincorporated county seat of Gann Valley.
According to the 2010 Census, the racial composition of the population was:
Ethnically, 2.7 % of South Dakota 's population was of Hispanic, Latino, or Spanish origin (they may be of any race).
As of 2011, 25.4 % of South Dakota 's population younger than age 1 were minorities, meaning they had at least one parent who was not non-Hispanic white.
As of 2000, the five largest ancestry groups in South Dakota are German (40.7 %), Norwegian (15.3 %), Irish (10.4 %), Native American (8.3 %), and English (7.1 %).
German Americans are the largest ancestry group in most parts of the state, especially in East River (east of the Missouri River), although there are also large Scandinavian - descended populations in some counties. South Dakota has the nation 's largest population of Hutterites, a communal Anabaptist group which emigrated in 1874 from Europe, primarily from German - speaking areas.
American Indians, largely Lakota, Dakota, and Nakota (Sioux), are predominant in several counties and comprise 20 per cent of the population in West River. The seven large Indian reservations in the state occupy an area much diminished from their former Great Sioux Reservation of West River, which the US government had once allocated to the Sioux tribes. South Dakota has the third - highest proportion of Native Americans of any state, behind Alaska and New Mexico.
Five of the state 's counties are wholly within the boundaries of sovereign Indian reservations. Because of the limitations of climate and land, and isolation from urban areas with more employment opportunities, living standards on many South Dakota reservations are often far below the national average; Ziebach County ranked as the poorest county in the nation in 2009. The unemployment rate in Fort Thompson, on the Crow Creek Reservation, is 70 %, and 21 % of households lack plumbing or basic kitchen appliances. A 1995 study by the U.S. Census Bureau found 58 % of homes on the Pine Ridge Indian Reservation did not have a telephone. The reservations ' isolation also inhibits their ability to generate revenue from gaming casinos, an avenue that has proved profitable for many tribes closer to urban centers.
In 1995 the legislature passed a law to make English the "common language '' of the state. As of the 2000 census, 1.90 % of the population aged 5 or older speak German at home, while 1.51 % speak Lakota or Dakota, and 1.43 % Spanish. As of 2010, 93.46 % (692,504) of South Dakota residents aged 5 and older spoke English as their primary language. 6.54 % of the population spoke a language other than English. 2.06 % (15,292) of the population spoke Spanish, 1.39 % (10,282) spoke Dakota, and 1.37 % (10,140) spoke German. Other languages spoken included Vietnamese (0.16 %), Chinese (0.12 %), and Russian (0.10 %).
Over the last several decades, the population in many rural areas has declined in South Dakota, in common with other Great Plains states. The change has been characterized as "rural flight '' as family farming has declined. Young people have moved to cities for other employment. This trend has continued in recent years, with 30 of South Dakota 's counties losing population between the 1990 and the 2000 census. During that time, nine counties had a population loss of greater than 10 %, with Harding County, in the northwest corner of the state, losing nearly 19 % of its population. Low birth rates and a lack of younger immigration has caused the median age of many of these counties to increase. In 24 counties, at least 20 % of the population is over the age of 65, compared with a national rate of 12.8 %.
The effect of rural flight has not been spread evenly through South Dakota, however. Although most rural counties and small towns have lost population, the Sioux Falls area, the larger counties along Interstate 29, the Black Hills, and many Indian reservations have all gained population. As the reservations have exercised more sovereignty, some Sioux have returned to them from urban areas. Lincoln County near Sioux Falls was the seventh fastest - growing county (by percentage) in the United States in 2010. The growth in these areas has compensated for losses in the rest of the state. South Dakota 's total population continues to increase steadily, albeit at a slower rate than the national average.
The largest denominations by number of adherents in 2010 were the Roman Catholic Church with 148,883 members; the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America (ELCA) with 112,649 members; and the United Methodist Church (UMC) with 36,020 members. (The ELCA and UMC are specific denominations within the broader terms ' Lutheran ' and ' Methodist ', respectively.) The results of a 2001 survey, in which South Dakotans were asked to identify their religion, include:
The current - dollar gross state product of South Dakota was US $39.8 billion as of 2010, the fifth smallest total state output in the US. The per capita personal income was $38,865 in 2010, ranked 25th in the U.S., and 12.5 % of the population was below the poverty line in 2008. CNBC 's list of "Top States for Business for 2010 '' has recognized South Dakota as the seventh best state in the nation. In July 2011, the state 's unemployment rate was 4.7 %.
The service industry is the largest economic contributor in South Dakota. This sector includes the retail, finance, and health care industries. Citibank, which was the largest bank holding company in the United States at one time, established national banking operations in South Dakota in 1981 to take advantage of favorable banking regulations. Government spending is another important segment of the state 's economy, providing over ten percent of the gross state product. Ellsworth Air Force Base, near Rapid City, is the second - largest single employer in the state.
Agriculture has historically been a key component of the South Dakota economy. Although other industries have expanded rapidly in recent decades, agricultural production is still very important to the state 's economy, especially in rural areas. The five most valuable agricultural products in South Dakota are cattle, corn (maize), soybeans, wheat, and hogs. Agriculture - related industries such as meat packing and ethanol production also have a considerable economic impact on the state. South Dakota is the sixth leading ethanol - producing state in the nation.
Another important sector in South Dakota 's economy is tourism. Many travel to view the attractions of the state, particularly those in the Black Hills region, such as historic Deadwood, Mount Rushmore, and the nearby state and national parks. One of the largest tourist events in the state is the annual Sturgis Motorcycle Rally. The five - day event drew over 739,000 attendees in 2015; significant considering the state has a total population of 850,000. In 2006, tourism provided an estimated 33,000 jobs in the state and contributed over two billion dollars to the economy of South Dakota.
South Dakota has 83,609 miles (134,556 km) of highways, roads, and streets, along with 679 miles (1,093 km) of interstate highways. Two major interstates pass through South Dakota: Interstate 90, which runs east and west through the southern half of the state; and Interstate 29, running north and south in the eastern portion of the state. The I - 29 corridor features generally higher rates of population and economic growth than areas in eastern South Dakota further from the interstate.
Also in the state are the shorter Interstates 190, a spur into central Rapid City, and 229, a loop around southern and eastern Sioux Falls. Several major U.S. highways pass through the state. U.S. routes 12, 14, 16, 18 and 212 travel east and west, while U.S. routes 81, 83, 85 and 281 run north and south. South Dakota and Montana are the only states sharing a land border which is not traversed by a paved road.
South Dakota contains two National Scenic Byways. The Peter Norbeck National Scenic Byway is in the Black Hills, while the Native American Scenic Byway runs along the Missouri River in the north - central part of the state. Other scenic byways include the Badlands Loop Scenic Byway, the Spearfish Canyon Scenic Byway, and the Wildlife Loop Road Scenic Byway.
Railroads have played an important role in South Dakota transportation since the mid-19th century. Some 4,420 miles (7,110 km) of railroad track were built in South Dakota during the late 19th century and early 20th century, but only 1,839 miles (2,960 km) are active. BNSF Railway is the largest railroad in South Dakota; the Rapid City, Pierre and Eastern Railroad (formerly the Dakota, Minnesota and Eastern) is the state 's other major carrier. Rail transportation in the state is confined only to freight, however, as South Dakota is one of only states lacking Amtrak service.
South Dakota 's largest commercial airports in terms of passenger traffic are the Sioux Falls Regional Airport and Rapid City Regional Airport. Delta Air Lines, Frontier Airlines, and Allegiant Airlines, as well as commuter airlines using the brand affiliation with major airlines serve the two largest airports. Several other cities in the state also have commercial air service: Aberdeen Regional Airport, Huron Regional Airport, Pierre Regional Airport, and Watertown Regional Airport, some of which is subsidized by the Essential Air Service program.
Like other U.S. states, the structure of the government of South Dakota follows the same separation of powers as the federal government, with executive, legislative, and judicial branches. The structure of the state government is laid out in the Constitution of South Dakota, the highest law in the state. The constitution may be amended by a majority vote of both houses of the legislature, or by voter initiative.
The Governor of South Dakota occupies the executive branch of the state government. The current governor is Dennis Daugaard, a Republican from Garretson. The state constitution gives the governor the power to sign into law or veto bills passed by the state legislature, to serve as commander - in - chief of the South Dakota National Guard, to appoint a cabinet, and to commute criminal sentences or to pardon those convicted of crimes. The governor serves for a four - year term, and may not serve more than two consecutive terms.
The state legislature is made up of two bodies, the Senate, which has 35 members, and the House of Representatives, with 70 members. South Dakota is divided into 35 legislative districts, with voters electing two representatives and one senator per district. The legislature meets for an annual session which begins on the second Tuesday in January and lasts for 30 days; it also meets if a special session is called by the governor.
The judicial branch is made up of several levels. The state supreme court, with four justices and a chief justice, is the highest court in the state. Below the supreme court are the circuit courts; 41 circuit judges serve in seven judicial circuits in the state. Below the circuit courts are the magistrate courts, which deal with more minor criminal and civil actions.
As of 2005, South Dakota has the lowest per capita total state tax rate in the United States. The state does not levy personal or corporate income taxes, inheritance taxes, or taxes on intangible personal property. The state sales tax rate is 4.5 percent. Various localities have local levies so in some areas the rate is 6 percent. The state sales tax does not apply to sales to Indians on Indian reservations, but many reservations have a compact with the state. Businesses on the reservation collect the tax and the state refunds to the Indian Tribes the percentage of sales tax collections relating to the ratio of Indian population to total population in the county or area affected. Ad valorem property taxes are local taxes and are a large source of funding for school systems, counties, municipalities and other local government units. The South Dakota Special Tax Division regulates some taxes including cigarette and alcohol - related taxes.
South Dakota is represented at the federal level by Senator John Thune, Senator Mike Rounds, and Representative Kristi Noem. All three are Republicans. South Dakota is one of seven states with only one seat in the US House of Representatives. In United States presidential elections, South Dakota is allotted three of 538 votes in the Electoral College. As in all other states except Maine and neighboring Nebraska, South Dakota 's electoral votes are granted in a winner - take - all system.
South Dakota politics are generally dominated by the Republican Party. Since statehood, Republicans have carried the state 's electoral votes in all but five presidential elections: 1896, 1912 (By Theodore Roosevelt 's Progressive Party), 1932, 1936 and 1964. Only Alaska has been carried fewer times by Democrat presidential candidates. Not even George McGovern, the Democratic nominee in 1972 as well as a native South Dakotan, was able to carry the state. Additionally, a Democrat has not won the governorship since 1974. As of 2016, Republicans hold a 15 % voter registration advantage over Democrats and hold large majorities in both the state House of Representatives and Senate.
Despite the state 's general Republican and conservative leanings, Democrats have found success in various statewide elections, most notably in those involving South Dakota 's congressional representatives in Washington. American Indians have been becoming more active in state and county electoral politics. In the 2002 election, American Indian voting carried Tim Johnson as the Democratic candidate by a margin of 532 votes. Until his electoral defeat in 2004, Senator Tom Daschle was the Senate minority leader (and briefly its majority leader during Democratic control of the Senate in 2001 -- 02).
In 2016, South Dakota voted for Republican nominee Donald Trump over Democratic nominee Hillary Clinton by a margin of 30 %, incumbent Republican Senator John Thune won a third term against Democrat Jay Williams, and incumbent Republican congresswoman Kristi Noem defeated Democrat Paula Hawks for South Dakota 's at - large seat in the US House.
Contemporary political issues in South Dakota include the costs and benefits of the state lottery, South Dakota 's relatively low rankings in education spending (particularly teacher pay -- recently the State Sales Tax was increased from 4 % to 4.5 % to finance an increase in teacher pay), and recent legislative and electoral attempts to ban abortion in the state.
South Dakota 's culture reflects the state 's American Indian, rural, Western, and European roots. A number of annual events celebrating the state 's ethnic and historical heritage take place around the state, such as Days of ' 76 in Deadwood, Czech Days in Tabor, and the annual St. Patrick 's Day and Cinco de Mayo festivities in Sioux Falls. The various tribes hold many annual pow wows at their reservations throughout the state, to which non-Native Americans are sometimes invited. Custer State Park holds an annual Buffalo Roundup, in which volunteers on horseback gather the park 's herd of around 1,500 bison.
Black Elk (Lakota) was a medicine man and heyokha, whose life spanned the transition to reservations. His accounts of the 19th - century Indian Wars and Ghost Dance movement, and his deep thoughts on personal visions and Native American religion, form the basis of the book Black Elk Speaks, first published in 1932. (Among several editions, a premier annotated edition was published in 2008.) Paul Goble, an award - winning children 's book author and illustrator, has been based in the Black Hills since 1977.
Laura Ingalls Wilder, whose semi-autobiographical books are based on her experiences as a child and young adult on the frontier, is one of South Dakota 's best - known writers. She drew from her life growing up on a homestead near De Smet as the basis for five of her novels: By the Shores of Silver Lake, The Long Winter, Little Town on the Prairie, These Happy Golden Years, and The First Four Years. These gained renewed popularity in the United States when Little House on the Prairie was adapted and produced as a television series in the. Wilder 's daughter, Rose Wilder Lane, who became a well - known writer in her own right, was born near De Smet in 1886.
South Dakota has also produced several notable artists. Harvey Dunn grew up on a homestead near Manchester in the late 19th century. While Dunn worked most of his career as a commercial illustrator, his most famous works showed various scenes of frontier life; he completed these near the end of his career. Oscar Howe (Crow) was born on the Crow Creek Indian Reservation and won fame for his watercolor paintings. Howe was one of the first Native American painters to adopt techniques and style heavily influenced by the mid-20th century abstraction movement, rather than relying on traditional Native American styles. Terry Redlin, originally from Watertown, is an accomplished painter of rural and wildlife scenes. Many of Redlin 's works are on display at the Redlin Art Center in Watertown.
Sioux Falls is the largest city in South Dakota, with a 2010 population of 153,888, and a metropolitan area population of 238,122. The city, founded in 1856, is in the southeast corner of the state. Retail, finance, and healthcare have assumed greater importance in Sioux Falls, where the economy was originally centered on agri - business and quarrying.
Rapid City, with a 2010 population of 67,956, and a metropolitan area population of 124,766, is the second - largest city in the state. It is on the eastern edge of the Black Hills, and was founded in 1876. Rapid City 's economy is largely based on tourism and defense spending, because of the proximity of many tourist attractions in the Black Hills and Ellsworth Air Force Base.
The next eight largest cities in the state, in order of descending 2010 population, are Aberdeen (26,091), Brookings (22,056), Watertown (21,482), Mitchell (15,254), Yankton (14,454), Pierre (13,646), Huron (12,592), and Vermillion (10,571). Pierre is the state capital, and Brookings and Vermillion are the locations of the state 's two largest universities (South Dakota State University and University of South Dakota, respectively). With a population of about 14,000, Pierre is the second smallest state capital in the United States. Of the ten largest cities in the state, only Rapid City is west of the Missouri River.
South Dakota 's first newspaper, the Dakota Democrat, began publishing in Yankton in 1858. Today, the state 's largest newspaper is the Sioux Falls Argus Leader, with a Sunday circulation of 63,701 and a weekday circulation of 44,334. The Rapid City Journal, with a Sunday circulation of 32,638 and a weekday circulation of 27,827, is South Dakota 's second largest newspaper. The next four largest newspapers in the state are the Aberdeen American News, the Watertown Public Opinion, the Huron Plainsman, and the Brookings Register. In 1981, Tim Giago founded the Lakota Times as a newspaper for the local American Indian community on the Pine Ridge Indian Reservation. The newspaper, now published in New York and known as Indian Country Today, is available in every state in the country. The Sioux City Journal also covers parts of South Dakota.
There are nine television stations broadcasting in South Dakota; South Dakota Public Television broadcasts from a number of locations around the state, while the other stations broadcast from Sioux Falls or Rapid City. The two largest television media markets in South Dakota are Sioux Falls - Mitchell, with a viewership of 246,020, and Rapid City, with a viewership of 91,070. The two markets rank as 114th and 177th largest in the United States, respectively. The state 's first television station, KELO - TV, began airing in Sioux Falls in 1953. Among KELO 's early programs was Captain 11, an afternoon children 's program. Captain 11 ran from 1955 until 1996, making it the nation 's longest continuously running children 's television program.
A number of South Dakotans are famous for their work in television and publishing. Former NBC Nightly News anchor and author Tom Brokaw is from Webster and Yankton, USA Today founder Al Neuharth was from Eureka and Alpena, gameshow host Bob Barker spent much of his childhood in Mission, and entertainment news hosts Pat O'Brien and Mary Hart are from Sioux Falls.
As of 2006, South Dakota has a total primary and secondary school enrollment of 136,872, with 120,278 of these students being educated in the public school system. There are 703 public schools in 168 school districts, giving South Dakota the highest number of schools per capita in the United States. The current high school graduation rate is 89.9 %, and the average ACT score is 21.8, slightly above the national average of 21.1. 89.8 % of the adult population has earned at least a high school diploma, and 25.8 % has earned a bachelor 's degree or higher. South Dakota 's 2008 average public school teacher salary of $36,674, compared to a national average of $52,308, was the lowest in the nation. In 2007 South Dakota passed legislation modeled after Montana 's Indian Education for All Act (1999), mandating education about Native American tribal history, culture, and heritage in all the schools, from pre-school through college, in an effort to increase knowledge and appreciation about Indian culture among all residents of the state, as well as to reinforce Indian students ' understanding of their own cultures ' contributions.
The South Dakota Board of Regents, whose members are appointed by the governor, controls the six public universities in the state. South Dakota State University (SDSU), in Brookings, is the state 's largest university, with an enrollment of 12,831. The University of South Dakota (USD), in Vermillion, is the state 's oldest university, and has South Dakota 's only law school and medical school. South Dakota also has several private universities, the largest of which is Augustana College in Sioux Falls.
Because of its low population, South Dakota does not host any major league professional sports franchises. The state has minor league and independent league teams, all of which play in Sioux Falls or Rapid City. Sioux Falls is home to four teams: the Sioux Falls Canaries (baseball), the Sioux Falls Skyforce (basketball), the Sioux Falls Stampede (hockey), and the Sioux Falls Storm (indoor American football). The Canaries play in the American Association, and their home field is Sioux Falls Stadium. The Skyforce play in the NBA G League, and are owned by the NBA 's Miami Heat. They play at the Sanford Pentagon. The Stampede and Storm share the Denny Sanford Premier Center. The Stampede play in the USHL, and the Storm play in the CIF. Rapid City has a hockey team named the Rapid City Rush that plays in the ECHL. The Rush began their inaugural season in 2008 at the Rushmore Plaza Civic Center.
Universities in South Dakota host a variety of sports programs. For many years, South Dakota was one of the only states in the country without a NCAA Division I football or basketball team. However, several years ago SDSU decided to move their teams from Division II to Division I, a move followed by the University of South Dakota. Other universities in the state compete at the NCAA 's Division II or III levels, or in the NAIA.
Famous South Dakota athletes include Billy Mills, Mike Miller, Mark Ellis, Becky Hammon, Brock Lesnar, Chad Greenway, and Adam Vinatieri. Mills is from the town of Pine Ridge and competed at the 1964 Summer Olympic Games in Tokyo, becoming the only American to win a gold medal in the 10,000 - meter event. Miller, of Mitchell, is a two - time NBA champion who played college basketball at the University of Florida, leading them to the 2000 NCAA Championship game his sophomore year, and won the 2001 NBA rookie of the year award. Ellis, of Rapid City, played for the University of Florida and four MLB teams before retiring in 2015. Hammon, of Rapid City, played for the WNBA 's New York Liberty and San Antonio Silver Stars before becoming an assistant coach for the NBA 's San Antonio Spurs in 2014. Lesnar, of Webster, is a former heavy - weight champion in the UFC and WWE. Vinatieri is an NFL placekicker who grew up in Rapid City and attended SDSU.
Fishing and hunting are popular outdoor activities in South Dakota. Fishing contributes over $224 million to South Dakota 's economy, and hunting contributes over $303 million. In 2007, over 275,000 hunting licences and 175,000 fishing licences were sold in the state; around half of the hunting licences and over two - thirds of the fishing licences were purchased by South Dakotans. Popular species of game include pheasants, white - tailed deer, mule deer, and turkeys, as well as waterfowl such as Canada geese, snow geese, and mallards. Targets of anglers include walleye in the eastern glacial lakes and Missouri River reservoirs, Chinook salmon in Lake Oahe, and trout in the Black Hills.
Other sports, such as cycling and running, are also popular in the state. In 1991, the state opened the George S. Mickelson Trail, a 109 - mile (175 km) rail trail in the Black Hills. Besides being used by cyclists, the trail is also the site of a portion of the annual Mount Rushmore marathon; the marathon 's entire course is at an elevation of over 4,000 feet (1,200 m). Other events in the state include the Tour de Kota, a 478 - mile (769 km), six - day cycling event that covers much of eastern and central South Dakota, and the annual Sturgis Motorcycle Rally, which draws hundreds of thousands of participants from around the United States.
Some of South Dakota 's official state symbols include:
Coordinates: 44 ° 30 ′ N 100 ° 00 ′ W / 44.5 ° N 100 ° W / 44.5; - 100
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who does the voice of o'malley in aristocats | Phil Harris - wikipedia
Wonga Philip Harris (June 24, 1904 -- August 11, 1995) was an American comedian, actor, singer, and jazz musician. He was an orchestra leader and a pioneer in radio situation comedy, first with Jack Benny, then in a series in which he co-starred with his wife, singer - actress Alice Faye, for eight years. Harris is also noted for his voice acting in animated films. He played Baloo the bear in The Jungle Book (1967), Thomas O'Malley in The Aristocats (1970), and Little John in Robin Hood (1973). In 1981, he sang "Back Home Again in Indiana '' before the Indianapolis 500.
Harris was born in Linton, Indiana, but grew up in Nashville, Tennessee, and identified himself as a Southerner. His hallmark song was "That 's What I Like About the South ''. He had a trace of a Southern accent and in later years made self - deprecating jokes over the air about his heritage. His parents were circus performers. His father, a tent bandleader, gave him his first job as a drummer with the circus 's band.
Harris began his music career as a drummer in San Francisco, forming an orchestra with Carol Lofner in the latter 1920s and starting a long engagement at the St. Francis Hotel. The partnership ended by 1932, and Harris led a band in Los Angeles for which he was the singer and bandleader. During the mid-1920s, he played drums in the Henry Halstead Big Band Orchestra during the mid-1920s. In the 1930s, Lofner - Harris recorded swing music for Victor, Columbia, Decca, and Vocalion.
On September 2, 1927, he married actress Marcia Ralston in Sydney, Australia; they had met when he played a concert date. The couple adopted a son, Phil Harris Jr. (born 1935). Harris and his Marcia divorced in September 1940.
In 1933, he made a short film for RKO called So This Is Harris!, which won an Academy Award for best live action short subject. He followed with a feature - length film, Melody Cruise. Both films were created by the same team that produced Flying Down to Rio, which started the careers of Fred Astaire and Ginger Rogers. He also starred in I Love a Bandleader (1945) with Leslie Brooks. Here he played a house painter who gets amnesia, then starts to lead a band. He recorded Woodman, Spare That Tree (by George Pope Morris, Henry Russell) in 1947. His nickname was "Old Curly ''. Additionally, he appeared in The Wild Blue Yonder a.k.a. "Thunder Across the Pacific '' (1951), alongside Forrest Tucker and Walter Brennan. He made a cameo appearance in the Warner Bros. musical, Starlift, with Janice Rule and Dick Wesson, and was featured in The High and the Mighty with John Wayne in 1954.
In 1936, Harris became musical director of The Jell - O Show Starring Jack Benny (later renamed The Jack Benny Program), singing and leading his band, with Mahlon Merrick writing much of the show 's music. When he showed a knack for giving snappy one - liners, he joined the cast, portraying himself as a hip, hard - drinking Southerner whose good nature overcame his ego. He gave the others nicknames, such as "Jackson '' for Jack Benny. Addressing a man as "Jackson '' or "Mr. Jackson '' was popular slang in the late 1930s and early 1940s. His signature song was "That 's What I Like About the South ''. Many of his vocal recordings were comic novelty "talking blues '', similar to songs of Bert Williams, who is sometimes considered a precursor to rap. In 1946, Harris and wife Alice Faye began co-hosting The Fitch Bandwagon, a comedy - variety program that followed the Jack Benny show on Sunday nights.
Harris and Faye married in 1941; it was a second marriage for both (Faye had been married briefly to singer - actor Tony Martin) and lasted 54 years, until Harris 's death. Harris engaged in a fistfight at the Trocadero nightclub in 1938 with RKO studio mogul Bob Stevens; the cause was reported to be over Faye after Stevens and Faye had ended a romantic relationship.
In 1942, Harris and his band enlisted in the U.S. Navy, and they served until the end of World War II. By 1946, Faye had all but ended her film career. She drove off the 20th Century Fox parking lot after studio czar Darryl F. Zanuck reputedly edited her scenes out of Fallen Angel (1945) to pump up his protege Linda Darnell.
The Fitch Bandwagon started as a showcase for big bands, including Harris 's, but then it became a situation comedy, The Phil Harris - Alice Faye Show. Harris played a vain, stumbling husband, while Faye played his sarcastic but loving wife. Gerald Nachman has written that Harris was a soft - spoken, modest man off the air. In On the Air: The Encyclopedia of Old - Time Radio John Dunning wrote that Harris 's character made the show popular. The Phil Harris - Alice Faye Show appeared until 1954. Harris continued to appear on Jack Benny 's show from 1948 to 1952.
In 1956, Harris appeared in the film Good - bye, My Lady. He made numerous guest appearances on 1960s and 1970s television series, including The Steve Allen Show, the Kraft Music Hall, Burke 's Law, F Troop, The Dean Martin Show, The Hollywood Palace, and other musical variety programs. He appeared on The American Sportsman which took celebrities on hunting and fishing trips around the world.
Songs by Harris include the early 1950s novelty song, "The Thing ''. The song describes the hapless finder of a box with a mysterious secret and his efforts to rid himself of it. Harris also spent time in the 1970s and early 1980s leading a band that appeared often in Las Vegas, often on the same bill with bandleader Harry James.
Harris was a close friend and associate of Bing Crosby and appeared in an episode of ABC 's short - lived sitcom The Bing Crosby Show. After Crosby died in 1977, Harris replaced him as commentator for the annual Bing Crosby Pro-Am Golf Tournament.
Harris worked as a voice actor for the animated films Robin Hood (1973) and The Aristocats (1970). He provided the voice of Baloo the bear in The Jungle Book (1967). He reprised his role in 1989 for the cartoon series TaleSpin, but after a few recording sessions he was replaced by Ed Gilbert. His last role was in the film Rock - a-Doodle (1991).
Harris died of a heart attack at his Rancho Mirage home on August 11, 1995. Alice Faye died of stomach cancer three years later. He is interred at Forest Lawn Cemetery, Cathedral City, California.
Harris was a resident and benefactor of Palm Springs, California, where Bing Crosby lived. Harris was also a benefactor of his birthplace of Linton, Indiana, establishing scholarships in his honor for promising high school students, performing at the high school, and hosting a celebrity golf tournament in his honor every year. Harris and Faye donated most of their show business memorabilia and papers to Linton 's public library. Harris was inducted into the Indiana Hall of Fame.
In 1994, a Golden Palm Star on the Palm Springs Walk of Stars was dedicated to him.
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who was in charge during the revolutionary war | American Revolution - wikipedia
The American Revolution was a colonial revolt that took place between 1765 and 1783. The American Patriots in the Thirteen Colonies won independence from Great Britain, becoming the United States of America. They defeated the British in the American Revolutionary War in alliance with France and others.
Members of American colonial society argued the position of "no taxation without representation '', starting with the Stamp Act Congress in 1765. They rejected the authority of the British Parliament to tax them because they lacked representation in Parliament. Protests steadily escalated to the burning of the Gaspee in Rhode Island in 1772, followed by the Boston Tea Party in 1773, during which patriots destroyed a consignment of taxed tea. The British responded by closing Boston Harbor, then followed with a series of legislative acts which effectively rescinded Massachusetts Bay Colony 's rights of self - government and caused the other colonies to rally behind Massachusetts. In late 1774, the Patriots set up their own alternative government to better coordinate their resistance efforts against Great Britain; other colonists preferred to remain aligned to the British Crown and were known as Loyalists or Tories.
Tensions erupted into battle between Patriot militia and British regulars when the British attempted to capture and destroy Colonial military supplies at Lexington and Concord in April 1775. The conflict then developed into a global war, during which the Patriots (and later their French, Spanish, and Dutch allies) fought the British and Loyalists in what became known as the American Revolutionary War (1775 -- 83). Each of the thirteen colonies formed a Provincial Congress that assumed power from the old colonial governments and suppressed Loyalism, and from there they built a Continental Army under the leadership of General George Washington. The Continental Congress determined King George 's rule to be tyrannical and infringing the colonists ' rights as Englishmen, and they declared the colonies free and independent states on July 2, 1776. The Patriot leadership professed the political philosophies of liberalism and republicanism to reject monarchy and aristocracy, and they proclaimed that all men are created equal.
The Continental Army forced the British out of Boston in 1776, but the British captured and held New York City for the duration of the war. The British blockaded ports and captured other cities for brief periods, but they failed to defeat Washington 's forces. The Patriots unsuccessfully attempted to invade Canada during the winter of 1775 -- 76, but they captured a British army at the Battle of Saratoga in late 1777, and the French entered the war as allies of the United States as a result. The war later turned to the American South where the British under the leadership of Charles Cornwallis captured an army at South Carolina but failed to enlist enough volunteers from Loyalist civilians to take effective control of the territory. A combined American -- French force captured a second British army at Yorktown in 1781, effectively ending the war in the United States. The Treaty of Paris in 1783 formally ended the conflict, confirming the new nation 's complete separation from the British Empire. The United States took possession of nearly all the territory east of the Mississippi River and south of the Great Lakes, with the British retaining control of Canada and Spain taking Florida.
Among the significant results of the revolution was the creation of a new Constitution of the United States. The new Constitution established a relatively strong federal national government that included an executive, a national judiciary, and a bicameral Congress that represented states in the Senate and the population in the House of Representatives. The Revolution also resulted in the migration of around 60,000 Loyalists to other British territories, especially British North America (Canada).
Historians typically begin their histories of the American Revolution with the British coalition victory in the Seven Years ' War in 1763. The North American theater of the Seven Years ' War, commonly known as the French and Indian War in the United States, removed France as a major player in North American affairs and led to the cession of the territory of New France to Great Britain. Lawrence Henry Gipson, the historian of the British Empire, states:
The Royal Proclamation of 1763 may have played a role in the separation of the United States from Great Britain, as colonists at the time wanted to continue in the economically beneficial cultural practice of taking land for one 's own livelihood as part of the drive west. The lands west of Quebec and west of a line running along the crest of the Allegheny mountains became Indian territory, temporarily barred to settlement.
As early as 1651, the English government had sought to regulate trade in the American colonies. On October 9, the Navigation Acts were passed to ensure that trade enriched only Britain, barring trade with other nations. Some argue that the economic impact was minimal on the colonists, but the political friction which the acts triggered was more serious, as the merchants most directly affected were most politically active. King Philip 's War ended in 1678, and much of it was fought without significant assistance from England. This contributed to the development of a unique identity, separate from that of Britain.
In the 1680s, King Charles II determined to bring the New England colonies under a more centralized administration in order to regulate trade more effectively. His efforts were fiercely opposed by the colonists, resulting in the abrogation of their colonial charter by the Crown. Charles ' successor James II finalized these efforts in 1686, establishing the Dominion of New England. Dominion rule triggered bitter resentment throughout New England; the enforcement of the unpopular Navigation Acts and the curtailing of local democracy angered the colonists. New Englanders were encouraged, however, by a change of government in England that saw James II effectively abdicate, and a populist uprising overthrew Dominion rule on April 18, 1689. Colonial governments reasserted their control in the wake of the revolt, and successive governments made no more attempts to restore the Dominion.
Subsequent English governments continued in their efforts to tax certain goods, passing acts regulating the trade of wool, hats, and molasses. The Molasses Act of 1733 in particular was egregious to the colonists, as a significant part of colonial trade relied on the product. The taxes severely damaged the New England economy, and the taxes were rarely paid as a result, resulting in a surge of smuggling, bribery, and intimidation of customs officials. Colonial wars fought in America were often the source of considerable tension. The British captured the fortress of Louisbourg during the War of the Austrian Succession, but then ceded it back to France in 1748. New England colonists resented their losses of lives, as well as the effort and expenditure involved in subduing the fortress, only to have it returned to their erstwhile enemy.
In 1764, Parliament passed the Currency Act to restrain the use of paper money, fearing that otherwise the colonists might evade debt payments. Parliament also passed the Sugar Act, imposing customs duties on a number of articles. That same year, Prime Minister George Grenville proposed direct taxes on the colonies to raise revenue, but he delayed action to see whether the colonies would propose some way to raise the revenue themselves. Parliament finally passed the Stamp Act in March 1765 which imposed direct taxes on the colonies for the first time. All official documents, newspapers, almanacs, and pamphlets were required to have the stamps -- even decks of playing cards.
The colonists did not object that the taxes were high; they were actually low. They objected to the fact that they had no representation in the Parliament, and thus no voice concerning legislation that affected them. Benjamin Franklin testified in Parliament in 1766 that Americans already contributed heavily to the defense of the Empire. He said that local governments had raised, outfitted, and paid 25,000 soldiers to fight France -- as many as Britain itself sent -- and spent many millions from American treasuries doing so in the French and Indian War alone. London had to deal with 1,500 politically well - connected British Army soldiers. The decision was to keep them on active duty with full pay, but they had to be stationed somewhere. Stationing a standing army in Great Britain during peacetime was politically unacceptable, so the decision was made to station them in America and have the Americans pay them. The soldiers had no military mission; they were not there to defend the colonies because there was no threat to the colonies.
The Sons of Liberty were formed in 1765. They used public demonstrations, boycott, violence, and threats of violence to ensure that the British tax laws were unenforceable. In Boston, the Sons of Liberty burned the records of the vice admiralty court and looted the home of chief justice Thomas Hutchinson. Several legislatures called for united action, and nine colonies sent delegates to the Stamp Act Congress in New York City in October 1765. Moderates led by John Dickinson drew up a "Declaration of Rights and Grievances '' stating that taxes passed without representation violated their rights as Englishmen. Colonists emphasized their determination by boycotting imports of British merchandise.
The Parliament at Westminster saw itself as the supreme lawmaking authority throughout all British possessions and thus entitled to levy any tax without colonial approval. They argued that the colonies were legally British corporations that were completely subordinate to the British parliament and pointed to numerous instances where Parliament had made laws binding on the colonies in the past. They did not see anything in the unwritten British constitution that made taxes special and noted that they had taxed American trade for decades. Parliament insisted that the colonies effectively enjoyed a "virtual representation '' as most British people did, as only a small minority of the British population elected representatives to Parliament. Americans such as James Otis maintained that the Americans were not in fact virtually represented.
In London, the Rockingham government came to power (July 1765) and Parliament debated whether to repeal the stamp tax or to send an army to enforce it. Benjamin Franklin made the case for repeal, explaining that the colonies had spent heavily in manpower, money, and blood in defense of the empire in a series of wars against the French and Indians, and that further taxes to pay for those wars were unjust and might bring about a rebellion. Parliament agreed and repealed the tax (February 21, 1766), but insisted in the Declaratory Act of March 1766 that they retained full power to make laws for the colonies "in all cases whatsoever ''. The repeal nonetheless caused widespread celebrations in the colonies.
In 1767, the Parliament passed the Townshend Acts which placed duties on a number of essential goods, including paper, glass, and tea, and established a Board of Customs in Boston to more rigorously execute trade regulations. The new taxes were enacted on the belief that Americans only objected to internal taxes and not to external taxes such as custom duties. The Americans, however, argued against the constitutionality of the act because its purpose was to raise revenue and not regulate trade. Colonists responded by organizing new boycotts of British goods. These boycotts were less effective, however, as the Townshend goods were widely used.
In February 1768, the Assembly of Massachusetts Bay issued a circular letter to the other colonies urging them to coordinate resistance. The governor dissolved the assembly when it refused to rescind the letter. Meanwhile, a riot broke out in Boston in June 1768 over the seizure of the sloop Liberty, owned by John Hancock, for alleged smuggling. Customs officials were forced to flee, prompting the British to deploy troops to Boston. A Boston town meeting declared that no obedience was due to parliamentary laws and called for the convening of a convention. A convention assembled but only issued a mild protest before dissolving itself. In January 1769, Parliament responded to the unrest by reactivating the Treason Act 1543 which called for subjects outside the realm to face trials for treason in England. The governor of Massachusetts was instructed to collect evidence of said treason, and the threat caused widespread outrage, though it was not carried out.
On March 5, 1770, a large crowd gathered around a group of British soldiers. The crowd grew threatening, throwing snowballs, rocks, and debris at them. One soldier was clubbed and fell. There was no order to fire, but the soldiers fired into the crowd anyway. They hit 11 people; three civilians died at the scene of the shooting, and two died after the incident. The event quickly came to be called the Boston Massacre. The soldiers were tried and acquitted (defended by John Adams), but the widespread descriptions soon began to turn colonial sentiment against the British. This, in turn, began a downward spiral in the relationship between Britain and the Province of Massachusetts.
A new ministry under Lord North came to power in 1770, and Parliament withdrew all taxes except the tax on tea, giving up its efforts to raise revenue while maintaining the right to tax. This temporarily resolved the crisis, and the boycott of British goods largely ceased, with only the more radical patriots such as Samuel Adams continuing to agitate.
In June 1772, American patriots, including John Brown, burned a British warship that had been vigorously enforcing unpopular trade regulations in what became known as the Gaspee Affair. The affair was investigated for possible treason, but no action was taken.
In 1772, it became known that the Crown intended to pay fixed salaries to the governors and judges in Massachusetts. Samuel Adams in Boston set about creating new Committees of Correspondence, which linked Patriots in all 13 colonies and eventually provided the framework for a rebel government. Virginia, the largest colony, set up its Committee of Correspondence in early 1773, on which Patrick Henry and Thomas Jefferson served.
A total of about 7000 to 8000 Patriots served on "Committees of Correspondence '' at the colonial and local levels, comprising most of the leadership in their communities. Loyalists were excluded. The committees became the leaders of the American resistance to British actions, and largely determined the war effort at the state and local level. When the First Continental Congress decided to boycott British products, the colonial and local Committees took charge, examining merchant records and publishing the names of merchants who attempted to defy the boycott by importing British goods.
In 1773, private letters were published in which Massachusetts Governor Thomas Hutchinson claimed that the colonists could not enjoy all English liberties, and Lieutenant Governor Andrew Oliver called for the direct payment of colonial officials. The letters ' contents were used as evidence of a systematic plot against American rights, and discredited Hutchinson in the eyes of the people; the Assembly petitioned for his recall. Benjamin Franklin, postmaster general for the colonies, acknowledged that he leaked the letters, which led to him being berated by British officials and fired from his job.
Meanwhile, Parliament passed the Tea Act to lower the price of taxed tea exported to the colonies in order to help the East India Company undersell smuggled Dutch tea. Special consignees were appointed to sell the tea in order to bypass colonial merchants. The act was opposed by those who resisted the taxes and also by smugglers who stood to lose business. In most instances, the consignees were forced to resign and the tea was turned back, but Massachusetts governor Hutchinson refused to allow Boston merchants to give in to pressure. A town meeting in Boston determined that the tea would not be landed, and ignored a demand from the governor to disperse. On December 16, 1773, a group of men, led by Samuel Adams and dressed to evoke the appearance of American Indians, boarded the ships of the British East India Company and dumped £ 10,000 worth of tea from their holds (approximately £ 636,000 in 2008) into Boston Harbor. Decades later, this event became known as the Boston Tea Party and remains a significant part of American patriotic lore.
The British government responded by passing several Acts which came to be known as the Intolerable Acts, which further darkened colonial opinion towards the British. They consisted of four laws enacted by the British parliament. The first was the Massachusetts Government Act which altered the Massachusetts charter and restricted town meetings. The second act was the Administration of Justice Act which ordered that all British soldiers to be tried were to be arraigned in Britain, not in the colonies. The third Act was the Boston Port Act, which closed the port of Boston until the British had been compensated for the tea lost in the Boston Tea Party. The fourth Act was the Quartering Act of 1774, which allowed royal governors to house British troops in the homes of citizens without requiring permission of the owner.
In response, Massachusetts patriots issued the Suffolk Resolves and formed an alternative shadow government known as the "Provincial Congress '' which began training militia outside British - occupied Boston. In September 1774, the First Continental Congress convened, consisting of representatives from each of the colonies, to serve as a vehicle for deliberation and collective action. During secret debates, conservative Joseph Galloway proposed the creation of a colonial Parliament that would be able to approve or disapprove of acts of the British Parliament, but his idea was not accepted. The Congress instead endorsed the proposal of John Adams that Americans would obey Parliament voluntarily but would resist all taxes in disguise. Congress called for a boycott beginning on 1 December 1774 of all British goods; it was enforced by new committees authorized by the Congress.
Massachusetts was declared in a state of rebellion in February 1775 and the British garrison received orders to disarm the rebels and arrest their leaders, leading to the Battles of Lexington and Concord on 19 April 1775. The Patriots laid siege to Boston, expelled royal officials from all the colonies, and took control through the establishment of Provincial Congresses. The Battle of Bunker Hill followed on June 17, 1775. It was a British victory -- but at a great cost: about 1,000 British casualties from a garrison of about 6,000, as compared to 500 American casualties from a much larger force. The Second Continental Congress was divided on the best course of action, but eventually produced the Olive Branch Petition, in which they attempted to come to an accord with King George. The king, however, issued a Proclamation of Rebellion which stated that the states were "in rebellion '' and the members of Congress were traitors.
In the winter of 1775, the Americans invaded Canada under generals Benedict Arnold and Richard Montgomery. The attack was a complete failure; many Americans who were n't killed were either captured or died of smallpox.
In March 1776, the Continental Army forced the British to evacuate Boston, with George Washington as the commander of the new army. The revolutionaries were now in full control of all 13 colonies and were ready to declare independence. There still were many Loyalists, but they were no longer in control anywhere by July 1776, and all of the Royal officials had fled.
Following the Battle of Bunker Hill in June 1775, the Patriots had control of Massachusetts outside the Boston city limits, and the Loyalists suddenly found themselves on the defensive with no protection from the British army. In all 13 colonies, Patriots had overthrown their existing governments, closing courts and driving away British officials. They had elected conventions and "legislatures '' that existed outside any legal framework; new constitutions were drawn up in each state to supersede royal charters. They declared that they were states now, not colonies.
On January 5, 1776, New Hampshire ratified the first state constitution. In May 1776, Congress voted to suppress all forms of crown authority, to be replaced by locally created authority. Virginia, South Carolina, and New Jersey created their constitutions before July 4. Rhode Island and Connecticut simply took their existing royal charters and deleted all references to the crown. The new states were all committed to republicanism, with no inherited offices. They decided what form of government to create, and also how to select those who would craft the constitutions and how the resulting document would be ratified. On 26 May 1776, John Adams wrote James Sullivan from Philadelphia:
"Depend upon it, sir, it is dangerous to open so fruitful a source of controversy and altercation, as would be opened by attempting to alter the qualifications of voters. There will be no end of it. New claims will arise. Women will demand a vote. Lads from twelve to twenty one will think their rights not enough attended to, and every man, who has not a farthing, will demand an equal voice with any other in all acts of state. It tends to confound and destroy all distinctions, and prostrate all ranks, to one common level ''.
The resulting constitutions in states such as Maryland, Virginia, Delaware, New York, and Massachusetts featured:
In Pennsylvania, New Jersey, and New Hampshire, the resulting constitutions embodied:
The radical provisions of Pennsylvania 's constitution lasted only 14 years. In 1790, conservatives gained power in the state legislature, called a new constitutional convention, and rewrote the constitution. The new constitution substantially reduced universal male suffrage, gave the governor veto power and patronage appointment authority, and added an upper house with substantial wealth qualifications to the unicameral legislature. Thomas Paine called it a constitution unworthy of America.
In April 1776, the North Carolina Provincial Congress issued the Halifax Resolves, explicitly authorizing its delegates to vote for independence. In May, Congress called on all the states to write constitutions and eliminate the last remnants of royal rule.
By June, nine colonies were ready for independence; one by one, the last four fell into line -- Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, and New York. Richard Henry Lee was instructed by the Virginia legislature to propose independence, and he did so on June 7, 1776. On the 11th, a committee was created to draft a document explaining the justifications for separation from Britain. After securing enough votes for passage, independence was voted for on July 2. The Declaration of Independence was drafted largely by Thomas Jefferson and presented by the committee; it was slightly revised and unanimously adopted by the entire Congress on July 4, marking the formation of a new sovereign nation which called itself the United States of America.
The Second Continental Congress approved a new constitution, the "Articles of Confederation, '' for ratification by the states on November 15, 1777, and immediately began operating under their terms. The Articles were formally ratified on March 1, 1781. At that point, the Continental Congress was dissolved and a new government of the United States in Congress Assembled took its place on the following day, with Samuel Huntington as presiding officer.
According to British historian Jeremy Black, the British had significant advantages, including a highly trained army, the world 's largest navy, and a highly efficient system of public finance that could easily fund the war. However, the British were seriously handicapped by their misunderstanding of the depth of support for the Patriot position. Ignoring the advice of General Gage, they misinterpreted the situation as merely a large - scale riot. London decided that they could overawe the Americans by sending a large military and naval force, forcing them to be loyal again:
Convinced that the Revolution was the work of a full few miscreants who had rallied an armed rabble to their cause, they expected that the revolutionaries would be intimidated.... Then the vast majority of Americans, who were loyal but cowed by the terroristic tactics... would rise up, kick out the rebels, and restore loyal government in each colony.
Washington forced the British out of Boston in the spring of 1776, and neither the British nor the Loyalists controlled any significant areas. The British, however, were massing forces at their naval base at Halifax, Nova Scotia. They returned in force in July 1776, landing in New York and defeating Washington 's Continental Army in August at the Battle of Brooklyn. Following that victory, the British requested a meeting with representatives from Congress to negotiate an end to hostilities.
A delegation including John Adams and Benjamin Franklin met Howe on Staten Island in New York Harbor on September 11, in what became known as the Staten Island Peace Conference. Howe demanded a retraction of the Declaration of Independence, which was refused, and negotiations ended. The British then quickly seized New York City and nearly captured Washington 's army. They made New York their main political and military base of operations in North America, holding it until November 1783. The city became the destination for Loyalist refugees and a focal point of Washington 's intelligence network.
The British also took New Jersey, pushing the Continental Army into Pennsylvania. Washington crossed the Delaware River back into New Jersey in a surprise attack in late December 1776 and defeated Hessian and British armies at Trenton and Princeton, thereby regaining control of most of New Jersey. The victories gave an important boost to Patriots at a time when morale was flagging, and have become iconic events of the war.
In 1777, the British sent Burgoyne 's invasion force from Canada south to New York to seal off New England. Their aim was to neutralize the Yankees, whom the British perceived as the primary source of agitators. The British army in New York City went to Philadelphia in a major case of mis - coordination, capturing it from Washington. The invasion army under Burgoyne was much too slow and became trapped in northern New York state. It surrendered after the Battles of Saratoga in October 1777. From early October 1777 until November 15, a siege distracted British troops at Fort Mifflin, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania and allowed Washington time to preserve the Continental Army by safely leading his troops to harsh winter quarters at Valley Forge.
In August 1775, George III declared Americans in arms against royal authority to be traitors to the Crown. Following their surrender at the Battles of Saratoga in October 1777, there were thousands of British and Hessian soldiers in American hands. Although Lord Germain took a hard line, the British generals on the scene never held treason trials; they treated captured enemy soldiers as prisoners of war. The dilemma was that tens of thousands of Loyalists were under American control and American retaliation would have been easy. The British built much of their strategy around using these Loyalists, and therefore, no Americans were put on trial for treason. The British maltreated the prisoners whom they held, resulting in more deaths to American sailors and soldiers than from combat operations. At the end of the war, both sides released their surviving prisoners.
The capture of a British army at Saratoga encouraged the French to formally enter the war in support of Congress. Benjamin Franklin negotiated a permanent military alliance in early 1778, significantly becoming the first country to officially recognize the Declaration of Independence. On February 6, 1778, a Treaty of Amity and Commerce and a Treaty of Alliance were signed between the United States and France. William Pitt spoke out in parliament urging Britain to make peace in America and to unite with America against France, while other British politicians who had previously sympathized with colonial grievances now turned against the Americans for allying with Britain 's international rival and enemy.
Later, Spain (in 1779) and the Dutch (1780) became allies of the French, leaving the British Empire to fight a global war alone without major allies, and requiring it to slip through a combined blockade of the Atlantic. The American theater thus became only one front in Britain 's war. The British were forced to withdraw troops from continental America to reinforce the valuable sugar - producing Caribbean colonies, which were more lucrative to British investors.
British commander Sir Henry Clinton evacuated Philadelphia and returned to New York City. General Washington intercepted Clinton in the Battle of Monmouth Court House, the last major battle fought in the north. After an inconclusive engagement, the British successfully retreated to New York City. The northern war subsequently became a stalemate, as the focus of attention shifted to the smaller southern theater.
The British strategy in America now concentrated on a campaign in the southern states. With fewer regular troops at their disposal, the British commanders saw the "southern strategy '' as a more viable plan, as the south was perceived as being more strongly Loyalist, with a large population of recent immigrants as well as large numbers of slaves who might be captured or run away to join the British.
Beginning in late December 1778, the British captured Savannah and controlled the Georgia coastline. In 1780, they launched a fresh invasion and took Charleston, as well. A significant victory at the Battle of Camden meant that royal forces soon controlled most of Georgia and South Carolina. The British set up a network of forts inland, hoping that the Loyalists would rally to the flag.
Not enough Loyalists turned out, however, and the British had to fight their way north into North Carolina and Virginia, with a severely weakened army. Behind them, much of the territory that they had already captured dissolved into a chaotic guerrilla war, fought predominantly between bands of Loyalist and American militia, which negated many of the gains that the British had previously made.
The British army under Cornwallis marched to Yorktown, Virginia where they expected to be rescued by a British fleet. The fleet showed up, but so did a larger French fleet, so the British fleet returned to New York for reinforcements after the Battle of the Chesapeake, leaving Cornwallis trapped. In October 1781, the British surrendered their second invading army of the war, under a siege by the combined French and Continental armies commanded by Washington.
Historians continue to debate whether the odds for American victory were long or short. John E. Ferling says that the odds were so long that the American victory was "almost a miracle ''. On the other hand, Joseph Ellis says that the odds favored the Americans, and asks whether there ever was any realistic chance for the British to win. He argues that this opportunity came only once, in the summer of 1776, and the British failed that test. Admiral Howe and his brother General Howe "missed several opportunities to destroy the Continental Army... Chance, luck, and even the vagaries of the weather played crucial roles. '' Ellis 's point is that the strategic and tactical decisions of the Howes were fatally flawed because they underestimated the challenges posed by the Patriots. Ellis concludes that, once the Howe brothers failed, the opportunity for a British victory "would never come again. ''
Support for the conflict had never been strong in Britain, where many sympathized with the Americans, but now it reached a new low. King George III personally wanted to fight on, but his supporters lost control of Parliament and no further major land offensives were launched in the American Theater.
Washington could not know that the British would not reopen hostilities after Yorktown. They still had 26,000 troops occupying New York City, Charleston, and Savannah, together with a powerful fleet. The French army and navy departed, so the Americans were on their own in 1782 -- 83. The treasury was empty, and the unpaid soldiers were growing restive, almost to the point of mutiny or possible coup d'état. The unrest among officers of the Newburgh Conspiracy was personally dispelled by Washington in 1783, and Congress subsequently created the promise of a five years bonus for all officers.
During negotiations in Paris, the American delegation discovered that France would support independence, but no territorial gains. The new nation would be confined to the area east of the Appalachian Mountains. The American delegation opened direct secret negotiations with London, cutting the French out. British Prime Minister Lord Shelburne was in full charge of the British negotiations. He now saw a chance to make the United States a valuable economic partner. The US obtained all the land east of the Mississippi River, south of Canada, and north of Florida. It gained fishing rights off Canadian coasts, and agreed to allow British merchants and Loyalists to try to recover their property. It was a highly favorable treaty for the United States, and deliberately so from the British point of view. Prime Minister Shelburne foresaw highly profitable two - way trade between Britain and the rapidly growing United States, as indeed came to pass. Since the blockade was lifted and the old imperial restrictions were gone, American merchants were free to trade with any nation anywhere in the world, and their businesses flourished.
The British largely abandoned the Indian allies living in the new nation. They were not a party to this treaty and did not recognize it until they were defeated militarily by the United States. However, the British did promise to support the Indians. They sold them munitions and maintained forts in American territory until the Jay Treaty of 1795.
Losing the war and the 13 colonies was a shock to Britain. The war revealed the limitations of Britain 's fiscal - military state when they discovered that they suddenly faced powerful enemies with no allies, and they were dependent on extended and vulnerable transatlantic lines of communication. The defeat heightened dissension and escalated political antagonism to the King 's ministers. Inside parliament, the primary concern changed from fears of an over-mighty monarch to the issues of representation, parliamentary reform, and government retrenchment. Reformers sought to destroy what they saw as widespread institutional corruption.
The result was a powerful crisis from 1776 to 1783. The peace in 1783 left France financially prostrate, while the British economy boomed thanks to the return of American business. The crisis ended after 1784 thanks to the King 's shrewdness in outwitting Charles James Fox (the leader of the Fox - North Coalition), and renewed confidence in the system engendered by the leadership of the new Prime Minister William Pitt. Historians conclude that loss of the American colonies enabled Britain to deal with the French Revolution with more unity and better organization than would otherwise have been the case. Britain turned towards Asia, the Pacific and later Africa with subsequent exploration leading to the rise of the Second British Empire.
Britain 's war against the Americans, French, and Spanish cost about £ 100 million. The Treasury borrowed 40 % of the money that it needed. Heavy spending brought France to the verge of bankruptcy and revolution, while the British had relatively little difficulty financing their war, keeping their suppliers and soldiers paid, and hiring tens of thousands of German soldiers.
Britain had a sophisticated financial system based on the wealth of thousands of landowners, who supported the government, together with banks and financiers in London. The British tax system collected about 12 percent of the GDP in taxes during the 1770s.
In sharp contrast, Congress and the American states had no end of difficulty financing the war. In 1775, there was at most 12 million dollars in gold in the colonies, not nearly enough to cover current transactions, let alone finance a major war. The British made the situation much worse by imposing a tight blockade on every American port, which cut off almost all imports and exports. One partial solution was to rely on volunteer support from militiamen and donations from patriotic citizens. Another was to delay actual payments, pay soldiers and suppliers in depreciated currency, and promise that it would be made good after the war. Indeed, the soldiers and officers were given land grants in 1783 to cover the wages that they had earned but had not been paid during the war. Not until 1781 did the national government have a strong leader in financial matters, when Robert Morris was named Superintendent of Finance of the United States.
Morris used a French loan in 1782 to set up the private Bank of North America to finance the war. Seeking greater efficiency, Morris reduced the civil list, saved money by using competitive bidding for contracts, tightened accounting procedures, and demanded the national government 's full share of money and supplies from the confederated states.
Congress used four main methods to cover the cost of the war, which cost about 66 million dollars in specie (gold and silver). Congress made two issues of paper money -- in 1775 -- 1780 and in 1780 -- 81. The first issue amounted to 242 million dollars. This paper money would supposedly be redeemed for state taxes, but the holders were eventually paid off in 1791 at the rate of one cent on the dollar. By 1780, the paper money was "not worth a Continental '', as people said.
The skyrocketing inflation was a hardship on the few people who had fixed incomes -- but 90 percent of the people were farmers, and were not directly affected by that inflation. Debtors benefited by paying off their debts with depreciated paper. The greatest burden was borne by the soldiers of the Continental Army, whose wages were usually in arrears and declined in value every month, weakening their morale and adding to the hardships of their families.
Beginning in 1777, Congress repeatedly asked the states to provide money. But the states had no system of taxation either, and were little help. By 1780, Congress was making requisitions for specific supplies of corn, beef, pork, and other necessities -- an inefficient system that kept the army barely alive.
Starting in 1776, the Congress sought to raise money by loans from wealthy individuals, promising to redeem the bonds after the war. The bonds were in fact redeemed in 1791 at face value, but the scheme raised little money because Americans had little specie, and many of the rich merchants were supporters of the Crown. Starting in 1776, the French secretly supplied the Americans with money, gunpowder, and munitions in order to weaken its arch enemy Great Britain. When France officially entered the war in 1778, the subsidies continued, and the French government, as well as bankers in Paris and Amsterdam, lent large sums to the American war effort. These loans were repaid in full in the 1790s.
The war finally ended in 1783 and was followed by a period of prosperity. The national government was still operating under the Articles of Confederation and was able to settle the issue of the western territories, which were ceded by the states to Congress. American settlers moved rapidly into those areas, with Vermont, Kentucky, and Tennessee becoming states in the 1790s.
However, the national government had no money to pay either the war debts owed to European nations and the private banks, or to pay Americans who had been given millions of dollars of promissory notes for supplies during the war. Nationalists led by Washington, Alexander Hamilton, and other veterans feared that the new nation was too fragile to withstand an international war, or even internal revolts such as the Shays ' Rebellion of 1786 in Massachusetts.
Calling themselves "Federalists, '' the nationalists convinced Congress to call the Philadelphia Convention in 1787. It adopted a new Constitution that provided for a much stronger federal government, including an effective executive in a check - and - balance system with the judiciary and legislature. The Constitution was ratified in 1788, after a fierce debate in the states over the nature of the proposed new government. The new government under President George Washington took office in New York in March 1789. Amendments to the Constitution were spearheaded in Congress by James Madison as assurances to those who were cautious about federal power, guaranteeing many of the inalienable rights that formed a foundation for the revolution. The amendments were ratified by the states in 1791.
The national debt fell into three categories after the American Revolution. The first was the $12 million owed to foreigners, mostly money borrowed from France. There was general agreement to pay the foreign debts at full value. The national government owed $40 million and state governments owed $25 million to Americans who had sold food, horses, and supplies to the revolutionary forces. There were also other debts that consisted of promissory notes issued during the Revolutionary War to soldiers, merchants, and farmers who accepted these payments on the premise that the new Constitution would create a government that would pay these debts eventually.
The war expenses of the individual states added up to $114 million compared to $37 million by the central government. In 1790, Congress combined the remaining state debts with the foreign and domestic debts into one national debt totaling $80 million at the recommendation of first Secretary of the Treasury Alexander Hamilton. Everyone received face value for wartime certificates, so that the national honor would be sustained and the national credit established.
The population of the 13 Colonies was not homogeneous in their political views and attitudes. Loyalties and allegiances varied widely within regions and communities and even within families, and sometimes shifted during the course of the Revolution.
The American Enlightenment was a critical precursor of the American Revolution. Chief among the ideas of the American Enlightenment were the concepts of Natural Law, Natural Rights, Consent of the Governed, Individualism, Property Rights, Self - Ownership, Self - Determination, liberalism, republicanism and fear of corruption. Collectively, the acceptance of these concepts by a growing number of American colonists began to foster an intellectual environment which would lead to a new sense of political and social identity.
John Locke 's (1632 -- 1704) ideas on liberty influenced the political thinking behind the revolution, especially through his indirect influence on English writers such as John Trenchard, Thomas Gordon, and Benjamin Hoadly, whose political ideas in turn had a strong influence on the American revolutionaries. Locke is often referred to as "the philosopher of the American Revolution '', and is credited with leading Americans to the critical concepts of social contract, natural rights, and "born free and equal. '' Locke 's Two Treatises of Government published in 1689 were especially influential. He argued that all humans were created equally free, and governments therefore needed the "consent of the governed. '' In late eighteenth - century America, belief was still widespread in "equality by creation '' and "rights by creation ''.
The theory of the "social contract '' influenced the belief among many of the Founders that among the "natural rights '' of man was the right of the people to overthrow their leaders, should those leaders betray the historic rights of Englishmen. In terms of writing state and national constitutions, the Americans heavily used Montesquieu 's analysis of the wisdom of the "balanced '' British Constitution (mixed government).
A central motivating force behind the overthrow of monarchy and aristocracy was the American embrace of a political ideology called "republicanism '', which was dominant in the colonies by 1775 but of minor importance back in Great Britain. The republicanism was inspired by the "country party '' in Great Britain, whose critique of British government emphasized that corruption was a terrible reality in Great Britain. Americans feared that the corruption was crossing the Atlantic; the commitment of most Americans to republican values and to their rights energized the revolution, as Britain was increasingly seen as hopelessly corrupt and hostile to American interests. Britain seemed to threaten the established liberties that Americans enjoyed. The greatest threat to liberty was depicted as corruption -- not just in London but at home, as well. The colonists associated it with luxury, and especially with inherited aristocracy, which they condemned.
The Founding Fathers were strong advocates of republican values, particularly Samuel Adams, Patrick Henry, John Adams, Benjamin Franklin, Thomas Jefferson, Thomas Paine, George Washington, James Madison, and Alexander Hamilton, which required men to put civic duty ahead of their personal desires. Men had a civic duty to be prepared and willing to fight for the rights and liberties of their countrymen. John Adams wrote to Mercy Otis Warren in 1776, agreeing with some classical Greek and Roman thinkers in that "Public Virtue can not exist without private, and public Virtue is the only Foundation of Republics. '' He continued:
There must be a positive Passion for the public good, the public Interest, Honour, Power, and Glory, established in the Minds of the People, or there can be no Republican Government, nor any real Liberty. And this public Passion must be Superior to all private Passions. Men must be ready, they must pride themselves, and be happy to sacrifice their private Pleasures, Passions, and Interests, nay their private Friendships and dearest connections, when they Stand in Competition with the Rights of society.
For women, "republican motherhood '' became the ideal, exemplified by Abigail Adams and Mercy Otis Warren; the first duty of the republican woman was to instill republican values in her children and to avoid luxury and ostentation.
Some republics had emerged throughout history, such as the Roman Republic of the ancient world, but none ever existed that was based on liberal principles. Thomas Paine 's pamphlet Common Sense appeared in January 1776, after the Revolution had started. It was widely distributed and loaned, and often read aloud in taverns, contributing significantly to spreading the ideas of republicanism and liberalism together, bolstering enthusiasm for separation from Great Britain, and encouraging recruitment for the Continental Army.
Paine provided a new and widely accepted argument for independence by advocating a complete break with history. Common Sense is oriented to the future in a way that compels the reader to make an immediate choice. It offered a solution for Americans disgusted and alarmed at the threat of tyranny.
Dissenting churches of the day (i.e., Protestant, non-Church of England) were, in the words of Patricia Bonomi, the "school of democracy. '' President John Witherspoon of the College of New Jersey (now Princeton University) wrote widely circulated sermons linking the American Revolution to the teachings of the Bible. Throughout the colonies, dissenting Protestant ministers (Congregationalist, Baptist, and Presbyterian) preached Revolutionary themes in their sermons, while most Church of England clergymen preached loyalty to the king, the titular head of the English state church. Religious motivation for fighting tyranny transcended socioeconomic lines to encompass rich and poor, men and women, frontiersmen and townsmen, farmers and merchants.
The Declaration also referred to the "Laws of Nature and of Nature 's God '' as justification for the Americans ' separation from the British monarchy. Most eighteenth - century Americans believed that nature, the entire universe, was God 's creation. Therefore, he was "Nature 's God. '' Everything, including man, was part of the "universal order of things '', which began with God and was pervaded and directed by his providence. Accordingly, the signers of the Declaration professed their "firm reliance on the Protection of divine Providence. '' And they appealed to "the Supreme Judge (God) for the rectitude of (their) intentions. '' Like most of his countrymen, George Washington was firmly convinced that he was an instrument of providence, to the benefit of the American people and of all humanity.
Historian Bernard Bailyn argues that the evangelicalism of the era challenged traditional notions of natural hierarchy by preaching that the Bible teaches that all men are equal, so that the true value of a man lies in his moral behavior, not in his class. Kidd argues that religious disestablishment, belief in a God as the source of human rights, and shared convictions about sin, virtue, and divine providence worked together to unite rationalists and evangelicals and thus encouraged American defiance of the Empire. Bailyn, on the other hand, denies that religion played such a critical role. Alan Heimert argues that New Light antiauthoritarianism was essential to furthering democracy in colonial American society and set the stage for a confrontation with British monarchical and aristocratic rule.
Looking back, John Adams concluded in 1818:
The Revolution was effected before the war commenced. The Revolution was in the minds and hearts of the people... This radical change in the principles, opinions, sentiments, and affections of the people was the real American Revolution.
In terms of class, Loyalists tended to have longstanding social and economic connections to British merchants and government; for instance, prominent merchants in major port cities such as New York, Boston and Charleston tended to be Loyalists, as did men involved with the fur trade along the northern frontier. In addition, officials of colonial government and their staffs, those who had established positions and status to maintain, favored maintaining relations with Great Britain. They often were linked to British families in England by marriage as well.
By contrast, Patriots by number tended to be yeomen farmers, especially in the frontier areas of New York and the backcountry of Pennsylvania, Virginia and down the Appalachian mountains. They were craftsmen and small merchants. Leaders of both the Patriots and the Loyalists were men of educated, propertied classes. The Patriots included many prominent men of the planter class from Virginia and South Carolina, for instance, who became leaders during the Revolution, and formed the new government at the national and state levels.
To understand the opposing groups, historians have assessed evidence of their hearts and minds. In the mid-20th century, historian Leonard Woods Labaree identified eight characteristics of the Loyalists that made them essentially conservative; opposite traits to those characteristic of the Patriots. Older and better established men, Loyalists tended to resist innovation. They thought resistance to the Crown -- which they insisted was the only legitimate government -- was morally wrong, while the Patriots thought morality was on their side.
Loyalists were alienated when the Patriots resorted to violence, such as burning houses and tarring and feathering. Loyalists wanted to take a centrist position and resisted the Patriots ' demand to declare their opposition to the Crown. Many Loyalists, especially merchants in the port cities, had maintained strong and long - standing relations with Britain (often with business and family links to other parts of the British Empire).
Many Loyalists realized that independence was bound to come eventually, but they were fearful that revolution might lead to anarchy, tyranny or mob rule. In contrast, the prevailing attitude among Patriots, who made systematic efforts to use mob violence in a controlled manner, was a desire to seize the initiative. Labaree also wrote that Loyalists were pessimists who lacked the confidence in the future displayed by the Patriots.
Historians in the early 20th century, such as J. Franklin Jameson, examined the class composition of the Patriot cause, looking for evidence of a class war inside the revolution. In the last 50 years, historians have largely abandoned that interpretation, emphasizing instead the high level of ideological unity. Just as there were rich and poor Loyalists, the Patriots were a ' mixed lot ', with the richer and better educated more likely to become officers in the Army.
Ideological demands always came first: the Patriots viewed independence as a means to gain freedom from British oppression and taxation and, above all, to reassert what they considered to be their rights as English subjects. Most yeomen farmers, craftsmen, and small merchants joined the Patriot cause to demand more political equality. They were especially successful in Pennsylvania but less so in New England, where John Adams attacked Thomas Paine 's Common Sense for the "absurd democratical notions '' it proposed.
The war became a personal issue for the king, fueled by his growing belief that British leniency would be taken as weakness by the Americans. The king also sincerely believed he was defending Britain 's constitution against usurpers, rather than opposing patriots fighting for their natural rights.
At the time, revolutionaries were called "Patriots '', "Whigs '', "Congress - men '', or "Americans ''. They included a full range of social and economic classes, but were unanimous regarding the need to defend the rights of Americans and uphold the principles of republicanism in terms of rejecting monarchy and aristocracy, while emphasizing civic virtue on the part of the citizens. Newspapers were strongholds of patriotism (although there were a few Loyalist papers), and printed many pamphlets, announcements, patriotic letters and pronouncements.
According to historian Robert Calhoon, the consensus of historians is that 40 -- 45 % of the white population in the Thirteen Colonies supported the Patriots ' cause, 15 -- 20 % supported the Loyalists, and the remainder were neutral or kept a low profile. Mark Lender explores why ordinary folk became insurgents against the British even though they were unfamiliar with the ideological rationales being offered. They held very strongly a sense of "rights '' that they felt the British were violating -- rights that stressed local autonomy, fair dealing, and government by consent. They were highly sensitive to the issue of tyranny, which they saw manifested in the British response to the Boston Tea Party. The arrival in Boston of the British Army heightened their sense of violated rights, leading to rage and demands for revenge. They had faith that God was on their side.
The consensus of scholars is that about 15 -- 20 % of the white population remained loyal to the British Crown. Those who actively supported the king were known at the time as "Loyalists '', "Tories '', or "King 's men ''. The Loyalists never controlled territory unless the British Army occupied it. Loyalists were typically older, less willing to break with old loyalties, often connected to the Church of England, and included many established merchants with strong business connections across the Empire, as well as royal officials such as Thomas Hutchinson of Boston. There were 500 to 1000 black loyalists who were held as slaves by patriots, escaped to British lines and joined the British army. Most died of disease but Britain took the survivors to Canada as free men.
The revolution could divide families. The most dramatic example was when William Franklin, son of Benjamin Franklin and royal governor of the Province of New Jersey, remained loyal to the Crown throughout the war; they never spoke again. Recent immigrants who had not been fully Americanized were also inclined to support the King, such as recent Scottish settlers in the back country; among the more striking examples of this, see Flora MacDonald.
After the war, the great majority of the 450,000 -- 500,000 Loyalists remained in America and resumed normal lives. Some, such as Samuel Seabury, became prominent American leaders. Estimates vary, but about 62,000 Loyalists relocated to Canada, and others to Britain (7,000) or to Florida or the West Indies (9,000). The exiles represented approximately 2 % of the total population of the colonies. Nearly all black loyalists left for Nova Scotia, Florida, or England, where they could remain free. When Loyalists left the South in 1783, they took thousands of their slaves with them to be slaves in the British West Indies.
A minority of uncertain size tried to stay neutral in the war. Most kept a low profile, but the Quakers, especially in Pennsylvania, were the most important group to speak out for neutrality. As Patriots declared independence, the Quakers, who continued to do business with the British, were attacked as supporters of British rule, "contrivers and authors of seditious publications '' critical of the revolutionary cause. Though the majority of Quakers attempted to remain neutral, a sizable number of Quakers in the American Revolution nevertheless participated to some degree.
Women contributed to the American Revolution in many ways, and were involved on both sides. While formal Revolutionary politics did not include women, ordinary domestic behaviors became charged with political significance as Patriot women confronted a war that permeated all aspects of political, civil, and domestic life. They participated by boycotting British goods, spying on the British, following armies as they marched, washing, cooking, and tending for soldiers, delivering secret messages, and in a few cases like Deborah Samson, fighting disguised as men. Also, Mercy Otis Warren held meetings in her house and cleverly attacked Loyalists with her creative plays and histories. Above all, they continued the agricultural work at home to feed their families and the armies. They maintained their families during their husbands ' absences and sometimes after their deaths.
American women were integral to the success of the boycott of British goods, as the boycotted items were largely household items such as tea and cloth. Women had to return to knitting goods, and to spinning and weaving their own cloth -- skills that had fallen into disuse. In 1769, the women of Boston produced 40,000 skeins of yarn, and 180 women in Middletown, Massachusetts wove 20,522 yards (18,765 m) of cloth.
A crisis of political loyalties could disrupt the fabric of colonial America women 's social worlds: whether a man did or did not renounce his allegiance to the King could dissolve ties of class, family, and friendship, isolating women from former connections. A woman 's loyalty to her husband, once a private commitment, could become a political act, especially for women in America committed to men who remained loyal to the King. Legal divorce, usually rare, was granted to Patriot women whose husbands supported the King.
In early 1776, France set up a major program of aid to the Americans, and the Spanish secretly added funds. Each country spent one million "livres tournaises '' to buy munitions. A dummy corporation run by Pierre Beaumarchais concealed their activities. American rebels obtained some munitions through the Dutch Republic as well as French and Spanish ports in the West Indies.
Spain did not officially recognize the U.S. but became an informal ally when it declared war on Britain on June 21, 1779. Bernardo de Gálvez y Madrid, general of the Spanish forces in New Spain, also served as governor of Louisiana. He led an expedition of colonial troops to force the British out of Florida and keep open a vital conduit for supplies.
Most American Indians rejected pleas that they remain neutral and supported the British Crown, both because of trading relationships and Britain 's effort to establish an Indian reserve and prohibit Colonial settlement west of the Appalachian Mountains. The great majority of the 200,000 Indians east of the Mississippi distrusted the Colonists and supported the British cause, hoping to forestall continued colonial encroachment on their territories. Those tribes that were more closely involved in Colonial trade tended to side with the Colonists, although political factors were important, as well.
Most Indians did not participate directly in the war, except for warriors and bands associated with four of the Iroquois nations in New York and Pennsylvania which allied with the British. The British did have other allies, especially in the upper Midwest. They provided Indians with funding and weapons to attack American outposts. Some Indians tried to remain neutral, seeing little value in joining what they perceived to be a European conflict, and fearing reprisals from whichever side they opposed. The Oneida and Tuscarora among the Iroquois of central and western New York supported the American cause.
The British provided arms to Indians who were led by Loyalists in war parties to raid frontier settlements from the Carolinas to New York. They killed many settlers on the frontier, especially in Pennsylvania and New York 's Mohawk Valley.
In 1776, Cherokee war parties attacked American Colonists all along the southern frontier of the uplands throughout the Washington District, North Carolina (now Tennessee) and the Kentucky wilderness area. They would launch raids with roughly 200 warriors, as seen in the Cherokee -- American wars; they could not mobilize enough forces to invade Colonial areas without the help of allies, most often the Creek. The Chickamauga Cherokee under Dragging Canoe allied themselves closely with the British, and fought on for an additional decade after the signing of the Treaty of Paris.
Joseph Brant of the powerful Mohawk nation, part of the Iroquois Confederacy based in New York, was the most prominent Indian leader against the Colonial forces. In 1778 and 1780, he led 300 Iroquois warriors and 100 white Loyalists in multiple attacks on small frontier settlements in New York and Pennsylvania, killing many settlers and destroying villages, crops, and stores. The Seneca, Onondaga, and Cayuga of the Iroquois Confederacy also allied with the British against the Americans.
In 1779, the Colonists retaliated with an American army under John Sullivan which raided and destroyed 40 empty Iroquois villages in central and western New York. Sullivan 's forces systematically burned the villages and destroyed about 160,000 bushels of corn that composed the winter food supply. Facing starvation and homeless for the winter, the Iroquois fled to the Niagara Falls area and to Canada, mostly to what became Ontario. The British resettled them there after the war, providing land grants as compensation for some of their losses.
At the peace conference following the war, the British ceded lands which they did not really control, and did not consult their Indian allies. They transferred control to the United States of all the land east of the Mississippi and north of Florida. Calloway concludes:
Burned villages and crops, murdered chiefs, divided councils and civil wars, migrations, towns and forts choked with refugees, economic disruption, breaking of ancient traditions, losses in battle and to disease and hunger, betrayal to their enemies, all made the American Revolution one of the darkest periods in American Indian history.
The British did not give up their forts in the West until 1796 in what is now the eastern Midwest, stretching from Ohio to Wisconsin; they kept alive the dream of forming a satellite Indian nation there, which they called a Neutral Indian Zone. That goal was one of the causes of the War of 1812.
Free blacks in the North and South fought on both sides of the Revolution, but most fought for the Patriots. Gary Nash reports that there were about 9,000 black Patriots, counting the Continental Army and Navy, state militia units, privateers, wagoneers in the Army, servants to officers, and spies. Ray Raphael notes that thousands did join the Loyalist cause, but "a far larger number, free as well as slave, tried to further their interests by siding with the patriots. '' Crispus Attucks was shot dead by British soldiers in the Boston Massacre in 1770 and is an iconic martyr to Patriots. Both sides offered freedom and re-settlement to slaves who were willing to fight for them, recruiting slaves whose owners supported the opposing cause.
Many black slaves sided with the Loyalists. Tens of thousands in the South used the turmoil of war to escape, and the southern plantation economies of South Carolina and Georgia especially were disrupted. During the Revolution, the British tried to turn slavery against the Americans. Historian David Brion Davis explains the difficulties with a policy of wholesale arming of the slaves:
But England greatly feared the effects of any such move on its own West Indies, where Americans had already aroused alarm over a possible threat to incite slave insurrections. The British elites also understood that an all - out attack on one form of property could easily lead to an assault on all boundaries of privilege and social order, as envisioned by radical religious sects in Britain 's seventeenth - century civil wars.
Davis underscored the British dilemma: "Britain, when confronted by the rebellious American colonists, hoped to exploit their fear of slave revolts while also reassuring the large number of slave - holding Loyalists and wealthy Caribbean planters and merchants that their slave property would be secure ''. The Colonists, however, accused the British of encouraging slave revolts.
American advocates of independence were commonly lampooned in Britain for what was termed their hypocritical calls for freedom, at the same time that many of their leaders were planters who held hundreds of slaves. Samuel Johnson snapped, "how is it we hear the loudest yelps for liberty among the (slave) drivers of the Negroes? '' Benjamin Franklin countered by criticizing the British self - congratulation about "the freeing of one Negro '' (Somersett) while they continued to permit the Slave Trade.
Phyllis Wheatley was a black poet who popularized the image of Columbia to represent America. She came to public attention when her Poems on Various Subjects, Religious and Moral appeared in 1773.
During the war, slaves escaped from New England and the mid-Atlantic area to British - occupied cities such as New York. The effects of the war were more dramatic in the South. In Virginia, royal governor Lord Dunmore recruited black men into the British forces with the promise of freedom, protection for their families, and land grants. Tens of thousands of slaves escaped to British lines throughout the South, causing dramatic losses to slaveholders and disrupting cultivation and harvesting of crops. For instance, South Carolina was estimated to have lost about 25,000 slaves to flight, migration, or death -- amounting to one third of its slave population. From 1770 to 1790, the black proportion of the population (mostly slaves) in South Carolina dropped from 60.5 percent to 43.8 percent, and from 45.2 percent to 36.1 percent in Georgia.
British forces gave transportation to 10,000 slaves when they evacuated Savannah and Charleston, carrying through on their promise. They evacuated and resettled more than 3,000 Black Loyalists from New York to Nova Scotia, Upper Canada, and Lower Canada. Others sailed with the British to England or were resettled as freedmen in the West Indies of the Caribbean. But slaves who were carried to the Caribbean under control of Loyalist masters generally remained slaves until British abolition in its colonies in 1834. More than 1,200 of the Black Loyalists of Nova Scotia later resettled in the British colony of Sierra Leone, where they became leaders of the Krio ethnic group of Freetown and the later national government. Many of their descendants still live in Sierra Leone, as well as other African countries.
About 60,000 to 70,000 Loyalists left the newly founded republic; some migrated to Britain. The remainder, known as United Empire Loyalists, received land and subsidies for resettlement in British colonies in North America, especially Quebec (concentrating in the Eastern Townships), Prince Edward Island, and Nova Scotia. The new colonies of Upper Canada (now Ontario) and New Brunswick were expressly created by Britain for their benefit, where the Crown awarded land to Loyalists as compensation for losses in the United States. Britain wanted to develop the frontier of Upper Canada on a British colonial model. But about 80 % of the Loyalists stayed in the United States and became full, loyal citizens; some of the exiles later returned to the U.S.
Interpretations about the effect of the Revolution vary. Contemporary participants referred to the events as "the revolution ''. Greene argues that the events were not "revolutionary '', as the relationships and property rights of colonial society were not transformed: a distant government was simply replaced with a local one; the Revolution is still sometimes known outside the United States as the American War of Independence.
Historians such as Bernard Bailyn, Gordon Wood, and Edmund Morgan accept the contemporary view of the participants that the American Revolution was a unique and radical event that produced deep changes and had a profound effect on world affairs, based on an increasing belief in the principles of the Enlightenment, as reflected in how liberalism was understood during the period, and republicanism. These were demonstrated by a leadership and government that espoused protection of natural rights, and a system of laws chosen by the people. However, what was then considered "the people '' was still mostly restricted to free white males who were able to pass a property - qualification. Such a restriction made a significant gain of the revolution in the short term irrelevant to women, African Americans and slaves, poor white men, youth, and Native Americans. Only with the development of the American system over the following centuries would "a government by the people '', promised by the revolution, be won for a greater proportion of the population.
Morgan has argued that in terms of long - term impact on American society and values:
After the Revolution, genuinely democratic politics became possible in the former colonies. The rights of the people were incorporated into state constitutions. Concepts of liberty, individual rights, equality among men and hostility toward corruption became incorporated as core values of liberal republicanism. The greatest challenge to the old order in Europe was the challenge to inherited political power and the democratic idea that government rests on the consent of the governed. The example of the first successful revolution against a European empire, and the first successful establishment of a republican form of democratically elected government, provided a model for many other colonial peoples who realized that they too could break away and become self - governing nations with directly elected representative government.
The Dutch Republic, also at war with Britain, was the next country to sign a treaty with the United States, on October 8, 1782. On April 3, 1783, Ambassador Extraordinary Gustaf Philip Creutz, representing King Gustav III of Sweden, and Benjamin Franklin, signed a Treaty of Amity and Commerce with the U.S.
The American Revolution was the first wave of the Atlantic Revolutions: the French Revolution, the Haitian Revolution, and the Latin American wars of independence. Aftershocks reached Ireland in the Irish Rebellion of 1798, in the Polish -- Lithuanian Commonwealth, and in the Netherlands.
The Revolution had a strong, immediate influence in Great Britain, Ireland, the Netherlands, and France. Many British and Irish Whigs spoke in favor of the American cause. In Ireland, there was a profound impact; the Protestants who controlled Ireland were demanding more and more self - rule. Under the leadership of Henry Grattan, the so - called "Patriots '' forced the reversal of mercantilist prohibitions against trade with other British colonies. The King and his cabinet in London could not risk another rebellion on the American model, and made a series of concessions to the Patriot faction in Dublin. Armed Protestant volunteer units were set up to protect against an invasion from France. As in America, so too in Ireland the King no longer had a monopoly of lethal force.
The Revolution, along with the Dutch Revolt (end of the 16th century) and the 17th century English Civil War, was among the examples of overthrowing an old regime for many Europeans who later were active during the era of the French Revolution, such as Marquis de Lafayette. The American Declaration of Independence influenced the French Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen of 1789. The spirit of the Declaration of Independence led to laws ending slavery in all the Northern states and the Northwest Territory, with New Jersey the last in 1804. States such as New Jersey and New York adopted gradual emancipation, which kept some people as slaves for more than two decades longer.
The democratic ideals of the Revolution inspired changes in the roles of women.
The concept of republican motherhood was inspired by this period and reflects the importance of Republicanism as the dominant American ideology. It assumed that a successful republic rested upon the virtue of its citizens. Women were considered to have the essential role of instilling their children with values conducive to a healthy republic. During this period, the wife 's relationship with her husband also became more liberal, as love and affection instead of obedience and subservience began to characterize the ideal marital relationship. In addition, many women contributed to the war effort through fundraising and running family businesses in the absence of husbands.
The traditional constraints gave way to more liberal conditions for women. Patriarchy faded as an ideal; young people had more freedom to choose their spouses and more often used birth control to regulate the size of their families. Society emphasized the role of mothers in child rearing, especially the patriotic goal of raising republican children rather than those locked into aristocratic value systems. There was more permissiveness in child - rearing. Patriot women married to Loyalists who left the state could get a divorce and obtain control of the ex-husband's property. Whatever gains they had made, however, women still found themselves subordinated, legally and socially, to their husbands, disfranchised and usually with only the role of mother open to them. But, some women earned livelihoods as midwives and in other roles in the community, which were not originally recognized as significant by men.
Abigail Adams expressed to her husband, the president, the desire of women to have a place in the new republic:
I desire you would remember the Ladies, and be more generous and favourable to them than your ancestors. Do not put such unlimited power into the hands of the Husbands.
Zagarri in 2007 argued that the American Revolution created a continuing debate on the rights of woman and an environment favorable to women 's participation in U.S. politics. She asserts that for a brief decade, a "comprehensive transformation in women 's rights, roles, and responsibilities seemed not only possible but perhaps inevitable. '' But, the changes also engendered a backlash that set back the cause of women 's rights and led to a greater rigidity that marginalized women from political life.
For more than thirty years, however, the 1776 New Jersey State Constitution gave the vote to "all inhabitants '' who had a certain level of wealth, including unmarried women and blacks (not married women because they could not own property separately from their husbands), until in 1807, when that state legislature passed a bill interpreting the constitution to mean universal white male suffrage, excluding paupers.
In the first two decades after the American Revolution, state legislatures and individuals took actions to free numerous slaves, in part based on revolutionary ideals. Northern states passed new constitutions that contained language about equal rights or specifically abolished slavery; some states, such as New York and New Jersey, where slavery was more widespread, passed laws by the end of the 18th century to abolish slavery by a gradual method; in New York, the last slaves were freed in 1827.
While no southern state abolished slavery, for a period individual owners could free their slaves by personal decision, often providing for manumission in wills but sometimes filing deeds or court papers to free individuals. Numerous slaveholders who freed their slaves cited revolutionary ideals in their documents; others freed slaves as a reward for service. Records also suggest that some slaveholders were freeing their own mixed - race children, born into slavery to slave mothers.
The American Revolution has a central place in the American memory. As the founding story, it is covered in the schools, memorialized by a national holiday, and commemorated in innumerable monuments. Thus Independence Day (the "Fourth of July '') is a major national holiday celebrated annually. Besides local sites such as Bunker Hill, one of the first national pilgrimages for memorial tourists was Mount Vernon, George Washington 's estate (near Washington City), which attracted ten thousand visitors a year by the 1850s.
Crider points out that in the 1850s, editors and orators both North and South claimed their region was the true custodian of the legacy of 1776, as they used the Revolution symbolically in their rhetoric. Ryan, noting that the Bicentennial was celebrated a year after the United States ' humiliating 1975 withdrawal from Vietnam, says the Ford administration stressed the themes of renewal and rebirth based on a restoration of traditional values, and presented a nostalgic approach to 1776 that made it seem eternally young and fresh.
Albanese argues that the Revolution became the main source of the non-denominational "American civil religion '' that has shaped patriotism, and the memory and meaning of the nation 's birth ever since. She says that specific battles are not central (as they are for the Civil War) but rather certain events and people have been celebrated as icons of certain virtues (or vices). Thus she points out the Revolution produced a Moses - like leader (George Washington), prophets (Thomas Jefferson, Tom Paine), disciples (Alexander Hamilton, James Madison) and martyrs (Boston Massacre, Nathan Hale), as well as devils (Benedict Arnold), sacred places (Valley Forge, Bunker Hill), rituals (Boston Tea Party), emblems (the new flag), sacred holidays (Independence Day), and a holy scripture whose every sentence is carefully studied and applied in current law cases (The Declaration of Independence, the Constitution and the Bill of Rights).
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when does the good doctor start on ctv | The Good Doctor (TV series) - wikipedia
The Good Doctor is an American medical - drama television series based on the 2013 award winning South Korean series of the same name. Daniel Dae Kim, the actor, first noticed the series and bought the rights for his production company. He began adapting the series and eventually shopped it to CBS, his home network in 2015. CBS decided against creating a pilot. Because Kim felt so strongly about the series, he bought back the rights from CBS. Eventually, Sony Pictures Television and Kim worked out a deal and brought on David Shore, creator of the Fox hit medical drama, House, to develop the series.
The show is produced by Sony Pictures Television and ABC Studios, in association with production companies Shore Z Productions, 3AD, and Entermedia. David Shore serves as showrunner and Daniel Dae Kim is an executive producer for the show.
The series stars Freddie Highmore as Shaun Murphy, a young surgical resident with autism and savant syndrome at San Jose St. Bonaventure Hospital. Antonia Thomas, Nicholas Gonzalez, Beau Garrett, Hill Harper, Richard Schiff, and Tamlyn Tomita also star in the show. The series received a put pilot commitment at ABC after a previous attempted series did not move forward at CBS Television Studios in 2015; The Good Doctor was ordered to series in May 2017. On October 3, 2017, ABC picked up the series for a full season of 18 episodes. The series is primarily filmed in Vancouver, British Columbia.
The Good Doctor began airing on ABC on September 25, 2017. It has received mixed to positive reviews from critics, with particular praise given to Highmore 's performance, and strong television ratings.
The series follows Shaun Murphy, a young surgeon with autism and savant syndrome from a small town, Casper, Wyoming, where he had a troubled childhood. He relocates to join the prestigious surgical department at San Jose St. Bonaventure Hospital.
In May 2014, CBS Television Studios began development on an American remake of the hit South Korean medical drama Good Doctor with Daniel Dae Kim as producer. Kim explained the appeal of adapting the series as "something that can fit into a recognizable world, with a breadth of characters that can be explored in the long run ''. The story of a pediatric surgeon with autism was to be set in Boston and projected to air in August 2015. However, CBS did not pick up the project and it moved to Sony Pictures Television, with a put pilot commitment from ABC in October 2016. The series is developed by David Shore, who is executive producing alongside Kim, Sebastian Lee, and David Kim. ABC officially ordered the series to pilot in January 2017.
On May 11, 2017, ABC ordered the show to series as a co-production with Sony Pictures Television and ABC Studios, and it was officially picked up for a full season of 18 episodes on October 3, 2017.
On February 17, 2017, Antonia Thomas was cast as Dr. Claire Browne, a strong - willed and talented doctor who forms a special connection with Shaun. A week later, Freddie Highmore was cast in the lead role as Dr. Shaun Murphy, a young surgeon with autism; and Nicholas Gonzalez was cast as Dr. Neil Melendez, the boss of the surgical residents at the hospital. The next month, Chuku Modu was cast as resident Dr. Jared Unger; Hill Harper as head of surgery Dr. Horace Andrews; Irene Keng as resident Dr. Elle McLean; and Richard Schiff was cast as Dr. Ira Glassman, President of the San Jose St. Bonaventure Hospital and mentor to Shaun. He was shortly followed by Beau Garrett as hospital board member Jessica Preston and a friend of Dr. Glassman. With the series order in May, Modu 's character was revealed to have changed to Dr. Jared Kalu; Harper 's character changed to Dr. Marcus Andrews; and Schiff 's character changed to Dr. Aaron Glassman. In September 2017, Tamlyn Tomita was promoted to the principal cast as Allegra Aoki.
Production on the pilot took place from March 21 to April 6, 2017 in Vancouver, British Columbia. Filming for the rest of the season began on July 26, 2017, and is set to conclude on March 1, 2018. Although The Good Doctor is set in San Jose, California, the real San Jose is rarely seen. In one of those scenes, a helicopter supposedly bound for San Francisco was clearly headed in the wrong direction.
Dan Romer serves as the primary composer for the series.
The Good Doctor began airing on September 25, 2017, on ABC in the United States, and on CTV in Canada. Sky Living acquired the broadcast rights for the United Kingdom and Ireland. Seven Network airs the series in Australia.. Wowow, the largest Japanese private satellite and pay - per - view television network in Japan acquired the rights to broadcast the series beginning in April 2018.
A full length trailer was released for ABC 's May 2017 Upfront presentation, which / Film 's Ethan Anderton described the concept as feeling like "House meets Rain Man, that just might be enough to make it interesting ''. However, he questioned "how long can audiences be entranced by both the brilliance of (Highmore 's) character 's savant skills and the difficulties that come from his autism in the workplace. '' Daniel Fienberg of The Hollywood Reporter felt the trailer was "both kinda progressive and really dated ''. He added, "Too much felt on - the - nose -- especially Hill Harper as the main character 's detractor and Richard Schiff as his noble defender '', while also commentating that "On - the - nose / premise is how you have to trailer a show like this, and maybe spaced out over 43 minutes it wo n't grate. '' Ben Travers and Steve Greene for IndieWire called it "a serious trailer for a serious subject. The first glimpse of Highmore 's character hints that they 're toeing the line between presenting a thoughtful depiction of his condition and using his perceptive abilities as a kind of secret weapon. '' The trailer had been viewed over 25.4 million times after a week of its release, including over 22 million views on Facebook.
The pilot was screened at ABC 's PaleyFest event on September 9, 2017.
The series premiere earned a 2.2 / 9 rating in the 18 - to 49 - year - old demographic, with 11.22 million total viewers, making it the most watched Monday drama debut on ABC in 21 years, since Dangerous Minds in September 1996, and the highest rated Monday drama in the 18 -- 49 demographic in 8.5 years, since Castle in March 2009. Factoring live plus seven - day ratings, the pilot was watched by a total of 19.2 million viewers and set a record for DVR viewers with 7.9 million, surpassing the record of 7.67 million set by the pilot of Designated Survivor in 2016. According to TV Guide 's November 13 - 26 issue, the October 9 episode attracted 18.2 million viewers, beating out both NCIS and The Big Bang Theory for the most viewed primetime show that week.
The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reports a 55 % approval rating with an average rating of 5.35 / 10 based on 38 reviews. The website 's consensus reads, "The Good Doctor 's heavy - handed bedside manner undermines a solid lead performance, but under all the emotionally manipulative gimmickry, there 's still plenty of room to improve. '' Metacritic, which uses a weighted average, assigned a score of 53 out of 100 based on 15 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews ''.
Giving his first impression of the series ' pilot for TVLine, Matt Webb Mitovich stated, "The Good Doctor boasts great DNA... (and) has the potential to be a refreshingly thought - provoking hospital drama, based on the buttons pushed in the pilot alone. '' He enjoyed the "warm dynamic '' of Schiff and Highmore, while describing Thomas ' character as "our emotional ' in ' to Shaun 's distinct, distant world ''. He noted that "it takes a while to build up momentum '', but concluded that "the very final scene packs quite a punch, as Dr. Murphy unwittingly puts a colleague on notice ''.
The New York Times television critic, James Poniewozik notes in his Critic 's Notebook column, that for the most part the drama is a "hospital melodrama with whiz - bang medical science, a dash of intra-staff romance and shameless sentimentality. '' Discussing the main characters of Dr. Aaron Glassman (Richard Schiff) and Dr. Shaun Murphy (Freddie Highmore), however, Poniewozik writes that "Mr. Schiff is convincing in the role and Mr. Highmore is striking in his. ''
Speaking of Freddie Highmore 's Golden Globe nomination on Monday, December 11, 2017, for his role in The Good Doctor, Laura Bradley, writing for Vanity Fair (magazine) says: "... Freddie Highmore received the awards recognition that has long and unjustly eluded him... '' Bradley feels that Highmore 's perfomance has been "the central key '' to the show 's enormous success and while the show had lukewarm reviews, most critics have praised Highmore 's work.
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when did arts and crafts became tools used in occupational therapy | Occupational therapy - wikipedia
Occupational therapy (OT) is the use of assessment and intervention to develop, recover, or maintain the meaningful activities, or occupations, of individuals, groups, or communities. It is an allied health profession performed by occupational therapists. OTs often work with people with mental health problems, disabilities, injuries, or impairments.
The American Occupational Therapy Association defines an occupational therapist as someone who "helps people across the lifespan participate in the things they want and need to do through the therapeutic use of everyday activities (occupations). Common occupational therapy interventions include helping children with disabilities to participate fully in school and social situations, helping people recovering from injury to regain skills, and providing supports for older adults experiencing physical and cognitive changes. ''
Typically, occupational therapists are university - educated professionals and must pass a licensing exam to practice. Occupational therapists often work closely with professionals in physical therapy, speech therapy, nursing, social work, and medicine.
The earliest evidence of using occupations as a method of therapy can be found in ancient times. In c. 100 BCE, Greek physician Asclepiades treated patients with a mental illness humanely using therapeutic baths, massage, exercise, and music. Later, the Roman Celsus prescribed music, travel, conversation and exercise to his patients. However, by medieval times the use of these interventions with people with mental illness was rare, if not nonexistent.
In 18th - century Europe, revolutionaries such as Philippe Pinel and Johann Christian Reil reformed the hospital system. Instead of the use of metal chains and restraints, their institutions used rigorous work and leisure activities in the late 18th century. This was the Moral Treatment era, developed in Europe during the Age of Enlightenment, where the roots of occupational therapy lie. Although it was thriving in Europe, interest in the reform movement fluctuated in the United States throughout the 19th century. It re-emerged in the early decades of the 20th century as Occupational Therapy.
The Arts and Crafts movement that took place between 1860 and 1910 also impacted occupational therapy. In the US, a recently industrialized country, the arts and crafts societies emerged against the monotony and lost autonomy of factory work. Arts and crafts were used as a way of promoting learning through doing, provided a creative outlet, and served as a way to avoid boredom during long hospital stays.
The health profession of occupational therapy was conceived in the early 1910s as a reflection of the Progressive Era. Early professionals merged highly valued ideals, such as having a strong work ethic and the importance of crafting with one 's own hands with scientific and medical principles. The National Society for the Promotion of Occupational Therapy, now called the American Occupational Therapy Association (AOTA), was founded in 1917 and the profession of Occupational Therapy was officially named in 1920.
The emergence of occupational therapy challenged the views of mainstream scientific medicine. Instead of focusing purely on the medical model, occupational therapists argued that a complex combination of social, economic, and biological reasons cause dysfunction. Principles and techniques were borrowed from many disciplines -- including but not limited to nursing, psychiatry, rehabilitation, self - help, orthopedics, and social work -- to enrich the profession 's scope. Between 1900 and 1930, the founders defined the realm of practice and developed supporting theories. By the early 1930s, AOTA had established educational guidelines and accreditation procedures.
World War I forced the new profession to clarify its role in the medical domain and to standardize training and practice. In addition to clarifying its public image, occupational therapy also established clinics, workshops, and training schools nationwide. Due to the overwhelming number of wartime injuries, "reconstruction aides '' (an umbrella term for occupational therapy aides and physiotherapy aides) were recruited by the Surgeon General. Between 1917 and 1920, nearly 148,000 wounded men were placed in hospitals upon their return to the states. The success of the reconstruction aides, largely made up of women trying to "do their bit '' to help with the war effort, was a great accomplishment.
There was a struggle to keep people in the profession during the post-war years. Emphasis shifted from the altruistic war - time mentality to the financial, professional, and personal satisfaction that comes with being a therapist. To make the profession more appealing, practice was standardized, as was the curriculum. Entry and exit criteria were established, and the American Occupational Therapy Association advocated for steady employment, decent wages, and fair working conditions. Via these methods, occupational therapy sought and obtained medical legitimacy in the 1920s.
The profession has continued to grow and expand its scope and settings of practice. Occupational science, the study of occupation, was created in 1989 as a tool for providing evidence - based research to support and advance the practice of occupational therapy, as well as offer a basic science to study topics surrounding "occupation ''.
The philosophy of occupational therapy has evolved over the history of the profession. The philosophy articulated by the founders owed much to the ideals of romanticism, pragmatism and humanism, which are collectively considered the fundamental ideologies of the past century.
One of the most widely cited early papers about the philosophy of occupational therapy was presented by Adolf Meyer, a psychiatrist who had emigrated to the United States from Switzerland in the late 19th century and who was invited to present his views to a gathering of the new Occupational Therapy Society in 1922. At the time, Dr. Meyer was one of the leading psychiatrists in the United States and head of the new psychiatry department and Phipps Clinic at Johns Hopkins University in Baltimore, Maryland.
William Rush Dunton, a supporter of the National Society for the Promotion of Occupational Therapy, now the American Occupational Therapy Association, sought to promote the ideas that occupation is a basic human need, and that occupation is therapeutic. From his statements came some of the basic assumptions of occupational therapy, which include:
These assumptions have been developed over time and are the basis of the values that underpin the Codes of Ethics issued by the national associations. The relevance of occupation to health and well - being remains the central theme.
In the 1950s, criticism from medicine and the multitude of disabled World War II veterans resulted in the emergence of a more reductionistic philosophy. While this approach led to developments in technical knowledge about occupational performance, clinicians became increasingly disillusioned and re-considered these beliefs. As a result, client centeredness and occupation have re-emerged as dominant themes in the profession. Over the past century, the underlying philosophy of occupational therapy has evolved from being a diversion from illness, to treatment, to enablement through meaningful occupation.
Three commonly mentioned philosophical precepts of occupational therapy are that occupation is necessary for health, that its theories are based on holism and that its central components are people, their occupations (activities), and the environments in which those activities take place. However, there have been some dissenting voices. Mocellin, in particular, advocated abandoning the notion of health through occupation as he proclaimed it obsolete in the modern world. As well, he questioned the appropriateness of advocating holism when practice rarely supports it. Some values formulated by the American Occupational Therapy Association have been critiqued as being therapist - centric and do not reflect the modern reality of multicultural practice.
In recent times occupational therapy practitioners have challenged themselves to think more broadly about the potential scope of the profession, and expanded it to include working with groups experiencing occupational injustice stemming from sources other than disability. Examples of new and emerging practice areas would include therapists working with refugees, children experiencing obesity, and people experiencing homelessness.
An occupational therapist works systematically with a client through a sequence of actions called the occupational therapy process. There are several versions of this process as described by numerous scholars. All practice frameworks include the components of evaluation (or assessment), intervention, and outcomes. This process provides a framework through which occupational therapists assist and contribute to promoting health and ensures structure and consistency among therapists.
The Occupational Therapy Practice Framework (OTPF) is the core competency of occupational therapy in the United States. The OPTF framework is divided into two sections: domain and process. The domain includes environment, client factors, such as the individual 's motivation, health status, and status of performing occupational tasks. The domain looks at the contextual picture to help the occupational therapist understand how to diagnose and treat the patient. The process is the actions taken by the therapist to implement a plan and strategy to treat the patient.
The Canadian Model of Client Centered Enablement (CMCE) embraces occupational enablement as the core competency of occupational therapy and the Canadian Practice Process Framework (CPPF) as the core process of occupational enablement in Canada. The Canadian Practice Process Framework (CPPF) has eight action points and three contextual element which are: set the stage, evaluate, agree on objective plan, implement plan, monitor / modify, and evaluate outcome. A central element of this process model is the focus on identifying both client and therapists strengths and resources prior to developing the outcomes and action plan.
The American Occupational Therapy Association 's practice framework identifies the following Occupations:
Occupational therapists work in a wide variety of practice settings, including: hospitals, long - term care facilities, schools, outpatient clinics, and the community (e.g. home care). The Canadian Institute for Health Information (CIHI) found that between 2006 - 2010 nearly half (45.6 %) of occupational therapists worked in hospitals, 31.8 % worked in the community, and 11.4 % worked in a professional practice.
The broad spectrum of OT practice makes it difficult to categorize the areas of practice, especially considering the differing health care systems globally. In this section, the categorization from the American Occupational Therapy Association is used.
In 1951, Joan Erikson became director of activities for the "severely disturbed children and young adults '' at the Austen Riggs Center. At that time, "occupational therapy '' was used "for keeping patients busy on useless tasks. '' Erikson "brought in painters, sculptors, dancers, weavers, potters and others to create a program that provided real therapy. ''
Occupational therapists work with infants, toddlers, children, and youth and their families in a variety of settings including schools, clinics, and homes. Occupational therapists assist children and their caregivers to build skills that enable them to participate in meaningful occupations. These occupations may include: feeding, playing, socializing, and attending school.
Occupational therapy with children and youth may take a variety of forms. For example:
The practice area of Health and Wellness is emerging steadily due to the increasing need for wellness - related services in occupational therapy. A connection between wellness and physical health, as well as mental health, has been found; consequently, helping to improve the physical and mental health of clients can lead to an increase in overall well - being.
As a practice area, health and wellness can include a focus on:
Mental health and the moral treatment era have been recognized as the root of occupational therapy. According to the World Health Organization, mental illness is one of the fastest growing forms of disability. OTs focus on prevention and treatment of mental illness in all populations. In the U.S., military personnel and veterans are populations that can benefit from occupational therapy, but currently this is an under served practice area.
Mental health illnesses that may require occupational therapy include schizophrenia and other psychotic disorders, depressive disorders, anxiety disorders, eating disorders, trauma - and stressor - related disorders (e.g. post traumatic stress disorder or acute stress disorder), obsessive - compulsive and related disorders such as hoarding, and neurodevelopmental disorders such as autism spectrum disorder, attention deficit / hyperactivity disorder and learning disorders.
Occupational therapists work with older adults to maintain independence, participate in meaningful activities, and live fulfilling lives. Some examples of areas that occupational therapists address with older adults are driving, aging in place, low vision, and dementia or Alzheimer 's Disease (AD). When addressing driving, driver evaluations are administered to determine if drivers are safe behind the wheel. To enable independence of older adults at home, occupational therapists perform falls risk assessments, assess clients functioning in their homes, and recommend specific home modifications. When addressing low vision, occupational therapists modify tasks and the environment. While working with individuals with AD, occupational therapists focus on maintaining quality of life, ensuring safety, and promoting independence.
Occupational therapists address the need for rehabilitation following an injury or impairment. When planning treatment, occupational therapists address the physical, cognitive, psychosocial, and environmental needs involved in adult populations across a variety of settings.
Occupational therapy in adult rehabilitation may take a variety of forms:
Because of the rising need for occupational therapists in the U.S., many facilities are opting for travel occupational therapists -- who are willing to travel, often out of state, to work temporarily in a facility. Assignments can range from 8 weeks to 9 months, but typically last 13 -- 26 weeks in length. Most commonly (43 %), travel occupational therapists enter the industry between the ages of 21 -- 30.
Occupational therapists work with clients who have had an injury and are returning to work. OTs perform assessments to simulate work tasks in order to determine best matches for work, accommodations needed at work, or the level of disability. Work conditioning and work hardening are interventions used to restore job skills that may have changed due to an illness or injury. Occupational therapists can also prevent work related injuries through ergonomics and on site work evaluations.
Worldwide, there is a range of qualifications required to practice occupational therapy. Many countries require a bachelor 's degree (e.g. Australia). In the United States and Canada, a master 's degree is required to practice. In Europe, a bachelor 's degree or a master 's degree is accepted.
The OT curriculum focuses on the theoretical basis of occupation and the clinical skills require to practice occupational therapy. Students must have knowledge of physiology, anatomy, medicine, psychology, and neurology to understand interventions and their client 's medical history. All OT education programs include periods of clinical education, consisting of direct work with a practicing OT. In countries such as Canada and the United States, OT students must pass a national qualifying examination in order to practice.
Occupational therapists use theoretical frameworks to frame their practice. Note that terminology differs between scholars. An incomplete list of theoretical bases for framing a human and their occupations include the following:
Frames of reference or generic models are the overarching title given to a collation of compatible knowledge, research and theories that form conceptual practice. More generally they are defined as "those aspects which influence our perceptions, decisions and practice ''.
Occupation - Focused Practice Models
The International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health (ICF) is a framework to measure health and ability by illustrating how these components impact one 's function. This relates very closely to the Occupational Therapy Practice Framework, as it is stated that "the profession 's core beliefs are in the positive relationship between occupation and health and its view of people as occupational beings ''. The ICF is built into the 2nd edition of the practice framework. Activities and participation examples from the ICF overlap Areas of Occupation, Performance Skills, and Performance Patterns in the framework. The ICF also includes contextual factors (environmental and personal factors) that relate to the framework 's context. In addition, body functions and structures classified within the ICF help describe the client factors described in the Occupational Therapy Practice Framework. Further exploration of the relationship between occupational therapy and the components of the ICIDH - 2 (revision of the original International Classification of Impairments, Disabilities, and Handicaps (ICIDH), which later became the ICF) was conducted by McLaughlin Gray.
It is noted in the literature that occupational therapists should use specific occupational therapy vocabulary along with the ICF in order to ensure correct communication about specific concepts. The ICF might lack certain categories to describe what occupational therapists need to communicate to clients and colleagues. It also may not be possible to exactly match the connotations of the ICF categories to occupational therapy terms. The ICF is not an assessment and specialized occupational therapy terminology should not be replaced with ICF terminology. The ICF is an overarching framework for current therapy practices.
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what was the name of clarks african american helper | York (explorer) - wikipedia
York (1770 -- before 1832) was an African - American explorer best known for his participation with the Lewis and Clark Expedition. Enslaved by William Clark 's father and passed down through a will to William Clark, he performed hard manual labor without pay, but participated as a full member of the expedition. Like many other expedition members, his ultimate fate is unclear. There is evidence that after the expedition 's return, Clark had difficulty compelling York to resume his former status, and York may have later escaped or been freed, but nothing is entirely clear on this.
York was born in Caroline County near Ladysmith, Virginia. He, his father, his mother (Rose) and younger sister and brother (Nancy and Juba), were enslaved by the Clark family. York was William Clark 's slave from boyhood, and was left to William in his father 's will. He had a fiance whom he rarely saw, and likely lost contact with her after 1811 when she was sold / sent to Mississippi. It is not known if York fathered any children.
Historian Robert Betts says that the freedom York had during the Lewis and Clark expedition made resuming enslavement unbearable. After the expedition returned to the United States, every other member received money and land for their services. York asked Clark for his freedom based upon his good services during the expedition. According to one account discussed below, Clark eventually gave him his freedom.
It is shown that York had gained a little freedom while on the expedition with Lewis and Clark. It is mentioned in journals that York went on scouting trips and going to trade with villages so he saw what freedom was like while doing that. He might have also been shown respect by Clark because Clark named two geographic discoveries after him; York 's Eight Islands and York 's Dry Creek. Also they took a poll of where they should stay over one winter and York 's opinion was recorded even though it was last. This shows that York had a taste of freedom and possibly gained some respect by the fellow travelers on the expedition. Also he was able to swim unlike some of the men that were with them on their expedition.
As to York 's later life and death, semi-contemporaries Washington Irving and Zenas Leonard give contradictory accounts. When Irving interviewed Clark in 1832, Clark claimed to have freed York, but that York regretted being free because he was a failure at business, and died trying to get back to serve his master as a slave again in St. Louis. Some contemporary historians doubt the accuracy of Clark 's story, for it reflects pro-slavery arguments that Africans were happy to be slaves, and could not lead successful lives as free people. However, manumission laws and practices of the era often required freed slaves to leave the area, and their family and friends.
Betts and Áhati N.N. Touré suggest that York simply refused to return to Clark, and escaped to freedom. Leonard reported meeting with an African man living among the Crows in north - central Wyoming in 1834, writing:
In this village we found a negro man, who informed us that he first came to this country with Lewis & Clark -- with whom he also returned to the State of Missouri, and in a few years returned again with a Mr. Mackinney, a trader on the Missouri river, and has remained here ever since - which is about ten or twelve years. He has acquired a correct knowledge of their manner of living, and speaks their language fluently. He has rose (sic?) to be quite a considerable character, or chief, in their village; at least he assumes all the dignities of a chief, for he has four wives, with whom he lives alternately.
York had experienced freedom on his adventures with Lewis and Clark. He was part of the team, and he contributed just like the rest with hunting, fishing, putting up tents etc. He had crossed rivers and mountains on the expedition and had a taste of what true freedom is like. On the expedition he felt like a free man, and then when he returned east he was a slave again, in a world where there was slavery and bondage.
According to yet another source, York continued to work for Clark as a slave after the expedition. York asked for his freedom and at first Clark refused but did send him to Kentucky so he could be closer to his wife. Ten years after the expedition Clark granted York his freedom and York worked in the freighting business in Tennessee and Kentucky. In 1832, York died from cholera.
Kentucky poet Frank X. Walker has written two books of poetry about York: Buffalo Dance: the Journey of York (2004), and When Winter Come: the Ascension of York (2008). Both books were published by the University of Kentucky Press.
In his novel Little Big Man, Thomas Berger mentions York as having likely been the father of some very dark skinned Indians.
The opera "York '' (composer Bruce Trinkley and librettist Jason Charnesky), based on York 's life, was composed for the first international conference on the Lewis and Clark Bicentennial and performed at Penn State Opera Theatre.
The play "York '' was created by actor and African drummer David Casteal and playwright Bryan Harnetiaux, and premiered at Spokane Civic theatre on April 29, 2005, as directed by Susan Hardie and performed by David Casteal, (with performances in New York City in July 2006). In commemoration of Black History Month, the play was again presented on February 27 -- 28, 2016 with David Casteal returning in the lead role as York in a one - man performance.
A statue of York, by sculptor Ed Hamilton, with plaques commemorating the Lewis and Clark Expedition and his participation in it, stands at Louisville 's Riverfront Plaza / Belvedere, next to the wharf on the Ohio River. Another statue of York stands on the campus of Lewis and Clark College in Portland, Oregon. Dedicated on May 8, 2010, it does not focus on York 's face, since no images of York are known to exist. Instead, it features fragments of William Clark 's maps "scarred '' on the statue 's back. Yorks Islands are an archipelago of islands in the Missouri River near Broadwater County, Montana, which were named for York by the Lewis and Clark Expedition. The islands were originally named "York 's 8 Islands, '' but have since become known as "Yorks Islands '' or simply "York Island ''. The naming of "Yorks 8 Islands '' is not found in the narrative journals of Lewis and Clark. Instead it is found in Clark 's tabulations of "Creeks and Rivers, '' by the entry, "Yorks 8 Islands. '' The Lewis and Clark Expedition also named another geographical feature for York, "York 's Dry Creek '', a tributary of the Yellowstone River, in Custer County, Montana. This name was later abandoned, and the creek was renamed "Custer Creek ''.
In 2001, President Bill Clinton posthumously granted York the rank of honorary sergeant in the United States Army.
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when did let's hear it for the boy come out | Let 's Hear It for the Boy - wikipedia
"Let 's Hear It for the Boy '' was the second number - one song for Deniece Williams and appeared on the soundtrack to the feature film Footloose. It climbed to number one on the U.S. Billboard Hot 100 on May 26, 1984, as well as number one on the dance and R&B charts, and peaked at number two on the UK Singles Chart. It was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Original Song, and was certified platinum in the US, gold in Canada and silver in the UK by the RIAA, Music Canada and the British Phonographic Industry respectively. The music video was released in mid-April 1984. The song features background vocals from George Merrill and Shannon Rubicam, who would go on to form the duo Boy Meets Girl.
In 2017 the song was covered by UK Hi - Nrg dance artist, Allan Jay in aid of The Retired Greyhound Trust and their Let 's Hear It For The Boy campaign.
There is an official music video of this song, featuring Williams along with several young men, one of them being the singer Aaron Lohr as the young boy who is the first person to appear in the video.
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what are the main feature of national rural employment guarantee act 2005 | National rural employment Guarantee Act, 2005 - Wikipedia
National Rural Employment Guarantee Act 2005 (or, NREGA No 42, later renamed as the "Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act '', MGNREGA), is an Indian labour law and social security measure that aims to guarantee the ' right to work '.
It aims to enhance livelihood security in rural areas by providing at least 100 days of wage employment in a financial year to every household whose adult members volunteer to do unskilled manual work.
The act was first proposed in 1991 by P.V. Narasimha Rao. In 2006, it was finally accepted in the parliament and commenced implementation in 625 districts of India. Based on this pilot experience, NREGA was scoped up to covered all the districts of India from 1 April 2008. The statute is hailed by the government as "the largest and most ambitious social security and public works programme in the world ''. In its World Development Report 2014, the World Bank termed it a "stellar example of rural development ''.
The MGNREGA was initiated with the objective of "enhancing livelihood security in rural areas by providing at least 100 days of guaranteed wage employment in a financial year, to every household whose adult members volunteer to do unskilled manual work ''. Another aim of MGNREGA is to create durable assets (such as roads, canals, ponds, wells). Employment is to be provided within 5 km of an applicant 's residence, and minimum wages are to be paid. If work is not provided within 15 days of applying, applicants are entitled to an unemployment allowance. Thus, employment under MGNREGA is a legal entitlement.
MGNREGA is to be implemented mainly by gram panchayats (GPs). The involvement of contractors is banned. Labour - intensive tasks like creating infrastructure for water harvesting, drought relief and flood control are preferred.
Apart from providing economic security and creating rural assets, NREGA can help in protecting the environment, empowering rural women, reducing rural - urban migration and fostering social equity, among others. ''
The law provides many safeguards to promote its effective management and implementation. The act explicitly mentions the principles and agencies for implementation, list of allowed works, financing pattern, monitoring and evaluation, and most importantly the detailed measures to ensure transparency and accountability.
Starting from 1960, the first 30 years of experimentation with employment schemes in rural areas taught few important lessons to the government like the ' Rural Manpower Programme ' taught the lesson of financial management, the ' Crash Scheme for Rural Employment ' of planning for outcomes, a ' Pilot Intensive Rural Employment Programme ' of labour - intensive works, the ' Drought Prone Area Programme ' of integrated rural development, ' Marginal Farmers and Agricultural Labourers Scheme ' of rural economic development, the ' Food for Work Programme ' (FWP) of holistic development and better coordination with the states, the ' National Rural Employment Programme ' (NREP) of community development, and the ' Rural Landless Employment Guarantee Programme ' of focus on landless households. The Planning Commission later approved the scheme and the same was adopted on national scale.
On 1 April 1989, to converge employment generation, infrastructure development and food security in rural areas, the government integrated NREP and RLEGP into a new scheme JRY. The most significant change was the decentralization of implementation by involving local people through PRIs and hence a decreasing role of bureaucracy.
On 2 October 1993, the Employment Assurance Scheme (EAS) was initiated by the then prime minister P.V. Narasimha Rao to provide employment to agricultural hands during the lean agricultural season. Rao had started discussions on this act in 1991. The role of PRIs was reinforced with the local self - government at the district level called the ' Zilla Parishad ' as the main implementing authority. Later, EAS was merged with SGRY in 2001.
On 1 April 1999, the JRY was revamped and renamed to JGSY with a similar objective. The role of PRIs was further reinforced with the local self - government at the village level called the ' Village Panchayats ' as the sole implementing authority. In 2001, it was merged with SGRY.
In January 2001, the government introduced FWP similar to the one initiated in 1977. Once NREGA was enacted, the two were merged in 2006.
On 25 September 2001 to converge employment generation, infrastructure development and food security in rural areas, the government integrated EAS and JGSY into a new scheme SGRY. The role of PRIs was retained with the ' Village Panchayats ' as the sole implementing authority. Yet again due to implementation issues, it was merged with Mahatma Gandhi NREGA in 2006.
The total government allocation to these precursors of Mahatma Gandhi NREGA had been about three - quarters of ₹ 1 trillion (US $16 billion).
The UPA Government had planned to increase the number of working days from 100 to 150 before the 2014 Lok Sabha Elections in the country but failed.
The NDA government has decided to provide 150 days for rain hit areas.
The registration process involves an application to the Gram Panchayat and issue of job cards. The wage employment must be provided within 15 days of the date of application. The work entitlement of ' 120 days per household per year ' may be shared between different adult members of the same household.
The law also lists permissible works: water conservation and water harvesting; drought proofing including afforestation; irrigation works; restoration of traditional water bodies; land development; flood control; rural connectivity; and works notified by the government. The Act sets a minimum limit to the wage - material ratio as 60: 40. The provision of accredited engineers, worksite facilities and a weekly report on worksites is also mandated by the Act.
Furthermore, the Act sets a minimum limit to the wages, to be paid with gender equality, either on a time - rate basis or on a piece - rate basis. The states are required to evolve a set of norms for the measurement of works and schedule of rates. Unemployment allowance must be paid if the work is not provided within the statutory limit of 15 days.
The law stipulates Gram Panchayats to have a single bank account for NREGA works which shall be subjected to public scrutiny. To promote transparency and accountability, the act mandates ' monthly squaring of accounts '. To ensure public accountability through public vigilance, the NREGA designates ' social audits ' as key to its implementation.
The most detailed part of the Act (chapter 10 and 11) deals with transparency and accountability that lays out role of the state, the public vigilance and, above all, the social audits.
For evaluation of outcomes, the law also requires management of data and maintenance of records, like registers related to employment, job cards, assets, muster rolls and complaints, by the implementing agencies at the village, block and state level.
The legislation specifies the role of the state in ensuring transparency and accountability through upholding the right to information and disclosing information proactively, preparation of annual reports by CEGC for Parliament and SEGCs for state legislatures, undertaking mandatory financial audit by each district along with physical audit, taking action on audit reports, developing a Citizen 's Charter, establishing vigilance and monitoring committees, and developing grievance redressal system.
The Act recommends establishment of ' Technical Resource Support Groups ' at district, state and central level and active use of Information Technology, like creation of a ' Monitoring and Information System (MIS) ' and a NREGA website, to assure quality in implementation of NREGA through technical support.
The law allows convergence of NREGA with other programmes. As NREGA intends to create ' additional ' employment, the convergence should not affect employment provided by other programmes.
The Act aims to follow the Directive Principles of State Policy enunciated in Part IV of the Constitution of India. The law by providing a ' right to work ' is consistent with Article 41 that directs the State to secure to all citizens the right to work. The statute also seeks to protect the environment through rural works which is consistent with Article 48A that directs the State to protect the environment.
In accordance with the Article 21 of the Constitution of India that guarantees the right to life with dignity to every citizen of India, this act imparts dignity to the rural people through an assurance of livelihood security. The Fundamental Right enshrined in Article 16 of the Constitution of India guarantees equality of opportunity in matters of public employment and prevents the State from discriminating against anyone in matters of employment on the grounds only of religion, race, caste, sex, descent, place of birth, place of residence or any of them. NREGA also follows Article 46 that requires the State to promote the interests of and work for the economic uplift of the scheduled castes and scheduled tribes and protect them from discrimination and exploitation.
Article 40 mandates the State to organise village panchayats and endow them with such powers and authority as may be necessary to enable them to function as units of self - government. Conferring the primary responsibility of implementation on Gram Panchayats, the Act adheres to this constitutional principle. Also the process of decentralization initiated by 73rd Amendment to the Constitution of India that granted a constitutional status to the Panchayats is further reinforced by the Mahatma Gandhi NREGA that endowed these rural self - government institutions with authority to implement the law.
Academic research has focused on many dimensions of the NREGA: economic security, self - targeting, women 's empowerment, asset creation, corruption, how the scheme impacts agricultural wages. An early overall assessment in the north India states suggested that NREGA was "making a difference to the lives of the rural poor, slowly but surely. ''
The evidence on self - targeting suggests that works though there is a lot of unmet demand for work.
One of the objectives of NREGA was to improve the bargaining power of labour who often faced exploitative market conditions. Several studies have found that agricultural wages have increased significantly, especially for women since the inception of the scheme. This indicates that overall wage levels have increased due to the act, however, further research highlights that the key benefit of the scheme lies in the reduction of wage volatility. This highlights that NREGA may be an effective insurance scheme. Ongoing research efforts try to evaluate the overall welfare effects of the scheme; a particular focus has been to understand whether the scheme has reduced migration into urban centers for casual work.
Another important aspect of NREGA is the potential for women 's empowerment by providing them opportunities for paid work. One third of all employment is reserved for women, there is a provision for equal wages to men and women, provision for child care facilities at the worksite - these are three important provisions for women in the Act. More recent studies have suggested that women 's participation has remained high, though there are inter-state variations. One study in border villages of Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh and Gujarat studied the effect on short term migration and child welfare. and found that among children who do not migrate, grade completed is higher. The same study found that demand for NREGA work is higher, even though migrant wages are higher.
On asset creation, there have not been too many detailed studies. A few focusing on the potential for asset creation under NREGA suggest that (a) the potential is substantial and (b) in some places it is being realized and (c) lack of staff, especially technical staff rather than lack of material are to blame for poor realization of this potential. Others have pointed out that water harvesting and soil conservation works promoted through NREGA "could have high positive results on environment security and biodiversity and environment conservation '' A study conducted by researchers at the Indian Institute of Science and other collaborators attempts to quantify the environmental and socio - economic benefits of works done through the NREGA
Corruption in government programmes has remained a serious concern, and NREGA has been no exception. According to recent estimates, wage corruption in NREGA has declined from about 50 % in 2007 - 8 to between 4 - 30 % in 2009 - 10. Much of this improvement is attributable to the move to pay NREGA wages through bank and post office accounts. Some of the success in battling corruption can also be attributed to the strong provisions for community monitoring. Others find that "the overall social audit effects on reducing easy - to - detect malpractices was mostly absent ''.
A few papers also study the link between electoral gains and implementation of NREGA. One studies the effect in Andhra Pradesh - the authors find that "while politics may influence programme expenditure in some places and to a small extent, this is not universally true and does not undermine the effective targeting and good work of the scheme at large. '' The two other studies focus on these links in Rajasthan and West Bengal. Several local case studies are also being conducted to identify the regional impacts of NREGA.
The second performance audit by the Comptroller and Auditor General (CAG) of India covered 3,848 gram panchayats (GPs) in 28 states and 4 union territories (UTs) from April 2007 to March 2012. This comprehensive survey by the CAG documents lapses in implementation of the act. The main problems identified in the audit included: a fall in the level of employment, low rates of completion of works (only 30.3 per cent of planned works had been completed), poor planning (in one - third of Gram Panchayats, the planning process mandated by the act had not been followed), lack of public awareness partly due to poor information, education and communication IEC) by the state governments, shortage of staff (e.g., Gram Rozgar Sewaks had not been appointed in some states) and so on. Notwithstanding the statutory requirement of notification, yet five states had not even notified the eight - years - old scheme. The comprehensive assessment of the performance of the law by the constitutional auditor revealed serious lapses arising mainly due to lack of public awareness, mismanagement and institutional incapacity. The CAG also suggested some corrective measures.
Even though the mass social audits have a statutory mandate of Section 17 (as outlined in Chapter 11 of the NREGA Operational Guidelines), only seven states have the institutional capacity to facilitate the social audits as per prescribed norms. Although the Central Council is mandated to establish a central evaluation and monitoring system as per the NREGA Operational Guidelines, even after six years it is yet to fulfill the NREGA directive. Further, the CAG audit reports discrepancies in the maintenance of prescribed basic records in up to half of the gram panchayats (GPs) which inhibits the critical evaluation of the NREGA outcomes. The unreliability of Management Information System (MIS), due to significant disparity between the data in the MIS and the actual official documents, is also reported.
To increase public awareness, the intensification of the Information, Education and Communication (IEC) activities is recommended. To improve management of outcomes, it recommended proper maintenance of records at the gram panchayat (GP) level. Further the Central Council is recommended to establish a central evaluation and monitoring system for "a national level, comprehensive and independent evaluation of the scheme ''. The CAG also recommends a timely payment of unemployment allowance to the rural poor and a wage material ratio of 60: 40 in the NREGA works. Moreover, for effective financial management, the CAG recommends proper maintenance of accounts, in a uniform format, on a monthly basis and also enforcing the statutory guidelines to ensure transparency in the disposal of funds. For capacity building, the CAG recommends an increase in staff hiring to fill the large number of vacancies.
For the first time, the CAG also included a survey of more than 38,000 NREGA beneficiaries. An earlier evaluation of the NREGA by the CAG was criticized for its methodology.
Ex-Prime Minister of India Manmohan Singh released an anthologys of research studies on the MGNREGA called "MGNREGA Sameeksha '' in New Delhi on 14 July 2012, about a year before the CAG report. Aruna Roy and Nikhil Dey said that "the MGNREGA Sameeksha is a significant innovation to evaluate policy and delivery ''. The anthology draws on independent assessments of MGNREGA conducted by Indian Institutes of Management (IIMs), Indian Institutes of Technology (IITs) and others in collaboration with United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) published from 2008 to 2012. The Prime Minister said:
The Mahatma Gandhi NREGA story in numbers is a story worth telling... the scheme scores high on inclusivness... no welfare scheme in recent memory has caught the imagination of the people as much as NREGA has... under which ₹ 1, 10,000 crore (about USD $25 billion) have been spent to pay wages to 1,200 crore (12 billion) people.
Minister of Rural Development Jairam Ramesh says in the ' MGNREGA Sameeksha ':
It is perhaps the largest and most ambitious social security and public works programme in the world... soundness and high potential of the MGNREGA are well established... That, at any rate, is one of the main messages emerging from this extensive review of research on MGNREGA. It is also a message that comes loud and clear from the resounding popularity of MGNREGA -- today, about one - fourth of all rural households participate in the programme every year.
Meanwhile, the social audits in two Indian states highlight the potential of the law if implemented effectively.
Further the Minister says:
MGNREGA 's other quantitative achievements have been striking as well:
Civil society organisations (CSOs), nongovernmental organisations (NGOs), political representatives, civil servants and workers of Rajasthan and Andhra Pradesh collectively organise social audits to prevent corruption under the NREGA. As the corruption is attributed to the secrecy in governance, the ' Jansunwai ' or public hearing and the right to information (RTI), enacted in 2005, are used to fight this secrecy Goetz 1999 Official records obtained using RTI are read out at the public hearing to identify and rectify irregularities. "This process of reviewing official records and determining whether state reported expenditures reflect the actual monies spent on the ground is referred to as a social audit. '' Aiyar 2009, pp. 8 -- 9 Participation of informed citizens promotes collective responsibility and awareness about entitlements. Chandoke 2007
A continuous process of social audit on NREGA works involves public vigilance and verification at the stipulated 11 stages of implementation: registration of families; distribution of job cards; receipt of work applications; selection of suitable public works; preparation of technical estimates; work allocation; implementation and supervision; payment of wages; payment of unemployment allowance; evaluation of outcomes; and mandatory social audit in the Gram Sabha or Social Audit Forum. The Gram Panchayat Secretary called ' Sarpanch ' is designated as the authority responsible for carrying out the social audit at all stages. For some stages, the programme officer and the junior engineer is also responsible along with Sarpanch.
The statute designates the Gram Sabha meetings held to conduct social audit as the ' Social Audit Forums ' and spells out three steps to make them effective: publicity and preparation of documents; organizational and procedural aspects; and the mandatory agenda involving questions verifying compliance with norms specified at each of the 11 stages of implementation.
An application under the RTI to access relevant official documents is the first step of the social audit. Then the management personnel of the social audit verify these official records by conducting field visits. Finally, the ' Jansunwai ' or public hearing is organised at two levels: the Panchayat or village level and the Mandal level. The direct public debate involving the beneficiaries, political representatives, civil servants and, above all, the government officers responsible for implementing the NREGA works highlights corruption like the practice of rigging muster rolls (attendance registers) and also generates public awareness about the scheme.
These social audits on NREGA works in Rajasthan highlight: a significant demand for the scheme, less that 2 per cent corruption in the form of fudging of muster rolls, building the water harvesting infrastructure as the first priority in the drought - prone district, reduction of out - migration, and above all the women participation of more than 80 per cent in the employment guarantee scheme. The need for effective management of tasks, timely payment of wages and provision of support facilities at work sites is also emphasised.
To assess the effectiveness of the mass social audits on NREGA works in Andhra Pradesh, a World Bank study investigated the effect of the social audit on the level of public awareness about NREGA, its effect on the NREGA implementation, and its efficacy as a grievance redressal mechanism. The study found that the public awareness about the NREGA increased from about 30 per cent before the social audit to about 99 per cent after the social audit. Further, the efficacy of NREGA implementation increased from an average of about 60 per cent to about 97 per cent.
' Save MGNREGA ' is a set of demands proposed during the joint meeting of the national leadership of CITU, AIAWU, AIDWA and AIKS in New Delhi. The agenda was to discuss the dilution of MGNREGA scheme by the new government. Following demands were proposed:
1. Government of India should increase the Central allocation for the scheme so that number of workdays can be increased to 200 and per day wage can be increased to Rs. 300.
2. Job card to be issued for everyone who demands job, failing which, after 15 days employment benefits should be given.
3. Minimum 100 days of work should be ensured to all card holders
4. Minimum wage act should be strictly implemented. Delay in wage payment should be resolved.
5. MGNREGA should be extended to urban areas.
6. Gram Sabhas should be strengthened to monitor proper implementation of the scheme and also to check corruption.
Union Rural development Minister, Nitin Gadkari, proposed to limit MGNREGA programmes within tribal and poor areas. He also proposed to change the labour: material ratio from 60: 40 to 51: 49. As per the new proposal the programme will be implemented in 2,500 backward blocks coming under Intensive Participatory Planning Exercise. These blocks are identified per the Planning Commission Estimate of 2013 and a Backwardness Index prepared by Planning Commission using 2011 census. This backwardness index consist of following five parameters - percentage of households primarily depended on agriculture, female literacy rates, households without access to electricity, households without access to drinking water and sanitation within the premises and households without access to banking facilities.
Both proposals came in for sharp criticism. A number of economists with diverse views opposed the idea of restricting or "focussing '' implementation in a few districts or blocks.
In the November 2014 cabinet expansion, Birender Singh replaced Nitin Gadkari as rural development minister. Among the first statements made by the new minister was an assurance that NREGA would continue in all districts. Around the same time, however, NREGA budget saw a sharp cut and in the name of ' focusing ' on a few blocks the programme has been limited to those blocks.
Finance Minister Arun Jaitley announced Rs. 48,000 crore to be allocated to the MGNREGA as a part of 2017 Union budget of India.
A major criticism of the MNREGA is that a lot of money disbursed by the government gets siphoned off by middlemen of all religions, thus leaving a number of MGNREGA workers either with unpaid wages or less than standard wages. In Mahuadand, Jharkhand, most of the people who had worked under the MNREGA did not get paid, while some either got paid less than stipulated or were given 5 kg of rice by private contractors instead.
Another criticism of NREGA is that it is making agriculture less profitable. Landholders often oppose it on these grounds. The big farmer 's point of view can be summed up as follows: landless labourers are lazy and they do n't want to work on farms as they can get money without doing anything at NREGA worksites; farmers may have to sell their land, thereby laying foundation for the corporate farming.
Economists like Jagdish Bhagwati and Arvind Panagariya have described NREGA as "an inefficient instrument of shifting income to the poor '' -- the general notion being that it takes five rupees to transfer one rupee to NREGA workers. Economists including Surjit Bhalla have termed it as unsuccessful suggesting that schemes such as the NREGA need to be junked, saying that any scheme with 85 percent leakages ca n't be proclaimed to be "working successfully ''.
The workers points of view can be summed up as: labourers do not get more than Rs. 80 in the private agricultural labour market, there is no farm work for several months; few old age people who are jobless for at least 8 months a year; when farm work is available they go there first; farmers employ only young and strong persons to work in their farms and reject the others and hence many go jobless most of the time.
NREGA has been criticised for leakages and corrupt implementation. It has been alleged that individuals have received benefits and work payments for work that they have not done, or have done only on paper, or are not poor. In 2014 - 15, only 28 % of the payments were made on time to workers. Following the allegations of corruption in the scheme, NDA government ordered a re-evaluation of the scheme in 2015. G
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what happened to the kid from project x | Project X (2012 film) - Wikipedia
Project X is a 2012 American comedy film directed by Nima Nourizadeh and written by Michael Bacall and Matt Drake based on a story by Bacall, and produced by director Todd Phillips. The film follows three friends -- Thomas (Thomas Mann), Costa (Oliver Cooper) and J.B. (Jonathan Daniel Brown) -- who plan to gain popularity by throwing a party, a plan which quickly escalates out of their control.
The title Project X was initially a placeholder for a final title, but interest generated by the secretive title kept it in place. A nationwide open casting call was employed to find fresh faces. The majority of the cast were sourced from this casting call, but a few with prior acting credits, such as Mann, were accepted after multiple auditions. Filming took place on sets in Los Angeles over five weeks on a US $ 12 million budget. The film is presented as a found footage home video from the perspective of an attendee using a camera to document the night 's events.
Project X was released in the United States, Canada, and the United Kingdom on March 2, 2012, and grossed over $100 million worldwide during its theatrical run. Criticism focused on the "loathsome '' behavior of the lead characters, the perceived misogyny and the disregard for the effects of drug use. Other reviews considered it funny and thrilling, and equated it to a modern incarnation of the 1978 comedy Animal House. Following release, incidents of large - scale parties referenced or blamed the film as an inspiration.
In Pasadena, high school students Costa and J.B. plan to throw a party for their friend Thomas ' birthday, aiming to increase their popularity. Thomas ' parents go away for the weekend, leaving him alone in the house, but warn him not to have too many people over, and not to drive his father 's Mercedes. Thomas is reluctant to have the party at his house, but Costa continues with his plan. Costa hires AV - student Dax to chronicle the night 's events. Costa and J.B. advertise the party throughout the school. Thomas himself invites Alexis, the hottest girl at school, and his best friend Kirby, who has a crush on Thomas.
Costa, Thomas, and J.B. go to buy marijuana from drug - dealer T - Rick. While T - Rick gets the marijuana, Costa steals his lawn gnome to use as a party mascot. As they leave, T - Rick discovers his gnome stolen and chases after them but they escape in Thomas ' mini-van. As night falls, the party 's start time passes but no one turns up and Thomas worries that the party will fail. Suddenly, party - goers arrive en - masse. Thomas intends to limit the party to the backyard and poolhouse with the house guarded by two young security guards, Everett and Tyler. However, more and more people begin to arrive and the party moves beyond their control and into the house. Thomas questions Costa on how he advertised the party, forcing him to confess that he put ads on Craigslist and on a local radio station, worried that no one would attend.
Things escalate quickly and the police arrive, responding to a noise complaint. The partygoers remain silent, convincing the officers that the party has already ended. The police leave and the party resumes. T - Rick 's gnome is smashed, revealing that it contains a large amount of ecstasy tablets, which are quickly consumed by the partygoers. Thomas kisses Kirby and reveals that he loves her. Alexis meanwhile flirts with Thomas throughout the night and eventually seduces him. Kirby walks in on the pair as they are about to have sex and leaves the party upset. The noise and chaos of the party, which has now spilled into the surrounding neighborhood, receives televised news coverage with helicopters flying over the house. A dwarf guest drives Thomas ' dad 's Mercedes into the pool after being put into an oven by other partygoers.
The police return in force but are overwhelmed and repelled by the guests. They decide to let the party end naturally before moving in. T - Rick arrives armed with a flamethrower in an attempt to reclaim his gnome. He begins setting fire to the trees and cars in search of Costa, forcing the guests to flee and the party to end. The police shoot his flamethrower pack and it explodes. Thomas, Costa, J.B., and Dax flee with the other guests as Thomas ' house burns and the SWAT team moves in to retake the neighborhood. The neighborhood is left aflame.
By morning, the friends return to their respective homes to discover what punishment awaits them. After his parents return, Thomas 's father commends him for managing to throw the party because he thought he was a loser, but he uses Thomas 's college fund to pay for the damages. At school, Thomas, Costa and J.B. are cheered by the students and Thomas reconciles romantically with Kirby. In the epilogue, T - Rick is recovered alive following the explosion, Thomas is convicted for disturbing the peace, contributing to the delinquency of minors, and inciting a riot, and Costa and J.B. are acquitted; Costa because of his expensive lawyer and J.B. because his parents convince the court that he is mentally incapable and unfit to stand trial. Costa, however, is currently waiting for the results of three paternity tests. Dax, meanwhile, is under investigation for the disappearance of his parents. In an interview with Jillian Reynolds, Costa promises his next party will be even better.
The cast also includes: Miles Teller as college jock Miles; Martin Klebba as Angry Little Person, a party guest; Rick Shapiro as drug dealer T - Rick; Rob Evors as Rob, Thomas 's neighbor; Caitlin Dulany and Peter MacKenzie as Thomas 's Mom and Dad respectively; Nichole Bloom as J.B. 's girl; and Jesse Marco as the party DJ. Television hosts Jillian Reynolds and Jimmy Kimmel cameo as themselves.
Producer Todd Phillips described the film as an experiment, after executive producer Alex Heineman provided a basic concept, with the production team sharing tales of memorable parties that they had either attended or heard about. Writer Michael Bacall developed these stories into an outline scenario in one night with the goal of creating the "gnarliest high school party of all time ''. The remainder of the story was fleshed out in the following weeks. Bacall and Drake were told to "go crazy '' with the script, although Bacall confessed "I was a nerd in high school so I never did anything like what 's in the movie ''. Bacall worked on the script generally at nights between simultaneously working on the scripts for 21 Jump Street and Scott Pilgrim vs. the World.
Nima Nourizadeh had previously only worked directing music videos and commercials, but he came to the producers ' attention for his directing work on a series of party - themed Adidas commercials. Nourizadeh explained to the producers how he would want to develop the script and how he would want the film to look and feel, and he was eventually brought from London to Los Angeles, for what he believed would be two weeks, but stretched to two years. Phillips believed that Nourizadeh 's interpretation of the film was compatible with his vision, influencing the decision to hire Nourizadeh in his feature film debut.
Project X was not intended to be the title of the film, but it was kept to capitalize on interest generated by the rumored secrecy surrounding the project. Adding to the secrecy, producers decided to not send full scripts to any prospective cast member, instead providing only watermarked individual pages.
To create the impression that the events of Project X had actually happened, the producers decided against casting known faces, but to find completely new actors. Phillips stated that the goal of the open call was to cast "unknown actors '' and "real people of all ethnicities, '' who would not normally be given a chance to star in a film. Phillips and producer Joel Silver decided to create a nationwide open casting call, allowing any United States resident over the age of 18 to audition for Project X through a specially created website. Actors were required to provide videos of themselves telling embarrassing or funny stories, or dancing. However, traditional casting was still employed to allow actors with little professional acting credits to audition. The process allowed traits of the selected actors to be incorporated into their characters, including in several cases, their respective characters taking the actors ' names. In casting the three leads, the production avoided solo casting and instead had a group of three actors auditioning together, switching out and adding different actors to see which group worked best together.
The casting of low - profile actors aided in keeping the production budget low by avoiding the larger salaries attached to stars. To prepare for the role and create a believable friendship between the leads, Brown, Cooper, and Mann were sent to Disneyland together and spent a weekend in a cabin at Big Bear City, California.
Principal photography was scheduled to begin on June 14, 2010, in Los Angeles, California on a budget of $12 million. Filming took place over twenty - five nights between 5pm and 5am on the Warner Ranch in Burbank, California. The set contained a faux residential area featuring multiple houses. The house belonging to Thomas was situated directly opposite the house used by Danny Glover 's character Roger Murtaugh in the Silver - produced 1987 action film Lethal Weapon.
The production decided to film on a set because locating a real neighborhood that could be effectively closed off and which would allow filming throughout the evening and early morning proved difficult. Phillips explained that using a real neighborhood would have also proven difficult because of the fire damage required for the film. Much of the set was destroyed as part of filming. The film was largely shot in chronological sequence as repairing the set damage from a later scene to film an earlier one would have been difficult. Mann described the filming as a "party atmosphere '', with New York disc jockey Jesse Marco on set performing music even when the cameras stopped rolling to maintain the energy of the cast and extras. Many of the same extras were brought back for multiple nights of filming, and would continue to party between scenes. Periodic takes of up to 20 minutes were made of just extras dancing. During filming, Burbank police were called to the set concerning noise complaints made by nearby residents.
Project X was filmed in cinéma vérité style, only displaying the events of the film through the first - person view of the cameraman observing the party, to create the effect of the audience being in attendance at the out of control party. Nourizadeh stated that the style allowed the film to seem "real '' and "show some of the realities of what kids do ''. Cinematographer Ken Seng and Nourizadeh tested twelve different camera systems before choosing the digital - HD Sony F23 video camera, basing their decision on its ability to handle sudden extreme changes in lighting due to natural daylight and strobe lights.
The film is primarily presented from the perspective of the character Dax and his camera, but Nourizadeh also obtained footage by providing the cast and extras with recording devices such as BlackBerrys and iPhones to capture events occurring outside of the perspective or knowledge of the cameraman. This resulted in hours of unusable footage that had to be observed by Nourizadeh and his team to find segments that could be incorporated into the final film. Nourizadeh stated "when you have real material being shot by real people, it then kind of feels like it is. It is found footage. I hated spending 10 hours looking through bits of flip footage -- people did n't press stop, it 's like in their pockets. But yeah, it was great, man. '' Other footage was provided from fictional police and news cameras to give a different perspective on the events.
The Project X (Original Motion Picture Soundtrack) was released on iTunes and on CD on February 28, 2012, by WaterTower Music. The album features 13 tracks which appeared throughout the film, with songs by Kid Cudi, D12, MGK, Nas, and Pusha T.
The score spent eighteen weeks on the US Billboard 200, where it peaked at number twelve. The album reached number five on the Top Digital Albums, number one on the Top Soundtracks and Top Independent Albums, and number three on the Top Rap Albums and Top R&B / Hip - Hop Albums. It also charted on the Top Canadian Albums at number eight, the Swiss Albums Chart at number seventy - three, the French Albums Chart at number twenty, and the Belgian Ultratop 50 Albums Charts at number sixty - six in Flanders and number twenty - nine in Wallonia. In the United States, the album was the number 6 selling soundtrack album of 2012, selling approximately 217,000 units.
Project X held its world premiere on February 29, 2012, at the Grauman 's Chinese Theatre in Hollywood, followed by an after party with performances by Kid Cudi, Tyler, The Creator, and The Hundred in the Hands. Party guests were greeted by a Los Angeles Police Department cruiser and a bouncer warning them to keep their clothes on.
The film was scheduled for release in November 2011, but in August of that year the date was pushed back four months to March 2012. The film first received a wide release on March 1, 2012, in Australia, followed on March 2, 2012 by the United States and Canada.
Project X was released on DVD, Blu - ray disc, the UltraViolet cloud storage service and digital download on June 19, 2012. Two versions of the Blu - ray disc were released: one containing a Blu - ray and UltraViolet copy of the film, and a combo pack containing the film on Blu - ray, DVD and UltraViolet. The Blu - ray disc version contains an extended edition featuring approximately 6 minutes of additional footage, the theatrical cut, and presents the film in 1080p / AVC with DTS - HD Master Audio sound. The home release also contains three featurettes: "Project X: Declassified '', a behind - the - scenes look at the film 's production; "Project X: The Pasadena Three '', showing the casting of the three leads, Mann, Cooper, and Brown; and "Project Xpensive '', detailing how much the damage caused in the film would have cost in reality. The DVD version sold 401,204 units in the United States during its first week, earning approximately $5.9 million, and as of December 2012, it has sold 1,012,223 units and earned $15.5 million from home media sales.
During its box office run, the film grossed $54.7 million in North America and $48 million in other territories for a worldwide total of $102.7 million, against a budget of $12 million.
The film opened to $1.2 million in midnight takings from 1,003 theaters in the United States and Canada. Throughout its opening day, the film 's release was expanded to 3,055 theaters, where it grossed a total of $8.2 million including midnight takings. The end of the opening weekend saw the film take a total of $21 million -- an average of $6,891 per theater -- finishing as the number - two - grossing film of the weekend behind the animated family film The Lorax ($70.2 million), and exceeding expectations that it would finish with a gross in the mid - to high teens. Project X was highly popular with males and youth; 58 percent of the opening - weekend audience for the film was male, and 67 percent of the audience was under the age of 25.
Outside of North America, the film had its most successful opening weekends in France ($3.8 million), Australia ($1.3 million), and Germany ($1.2 million). These countries also represented its largest total gross takings, with $15 million from France, $4.4 million from Australia, and $4.3 million from Germany.
On Rotten Tomatoes, the film has a rating of 28 %, based on 129 reviews, with an average score of 4.2 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads, "Unoriginal, unfunny, and all - around unattractive, Project X mines the depths of the teen movie and found - footage genres for 87 minutes of predictably mean - spirited debauchery. '' On Metacritic, the film has a score of 48 out of 100, based on 25 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews ''. CinemaScore polls reported that the average grade moviegoers gave the film was a "B '' on an A+ to F scale, with young males rating it the highest (A), and males in general rating the film higher (B+) than females (C+).
Criticism against the film focused on the perceived misogyny, mean - spirit, and "loathsome '' behavior of the characters, and disregard for the effects of drugs. Empire 's Chris Hewitt gave the film one star out of five, and referred to the central characters portrayed by Mann, Cooper, and Brown, as "spectacularly unlikable ''. Hewitt labeled the characters "unrepentant, nihilistic, vile, venal, animalistic, avaricious, charmless, entitled, sub-Kardashian, stunningly irresponsible brats ''. Hewitt ended his review by stating that the film was "possibly the worst film of the last 20 years. It 's certainly the worst comedy of the last 20 years ''. Todd McCarthy of The Hollywood Reporter was similarly critical, calling it "grimly depressing, glumly unfunny teensploitation '', but admitted that it would "enthrall a portion of the high school / college age demographic it depicts, just as it alternately outrages, confounds and disgusts other, presumably older audiences. '' USA Today 's Claudia Puig found the film treated female characters poorly, labeling it a "heinous, misogynistic movie filled with faceless crowds and nary a character who resembles an actual human being '', a sentiment echoed by Melissa Anderson of The Village Voice who felt the film promoted "skull - numbing hedonism without consequences '', and "second - nature misogyny '', and that the only purpose of the male characters is to "' get high, fuck bitches. ' ''
Robbie Collin of The Telegraph called the film "flamboyantly loathsome on every imaginable level '' and was critical of the three lead characters, saying "unlike Superbad 's leads, these three are poisonously unpleasant, and the supposedly comedic banter between them comes off as bullying. '' The Los Angeles Times 's Robert Abele called the main trio "numbingly predictable '' and the film itself "unoriginal '', stating the film "bears a cravenly piggish attitude toward rewarding socially unacceptable behavior that feels unseemly rather than exciting ''.
The New York Times ' Neil Genzlinger said that the funny script and skilled editing potentially made it the "Animal House of the iPhone generation ''. Owen Gleiberman of Entertainment Weekly praised the film for updating the clichés of similarly themed films from the 1970s to the 1980s like Animal House and Risky Business "so that they look just dangerous enough to make nostalgia feel naughty '', but stated that the film does not offer anything more outrageous than real parties, despite implying "that it 's breaking down bold new barriers of misbehavior ''. Gleiberman accused negative reviews of "fulfilling the role of all those uptight parents in ' 50s news reports about the dangers of rock & roll '', by applying moral judgments to the events of the film. Time Out 's Joshua Rothkopf gave the film four stars out of five, calling it "brainless '', but feeling that the sheer anarchy of the film 's events were "thrilling ''. Pete Travers of Rolling Stone praised the film as "gut - bustingly funny '' that appealed to a base youth element to become "shitfaced and run amok '', and said that it puts its own spin on Animal House. Travers gave particular mention to Mann as "excellent ''; however, he also stated that Nourizadeh 's filmmaking was a "disaster ''.
Several reviewers were particularly critical towards Cooper and his character. Hewitt called him "the most annoying movie character since Jar Jar Binks '', while others similarly described him as "singularly loathsome, venal and without humor '', "supremely annoying '', "that dick in a sweater - vest '' and a "misogynistic '' imitation of Jonah Hill "minus the timing, sad sack appeal and motormouth grace ''. Conversely, Genzlinger praised Cooper for bringing a "mischievous likability '' to Costa that "anchors '' the events.
Cooper was nominated for two 2012 MTV Movie Awards for Best Comedic Performance and Best On - Screen Dirtbag, and the film received a nomination for Best Music for the Steve Aoki remix of the Kid Cudi song Pursuit of Happiness. Project X was listed as the number 1 most illegally downloaded film of 2012 on BitTorrent with approximately 8.7 million downloads.
Following the release of Project X, many parties were inspired by the film.
On March 9, 2012, "Project M '' became the first event to gain media attention after a party invite was posted on Twitter by Farmington Hills, Michigan high schooler Mikey Vasovski, and was subsequently passed to thousands of users, to the point that the message was being resent once per second, and was posted on Craigslist. The party was dubbed "Project M '' by Vasovski, and the invite contained the address of a foreclosed home where the party would take place. By 9 a.m. on March 9, potential party - goers began arriving at the location, but by 11 a.m. the party had been officially cancelled after police began escorting people off of the premises. Based on his promotion job, Vasovski was offered a summer internship by Gawker Media. On March 10, 2012, a second party gained media attention. The party was organized by a Canadian student, titled "Project Kris ''. Within 24 hours, it had been viewed by over 900,000 people. The event was allegedly intended to be a small party for 30.
On March 13, 2012, two separate parties were attempted in Miramar, Florida and Houston, Texas. In Miramar, people were invited to a foreclosed home to recreate the film as "Project X House Party 2 ''. The promoter was arrested and charged with $19,000 of criminal damage before the party had begun. Police claimed to have turned away 2,000 teenagers who approached the property unaware of the party 's cancellation. In Houston, 13 teenagers were arrested after successfully throwing a party and causing up to $100,000 of damage to an empty home. When police questioned the teens about their motivation, they claimed to have been inspired by the film. A second Houston party attracted between 500 and 1,000 guests, but resulted in the death of one person after an attendee started firing a gun when police attempted to break up the event.
On September 21, 2012, in the small Dutch town of Haren a party spiraled out of control after a Facebook invitation. News reports indicated that "There were multiple mentions of an American film called Project X '', and that some revelers wore T - shirts marked ' Project X Haren '. The damage was estimated to be over € 1 million ($1.32 million).
In 2012, a party called Proyecto X ("Project X '' in Spanish) was held in the Pilar Partido of Buenos Aires Province, Argentina. The event gathered 4,500 teenagers who were sold alcohol.
In 2014, a party called "Project P '' was thrown in Mecosta County, MI which attracted more that 2,000 people to an isolated farm house. There were go - go dancers, strippers, a fire thrower and two DJs reportedly hired for the party. Dozens of participants were taken to area hospitals after overdosing on drugs (particularly heroin) and alcohol including one reported sexual assault. Police from seven agencies who responded chose to manage the situation from the perimeter because of the risk of hundreds of intoxicated drivers fleeing the scene. Three suspected organizers of the rave were formally charged.
On March 6, 2012, four days after its release, Warner Bros. announced a sequel, with Bacall returning to write a script. On May 19, 2015, the studio officially announced that the sequel would be titled Project XX and was initially scheduled for release on August 19, 2016, but was never officially confirmed.
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the end a series of unfortunate events characters | The End (novel) - wikipedia
The End is the thirteenth and final novel in the children 's novel series A Series of Unfortunate Events by Lemony Snicket. The book was released on Friday, October 13, 2006.
The book opens with the Baudelaire orphans and Count Olaf on a boat heading away from the Hotel Denouement. After a storm, the Baudelaires arrive and are welcomed on an island by a young girl named Friday.
Later, the pregnant Kit Snicket and a friendly snake known as the "Incredibly Deadly Viper '' (which first appeared in The Reptile Room) are shipwrecked on the island. Count Olaf disguises himself as Kit, but the islanders, led by a man called Ishmael, find out. The islanders capture him and shun the Baudelaires for their possessing forbidden items. That night, two of the islanders sneak out to feed the children, asking them to join a mutiny. Agreeing, the Baudelaires go to the arboretum to collect weapons, where they discover a hidden room with a book that chronicles the history of the island. Ishmael arrives, explaining to the children that their parents were once the island 's leaders and were responsible for many improvements in island life, but were eventually overthrown by Ishmael, who brought the island back to a simple and austere way of life while hoarding comforts for himself.
The Baudelaires and Ishmael go back to the other side of the island, where the mutiny is already underway. Ishmael harpoons Olaf in the stomach, inadvertently shattering the helmet containing the Medusoid Mycelium, a deadly fungi, infecting the island 's entire population. The Baudelaires run back to the arboretum to find horseradish, a cure for the fungi, which turns out to be in the hybridized apples on a tree in the arboretum. They gather apples for the other islanders, only to discover that the island people have abandoned the mutiny and boarded their outrigger canoe, preparing to leave the island. Ishmael promises that he will save the islanders by sailing to a horseradish factory, but refuses to give them the apples, despite having already consumed one himself. At this point, Kit is about to go into labor. Though she is succumbing to the fungus, she can not eat the bitter apple due to its unhealthy effects on unborn babies. When the dying Olaf hears that she is still alive, he uses his last effort to get her safely down onto the beach, where he kisses Kit and dies soon after. The Baudelaires help Kit give birth to a baby girl. Kit then dies after requesting that the orphans name the baby after their mother Beatrice. The Baudelaires spend the next year taking care of Kit 's daughter, occasionally visiting the graves of Kit and Olaf.
After reading an entry from the history book written by their parents, the Baudelaires decide to leave the island with Beatrice in order to honor their parents ' wishes. Despite their fears about the outside world, the children prepare a boat and supplies for their journey back to the mainland. The fate of the children is left ambiguous, with the narrator speculating that the Baudelaires may have rejoined VFD or perished at sea.
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who plays the pink flamingo in gnomeo and juliet | Gnomeo & Juliet - wikipedia
Gnomeo & Juliet is a 2011 British - American 3D computer - animated fantasy romantic comedy film loosely based on William Shakespeare 's play Romeo and Juliet and an original screenplay by John R. Smith and Rob Sprackling. Financed by Disney and released through its Touchstone Pictures banner, the film was independently produced by Rocket Pictures and animated by Starz Animation. It was co-written and directed by Kelly Asbury and starring the voices of James McAvoy, Emily Blunt, Michael Caine, Jason Statham, Maggie Smith, Patrick Stewart, Ashley Jensen, Stephen Merchant, and Ozzy Osbourne.
The film premiered at the El Capitan Theatre in Hollywood on January 23, 2011. It was theatrically released in the United Kingdom and United States on February 11, 2011. Despite mixed reviews, the film earned $194 million on a $36 million budget. The film received nominations for the Satellite Award for Original Song, the Golden Globe Award for Best Original Song, the Critics ' Choice Award for Best Song and the Annie Award for Directing in a Feature Production, Storyboarding in a Feature Production, Voice Acting in a Feature Production and Writing in a Feature Production.
A sequel titled Sherlock Gnomes was released in 2018, with Paramount Pictures and Metro - Goldwyn - Mayer distributing and producing the film, and was a critical and commercial disappointment in contrast to the original film.
In Stratford - Upon - Avon, Miss. Montague (blue) and Mr. Capulet (red) (Julie Walters and Richard Wilson) are two elderly neighbors who despise each other. When they leave their respective gardens, their garden gnomes and other lawn ornaments come alive. The Montague garden is filled with blue - hat gnomes led by Lady Bluebury (Maggie Smith), and the Capulet garden has red - hat gnomes led by Lord Redbrick (Michael Caine). Like their human gardeners, the gnomes also despise each other. The gnomes hold a back alley lawnmower race. Lady Bluebury 's son Gnomeo (James McAvoy) races against his rival, Tybalt (Jason Statham), in which Tybalt destroys Gnomeo 's lawn mower.
That night, Gnomeo and his best friend Benny (Matt Lucas) infiltrate the red garden in black disguise in order to take revenge on Tybalt by spraying his mower with paint. Benny sprays the reds ' well and accidentally triggers a security light. During the escape Gnomeo ends up in a nearby garden where he bumps into a disguised Juliet (Emily Blunt), the daughter of Lord Redbrick. Juliet is attempting to retrieve a unique Cupid 's Arrow orchid, and the two romantically fight over it. They each discover the other 's color before fleeing the garden. When they both go back to their own gardens, Juliet tells her frog - sprinkler friend Nanette (Ashley Jensen) about her newfound love. Nanette states that the relationship is romantically tragic but agrees to keep it a secret after Gnomeo and Juliet agree to continue with it.
Gnomeo and Juliet have secret meetings in the nearby garden, where they meet a pink plastic flamingo named Featherstone (Jim Cummings) who encourages their love. Lord Redbrick pairs Juliet with a Red Gnome named Paris (Stephen Merchant), but Juliet is n't interested in him and distracts him with Nanette who has feelings for him. Lady Bluebury is distraught after the reds infiltrate the garden and destroy the plant nurtured by Gnomeo 's late father. The blues want Gnomeo to take revenge on the reds, and when he is about to spray the prized tulips of the reds, Juliet sees him and he backs out of the attack.
When he and Juliet meet up again, they argue until Featherstone stops them, telling them he lost his wife when the couple living in the house, where the garden is, broke up and left each other. Benny sees them and runs away into the alleyway, where Tybalt is waiting with his lawnmower, attempting to run Benny down and ends up chopping off his hat. Gnomeo intervenes, and he and Tybalt fight on the red lawnmower until the lawnmower runs into the wall, causing Tybalt to shatter himself. The reds attempt to attack Gnomeo, thinking that Tybalt died because of him, and Gnomeo ends up on a road, with everyone believing he was run over by a truck. Actually, the truck had teapots, and a blue teapot fell out. After hearing Juliet express her love for Gnomeo and attempt to walk out onto the roadway, Lord Redbrick has the other red gnomes glue Juliet 's feet to her fountain because he does not want to lose her like he lost her mother.
Gnomeo 's mushroom friend, Shroom, finds out that Gnomeo is still alive as a blue teapot fell out of the truck, and a dog has carried him to a nearby park. He and Featherstone eventually reaches the park where Gnomeo climbs onto a statue of William Shakespeare (Patrick Stewart) and tells him his story. Shakespeare tells Gnomeo that his story is very similar to his own writing, of Romeo and Juliet, and that it is likely Gnomeo 's will have a sad ending as well, the same ending as Romeo and Juliet, where the two lovers die.
Benny gets onto Miss. Montague 's computer and attempts to order to a powerful Terrafirminator lawn mower, intending to get revenge on the reds. He gets the lawnmower and the Terrafirminator goes out of control, destroys most of the two gardens, and gets itself stuck while the gnomes wage a full - scale war. Gnomeo returns to Juliet with the help of Featherstone. However, when he arrives, the Terrafirminator frees itself, and is about to utterly destroy the tower. The Terrafirminator goes flying torward the tower. Gnomeo tries to un-glue Juliet, but is unable to, and two share a passionate kiss just as the lawnmower crashes into the fountain, self - destructing in the process.
Now finally realizing that the feud leads Gnomeo and Juliet to their demises, Lord Redbrick and Lady Bluebury eventually end the feud. Lord Redbrick accidentally steps on a switch, that pushes the rubble out of the way, and the gnomes find out that Gnomeo and Juliet are actually alive and emerge from the ruins as the two clans celebrate. Mrs. Montague and Mr. Capulet come home to find their backyards a mess.
Shortly afterward, the red and blue gnomes create a new garden and come together to celebrate their newfound peace. Paris and Nanette are in love, Lord Redbrick and Lady Blueberry became best friends, Tybalt is revealed to still be alive having been glued back together, Featherstone is reunited with his wife after Benny finds and orders her online, and Gnomeo and Juliet are married on a purple lawnmower, which symbolizes the new union of both gnome clans.
Silent characters include:
There is no counterpart for Mercutio, as stated by James McAvoy in an interview with NBC, '' Gnomeo in this is a little bit of amalgamation between Romeo and Mercutio. We do n't have that Mercutio character in this. We do n't have that leader of the pack, which Romeo is n't but Gnomeo is a little bit. '' Prince Escalus also does n't have a counterpart.
The film was the original idea of Sprackling and Smith, who sold the spec script to Disney through Rocket Pictures. Disney studio chairman Dick Cook greenlit the film, under the Disney - owned Miramax Films. Miramax was later sold by Disney in 2010, but the latter studio retained the rights to the film. Starz Animation produced and animate the film. After first sitting on the film as it was an animated film not by a Disney animation unit, Disney Studios then opted to release the film through its Touchstone Pictures banner. Disney Australian director Adam Elliot was approached and asked to direct the film, but he rejected the offer due the film 's incompatibility with his style, as well as his lack of experience with CGI.
Asbury got on board in 2006, and was attracted the movie in order to work with Elton John. Asbury and Hamilton Shaw then rewrote the film "sort of from scratch, '' A particular challenge, according to Asbury was how to differentiate the ending between the original play and the movie in order to "keep daggers and poison and suicide out ''. Asbury had free range of the casting and conducted the process only through listening to voices, not knowing which actor was auditioning until he felt they were right for the character. Prior to the casting of James McAvoy and Emily Blunt, the roles of Gnomeo and Juliet were to be voiced by Ewan McGregor and Kate Winslet, respectively.
Gnomeo & Juliet: Original Soundtrack is the soundtrack album and was released by Buena Vista Records on February 8, 2011. It features music by Elton John (who was also the film 's executive producer), Nelly Furtado, Kiki Dee, and selections from the score composed by Chris P. Bacon and James Newton Howard (who played keyboards for Elton John and arranged strings on many previous projects).
The duet of John and Lady Gaga for "Hello, Hello '' was featured in the film, released on February 11, 2011, but the soundtrack version only features John. Additionally, on May 4, 2011 the duet was leaked online and available for download on most sharing websites.
Elton John & band:
Gnomeo & Juliet 's worldwide premiere was at El Capitan Theatre in Hollywood on January 23, 2011. The film was released by Walt Disney Studios Motion Pictures under the Touchstone Pictures banner on February 11, 2011. The film was Touchstone 's first animated film since 1993 's The Nightmare Before Christmas and also Touchstone 's first and, so far, only film to receive a G rating from the MPAA, despite some mild language. The film was distributed in the United Kingdom and Canada by Entertainment One Films. Elton John and director Asbury presented 10 minutes of the film at the Cannes Film Festival.
Gnomeo & Juliet was released by Touchstone Home Entertainment on Blu - ray 3D, Blu - ray, and DVD on May 24, 2011. The film was produced as three different packages: a 1 - disc DVD, a 2 - disc Blu - ray / DVD combo pack, and a 3 - disc Blu - ray 3D, Blu - ray, and DVD combo pack. The 3 - disc package also includes access to a digital download of the film. Both the DVD and Blu - ray versions of the release include the music video for Elton John and Nelly Furtado 's version of John 's "Crocodile Rock '', as well as the extras "Elton Builds a Garden '' and "Frog Talk '' with Ashley Jensen. In addition, the Blu - ray version also has several deleted and alternate scenes, as well as a feature with Ozzy Osbourne called "The Fawn of Darkness ''.
Gnomeo & Juliet received generally mixed reviews. Review aggregate website Rotten Tomatoes reported that 55 % of professional critics gave positive reviews, based on 121 reviews with an average rating of 5.6 / 10. The website 's critical consensus reads, "While it has moments of inspiration, Gnomeo & Juliet is often too self - referential for its own good. '' Another review aggregator, Metacritic, gave the film a 53 rating based on 28 reviews on its review scale, meaning "mixed or average reviews ''.
Gnomeo and Juliet earned about $100,000,000 in North America and $94,000,000 in other countries, for a worldwide total of $194,000,000. Gnomeo & Juliet was ultimately a sleeper hit for Disney, outperforming the much higher - budgeted (and eventual box office bomb) Mars Needs Moms the studio released a month following Gnomeo & Juliet. On its first weekend, the film had a worldwide opening of $30,700,000, finishing in second place behind Just Go with It ($35,800,000). However, on its second weekend -- Presidents ' Day weekend -- it topped the worldwide box office (although not being in first place either in North America or overseas) with $29,800,000, ahead of Unknown which ranked second ($26,400,000).
It opened in 2,994 theaters in North America on Friday, February 11, 2011, grossing $6,200,000 on its first day and ranking third behind Justin Bieber: Never Say Never and Just Go with It. It then finished the weekend with $25,400,000 in 3rd place. However, it scored the largest opening weekend ever for an animated feature released during the winter period (both January and February). It also made the largest debut on record for a minor animated movie (i.e., one with little status, expectations and / or built - in audience), according to Box Office Mojo. With a $99,970,000 total it became the highest - grossing animated feature among those released in winter, until it was surpassed by The Lego Movie in 2014.
In the United Kingdom, Ireland, and Malta, it topped the weekend box office by earning £ 2,900,000 ($4,700,000) on its opening. In total it has grossed $25,300,000, making the UK the only market, except North America, where it grossed more than $10,000,000.
In March 2012, it was reported that a sequel titled Sherlock Gnomes was in development at Rocket Pictures. Andy Riley and Kevin Cecil, two of the nine writers on the first film, are writing the script for the sequel. Steve Hamilton Shaw and David Furnish are producing the film, and Elton John, an exec producer, is again composing new songs for the film. The film will feature Sherlock Gnomes, "the greatest ornamental detective '' hired by the characters from the first film, who will try to solve the mystery of disappearing gnomes. In September 2012, it was reported that John Stevenson, the director of Kung Fu Panda, has been set to direct the sequel. In November 2015, it was announced that Johnny Depp would voice Sherlock Gnomes and that the film is scheduled for release on January 12, 2018. Due to the box failure of Strange Magic, Touchstone will not be producing it. Instead, Paramount Animation and Metro - Goldwyn - Mayer will produce the film, with McAvoy and Blunt reprising their roles. On May 26, 2017, Paramount delayed the film 's release date to March 23, 2018.
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are the us virgin islands part of the usa | United States Virgin Islands - Wikipedia
The United States Virgin Islands (USVI; also called the American Virgin Islands), officially the Virgin Islands of the United States, is a group of islands in the Caribbean that is an insular area of the United States located 40 miles (64 km) east of Puerto Rico. The islands are geographically part of the Virgin Islands archipelago and are located in the Leeward Islands of the Lesser Antilles.
The U.S. Virgin Islands consist of the main islands of Saint Croix, Saint John, and Saint Thomas, and many other surrounding minor islands. The total land area of the territory is 133.73 square miles (346.36 km). The territory 's capital is Charlotte Amalie on the island of Saint Thomas.
Previously the Danish West Indies of the Kingdom of Denmark -- Norway, they were sold to the United States by Denmark in the Treaty of the Danish West Indies of 1916. They are classified by the U.N. as a Non-Self - Governing Territory, and are currently an organized, unincorporated United States territory. The U.S. Virgin Islands are organized under the 1954 Revised Organic Act of the Virgin Islands and have since held five constitutional conventions. The last and only proposed Constitution, adopted by the Fifth Constitutional Convention of the U.S. Virgin Islands in 2009, was rejected by the U.S. Congress in 2010, which urged the convention to reconvene to address the concerns Congress and the Obama Administration had with the proposed document. The Fifth Constitutional Convention of the U.S. Virgin Islands met in October 2012 to address these concerns, but was not able to produce a revised Constitution before its October 31 deadline.
In 2010 the population was 106,405, and mostly Afro - Caribbean. Tourism and related categories are the primary economic activity, employing a high percentage of the civilian non-farm labor force that totalled 42,752 persons in 2016. (The total non-farm labor force was 48,278 persons.) Private sector jobs made up 71 percent of the total workforce. The average private sector salary was $34,088 and the average public sector salary was $52,572.
In a May 2016 report, some 11,000 people were categorized as being involved in some aspect of agriculture in the first half of 2016 but this category makes up a small part of the total economy. (The islands have a significant rum manufacturing sector.) At that time, there were approximately 607 manufacturing jobs and 1,487 natural resource and construction jobs. The single largest employer was the government. In mid February 2017, the USVI was facing a financial crisis due to a very high debt level of $2 billion and a structural budget deficit of $110 million.
The U.S. Virgin Islands were originally inhabited by the Ciboney, Carib, and Arawaks. The islands were named by Christopher Columbus on his second voyage in 1493 for Saint Ursula and her virgin followers. Over the next two hundred years, the islands were held by many European powers, including Spain, Great Britain, the Netherlands, France, and Denmark - Norway.
The Danish West India Company settled on Saint Thomas in 1672, settled on Saint John in 1694, and purchased Saint Croix from France in 1733. The islands became royal Danish colonies in 1754, named the Danish West Indian Islands (Danish: De dansk - vestindiske øer). Sugarcane, produced by slave labor, drove the islands ' economy during the 18th and early 19th centuries, until the abolition of slavery by Governor Peter von Scholten on July 3, 1848.
The Danish West India and Guinea Company are also credited with naming the island St. John (Danish: Sankt Jan). The Danish crown took full control of Saint John in 1754 along with St. Thomas and St. Croix. Sugarcane plantations such as the famous Annaberg Sugar Plantation were established in great numbers on St. John because of the intense heat and fertile terrain that provided ideal growing conditions. The establishment of sugarcane plantations also led to the buying of more slaves from Africa. In 1733, St. John was the site of one of the first significant slave rebellions in the New World when Akwamu slaves from the Gold Coast took over the island for six months.
The Danish were able to defeat the enslaved Africans with help from the French in Martinique. Instead of allowing themselves to be recaptured, more than a dozen of the ringleaders shot themselves before the French forces could capture them and call them to account for their activities during the period of rebel control. It is estimated that by 1775, slaves outnumbered the Danish settlers by a ratio of 5: 1. The indigenous Caribs and Arawaks were also used as slave labor to the point of the entire native population being absorbed into the larger groups. Slavery was abolished in the Virgin Islands on July 3, 1848.
Although some plantation owners refused to accept the abolition, some 5,000 Black people were freed while another 17,000 remained enslaved. In that era, slaves labored mainly on sugar plantations. Other crops included cotton and indigo. Over the following years, strict labor laws were implemented several times, leading planters to abandon their estates, causing a significant drop in population and the overall economy. In the late 1800s, numerous natural disasters added to worsen the situation. For the remainder of the period of Danish rule the islands were not economically viable and significant transfers were made from the Danish state budgets to the authorities in the islands. In 1867 a treaty to sell Saint Thomas and Saint John to the United States was agreed, but the sale was never effected. A number of reforms aimed at reviving the islands ' economy were attempted, but none had great success. A second draft treaty to sell the islands to the United States was negotiated in 1902 but was defeated in the upper house of the Danish parliament in a balanced ballot (because the opposition carried a 97 - year - old life member into the chamber).
The onset of World War I brought the reforms to a close and again left the islands isolated and exposed. During the submarine warfare phases of the war, the United States, fearing that the islands might be seized by Germany as a submarine base, again approached Denmark about buying them. After a few months of negotiations, a selling price of $25 million in United States gold coin was agreed (this is equivalent to $550.23 million in 2016 dollars). At the same time the economics of continued possession weighed heavily on the minds of Danish decision makers, and a consensus in favor of selling emerged in the Danish parliament.
The Treaty of the Danish West Indies was signed in August 1916, with a Danish referendum held in December 1916 to confirm the decision. The deal was finalized on January 17, 1917, when the United States and Denmark exchanged their respective treaty ratifications. The United States took possession of the islands on March 31, 1917 and the territory was renamed the Virgin Islands of the United States. Every year Transfer Day is recognized as a holiday, to commemorate the acquisition of the islands by the United States. U.S. citizenship was granted to the inhabitants of the islands in 1927. The U.S. dollar was adopted in the territory in 1934 and from 1935 to 1939 the islands were a part of the United States customs area.
Water Island, a small island to the south of St. Thomas, was initially administered by the U.S. federal government and did not become a part of the U.S. Virgin Islands territory until 1996, when 50 acres (200,000 m) of land was transferred to the territorial government. The remaining 200 acres (81 ha) of the island were purchased from the U.S. Department of the Interior in May 2005 for $10, a transaction that marked the official change in jurisdiction.
Hurricane Hugo struck the U.S. Virgin Islands in 1989, causing catastrophic physical and economic damage, particularly on the island of St. Croix. The territory was again struck by Hurricane Marilyn in 1995, killing eight people and causing more than $2 billion in damage. The islands were again struck by Hurricanes Bertha, Georges, Lenny, and Omar in 1996, 1998, 1999, and 2008, respectively, but damage was not as severe in those storms. In 2017, Hurricane Irma caused catastrophic damage to St. John and St. Thomas; just days later, Hurricane Maria 's eyewall crossed over St. Croix.
The U.S. Virgin Islands are in the Atlantic Ocean, about 40 miles (60 km) east of Puerto Rico and immediately west of the British Virgin Islands. They share the Virgin Islands Archipelago with the Puerto Rican Virgin Islands of Vieques and Culebra (administered by Puerto Rico), and the British Virgin Islands.
The territory consists of three main islands: Saint Thomas, Saint John, and Saint Croix, as well as several dozen smaller islands. The main islands have nicknames often used by locals: "Twin City '' (St. Croix), "Rock City '' (St. Thomas) and "Love City '' (St. John). The combined land area of the islands is roughly twice the size of Washington, D.C.
The U.S. Virgin Islands are known for their white sand beaches, including Magens Bay and Trunk Bay, and strategic harbors, including Charlotte Amalie and Christiansted. Like most Caribbean islands, the islands of the Virgin Islands, including Saint Thomas, are volcanic in origin and hilly. The highest point is Crown Mountain, Saint Thomas (1,555 ft or 474 m).
Saint Croix, the largest of the U.S. Virgin Islands, lies to the south and has a flatter terrain due to being coral in origin. The National Park Service manages more than half of Saint John, nearly all of Hassel Island, and many acres of coral reef. (See also Virgin Islands National Park, Virgin Islands Coral Reef National Monument, Buck Island Reef National Monument, Christiansted National Historic Site, and Salt River Bay National Historical Park and Ecological Preserve.)
The U.S. Virgin Islands lie on the boundary of the North American plate and the Caribbean Plate. Natural hazards include earthquakes and hurricanes.
The United States Virgin Islands enjoy a tropical climate, with little seasonal change throughout the year. Rainfall is concentrated in the high sun period (May through October), while in the winter the northeast trade winds prevail. Summer and winter high temperatures differ by 5 ° F (3 ° C) or less on average.
The U.S. Virgin Islands are an organized, unincorporated United States territory. Although they are U.S. citizens, U.S. Virgin Islanders residing in the territory are ineligible to vote for the President of the United States. They are, however, eligible to vote if they become residents of mainland U.S. states.
The U.S. Democratic and Republican parties allow U.S. Virgin Islands citizens to vote in their presidential primary elections for delegates to the respective national conventions.
People born in the U.S. Virgin Islands derive their U.S. citizenship from Congressional statute.
The main political parties in the U.S. Virgin Islands are the Democratic Party of the Virgin Islands, the Independent Citizens Movement, and the Republican Party of the Virgin Islands. Additional candidates run as independents.
At the national level, the U.S. Virgin Islands elect a delegate to Congress from their at - large congressional district. The elected delegate, while able to vote in committee, can not participate in floor votes. The current House of Representatives delegate is Stacey Plaskett.
At the territorial level, fifteen senators -- seven from the district of Saint Croix, seven from the district of Saint Thomas and Saint John, and one senator at - large who must be a resident of Saint John -- are elected for two - year terms to the unicameral Virgin Islands Legislature. There is no limit as to the number of terms they can serve.
The U.S. Virgin Islands have elected a territorial governor every four years since 1970. Previous governors were appointed by the President of the United States.
The U.S. Virgin Islands have a District Court, Superior Court and the Supreme Court. The District Court is responsible for federal law, while the Superior Court is responsible for U.S. Virgin Islands law at the trial level and the Supreme Court is responsible for appeals from the Superior Court for all appeals filed on or after January 29, 2007. Appeals filed prior to that date are heard by the Appellate Division of the District Court. Appeals from the federal District Court are heard by the United States Court of Appeals for the Third Circuit, located in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. District Court judges are appointed by the U.S. president, while Superior Court and Supreme Court judges are appointed by the governor.
On October 21, 1976, President Gerald Ford signed Pub. L. 94 -- 584 authorizing the people of the United States Virgin Islands to organize a government pursuant to a constitution, which would be automatically approved if Congress did not act within 60 days. On May 26, 2009 the U.S. Virgin Islands Fifth Constitutional Convention adopted a proposed Constitution of the Virgin Islands, which was submitted by President Barack Obama to Congress on March 1, 2010. On June 30, 2010, President Obama signed Pub. L. 111 -- 194 in which Congress rejected the proposed constitution and urged the constitutional convention to reconvene.
As of early 2017, the territory still did not have its own constitution. Little has been achieved on this front since 2009 when a proposed constitution was contested by the U.S. Justice Department on the grounds that the powers sought exceeded what would be considered allowable under territorial status. In September 2012, the Fifth Constitutional Convention of the U.S. Virgin Islands was unable to come to a decision on the contents of a proposed constitution by the October 31 deadline.
Administratively, the U.S. Virgin Islands are divided into three (3) districts and twenty (20) sub-districts.
While a Danish possession, the Islands were divided into "quarters '' (five on St. John and nine on St. Croix) which were further divided into many dozens of "estates ''. Estate names are still used to write addresses; estates and quarters are used in describing real estate, especially on St. John and St. Croix. More densely populated towns such as Frederiksted and Christiansted on St. Croix were historically referred to as "districts '', in contrast to the surrounding plantation land.
A 1993 referendum on status attracted only 31.4 % turnout, and so its results (in favor of the status quo) were considered void. No further referenda have been scheduled since.
In 2004, the 25th Legislature of the Virgin Islands established the Fifth Constitutional Convention, a constitutional convention gathered in order to draft a new constitution. In June 2009, Governor John de Jongh, Jr. rejected the resulting constitutional draft, saying the terms of the document would "violate federal law, fail to defer to federal sovereignty and disregard basic civil rights. '' A lawsuit filed by members of the Convention to force Governor de Jongh to forward the document to President Barack Obama was ultimately successful. The President of the United States forwarded the proposal to Congress -- which then had 60 days to approve or reject the document -- in May 2010, along with a report noting concerns raised by the U.S. Department of Justice and restating the issues noted by Governor de Jongh. A U.S. Congressional resolution disapproving of the proposed constitution and requesting that the Fifth Constitutional Convention reconvene to consider changes to address these issues was signed into law by President Obama on June 30, 2010.
Months later, a federal lawsuit was filed in the Federal District Court of the Virgin Islands in 2011. The lawsuit claimed that the United States had to provide U.S. Virgin Islanders with the ability to be represented in Congress and vote for U.S. President. The case is Civil No. 3: 11 - cv - 110, Charles v. U.S. Federal Elections Commission et al. (3: 11 - cv - 00110 - AET - RM). It alleged that racial discrimination present in an all - white and segregated U.S. Congress of 1917 was the impetus to deny the right to vote to a majority non-white constituency. The case was ultimately dismissed and closed on August 16, 2012 by District Judge Anne E. Thompson from the Federal District Court of the Virgin Islands, Division of St. Croix.
The Fifth Constitutional Convention of the U.S. Virgin Islands met in October 2012 but was not able to produce a revised Constitution before its October 31 deadline.
In 2016, the United Nations 's Special Committee on Decolonisation recommended to the UN 's General Assembly that this larger body should assist in "decolonization '' and help the people of the territory to "determine freely their future political status ''. Specifically, the Special Committee recommended that the "views of the people of the United States Virgin Islands in respect of their right to self - determination should be ascertained '' and that the UN should "actively pursue a public awareness campaign aimed at assisting the people of the United States Virgin Islands with their inalienable right to self - determination and in gaining a better understanding of the options for self - determination ''.
There are some military facilities and personnel on the islands:
Although a public airport, Henry E. Rohlsen Airport has hosted aircraft from the United States Air Force as well as the United States Army.
Tourism is the primary economic activity. The islands normally host up to 2 million visitors a year, many of whom visit on cruise ships. Additionally, the islands frequently are a starting point for private yacht charters to the neighboring British Virgin Islands. Euromonitor indicates that over 50 percent of the workforce is employed in some tourism - related work.
The manufacturing sector consists of mainly rum distilling. The agricultural sector is small, with most food being imported. International business and financial services are a small but growing component of the economy. Most energy is also generated from imported oil, leading to electricity costs four to five times higher than the U.S. mainland. The Virgin Islands Water and Power Authority also uses imported energy to operate its desalination facilities to provide fresh water.
Until February 2012, the Hovensa plant located on St. Croix was one of the world 's largest petroleum refineries and contributed about 20 % of the territory 's GDP. The facility stopped exporting petroleum products in 2014. In the final year of full refinery operations, the value of exported petroleum products was $12.7 billion (2011 fiscal year). After being shut down, it has operated as no more than an oil storage facility; the closure had provoked a local economic crisis.
The U.S. Virgin Islands are located in the Atlantic Standard Time zone and do not participate in daylight saving time. When the mainland United States is on Standard Time, the U.S. Virgin Islands are one hour ahead of Eastern Standard Time. When the mainland United States is on daylight saving time, Eastern Daylight Time is the same as Atlantic Standard Time.
The U.S. Virgin Islands are an independent customs territory from the mainland United States and operate largely as a free port. U.S. citizens thus do not have to clear customs when arriving in the U.S. Virgin Islands, but do when traveling to the mainland. Local residents are not subject to U.S. federal income taxes on U.S. Virgin Islands source income; they pay taxes to the territory equal to what their federal taxes would be if they lived in a state.
A 2012 Economic report from the US Census Bureau indicated a total of 2,414 business establishments generating $6.8 billion in sales, employing 32,465 people and paying $1.1 billion in payroll per year. Between 2007 and 2012, sales declined by $12.6 billion, or 64.9 percent. (In 2007, total sales were $19.5 billion and the number employed was 35,300.)
The latest data (May 2016) from the islands ' own Bureau of Economic Research indicates that there were 37,613 non-agricultural wage and salary jobs in the islands. This report states that the "leisure and hospitality sector '' employed an average of 7,333 people. However, the retail trade sector, which also serves many tourists, averaged another 5,913 jobs. Other categories which also include some tourism jobs include Arts and Entertainment (792 jobs), Accommodation & Food (6,541 jobs), Accommodation (3755 jobs), Food Services & Drink (2,766 jobs). When those are totaled, it is clear that a large percentage of the 37,613 non-farm workers are employed in dealing with tourists; of course, serving the local population is also part of the role of these sectors.
Analysts reviewing the economy often point to the closure of the HOVENSA oil refinery, the islands ' largest private sector employer, in early 2012 as having a major negative impact on the territory 's economy. In late 2013, the Reserve Bank of New York 's Research and Statistics Group pointed out that manufacturing employment dropped by 50 percent in May 2012, and by another 4 percent by November 2012, and that the GDP fell by 13 percent, "mainly due to an 80 percent drop - off in exports (mostly refined petroleum) ''. On the other hand, tourism and some other service industries were growing. As well, the 2010 census indicated that a relatively high share of the adult population is in the labor force: 66 percent, versus 65 percent on the mainland and well below 50 percent in Puerto Rico. The bottom line in this report however is that "it may also be worthwhile to look at the physical infrastructure and human capital built up over the years, with an eye toward using it for other types of productive economic activity ''.
Tourism, trade, and other service - oriented industries are the primary economic activities, accounting for nearly 60 % of the GDP. Approximately 2.5 million tourists per year visit, most arriving on cruise ships. Granted, such visitors do not spend large amounts of money ($146.70 each on average) but as a group, they contributed $339.8 million to the economy in 2012.
However, the travel industry warned in late 2014 that work needs to be done for USVI tourism practices to meet 21st century demands. "The needs of the community and the tourists may be diametrically opposed; however, for tourism to flourish cooperation is a necessity. From reduced energy costs to increased educational opportunities, from improved healthcare to a continued reduction in crime, these and many other challenges must be tackled. There is only now. ''
The CIA 's World Factbook also discusses the value of federal programs and grants -- $241.4 million in 2013, 19.7 % of the territory 's total revenues -- and that "the economy remains relatively diversified. Along with a vibrant tourism industry, rum exports, trade, and services will be major income sources in future years ''.
A May 2016 report by Bloomberg expressed concern about the islands ' tax - supported debt load. By January 23, 2017 this had increased to 2 billion which was very high considering the moderate population. That translated to a per capita debt of $19,000, which was worse than the per capita debt in Puerto Rico which was undergoing a severe financial crisis at the time. A Debtwire analyst writing in Forbes indicated that nothing short of a miracle would prevent a financial collapse. Another area of concern was the structural budget deficit which was at $110 million in mid February 2017. The government instituted a new law in March 2017 with new or increased taxes on rum, beer, tobacco products and sugary drinks, as well as internet purchases and timeshare unit owners.
The Henry E. Rohlsen International Airport serves St. Croix and the Cyril E. King International Airport serves St. Thomas and St. John.
The U.S. Virgin Islands is the only U.S. jurisdiction that drives on the left. This was inherited from what was then - current practice on the islands at the time of the 1917 transfer of the territory to the United States from Denmark. However, because most cars in the territory are imported from the mainland United States, the cars in the territory are left - hand drive.
As in other U.S. territories, U.S. Virgin Islands mail service is handled by the United States Postal Service, using the two - character state code "VI '' for domestic mail delivery. ZIP codes are in the 008xx range. As of January 2010, specifically assigned codes include 00801 -- 00805 (St Thomas), 00820 -- 00824 (Christiansted), 00830 -- 00831 (St John), 00840 -- 00841 (Frederiksted), and 00850 -- 00851 (Kingshill). The islands are part of the North American Numbering Plan, using area code 340, and island residents and visitors are able to call most toll - free U.S. numbers.
In 2010 the U.S. Virgin Islands had a population of 106,405. There are 40,648 households, and 26,636 families.
In 2010 there were 40,648 households out of which 34.7 % had children under the age of 18 living with them, 33.2 % were married couples living together, 24.9 % had a female householder with no husband present, and 34.5 % were non-families. 30.2 % of all households were made up of individuals and 6.3 % had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.64 and the average family size was 3.34.
In the territory, the population in 2010 was spread out with 31.6 % under the age of 18, 8.0 % from 18 to 24, 27.1 % from 25 to 44, 24.9 % from 45 to 64, and 8.4 % who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 33 years. For every 100 females, there were 91.4 males. For every 100 females ages 18 and up, there were 87.7 males. The annual population growth is − 0.12 %.
The median income for a household in the territory was $24,704, and the median income for a family was $28,553 according to the 2010 Census. Males had a median income of $28,309 versus $22,601 for females. The per capita income for the territory was $13,139. About 28.7 % of families and 32.5 % of the population were below the poverty line, including 41.7 % of those less than 18 years old and 29.8 % of those 65 or more years old. Nearly 70 % of adults had at least a high school diploma and 19.2 % had a bachelor 's degree or higher.
According to a report on the first half of 2016 by the VI Bureau of Economic Research, the unemployment rate was 11.5 percent. There were 37,613 non-agricultural wage and salary jobs; the government employed 10,743 people, making it the single largest employer. The report states that the "leisure and hospitality sector '' employed an average of 7,333 people. However, the "retail trade sector '', which also serves many tourists, averaged another 5,913 jobs. Other categories which also include some tourism jobs include Arts and Entertainment (792 jobs), Accommodation & Food (6,541 jobs), Accommodation (3755 jobs), Food Services & Drink (2,766 jobs). When those are totaled, it is clear that a large percentage of the 37,613 non-farm workers are employed in dealing with tourists; of course, serving the local population is also part of the role of these sectors.
The literacy rate for the adult population was 94.9 % in 2010.
The racial makeup of the U.S. Virgin Islands was:
Many residents can trace their ancestry to other Caribbean islands, especially Puerto Rico and the Lesser Antilles. The territory is largely Afro - Caribbean in origin.
English is currently the dominant language and Spanish is spoken by about 17 % of the population. Other languages are spoken by 11 % of the population. English has been the official language since 1917 when the islands were transferred from Denmark to the United States. Under Danish rule, the official language was Danish, but it was solely the language of administration and spoken by Danes, a tiny minority of the overall population that primarily occupied administrative roles in colonial Danish West Indian society. However, place names and surnames of Denmark - Norway origins still remain among natives.
Although the U.S. Virgin Islands was a Danish possession during most of its colonial history, Danish never was a spoken language among the populace, black or white, as the majority of plantation and slave owners were of Dutch, English, Scottish or Irish descent. Even during Danish ownership, Dutch was more common at least during some of those 245 years, specifically on St. Thomas and St. John. In St. Croix, English was the dominant language. St. Croix was owned by the French until 1733 when the island was sold to the Danish West Indian and Guinea Company. By 1741 there were five times as many English on the island as Danes. English Creole emerged on St. Croix more so than Dutch Creole, which was more popular on St. Thomas and St. John. Other languages spoken in the Danish West Indies included Irish, Scots, Spanish, and French, as well as Virgin Islands English Creole.
Virgin Islands Creole English, an English - based creole locally known as "dialect '', is spoken in informal situations. The form of Virgin Islands Creole spoken on St. Croix, known as Crucian, is slightly different from that spoken on St. Thomas and St. John. Because the U.S. Virgin Islands are home to thousands of immigrants from across the Caribbean, Spanish and various French creole languages are also widely spoken.
As of the 2000 census, 25.3 % of persons over the age of five speak a language other than English at home. Spanish is spoken by 16.8 % of the population and French is spoken by 6.6 %.
Religions: in the United States Virgin Islands (2010)
Christianity is the dominant religion in the U.S. Virgin Islands. According to Pew Research Center, 94.8 % of the population was Christian in 2010. Baptist, Roman Catholic and Episcopalian were the largest denominations in the 2010 Census. Protestantism is the most widespread of the religious categories, reflecting the territory 's Danish and Norwegian colonial heritage and more recently, its being a part of the United States. There is also a strong Roman Catholic presence. Rastafari is also prevalent.
Saint Thomas is home to one of the oldest Jewish communities in the Western Hemisphere as Sephardic Jews began to settle the island in the 18th century as traders and merchants. The St. Thomas Synagogue in Charlotte Amalie is the second oldest synagogue on American soil and oldest in terms of continuous usage.
In 2010, the national average life expectancy was 79.61 years. It was 76.57 years for men and 82.83 for women.
The U.S. Virgin Islands Department of Education serves as the territory 's education agency, and has two school districts: St. Thomas - St. John School District and St. Croix School District.
The University of the Virgin Islands provides higher education leading to associate 's, bachelor 's, and master 's degrees, with campuses on St. Thomas and St. Croix.
The culture of the Virgin Islands reflects the various people that have inhabited the present - day U.S. Virgin Islands and British Virgin Islands, both despite their political separation having kept close cultural ties. The culture derives chiefly from West African, European and American cultures, in addition to the influences from the immigrants from the Arab world, India and other Caribbean islands. The island was also strongly influenced by the Dutch, French and Danish during the periods of control the island were under these powers.
The islands have a number of AM and FM radio stations (mostly on St. Thomas and St. Croix) broadcasting music, religious, and news programming. (See List of radio stations in U.S. Territories.) Full and low - power television stations are split between St. Thomas and St. Croix. (See List of television stations in the U.S. Virgin Islands.) Newspapers include:
Virgin Islands government employees are also given administrative leave for St. Croix carnival events in January and St. Thomas carnival events in April / May.
Coordinates: 18 ° 21 ′ N 64 ° 56 ′ W / 18.350 ° N 64.933 ° W / 18.350; - 64.933
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star and the forces of evil list of episodes | List of Star vs. the Forces of Evil episodes - wikipedia
Star vs. the Forces of Evil is an American animated television series created by Daron Nefcy and produced by Disney Television Animation. The series centers on Star Butterfly, a magical princess from the dimension of Mewni who is sent to Earth by her parents the Queen and King Butterfly, when they decide she should learn to wield magic away from their kingdom. As an exchange student on Earth, she boards the house of Marco Diaz whom she befriends as they both attend high school. The series marks the second woman - led animated series by Disney. Before the series was picked up, Nefcy had worked as an artist for Disney 's Wander Over Yonder and Nickelodeon 's Robot and Monster.
The first episode of the series premiered on January 18, 2015, on Disney Channel. Succeeding episodes have premiered on Disney XD starting March 30, 2015. The series had been renewed for a second season a month before its Disney XD premiere. In March 2016 it was renewed for a third season prior to its second - season premiere scheduled for July that year. The episode "Bon Bon the Birthday Clown '' marked the mid-season finale for the second season, according to Nefcy. The second half of the season aired entirely in February 2017 on weekdays, with either a half - episode segment or a full episode premiering each day. In the same month, the series was renewed for a fourth season.
A two - hour television film called The Battle for Mewni, which comprises the first four episodes of the third season, premiered on July 15, 2017, with the succeeding third - season episodes to begin airing on November 6, 2017.
Star and Marco are trapped inside a tool shed by Ludo 's army. As Marco tries to fashion something to fight them off, he recounts how he tried to cheer up Star because she left her phone number for her crush, a keytar - playing student named Oskar, but he has not called her back.
Star experiences "mewberty '', that is, her skin breaks out in hearts whenever she is near boys. Although Marco thinks it 's much like the Earthling condition, Star 's is more extreme. She sprouts hearts all over her body, and transforms into a butterfly creature that captures boys and steals them away. Marco turns to the Glossaryck, a genie inside Star 's book of magic, for advice on how to stop her.
After making prank calls on Star 's magic mirror, Marco, Alfonzo, Ferguson, and Star must go to Pixtopia: Land Of The Pixies and pay the bill. When they ca n't pay it, they are forced to work in a mine shaft. The Pixie Empress flirts with Ferguson.
Star 's ex-boyfriend Tom invites her to the Blood Moon Ball, an Underworld event that occurs once every 667 years. Tom claims he has turned over a new leaf, having hired an anger management consultant. Marco does not believe Tom has changed but Star decides to go anyway. When Marco disrupts Tom 's plan to take Star for himself under the Blood Moon 's light, Tom reverts to his old self.
Following yet another victory over Ludo and his minions, Marco and Star eat at a Chinese restaurant. Marco tricks Star into thinking the sayings in fortune cookies can really predict the future. Meanwhile, Ludo hires a monster named Toffee to shape up his minions. They come up with a plan to take advantage of Star 's fortune cookie obsession.
Star freezes time with her wand so that Marco can appear at Echo Creek Academy on time for his morning greeting nod with his crush Jackie Lynn Thomas. But when she is unable to cancel out the effects, she and Marco visit the Plains of Time in order to get Father Time to restart time again.
Star gets an unexpected visit from her father who had been kicked out of the house for not picking up after himself. After getting excited over Earth activities such as using a flush toilet and playing miniature golf, he ends up overstaying his welcome. He hosts a party with his inter-dimensional friends, but it is soon crashed by a sun character named Helios.
Star and Marco go undercover as new princess students in order to break Flying Princess Pony Head out of St. Olga 's on her birthday. They discover that Pony Head has been brainwashed to be a compliant princess and try to evade the robot guards and the reform school 's headmistress Miss Heinous.
Guidance counselor Mr. Candle tells Star that she is fated to be Queen of Mewni. She has to read her mother 's book on how to act like a queen but she gets frustrated and decides to dress up in a more rebellious punk style. Meanwhile, Marco, who is displeased of Candle 's career suggestion of being the head janitor on Garbage Island, discovers that Mr. Candle is actually in cahoots with Tom, who planned to ensure "Starco '' does n't happen. He confronts Mr. Candle but is captured by Tom, and must duel Tom to get his freedom.
Star throws her wand by accident and it ends up in the mouth of a growling dog who refuses to let it go. She has to take care of the dog and find its owner. Meanwhile, Marco struggles to get a straw into his juice box and has to take care of the laser puppies. She eventually discovers the dog named Willoughby is actually an extra-dimensional being who did n't like life on her planet, so Star has her adopted by a strange lady named Lydia.
After getting a sugar high from seasoning her burrito, Star sets off some magic that accidentally causes a sign to fall and crush a police cruiser. While trying to evade the police, Star encounters a woman by the river bank named Brigid who likes making things out of hair and taking care of injured animals. She later encounters an underwater sea creature who tells her that hiding out is a good thing, but it is revealed the creature is actually her own conscience. Missing her family and friends, she returns to a very worried Marco and turns herself in to the police who have her wash the other squad cars as part of her police - supervised community service.
While foraging for donuts that are being tossed at the end of the day, Star encounters Mina Loveberry, a magical girl from Mewni who is Star 's idol. Mina has been living as a homeless person on Earth. Star follows Mina and tries to train in her ways, which annoys Marco. At a park, when Mina announces she plans to take over the world, the people decide to hold a vote on whether Mina should rule, and Star is left to break the tie.
Star, Marco, Pony Head, and a bush - themed female named Kelly go to an unidentified dimension to purchase a Goblin Dog (a goblin version of a hot dog). They end up having a hard time when they must deal with the various jobs of the goblin vendor Roy and the many lines that lead to the Goblin Dog truck.
Tom invites Marco to a movie marathon featuring Mackie Hands, Marco 's favorite kung - fu film star. They start to become friends on the way there after learning they both like Mackie Hands and a band called Love Sentence, but when Marco wants to leave to catch the marathon, Tom refuses to let him go, and gets angry, voiding his chance to earn an anger management graduation badge. Tom apologizes and tries to win back Marco with a Love Sentence song, and then raises Mackie Hands from the dead. Although they can not get into the theatre, Tom and Marco watch Mackie lay a beatdown on the movie 's security guards.
After Mr. Diaz fails to scare some kids with his haunted house, Star and Janna summon Hungry Larry, reputed to be a very scary spirit, to haunt the house. Janna goes missing and screams attract the kids back to the house. But the kids get scared and go missing; Star and Marco are attacked. Mr. Diaz arrives to find Hungry Larry has eaten everyone, and rescues them.
Spider With a Top Hat has been entertaining Star 's wand monsters at a party. Afterwards, he tries to learn a fighting move where he tries to blast through a wall. Despite getting training from Narwahl and Rock, he is unable to break through the wall. The other monsters are summoned for a fight but they are beaten up. Encouraged by Rock 's words, Spider is finally called to fight a monster '.
Star and Marco attend the birthday party for Marco 's sensei. Star becomes suspicious of magician - for - hire Preston Change - O, who, after every magic trick he does, seems to be taking something spiritual from the person, and that his hat is becoming longer and longer. She discovers that Preston has the ability to steal joy from people, so she warns him not to do so or else, but Preston does it anyway. When Star tells everyone what is happening, the audience think Star is a spoilsport and ignore her. Sensei talks about his feelings and then informs Star and Marco that he put Preston in the trunk, but when they open it, Preston has disappeared.
Star 's parents send a fairy godmother named Baby to evaluate Star, who takes the task seriously, as failing the eval would mean she would have to return to Mewni. At first, Star cleans up her room, shoving stuff in closets or dimensional pockets, but when Baby starts asking Star questions, and things start falling out of the pockets, Star 's responses are met with the same neutral phrase "Interesting. '' followed by jotting down of notes. Meanwhile Marco tries to help Star by bringing Baby food. Baby then asks Star to bring her an apple using magic, but Star fails to do the task despite repeated tries. Baby concludes that Star failed, but Star tries one last time and ends up using the apple seeds to grow an apple tree which drops an apple for Baby. Star 's parents learn from Baby that despite not being organized, losing the book of spells, and failing to do simple spells, Star has magic potential way ahead of when her mother was her age, and might even be comparable to Queen Eclipsa.
Marco borrows Star 's Dimensional Scissors to find a place to walk the laser puppies, but he soon becomes accustomed to its conveniences, opening a bunch of portals from his bed to access things. Hekapoo, the forger of all of the Dimensional Scissors, pulls Marco into her dimension and confiscates the Scissors as they did not belong to him or Star (Pony Head had stolen them and gave them to Star). Marco must earn the scissors by having to blow out the flame atop Hekapoo 's head. Star goes to Hekapoo 's dimension to recover Marco, who had chased Hekapoo for 16 years before winning the challenge. When they return, Marco reverts to his teenage body as only a few minutes have passed on Earth time.
Star is called to solve a problem in Miss Skullnick 's math class, but she refuses to do it. She tries to cast some magic to get out of it but ends up in a time loop. However with each iteration, the scenario is slightly different. Star goes to Father Time 's dimension, but Father Time is too busy to help her, and she gets advice from Omnitraxus Prime, who is in charge of space - time. Star must solve the problem or her world will fall apart.
Pony Head tells Star the bad news that the Bounce Lounge, their favorite partying venue, is closing. Star and Pony Head round up their former Bounce Lounge posse. They start partying and raise enough funds to save the place, however the owner Milly tells them that she is still closing the place because she is tired from having partied over 5,000 years. Afterwards, the Bounce Crew members and Marco take a group picture in a photo booth.
Star surprises Marco with tickets to a Love Sentence concert, but also invites Jackie. Star and Jackie start bonding from wearing similar t - shirts and riding skateboards to the concert where they stop and help an animal in the creek. Marco starts to feel jealous and wants them to go on without him, but Jackie convinces him otherwise. At the concert, everyone is having fun until couples start kissing, and when Jackie and Marco engage in a kiss, Star decides to let the two be. As Star leaves the concert, she fires a blast of tainted magic, destroying a billboard.
The songstrel Ruberiot is tasked to write a song about Star for the Mewnian tradition of Song Day, but Star is reluctant to participate because it portrays princesses as being perfect. When Ruberiot visits, Star at first leaves him with Marco and runs away, but after coming back, Ruberiot is upset. When Ruberiot shares that he wanted to write about the real Star and not do another perfect princess song, Star agrees to share everything about her life. Meanwhile, Queen Butterfly takes a secret trip to visit Ludo 's parents, but discovers something is very wrong about Ludo. On Song Day, Ruberiot starts the song like the old perfect princess style, but then changes to a pop song that makes Mewnians excited. But when he sings lyrics about how Star lost the Book of Spells and Glossaryck, that the queen and king had hidden this fact, and that Star has a crush on Marco, the Mewnian crowd becomes angry at Star 's family.
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who is the us senator for washington state | List of United States Senators from Washington - wikipedia
Washington was admitted to the Union on November 11, 1889, and elects its United States Senators to Class 1 and Class 3. Its current U.S. Senators are Patty Murray and Maria Cantwell, both members of the Democratic Party.
Class 1
Class 1 U.S. Senators belong to the electoral cycle that has recently been contested in 1994, 2000, 2006, and 2012. The next election will be in 2018.
Class 3
Class 3 U.S. Senators belong to the electoral cycle that has recently been contested in 1998, 2004, 2010, and 2016. The next election will be in 2022.
As of October 2016, there are two living former Senators, both from Class 1 (although Gorton had also served in Class 3). The most recent senator to die was Brock Adams of Class 3 (1987 - 1993) on September 10, 2004. The most recent Class 1 senator to die was Hugh Mitchell (1945 - 1946) on June 10, 1996. The most recently serving Class 1 senator to die was Henry M. Jackson (1953 - 1983), who died in office on September 1, 1983.
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what kind of snake is gray with orange belly | Ring - necked snake - wikipedia
Diadophis punctatus, commonly known as the ring - necked snake or ringneck snake, is a harmless species of colubrid snake found throughout much of the United States, central Mexico, and southeastern Canada. Ring - necked snakes are secretive, nocturnal snakes, so are rarely seen during the day time. They are slightly venomous, but their nonaggressive nature and small, rear - facing fangs pose little threat to humans who wish to handle them. They are best known for their unique defense posture of curling up their tails, exposing their bright red - orange posterior, ventral surface when threatened.
Ring - necked snakes are believed to be fairly abundant throughout most of their range, though no scientific evaluation supports this hypothesis. Scientific research is lacking for the ring - necked snake, and more in - depth investigations are greatly needed. It is the only species within the genus Diadophis, and currently 14 subspecies are identified, but many herpetologists question the morphologically based classifications.
Ring - necked snakes are fairly similar in morphology throughout much of their distribution.
Its dorsal coloration is solid olive, brown, bluish - gray to smoky black, broken only by a distinct yellow, red, or yellow - orange neck band. A few populations in New Mexico, Utah, and other distinct locations do not have the distinctive neck band. Additionally, individuals may have reduced or partially colored neck bands that are hard to distinguish; coloration may also be more of a cream color rather than bright orange or red. Head coloration tends to be slightly darker than the rest of the body, with tendencies to be blacker than grey or olive. Ventrally, the snakes exhibit a yellow - orange to red coloration broken by crescent - shaped black spots along the margins. Some individuals lack the distinct ventral coloration, but typically retain the black spotting. Rarely, do individuals lack both the ventral and neck band coloration; so the use of those two characteristics is the simplest way to distinguish the species.
Size also varies across the species ' distribution. Typically, adults measure 25 -- 38 cm (10 -- 15 in) in length, except for D. p. regalis, which measures 38 -- 46 cm (15 -- 18 in). First - year juvenile snakes are typically about 20 cm (8 in) and grow about 2 -- 5 cm (1 -- 2 in) a year depending on the developmental stage or resource availability.
Ring - necked snakes have smooth scales with 15 -- 17 scale rows at midbody. Males typically have small tubercles on their scales just anterior to the vent, which are usually absent in females.
Ring - necked snakes are fairly common throughout much of the United States extending into southeastern Canada and central Mexico. Eastern populations cover the entire Eastern Seaboard from the Gulf of Saint Lawrence continuous through the Gulf Coast of Texas. Distribution moves inland into northern Minnesota, continuing diagonally through the US to include all of Iowa, eastern Nebraska, and most of Kansas. In the western US, the distribution is significantly less continuous, with spotty, distinct population segments through most of the Pacific Northwest. Populations extend from south - central Washington continuing along the extreme West Coast into Mexico. Population segments extend inland into western Idaho, through southern Nevada, into central Utah, and continuing south through Arizona and central Mexico.
Ring - necked snakes occur in a wide variety of habitats. Preference seems to be determined by areas with abundant cover and denning locations. Northern and western subspecies are found within open woodlands near rocky hillsides, or in wetter environments with abundant cover or woody debris. Southern subspecies exist primarily within riparian and wet environments, especially in more arid habitats. Stebbins (2003) identified the species as a snake of moist habitats, with moist soil conditions the preferred substrate. Ring - necked snakes are also not found above an elevation of 2,200 m (7,200 ft). In northern regions, dens are also important in identifying suitable ring - necked snake habitat. Dens are usually shared communally, and are identifiable by an existent subsurface crevasse or hole deep enough to prevent freezing temperatures. Since it is a woodland reptile, it can also commonly be found under wood or scraps. Because of hot weather, they tend to make holes and burrows, or they hide under rocks or any suitable material. They are normally found in flatland forests.
The diet of the ring - necked snake consists primarily of smaller salamanders, earthworms, and slugs, but they also sometimes eat lizards, frogs, and some juvenile snakes of other species. The frequency at which prey species are chosen is dependent on their availability within the habitat. Ring - necked snakes use a combination of constriction and envenomation to secure their prey. The snakes do not have a true venom gland, but they do have an analogous structure called the Duvernoy 's gland derived from the same tissue. Most subspecies are rear - fanged with the last maxillary teeth on both sides of the upper jaw being longer and channeled; the notable exception is D. p. edwardsii, which is fangless. The venom is produced in the Duvernoy 's gland located directly behind the eye. It then drains out of an opening at the rear of the maxillary tooth. Ring - necked snakes first strike and then secure the prey using constriction. Next, they maneuver their mouths forward, ensuring the last maxillary tooth punctures the skin and allowing the venom to enter the prey 's tissue. Ring - necked snakes are rarely aggressive to larger predators, suggesting their venom evolved as a feeding strategy rather than a defense strategy. Rather than trying to bite a predator, the snake winds up its tail into a corkscrew, exposing its brightly colored belly.
Ring - necked snakes are primarily nocturnal or highly crepuscular, though some diurnal activity has been observed. Individuals are sometimes found during the day, especially on cloudy days, sunning themselves to gain heat. Yet, most individuals lie directly under surface objects warmed in the sun and use conduction with that object to gain heat. Though ring - necked snakes are highly secretive, they do display some social structure, but the exact social hierarchies have never been evaluated. Many populations have been identified to have large colonies of more than 100 individuals, and some reports indicate some smaller colonies occupy the same microhabitats.
Ring - necked snakes usually mate in the spring. In some subspecies, though, mating occurs in the fall, and delayed implantation occurs. Females attract males by secreting pheromones from their skin. Once the male finds a female, he starts by moving his closed mouth along the female 's body. Then, the male bites the female around her neck ring, maneuvering to align their bodies so sperm can be inserted into the female 's vent. Females lay their eggs in loose, aerated soils under a rock or in a rotted log. Three to ten eggs are deposited in early summer and hatch in August or September. The egg is elongated with a white color contrasted by yellow ends. When hatched, juveniles are precocial and fend for themselves without parental care.
The following 14 subspecies are recognized.
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what is michael jordan's free throw percentage | Michael Jordan - wikipedia
Michael Jeffrey Jordan (born February 17, 1963), also known by his initials, MJ, is an American retired professional basketball player who is currently the principal owner and chairman of the Charlotte Hornets of the National Basketball Association (NBA). Jordan played 15 seasons in the NBA for the Chicago Bulls and Washington Wizards. His biography on the NBA website states: "By acclamation, Michael Jordan is the greatest basketball player of all time. '' Jordan was one of the most effectively marketed athletes of his generation and was considered instrumental in popularizing the NBA around the world in the 1980s and 1990s.
Jordan played three seasons for coach Dean Smith at the University of North Carolina. As a freshman, he was a member of the Tar Heels ' national championship team in 1982. Jordan joined the Bulls in 1984 as the third overall draft pick. He quickly emerged as a league star, entertaining crowds with his prolific scoring. His leaping ability, demonstrated by performing slam dunks from the free throw line in slam dunk contests, earned him the nicknames Air Jordan and His Airness. He also gained a reputation for being one of the best defensive players in basketball. In 1991, he won his first NBA championship with the Bulls, and followed that achievement with titles in 1992 and 1993, securing a "three - peat ''. Although Jordan abruptly retired from basketball before the beginning of the 1993 -- 94 NBA season and started a new career playing minor league baseball, he returned to the Bulls in March 1995 and led them to three additional championships in 1996, 1997, and 1998, as well as a then - record 72 regular - season wins in the 1995 -- 96 NBA season. Jordan retired for a second time in January 1999, but returned for two more NBA seasons from 2001 to 2003 as a member of the Wizards.
Jordan 's individual accolades and accomplishments include five Most Valuable Player (MVP) Awards, ten All - NBA First Team designations, nine All - Defensive First Team honors, fourteen NBA All - Star Game appearances, three All - Star Game MVP Awards, ten scoring titles, three steals titles, six NBA Finals MVP Awards, and the 1988 NBA Defensive Player of the Year Award. Among his numerous accomplishments, Jordan holds the NBA records for highest career regular season scoring average (30.12 points per game) and highest career playoff scoring average (33.45 points per game). In 1999, he was named the greatest North American athlete of the 20th century by ESPN, and was second to Babe Ruth on the Associated Press 's list of athletes of the century. Jordan is a two - time inductee into the Basketball Hall of Fame, having been enshrined in 2009 for his individual career, and again in 2010 as part of the group induction of the 1992 United States men 's Olympic basketball team ("The Dream Team ''). He became a member of the FIBA Hall of Fame in 2015.
Jordan is also known for his product endorsements. He fueled the success of Nike 's Air Jordan sneakers, which were introduced in 1985 and remain popular today. Jordan also starred in the 1996 film Space Jam as himself. In 2006, he became part - owner and head of basketball operations for the then - Charlotte Bobcats, buying a controlling interest in 2010. In 2015, Jordan became the first billionaire NBA player in history as a result of the increase in value of NBA franchises. He is the third - richest African - American, behind Oprah Winfrey and Robert F. Smith.
Jordan was born in Brooklyn, New York, to Deloris (née Peoples), who worked in banking, and James R. Jordan Sr., an equipment supervisor. His family moved to Wilmington, North Carolina, when he was a toddler.
Jordan is the fourth of five children. He has two older brothers, Larry Jordan and James R. Jordan, Jr., one older sister, Deloris, and one younger sister, Roslyn. Jordan 's brother James retired in 2006 as the Command Sergeant Major of the 35th Signal Brigade of the XVIII Airborne Corps in the U.S. Army.
Jordan attended Emsley A. Laney High School in Wilmington, where he highlighted his athletic career by playing basketball, baseball, and football. He tried out for the varsity basketball team during his sophomore year, but at 5'11 '' (1.80 m), he was deemed too short to play at that level. His taller friend, Harvest Leroy Smith, was the only sophomore to make the team.
Motivated to prove his worth, Jordan became the star of Laney 's junior varsity squad, and tallied several 40 - point games. The following summer, he grew four inches (10 cm) and trained rigorously. Upon earning a spot on the varsity roster, Jordan averaged about 20 points per game over his final two seasons of high school play. As a senior, he was selected to the McDonald 's All - American Team after averaging a triple - double: 29.2 points, 11.6 rebounds, and 10.1 assists.
Jordan was recruited by numerous college basketball programs, including Duke, North Carolina, South Carolina, Syracuse, and Virginia. In 1981, Jordan accepted a basketball scholarship to North Carolina, where he majored in cultural geography.
As a freshman in coach Dean Smith 's team - oriented system, he was named ACC Freshman of the Year after he averaged 13.4 points per game (ppg) on 53.4 % shooting (field goal percentage). He made the game - winning jump shot in the 1982 NCAA Championship game against Georgetown, which was led by future NBA rival Patrick Ewing. Jordan later described this shot as the major turning point in his basketball career. During his three seasons at North Carolina, he averaged 17.7 ppg on 54.0 % shooting, and added 5.0 rebounds per game (rpg). He was selected by consensus to the NCAA All - American First Team in both his sophomore (1983) and junior (1984) seasons. After winning the Naismith and the Wooden College Player of the Year awards in 1984, Jordan left North Carolina one year before his scheduled graduation to enter the 1984 NBA draft. The Chicago Bulls selected Jordan with the third overall pick, after Hakeem Olajuwon (Houston Rockets) and Sam Bowie (Portland Trail Blazers). One of the primary reasons why Jordan was not drafted sooner was because the first two teams were in need of a center. However, Trail Blazers general manager Stu Inman contended that it was not a matter of drafting a center, but more a matter of taking Sam Bowie over Jordan, in part because Portland already had Clyde Drexler, who was a guard with similar skills to Jordan. ESPN, citing Bowie 's injury - laden college career, named the Blazers ' choice of Bowie as the worst draft pick in North American professional sports history. Jordan returned to North Carolina to complete his degree in 1986.
During his rookie season in the NBA, Jordan averaged 28.2 ppg on 51.5 % shooting. He quickly became a fan favorite even in opposing arenas, and appeared on the cover of Sports Illustrated with the heading "A Star Is Born '' just over a month into his professional career. Jordan was also voted in as an All - Star starter by the fans in his rookie season. Controversy arose before the All - Star game when word surfaced that several veteran players -- led by Isiah Thomas -- were upset by the amount of attention Jordan was receiving. This led to a so - called "freeze - out '' on Jordan, where players refused to pass the ball to him throughout the game. The controversy left Jordan relatively unaffected when he returned to regular season play, and he would go on to be voted Rookie of the Year. The Bulls finished the season 38 -- 44 and lost to the Milwaukee Bucks in four games in the first round of the playoffs.
Jordan 's second season was cut short when he broke his foot in the third game of the year, causing him to miss 64 games. Despite Jordan 's injury and a 30 -- 52 record (at the time it was fifth worst record of any team to qualify for the playoffs in NBA history), the Bulls made the playoffs. Jordan recovered in time to participate in the playoffs and performed well upon his return. Against a 1985 -- 86 Boston Celtics team that is often considered one of the greatest in NBA history, Jordan set the still - unbroken record for points in a playoff game with 63 in Game 2. The Celtics, however, managed to sweep the series.
Jordan had completely recovered in time for the 1986 -- 87 season, and he had one of the most prolific scoring seasons in NBA history. He joined Wilt Chamberlain as the only two players to score 3,000 points in a season, averaging a league high 37.1 points on 48.2 % shooting. In addition, Jordan demonstrated his defensive prowess, as he became the first player in NBA history to record 200 steals and 100 blocked shots in a season. Despite Jordan 's success, Magic Johnson won the league 's Most Valuable Player Award. The Bulls reached 40 wins, and advanced to the playoffs for the third consecutive year. However, they were again swept by the Celtics.
Jordan again led the league in scoring during the 1987 -- 88 season, averaging 35.0 ppg on 53.5 % shooting and won his first league MVP Award. He was also named the Defensive Player of the Year, as he had averaged 1.6 blocks and a league high 3.16 steals per game. The Bulls finished 50 -- 32, and made it out of the first round of the playoffs for the first time in Jordan 's career, as they defeated the Cleveland Cavaliers in five games. However, the Bulls then lost in five games to the more experienced Detroit Pistons, who were led by Isiah Thomas and a group of physical players known as the "Bad Boys ''.
In the 1988 -- 89 season, Jordan again led the league in scoring, averaging 32.5 ppg on 53.8 % shooting from the field, along with 8 rpg and 8 assists per game (apg). The Bulls finished with a 47 -- 35 record, and advanced to the Eastern Conference Finals, defeating the Cavaliers and New York Knicks along the way. The Cavaliers series included a career highlight for Jordan when he hit The Shot over Craig Ehlo at the buzzer in the fifth and final game of the series. However, the Pistons again defeated the Bulls, this time in six games, by utilizing their "Jordan Rules '' method of guarding Jordan, which consisted of double and triple teaming him every time he touched the ball.
The Bulls entered the 1989 -- 90 season as a team on the rise, with their core group of Jordan and young improving players like Scottie Pippen and Horace Grant, and under the guidance of new coach Phil Jackson. Jordan averaged a league leading 33.6 ppg on 52.6 % shooting, to go with 6.9 rpg and 6.3 apg in leading the Bulls to a 55 -- 27 record. They again advanced to the Eastern Conference Finals after beating the Bucks and Philadelphia 76ers. However, despite pushing the series to seven games, the Bulls lost to the Pistons for the third consecutive season.
In the 1990 -- 91 season, Jordan won his second MVP award after averaging 31.5 ppg on 53.9 % shooting, 6.0 rpg, and 5.5 apg for the regular season. The Bulls finished in first place in their division for the first time in 16 years and set a franchise record with 61 wins in the regular season. With Scottie Pippen developing into an All - Star, the Bulls had elevated their play. The Bulls defeated the New York Knicks and the Philadelphia 76ers in the opening two rounds of the playoffs. They advanced to the Eastern Conference Finals where their rival, the Detroit Pistons, awaited them. However, this time the Bulls beat the Pistons in a four - game sweep.
The Bulls advanced to the NBA Finals for the first time in franchise history to face the Los Angeles Lakers, who had Magic Johnson and James Worthy, two formidable opponents. The Bulls won the series four games to one, and compiled a 15 -- 2 playoff record along the way. Perhaps the best known moment of the series came in Game 2 when, attempting a dunk, Jordan avoided a potential Sam Perkins block by switching the ball from his right hand to his left in mid-air to lay the shot into the basket. In his first Finals appearance, Jordan posted per game averages of 31.2 points on 56 % shooting from the field, 11.4 assists, 6.6 rebounds, 2.8 steals, and 1.4 blocks. Jordan won his first NBA Finals MVP award, and he cried while holding the NBA Finals trophy.
Jordan and the Bulls continued their dominance in the 1991 -- 92 season, establishing a 67 -- 15 record, topping their franchise record from 1990 -- 91. Jordan won his second consecutive MVP award with averages of 30.1 points, 6.4 rebounds and 6.1 assists per game on 52 % shooting. After winning a physical 7 - game series over the New York Knicks in the second round of the playoffs and finishing off the Cleveland Cavaliers in the Conference Finals in 6 games, the Bulls met Clyde Drexler and the Portland Trail Blazers in the Finals. The media, hoping to recreate a Magic -- Bird rivalry, highlighted the similarities between "Air '' Jordan and Clyde "The Glide '' during the pre-Finals hype. In the first game, Jordan scored a Finals - record 35 points in the first half, including a record - setting six three - point field goals. After the sixth three - pointer, he jogged down the court shrugging as he looked courtside. Marv Albert, who broadcast the game, later stated that it was as if Jordan was saying, "I ca n't believe I 'm doing this. '' The Bulls went on to win Game 1, and defeat the Blazers in six games. Jordan was named Finals MVP for the second year in a row and finished the series averaging 35.8 ppg, 4.8 rpg, and 6.5 apg, while shooting 53 % from the floor.
In the 1992 -- 93 season, despite a 32.6 ppg, 6.7 rpg, and 5.5 apg campaign, Jordan 's streak of consecutive MVP seasons ended as he lost the award to his friend Charles Barkley. Coincidentally, Jordan and the Bulls met Barkley and his Phoenix Suns in the 1993 NBA Finals. The Bulls won their third NBA championship on a game - winning shot by John Paxson and a last - second block by Horace Grant, but Jordan was once again Chicago 's leader. He averaged a Finals - record 41.0 ppg during the six - game series, and became the first player in NBA history to win three straight Finals MVP awards. He scored more than 30 points in every game of the series, including 40 or more points in 4 consecutive games. With his third Finals triumph, Jordan capped off a seven - year run where he attained seven scoring titles and three championships, but there were signs that Jordan was tiring of his massive celebrity and all of the non-basketball hassles in his life.
During the Bulls ' playoff run in 1993, controversy arose when Jordan was seen gambling in Atlantic City, New Jersey, the night before a game against the New York Knicks. In that same year, he admitted that he had to cover $57,000 in gambling losses, and author Richard Esquinas wrote a book claiming he had won $1.25 million from Jordan on the golf course. In 2005, Jordan talked to Ed Bradley of the CBS evening show 60 Minutes about his gambling and admitted that he made some reckless decisions. Jordan stated, "Yeah, I 've gotten myself into situations where I would not walk away and I 've pushed the envelope. Is that compulsive? Yeah, it depends on how you look at it. If you 're willing to jeopardize your livelihood and your family, then yeah. '' When Bradley asked him if his gambling ever got to the level where it jeopardized his livelihood or family, Jordan replied, "No. ''
On October 6, 1993, Jordan announced his retirement, citing a loss of desire to play the game. Jordan later stated that the death of his father three months earlier also shaped his decision. Jordan 's father was murdered on July 23, 1993, at a highway rest area in Lumberton, North Carolina, by two teenagers, Daniel Green and Larry Martin Demery, who carjacked his luxury Lexus bearing the license plate "UNC 0023 ''. His body was dumped in a South Carolina swamp and was not discovered until August 3. The assailants were traced from calls that they made on James Jordan 's cell phone. The two criminals were caught, convicted at trial, and sentenced to life in prison. Jordan was close to his father; as a child he had imitated his father 's proclivity to stick out his tongue while absorbed in work. He later adopted it as his own signature, displaying it each time he drove to the basket. In 1996, he founded a Chicago area Boys & Girls Club and dedicated it to his father.
In his 1998 autobiography For the Love of the Game, Jordan wrote that he had been preparing for retirement as early as the summer of 1992. The added exhaustion due to the Dream Team run in the 1992 Olympics solidified Jordan 's feelings about the game and his ever - growing celebrity status. Jordan 's announcement sent shock waves throughout the NBA and appeared on the front pages of newspapers around the world.
Jordan then further surprised the sports world by signing a minor league baseball contract with the Chicago White Sox on February 7, 1994. He reported to spring training in Sarasota, Florida, and was assigned to the team 's minor league system on March 31, 1994. Jordan has stated this decision was made to pursue the dream of his late father, who had always envisioned his son as a Major League Baseball player. The White Sox were another team owned by Bulls owner Jerry Reinsdorf, who continued to honor Jordan 's basketball contract during the years he played baseball.
In 1994, Jordan played for the Birmingham Barons, a Double - A minor league affiliate of the Chicago White Sox, batting. 202 with three home runs, 51 runs batted in, 30 stolen bases, 114 strikeouts, 51 base on balls, and 11 errors. He also appeared for the Scottsdale Scorpions in the 1994 Arizona Fall League, batting. 252 against the top prospects in baseball. On November 1, 1994, his number 23 was retired by the Bulls in a ceremony that included the erection of a permanent sculpture known as The Spirit outside the new United Center.
In the 1993 -- 94 season, the Bulls, without Jordan, achieved a 55 -- 27 record, and lost to the New York Knicks in the second round of the playoffs. But the 1994 -- 95 Bulls were a shell of the championship team of just two years earlier. Struggling at mid-season to ensure a spot in the playoffs, Chicago was 31 -- 31 at one point in mid-March. The team received help, however, when Jordan decided to return to the NBA for the Bulls.
In March 1995, Jordan decided to quit baseball due to the ongoing Major League Baseball strike, as he wanted to avoid becoming a potential replacement player. On March 18, 1995, Jordan announced his return to the NBA through a two - word press release: "I 'm back. '' The next day, Jordan took to the court with the Bulls to face the Indiana Pacers in Indianapolis, scoring 19 points. The game had the highest Nielsen rating of a regular season NBA game since 1975. Although he could have opted to wear his normal number in spite of the Bulls having retired it, Jordan instead wore number 45, as he had while playing baseball.
Although he had not played an NBA game in a year and a half, Jordan played well upon his return, making a game - winning jump shot against Atlanta in his fourth game back. He then scored 55 points in the next game against the Knicks at Madison Square Garden on March 28, 1995. Boosted by Jordan 's comeback, the Bulls went 13 -- 4 to make the playoffs and advanced to the Eastern Conference Semifinals against the Orlando Magic. At the end of Game 1, Orlando 's Nick Anderson stripped Jordan from behind, leading to the game - winning basket for the Magic; he would later comment that Jordan "did n't look like the old Michael Jordan '' and that "No. 45 does n't explode like No. 23 used to. ''
Jordan responded by scoring 38 points in the next game, which Chicago won. Before the game, Jordan decided that he would resume wearing his former number, 23, immediately. The Bulls were fined $25,000 for failing to report the impromptu number change to the NBA. Jordan was fined an additional $5,000 for opting to wear white shoes as the rest of the Bulls wore black. He averaged 31 points per game in the series, but Orlando won the series in 6 games.
Freshly motivated by the playoff defeat, Jordan trained aggressively for the 1995 -- 96 season. Strengthened by the addition of rebound specialist Dennis Rodman, the Bulls dominated the league, starting the season 41 -- 3, and eventually finishing with the then - best regular season record in NBA history (later surpassed by the 2015 -- 16 Golden State Warriors): 72 -- 10. Jordan led the league in scoring with 30.4 ppg, and won the league 's regular season and All - Star Game MVP awards.
In the playoffs, the Bulls lost only three games in four series (Miami Heat 3 -- 0, New York Knicks 4 -- 1, Orlando Magic 4 -- 0). They defeated the Seattle SuperSonics 4 -- 2 in the NBA Finals to win their fourth championship. Jordan was named Finals MVP for a record fourth time, surpassing Magic Johnson 's three Finals MVP awards. He also achieved only the second sweep of the MVP Awards in the All - Star Game, regular season and NBA Finals, Willis Reed having achieved the first, during the 1969 -- 70 season. Because this was Jordan 's first championship since his father 's murder, and it was won on Father 's Day, Jordan reacted very emotionally upon winning the title, including a memorable scene of him crying on the locker room floor with the game ball.
In the 1996 -- 97 season, the Bulls started out 69 -- 11, but missed out on a second consecutive 70 - win season by losing their final two games to finish 69 -- 13. However, this year Jordan was beaten for the NBA MVP Award by Karl Malone. The Bulls again advanced to the Finals, where they faced Malone and the Utah Jazz. The series against the Jazz featured two of the more memorable clutch moments of Jordan 's career. He won Game 1 for the Bulls with a buzzer - beating jump shot. In Game 5, with the series tied at 2, Jordan played despite being feverish and dehydrated from a stomach virus. In what is known as the "Flu Game '', Jordan scored 38 points, including the game - deciding 3 - pointer with 25 seconds remaining. The Bulls won 90 -- 88 and went on to win the series in six games. For the fifth time in as many Finals appearances, Jordan received the Finals MVP award. During the 1997 NBA All - Star Game, Jordan posted the first triple double in All - Star Game history in a victorious effort; however, he did not receive the MVP award.
Jordan and the Bulls compiled a 62 -- 20 record in the 1997 -- 98 season. Jordan led the league with 28.7 points per game, securing his fifth regular - season MVP award, plus honors for All - NBA First Team, First Defensive Team and the All - Star Game MVP. The Bulls won the Eastern Conference Championship for a third straight season, including surviving a seven - game series with the Indiana Pacers in the Eastern Conference Finals; it was the first time Jordan had played in a Game 7 since the 1992 Eastern Conference Semifinals with the Knicks. After winning, they moved on for a rematch with the Jazz in the Finals.
The Bulls returned to the Delta Center for Game 6 on June 14, 1998, leading the series 3 -- 2. Jordan executed a series of plays, considered to be one of the greatest clutch performances in NBA Finals history. With the Bulls trailing 86 -- 83 with 41.9 seconds remaining in the fourth quarter, Phil Jackson called a timeout. When play resumed, Jordan received the inbound pass, drove to the basket, and hit a shot over several Jazz defenders, cutting the Utah lead to 86 -- 85. The Jazz brought the ball upcourt and passed the ball to forward Karl Malone, who was set up in the low post and was being guarded by Rodman. Malone jostled with Rodman and caught the pass, but Jordan cut behind him and took the ball out of his hands for a steal. Jordan then dribbled down the court and paused, eyeing his defender, Jazz guard Bryon Russell. With 10 seconds remaining, Jordan started to dribble right, then crossed over to his left, possibly pushing off Russell, although the officials did not call a foul. With 5.2 seconds left, Jordan gave Chicago an 87 -- 86 lead with a game - winning jumper, the climactic shot of his Bulls career. Afterwards, John Stockton missed a game - winning three - pointer. Jordan and the Bulls won their sixth NBA championship and second three - peat. Once again, Jordan was voted the Finals MVP, having led all scorers averaging 33.5 points per game, including 45 in the deciding Game 6. Jordan 's six Finals MVPs is a record; Shaquille O'Neal, Magic Johnson, LeBron James and Tim Duncan are tied for second place with three apiece. The 1998 Finals holds the highest television rating of any Finals series in history. Game 6 also holds the highest television rating of any game in NBA history.
With Phil Jackson 's contract expiring, the pending departures of Scottie Pippen and Dennis Rodman looming, and being in the latter stages of an owner - induced lockout of NBA players, Jordan retired for the second time on January 13, 1999. On January 19, 2000, Jordan returned to the NBA not as a player, but as part owner and President of Basketball Operations for the Washington Wizards. Jordan 's responsibilities with the Wizards were comprehensive. He controlled all aspects of the Wizards ' basketball operations, and had the final say in all personnel matters. Opinions of Jordan as a basketball executive were mixed. He managed to purge the team of several highly paid, unpopular players (such as forward Juwan Howard and point guard Rod Strickland), but used the first pick in the 2001 NBA draft to select high schooler Kwame Brown, who did not live up to expectations and was traded away after four seasons.
Despite his January 1999 claim that he was "99.9 % certain '' that he would never play another NBA game, in the summer of 2001 Jordan expressed interest in making another comeback, this time with his new team. Inspired by the NHL comeback of his friend Mario Lemieux the previous winter, Jordan spent much of the spring and summer of 2001 in training, holding several invitation - only camps for NBA players in Chicago. In addition, Jordan hired his old Chicago Bulls head coach, Doug Collins, as Washington 's coach for the upcoming season, a decision that many saw as foreshadowing another Jordan return.
On September 25, 2001, Jordan announced his return to the NBA to play for the Washington Wizards, indicating his intention to donate his salary as a player to a relief effort for the victims of the September 11, 2001 attacks. In an injury - plagued 2001 -- 02 season, he led the team in scoring (22.9 ppg), assists (5.2 apg), and steals (1.42 spg). However, torn cartilage in his right knee ended Jordan 's season after only 60 games, the fewest he had played in a regular season since playing 17 games after returning from his first retirement during the 1994 -- 95 season. Jordan started 53 of his 60 games for the season, averaging 24.3 points, 5.4 assists, and 6.0 rebounds, and shooting 41.9 % from the field in his 53 starts. His last seven appearances were in a reserve role, in which he averaged just over 20 minutes per game.
Playing in his 14th and final NBA All - Star Game in 2003, Jordan passed Kareem Abdul - Jabbar as the all - time leading scorer in All - Star Game history (a record since broken by Kobe Bryant). That year, Jordan was the only Washington player to play in all 82 games, starting in 67 of them. He averaged 20.0 points, 6.1 rebounds, 3.8 assists, and 1.5 steals per game. He also shot 45 % from the field, and 82 % from the free throw line. Even though he turned 40 during the season, he scored 20 or more points 42 times, 30 or more points nine times, and 40 or more points three times. On February 21, 2003, Jordan became the first 40 - year - old to tally 43 points in an NBA game. During his stint with the Wizards, all of Jordan 's home games at the MCI Center were sold out, and the Wizards were the second most - watched team in the NBA, averaging 20,172 fans a game at home and 19,311 on the road. However, neither of Jordan 's final two seasons resulted in a playoff appearance for the Wizards, and Jordan was often unsatisfied with the play of those around him. At several points he openly criticized his teammates to the media, citing their lack of focus and intensity, notably that of the number one draft pick in the 2001 NBA draft, Kwame Brown.
With the recognition that 2002 -- 03 would be Jordan 's final season, tributes were paid to him throughout the NBA. In his final game at his old home court, the United Center in Chicago, Jordan received a four - minute standing ovation. The Miami Heat retired the number 23 jersey on April 11, 2003, even though Jordan never played for the team. At the 2003 All - Star Game, Jordan was offered a starting spot from Tracy McGrady and Allen Iverson, but refused both. In the end, he accepted the spot of Vince Carter, who decided to give it up under great public pressure.
Jordan played in his final NBA game on April 16, 2003 in Philadelphia. After scoring only 13 points in the game, Jordan went to the bench with 4 minutes and 13 seconds remaining in the third quarter and with his team trailing the Philadelphia 76ers, 75 -- 56. Just after the start of the fourth quarter, the First Union Center crowd began chanting "We want Mike! '' After much encouragement from coach Doug Collins, Jordan finally rose from the bench and re-entered the game, replacing Larry Hughes with 2: 35 remaining. At 1: 45, Jordan was intentionally fouled by the 76ers ' Eric Snow, and stepped to the line to make both free throws. After the second foul shot, the 76ers in - bounded the ball to rookie John Salmons, who in turn was intentionally fouled by Bobby Simmons one second later, stopping time so that Jordan could return to the bench. Jordan received a three - minute standing ovation from his teammates, his opponents, the officials, and the crowd of 21,257 fans.
Jordan played on two Olympic gold medal - winning American basketball teams. He won a gold medal as a college player in the 1984 Summer Olympics. The team was coached by Bob Knight and featured players such as Patrick Ewing, Sam Perkins, Chris Mullin, Steve Alford, and Wayman Tisdale. Jordan led the team in scoring, averaging 17.1 ppg for the tournament.
In the 1992 Summer Olympics, he was a member of the star - studded squad that included Magic Johnson, Larry Bird, and David Robinson and was dubbed the "Dream Team ''. Jordan was the only player to start all 8 games in the Olympics. Playing limited minutes due to the frequent blowouts, Jordan averaged 14.9 ppg, finishing second on the team in scoring. Jordan and fellow Dream Team members Patrick Ewing and Chris Mullin are the only American men 's basketball players to win Olympic gold medals as amateurs and professionals.
After his third retirement, Jordan assumed that he would be able to return to his front office position as Director of Basketball Operations with the Wizards. However, his previous tenure in the Wizards ' front office had produced the aforementioned mixed results and may have also influenced the trade of Richard "Rip '' Hamilton for Jerry Stackhouse (although Jordan was not technically Director of Basketball Operations in 2002). On May 7, 2003, Wizards owner Abe Pollin fired Jordan as Washington 's President of Basketball Operations. Jordan later stated that he felt betrayed, and that if he had known he would be fired upon retiring he never would have come back to play for the Wizards.
Jordan kept busy over the next few years. He stayed in shape, played golf in celebrity charity tournaments, and spent time with his family in Chicago. He also promoted his Jordan Brand clothing line and rode motorcycles. Since 2004, Jordan has owned Michael Jordan Motorsports, a professional closed - course motorcycle road racing team that competed with two Suzukis in the premier Superbike championship sanctioned by the American Motorcyclist Association (AMA) until the end of the 2013 season. In 2006, Jordan and his wife Juanita pledged $5 million to Chicago 's Hales Franciscan High School. The Jordan Brand has made donations to Habitat for Humanity and a Louisiana branch of the Boys & Girls Clubs of America.
On June 15, 2006, Jordan bought a minority stake in the Charlotte Bobcats, becoming the team 's second - largest shareholder behind majority owner Robert L. Johnson. As part of the deal, Jordan took full control over the basketball side of the operation, with the title "Managing Member of Basketball Operations. '' Despite Jordan 's previous success as an endorser, he has made an effort not to be included in Charlotte 's marketing campaigns. A decade earlier, Jordan had made a bid to become part - owner of Charlotte 's original NBA team, the Charlotte Hornets, but talks collapsed when owner George Shinn refused to give Jordan complete control of basketball operations.
In February 2010, it was reported that Jordan was seeking majority ownership of the Bobcats. As February wore on, it became apparent that Jordan and former Houston Rockets president George Postolos were the leading contenders for ownership of the team. On February 27, the Bobcats announced that Johnson had reached an agreement with Jordan and his group, MJ Basketball Holdings, to buy the team pending NBA approval. On March 17, the NBA Board of Governors unanimously approved Jordan 's purchase, making him the first former player to become the majority owner of an NBA team. It also made him the league 's only African - American majority owner of an NBA team.
During the 2011 NBA lockout, The New York Times wrote that Jordan led a group of 10 to 14 hardline owners who wanted to cap the players ' share of basketball - related income at 50 percent and as low as 47. Journalists observed that, during the labor dispute in 1998, Jordan had told Washington Wizards then - owner Abe Pollin, "If you ca n't make a profit, you should sell your team. '' Jason Whitlock of FoxSports.com called Jordan a "sellout '' wanting "current players to pay for his incompetence. '' He cited Jordan 's executive decisions to draft disappointing players Kwame Brown and Adam Morrison.
During the 2011 -- 12 NBA season that was shortened to 66 games by the lockout, the Bobcats posted a 7 -- 59 record. Their. 106 winning percentage was the worst in NBA history. "I 'm not real happy about the record book scenario last year. It 's very, very frustrating '', Jordan said later that year.
Jordan was a shooting guard who was also capable of playing as a small forward (the position he would primarily play during his second return to professional basketball with the Washington Wizards), and as a point guard. Jordan was known throughout his career for being a strong clutch performer. With the Bulls, he decided 25 games with field goals or free throws in the last 30 seconds, including two NBA Finals games and five other playoff contests. His competitiveness was visible in his prolific trash - talk and well - known work ethic. As the Bulls organization built the franchise around Jordan, management had to trade away players who were not "tough enough '' to compete with him in practice. To help improve his defense, he spent extra hours studying film of opponents. On offense, he relied more upon instinct and improvisation at game time. Noted as a durable player, Jordan did not miss four or more games while active for a full season from 1986 -- 87 to 2001 -- 02, when he injured his right knee. He played all 82 games nine times. Jordan has frequently cited David Thompson, Walter Davis, and Jerry West as influences. Confirmed at the start of his career, and possibly later on, Jordan had a special "Love of the Game Clause '' written into his contract (unusual at the time) which allowed him to play basketball against anyone at any time, anywhere.
Jordan had a versatile offensive game. He was capable of aggressively driving to the basket, as well as drawing fouls from his opponents at a high rate; his 8,772 free throw attempts are the ninth - highest total of all time. As his career progressed, Jordan also developed the ability to post up his opponents and score with his trademark fadeaway jump shot, using his leaping ability to "fade away '' from block attempts. According to Hubie Brown, this move alone made him nearly unstoppable. Despite media criticism as a "selfish '' player early in his career, Jordan 's 5.3 assists per game also indicate his willingness to defer to his teammates. After shooting under 30 % from three - point range in his first five seasons in the NBA, including a career - low 13 % in the 1987 -- 88 season, Jordan improved to a career - high 50 % in the 1994 -- 95 season. The three - point shot became more of a focus of his game from 1994 -- 95 to 1996 -- 97, when the NBA shortened its three - point line to 22 ft (6.7 m) (from 23 ft 9 in (7.24 m)). His three - point field - goal percentages ranged from 35 % to 43 % in seasons in which he attempted at least 230 three - pointers between 1989 -- 90 and 1996 -- 97. For a guard, Jordan was also a good rebounder (6.2 per game).
In 1988, Jordan was honored with the NBA 's Defensive Player of the Year Award and became the first NBA player to win both the Defensive Player of the Year and MVP awards in a career (since equaled by Hakeem Olajuwon, David Robinson, and Kevin Garnett; Olajuwon is the only player other than Jordan to win both during the same season). In addition, he set both seasonal and career records for blocked shots by a guard, and combined this with his ball - thieving ability to become a standout defensive player. He ranks third in NBA history in total steals with 2,514, trailing John Stockton and Jason Kidd. Jerry West often stated that he was more impressed with Jordan 's defensive contributions than his offensive ones. He was also known to have strong eyesight; broadcaster Al Michaels said that he was able to read baseball box scores on a 27 - inch television clearly from about 50 feet away.
Jordan 's marked talent was clear from his rookie season. In his first game in Madison Square Garden against the New York Knicks, Jordan received a prolonged standing ovation, a rarity for an opposing player. After Jordan scored a playoff record 63 points against the Boston Celtics on April 20, 1986, Celtics star Larry Bird described him as "God disguised as Michael Jordan. ''
Jordan led the NBA in scoring in 10 seasons (NBA record) and tied Wilt Chamberlain 's record of seven consecutive scoring titles. He was also a fixture on the NBA All - Defensive First Team, making the roster nine times (NBA record shared with Gary Payton, Kevin Garnett and Kobe Bryant). Jordan also holds the top career regular season and playoff scoring averages of 30.1 and 33.4 points per game, respectively. By 1998, the season of his Finals - winning shot against the Jazz, he was well known throughout the league as a clutch performer. In the regular season, Jordan was the Bulls ' primary threat in the final seconds of a close game and in the playoffs, Jordan would always demand the ball at crunch time. Jordan 's total of 5,987 points in the playoffs is the second - highest in NBA history. He retired with 32,292 points in regular season play, placing him fourth on the NBA 's all - time scoring list behind Kareem Abdul - Jabbar, Karl Malone, and Kobe Bryant.
With five regular - season MVPs (tied for second place with Bill Russell -- only Kareem Abdul - Jabbar has won more, with six), six Finals MVPs (NBA record), and three All - Star MVPs, Jordan is the most decorated NBA player. Jordan finished among the top three in regular - season MVP voting a record 10 times, and was named one of the 50 Greatest Players in NBA History in 1996. He is one of only seven players in history to win an NCAA championship, an NBA championship, and an Olympic gold medal (doing so twice with the 1984 and 1992 U.S. men 's basketball teams). Since 1976, the year of the NBA 's merger with the American Basketball Association, Jordan and Pippen are the only two players to win six NBA Finals playing for one team. In the All - Star Game fan ballot, Jordan received the most votes nine times, more than any other player.
-- Magic Johnson
Many of Jordan 's contemporaries say that Jordan is the greatest basketball player of all time. In 1999, an ESPN survey of journalists, athletes and other sports figures ranked Jordan the greatest North American athlete of the 20th century, above such luminaries as Babe Ruth and Muhammad Ali. Jordan placed second to Babe Ruth in the Associated Press 's December 1999 list of 20th century athletes. In addition, the Associated Press voted him as the greatest basketball player of the 20th century. Jordan has also appeared on the front cover of Sports Illustrated a record 50 times. In the September 1996 issue of Sport, which was the publication 's 50th anniversary issue, Jordan was named the greatest athlete of the past 50 years.
Jordan 's athletic leaping ability, highlighted in his back - to - back slam dunk contest championships in 1987 and 1988, is credited by many with having influenced a generation of young players. Several current NBA All - Stars have stated that they considered Jordan their role model while growing up, including LeBron James and Dwyane Wade. In addition, commentators have dubbed a number of next - generation players "the next Michael Jordan '' upon their entry to the NBA, including Anfernee "Penny '' Hardaway, Grant Hill, Allen Iverson, Kobe Bryant, LeBron James, Vince Carter, and Dwyane Wade. Although Jordan was a well - rounded player, his "Air Jordan '' image is also often credited with inadvertently decreasing the jump shooting skills, defense, and fundamentals of young players, a fact Jordan himself has lamented.
I think it was the exposure of Michael Jordan; the marketing of Michael Jordan. Everything was marketed towards the things that people wanted to see, which was scoring and dunking. That Michael Jordan still played defense and an all - around game, but it was never really publicized.
Although Jordan has done much to increase the status of the game, some of his impact on the game 's popularity in America appears to be fleeting. Television ratings in particular increased only during his time in the league, and Finals ratings have not returned to the level reached during his last championship - winning season.
In August 2009, the Basketball Hall of Fame in Springfield, Massachusetts, opened a Michael Jordan exhibit that contained items from his college and NBA careers, as well as from the 1992 "Dream Team ''. The exhibit also has a batting glove to signify Jordan 's short career in minor league baseball. After Jordan received word of his acceptance into the Hall of Fame, he selected Class of 1996 member David Thompson to present him. As Jordan would later explain during his induction speech in September 2009, growing up in North Carolina, he was not a fan of the Tar Heels, and greatly admired Thompson, who played at rival North Carolina State. He was inducted into the Hall in September, with several former Bulls teammates in attendance, including Scottie Pippen, Dennis Rodman, Charles Oakley, Ron Harper, Steve Kerr, and Toni Kukoč. Two of Jordan 's former coaches, Dean Smith and Doug Collins, were also among those present. His emotional reaction during his speech -- when he began to cry -- was captured by Associated Press photographer Stephan Savoia and would later become widely shared on social media as the Crying Jordan Internet meme. In 2016, President Barack Obama honored Jordan with a Presidential Medal of Freedom.
Jordan married Juanita Vanoy in September 1989, and they had two sons, Jeffrey Michael and Marcus James, and a daughter, Jasmine. Jordan and Vanoy filed for divorce on January 4, 2002, citing irreconcilable differences, but reconciled shortly thereafter. They again filed for divorce and were granted a final decree of dissolution of marriage on December 29, 2006, commenting that the decision was made "mutually and amicably ''. It is reported that Juanita received a $168 million settlement (equivalent to $204 million in 2017), making it the largest celebrity divorce settlement on public record at the time.
In 1991, Jordan purchased a lot in Highland Park, Illinois, to build a 56,000 square foot mansion, which was completed four years later. Jordan listed his Highland Park mansion for sale in 2012. Both of his sons attended Loyola Academy, a private Roman Catholic high school located in Wilmette, Illinois. Jeffrey graduated as a member of the 2007 graduating class and played his first collegiate basketball game on November 11, 2007, for the University of Illinois. After two seasons, Jeffrey left the Illinois basketball team in 2009. He later rejoined the team for a third season, then received a release to transfer to the University of Central Florida, where Marcus was attending. Marcus transferred to Whitney Young High School after his sophomore year at Loyola Academy and graduated in 2009. He began attending UCF in the fall of 2009, and played three seasons of basketball for the school.
On July 21, 2006, a judge in Cook County, Illinois, determined that Jordan did not owe his alleged former lover Karla Knafel $5 million in a breach of contract claim. Jordan had allegedly paid Knafel $250,000 to keep their relationship a secret. Knafel claimed Jordan promised her $5 million for remaining silent and agreeing not to file a paternity suit after Knafel learned she was pregnant in 1991. A DNA test showed Jordan was not the father of the child.
He proposed to his longtime girlfriend, Cuban - American model Yvette Prieto, on Christmas 2011, and they were married on April 27, 2013, at Bethesda - by - the - Sea Episcopal Church. It was announced on November 30, 2013, that the two were expecting their first child together. On February 11, 2014, Prieto gave birth to identical twin daughters named Victoria and Ysabel.
Jordan is one of the most marketed sports figures in history. He has been a major spokesman for such brands as Nike, Coca - Cola, Chevrolet, Gatorade, McDonald 's, Ball Park Franks, Rayovac, Wheaties, Hanes, and MCI. Jordan has had a long relationship with Gatorade, appearing in over 20 commercials for the company since 1991, including the "Be Like Mike '' commercials in which a song was sung by children wishing to be like Jordan.
Nike created a signature shoe for him, called the Air Jordan. One of Jordan 's more popular commercials for the shoe involved Spike Lee playing the part of Mars Blackmon. In the commercials Lee, as Blackmon, attempted to find the source of Jordan 's abilities and became convinced that "it 's got ta be the shoes ''. The hype and demand for the shoes even brought on a spate of "shoe - jackings '' where people were robbed of their sneakers at gunpoint. Subsequently, Nike spun off the Jordan line into its own division named the "Jordan Brand ''. The company features an impressive list of athletes and celebrities as endorsers. The brand has also sponsored college sports programs such as those of North Carolina, Cal, Georgetown, and Marquette.
Jordan also has been associated with the Looney Tunes cartoon characters. A Nike commercial shown during 1992 's Super Bowl XXVI featured Jordan and Bugs Bunny playing basketball. The Super Bowl commercial inspired the 1996 live action / animated film Space Jam, which starred Jordan and Bugs in a fictional story set during the former 's first retirement from basketball. They have subsequently appeared together in several commercials for MCI. Jordan also made an appearance in the music video of Michael Jackson 's "Jam '' (1992).
Jordan 's yearly income from the endorsements is estimated to be over forty million dollars. In addition, when Jordan 's power at the ticket gates was at its highest point, the Bulls regularly sold out both their home and road games. Due to this, Jordan set records in player salary by signing annual contracts worth in excess of US $30 million per season. An academic study found that Jordan 's first NBA comeback resulted in an increase in the market capitalization of his client firms of more than $1 billion.
Most of Jordan 's endorsement deals, including his first deal with Nike, were engineered by his agent, David Falk. Jordan has described Falk as "the best at what he does '' and that "marketing-wise, he 's great. He 's the one who came up with the concept of ' Air Jordan. ' ''
In June 2010, Jordan was ranked by Forbes magazine as the 20th-most powerful celebrity in the world with $55 million earned between June 2009 and June 2010. According to the Forbes article, Jordan Brand generates $1 billion in sales for Nike. In June 2014, Jordan was named the first NBA player to become a billionaire, after he increased his stake in the Charlotte Hornets from 80 % to 89.5 %. On January 20, 2015, Jordan was honored with the Charlotte Business Journal 's Business Person of the Year for 2014. In 2017, he became a part owner of the Miami Marlins of Major League Baseball.
Forbes designated Jordan as the athlete with the highest career earnings in 2017. From his Jordan Brand income and endorsements, Jordan 's 2015 income was an estimated $110 million, the most of any retired athlete. As of April 2017, his current net worth is estimated at $1.31 billion by Forbes. Jordan is the third - richest African - American as of 2017, behind Oprah Winfrey and Robert F. Smith.
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why do you think most texans hoped the us should annex texas | Texas annexation - wikipedia
The Texas Annexation was the 1845 incorporation of the Republic of Texas into the United States of America, which was admitted to the Union as the 28th state on December 29, 1845.
The Republic of Texas declared independence from the Republic of Mexico on March 2, 1836. At the time the vast majority of the Texian population favored the annexation of the Republic by the United States. The leadership of both major U.S. political parties, the Democrats and the Whigs, opposed the introduction of Texas, a vast slave - holding region, into the volatile political climate of the pro - and anti-slavery sectional controversies in Congress. Moreover, they wished to avoid a war with Mexico, whose government refused to acknowledge the sovereignty of its rebellious northern province. With Texas 's economic fortunes declining by the early 1840s, the President of the Texas Republic, Sam Houston, arranged talks with Mexico to explore the possibility of securing official recognition of independence, with the United Kingdom mediating.
In 1843, U.S. President John Tyler, unaligned with any political party, decided independently to pursue the annexation of Texas in a bid to gain a base of popular support for another four years in office. His official motivation was to outmaneuver suspected diplomatic efforts by the British government for emancipation of slaves in Texas, which would undermine slavery in the United States. Through secret negotiations with the Houston administration, Tyler secured a treaty of annexation in April 1844. When the documents were submitted to the U.S. Senate for ratification, the details of the terms of annexation became public and the question of acquiring Texas took center stage in the presidential election of 1844. Pro-Texas - annexation southern Democratic delegates denied their anti-annexation leader Martin Van Buren the nomination at their party 's convention in May 1844. In alliance with pro-expansion northern Democratic colleagues, they secured the nomination of James K. Polk, who ran on a pro-Texas Manifest Destiny platform.
In June 1844, the Senate, with its Whig majority, soundly rejected the Tyler -- Texas treaty. The pro-annexation Democrat Polk narrowly defeated anti-annexation Whig Henry Clay in the 1844 presidential election. In December 1844, lame - duck President Tyler called on Congress to pass his treaty by simple majorities in each house. The Democratic - dominated House of Representatives complied with his request by passing an amended bill expanding on the pro-slavery provisions of the Tyler treaty. The Senate narrowly passed a compromise version of the House bill (by the vote of the minority Democrats and several southern Whigs), designed to provide the incoming President - elect Polk the options of immediate annexation of Texas or new talks to revise the annexation terms of the House - amended bill.
On March 1, 1845, President Tyler signed the annexation bill, and on March 3 (his last day in office), he forwarded the House version to Texas, offering immediate annexation (which preempted Polk). When Polk took office the next day, he encouraged Texas to accept the Tyler offer. Texas ratified the agreement with popular approval from Texans. The bill was signed by Polk on December 29, 1845, accepting Texas as the 28th state of the Union. Texas formally relinquished its sovereignty to the United States on February 19, 1846. Following the annexation, relations between the United States and Mexico deteriorated due to an unresolved dispute over the border between Texas and Mexico, and the Mexican - American War broke out only a few months later.
First mapped by Spain in 1519, Texas was part of the vast Spanish empire seized by the Spanish Conquistadors from its indigenous people for over 300 years. When the Louisiana territory was acquired by the United States from France in 1803, many in the U.S. believed the new territory included parts or all of present - day Texas. The US - Spain border along the northern frontier of Texas took shape in the 1817 -- 1819 negotiations between Secretary of State John Quincy Adams and the Spanish ambassador to the United States, Luis de Onís y González - Vara. The boundaries of Texas were determined within the larger geostrategic struggle to demarcate the limits of the United States ' extensive western lands and of Spain 's vast possessions in North America. The Florida Treaty of February 22, 1819 emerged as a compromise that excluded Spain from the lower Columbia River watershed, but established southern boundaries at the Sabine and Red Rivers, "legally extinguish (ing) '' any American claims to Texas. Nonetheless, Texas remained an object of fervent interest to American expansionists, among them Thomas Jefferson, who anticipated the eventual acquisition of its fertile lands.
The Missouri crisis of 1819 -- 1821 sharpened commitments to expansionism among the country 's slaveholding interests, when the so - called Thomas proviso established the 36 ° 30 ' parallel, imposing free - soil and slave - soil futures in the Louisiana Purchase lands. While a majority of southern congressmen acquiesced to the exclusion of slavery from the bulk of the Louisiana Purchase, a significant minority objected. Virginian editor Thomas Ritchie of the Richmond Enquirer predicted that with the proviso restrictions, the South would ultimately require Texas: "If we are cooped up on the north, we must have elbow room to the west. '' Representative John Floyd of Virginia in 1824 accused Secretary of State Adams of conceding Texas to Spain in 1819 in the interests of Northern anti-slavery advocates, and so depriving the South of additional slave states. Then - Representative John Tyler of Virginia invoked the Jeffersonian precepts of territorial and commercial growth as a national goal to counter the rise of sectional differences over slavery. His "diffusion '' theory declared that with Missouri open to slavery, the new state would encourage the transfer of underutilized slaves westward, emptying the eastern states of bondsmen and making emancipation feasible in the old South. This doctrine would be revived during the Texas annexation controversy.
When Mexico won its independence from Spain in 1821, the United States did not contest the new republic 's claims to Texas, and both presidents John Quincy Adams (1825 -- 1829) and Andrew Jackson (1829 -- 1837) persistently sought, through official and unofficial channels, to procure all or portions of provincial Texas from the Mexican government, without success.
Spanish and Indigenous immigrants, primarily from North Eastern provinces of New Spain began to settle Texas in the late 17th century. The Spanish constructed chains of missions and presidios in what is today Louisiana, East Texas and South Texas. The first chain of missions was designed for the Tejas Indians, near Los Adaes. Soon thereafter, the San Antonio Missions were founded along the San Antonio River. The City of San Antonio, then known as San Fernando de Bexar, was founded in 1719. In the early 1760s, Jose de Escandon created five settlements along the Rio Grande River, including Laredo.
Anglo - American immigrants, primarily from the Southern United States, began emigrating to Mexican Texas in the early 1820s at the invitation of the Texas faction of the Coahuila y Texas state government, which sought to populate the sparsely inhabited lands of its northern frontier for cotton production. Colonizing empresario Stephen F. Austin managed the regional affairs of the mostly American - born population -- 20 % of them slaves -- under the terms of the generous government land grants. Mexican authorities were initially content to govern the remote province through salutary neglect, "permitting slavery under the legal fiction of ' permanent indentured servitude ', similar to Mexico 's peonage system.
A general lawlessness prevailed in the vast Texas frontier, and Mexico 's civic laws went largely unenforced among the Anglo - American settlers. In particular, the prohibitions against slavery and forced labor were ignored. The requirement that all settlers be Catholic or convert to Catholicism was also subverted. Mexican authorities, perceiving that they were losing control over Texas and alarmed by the unsuccessful Fredonian Rebellion of 1826, abandoned the policy of benign rule. New restrictions were imposed in 1829 -- 1830, outlawing slavery throughout the nation and terminating further American immigration to Texas. Military occupation followed, sparking local uprisings and a civil war. Texas conventions in 1832 and 1833 submitted petitions for redress of grievances to overturn the restrictions, with limited success. In 1835, an army under Mexican President Santa Anna entered its territory of Texas and abolished self - government. Texans responded by declaring their independence from Mexico on March 2, 1836. On April 20 -- 21, rebel forces under Texas General Sam Houston defeated the Mexican army at the Battle of San Jacinto. In June 1836, Santa Anna agreed to Texas independence, but the Mexican government refused to honor Santa Anna 's pledge. Texans, now de facto independent, recognized that their security and prosperity could never be achieved while Mexico denied the legitimacy of their revolution.
In the years following independence, the migration of white settlers and importation of black slave labor into the vast republic was deterred by Texas 's unresolved international status and the threat of renewed warfare with Mexico. American citizens who considered migrating to the new republic perceived that "life and property were safer within the United States '' than in an independent Texas. The situation led to labor shortages, reduced tax revenue, large national debts and a diminished Texas militia.
The Anglo - American immigrants residing in newly - independent Texas overwhelmingly desired immediate annexation by the United States. But, despite his strong support for Texas independence from Mexico, then - President Andrew Jackson delayed recognizing the new republic until the last day of his presidency to avoid raising the issue during the 1836 general election. Jackson 's political caution was informed by northern concerns that Texas could potentially form several new slave states and undermine the North - South balance in Congress.
Jackson 's successor, President Martin Van Buren, viewed Texas annexation as an immense political liability that would empower the anti-slavery northern Whig opposition -- especially if annexation provoked a war with Mexico. Presented with a formal annexation proposal from Texas minister Memucan Hunt, Jr. in August 1837, Van Buren summarily rejected it. Annexation resolutions presented separately in each house of Congress were either soundly defeated or tabled through filibuster. After the election of 1838, new Texas president Mirabeau B. Lamar withdrew his republic 's offer of annexation due to these failures. Texans were at an annexation impasse when John Tyler entered the White House in 1841.
William Henry Harrison, Whig Party presidential nominee, defeated US President Martin Van Buren in the 1840 general election. Upon Harrison 's death shortly after his inauguration, Vice-President John Tyler assumed the presidency. President Tyler was expelled from the Whig party in 1841 for repeatedly vetoing their domestic finance legislation. Tyler, isolated and outside the two - party mainstream, turned to foreign affairs to salvage his presidency, aligning himself with a southern states ' rights faction that shared his fervent slavery expansionist views.
In his first address to Congress in special session on June 1, 1841, Tyler set the stage for Texas annexation by announcing his intention to pursue an expansionist agenda so as to preserve the balance between state and national authority and to protect American institutions, including slavery, so as to avoid sectional conflict. Tyler 's closest advisors counseled him that obtaining Texas would assure him a second term in the White House, and it became a deeply personal obsession for the president, who viewed the acquisition of Texas as the "primary objective of his administration ''. Tyler delayed direct action on Texas to work closely with his Secretary of State Daniel Webster on other pressing diplomatic initiatives.
With the Webster - Ashburton Treaty ratified in 1843, Tyler was ready to make the annexation of Texas his "top priority ''. Representative Thomas W. Gilmer of Virginia was authorized by the administration to make the case for annexation to the American electorate. In a widely circulated open letter, understood as an announcement of the executive branch 's designs for Texas, Gilmer described Texas as a panacea for North - South conflict and an economic boon to all commercial interests. The slavery issue, however divisive, would be left for the states to decide as per the US Constitution. Domestic tranquility and national security, Tyler argued, would result from an annexed Texas; a Texas left outside American jurisdiction would imperil the Union. Tyler adroitly arranged the resignation of his anti-annexation Secretary of State Daniel Webster, and on June 23, 1843 appointed Abel P. Upshur, a Virginia states ' rights champion and ardent proponent of Texas annexation. This cabinet shift signaled Tyler 's intent to pursue Texas annexation aggressively.
In late September 1843, in an effort to cultivate public support for Texas, Secretary Upshur dispatched a letter to the US Minister to Great Britain, Edward Everett, conveying his displeasure with Britain 's global anti-slavery posture, and warning their government that forays into Texas 's affairs would be regarded as "tantamount to direct interference ' with the established institutions of the United States ' ''. In a breach of diplomatic norms, Upshur leaked the communique to the press to inflame popular Anglophobic sentiments among American citizens.
In the spring of 1843, the Tyler administration had sent executive agent Duff Green to Europe to gather intelligence and arrange territorial treaty talks with Great Britain regarding Oregon; he also worked with American minister to France, Lewis Cass, to thwart efforts by major European powers to suppress the maritime slave trade. Green reported to Secretary Upshur in July 1843 that he had discovered a "loan plot '' by American abolitionists, in league with Lord Aberdeen, British Foreign Secretary, to provide funds to the Texas in exchange for the emancipation of its slaves. Minister Everett was charged with determining the substance of these confidential reports alleging a Texas plot. His investigations, including personal interviews with Lord Aberdeen, concluded that British interest in abolitionist intrigues was weak, contradicting Secretary of State Upshur 's conviction that Great Britain was manipulating Texas. Though unsubstantiated, Green 's unofficial intelligence so alarmed Tyler that he requested verification from the US minister to Mexico, Waddy Thompson.
John C. Calhoun of South Carolina, a pro-slavery extremist counseled Secretary Upshur that British designs on American slavery were real and required immediate action to preempt a takeover of Texas by Great Britain. When Tyler confirmed in September that the British Foreign Secretary Aberdeen had encouraged détente between Mexico and Texas, allegedly pressing Mexico to maneuver Texas towards emancipation of its slaves, Tyler acted at once. On September 18, 1843, in consultation with Secretary Upshur, he ordered secret talks opened with Texas Minister to the United States Isaac Van Zandt to negotiate the annexation of Texas. Face - to - face negotiations commenced on October 16, 1843.
By the summer of 1843 Sam Houston 's Texas administration had returned to negotiations with the Mexican government to consider a rapprochement that would permit Texas self - governance, possibly as a state of Mexico, with Great Britain acting as mediator. Texas officials felt compelled by the fact that the Tyler administration appeared unequipped to mount an effective campaign for Texas annexation. With the 1844 general election in the United States approaching, the leadership in both the Democratic and Whig parties remained unequivocally anti-Texas. Texas - Mexico treaty options under consideration included an autonomous Texas within Mexico 's borders, or an independent republic with the provision that Texas should emancipate its slaves upon recognition.
Van Zandt, though he personally favored annexation by the United States, was not authorized to entertain any overtures from the US government on the subject. Texas officials were at the moment deeply engaged in exploring settlements with Mexican diplomats, facilitated by Great Britain. Texas 's predominant concern was not British interference with the institution of slavery -- English diplomats had not alluded to the issue -- but the avoidance of any resumption of hostilities with Mexico. Still, US Secretary of State Upshur vigorously courted Texas diplomats to begin annexation talks, finally dispatching an appeal to President Sam Houston in January 1844. In it, he assured Houston that, in contrast to previous attempts, the political climate in the United States, including sections of the North, was amenable to Texas statehood, and that a two - thirds majority in Senate could be obtained to ratify a Texas treaty.
Texans were hesitant to pursue a US - Texas treaty without a written commitment of military defense from America, since a full - scale military attack by Mexico seemed likely when the negotiations became public. If ratification of the annexation measure stalled in the US Senate, Texas could face a war alone against Mexico. Because only Congress could declare war, the Tyler administration lacked the constitutional authority to commit the US to support of Texas. But when Secretary Upshur provided a verbal assurance of military defense, President Houston, responding to urgent calls for annexation from the Texas Congress of December 1843, authorized the reopening of annexation negotiations.
As Secretary Upshur accelerated the secret treaty discussions, Mexican diplomats learned that US - Texas talks were taking place. Mexican minister to the U.S. Juan Almonte confronted Upshur with these reports, warning him that if Congress sanctioned a treaty of annexation, Mexico would break diplomatic ties and immediately declare war. Secretary Upshur evaded and dismissed the charges, and pressed forward with the negotiations. In tandem with moving forward with Texas diplomats, Upshur was secretly lobbying US Senators to support annexation, providing lawmakers with persuasive arguments linking Texas acquisition to national security and domestic peace. By early 1844, Upshur was able to assure Texas officials that 40 of the 52 members of the Senate were pledged to ratify the Tyler - Texas treaty, more than the two - thirds majority required for passage. Tyler, in his annual address to Congress in December 1843, maintained his silence on the secret treaty, so as not to damage relations with the wary Texas diplomats. Throughout, Tyler did his utmost to keep the negotiations secret, making no public reference to his administration 's single - minded quest for Texas.
The Tyler - Texas treaty was in its final stages when its chief architects, Secretary Upshur and Secretary of the Navy Thomas W. Gilmer, died in an accident aboard USS Princeton on February 28, 1844, just a day after achieving a preliminary treaty draft agreement with the Texas Republic. The Princeton disaster proved a major setback for Texas annexation, in that Tyler expected Secretary Upshur to elicit critical support from Whig and Democratic Senators during the upcoming treaty ratification process. Tyler selected John C. Calhoun to replace Upshur as Secretary of State and to finalize the treaty with Texas. The choice of Calhoun, a highly regarded but controversial American statesman, risked introducing a politically polarizing element into the Texas debates, but Tyler prized him as a strong advocate of annexation.
With the Tyler - Upshur secret annexation negotiations with Texas near consummation, Senator Robert J. Walker of Mississippi, a key Tyler ally, issued a widely distributed and highly influential letter, reproduced as a pamphlet, making the case for immediate annexation. In it, Walker argued that Texas could be acquired by Congress in a number of ways -- all constitutional -- and that the moral authority to do so was based on the precepts for territorial expansion established by Jefferson and Madison, and promulgated as doctrine by Monroe in 1823. Senator Walker 's polemic offered analysis on the significance of Texas with respect to slavery and race. He envisioned Texas as a corridor through which both free and enslaved African - Americans could be "diffused '' southward in a gradual exodus that would ultimately supply labor to the Central American tropics, and in time, empty the United States of its slave population.
This "safety - valve '' theory "appealed to the racial fears of northern whites '' who dreaded the prospect of absorbing emancipated slaves into their communities in the event that the institution of slavery collapsed in the South. This scheme for racial cleansing was consistent, on a pragmatic level, with proposals for overseas colonization of blacks, which were pursued by a number of American presidents, from Jefferson to Lincoln. Walker bolstered his position by raising national security concerns, warning that in the event annexation failed, imperialist Great Britain would maneuver the Republic of Texas into emancipating its slaves, forecasting a dangerous destabilizing influence on southwestern slaveholding states. The pamphlet characterized abolitionists as traitors who conspired with the British to overthrow the United States.
A variation of the Tyler 's "diffusion '' theory, it played on economic fears in a period when slave - based staple crop markets had not yet recovered from the Panic of 1837. The Texas "escape route '' conceived by Walker promised to increase demand for slaves in fertile cotton - growing regions of Texas, as well as the monetary value of slaves. Cash - poor plantation owners in the older eastern South were promised a market for surplus slaves at a profit. Texas annexation, wrote Walker, would eliminate all these dangers and "fortify the whole Union. ''
Walker 's pamphlet brought forth strident demands for Texas from pro-slavery expansionists in the South; in the North, it allowed anti-slavery expansionists to embrace Texas without appearing to be aligned with pro-slavery extremists. His assumptions and analysis "shaped and framed the debates on annexation but his premises went largely unchallenged among the press and public.
The Tyler - Texas treaty, signed on April 12, 1844, was framed to induct Texas into the Union as a territory, following constitutional protocols. To wit, Texas would cede all its public lands to the United States, and the federal government would assume all its bonded debt, up to $10 million. The boundaries of the Texas territory were left unspecified. Four new states could ultimately be carved from the former republic -- three of them likely to become slave states. Any allusion to slavery was omitted from the document so as not to antagonize anti-slavery sentiments during Senate debates, but it provided for the "preservation of all (Texas) property as secured in our domestic institutions. ''
Upon the signing of the treaty, Tyler complied with the Texans ' demand for military and naval protection, deploying troops to Fort Jesup in Louisiana and a fleet of warships to the Gulf of Mexico. In the event that the Senate failed to pass the treaty, Tyler promised the Texas diplomats that he would officially exhort both houses of Congress to establish Texas as a state of the Union upon provisions authorized in the Constitution. Tyler 's cabinet was split on the administration 's handling of the Texas agreement. Secretary of War William Wilkins praised the terms of annexation publicly, touting the economic and geostrategic benefits with relation to Great Britain. Secretary of the Treasury John C. Spencer was alarmed at the constitutional implications of Tyler 's application of military force without congressional approval, a violation of the separation of powers. Refusing to transfer contingency funds for the naval mobilization, he resigned.
Tyler submitted his treaty for annexation to the Senate, delivered April 22, 1844, where a two - thirds majority was required for ratification. Secretary of State Calhoun (assuming his post March 29, 1844) had sent a letter to British minister Richard Packenham denouncing British anti-slavery interference in Texas. He included the Packenham Letter with the Tyler bill, intending to create a sense of crisis in Southern Democrats. In it, he characterized slavery as a social blessing and the acquisition of Texas as an emergency measure necessary to safeguard the "peculiar institution '' in the United States. In doing so, Tyler and Calhoun sought to unite the South in a crusade that would present the North with an ultimatum: support Texas annexation or lose the South.
President Tyler expected that his treaty would be debated secretly in Senate executive session. However, less than a week after debates opened, the treaty, its associated internal correspondence, and the Packenham letter were leaked to the public. The nature of the Tyler - Texas negotiations caused a national outcry, in that "the documents appeared to verify that the sole objective of Texas annexation was the preservation of slavery. '' A mobilization of anti-annexation forces in the North strengthened both major parties ' hostility toward Tyler 's agenda. The leading presidential hopefuls of both parties, Democrat Martin Van Buren and Whig Henry Clay, publicly denounced the treaty. Texas annexation and the reoccupation of Oregon territory emerged as the central issues in the 1844 general election.
In response, Tyler, already ejected from the Whig party, quickly began to organize a third party in hopes of inducing the Democrats to embrace a pro-expansionist platform. By running as a third - party candidate, Tyler threatened to siphon off pro-annexation Democratic voters; Democratic party disunity would mean the election of Henry Clay, a staunchly anti-Texas Whig. Pro-annexation delegates among southern Democrats, with assistance from a number of northern delegates, blocked anti-expansion candidate Martin Van Buren at the convention, which instead nominated the pro-expansion champion of Manifest Destiny, James K. Polk of Tennessee. Polk unified his party under the banner of Texas and Oregon acquisition.
In August 1844, in the midst of the campaign, Tyler withdrew from the race. The Democratic Party was by then unequivocally committed to Texas annexation, and Tyler, assured by Polk 's envoys that as President he would effect Texas annexation, urged his supporters to vote Democratic. Polk narrowly defeated Whig Henry Clay in the November election. The victorious Democrats were poised to acquire Texas under President - elect Polk 's doctrine of Manifest Destiny, rather than on the pro-slavery agenda of Tyler and Calhoun.
As a treaty document with a foreign nation, the Tyler - Texas annexation treaty required the support of a two - thirds majority in the Senate for passage. But in fact, when the Senate voted on the measure on June 8, 1844, fully two - thirds voted against the treaty (16 -- 35). The vote went largely along party lines: Whigs had opposed it almost unanimously (1 -- 27), while Democrats split, but voted overwhelmingly in favor (15 -- 8). The election campaign had hardened partisan positions on Texas among Democrats. Tyler had anticipated that the measure would fail, due largely to the divisive effects of Secretary Calhoun 's Packenham letter. Undeterred, he formally asked the House of Representatives to consider other constitutional means to authorize passage of the treaty. Congress adjourned before debating the matter.
The same Senate that had rejected the Tyler -- Calhoun treaty by a margin of 2: 1 in June 1844 reassembled in December 1844 in a short lame - duck session. (Though pro-annexation Democrats had made gains in the fall elections, those legislators -- the 29th Congress -- would not assume office until March 1845.) Lame - duck President Tyler, still trying to annex Texas in the final months of his administration, wished to avoid another overwhelming Senate rejection of his treaty. In his annual address to Congress on December 4, he declared the Polk victory a mandate for Texas annexation and proposed that Congress adopt a joint resolution procedure by which simple majorities in each house could secure ratification for the Tyler treaty. This method would avoid the constitutional requirement of a two - thirds majority in the Senate. Bringing the House of Representatives into the equation boded well for Texas annexation, as the pro-annexation Democratic Party possessed nearly a 2: 1 majority in that chamber.
By resubmitting the discredited treaty through a House - sponsored bill, the Tyler administration reignited sectional hostilities over Texas admission. Both northern Democratic and southern Whig Congressmen had been bewildered by local political agitation in their home states during the 1844 presidential campaigns. Now, northern Democrats found themselves vulnerable to charges of appeasement of their southern wing if they capitulated to Tyler 's slavery expansion provisions. On the other hand, Manifest Destiny enthusiasm in the north placed politicians under pressure to admit Texas immediately to the Union.
Constitutional objections were raised in House debates as to whether both houses of Congress could constitutionally authorize admission of territories, rather than states. Moreover, if the Republic of Texas, a nation in its own right, were admitted as a state, its territorial boundaries, property relations (including slave property), debts and public lands would require a Senate - ratified treaty. Democrats were particularly uneasy about burdening the United States with $10 million in Texas debt, resenting the deluge of speculators, who had bought Texas bonds cheap and now lobbied Congress for the Texas House bill. House Democrats, at an impasse, relinquished the legislative initiative to the southern Whigs.
Anti-Texas Whig legislators had lost more than the White House in the general election of 1844. In the southern states of Tennessee and Georgia, Whig strongholds in the 1840 general election, voter support dropped precipitously due to the pro-annexation excitement in the Deep South -- and Clay lost every Deep South state to Polk. Northern Whigs ' uncompromising hostility to slavery expansion increasingly characterized the party, and southern members, by association, had suffered from charges of being "soft on Texas, therefore soft on slavery '' by Southern Democrats. Facing congressional and gubernatorial races in 1845 in their home states, a number of Southern Whigs sought to erase that impression with respect to the Tyler - Texas bill.
Southern Whigs in the Congress, including Representative Milton Brown and Senator Ephraim Foster, both of Tennessee, and Representative Alexander Stephens of Georgia collaborated to introduce a House amendment on January 13, 1845 that was designed to enhance slaveowner gains in Texas beyond those offered by the Democratic - sponsored Tyler - Calhoun treaty bill. The legislation proposed to recognize Texas as a slave state which would retain all its vast public lands, as well as its bonded debt accrued since 1836. Furthermore, the Brown amendment would delegate to the U.S. government responsibility for negotiating the disputed Texas - Mexico boundary. The issue was a critical one, as the size of Texas would be immensely increased if the international border were set at the Rio Grande River, with its headwaters in the Rocky Mountains, rather than the traditionally recognized boundary at the Nueces River, 100 miles to the north. While the Tyler - Calhoun treaty provided for the organization of a total of four states from the Texas lands -- three likely to qualify as slave states -- Brown 's plan would permit Texas state lawmakers to configure a total of five states from its western region, south of the 36 ° 30 ' Missouri Compromise line, each pre-authorized to permit slavery upon statehood, if Texas designated them as such.
Politically, the Brown amendment was designed to portray Southern Whigs as "even more ardent champions of slavery and the South, than southern Democrats. '' The bill also served to distinguish them from their northern Whig colleagues who cast the controversy, as Calhoun did, in strictly pro - versus anti-slavery terms. While almost all Northern Whigs spurned Brown 's amendment, the Democrats quickly co-opted the legislation, providing the votes necessary to attach the proviso to Tyler 's joint resolution, by a 118 -- 101 vote. Southern Democrats supported the bill almost unanimously (59 -- 1), while Northern Democrats split strongly in favor (50 -- 30). Eight of eighteen Southern Whigs cast their votes in favor. Northern Whigs unanimously rejected it. The House proceeded to approve the amended Texas treaty 120 -- 98 on January 25, 1845. The vote in the House had been one in which party affiliation prevailed over sectional allegiance. The bill was forwarded the same day to the Senate for debate.
By early February 1845, when the Senate began to debate the Brown - amended Tyler treaty, its passage seemed unlikely, as support was "perishing ''. The partisan alignments in the Senate were near parity, 28 -- 24, slightly in favor of the Whigs. The Senate Democrats would require undivided support among their colleagues, and three or more Whigs who would be willing to cross party lines to pass the House - amended treaty. The fact that Senator Foster had drafted the House amendment under consideration improved prospects of Senate passage.
Anti-annexation Senator Thomas Hart Benton of Missouri had been the only Southern Democrat to vote against the Tyler - Texas measure in June 1844. His original proposal for an annexed Texas had embodied a national compromise, whereby Texas would be divided in two, half slave - soil and half free - soil. As pro-annexation sentiment grew in his home state, Benton retreated from this compromise offer. By February 5, 1845, in the early debates on the Brown - amended House bill, he advanced an alternative resolution that, unlike the Brown scenario, made no reference whatsoever to the ultimate free - slave apportionment of an annexed Texas and simply called for five bipartisan commissioners to resolve border disputes with Texas and Mexico and set conditions for the Lone Star Republic 's acquisition by the United States.
The Benton proposal was intended to calm northern anti-slavery Democrats (who wished to eliminate the Tyler - Calhoun treaty altogether, as it had been negotiated on behalf of the slavery expansionists), and allow the decision to devolve upon the soon - to - be-inaugurated Democratic President - elect James K. Polk. President - elect Polk had expressed his ardent wish that Texas annexation should be accomplished before he entered Washington in advance of his inauguration on March 4, 1845, the same day Congress would end its session. With his arrival in the capital, he discovered the Benton and Brown factions in the Senate "paralyzed '' over the Texas annexation legislation. On the advice of his soon - to - be Secretary of the Treasury Robert J. Walker, Polk urged Senate Democrats to unite under a dual resolution that would include both the Benton and Brown versions of annexation, leaving enactment of the legislation to Polk 's discretion when he took office. In private and separate talks with supporters of both the Brown and Benton plans, Polk left each side with the "impression he would administer their (respective) policy. Polk meant what he said to Southerners and meant to appear friendly to the Van Burenite faction. '' Polk 's handling of the matter had the effect of uniting Senate northern Democrats in favor of the dual alternative treaty bill.
On February 27, 1845, less than a week before Polk 's inauguration, the Senate voted 27 -- 25 to admit Texas, based on the Tyler protocols of simple majority passage. All twenty - four Democrats voted for the measure, joined by three southern Whigs. Benton and his allies were assured that Polk would act to establish the eastern portion of Texas as a slave state; the western section was to remain unorganized territory, not committed to slavery. On this understanding, the northern Democrats had conceded their votes for the dichotomous bill. The next day, in an almost strict party line vote, the Benton - Milton measure was passed in the Democrat - controlled House of Representatives. President Tyler signed the bill the following day, March 1, 1845 (Joint Resolution for annexing Texas to the United States, J. Res. 8, enacted March 1, 1845, 5 Stat. 797).
Senate and house legislators who had favored Benton 's renegotiated version of the Texas annexation bill had been assured that President Tyler would sign the joint house measure, but leave its implementation to the incoming Polk administration. But, during his last day in office, President Tyler, with the urging of his Secretary of State Calhoun, decided to act decisively to improve the odds for the immediate annexation of Texas. On March 3, 1845, with his cabinet 's assent, he dispatched an offer of annexation to the Republic of Texas by courier, exclusively under the terms of the Brown -- Foster option of the joint house measure. Secretary Calhoun apprised President - elect Polk of the action, who demurred without comment. Tyler justified his preemptive move on the grounds that Polk was likely to come under pressure to abandon immediate annexation and reopen negotiations under the Benton alternative.
When President Polk took office on March 4, he was in a position to recall Tyler 's dispatch to Texas and reverse his decision. On March 10, after conferring with his cabinet, Polk upheld Tyler 's action and allowed the courier to proceed with the offer of immediate annexation to Texas. The only modification was to exhort Texans to accept the annexation terms unconditionally. Polk 's decision was based on his concern that a protracted negotiation by US commissioners would expose annexation efforts to foreign intrigue and interference. While Polk kept his annexation endeavors confidential, Senators passed a resolution requesting formal disclosure of the administration 's Texas policy. Polk stalled, and when the Senate special session had adjourned on March 20, 1845, no names for US commissioners to Texas had been submitted by him. Polk denied charges from Senator Benton that he had misled Benton on his intention to support the new negotiations option, declaring "if any such pledges were made, it was in a total misconception of what I said or meant. ''
On May 5, 1845, Texas President Jones called for a convention on July 4, 1845, to consider the annexation and a constitution. On June 23, the Texan Congress accepted the US Congress 's joint resolution of March 1, 1845, annexing Texas to the United States, and consented to the convention. On July 4, the Texas convention debated the annexation offer and almost unanimously passed an ordinance assenting to it. The convention remained in session through August 28, and adopted the Constitution of Texas on August 27, 1845. The citizens of Texas approved the annexation ordinance and new constitution on October 13, 1845.
President Polk signed the legislation making the former Lone Star Republic a state of the Union on December 29, 1845 (Joint Resolution for the admission of the state of Texas into the Union, J. Res. 1, enacted December 29, 1845, 9 Stat. 108). Texas formally relinquished its sovereignty to the United States on February 14, 1846.
The joint resolution and ordinance of annexation have no language specifying the boundaries of Texas, but only refer in general terms to "the territory properly included within, and rightfully belonging to the Republic of Texas '', and state that the new State of Texas is to be formed "subject to the adjustment by this (U.S.) government of all questions of boundary that may arise with other governments. '' According to George Lockhart Rives, "That treaty had been expressly so framed as to leave the boundaries of Texas undefined, and the joint resolution of the following winter was drawn in the same manner. It was hoped that this might open the way to a negotiation, in the course of which the whole subject of the boundaries of Mexico, from the Gulf to the Pacific, might be reconsidered, but these hopes came to nothing. ''
There was an ongoing border dispute between the Republic of Texas and Mexico prior to annexation. Texas claimed the Rio Grande as its border based on the Treaties of Velasco, while Mexico maintained that it was the Nueces River and did not recognize Texan independence. In November 1845, President James K. Polk sent John Slidell, a secret representative, to Mexico City with a monetary offer to the Mexican government for the disputed land and other Mexican territories. Mexico was not inclined nor able to negotiate due to instability in the government and popular nationalistic sentiment against such a sale. Slidell returned to the United States, and Polk ordered General Zachary Taylor to garrison the southern border of Texas, as defined by the former Republic, in 1846. Taylor moved into Texas, ignoring Mexican demands to withdraw, and marched as far south as the Rio Grande, where he began to build a fort near the river 's mouth on the Gulf of Mexico. The Mexican government regarded this action as a violation of its sovereignty, and immediately prepared for war. Following a United States victory and the signing of the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, Mexico ceded its claims to Texas and the Rio Grande border was accepted by both nations.
The formal controversy over the legality of the annexation of Texas stems from the fact that Congress approved the annexation of Texas as a state, rather than a territory, with simple majorities in each house, instead of annexing the land by Senate treaty, as was done with Native American lands. Tyler 's extralegal joint resolution maneuver in 1844 exceeded strict constructionist precepts, but was passed by Congress in 1845 as part of a compromise bill. The success of the joint house Texas annexation set a precedent that would be applied to Hawaii 's annexation in 1897.
Republican President Benjamin Harrison (1889 -- 1893) attempted, in 1893, to annex Hawaii through a Senate treaty. When this failed, he was asked to consider the Tyler joint house precedent; he declined. Democratic President Grover Cleveland (1893 -- 1897) did not pursue the annexation of Hawaii. When President William McKinley took office in 1897, he quickly revived expectations among territorial expansionists when he resubmitted legislation to acquire Hawaii. When the two - thirds Senate support was not forthcoming, committees in the House and Senate explicitly invoked the Tyler precedent for the joint house resolution, which was successfully applied to approve the annexation of Hawaii in July 1898.
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when was the last time the knicks had a winning season | List of New York Knicks seasons - wikipedia
The New York Knickerbockers, better known as the New York Knicks, are a professional basketball team based in New York City that competes in the National Basketball Association (NBA). An original member of the NBA, the Knicks play in the Eastern Conference 's Atlantic Division. In its 71 seasons, the franchise has reached the NBA Finals eight times and won two championships. As of the end of the 2016 -- 17 season, New York has won more than 2,700 regular season games, and the team has the fourth - highest victory total in NBA history. Since 1968, the Knicks have played home games at Madison Square Garden.
One of the Basketball Association of America 's (BAA) eleven teams during its inaugural season, the Knicks won the league 's first game, defeating the Toronto Huskies 68 -- 66 on November 1, 1946. The club qualified for the playoffs in the league 's first three seasons before the BAA merged with the National Basketball League in 1949 to form the NBA. Following the merger, New York extended its streak of playoff appearances to nine consecutive years, and reached the NBA Finals each year from 1952 to 1954. The Knicks returned to the Finals in 1970 and defeated the Los Angeles Lakers in seven games for the team 's first title. New York and Los Angeles faced each other again in the 1972 Finals, a series that the Lakers won four games to one. The Knicks earned their second NBA championship the following year, as they won a rematch with Los Angeles in five games.
From 1988 to 2001, the franchise reached the playoffs in fourteen consecutive seasons, but did not win an NBA title. The team reached its first NBA Finals in twenty - one seasons during the 1993 -- 94 season, but lost to the Houston Rockets in seven games. Five years later, New York again lost in the NBA Finals, this time in a five - game series against the San Antonio Spurs. After the 2000 -- 01 season, the Knicks had nine consecutive losing seasons between 2001 -- 02 and 2009 -- 10. The Knicks made the postseason in the next three seasons, but declined to their worst - ever record of 65 losses in 2014 -- 15. In the most recent season, 2016 -- 17, New York missed the playoffs with a 31 -- 51 win -- loss record.
Note: Statistics are correct as of the 2016 -- 17 season.
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when does the new episode of dragon ball super air in japan | List of Dragon Ball Super episodes - wikipedia
Dragon Ball Super is a Japanese anime television series produced by Toei Animation that began airing on July 5, 2015 on Fuji TV. It is the first Dragon Ball television series featuring a new storyline in 18 years. Storywise, the series retells the events of the last two Dragon Ball Z films, Battle of Gods and Resurrection ' F ', which themselves follow the events of Dragon Ball Z. Afterward, the series proceeds to tell an original story about the exploration of other universes, the reemergence of Future Trunks, and a new threat to his Earth known as Goku Black, along with a Supreme Kai from Universe 10 named Zamasu. Later on, the Z Fighters participate in a universal tournament held by Zeno - sama to decide the fate of multiple universes. If they lose in the universal tournament, then their entire universe will be erased.
Thirteen pieces of theme music are used: two opening themes and eleven ending themes. For the first 76 episodes, the opening theme is "Chōzetsu ☆ Dynamic! '' (超絶 ☆ ダイナミック!, Chōzetsu Dainamikku, "Excellent Dynamic! '') performed by Kazuya Yoshii of The Yellow Monkey. The lyrics were penned by Yukinojo Mori who has written numerous songs for the Dragon Ball series. Beginning with episode 77, the second opening theme is "Limit - Break x Survivor '' (限界 突破 × サバイバー, Genkai Toppa x Sabaibā) by Kiyoshi Hikawa. Mori wrote the lyrics for the rock number "Genkai Toppa x Survivor '' and Takafumi Iwasaki composed the music. For the first 12 episodes, the ending theme is "Hello Hello Hello '' (ハロー ハロー ハロー, Harō Harō Harō) by Japanese rock band Good Morning America. The second ending theme song for episodes 13 to 25 is "Starring Star '' (スターリング スター, Sutāringu Sutā) by Key Talk. The third ending theme song for episodes 26 to 36 is "Usubeni '' (薄 紅, "Light Pink '') by Lacco Tower. The fourth ending theme song for episodes 37 to 49 is "Forever Dreaming '' (フォーエバー ドリーミング, Fōebā Dorīmingu) by Czecho No Republic. The fifth ending theme song for episodes 50 to 59 is "Yokayoka Dance '' (よかよか ダンス, Yokayoka Dansu, "It 's Fine Dance '') by idol group Batten Showjo Tai. The sixth ending theme for episodes 60 to 72 is "Chao Han Music '' (炒飯 MUSIC, Chāhan Myūjikku) by Arukara. The seventh ending theme from episodes 73 to 83 is "Aku no Tenshi to Seigi no Akuma '' (悪 の 天使 と 正義 の 悪魔, An Evil Angel and the Righteous Devil) by THE COLLECTORS. The eighth ending theme from episodes 84 to 96 is "Boogie Back '' by Miyu Innoue. The ninth ending theme from episodes 97 to 108 is "Haruka '' by Lacco Tower. The tenth ending theme from episodes 109 to 121 is "By A 70cm Square Window '' by RottenGraffty. From episodes 122 onwards, the eleventh ending theme is "Lagrima '' by OnePixcel.
The anime episodes are being released on Japanese Blu - ray and DVD sets that contain twelve episodes each. The first set was released on December 2, 2015. The second set was released on March 2, 2016. The third set was released on July 2, 2016. The fourth set was released on October 10, 2016.
Dragon Ball Super received an English - language dub that premiered on the Toonami channel in Southeast Asia in January 2017. The series has been aired in Israel on Nickelodeon and in Portugal on SIC. Toei Animation Europe announced that Dragon Ball Super would be broadcast in France, Italy, Spain, and English - speaking Africa in Fall 2016. An official English sub of the series would be simulcasted legally on Crunchyroll, Daisuki.net, and Anime Lab beginning October 22, 2016. Funimation announced the company acquired the rights to the series and will be producing an English dub. As well as officially announcing the dub, it was also announced they will be simulcasting the series on their streaming platform, FunimationNow. Funimation 's English dub of Dragon Ball Super began airing on Adult Swim 's Toonami block starting on January 7, 2017.
The Supreme Kais are surprised that the universe is still intact following the battle, but they fear the worst is still to come. On Earth, Vegeta, Whis, and the others are still standing by while watching the battle. Whis is surprised by the Super Saiyan God 's power and its ability to keep up with his trainee. In space, Goku struggles to keep up with Beerus ' attack, which ultimately ends up in a massive explosion that blinds everyone on Earth. Shortly after, the light clears out, which reveals everything to be as it was prior to the explosion. Beerus explains that he used his full power to negate the explosion, which saved the universe. Seeing it as a perfect opportunity to boast, Mr. Satan arranges to have himself be falsely credited with saving the planet yet again. Despite being at his limit, Goku remains calm, which annoys the God of Destruction. Beerus thinks Goku might have a strategy that he has been hiding, which Goku promptly denies. Goku says that everything he had been doing was improvised as they fought. The Gods quickly power up and continue fighting, but this time both are at their limit. As soon as they start, Goku loses his Super Saiyan God aura and reverts to the ordinary Super Saiyan form. Upon noticing that, Beerus decides to quit. He thinks it is pointless to fight an ordinary Super Saiyan. However, Goku does not notice and keeps going at it. Whis is able to sense Goku 's mortal energy. Whis assumes that the battle has concluded and that Goku has lost. However, Piccolo begs to differ. Surprised that Goku is still able to hit him even after losing his Super Saiyan God form, Beerus surmises that Goku 's body has adjusted to the Super Saiyan God power. This made him stronger in his ordinary form. With or without the Super Saiyan God form, Goku proclaims that it is still him that Beerus is up against. Beerus and Goku resume their battle of Gods.
To counter Goku 's increase in power, Kefla powers up to Super Saiyan 2, and the two of them face off. Goku still easily dodges Kefla 's attacks, but his own attacks are not strong enough to take her down. Whis explains that when Goku launches his attacks, it interferes with his concentration and prevents him from using Ultra Instinct - Sign - to its full potential. Jiren senses the energy from the battle, which prompts him to awaken from his meditation and rejoin Toppo and Dyspo. Vegeta realizes that Ultra Instinct is the level of skill that Whis was training him and Goku to attain, and decides that he must reach it too. Goku begins running low on stamina, so he declares that he will end the fight with his next attack. Kefla panics and unleashes a multitude of deadly energy beams. Her ultimate attack devastates the ring, but Goku easily dodges her blasts while charging a Kamehameha. Goku jumps into the air, so Kefla focuses all of her power into a single blast and launches it at him, taking advantage of his apparent inability to dodge. However, he backflips and uses the charged - up energy to slide over her attack, and launches his Kamehameha at point - blank range, blasting Kefla out of the ring and eliminating her. Her Potara earrings shatter, and she splits back into Kale and Caulifla. With both of them eliminated, Saonel and Pirina are the only remaining warriors from Team Universe 6.
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how many episodes are on longmire season 6 | List of Longmire episodes - Wikipedia
Longmire is a crime drama series that premiered on A&E Network on June 3, 2012, before moving to Netflix in 2015 and completing its run on November 17, 2017. The series was based on the Longmire mystery novels written by best - selling author Craig Johnson, and follows Walt Longmire (Robert Taylor), the sheriff of the fictional Absaroka County, Wyoming, as he returns to work following the death of his wife.
During the course of the series, 63 episodes of Longmire were released over six seasons.
A woman 's body is found on the outskirts of Absaroka County. The only clues to her mysterious death are single dollar bills scattered nearby and her body glitter. Walt and Vic surmise that the victim was an exotic dancer. In the victim 's pocket, they find a drawing of a tree with unrecognizable writing underneath it. The investigation (which includes Vic 's performing a partial striptease at the club where the victim allegedly worked, in order to have a suspect identified) leads the team to learn the woman was a Mennonite. The victim 's brother had accidentally killed her while trying to urge her back into the Mennonite community. Outside the investigation, Walt suspects that daughter Cady is secretly dating someone, and that particular someone is Branch.
This episode is based on actual events. Walt investigates the disappearance of a Cheyenne boy from his foster home. Two other boys go missing from a group home. All the boys turn up at Henry 's bar. One of the boys tells Walt they were taken by a "dog soldier '' with a scar under one eye. Walt believes the children are describing Hector, a Cheyenne tough guy. Walt confronts the child services manager.
While investigating a bear attack that killed a convicted murderer who was granted early parole due to prison overcrowding, Walt finds evidence that someone baited the bear into attacking the victim. Meanwhile, Branch 's uncle Lucian Connally (Peter Weller), the retired former Sheriff, lands in jail after firing a shotgun in his retirement home, and obliquely aids in the case. Walt finds himself calling in favors to get the home to allow Lucian back in. It is also revealed that Vic is married, a secret to most people despite Vic 's six months plus residence in the county; and it is not a happy one.
Walt finds a store owner 's dead body after being called about a disheveled barefoot woman arriving there. Walt finds a hidden camera in the store, which leads his team to find that the store owner had written down a partial license plate number. They also do a screen capture of the woman, which they give to the press. The woman 's parents arrive at Walt 's office to say she had disappeared a few years ago. Henry and The Ferg are asked to track the woman from the store and they discover an abandoned baby in a rabbit pen. Walt stakes out where the baby was found and captures another woman who later reveals that she and the missing woman belong to a cult. The license plate number is tracked to a drilling site in the next county, where Henry has found a hole in the fence the woman had escaped through and where it is discovered the cult 's leader works. The team arrive at the man 's house to find him surrounded by a dozen empty beds. He confesses to killing the store owner because the man "was going to take her from them ''. During transport, he talks in code, which Longmire translates to learn the cult has been left in the path of an oncoming train to be killed should their accompanying poison not work. The train is stopped and the women are saved by Walt and his team.
The president of the local Cheyenne nation is found shot to death in his car just off the reservation. The investigation reveals that the man had planned legislation to limit certain heritage percentages within the nation, in order for an increased share of the future casino 's profits. An even bigger cover - up is discovered when the murderer claims he committed the crime on reservation land. The body had been later moved by someone else. Meanwhile, Walt finally learns that his daughter Cady and Branch had recently dated. This does not dissuade Branch from pursuing the election.
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who does daniel radcliffe play in now you see me 2 | Now You See Me 2 - wikipedia
Now You See Me 2 is a 2016 American heist thriller film directed by Jon M. Chu and written by Ed Solomon. The film stars an ensemble cast that includes Jesse Eisenberg, Mark Ruffalo, Woody Harrelson, Dave Franco, Daniel Radcliffe, Lizzy Caplan, Jay Chou, Sanaa Lathan, Michael Caine and Morgan Freeman. It is sequel to the 2013 film Now You See Me and follows the Four Horsemen who resurface and are forcibly recruited by a tech genius to pull off an almost impossible heist. This is the second installment of the film series.
On July 3, 2013, a sequel to Now You See Me was officially announced to be in development. Filming began in November 2014 and lasted until May 2015. The film was released on June 10, 2016 by Summit Entertainment, received mixed reviews from critics and grossed $334 million worldwide.
Eighteen months after outwitting the FBI, the remaining members of the Four Horsemen -- J. Daniel Atlas (Jesse Eisenberg), Merritt McKinney (Woody Harrelson) and Jack Wilder (Dave Franco) -- are in hiding in New York City, awaiting further instructions from The Eye, the secret society of magicians they 've been recruited into. Atlas, having grown tired of waiting for a mission, seeks out The Eye himself. His search leads him to an underground tunnel in which he hears a voice that tells him that his wait may be coming to an end. The Horseman handler FBI agent Dylan Rhodes (Mark Ruffalo) ultimately assigns them a new mission, exposing corrupt businessman Owen Case (Ben Lamb), whose new software secretly steals data on its users for Case 's benefit. Lula May (Lizzy Caplan) is added to the team to replace former member Henley Reeves (Isla Fisher), who has left the Horsemen after breaking up with Atlas.
The Horsemen hijack the launch party for the new software, but the show is interrupted by a mysterious individual who reveals to the world that Wilder, believed to be dead, is actually alive, and that Rhodes is their mole, forcing him to escape. While escaping, the Horsemen enter their escape tube on a roof and emerge in Macau, where they are captured by mercenaries and Chase McKinney (also played by Woody Harrelson), Merritt 's twin brother. The Horsemen are then brought before Chase 's employer, technology prodigy Walter Mabry (Daniel Radcliffe), Case 's former business partner, who faked his death after Case stole Walter 's company. Mabry conscripts the Horsemen into stealing the data - mining device developed by Case to prevent him from using it. The chip allows the user to decrypt and access any electronic device around the world. The Horsemen agree to steal the device.
They get supplies at a famous magic shop in Macau, run by Li (Jay Chou) and Bu Bu (Tsai Chin), and secretly contact The Eye to arrange to hand over the device after they steal it. Meanwhile, Rhodes is branded a fugitive and forced to spring his rival Thaddeus Bradley (Morgan Freeman), whom Rhodes blames for the death of his father, out of jail for help.
The Horsemen infiltrate the facility and steal the chip, despite being interrogated and searched by security guard Allen Scott - Frank (Henry Lloyd - Hughes). Atlas is then confronted by Mabry, revealing that Atlas had been fooled into thinking that Mabry was The Eye. Rhodes intervenes and pretends to retrieve the device but is captured by Mabry 's forces and taken to a nearby yacht where he learns Mabry is acting on behalf of his father, Arthur Tressler (Michael Caine), whom Rhodes exposed with the help of the Horsemen in the first film. Tressler places Rhodes in a replica of the same safe that his father died in and leaves him to drown, but Rhodes escapes and is rescued by the Horsemen. They find that the chip they had stolen appears to be a fake.
Rhodes and the Horsemen broadcast that they will be performing live in London at midnight on New Year 's Eve. Mabry and Tressler, thinking that they have the computer chip, make haste to London, where the Horsemen are performing a series of tricks on the streets. At the Shard, Mabry, Tressler and Chase discover that Rhodes is still alive and capture the five, taking them on his private plane. Mabry takes the card from them, and Rhodes and the other Horsemen are thrown out of the plane supposedly in flight. However, Tressler finds that the plane has never taken off, and instead is on a barge in the middle of the River Thames, their criminal activities being broadcast live to the world by the Horsemen in the process. Mabry, Tressler and Chase are arrested and Rhodes, now going by his real surname, "Shrike '', entrusts the information they 've gathered on the real criminals ' activities to the FBI, who allows him a head start to escape.
Rhodes and the Horsemen are then taken to meet the leaders of the Eye in a secret library in Greenwich observatory. They find that the members of the Eye include Li, Bu Bu, Allen, and Bradley. Bradley reveals that he was actually Lionel Shrike 's partner, and he had been masquerading as his rival as part of their planned act: he had exposed Lionel 's first act planning to be dumbfounded by his second act, only to abandon the Eye after Lionel 's death. Before Bradley leaves, he asks Rhodes to be his successor in the Eye 's leadership and request that the Horsemen enter a curtain. The Horsemen, with Rhodes, go behind the curtain, and find a door behind it. They enter the room and find a staircase; the camera zooms out to the stairs, forming an Eye.
On July 3, 2013, after the box office success of the first film, Lionsgate CEO Jon Feltheimer confirmed that there would be a sequel to the film, with production beginning in 2014 for an unspecified release date. In September 2014, it was confirmed that Jon M. Chu would replace Louis Leterrier as director. On October 2, 2014, Michael Caine confirmed in an interview that Daniel Radcliffe would be playing his son in the film, and that shooting is expected to begin in December in London. The film was produced by Lionsgate and Summit Entertainment. In October 2014, it was announced that Isla Fisher would be unable to reprise her role as Henley Reeves due to her pregnancy, and Lizzy Caplan was cast as new character Lula to replace her as the Fourth Horseman. The sequel was thought to be titled Now You See Me: Now You Do n't, but it was announced in November 2014 that the film had changed its title to Now You See Me: The Second Act. On January 28, 2015, Henry Lloyd - Hughes was confirmed to play the role of a tech whiz kid named Allen Scott - Frank. On December 22, 2014, it was reported that Morgan Freeman was not going to reprise his role as Thaddeus Bradley, but on January 19, 2015, film director Chu posted a selfie with Freeman on his Instagram, verifying that he would return.
On November 25, 2014, Mark Ruffalo posted to his Facebook that filming had begun on the sequel, as the film was shooting in London, England. On March 11, 2015, shooting began in China, where filming took place in Macau and the Macau Science Center, and ended on May 12, 2015 in New York City.
The film 's music was written and composed by Brian Tyler. The soundtrack was released on June 10, 2016 by Varese Sarabande.
All music composed by Brian Tyler.
In November 2014, the film was officially titled Now You See Me 2, and was set to be released on June 10, 2016. In March 2016, the film 's international release date was announced as July 4, 2016.
Now You See Me 2 was released on Digital HD on August 19, with a subsequent Blu - ray Combo Pack and DVD released on September 6.
Now You See Me 2 grossed $65.1 million in the United States and Canada and $269.8 million in other territories for a worldwide total of $334.9 million, against a budget of $90 million.
In the United States and Canada, Now You See Me 2 opened on June 10, 2016, alongside Warcraft and The Conjuring 2, and was projected to gross $23 -- 26 million from 3,232 theaters in its opening weekend. The film grossed $1.8 million from its Thursday night previews, besting the $1.5 million made by its predecessor, and $8.4 million on its first day. It went on to gross $22.3 million in its opening weekend, finishing third at the box office behind The Conjuring 2 ($40.4 million) and Warcraft ($24.1 million).
In China, the film was released on June 24, 2016 and had an opening day of $14.8 million, a record for Lionsgate and up 67.9 % from the original 's first day. In its opening weekend the film grossed $44.4 million, also a record for Lionsgate. China was the largest territory for the film, with a total gross of $97.1 million.
Now You See Me 2 received mixed reviews from critics. On the review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 34 % based on 165 reviews, with an average rating of 5 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads, "Now You See Me 2 packs in even more twists and turns than its predecessor, but in the end, it has even less hiding up its sleeve. '' On another aggregator, Metacritic, the film has a score of 46 out of 100, based on 33 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews ''. Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A -- '' on an A+ to F scale, the same grade earned by its predecessor.
Although critics and fans were disappointed that Isla Fisher was not returning as Henley Reeves, many praised Lizzy Caplan 's addition to the cast. Caplan was described as "one of the sequel 's biggest improvements '' by Entertainment Weekly, while Dave White of TheWrap wrote that she "provides a fresh infusion of smart - ass energy into the boy 's club. '' Australian film magazine Filmink also noted that Caplan "over-shadows her skilled co-stars with her sassy and commanding screen presence. '' Owen Gleiberman of Variety wrote that "all bearded creepy grins, (Daniel Radcliffe) makes Walter a megalomaniac imp, like the world 's youngest Bond villain. '' Randy Cordova of The Arizona Republic, who preferred the film to the original, said of the villain character that "In (Radcliffe 's) hands, he is a spoiled and petulant baddie, alternately creepy and hilarious. ''
Ignatiy Vishnevetsky of The A.V. Club wrote that the sequel "up (s) the ludicrous quotient '' from the original, "double - timing the convoluted plotting and embracing implausibility as an aesthetic... (I) f (director Jon M.) Chu does n't seem comfortable with the swooping, lens - flare - speckled flashiness that director Louis Leterrier brought to the first film, he seems even less interested than his predecessor in creating the impression of a recognizably real world -- which is a good thing, at least for a movie about a superstar heist crew called the Horsemen that involves twins, multiple secret identities, and a global corporate surveillance plot that can only be foiled through the use of stage magic. ''
Michael Phillips of the Chicago Tribune gave the film a mixed review but considered it "more fun '' than its predecessor.
In May 2015, Lionsgate CEO Jon Feltheimer announced that they had indeed "already begun early planning '' for Now You See Me 3. It was later confirmed that Lizzy Caplan will be reprising the role of Lula May, and that a new cast member, Benedict Cumberbatch, will be joining the cast. It was also confirmed that Isla Fisher will not be returning to the series as Henley Reeves, after her absence from the first sequel.
In July 2016, The Hollywood Reporter reported that Lionsgate wants to make a Now You See Me spin - off with a primarily Chinese cast, starring Jay Chou as Li, his character from Now You See Me 2.
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who are the 2 guys in the sonic commercials | TJ Jagodowski - wikipedia
Thomas James "T.J. '' Jagodowski (born September 2, 1971) is an American comedian, actor, and improvisational performer who lives in Chicago. He has been a member of The Second City as well as a performer and teacher at iO Theater, formerly known as "Improv Olympic ''. He has appeared in movies such as Stranger Than Fiction, The Ice Harvest, No Sleep Till Madison, Get Hard and the television show, Prison Break. He is most recognizable from the long - running series of improvised Sonic Drive - In commercials featuring himself and Peter Grosz.
Jagodowski was born in Holyoke, Massachusetts. While in college at Syracuse University, a vending machine fell on his leg, breaking multiple bones. He had plates and screws installed in his right leg, though a rampant staph infection took hold. Doctors told him he was one week away from losing the leg to gangrene. T. J. discussed this during a performance of "The Armando Diaz Theatrical Experience and Hootenanny '', a weekly show at iO that uses one performer 's / guest monologist 's stories as inspiration for improvised scenes. T. J. was the monologist that evening and noted while telling the story that he generally hates when other monologists tell "these kinds of stories ''.
Jagodowski began improvising in the early 90s. He started out on several Harold teams at iO Chicago. In 1998, he was cast in the Mainstage cast of The Second City, where he appeared in revues on both Mainstage and e.t.c. stages alongside Kevin Dorff, Susan Messing, Stephnie Weir, and many others. Since 2002, he has been performing at iO with David Pasquesi in the long - running improv show "TJ & Dave. ''
The 2009 South by Southwest Film festival included the documentary "Trust Us, This is All Made Up '' directed by Alex Karpovsky, which chronicles a "T. J. and Dave '' performance.
The Chicago Improv Festival called Jagodowski "The best improviser in Chicago ''. New City Chicago said, "If Miles Davis had pursued comedy instead of music, the results might have looked something like this. '' Jagodowski performs weekly in Chicago in a variety of improv programs, but most notably in "T. J. and Dave '' with David Pasquesi, which the Chicago Reader has described as "an hour of subtle character development, verbal facility, and pantomimic agility that anticipates and plays off the audience 's reactions. '' Since 2006, the duo performs this show monthly at The Barrow Street Theatre in New York City, and have been performing the show weekly since 2002 in Chicago.
Since 2004 T. J. has starred as one half of the "Two Guys '' for the Sonic Drive - In commercials alongside fellow improviser Peter Grosz.
Jagodowski was a guest on the NPR program Wait Wait... Do n't Tell Me! on the weekend of November 2 -- 3, 2013.
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when does same kind of different come out | In - N - Out Burger - Wikipedia
In - N - Out Burger is an American regional chain of fast food restaurants with locations primarily in the American Southwest and Pacific coast. It was founded in Baldwin Park, California in 1948 by Harry Snyder and Esther Snyder. The chain is currently headquartered in Irvine, California and has slowly expanded outside Southern California into the rest of California, as well as into Arizona, Nevada, Utah, Texas, and Oregon. The current owner is Lynsi Snyder, the Snyders ' only grandchild.
As the chain has expanded, it has opened several distribution centers in addition to its original Baldwin Park location. The new facilities, located in Lathrop, California; Phoenix, Arizona; Draper, Utah; and Dallas, Texas will provide for potential future expansion into other parts of the country.
In - N - Out Burger has resisted franchising its operations or going public; one reason is the prospect of quality or customer consistency being compromised by excessively rapid business growth. The company 's business practices have been noted for employee - centered personnel policies. For example, In - N - Out is one of the few fast food chains in the United States to pay its employees more than state and federally mandated minimum wage guidelines -- starting at US $11.00 per hour in California, as of May 2017. The In - N - Out restaurant chain has developed a highly loyal customer base, and has been rated as one of the top fast food restaurants in several customer satisfaction surveys.
In - N - Out 's first location was opened in the Los Angeles suburb of Baldwin Park, California in 1948 by the Snyders at the southwest corner of what is now the intersection of Interstate 10 and Francisquito Avenue. The restaurant was the first drive - thru hamburger stand in California, allowing drivers to place orders via a two - way speaker system. This was a new and unique idea, since in post-World War II California, carhops were used to take orders and serve food.
A second In - N - Out was opened west of the intersection of Grand Avenue and Arrow Highway in Covina, California, three years later. The company remained a relatively small southern California chain until the 1970s. The Snyders managed their first restaurants closely to ensure quality was maintained. The chain had 18 restaurants when Harry Snyder died in 1976, at the age of 63.
In 1976, 24 - year - old Rich Snyder became the company president after his father 's death. Along with his brother Guy, Rich had reportedly begun working in his father 's In - N - Outs "from the ground floor '' at an early age. Over the next 20 years, the chain experienced a period of rapid growth under Rich 's leadership, expanding to 93 restaurants.
The first location outside of the Los Angeles metropolitan area was opened in San Diego County in 1990, the 61st location in the chain. In 1992, In - N - Out opened its first non-Southern California restaurant in Las Vegas, Nevada. Its first Northern California location was opened the following year in Modesto. Expansion then spread to Northern California, including the San Francisco Bay Area, while additional Las Vegas - area restaurants were added. However, after opening the 83rd In - N - Out restaurant in Fresno, California, on December 15, 1993, Rich Snyder and four other passengers died in a plane crash on approach to John Wayne Airport in Orange County, California. The charter aircraft they were on had been following a Boeing 757 in for landing, became caught in its wake turbulence, and crashed. The ensuing crash investigation led to the Federal Aviation Administration requirement for an adequate distance between heavy aircraft and following light aircraft to allow wake turbulence to diminish.
Upon Rich Snyder 's death in 1993, Guy Snyder assumed the presidency and continued the company 's aggressive expansion until he died from an overdose of painkillers in 1999. He was president for six years, expanding In - N - Out from 83 to 140 locations. His mother Esther subsequently took over the presidency.
The company opened locations in Arizona in 2000 and added new restaurants in Reno, Sparks, and Carson City, Nevada in late 2004. In - N - Out became a huge success in these new locations. In 2007, it opened its first restaurant in Tucson, Arizona. The store opening broke company records for the most burgers sold in one day and the most sold in one week.
In 2008, In - N - Out expanded into a fourth state by opening a location in Washington, Utah, a suburb of St. George. By late 2009, the chain expanded into northern Utah with three new locations situated in Draper, American Fork, and Orem. More locations opened in the spring of 2010 in West Valley City, West Jordan, Centerville, and Riverton.
In May 2010, In - N - Out announced plans to expand into Texas, specifically within the Dallas -- Fort Worth area with the first two locations opening in Frisco and Allen on May 11, 2011. The chain opened its first location in Austin in December 2013. There are 21 restaurant locations in the Dallas -- Fort Worth area, and four in the Austin area. These new locations in Texas required the company to build a new patty production facility and distribution center in the state, according to company vice president Carl Van Fleet. In March 2014, the company confirmed its first location in San Antonio. The fall of 2014 saw the restaurant open its 22nd Texas location in Killeen. On November 20, 2014, In - N - Out opened its first location in San Antonio followed by its first location in Waco in November 2015. In January 2017, In - N - Out announced plans to expand into Houston with multiple sites planned in the area.
The company opened its first location in Oregon on September 9, 2015 (the same day as Harry Snyder 's birthday) in Medford. It is supplied from the Lathrop, California distribution center that was completed in 2006. President Lynsi Snyder stated during the opening that they will continue to expand. A second Oregon location was under construction in Grants Pass during September 2017.
On November 30, 2017, the company announced plans to build a production facility and distribution center in Colorado Springs, ahead of an expansion into Colorado.
While the company grew, it struggled to maintain its family roots. Esther Snyder died in 2006 at the age of 86 and passed the presidency to Mark Taylor, former vice president of operations. Taylor became the company 's fifth president and first non-family member to hold the position, although he does have ties to the family. The company 's current heiress is Lynsi Snyder, daughter of Guy and only grandchild of Esther and Harry Snyder. Snyder, who was 23 years old and known as Lynsi Martinez at her grandmother 's death, owns the company through a trust. She gained control of 50 % of the company in 2012 when she turned 30, and nearly full control at 35 in May 2017.
After participating in various roles in the company, Snyder assumed the presidency in 2010, becoming the company 's sixth president. However, most major decisions are made by a seven - member executive team. Snyder does not intend to franchise nor sell, and plans to pass on ownership of the company to her children.
In 2006, a lawsuit exposed a possible family feud over the chain 's corporate leadership. Richard Boyd, one of In - N - Out 's vice presidents and co-trustee of two - thirds of the company stock, accused Lynsi Martinez and allied corporate executives of trying to force out Esther Snyder and attempting to fire Boyd unreasonably. Pre-empting the suit, Martinez, Snyder and Taylor appeared in a December video message to employees, telling them not to believe everything they hear. The company then responded with a lawsuit of its own, alleging Boyd had construction work done on his personal property and charged it to the company, as well as favoring contractors with uncompetitive bids. Boyd was then suspended from his role as co-trustee and Northern Trust Bank of California took his place (as co-trustee) until a hearing set for May 10, 2006. However, in April, the judge dismissed two of In - N - Out 's claims against Boyd. A trial date of October 17, 2006, was set but never occurred, and a settlement was reached out of court. Ultimately, Boyd was permanently removed from his role as an employee and co-trustee.
In June 2007, the company filed a lawsuit against an American Fork, Utah, restaurant named Chadder 's for trademark infringement, claiming that the "look and feel '' of the restaurant too closely resembled that of In - N - Out, and that the restaurant violated trademarked menu items, such as "Animal Style '', "Protein Style '', "Double - Double '', and so forth.
The company was tipped off by Utah customers contacting the customer service department asking if In - N - Out opened a location in Utah under a different name or if they had any affiliation with the restaurant in any way. Several customers stated they ordered trademarked items such as Animal and Protein styles.
On June 7, 2007, In - N - Out 's general counsel visited the Chadders restaurant in American Fork and "viewed the premises and operations and ordered a meal that was not listed on its menu. He requested an ' Animal style Double - Double with Animal fries, ' and his order was filled. '' Utah District court Judge Ted Stewart issued a temporary restraining order against the look - alike. Chadder 's opened another location near the Salt Lake City area and one in Provo.
In 2009, In - N - Out opened a restaurant in American Fork less than a mile from the Chadder 's restaurant. Per their website, Chadder 's started selling a "Stubby Double '' instead of "Double Double ''. The Chadder 's restaurants in Utah have gone out of business since In - N - Out restaurants have opened in Utah.
On November 6, 2015, In - N - Out filed a lawsuit against food delivery startup, DoorDash, claiming trademark infringement and unfair competition. The complaint states:
"Defendant 's use of Plaintiff 's famous trademarks implies that Defendant not only delivers In - N - Out products to its customers, but that the quality and services offered by Defendant is the same as if consumers had made purchases directly from Plaintiff. Upon information and belief, the quality of services offered by Defendant does not at all comport with the standards that consumers expect from Plaintiff 's goods and services. Further, Plaintiff has no control over the time it takes Defendant to deliver Plaintiff 's goods to consumers, or over the temperature at which the goods are kept during delivery, nor over the food handling and safety practices of Defendant 's delivery drivers. While Plaintiff adheres to the Food Code, on information and belief, Defendant does not adhere to such regulations, including with regard to compliance with required food safety and handling practices. ''
On May 9, 2017, the In - N - Out Burger in Livermore, California, temporarily closed its doors after nine members of a college softball team reported getting sick after eating at that particular restaurant. The Alameda County Department of Environmental Health is investigating the incident and suspects norovirus was the cause of the illnesses, but will not be able to confirm the cause until laboratory tests are completed.
The location had been cited for a "high risk '' health code violation in December 2016, with minor citations for the same problem in April 2017. In - N - Out representatives said they had no indications of any issues at the location but have cleaned and disinfected it along with reviewing procedures with employees.
On May 12, 2017, the Alameda County Department of Environmental Health reported that they now believe that the members of the college softball team may have already been infected with the virus prior to entering the Livermore restaurant. As a precaution, the DEH are continuing their laboratory tests on In - N - Out employees to conclusively rule them out as a possible source of the infection.
The In - N - Out menu consists of three burger varieties: hamburger, cheeseburger, and "Double - Double '' (two hamburger patties and two slices of cheese). French fries and fountain drinks are available, as well as three flavors of milkshakes. The hamburgers come with lettuce, tomato, with or without onions (the customer is asked upon ordering, and may have them fresh or grilled), and a sauce, which is called "spread '' (a Thousand Island dressing variant).
There are, however, additional named items not on the menu, but available at every In - N - Out. These variations reside on the chain 's "secret menu, '' though the menu is accessible on the company 's web site. These variations include 3x3 (which has three patties and three slices of cheese), 4x4 (four patties and four slices of cheese), Neapolitan shakes, grilled cheese sandwich (consists of the same ingredients as the burgers except the meat, plus two slices of melted cheese), Protein style (wrap with lettuce; consists of the same ingredients as the burgers except buns), and Animal Style. Both Protein and Animal Style are house specialties that the company has trademarked because of their association with the chain. Animal Style fries come with two slices of melted cheese, spread, and grilled onions on top. Animal style burgers are cooked in a thin layer of mustard, and in addition to the lettuce and tomato it also includes pickles, grilled onions, and extra spread. Whole or sliced chili peppers are also available by request.
Until 2004 In - N - Out accommodated burger orders of any size by adding patties and slices of cheese at an additional cost. A particularly famous incident involving a 100x100 (100 patties, 100 slices of cheese) occurred in 2004. Once word got out of the massive sandwich, In - N - Out management disallowed anything larger than a 4x4. One can also order what is called a "Flying Dutchman '' which consists of two meat patties and two slices of cheese by itself (no bun, condiments, or vegetables).
The signature colors for In - N - Out are white, red, and yellow. The white is used for the buildings ' exterior walls and the employees ' basic uniform. Red is used for the buildings ' roofs and the employees ' aprons and hats. Yellow is used for the decorative band on the roof and iconic zig - zag in the logo. However, variations in the color scheme do occur.
The first In - N - Outs had a common design, placing the kitchen "stand '' between two lanes of cars. The "front '' lane is nearest the street, and the "back '' lane away from the street. A metal awning provides shade for several tables for customers desiring to park and eat, but there is no indoor dining. A walk - up window faces the parking area. These restaurants store food and supplies in a separate building, and it is not uncommon for a driver to be asked to wait a moment while employees carry supplies to the kitchen across the rear lane.
This simpler design is a popular image on In - N - Out ads and artwork, which often shows classic cars such as 1965 Mustangs and 1968 Firebirds visiting the original restaurants. The original Covina restaurant, located on Arrow Highway west of Grand Avenue, was forced to close in the early 1990s due to re-engineering and development of the area. A modern design, drive - up / dining room restaurant was built a few hundred feet away. The new building is much larger (approximately half the size of the entire lot upon which the earlier restaurant sat), and is often filled to capacity.
Like many chain restaurants, newer In - N - Out restaurants are based on a set of templates or "cookie - cutter '' blueprints, which are chosen based on available space and expected traffic levels. While external appearance of its buildings may vary to meet local zoning and architectural requirements, the interior floor plan and decor in most recently constructed In - N - Out restaurants are identical. However, some restaurants are designed to stand out, such as the restaurants at Fisherman 's Wharf, San Francisco and Westwood, Los Angeles.
Today 's typical location has an interior layout that includes a customer service counter with registers in front of a kitchen and food preparation area. There are separate storage areas for paper goods (napkins, bags, etc.) and "dry '' food goods (potatoes, buns, etc.), as well as a walk - in refrigerator for perishable goods (lettuce, cheese, spread etc.), and a dedicated meat refrigerator for burger patties. The customer area includes an indoor dining room with a combination of booths, tables, and bar - style seating. Outside seating is usually available as well, with tables and benches. Most newer restaurants contain a one - lane drive - through.
There are other design elements common among today 's In - N - Out locations. Matching In - N - Out 's California - inspired palm tree theme, palm trees are sometimes planted to form an "X '' in front of the restaurants. This is an allusion to founder Harry Snyder 's favorite movie, Stanley Kramer 's It 's a Mad, Mad, Mad, Mad World, in which the characters look for a hidden treasure and find it under "the big W '' made by four palm trees, with the middle two forming an "X ''.
Like other fast food chains, In - N - Out uses roadside billboards that attract customers to the nearest location. Billboard ads typically display an image of the trademarked Double - Double burger. The chain uses short radio commercials, often limited to the jingle, "In - N - Out, In - N - Out. That 's what a hamburger 's all about. '' Television commercials, which are less common, feature the hamburger 's visual appeal. In - N - Out seldom uses celebrities in ads, although John Cleese and John Goodman have voiced radio spots. In the past, the Snyders also sponsored Christmas music programming with voice - overs expressing the meaning of the holiday.
In addition to conventional, paid advertising, In - N - Out benefits from positive word of mouth spread by enthusiastic fans. For many years, it has given customers free bumper stickers which simply say "In - N - Out Burger ''. The company helps devoted customers advertise its brand by selling souvenir clothing with the In - N - Out logo. Celebrity fans and free endorsements in mass media also promote the business. When Heisman Trophy winner and Ohio State quarterback Troy Smith raved about In - N - Out cheeseburgers during a press conference before the 2007 BCS National Championship Game, a senior executive said, "It does not get much better than that for us. We 're kind of a small company, and we do not have any celebrity endorsers. But I think we just got the best one we could have. '' Huell Howser was allowed, in what is believed to be a first, to film with his television cameras inside a store for a California 's Gold Special. The show also included a behind - the - scenes tour of the In - N - Out Headquarters.
The burger chain has achieved widespread popularity which has led to celebration by some when brought to new locations, and the opening of a new restaurant often becomes an event. When one opened in Scottsdale, Arizona, there was a four - hour wait for food, and news helicopters whirled above the parking lot.
The chain 's image has also made it popular in more non-traditional ways. For example, In - N - Out is still considered acceptable in some areas with a strong opposition to corporate food restaurants, such as McDonald 's. Local business leaders in San Francisco 's Fisherman 's Wharf district said they opposed every other fast food chain except In - N - Out, because they wanted to maintain the flavor of family - owned, decades - old businesses in the area, with one saying locals would ordinarily "be up in arms about a fast - food operation coming to Fisherman 's Wharf, '' but "this is different. '' California native and Colorado Rockies player Jason Giambi would often visit In - N - Out Burger when on the West Coast with his former team, the New York Yankees. He said he tried to open an In - N - Out Burger restaurant in New York, but was unsuccessful.
The chain also has fans in a number of renowned chefs including Gordon Ramsay, Thomas Keller, Julia Child, Anthony Bourdain, and Mario Batali. Famous London chef / restaurateur Ramsay ate In - N - Out for the first time when taping Hell 's Kitchen in Los Angeles, and it soon became one of his favorite spots for take - out. Ramsay was quoted, saying about the experience: "In - N - Out burgers were extraordinary. I was so bad, I sat in the restaurant, had my double cheeseburger then minutes later I drove back round and got the same thing again to take away. '' Thomas Keller, a fan of In - N - out, celebrated with In - N - Out burgers at the anniversary party of his restaurant, The French Laundry. Keller also plans on opening his own burger restaurant inspired by his Los Angeles experience of In - N - Out. Julia Child, one of the first celebrities to champion the chain, admitted to knowing every location of the restaurant between Santa Barbara and San Francisco. Child also had the burgers delivered to her during a hospital stay. Anthony Bourdain reportedly said that In - N - Out was his favorite fast food meal; later naming the restaurant as "the best restaurant in Los Angeles. '' In - N - Out was one of the very few restaurant chains given a positive mention in the book Fast Food Nation. The book commended the chain for using natural and fresh ingredients and for looking after the interests of employees regarding pay and benefits. An In - N - Out food truck catered Vanity Fair 's 2012 Academy Awards after party.
Jack Schmidt was the first person commissioned to paint the original In - N - Out located in Baldwin Park, CA for In - N - Out Burger Inc. His paintings were later reproduced on advertisements, shirts, and other consumer products. His paintings capture the car culture, beautiful weather, and the easy - speed of In - N - Out Burger
In - N - Out prints Bible citations in small print on areas of packaging. This practice began in the 1980s during Rich Snyder 's presidency, a reflection of the Christian beliefs held by the Snyder family.
On the Season 5 premiere episode of Secret Lives of the Super Rich, Lynsi Snyder, the then - 33 year old heir to the In - N - Out chain, revealed that she had two Biblical - related tattoos. One of Matthew 6: 10 in Aramaic: "Thy kingdom come, thy will be done. '' The other of Hebrew characters to represent the word "hated, '' which reportedly refer to John 15: 18: "If the world hates you, know that it hated me before. ''
The In - N - Out Burgers Foundation, was established as a 501 (c) (3) nonprofit organization in March 1995, and classified as a "Human Services: Fund Raising & Fund Distribution '' organization under the NTEE system. Based in Irvine, California, the foundation "supports organizations that provide residential treatment, emergency shelter, foster care, and early intervention for children in need. '' Its grant - making activities are restricted to eligible nonprofit groups that are located or provide services in areas where In - N - Out has a presence. Consequently, grant proposals are only accepted from applicants in a limited number of counties in Arizona, California, Nevada, Utah, Texas. In 2010, the most recent year for which financial reporting is publicly available (and before the opening of the company 's Texas locations), the foundation contributed $1,545,250 to 231 grantees in Arizona, California, Nevada, Utah. Grant - making is funded through donor contributions and In - N - Out - sponsored fundraisers; typical grants are between $2,000 and $20,000.
The first In - N - Out restaurant that opened in 1948 was demolished when the Interstate 10 (then U.S. 60 / 70 / 99, the Ramona Freeway) San Bernardino Freeway was built from downtown Los Angeles to the San Gabriel Valley. The freeway runs over the original location. A new restaurant was completed in 1954 near the original Baldwin Park, California location, but was closed in November 2004 and demolished on April 16, 2011 despite discussions about using it as an In - N - Out museum chronicling the origins and history of the company. In - N - Out built a replacement restaurant on the other side of the freeway next to the original In - N - Out University (opened in 1984). A new In - N - Out University was built on the property. The University building houses the training department, which was moved from Irvine, California. In addition, the company restaurant was moved from In - N - Out 's Baldwin Park headquarters to the new lot, which holds the restaurant and university, less than a thousand feet away. In 2014, a replica of the 1948 In - N - Out was built in Baldwin Park.
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how is the bowman's capsule adapted for its function | Bowman 's capsule - wikipedia
Bowman 's capsule (or the Bowman capsule, capsula glomeruli, or glomerular capsule) is a cup - like sack at the beginning of the tubular component of a nephron in the mammalian kidney that performs the first step in the filtration of blood to form urine. A glomerulus is enclosed in the sac. Fluids from blood in the glomerulus are collected in the Bowman 's capsule (i.e., glomerular filtrate) and further processed along the nephron to form urine. This process is known as ultrafiltration. The Bowman 's capsule is named after Sir William Bowman, who identified it in 1842.
Outside the capsule, there are two "poles '':
Inside the capsule, the layers are as follows, from outside to inside:
A - Renal corpuscle B - Proximal tubule C - Distal convoluted tubule D - Juxtaglomerular apparatus 1. Basement membrane (Basal lamina) 2. Bowman 's capsule - parietal layer 3. Bowman 's capsule - visceral layer 3a. Pedicels (podocytes) 3b. Podocyte or sometimes called Bowman 's cells 4. Bowman 's space (urinary space) 5a. Mesangium - Intraglomerular cell 5b. Mesangium - Extraglomerular cell 6. Granular cells (Juxtaglomerular cells) 7. Macula densa 8. Myocytes (smooth muscle) 9. Afferent arteriole 10. Glomerulus Capillaries 11. Efferent arteriole
The process of filtration of the blood in the Bowman 's capsule is ultrafiltration (or glomerular filtration), and the normal rate of filtration is 125 ml / min, equivalent to 80 times the daily blood volume.
Any proteins under roughly 30 kilodaltons can pass freely through the membrane, although there is some extra hindrance for negatively charged molecules due to the negative charge of the basement membrane and the podocytes.
Any small molecules such as water, glucose, salt (NaCl), amino acids, and urea pass freely into Bowman 's space, but cells, platelets and large proteins do not.
As a result, the filtrate leaving the Bowman 's capsule is very similar to blood plasma (filtrate or glomerular filtrate is composed of blood plasma minus plasma protein i.e. it contains all the components of blood plasma except the proteins) in composition as it passes into the proximal convoluted tubule.
Measuring the glomerular filtration rate (GFR) is a diagnostic test of kidney function.
A decreased GFR may be a sign of renal failure.
A number of diseases can result in various problems within the glomerulus. Examples include acute proliferative (endocapillary) glomerulonephritis, mesangioproliferative glomerulonephritis, mesangiocapillary (membranoproliferative) glomerulonephritis, acute crescentic glomerulonephritis, focal segmental glomerulonephritis, and diabetic glomerulosclerosis.
Bowman 's capsule is named after Sir William Bowman (1816 -- 1892), a British surgeon and anatomist. However, thorough microscopical anatomy of kidney including the nephronic capsule was described by the Ukrainian surgeon and anatomist from the Russian Empire, Prof. Alexander Shumliansky (1748 -- 1795), in his 1788 doctoral thesis "De structura renum: Tractatus physiologico - anatomicus '' ("About Kidney Structure: an Physiological - Anatomical Treatise '', in Latin); thus, much prior to Bowman.
Together with the glomerulus it is known as a renal corpuscle, or a Malpighian corpuscle, named after Marcello Malpighi (1628 -- 1694), an Italian physician and biologist. This name is not used widely anymore, probably to avoid confusion with Malpighian bodies of the spleen.
Glomerulus.
Distribution of blood vessels in cortex of kidney.
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where were you when the world stopped spinning | Where Were You (When the World Stopped Turning) - wikipedia
"Where Were You (When the World Stopped Turning) '' is a song written by the American singer - songwriter Alan Jackson. It was the lead single from his tenth studio album, Drive (2002), released on Arista Nashville. The song 's lyrics center on reactions to the September 11 attacks in the United States, written in the form of questions. Jackson desired to write a song capturing the emotions surrounding the attacks, but found it difficult to do so.
He debuted the song publicly at the Country Music Association 's annual awards show on November 7, 2001. It was released that month as a single and topped the Hot Country Singles & Tracks chart for five weeks; in addition, it reached number 28 on Billboard 's all - genre Hot 100 chart. The song received largely positive reviews from critics, who appreciated its simple, largely apolitical stance. The song won multiple awards at the Academy of Country Music and Country Music Association Awards, including Song of the Year, and also earned Jackson his first Grammy Award for Best Country Song.
The song is based on the September 11 attacks, a series of four coordinated terrorist attacks by the Islamic terrorist group al - Qaeda on the United States on September 11, 2001. Jackson had finished walking outside and returned indoors to discover news of the attacks on television. He immediately wanted to write a song expressing his thoughts and emotions, but he found it hard to do so for many weeks. "I did n't want to write a patriotic song, '' Jackson said. "And I did n't want it to be vengeful, either. But I did n't want to forget about how I felt and how I knew other people felt that day. ''
Finally, on the Sunday morning of October 28, 2001, he woke up at 4 a.m. with the melody, opening lines, and chorus going through his mind. He hastily got out of bed, still in his underwear, and sang them into a hand - held digital recorder so he would not forget them. Later that morning, when his wife and children had gone to Sunday school, he sat down in his study and completed the lyrics.
Initially, he felt squeamish about recording it, much less releasing it, because he disliked the idea of capitalizing on a tragedy. But after he played it for his wife Denise and for his producer, Keith Stegall, and it met with their approval, Jackson went into the studio to record "Where Were You '' that week. On Stegall 's advice, Jackson played the finished track for a group of executives at his record label. "We just kind of looked at one another, '' RCA Label Group chairman Joe Galante said later. "Nobody spoke for a full minute. ''
The verses focus on others ' reactions in the form of questions. One verse asks, "Did you lay down at night and think of tomorrow? / Go out and buy you a gun? / Did you turn off that violent old movie you 're watchin ' / And turn on I Love Lucy reruns? '' In between, he asks about the locations of people when the tragedy played out, "Were you in the yard with your wife and children? / Or workin ' on some stage in LA? '' In the chorus, Jackson tries to sum up his own feelings, first by calling himself merely "a singer of simple songs '', and "not a real political man '', and finally by paraphrasing the Biblical New Testament 's first letter of Paul to the Corinthians, chapter 13, verse 13: "Faith, hope and love are some good things He gave us / And the greatest is love. ''
The song is in the key of C major with a vocal range of A-C and a primary chord pattern of C-G.
Jackson was scheduled to perform at the Country Music Association 's annual awards ceremony on November 7, 2001, to be aired on CBS. Originally, he planned to perform "Where I Come From '', which at the time was the number 1 hit on the Billboard country charts. But mere days before the awards show, Jackson 's manager, Nancy Russell, played a recording of "Where Were You '' for four of the CMA 's top executives. All four were crying by the time the song ended.
The day before the show, CMT had a brief note on its web site that Jackson would be introducing the new song during the awards telecast. The next night, after an introduction from the show 's host, Vince Gill, Jackson performed "Where Were You '' seated on a stool, with an orchestra and backing singers behind him. At the conclusion of the five - minute - long song, the audience gave him an immediate standing ovation. This performance, along with the Vince Gill introduction, is used as the song 's music video.
The next morning, many stations already were playing Jackson 's new song after taping it from the broadcast. Several pop - oriented stations, including one in New York, started to play it as well. Based almost entirely on that unsolicited airplay, "Where Were You '' debuted at number 25 on the Billboard country chart the week ending November 24, 2001, the highest debut since "The Thunder Rolls '' by Garth Brooks debuted at number 19 in 1991. A week later, with Arista finally having serviced a promotional single to radio, it jumped to number 12. On the December 29 country singles chart, "Where Were You (When the World Stopped Turning) '' was the number 1 song. It had taken only six weeks to get there, the fastest rise to the top in four years. The song spent five weeks at the top, and it also became a Top 40 pop hit, peaking at number 28. At the time, it was Jackson 's biggest country and pop hit.
Jackson 's record label determined that it could not manufacture a commercial single fast enough to meet demand. Instead, Arista pushed up the release date for the new album, Drive, from May to January 15. Arista also chose to include both the studio version and the live CMA Awards version on the new album. The pent - up demand for "Where Were You '' helped propel the album to the top of both the Billboard country and pop album charts, becoming Jackson 's first number 1 on the main album chart. It spent five weeks at the top.
The song was never sold as a benefit song, and it is unknown if proceeds from the song 's success were contributed to 9 / 11 - related benefit organizations. Management for Jackson only claimed at the time of the song release that Jackson "has no official ties to any nonprofit group, '' and he preferred "to make his donations privately. ''
As of September 2015, the song has sold 395,000 digital copies in the United States.
-- Alan Jackson on his reservations for the song, 2002
Critical response to the single was positive. Deborah Evans Price (with Billboard) remarked "A multitude of songs have been written and recorded in the wake of September 11, but none captures the myriad emotions unleashed by the terrorist attacks on an unsuspecting nation more perfectly than Jackson 's eloquent ballad ''. Stephen Thomas Erlewine of the All Music Guide remarked, "Given the enormity of the subject -- it 's simply not something that can be summarized in song -- it 's a surprisingly effective and moving tune ''. Jackson 's reaction to "Where Were You (When the World Stopped Turning) '' was this: "I think it was Hank Williams who said, ' God writes the songs, I just hold the pen. ' That 's the way I felt with this song. '' He considered the song 's success personally overwhelming and uncomfortable due to its subject matter.
After the song 's success, Jim Bessman of Billboard summarized its impact: "Deeply personal and self - effacingly simple, (the song) struck a chord with poignant, understatedly eloquent contemplations and a basic, overriding "love is the answer '' theme. '' Dan Milliken of Country Universe rated the song number 7 on his list of the 201 Greatest Singles of the Decade. He stated that the song "can not travel forward into the future the way other songs on this countdown can; its full impact will remain locked in the memories of those of us who lived through September 11th, 2001, and will never be experienced quite so deeply ever again. '' Rolling Stone ranked it among the 40 "Saddest Country Songs '' at number 11, with a reviewer claiming, "Jackson 's heartfelt expression of stunned helplessness encapsulated the American collective consciousness perfectly. '' Georgia Rep. Mac Collins entered the lyrics into the U.S. Congressional Record, citing the song as "an example of how all Americans can help heal our nation from the wounds we suffered on that tragic day. ''
Some of the song 's lyrics, particularly "I watch CNN but I 'm not sure I could tell you / The difference in Iraq and Iran '' stood out to critics for other reasons. Bessman wrote that these passages "inadvertently point out our dangerously widespread ignorance of the rest of the world. '' While not critical of the lyrics themselves, Bessman is critical of the condition these lyrics highlight. Nevertheless, there were some negative reactions to the song. The song was mocked in "A Ladder to Heaven '', a 2002 episode of the American animated television series South Park. The show 's creators, Trey Parker and Matt Stone, disliked the song; Stone later said in the episode 's audio commentary that he felt Jackson was "cashing in on the sentimentality of (remembering the 9 / 11 attacks). ''
Later in 2002, "Where Were You '' won both the Academy of Country Music and CMA honors for "Song of the Year '' and "Single of the Year ''. In 2003, "Where Were You (When the World Stopped Turning) '' earned Jackson his first Grammy Award, for "Best Country Song ''. It was also nominated in the overall "Song of the Year '' category, a rarity for a pure country song, but it lost to "Do n't Know Why '', written by Jesse Harris and a hit for Norah Jones. It was also ranked 28th on CMT 's list of the "100 Greatest Country Songs ''.
Country singer Scotty McCreery covered the song while on the tenth season of American Idol. He would later win the season.
US promotional CD single Arista Nashville 69118
US 7 - inch single Arista Nashville 69129
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the meaning of the 10 plagues of egypt | Plagues of Egypt - wikipedia
The Plagues of Egypt (Hebrew: מכות מצרים, Makot Mitzrayim), also called the ten biblical plagues, were ten calamities that, according to the biblical Book of Exodus, God inflicted upon Egypt as a demonstration of power, after which the Pharaoh conceded to Moses ' demands to let the enslaved Israelites go into the wilderness to make sacrifices. God repeatedly hardened the Pharaoh 's heart to prevent him from consenting until after the tenth plague. The Israelites ' eventual departure began the Exodus of the Hebrew people.
The plagues served to contrast the power of the God of Israel with the Egyptian gods, invalidating them. Some commentators have associated several of the plagues with judgment on specific gods associated with the Nile, fertility and natural phenomena. According to Exodus 12: 12, all the gods of Egypt would be judged through the tenth and final plague: "On that same night I will pass through Egypt and strike down every firstborn of both people and animals, and I will bring judgment on all the gods of Egypt. I am the LORD. ''
The reason for the plagues appears to be twofold: to answer Pharaoh 's taunt, "Who (is) the LORD, that I should obey his voice to let Israel go? '', and to indelibly impress the Israelites with God 's power as an object lesson for all time, which was also meant to become known "throughout the world ''.
According to the Book of Exodus, God hardened Pharaoh 's heart so he would be strong enough to persist in his unwillingness to release the people, so that God could manifest his great power and cause his power to be declared among the nations, so that other people would discuss it for generations afterward. In this view, the plagues were punishment for the Egyptians ' long abuse of the Israelites, as well as proof that the gods of Egypt were false and powerless. If God triumphed over the gods of Egypt, a world power at that time, then the people of God would be strengthened in their faith, although they were a small people, and would not be tempted to follow the deities that God proved false. Exodus 9: 15 -- 16 (JPS Tanakh) portrays Yahweh explaining why he did not accomplish the freedom of the Israelites immediately: "I could have stretched forth My hand and stricken you (Pharaoh) and your people with pestilence, and you would have been effaced from the earth. Nevertheless I have spared you for this purpose: in order to show you My power and in order that My fame may resound throughout the world. ''
The plagues seemed to affect "all the land of Egypt '', but the children of Israel were unaffected. For the last plague, the Torah indicates that they were only spared from the final plague by sacrificing the Paschal lamb, marking their place directly above their doors with the lamb 's blood, and hastily eating the roasted sacrifice together with unleavened bread (now known as Matzoh) which they took from their ovens in haste, as they made ready for the Exodus. The Torah describes God as actually passing through Egypt to kill all firstborn children and cattle, but passing over (hence "Passover '') houses which have the sign of lambs ' blood on the doorpost. It is debated whether it was actually God who came through the streets or one of his angels. Some also think it may be the Holy Spirit. It is most commonly known as the "Angel of Death ''. The night of this plague, Pharaoh finally relents and sends the Israelites away under their terms.
After the Israelites leave en masse, a departure known as The Exodus, God introduces himself by name and makes an exclusive covenant with the Israelites on the basis of this miraculous deliverance. The Ten Commandments encapsulate the terms of this covenant. Joshua, the successor to Moses, reminds the people of their deliverance through the plagues. According to 1 Samuel, the Philistines also knew of the plagues and feared their author. Later, the psalmist sang of these events.
The Torah also relates God 's instructions to Moses that the exodus of the Israelites from Egypt must be celebrated yearly on the holiday of Passover (Pesaḥ פסח); the rituals observed on Passover recall the events surrounding the exodus from Egypt. The month of Nisan has become important to the Jews. The Torah additionally cites God 's sparing of the Israelite firstborn as a rationale for the commandment of the redemption of the firstborn. This event is also commemorated by the Fast of the Firstborn on the day preceding Passover but which is traditionally not observed because a siyum celebration is held which obviates the need for a fast.
It seems that the celebration of Passover waned from time to time, since other biblical books provide references to revival of the holiday. For example, it was reinstated by Joshua at Gilgal, by Josiah, by Hezekiah and, after the return from the captivity, by Ezra. By the time of the Second Temple it was firmly established in Israel.
The plagues as they appear in the 1984 New International Version of the Book of Exodus are:
This is what the LORD says: By this you will know that I am the LORD: With the staff that is in my hands I will strike the water of the Nile, and it will be changed into blood. The fish in the Nile will die, and the river will stink and the Egyptians will not be able to drink its water.
This is what the great LORD says: Let my people go, so that they may worship me. If you refuse to let them go, I will plague your whole country with frogs. The Nile will teem with frogs. They will come up into your palace and your bedroom and onto your bed, into the houses of your officials and on your people, and into your ovens and kneading troughs. The frogs will go up on you and your people and all your officials.
"And the LORD said (...) Stretch out thy rod, and smite the dust of the land, that it may become lice throughout all the land of Egypt. '' (...) When Aaron stretched out his hand with the rod and struck the dust of the ground, lice came upon men and animals. All the dust throughout the land of Egypt became lice.
The Hebrew noun כִּנִּים (kinim) could be translated as lice, gnats, or fleas.
The fourth plague of Egypt was of creatures capable of harming people and livestock. The Torah emphasizes that the ' arob (עָרוֹב, meaning "mixture '' or "swarm '') only came against the Egyptians, and that it did not affect the Land of Goshen (where the Israelites lived). Pharaoh asked Moses to remove this plague and promised to allow the Israelites ' freedom. However, after the plague was gone, the LORD "hardened Pharaoh 's heart '', and he refused to keep his promise.
The word ' arob has caused a difference of opinion among traditional interpreters. The root meaning is (ע. ר. ב), meaning a mixture - implying a diversity, array, or assortment of harmful animals. While Jewish interpreters understand the plague as "wild animals '' (most likely scorpions, venomous snakes, and other venomous arthropods and reptiles), Gesenius along with many Christian interpreters understand the plague as a swarm of flies.
This is what the LORD, the God of the Hebrews, says: Let my people go, so that they may worship me. If you refuse to let them go and continue to hold them back, the hand of the LORD will bring a terrible plague on your livestock in the field -- on your horses and donkeys and camels and on your cattle and sheep and goats.
Then the LORD said to Moses and Aaron, "Take handfuls of soot from a furnace and have Moses toss it into the air in the presence of Pharaoh. It will become fine dust over the whole land of Egypt, and festering boils will break out on men and animals throughout the land. ''
This is what the LORD, the God of the Hebrews, says: Let my people go, so that they may worship me, or this time I will send the full force of my plagues against you and against your officials and your people, so you may know that there is no one like me in all the earth. For by now I could have stretched out my hand and struck you and your people with a plague that would have wiped you off the earth. But I have raised you up for this very purpose, that I might show you my power and that my name might be proclaimed in all the earth. You still set yourself against my people and will not let them go. Therefore, at this time tomorrow I will send the worst hailstorm that has ever fallen on Egypt, from the day it was founded till now. Give an order now to bring your livestock and everything you have in the field to a place of shelter, because the hail will fall on every man and animal that has not been brought in and is still out in the field, and they will die. (...) The LORD sent thunder and hail, and lightning flashed down to the ground. So the LORD rained hail on the land of Egypt; hail fell and lightning flashed back and forth. It was the worst storm in all the land of Egypt since it had become a nation.
This is what the LORD, the God of the Jews, says: ' How long will you refuse to humble yourself before me? Let my people go, so that they may worship me. If you refuse to let them go, I will bring locusts into your country tomorrow. They will cover the face of the ground so that it can not be seen. They will devour what little you have left after the hail, including every tree that is growing in your fields. They will fill your houses and those of all your officials and all the Egyptians -- something neither your fathers nor your forefathers have ever seen from the day they settled in this land till now.
Then the LORD said to Moses, "Stretch out your hand toward the sky so that darkness will spread over Egypt -- darkness that can be felt. '' So Moses stretched out his hand toward the sky, and total darkness covered all Egypt for three days. No one could see anyone else or leave his place for three days.
This is what the LORD says: "About midnight I will go throughout Egypt. Every firstborn son in Egypt will die, from the firstborn son of Pharaoh, who sits on the throne, to the firstborn of the slave girl, who is at her hand mill, and all the firstborn of the cattle as well. There will be loud wailing throughout Egypt -- worse than there has ever been or ever will be again. ''
Before this final plague, God commanded Moses to inform all the Israelites to mark lamb 's blood above their doors on every door in which case the LORD will pass over them and not "suffer the destroyer to come into your houses and smite you '' (chapter 12, v. 23).
After this, Pharaoh, furious, saddened, and afraid that he would be killed next, ordered the Israelites to leave, taking whatever they wanted, and asking Moses to bless him in the name of the Lord. The Israelites did not hesitate, believing that soon Pharaoh would once again change his mind, which he did; and at the end of that night Moses led them out of Egypt with "arms upraised ''. However, as the Israelites left Egypt, the Pharaoh changed his mind again and sent his army after Moses ' people. The Israelites were trapped by the Red Sea. God split the sea, and they were able to pass safely. As the Egyptian army descended on them, the sea closed before they could reach the Israelites.
In the view of Islam, the plagues were almost identical. It is mentioned in the Quran, specifically in Surah Al - A'raf verse 133 "So We sent on them: the Tuwfan (a calamity causing wholesale death, a flood or a typhoon - Ali, Note 1090 to S. VII. 133), the locusts, the Qummal, the frogs, and the blood (as a succession of) manifest signs, yet they remained arrogant, and they were of those people who were criminals ''. The Quran further relates that the plagues included a mighty blast, showers of stones and earthquakes (Ali, Notes 3462 - 3464 to S. XXIX. 40).
The Book of Deuteronomy, in reviewing previous events, mentions the "diseases of Egypt '' (Deuteronomy 7: 15 and 28: 60), but refers to something that afflicted the Israelites, not the Egyptians; Deuteronomy 7: 19 mentions the plagues of the book of Exodus. The Exodus plagues are divine judgments, a series of curses like those in Deuteronomy 28: 15 -- 68, verses which mention many of the same afflictions; they are even closer to the curses in the Holiness code (Leviticus 26), since like the Holiness Code they leave room for repentance. The theme that divine punishment should lead to repentance is echoed:
The 6th - century prophets refer to the theme of Pharaoh 's obstinacy -- Isaiah 6: 9 -- 13, Jeremiah 5: 3, and Ezekiel 3: 7 -- 9.
While proponents of biblical archaeology argue that the plague stories are true, a large consensus of historians believe them to be allegorical or inspired by passed - down accounts of disconnected disasters. Some scientists claim the plagues can be attributed to a chain of natural phenomena triggered by changes in the climate and environmental disasters hundreds of miles away. The Ipuwer Papyrus, written probably in the late Twelfth Dynasty of Egypt (c. 1991 - 1803 BCE) has often been put forward in popular literature as confirmation of the Biblical account, most notably because of its statement that "the river is blood '' and its frequent references to servants running away, but these arguments ignore the many points on which Ipuwer contradicts Exodus, such as the fact that its Asiatics are arriving in Egypt rather than leaving, and the likelihood that the "river is blood '' phrase may refer to the red sediment colouring the Nile during disastrous floods, or may simply be a poetic image of turmoil.
Some archaeologists believe the plagues occurred at the ancient city of Pi - Rameses in the Nile Delta, which was the capital of Egypt during the reign of Ramesses II. There is some archaeological material which such archaeologists, for example William F. Albright, have considered to be historical evidence of the ten plagues; for example, an ancient water trough found in El Arish bears hieroglyphic markings detailing a period of darkness. Albright and other Christian archaeologists have claimed that such evidence, as well as careful study of the areas ostensibly travelled by the Israelites after the Exodus, make discounting the biblical account untenable.
Some historians have suggested that the plagues are passed - down accounts of several natural disasters, some disconnected, others playing part of a chain reaction. Natural explanations have been suggested for most of the phenomena:
A volcanic eruption did occur in antiquity and could have caused some of the plagues if it occurred at the right time. The eruption of the Thera volcano was 1,050 kilometres (650 mi) away from the northwest part of Egypt. Controversially dated to about 1628 BC, this eruption is one of the largest on record, rivaling that of Tambora, which resulted in 1816 's Year Without a Summer. The enormous global impact of this eruption has been recorded in an ash layer deposit found in the Nile delta, tree ring frost scars in the bristlecone pines of the western United States, and a layer of ash in the Greenland ice caps, all dated to the same time and with the same chemical fingerprint as the ash from Thera.
However, all estimates of the date of this eruption are hundreds of years before the Exodus is believed to have taken place; thus the eruption can only have caused some of the plagues if one or other of the dates is wrong, or if the plagues did not actually immediately precede the Exodus.
Following the assumption that at least some of the details are accurately reported, many modern Jews believe that some of the plagues were indeed natural disasters, but argue for the fact that, since they followed one another with such uncommon rapidity, "God 's hand was behind them ''. Indeed, several biblical commentators (Nachmanides and, more recently, Rabbi Yaakov Kamenetzky) have pointed out that, for the plagues to be a real test of faith, they had to contain an element leading to religious doubt.
In his book The Plagues of Egypt: Archaeology, History, and Science Look at the Bible, Siro Igino Trevisanato explores the theory that the plagues were initially caused by the Santorini eruption in Greece. His hypothesis considers a two - stage eruption over a time of a bit less than two years. His studies place the first eruption in 1602 BC, when volcanic ash taints the Nile, causing the first plague and forming a catalyst for many of the subsequent plagues. In 1600 BC, the plume of a Santorini eruption caused the ninth plague, the days of darkness. Trevisanato hypothesizes that the Egyptians (at that time under the occupation of Hyksos), resorted to human sacrifice in an attempt to appease the gods, for they had viewed the ninth plague as a precursor to more. This human sacrifice became known as the tenth plague.
In an article published in 1996, physician - epidemiologist John S. Marr and co-author Curt Malloy integrated biblical, historical and Egyptological sources with modern scientific conjectures in a comprehensive review of natural explanations for the ten plagues, postulating their own specific explanations for the third, fourth, fifth, sixth, and tenth plagues. Their explanation also accounted for the apparent selectiveness of the plagues, as implied in the Bible. The paper served as the basis for a website and documentary aired on the Learning Channel from 1998 to 2005.
In visual art, the plagues have generally been reserved for works in series, especially engravings. Still, relatively few depictions in art emerged compared to other religious themes until the 19th century, when the plagues became more common subjects, with John Martin and Joseph Turner producing notable canvases. This trend probably reflected a Romantic attraction to landscape and nature painting, for which the plagues were suited, a Gothic attraction to morbid stories, and a rise in Orientalism, wherein exotic Egyptian themes found currency. Given the importance of noble patronage throughout Western art history, the plagues may have found consistent disfavor because the stories emphasize the limits of a monarch 's power, and images of lice, locusts, darkness, and boils were ill - suited for decoration in palaces and churches.
Taking direct inspiration from the ten plagues, Iced Earth 's eleventh studio album Plagues of Babylon contains many references and allusions to the plagues. Metallica 's song "Creeping Death '' makes references to a few of the plagues, in addition to the rest of the story of the Exodus. Perhaps the most successful artistic representation of the plagues is Handel 's oratorio Israel in Egypt, which, like his perennial favorite, "Messiah '', takes a libretto entirely from scripture. The work was especially popular in the 19th century because of its numerous choruses, generally one for each plague, and its playful musical depiction of the plagues. For example, the plague of frogs is performed as a light aria for alto, depicting frogs jumping in the violins, and the plague of flies and lice is a light chorus with fast scurrying runs in the violins.
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it a little too late a little too wrong | Too Little Too Late - wikipedia
"Too Little Too Late '' is a song by American recording artist JoJo. It was written by Billy Steinberg, Josh Alexander, and Ruth - Anne Cunningham for her second studio album, The High Road. It was co-produced by Alexander, Vincent Herbert, and Billy Steinberg. "Too Little Too Late '' was released as the album 's first single in North America on August 15, 2006 and in the United Kingdom on January 15, 2007.
"Too Little Too Late '' broke the record for the biggest jump into the top three on the Billboard Hot 100 chart, moving from number 66 to number three in one week; this record was previously held by Mariah Carey, whose single "Loverboy '' rose from number 60 to number two in August 2001. However, the record was ultimately broken by Kelly Clarkson 's "My Life Would Suck Without You '', which jumped from number 97 to number one on the issue dated February 7, 2009.
"Too Little Too Late '' was written by Peter Mlynarczyk, who composed the music in the verse and chorus. Billy Steinberg and Ruth - Anne Cunningham worked on the lyrics and the melody for the bridge. The beginnings of "Too Little Too Late '' trace back to Universal Records Executive VP of A&R Bruce Carbon, who placed a publishers ad in a trade journal saying that JoJo was looking for songs to be on her latest album. Billy Steinberg and Josh Alexander sent their demo (sung by co-writer Ruth - Anne Cunningham) to Bruce 's office in New York City, who then arranged a meeting between Josh, Billy, and Vincent Herbert at Blackground Records. Herbert agreed to co-produce it with Billy and Josh in September 2005.
Lyrically, the song is about disappointment and getting over your first love, according to JoJo. Radio Disney played this song on their station but had to edit one short part of the song from "Come with me, stay the night '' to "Come with me, stay awhile ''.
In late October 2007, Daniel Rossen of Grizzly Bear recorded a version of the song in honor of bandmate Ed Droste 's 29th birthday.
The company Wavegroup did a cover of the song for the game Karaoke Revolution Presents: American Idol Encore.
JoJo 's vocal range expands from E3, to several C # 5 's at the chorus and two F # 5 's after the bridge, all in full voice. In head voice a few C # 6 's and an D6 - E6 crescendo in whistle register at the end of the song can be heard, totaling 3 octaves of vocal range.
The single was leaked to the Internet on June 29, 2006, having been buzzed about since December 2005. JoJo first performed the single on August 15 during the Miss Teen USA broadcast. She has also performed it on TRL, The Today Show, The Tonight Show, The Ellen DeGeneres Show, The View, CD USA, The Megan Mullally Show, Live with Regis and Kelly, Sessions@AOL, and Music Choice.
The single was released to iTunes on September 12, 2006. Numerous mixes have been produced since the track 's release in July 2006. Notable mentions are Full Phat, Josh Harris, and Raul Rincon. A remix of this song is featured on the dance video game Dance Dance Revolution Hottest Party. A Spanish version of the song was released on select non-US editions of The High Road.
Upon its release, "Too Little Too Late '' received positive reviews from music critics. Matt Collar of AllMusic also gave the song a positive review, saying "Jojo is an assured and likeable performer who can somehow embody the yin - yang persona of a suburban cheerleader slinging hip - hop attitude, as she does in the video for the ridiculously overwrought and utterly addictive lead - off single, ' Too Little Too Late '. ''
Alex Macpherson from The Guardian gave the song a positive review, saying "JoJo is, however, at her best when compulsively dissecting emotional situations straight out of high - school movies via the medium of big, heartfelt choruses: the wonderfully weepy pinnacle comes with the bleak resignation of ' Too Little Too Late '. '' Evan Sawdey from PopMatters gave the song a mixed review, while the album as a whole got a negative one. "Certainly, the lead single ' Too Little Too Late ' is appropriately melodramatic, covering the exact same ground that ' Leave (Get Out) ' covered but without the angry chorus (if it ai n't broke...). It 's something that Alanis Morissette might have recorded for her last I 'm - no - longer - angry - and - therefore - am - content - with - plain - ballads album. As repackaged as it is, it actually has something that the rest of the album is sorely lacking: personality. ''
"Too Little Too Late '' initially debuted at number 13 on the Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles the week of August 19, 2006, topping the chart the week after. The following week, it jumped to the Billboard Hot 100 at number 90. By its fifth week, "Too Little Too Late '' moved from number 66 to number three, making it one of the biggest jumps in Billboard history, especially for a top three entry. It is her first, and so far, only single to make it to the top ten and the top three of the Hot 100 chart. The single has sold 821,000 digital downloads as of March 2007.
In the United Kingdom, the single entered the UK Singles Chart at number 22 based on downloads alone two weeks before its physical CD release. This is because from 2007, the United Kingdom changed charting rules and downloaded singles can enter the UK Singles Chart at any time. When the song was released to physical CD, it went up the chart to number four, its peak position. This made it JoJo 's second top five and third top ten single in the United Kingdom. The song also reached number one on the UK iTunes Top 100 Songs on January 10. With "Too Little Too Late '' having spent six weeks in the top ten, and 11 weeks in the top 40, it has been named her most successful single in the United Kingdom, although "Leave (Get Out) '' peaked at number two. The song also managed to stay in the top 75 until late April.
The music video was directed by Chris Robinson for HSI Productions represented by Robin Frank Management. It was filmed between May 19 and 23. Originally, a contest sponsored by JoJo 's label and street team would 've allowed a fan onto the set of the video to interview her personally on May 19 in Los Angeles but was cancelled at the last minute. JoJo gave fans a sneak peek of the video on June 3 in a short behind the scenes segment on CD USA.
On June 11, pictures from the set of the first scenes from the video leaked onto Wireimage.com. Her RV co-star Robin Williams and his daughter Zelda appeared in the photos and in footage featured in the "Lights, Camera, Action (Behind the Scenes of the Video Shoot) '' section on the Target exclusive The High Road bonus DVD. The full video can be accessed in "Visual Imagery (JoJo Videos) '' on the DVD. The world premiere of "Too Little Too Late '' was on July 17 on AOL Music 's First View.
The video was given a soccer theme because it was shot during the 2006 FIFA World Cup, not because she broke up with soccer star Freddy Adu as many believed at the time. On her MySpace, JoJo said she wanted to use the video to expose soccer to an audience who may be unfamiliar with the sport. UCLA Bruins men 's team players Sean Alvarado, Greg Folk, Maxwell Griffin, Damon James, James Jaramillo, Jason Leopoldo, Edwige Ligonde, Mikey Meschures, Kyle Nakazawa, Eric Reed, Sal Zizzo, and former goalkeeper Eric Conner were involved in the video shoot. Initially, everyone was told by their coaches that they were needed for a Lindsay Lohan project. Lead male actor Mike Zaher (who was 20 when the video was shot) commented that he would 've earned over $8,000 for the three - day shoot, but due to NCAA regulations, him and his teammates ' status as non-professional athletes prohibited them from accepting any charges for their work in order to stay eligible for the next season. Shooting took place on location at East Los Angeles College 's Weingart Stadium for the soccer game scenes as well as at Universal Studios ' Universal CityWalk and a house off Interstate 10.
The video starts with an acting sequence in which JoJo confronts her boyfriend David, played by junior defender Mike Zaher, after she spots him at a house party flirting with another girl, with a drink in his hand. In the dramatic opening scene, JoJo is very upset. The couple talk and David finally invites JoJo to an important soccer game for his team. As the video progresses, JoJo sings next to the window in her room. She walks around the room looking at photos, reminiscing about the time they spent together and how generally ungrateful he was. These shots are intercut with David playing at the important soccer game. In the video 's finale, rain begins to pour on the game. We see JoJo taking down photographs of the couple and picking up a stuffed animal that David had bought her in happier times. She takes it outside and throws it in the garbage can. It is raining, proving that this is the same moment as the game and she has chosen not to attend. David 's team is down one goal with 2: 14 seconds remaining in the second half. As he makes the shot for the home team, JoJo sings in the rain. He is not quick enough, failing to score the tying goal and the game ends, suggesting that JoJo 's absence from the game has had an unfavourable effect on his performance. The video ends with the camera zooming out and panning away from JoJo 's window as the rain subsides. Noticeable in the video is a poster for the Rockcorps Boost Mobile concert at Radio City Music Hall on September 24, 2005, an ad for Q - Tip 's single "For the Nasty '', and the book "Riding on a Blue Note: Jazz and American Pop '' by Gary Giddins, which she is reading on top of the car at the game. The fountain in front of the Universal City Hard Rock Cafe is also visible.
The video for "Too Little Too Late '' premiered in the United Kingdom on October 14, 2006 on The Box 's Kopooka Hot. "Too Little Too Late '' was released on CD on January 15, 2007, in the United Kingdom. The song was added to Radio 1 's playlist, under the C - list on November 29, 2006, and was upgraded to the B - list at a later date. The video received heavy rotation on MTV, VH1 and BET, and premiered on teen network The N on November 24, 2006 at 7: 51 p.m. EST.
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone
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when does ball in the family episode 8 | List of Peppa Pig episodes - wikipedia
Peppa Pig is a British preschool animated television series produced by Astley Baker Davies. The show features the eponymous pig along with her family and friends. Each episode is approximately five minutes long and there have been five seasons to date. Peppa Pig has been broadcast in over 180 countries.
As of 14 September 2017, 218 episodes of Peppa Pig have aired.
The following tables list with details the episodes for the children 's television programme Peppa Pig, which were first broadcast in the UK on Channel 5 and Nick Jr., starting in 2004. Each episode is approximately five minutes long, except for a 10 - minute "Special '' ("Peppa 's Christmas '') and two 15 - minute "Specials '' ("The Golden Boots '') and ("Around The World with Peppa ''). This list also includes upcoming episodes.
The "DVD reference '' column in the episode lists is used to relate an episode to the DVD volume (s) on which it can be found (e.g. episode 10 in series 1 "Gardening '' has a DVD reference of 1.09, which indicates that the episode is track 9 on primary DVD volume 1). A prefix of "NP '' (e.g. NP1. 01) indicates the episode is the first episode on "Non-Primary '' DVD 1.
George finds a spider in the bathroom sink, but Peppa is really frightened - until she realises that it does n't want to hurt her.
The following tables list the new DVD releases for the UK. When applicable, the list includes DVDs that are known to be due for release soon. All UK DVD releases are in 16: 9 widescreen format.
A "Primary DVD '' is defined as a DVD that includes at least one episode not previously released on DVD.
Note that in the "list of episodes ''
Except as indicated below, all the episodes on a primary DVD are "new to DVD '' when the DVD was released.
These are new DVD releases where the DVD includes only episodes that have already been released to DVD (i.e. it is not a "Primary '' DVD). The episodes in these DVDs are included in the DVD Reference field in the main table listings, but with a prefix of "NP '' (= "Non-Primary '').
Most of the primary DVDs have been re-released, either singly or in combination, as follows
A free Peppa Pig DVD (containing the four episodes "Mummy Pig at Work '', "Frogs and Worms and Butterflies '', "Secrets '' and "Muddy Puddles '') was released by the Daily Mirror on 13 September 2006, as part of a children 's DVD promotion.
A VHS tape ("Muddy Puddles '') was released on 7 February 2005, a VHS tape ("Flying a Kite '') was released on 4 July 2005 and a VHS tape ("New Shoes '') was released on 7 November 2005 (i.e. the VHS tapes were released on the same dates as the corresponding primary DVDs). Another VHS tape ("Polly Parrot '') has also been released.
1. Volume 1: Muddy Puddles
2. Volume 4
The episode numbering is based on the original (UK) broadcast dates. Series 1, 2, and 3 episode aired in the USA in 2011 and 2012. The original broadcast dates for series 1 & 2 and the "special '' were derived by an analysis across various data sources, in particular:
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difference between programmed input output and interrupt input output | Programmed input / output - wikipedia
Programmed input / output (PIO) is a method of transferring data between the CPU and a peripheral, such as a network adapter or an ATA storage device.
For programmed I / O, the software that is running on the CPU uses instructions to perform data transfers to or from an I / O device. This is in contrast to Direct Memory Access (DMA) transfers. The term Programmed I / O can refer to either MMIO or PMIO. Port - mapped I / O (PMIO) refers to a special address space outside of normal memory that is accessed with instructions such as IN and OUT. Memory - mapped I / O (MMIO) refers to I / O devices being allocated addresses inside the normal Von Neumann address space that is primarily used for program and data. Such I / O is done using instructions such as LOAD and STORE. PMIO was very useful for early microprocessors with small address spaces, since the valuable resource was not consumed by the I / O devices.
The best known example of a PC device that uses programmed I / O is the ATA interface; however, this interface can also be operated in any of several DMA modes. Many older devices in a PC also use PIO, including legacy serial ports, legacy parallel ports when not in ECP mode, the PS / 2 keyboard and mouse ports, legacy MIDI and joystick ports, the interval timer, and older network interfaces.
Until the introduction of DMA, PIO was the only available method.
The PIO interface is grouped into different modes that correspond to different transfer rates. The electrical signaling among the different modes is similar -- only the cycle time between transactions is reduced in order to achieve a higher transfer rate. All ATA devices support the slowest mode -- Mode 0. By accessing the information registers (using Mode 0) on an ATA drive, the CPU is able to determine the maximum transfer rate for the device and configure the ATA controller for optimal performance.
The PIO modes require a great deal of CPU overhead to configure a data transaction and transfer the data. Because of this inefficiency, the DMA (and eventually UDMA) interface was created to increase performance. The simple digital logic required to implement a PIO transfer still makes this transfer method useful today, especially if high transfer rates are not required like in embedded systems, or with FPGA chips where PIO mode can be used without significant performance loss.
Two additional Advanced Timing modes have been defined in the CompactFlash specification 2.0. Those are PIO mode 5 and PIO mode 6. They are specific to CompactFlash.
A PIO Mode 5 was proposed with operation at 22 MB / s, but was never implemented on hard disks because CPUs of the time would have been crippled waiting for the hard disk at the proposed PIO 5 timings, and the DMA standard ultimately obviated it. While no hard drives were ever manufactured to support this mode, some motherboard manufacturers preemptively provided BIOS support for it. PIO Mode 5 can be used with CompactFlash cards connected to IDE via CF - to - IDE adapters.
Not all devices are compatible with the official PIO timings. An example is the Sandisk SDDR - 89 ImageMate 12 - in - 1 card reader which uses the GL819 chip from Genesys Logic, Inc. That chip has slightly different timings for most of its PIO Modes.
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what are the colors in crayola 64 pack | List of Crayola crayon colors - Wikipedia
Since the introduction of Crayola drawing crayons by Binney & Smith in 1903, more than two hundred distinctive colors have been produced in a wide variety of assortments. The table below represents all of the colors found in regular Crayola assortments from 1903 to the present. Since the introduction of fluorescent crayons in the 1970s, the standard colors have been complemented by a number of specialty crayon assortments, represented in subsequent tables.
Along with the regular packs of crayons, there have been many specialty sets, including Silver Swirls, Gem Tones, Pearl Brite, Metallic FX, Magic Scent, Silly Scents, and more.
In 1972, Binney & Smith introduced eight Crayola fluorescent crayons, designed to fluoresce under black light. The following year, they were added to the 72 - count box, in place of the duplicate colors. These crayons remained steady until 1990, when all eight were renamed, and eight more were added, for a total of sixteen fluorescent crayons. One of the new colors, Hot Magenta, shared a name with one of the original colors, now Razzle Dazzle Rose. For some reason, two of the original eight fluorescent crayons have the same color as two of the newer crayons. In 1992, the fluorescent colors were added to the new No. 96 box, becoming part of the standard lineup. When four new crayons were added to the No. 96 assortment in 2003, four existing colors were discontinued, including two of the fluorescents. Also beginning in 1993, packs of fluorescent crayons were regularly labeled "neon '' or "neons ''.
In 1976, Crayola released a pack of 8 Fabric crayons. Each crayon is named after a standard color. In 1980, "Light Blue '' is discontinued and replaced by Black. The colors ' hexadecimal values are currently unknown. The names of the colors are listed below:
In 1987, Crayola released a pack of 16 metallic crayons in Canada. 4 of the colors are named after 4 of the standard colors. Also, one of the colors is named before a Metallic FX color. The colors ' hexadecimal values are currently unknown. The names of the colors are listed below:
In 1990, Crayola released the Silver Swirls, a pack of 24 silvery colors. The colors ' hexadecimal values are approximated below.
In 1992, Crayola released a set of eight multicultural crayons which "come in an assortment of skin hues that give a child a realistic palette for coloring their world. '' The eight colors used came from their standard list of colors (none of these colors are exclusive to this set), and the set was, for the most part, well received, though there has also been some criticism.
In 1994, Crayola produced a 16 - pack of crayons that released fragrances when used. In 1995, Crayola changed some of the scents because of complaints received from parents that some of the crayons smelled good enough to eat, like the Cherry, Chocolate, & Blueberry scented crayons. Crayons with food scents were retired in favor of non-food scents. The thirty crayons all consisted of regular Crayola colors.
In 1994, Crayola released the Gem Tones, a pack of 16 crayons modeled after precious stones. The colors ' hexadecimal values are approximated below:
In 1994, Crayola released the Glow in the Dark crayons, a pack of eight crayons. However, it did n't contain any color names in North America. Only four of the colors were available in the UK.
The Crayola Changeables crayons were introduced in 1995. The chart includes the color changer, an off - white crayon that goes on clear and initiates the color changes in the other crayons from the "From color '' to the "To color ''.
Following previous issues with scented crayons in 1994 and 1995, Binney & Smith released a new line, known as "Magic Scent '' crayons in 1997. None of the crayons were named after or given the scent of foods. The sixteen crayons all consisted of regular Crayola colors.
In 1997, Crayola released a 16 - pack of Star Brite crayons. However, it did n't contain any color names.
In 1997, Crayola released a 16 - pack of crayons, each of which contains a solid color with flecks of two other colors in it. Colors in chart below are approximated. The hex RGB values are in the order of the predominant color and then the flecks. Colors for crayons other than Mixed Veggies and Star Spangled Banner come from information on the crayon wrapper.
In 1997, Crayola released a 16 - pack of Pearl Brite crayons: These were designed to give soft pearlescent colors. These had a new wrapper design, black with a white oval Crayola logo and white text.
In 1997, Crayola released Crayons with Glitter as part of a Special Effects crayons package. Starting as late as 1999, their crayon names do n't appear on the crayon wrappers. In the below list, the background represents crayon color, and the highlighted "square of glitter '' around text represents glitter color.
In 1998, Crayola Introduced Construction Paper Crayons, The specialty line remained one of the longest running specialty lines they ever put out.
In 2001, Crayola produced the Metallic FX crayons, a set of 16 metallic crayons whose names were chosen through a contest open to residents of the U.S. and Canada. The hex triplets below are representative of the colors produced by the named crayons. All colors are included in the special 152 - count Ultimate Crayon Collection pack alongside 120 standard and 16 glitter crayons. Four of the colors are included in the regular 96 - count crayon box.
In 2001, Crayola produced the Gel FX crayons. However, it did n't contain any color names. Four of the colors are randomly included in the 96 - count crayon box alongside four Metallic FX colors and is not included in the 152 - count Ultimate Crayon Collection set. The hex triplets below are representative of the colors produced by the named crayons.
The Silly Scents are produced by Crayola in a 16 - pack. The sixteen crayons all consisted of regular Crayola colors.
The eight Heads ' n Tails crayons are double - sided and encased in plastic tubes that function much like the ones on Crayola Twistables. Each crayon has two shades of color, for a total of 16 colors, which are approximated by the background colors and hex RGB values below.
In 2004, Crayola released a set of 24 mini twistable crayons. They are nearly half the size of large twistable crayons. The colors ' hexadecimal values are shown below. The colors are from the standard list of crayon colors.
In 2004, Crayola released a 24 pack of Fun Effects mini twistable crayons. It contains 8 eXtreme colors, 8 metallic colors, and 8 rainbow colors.
In 2007, Crayola released the set of eight True to Life crayons. Each crayon is extra-long and contained within a plastic casing similar to that of Crayola Twistables crayons. In the table, the background approximates the primary color and the text is in the two supporting colors. The approximate RGB hex values for each are given as well.
In 2009, Crayola released eight crayons in long twistable barrels. The approximate colors and RGB hex values are shown below.
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who is in rock and roll hall of fame list | List of Rock and Roll Hall of Fame inductees - wikipedia
The Rock and Roll Hall of Fame, established in 1983 and located in Cleveland, Ohio, United States, is dedicated to recording the history of some of the best - known and most influential musicians, bands, producers, and others that have in some major way influenced the music industry, particularly in the area of rock and roll. Originally, there were four categories of induction: performers, non-performers, early influences, and lifetime achievement. In 2000, "sidemen '' was introduced as a category.
The only category that has seen new inductees every single year is the performers category. Artists become eligible for induction in that category 25 years after the release of their first record. In order to be inducted, an artist must be nominated by a committee that selects anywhere from nine to a dozen candidates. Ballots are then sent to 600 "rock experts '' who evaluate the candidates and vote on who should be inducted. The performers that receive the highest number of votes and more than 50 percent of the vote are inducted. In 2010, the number inducted was five. The rest of the categories are voted on by special committees. As of 2017, new inductees will be honored at an annual ceremony held alternately in New York and at the Hall of Fame in Cleveland; prior to that, the ceremonies rotated between Cleveland, New York, and Los Angeles.
The Rock and Roll Hall of Fame has garnered criticism for allegedly allowing the nomination process to be controlled by a few individuals, nominating too many artists in too many genres that are not entirely rock, ignoring entire rock genres, and using technicalities to induct groups who may not have been among the top vote getters. The Sex Pistols, who were inducted in 2006, refused to attend the ceremony; John Lydon writing a note, read out by Jann Wenner, calling the museum a "piss stain. ''
The performers category is meant for recording artists and bands that have "influence and significance to the development and perpetuation of rock and roll. '' Artists become eligible for induction in that category 25 years after the release of their first record. In order to be inducted, an artist must be nominated by a committee that selects anywhere from nine to a dozen candidates. Ballots are sent to 600 "rock experts '' who then evaluate the candidates and vote on who should be inducted. The performers who receive the highest number of votes and more than 50 percent of the vote are inducted. In 2011, the number inducted was five. The rest of the categories are voted on by special committees. In 2012, six additional bands and groups were inducted as performers by a special committee, due to the controversial nature of their band being excluded when their lead singer was inducted. "There was a lot of discussion about this, '' said Terry Stewart, a member of the nominating committee. "There had always been conversations about why the groups were n't included when the lead singers were inducted. Very honestly, nobody could really answer that question -- it was so long ago... We decided we 'd sit down as an organization and look at that. This is the result. ''
The vast majority of the inducted bands and vocal groups have experienced personnel changes during their careers (although there are a very few exceptions, such as The Beastie Boys and U2, who never changed their lineups.) The Hall of Fame only inducts the most significant members of the group, although it is unclear what the criteria are for excluding or including members. This has led to many anamolies. For example, the Red Hot Chili Peppers excluded longtime guitarists Jack Sherman and Dave Navarro while including new guitarist Josh Klinghoffer who had only been a full member of the band for a year or two at the time of induction. For another example, Guns N ' Roses lead singer Axl Rose outlasted every other member of the "classic '' quintet which performed on the first two albums, eventually putting together an entirely new lineup which stayed together for twenty years or so beginning in the mid-1990s (but only released one album.) All the newer members were excluded from the Hall of Fame induction save drummer Matt Sorum and keyboardist Dizzy Reed (both of whom joined in 1990.)
A few of the conspicuously absent members of other inducted groups include Cindy Birdsong of the Supremes; Eric Carr, Eric Singer and Bruce Kulick of KISS; Bruce Johnston of the Beach Boys; Richie Ramone and C.J. Ramone of the Ramones; Randy Jackson of the Jacksons and Pete Best of the Beatles. On the other hand, two bands included inducted members who were primarily non-performers: road manager (and very occasional keyboardist) Ian Stewart was inducted with the Rolling Stones and lyricist Robert Hunter was inducted with the Grateful Dead.
^ Note 1. These backing bands were inducted by a separate committee, and not by the ballot voting used for all other performer inductees.
^ Note 2. This artist was later inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame after inducting someone else.
^ Note 3. This artist was already a member of the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame when they inducted someone else.
^ Note 4. Dire Straits were the first artist in the hall 's history to not have an official induction speaker. Band member John Illsley did the induction speech himself.
Artists inducted into the early influences category are those "whose music predated rock and roll but had an impact on the evolution of rock and roll and inspired rock 's leading artists. '' Unlike the performers category, these inductees are selected by a committee. The full process is not transparent and it is unclear who comprises this selection committee.
^ A. Inducted members: Bill Kenny, Charlie Fuqua, Deek Watson, and Orville "Hoppy '' Jones. ^ B. Inducted members: Roy Crain Sr., R.H. Harris, Jesse Farley, and E.A. Rundless. ^ C. Inducted members: Sonny Til, Tommy Gaither, George Nelson, Johnny Reed, and Alexander Sharp. ^ D. Inducted members: Bob Wills, Tommy Duncan, Leon McAuliffe, Johnny Gimble, Joe "Jody '' Holley, Tiny Moore, Herb Remington, Eldon Shamblin, and Al Stricklin. ^ E. Nominated as a performer. ^ F. Inducted members: John L. Tanner, Eugene Tanner, James E. Moore, Obadiah H. Carter and Lowman Pauling, Jr
The non-performer category honors "songwriters, producers, disc jockeys, record executives, journalists and other industry professionals who have had a major influence on the development of rock and roll. '' Several of the inductees in this category were in fact prominent performers as well. The inductees in this category are selected by the same committee that chooses the early influences. The full process is not transparent and it is unclear who comprises this selection committee. This category has been criticized for inducting those that have "been coming to the dinner for years and paying for their tickets '' and not revealing their full criteria. In 2008, this category was renamed the "Ahmet Ertegün Award ''.
This category, which replaced sidemen, "honors those musicians, producers and others who have spent their careers out of the spotlight working with major artists on various parts of their recording and live careers. ''
^ G. Inducted members: Garry Tallent, Roy Bittan, Max Weinberg, Steven Van Zandt, Nils Lofgren, Patti Scialfa, Clarence Clemons, Danny Federici, Vini Lopez, David Sancious.
At the 2018 ceremony, a new induction category for singles was announced by Steven Van Zandt. According to Van Zandt, the category is "a recognition of the excellence of the singles that shaped rock ' n ' roll, kind of a rock ' n ' roll jukebox, records by artists not in the Rock Hall -- which is not to say these artists will never be in the Rock Hall. They just are not in the Rock Hall at the moment. ''
Established in 2000, the sidemen category "honors those musicians who have spent their careers out of the spotlight, performing as backup musicians for major artists on recording sessions and in concert. '' A separate committee, composed mainly of producers, chooses the inductees. In 2010, the category was renamed to "Award for Musical Excellence ''. According to Joel Peresman, the president of the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame Foundation, "This award gives us flexibility to dive into some things and recognize some people who might not ordinarily get recognized. ''
The following were inducted for "Lifetime Achievement in the Non-Performer Category. ''
As of 2017, 22 performers have been inducted twice or more; fourteen have been recognized as a solo artist and with a band and seven have been inducted with two separate bands. Eric Clapton is the only one to be inducted three times: as a solo artist, with Cream and with The Yardbirds. Clyde McPhatter was the first to ever be inducted twice and is one of three artists to be inducted first as a solo artist and then as a member of a band, the other artists being Neil Young and Rod Stewart. Stephen Stills is the only artist to be inducted twice in the same year. Crosby, Stills & Nash, inducted in 1997, is the only band to see all of its inducted members be inducted with other acts: David Crosby with The Byrds in 1991, Stephen Stills with Buffalo Springfield in 1997, and Graham Nash with The Hollies in 2010.
Two inducted bands were spinoffs of other inducted bands. Journey was founded by two former members of Santana. Led Zeppelin was founded by lead guitarist Jimmy Page after The Yardbirds broke up, with the encouragement of the band 's management. They were originally billed as "The New Yardbirds. ''
The Beatles, inducted in 1988, is the second band to have all of its members be inducted, as well as the only band to have each of its members be inducted for their solo careers as their second induction. Ringo Starr is the first inductee to be inducted twice in different categories (The Beatles were inducted in the performers category in 1988 and Starr was inducted as a solo artist in the Award for Musical Excellence category in 2015). He also holds the record for the longest time between first and second inductions, at 27 years. Both of Stills ' inductions happened during the 1997 ceremony and Clapton and McPhatter were inducted in back - to - back years (1987 / 88 for McPhatter, 1992 / 93 for Clapton, as well as his solo induction in 2000).
The Traveling Wilburys are the only band to have all of its members be inducted without the band itself having been inducted: Roy Orbison as a solo artist in 1987, Bob Dylan as a solo artist in 1988, George Harrison with the Beatles in 1988 and as a solo artist in 2004, Tom Petty with Tom Petty and the Heartbreakers in 2002, and Jeff Lynne with the Electric Light Orchestra in 2017.
There are several performers who were inducted with one (or more) of the bands they played for, but were not inducted as members of one (or more) other bands. For example, Neil Young was inducted with Buffalo Springfield and as a solo artist, but was left out when Crosby, Stills & Nash were inducted. Other examples include Terry Chimes (inducted with The Clash but not with Black Sabbath), Kenney Jones (inducted with The Faces but not with The Who), and Sly Stone (inducted with Sly & the Family Stone but not with Parliament - Funkadelic.) Singer Axl Rose of Guns N ' Roses fame joined AC / DC after both bands were inducted.
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who do you play as in fallout new vegas | Fallout: New Vegas - wikipedia
Fallout: New Vegas is an action role - playing video game, the fourth major installment in the Fallout video game series. The game was developed by Obsidian Entertainment and published by Bethesda Softworks. It was announced in April 2009, and released for Microsoft Windows, PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 on October 19, 2010. The game is set in a post-apocalyptic open world environment that encompasses a region consisting of parts of Nevada, California, and Arizona. It is set in a world that deviated onto an alternate timeline thanks to atomic age technology, which eventually led to its devastation by a nuclear apocalypse in the year 2077 in an event referred to as "The Great War ''. This war was caused by a major international conflict between the United States and China over natural resources. The main story of Fallout: New Vegas takes place in the year 2281, four years after the events of Fallout 3. It is not a direct sequel, but it does mark the return of some elements found in the Black Isle Studios - developed Fallout 2. Inon Zur composed its music.
Players take control of a character known as the Courier. While transporting a package across the Mojave Desert to the city of New Vegas, the Courier is ambushed, robbed of the package, shot in the head, and left for dead. After surviving, the Courier begins a journey to find their would - be killer and recover the package, makes friends and enemies among various factions, and ultimately becomes caught up in a conflict that determines who will control New Vegas and the Mojave Wasteland. New Vegas received positive reviews, with reviewers praising the game 's writing, quests, and improved gameplay, while garnering criticism for glitches and bugs on launch. New Vegas was a commercial success, shipping more than 5 million copies altogether, and is estimated to have sold around 12 million copies worldwide. It also received a Golden Joystick Award for "RPG of the Year '' in 2011.
While gameplay from Fallout 3 was retained for Fallout: New Vegas, Obsidian Entertainment worked upon providing the game with improvements upon existing elements while introducing some old and new features to the series. Some of the improvements and new features included:
Although players could craft items in Fallout 3, these items were limited to a few unique weapons. With New Vegas, crafting was expanded to allow creation of food, drink, drugs and ammunition along with unique weapons. Crafting can be done at workbenches, reloading benches, and campfires, and requires specific components as well as a sufficient skill level; for instance, cooking food at campfires requires the player to have a sufficient Survival skill level to do so. Some special items can not be made until their recipes / schematics are found. Players can harvest plants to use in recipes, similar to Bethesda 's The Elder Scrolls series. In addition to crafting, players can also modify weapons with special firearm modifications. Such modifications can improve the rate of fire or the size of the magazine, or add a mounted telescopic sight to allow for greater range. Modifications for firearms often require either scavenging for them in the Mojave, or purchasing them from vendors.
Because of the large number of factions created for the game, developers reintroduced the reputation system that was first used in Fallout 2 and had been absent in Fallout 3. Much like Karma, a player 's standing with a faction can change depending on how they interact with them and what decisions they make. If, for example, players help a faction, their reputation with them improves in all locations controlled by that faction; opting to kill their members will cause a loss of reputation. The type of reputation the player has with each faction affects how non-player characters (NPCs) behave towards them; a good reputation might make completing some quests easier, provide discounts with the faction 's vendors, and cause faction members to offer gifts; a bad reputation may lead to the faction refusing to help the player or attacking them on sight, or sending thugs after the player.
Companions in New Vegas are much easier to control than in Fallout 3, through the use of the "Companion Wheel ''. Through the Wheel, players can switch a companion 's tactics in combat, including their behavior and how they attack, as well as dismiss them, treat them for injuries, and access their inventory. Players are capable of having two companions with them at any one time -- one humanoid and one non-humanoid. Furthermore, companions can confer a unique Perk or advantage and have the opportunity to be improved by completing a special quest related to them. They can also be sent directly to a player 's home upon being dismissed rather than returning to their original location.
An optional difficulty setting included in New Vegas is Hardcore mode, which delivers more realism and intensity to the playing environment. While the standard adjustable difficulty level settings only affect combat difficulty, Hardcore mode adds statistics and encourages the player to consider resource management and combat tactics. Game director Josh Sawyer stated that the mode was inspired by several different Fallout 3 mods. In this mode, the following occurs:
Fallout: New Vegas takes place during the year 2281 and within the region surrounding the former city of Las Vegas (now called "New Vegas ''), around four years after the events of Fallout 3, and roughly around 204 years since the Great War of 2077. At the time the game begins, three major powers seek control over New Vegas and its surroundings -- The New California Republic (NCR), Caesar 's Legion, and Mr. House. Since their last appearance in Fallout 2, the NCR has become overextended and mismanaged, but their expansion eastwards has allowed them to gain control of the majority of territories in the Mojave, with the only threat to their expansion coming from the slave - driving, Roman army - styled forces of Caesar 's Legion, led by their leader Caesar, who have conquered and united 86 tribes further to the east, and now plan to conquer New Vegas. Four years before the start of the game, both sides came into conflict at the Hoover Dam, a major landmark that supplies power to New Vegas, and which both sides seek control over. As both sides prepare for a second, inevitable conflict over the dam, Mr. House, a mysterious businessman who presides over New Vegas as its de facto leader with an army of "Securitron '' security robots, also seeks control of the dam while ensuring neither side gains control, and is moving towards the final stages of his plans.
Much of the game takes place in the Mojave Wasteland, which encompasses parts of the former states of California, Nevada and Arizona. Along with the three main factions, the region also has a number of minor factions which include: Boomers -- a tribe of heavily armed former vault dwellers who have taken shelter at Nellis Air Force Base; Powder Gangers -- a violent group of escaped convicts; Great Khans -- a tribe of drug dealers and raiders; and the Brotherhood of Steel -- technology - craving remnants of the U.S. Army, who are attempting to secure any technology that could cause significant harm. Along with the Hoover Dam and Nellis Air Force Base, the region has additional landmarks, including its own vaults and the HELIOS One solar energy plant.
The protagonist is a courier working for the Mojave Express. The game begins as the Courier is ambushed by a mobster named Benny (voiced by Matthew Perry) en route to New Vegas to deliver a mysterious item known as the "Platinum Chip ''. Benny shoots the Courier and leaves them for dead, taking the Chip for himself, but the Courier is rescued by a Securitron named Victor and brought back to good health by Doc Mitchell (voiced by Michael Hogan) in Goodsprings. The Courier then embarks on a journey across the Mojave Wasteland to locate and confront Benny.
The game proceeds according to the Courier 's decisions and involves many different events, factions, and characters. The main storyline follows the Courier 's pursuit of Benny to both settle the score and retrieve the Platinum Chip. Along the way, the Courier encounters many groups of people with various problems that they can choose to assist with, ignore, or otherwise sabotage, resulting in positive or negative karma. Eventually, after finding Benny and the Chip, the Courier finds themselves in the middle of a conflict between three major factions: Caesar 's Legion, a group of Roman-esque slavers, the New California Republic (NCR), an expansionist democratic federation, and Mr. House (voiced by René Auberjonois), the enigmatic de facto ruler of New Vegas, in command of an army of Securitron robots that patrols the city. Each of the three sides aim to control the Hoover Dam, which is still operational and supplying the Southwest with power and clean, non-irradiated water; thus, control of the dam means effective control of the region. It is revealed that Mr. House, a human from before the Great War and surviving via a contained life support chamber, ordered the Platinum Chip 's delivery before the war. The Chip is a data storage device with a program that can upgrade the Securitrons to a greater level of combat effectiveness, and was stolen by Benny as part of a scheme to take over House 's security and claim New Vegas for himself with the help of a reprogrammed Securitron named Yes Man.
The Courier is notified that Caesar 's Legion is attacking Hoover Dam, and they must take part to decide the outcome. As the Legion strikes the Dam, led by the fearsome Legate Lanius, the NCR defends its position under General Lee Oliver. Depending on the faction sided with up to the battle, the Courier will either conquer the Dam for Caesar 's Legion, defend it for the NCR or connect the dam 's systems to House 's network so either he or Yes Man can take control. The game concludes with a narrated slideshow showing and explaining the results of the Courier 's actions, the battle for Hoover Dam deciding the faction that comes to power over New Vegas and the Mojave, and the fates of the various other factions based on how the player negotiated with them and which of the major factions emerged dominant.
The player then faces a choice to determine the fate of the Mojave Wasteland.
In 2004, Bethesda Softworks purchased the license to develop and publish Fallout 3, as well as an option to create two sequels, from Interplay Entertainment. Three years later they bought the Fallout intellectual property. Bethesda abandoned the original gameplay style of previous Fallout titles; instead of an isometric game with action point / turn - based combat, Bethesda 's Fallout 3 was a fully 3D game with real - time combat as well as the action point - based V.A.T.S. system.
Fallout 3 was a critical and commercial success upon its release in 2008, and Bethesda commissioned a sequel. With their own developers busy working on The Elder Scrolls V: Skyrim Bethesda reached out to Obsidian Entertainment, a company founded by several former members of Interplay 's original Fallout developers Black Isle Studios, to develop the game. Bethesda and Obsidian decided to create a game that would continue the "West Coast '' story rather than the plot of Fallout 3. Bethesda rejected Obsidian 's idea to set the game between the events of Fallout 2 and Fallout 3, but they did approve of setting the game in Las Vegas.
Fallout: New Vegas was announced in April 2009. Obsidian 's development team included former Interplay / Black Isle employees Josh Sawyer as director and Chris Avellone as a writer and director of the game 's downloadable content. The plot of New Vegas takes heavy inspiration from the original Fallout 3 that Black Isle developed, commonly known by its codename "Van Buren '', which Sawyer also directed prior to its cancellation. The most notable example is the inclusion of Caesar 's Legion, a faction originally created for Van Buren. Obsidian also included other factions from previous Fallout games and avoided writing any faction as entirely good or evil, but instead as potential rivals depending on what path the player decided to pursue.
The game had a somewhat short development cycle of 18 months. New Vegas is similar to Fallout 3, in that both games use the Gamebryo engine, yet it improved on the previous installment 's source code, with some graphic rendering improvements and art assets, while also reworking the engine to accommodate the extra lights and effects of the Las Vegas Strip. Obsidian also refined the real - time shooting mechanics and added iron - sights aiming to make playing without V.A.T.S. a more viable option than it was in Fallout 3. One PC version of the game relies on Steamworks for online functions, such as achievements and cloud save storage, as well as DRM. A DRM free version was made available by GoG.com on June 1, 2017.
Producer Jason Bergman announced the involvement of several celebrities, including Ron Perlman as the game 's narrator and Wayne Newton as radio DJ "Mr. New Vegas ''. He also confirmed that the game would include voice acting from Matthew Perry, Zachary Levi, Kris Kristofferson, Danny Trejo, Michael Dorn and Felicia Day. The game established the new record for the most lines of dialogue in a single - player action role - playing game. The game contains around 65,000 lines of dialogue, beating its predecessor and previous record holder Fallout 3 which contained 40,000 lines of dialogue.
Fallout 3 composer Inon Zur composed the score for the game. The game features three major in - game radio stations, spanning several genres of music in the radio waves: сountry, popular music from the 1940s and 1950s, jazz and classical. Each station has a set track list which repeats randomly. Music from the first two Fallout games, composed by Mark Morgan, is used in the game as well.
On February 4, 2010, Obsidian Entertainment released the Fallout: New Vegas teaser trailer. A second trailer was first shown on GameTrailers from E3 on June 11, 2010.
Bethesda announced four pre-order bonus packs giving specific in - game items, they include the "Classic '', "Tribal '', "Caravan '' and "Mercenary '' packs available when pre-ordering at specific outlets, all of the listed pre-order packs were later made available for purchase on September 27, 2011. The Collector 's Edition was revealed on May 11, 2010. It was distributed worldwide and is available for Microsoft Windows, PlayStation 3, and Xbox 360. Its enclosed contents include seven real clay poker chips from the Fallout: New Vegas casinos, a deck of cards each with a character on them with information on that person, a graphic novel leading up to the events of New Vegas, a Lucky 38 large platinum chip replica, and a making - of documentary.
Within hours of the game 's release on October 19, 2010, players of Fallout: New Vegas began reporting a variety of technical issues (saved games becoming corrupted, the game freezing, players becoming stuck within the terrain, and random NPCs appearing behind the player, initiating combat out of context). Bethesda Game Studios stated that they, in conjunction with Obsidian, were actively working on an update for release "as soon as possible '' to address in - game issues. They also urged customers to keep their copies of New Vegas rather than return them to stores, stating that providing the best possible experience to their users was a priority.
Within a week of the original release, a patch was available for the PC, Xbox 360, and PlayStation 3 versions of the game, which contained over 200 quest and scripting - related fixes. The update released on December 14, 2010, has fixed further glitches and save game problems, including companion - related bugs. Subsequent updates were released in February and April that corrected numerous bugs and gameplay issues. A patch was released on July 5, 2011, that included a provision that automatically creates a save prior to the endgame sequence. After credits, the user is prompted to load this save game, allowing single save players to play DLC without creating a new game. Additional to the official patches the user community started to create community patches to fix remaining issues.
The game engine has had major performance issues on the PlayStation 3. These issues have led to unplayable frame - rates when the save game file gets too big or when DLC is installed. Due to the nature of the game, the longer the player plays, the larger the save file becomes. These same issues plagued The Elder Scrolls V: Skyrim, but a performance patch to improve New Vegas seems unlikely. Sawyer said that it is a core - engine issue that can not be so easily patched.
On October 18, 2010 Bethesda Softworks announced that downloadable content (DLC) would be available for New Vegas, in keeping with its predecessor Fallout 3. Six add - on packs have been released. The six add - ons are titled "Dead Money '', "Honest Hearts '', "Old World Blues '', "Lonesome Road '', "Gun Runners Arsenal '', and "Courier 's Stash ''. Overall, the player 's level cap is increased by 20, starting at 30 and up to 50 with all add - ons installed.
On November 3, 2011, Bethesda announced Fallout: New Vegas -- Ultimate Edition, which includes the game and all of its downloadable content. It was released worldwide throughout February 2012.
On December 29, 2011, Fallout: New Vegas director Josh "J.E. '' Sawyer released an unofficial mod for the PC version. The mod adjusts the maximum level to 35, halves the rate of increase in player experience points, reduces base player health, reduces the base weight a player can carry, defines certain characters as good or evil rather than neutral, and makes various other adjustments. These are changes that Sawyer wanted included in the game, but they were not released as an official update. This mod requires a Mod Manager, all add - on packs, and all pre-order bonus packs to work.
Fallout: New Vegas received positive reviews, with critics praising the gameplay improvements and expanded content over Fallout 3, while criticizing familiarity and technical issues. As of November 8, 2010, the game had shipped 5 million copies worldwide, achieving revenue of $300 million. Electronic Entertainment Design and Research, a market research firm, estimates that the game has sold 11.6 million copies worldwide by 2015.
IGN 's Keza MacDonald praised the game 's script, but criticized the character models and facial animation as "wooden and unbelievable ''. Eurogamer commented that "Obsidian has created a totally compelling world and its frustrations pale into insignificance compared to the immersive, obsessive experience on offer. Just like the scorched scenery that provides its epic backdrop, New Vegas is huge and sprawling, sometimes gaudy, even downright ugly at times -- but always effortlessly, shamelessly entertaining. '' According to GameSpot 's Kevin VanOrd, the game 's "familiar rhythm will delight fans of the series, and the huge world, expansive quests, and hidden pleasures will have (the players) itching to see what other joys you might uncover. However, as time wears on, the constant glitches invade almost every element of the game and eventually grow wearisome. ''
Giant Bomb 's Jeff Gerstmann reviewed Fallout: New Vegas for the Xbox 360 positively, despite its many crash bugs and glitches. Gerstmann wrote: "When I reflect on the experience, I 'll probably think about the times the game locked up on me or broke in a dozen other crazy ways first, before thinking about the great world and the objectives that fill it. If you were able to look past the issues that plagued Fallout 3 and Oblivion before it, New Vegas will eventually show you a real good time. '' 1UP.com 's Mike Nelson wrote "On one hand, it feels like I can recommend this to any fan of the Fallout series. I single these fans out because they 're willing to forgive silly bugs like meeting characters who walk into walls or occasionally float in mid-air. These fans realize that the game as a whole is greater than the sum of minor graphical anomalies. On the other hand, I simply ca n't ignore or forgive the game for crashing on me when I walk around the Mojave Wasteland; or for quests that simply ca n't be completed because of a game glitch; or for making my companions disappear when I need them the most during a battle. These are some of the most frustrating bugs I have ever encountered with any game, especially when attached to a series that I deeply enjoy. ''
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which reason explains why islamic art consisted mostly of calligraphy and geometric patterns | Islamic art - wikipedia
Islamic art encompasses the visual arts produced from the 7th century onward by people who lived within the territory that was inhabited by or ruled by culturally Islamic populations. It is thus a very difficult art to define because it covers many lands and various peoples over some 1,400 years; it is not art specifically of a religion, or of a time, or of a place, or of a single medium like painting. The huge field of Islamic architecture is the subject of a separate article, leaving fields as varied as calligraphy, painting, glass, pottery, and textile arts such as carpets and embroidery.
Islamic art is not at all restricted to religious art, but includes all the art of the rich and varied cultures of Islamic societies as well. It frequently includes secular elements and elements that are frowned upon, if not forbidden, by some Islamic theologians. Apart from the ever - present calligraphic inscriptions, specifically religious art is actually less prominent in Islamic art than in Western medieval art, with the exception of Islamic architecture where mosques and their complexes of surrounding buildings are the most common remains. Figurative painting may cover religious scenes, but normally in essentially secular contexts such as the walls of palaces or illuminated books of poetry. The calligraphy and decoration of manuscript Qur'ans is an important aspect, but other religious art such as glass mosque lamps and other mosque fittings such as tiles (e.g. Girih tiles), woodwork and carpets usually have the same style and motifs as contemporary secular art, although with religious inscriptions even more prominent.
"Islamic art developed from many sources: Roman, Early Christian art, and Byzantine styles were taken over in early Islamic art and architecture; the influence of the Sassanian art of pre-Islamic Persia was of paramount significance; Central Asian styles were brought in with various nomadic incursions; and Chinese influences had a formative effect on Islamic painting, pottery, and textiles. '' Though the whole concept of "Islamic art '' has been criticised by some modern art historians, calling it a "figment of imagination '' or a "mirage '', the similarities between art produced at widely different times and places in the Islamic world, especially in the Islamic Golden Age, have been sufficient to keep the term in wide use by scholars.
There are repeating elements in Islamic art, such as the use of geometrical floral or vegetal designs in a repetition known as the arabesque. The arabesque in Islamic art is often used to symbolize the transcendent, indivisible and infinite nature of God. Mistakes in repetitions may be intentionally introduced as a show of humility by artists who believe only God can produce perfection, although this theory is disputed.
Typically, though not entirely, Islamic art has focused on the depiction of patterns, whether purely geometric or floral, and Arabic calligraphy, rather than on figures, because it is feared by many Muslims that the depiction of the human form is idolatry and thereby a sin against God, forbidden in the Qur'an. Human portrayals can be found in all eras of Islamic art, above all in the more private form of miniatures, where their absence is rare. Human representation for the purpose of worship is considered idolatry and is duly forbidden in some interpretations of Islamic law, known as Sharia law. There are also many depictions of Muhammad, Islam 's chief prophet, in historical Islamic art. Small decorative figures of animals and humans, especially if they are hunting the animals, are found on secular pieces in many media from many periods, but portraits were slow to develop.
Calligraphic design is omnipresent in Islamic art, where, as in Europe in the Middle Ages, religious exhortations, including Qur'anic verses, may be included in secular objects, especially coins, tiles and metalwork, and most painted miniatures include some script, as do many buildings. Use of Islamic calligraphy in architecture extended significantly outside of Islamic territories; one notable example is the use of Chinese calligraphy of Arabic verses from the Qur'an in the Great Mosque of Xi'an. Other inscriptions include verses of poetry, and inscriptions recording ownership or donation. Two of the main scripts involved are the symbolic kufic and naskh scripts, which can be found adorning and enhancing the visual appeal of the walls and domes of buildings, the sides of minbars, and metalwork. Islamic calligraphy in the form of painting or sculptures are sometimes referred to as quranic art.
East Persian pottery from the 9th to 11th centuries decorated only with highly stylised inscriptions, called "epigraphic ware '', has been described as "probably the most refined and sensitive of all Persian pottery ''. Large inscriptions made from tiles, sometimes with the letters raised in relief, or the background cut away, are found on the interiors and exteriors of many important buildings. Complex carved calligraphy also decorates buildings. For most of the Islamic period the majority of coins only showed lettering, which are often very elegant despite their small size and nature of production. The tughra or monogram of an Ottoman sultan was used extensively on official documents, with very elaborate decoration for important ones. Other single sheets of calligraphy, designed for albums, might contain short poems, Qur'anic verses, or other texts.
The main languages, all using Arabic script, are Arabic, always used for Qur'anic verses, Persian in the Persianate world, especially for poetry, and Turkish, with Urdu appearing in later centuries. Calligraphers usually had a higher status than other artists.
Although there has been a tradition of wall - paintings, especially in the Persianate world, the best - surviving and highest developed form of painting in the Islamic world is the miniature in illuminated manuscripts, or later as a single page for inclusion in a muraqqa or bound album of miniatures and calligraphy. The tradition of the Persian miniature has been dominant since about the 13th century, strongly influencing the Ottoman miniature of Turkey and the Mughal miniature in India. Miniatures were especially an art of the court, and because they were not seen in public, it has been argued that constraints on the depiction of the human figure were much more relaxed, and indeed miniatures often contain great numbers of small figures, and from the 16th century portraits of single ones. Although surviving early examples are now uncommon, human figurative art was a continuous tradition in Islamic lands in secular contexts, notably several of the Umayyad Desert Castles (c. 660 - 750), and during the Abbasid Caliphate (c. 749 -- 1258).
The largest commissions of illustrated books were usually classics of Persian poetry such as the epic Shahnameh, although the Mughals and Ottomans both produced lavish manuscripts of more recent history with the autobiographies of the Mughal emperors, and more purely military chronicles of Turkish conquests. Portraits of rulers developed in the 16th century, and later in Persia, then becoming very popular. Mughal portraits, normally in profile, are very finely drawn in a realist style, while the best Ottoman ones are vigorously stylized. Album miniatures typically featured picnic scenes, portraits of individuals or (in India especially) animals, or idealized youthful beauties of either sex.
Chinese influences included the early adoption of the vertical format natural to a book, which led to the development of a birds - eye view where a very carefully depicted background of hilly landscape or palace buildings rises up to leave only a small area of sky. The figures are arranged in different planes on the background, with recession (distance from the viewer) indicated by placing more distant figures higher up in the space, but at essentially the same size. The colours, which are often very well preserved, are strongly contrasting, bright and clear. The tradition reached a climax in the 16th and early 17th centuries, but continued until the early 19th century, and has been revived in the 20th.
No Islamic artistic product has become better known outside the Islamic world than the pile carpet, more commonly referred to as the Oriental carpet (oriental rug). Their versatility is utilized in everyday Islamic and Muslim life, from floor coverings to architectural enrichment, from cushions to bolsters to bags and sacks of all shapes and sizes, and to religious objects (such as a prayer rug, which would provide a clean place to pray). They have been a major export to other areas since the late Middle Ages, used to cover not only floors but tables, for long a widespread European practice that is now common only in the Netherlands. Carpet weaving is a rich and deeply embedded tradition in Islamic societies, and the practice is seen in large city factories as well as in rural communities and nomadic encampments. In earlier periods, special establishments and workshops were in existence that functioned directly under court patronage.
Very early Islamic carpets, i.e. those before the 16th century, are extremely rare. More have survived in the West and oriental carpets in Renaissance painting from Europe are a major source of information on them, as they were valuable imports that were painted accurately. The most natural and easy designs for a carpet weaver to produce consist of straight lines and edges, and the earliest Islamic carpets to survive or be shown in paintings have geometric designs, or centre on very stylized animals, made up in this way. Since the flowing loops and curves of the arabesque are central to Islamic art, the interaction and tension between these two styles was long a major feature of carpet design.
There are a few survivals of the grand Egyptian 16th century carpets, including one almost as good as new discovered in the attic of the Pitti Palace in Florence, whose complex patterns of octagon roundels and stars, in just a few colours, shimmer before the viewer. Production of this style of carpet began under the Mamluks but continued after the Ottomans conquered Egypt. The other sophisticated tradition was the Persian carpet which reached its peak in the 16th and early 17th century in works like the Ardabil Carpet and Coronation Carpet; during this century the Ottoman and Mughal courts also began to sponsor the making in their domains of large formal carpets, evidently with the involvement of designers used to the latest court style in the general Persian tradition. These use a design style shared with non-figurative Islamic illumination and other media, often with a large central gul motif, and always with wide and strongly demarcated borders. The grand designs of the workshops patronized by the court spread out to smaller carpets for the merely wealthy and for export, and designs close to those of the 16th and 17th centuries are still produced in large numbers today. The description of older carpets has tended to use the names of carpet - making centres as labels, but often derived from the design rather than any actual evidence that they originated from around that centre. Research has clarified that designs were by no means always restricted to the centre they are traditionally associated with, and the origin of many carpets remains unclear.
As well as the major Persian, Turkish and Arab centres, carpets were also made across Central Asia, in India, and in Spain and the Balkans. Spanish carpets, which sometimes interrupted typical Islamic patterns to include coats of arms, enjoyed high prestige in Europe, being commissioned by royalty and for the Papal Palace, Avignon, and the industry continued after the Reconquista. Armenian carpet - weaving is mentioned by many early sources, and may account for a much larger proportion of East Turkish and Caucasian production than traditionally thought. The Berber carpets of North Africa have a distinct design tradition. Apart from the products of city workshops, in touch with trading networks that might carry the carpets to markets far away, there was also a large and widespread village and nomadic industry producing work that stayed closer to traditional local designs. As well as pile carpets, kelims and other types of flat - weave or embroidered textiles were produced, for use on both floors and walls. Figurative designs, sometimes with large human figures, are very popular in Islamic countries but relatively rarely exported to the West, where abstract designs are generally what the market expects.
Islamic art has very notable achievements in ceramics, both in pottery and tiles for walls, which in the absence of wall - paintings were taken to heights unmatched by other cultures. Early pottery is often unglazed, but tin - opacified glazing was one of the earliest new technologies developed by the Islamic potters. The first Islamic opaque glazes can be found as blue - painted ware in Basra, dating to around the 8th century. Another significant contribution was the development of stonepaste ceramics, originating from 9th century Iraq. The first industrial complex for glass and pottery production was built in Raqqa, Syria, in the 8th century. Other centers for innovative pottery in the Islamic world included Fustat (from 975 to 1075), Damascus (from 1100 to around 1600) and Tabriz (from 1470 to 1550). Lusterwares with iridescent colours may have continued pre-Islamic Roman and Byzantine techniques, but were either invented or considerably developed on pottery and glass in Persia and Syria from the 9th century onwards.
Islamic pottery was often influenced by Chinese ceramics, whose achievements were greatly admired and emulated. This was especially the case in the periods after the Mongol invasions and those of the Timurids. Techniques, shapes and decorative motifs were all affected. Until the Early Modern period Western ceramics had very little influence, but Islamic pottery was very sought after in Europe, and often copied. An example of this is the albarello, a type of maiolica earthenware jar originally designed to hold apothecaries ' ointments and dry drugs. The development of this type of pharmacy jar had its roots in the Islamic Middle East. Hispano - Moresque examples were exported to Italy, stimulating the earliest Italian examples, from 15th century Florence.
The Hispano - Moresque style emerged in Al - Andaluz or Muslim Spain in the 8th century, under Egyptian influence, but most of the best production was much later, by potters presumed to have been largely Muslim but working in areas reconquered by the Christian kingdoms. It mixed Islamic and European elements in its designs, and much was exported across neighbouring European countries. It had introduced two ceramic techniques to Europe: glazing with an opaque white tin - glaze, and painting in metallic lusters. Ottoman İznik pottery produced most of the best work in the 16th century, in tiles and large vessels boldly decorated with floral motifs influenced, once again, by Chinese Yuan and Ming ceramics. These were still in earthenware; there was no porcelain made in Islamic countries until modern times, though Chinese porcelain was imported and admired.
The medieval Islamic world also had pottery with painted animal and human imagery. Examples are found throughout the medieval Islamic world, particularly in Persia and Egypt.
The earliest grand Islamic buildings, like the Dome of the Rock, in Jerusalem had interior walls decorated with mosaics in the Byzantine style, but without human figures. From the 9th century onwards the distinctive Islamic tradition of glazed and brightly coloured tiling for interior and exterior walls and domes developed. Some earlier schemes create designs using mixtures of tiles each of a single colour that are either cut to shape or are small and of a few shapes, used to create abstract geometric patterns. Later large painted schemes use tiles painted before firing with a part of the scheme -- a technique requiring confidence in the consistent results of firing.
Some elements, especially the letters of inscriptions, may be moulded in three - dimensional relief, and in especially in Persia certain tiles in a design may have figurative painting of animals or single human figures. These were often part of designs mostly made up of tiles in plain colours but with larger fully painted tiles at intervals. The larger tiles are often shaped as eight - pointed stars, and may show animals or a human head or bust, or plant or other motifs. The geometric patterns, such as modern North African zellige work, made of small tiles each of a single colour but different and regular shapes, are often referred to as "mosaic '', which is not strictly correct.
The Mughals made much less use of tiling, preferring (and being able to afford) "parchin kari '', a type of pietra dura decoration from inlaid panels of semi-precious stones, with jewels in some cases. This can be seen at the Taj Mahal, Agra Fort and other imperial commissions. The motifs are usually floral, in a simpler and more realistic style than Persian or Turkish work, relating to plants in Mughal miniatures.
For most of the Middle Ages Islamic glass was the most sophisticated in Eurasia, exported to both Europe and China. Islam took over much of the traditional glass - producing territory of Sassanian and Ancient Roman glass, and since figurative decoration played a small part in pre-Islamic glass, the change in style is not abrupt, except that the whole area initially formed a political whole, and, for example, Persian innovations were now almost immediately taken up in Egypt. For this reason it is often impossible to distinguish between the various centres of production, of which Egypt, Syria and Persia were the most important, except by scientific analysis of the material, which itself has difficulties. From various documentary references glassmaking and glass trading seems to have been a speciality of the Jewish minority in several centres.
Between the 8th and early 11th centuries the emphasis in luxury glass is on effects achieved by "manipulating the surface '' of the glass, initially by incising into the glass on a wheel, and later by cutting away the background to leave a design in relief. The very massive Hedwig glasses, only found in Europe, but normally considered Islamic (or possibly from Muslim craftsmen in Norman Sicily), are an example of this, though puzzlingly late in date. These and other glass pieces probably represented cheaper versions of vessels of carved rock crystal (clear quartz), themselves influenced by earlier glass vessels, and there is some evidence that at this period glass cutting and hardstone carving were regarded as the same craft. From the 12th century the industry in Persia and Mesopotamia appears to decline, and the main production of luxury glass shifts to Egypt and Syria, and decorative effects of colour on smooth surfaced glass. Throughout the period local centres made simpler wares such as Hebron glass in Palestine.
Lustre painting, by techniques similar to lustreware in pottery, dates back to the 8th century in Egypt, and became widespread in the 12th century. Another technique was decoration with threads of glass of a different colour, worked into the main surface, and sometimes manipulated by combing and other effects. Gilded, painted and enamelled glass were added to the repertoire, and shapes and motifs borrowed from other media, such as pottery and metalwork. Some of the finest work was in mosque lamps donated by a ruler or wealthy man. As decoration grew more elaborate, the quality of the basic glass decreased, and it "often has a brownish - yellow tinge, and is rarely free from bubbles ''. Aleppo seems to have ceased to be a major centre after the Mongol invasion of 1260, and Timur appears to have ended the Syrian industry about 1400 by carrying off the skilled workers to Samarkand. By about 1500 the Venetians were receiving large orders for mosque lamps.
Medieval Islamic metalwork offers a complete contrast to its European equivalent, which is dominated by modelled figures and brightly coloured decoration in enamel, some pieces entirely in precious metals. In contrast surviving Islamic metalwork consists of practical objects mostly in brass, bronze, and steel, with simple, but often monumental, shapes, and surfaces highly decorated with dense decoration in a variety of techniques, but colour mostly restricted to inlays of gold, silver, copper or black niello. The most abundant survivals from medieval periods are fine brass objects, handsome enough to preserve, but not valuable enough to be melted down. The abundant local sources of zinc compared to tin explains the rarity of bronze. Household items, such as ewers or water pitchers, were made of one or more pieces of sheet brass soldered together and subsequently worked and inlaid.
The use of drinking and eating vessels in gold and silver, the ideal in ancient Rome and Persia as well as medieval Christian societies, is prohibited by the Hadiths, as was the wearing of gold rings. One thing Islamic metalworkers shared with European ones was high social status compared to other artists and craftsmen, and many larger pieces are signed.
Islamic work includes some three - dimensional animal figures as fountainheads or aquamaniles, but only one significant enamelled object is known, using Byzantine cloisonne techniques. The Pisa Griffin is the largest surviving bronze animal, probably from 11th century Al - Andaluz. More common objects given elaborate decoration include massive low candlesticks and lamp - stands, lantern lights, bowls, dishes, basins, buckets (these probably for the bath), and ewers, as well as caskets, pen - cases and plaques. Ewers and basins were brought for hand - washing before and after each meal, so are often lavishly treated display pieces. A typical 13th century ewer from Khorasan is decorated with foliage, animals and the Signs of the Zodiac in silver and copper, and carries a blessing. Specialized objects include knives, arms and armour (always of huge interest to the elite) and scientific instruments such as astrolabes, as well as jewellery. Decoration is typically densely packed and very often includes arabesques and calligraphy, sometimes naming an owner and giving a date.
High levels of achievement were reached in other materials, including hardstone carvings and jewellery, ivory carving, textiles and leatherwork. During the Middle Ages, Islamic work in these fields was highly valued in other parts of the world and often traded outside the Islamic zone. Apart from miniature painting and calligraphy, other arts of the book are decorative illumination, the only type found in Qur'an manuscripts, and Islamic book covers, which are often highly decorative in luxury manuscripts, using either the geometric motifs found in illumination, or sometimes figurative images probably drawn for the craftsmen by miniature painters. Materials include coloured, tooled and stamped leather and lacquer over paint.
Egyptian carving of rock crystal into vessels appears in the late 10th century, and virtually disappears after about 1040. There are a number of these vessels in the West, which apparently came on the market after the Cairo palace of the Fatimid Caliph was looted by his mercenaries in 1062, and were snapped up by European buyers, mostly ending up in church treasuries. From later periods, especially the hugely wealthy Ottoman and Mughal courts, there are a considerable number of lavish objects carved in semi-precious stones, with little surface decoration, but inset with jewels. Such objects may have been made in earlier periods, but few have survived.
Older wood carving is typically relief or pierced work on flat objects for architectural use, such as screens, doors, roofs, beams and friezes. An important exception are the complex muqarnas and mocárabe designs giving roofs and other architectural elements a stalactite - like appearance. These are often in wood, sometimes painted on the wood but often plastered over before painting; the examples at the Alhambra in Granada, Spain are among the best known. Traditional Islamic furniture, except for chests, tended to be covered with cushions, with cupboards rather than cabinets for storage, but there are some pieces, including a low round (strictly twelve - sided) table of about 1560 from the Ottoman court, with marquetry inlays in light wood, and a single huge ceramic tile or plaque on the tabletop. The fine inlays typical of Ottoman court furniture may have developed from styles and techniques used in weapons and musical instruments, for which the finest craftsmanship available was used. There are also intricately decorated caskets and chests from various periods. A spectacular and famous (and far from flat) roof was one of the Islamic components of the 12th century Norman Cappella Palatina in Palermo, which picked from the finest elements of Catholic, Byzantine and Islamic art. Other famous wooden roofs are in the Alhambra in Granada.
Ivory carving centred on the Mediterranean, spreading from Egypt, where a thriving Coptic industry had been inherited; Persian ivory is rare. The normal style was a deep relief with an even surface; some pieces were painted. Spain specialized in caskets and round boxes, which were probably used to keep jewels and perfumes. They were produced mainly in the approximate period 930 -- 1050, and widely exported. Many pieces are signed and dated, and on court pieces the name of the owner is often inscribed; they were typically gifts from a ruler. As well as a court workshop, Cordoba had commercial workshops producing goods of slightly lower quality. In the 12th and 13th century workshops in Norman Sicily produced caskets, apparently then migrating to Granada and elsewhere after persecution. Egyptian work tended to be in flat panels and friezes, for insertion into woodwork and probably furniture -- most are now detached from their settings. Many were calligraphic, and others continued Byzantine traditions of hunting scenes, with backgrounds of arabesques and foliage in both cases.
Despite Hadithic sayings against the wearing of silk, the Byzantine and Sassanian traditions of grand figured silk woven cloth continued under Islam. Some designs are calligraphic, especially when made for palls to cover a tomb, but more are surprisingly conservative versions of the earlier traditions, with many large figures of animals, especially majestic symbols of power like the lion and eagle. These are often enclosed in roundels, as found in the pre-Islamic traditions. The majority of early silks have been recovered from tombs, and in Europe reliquaries, where the relics were often wrapped in silk. European clergy and nobility were keen buyers of Islamic silk from an early date and, for example, the body of an early bishop of Toul in France was wrapped in a silk from the Bukhara area in modern Uzbekistan, probably when the body was reburied in 820. The Shroud of St Josse is a famous samite cloth from East Persia, which originally had a carpet - like design with two pairs of confronted elephants, surrounded by borders including rows of camels and an inscription in Kufic script, from which the date appears to be before 961. Other silks were used for clothes, hangings, altarcloths, and church vestments, which have nearly all been lost, except for some vestments.
Ottoman silks were less exported, and the many surviving royal kaftans have simpler geometric patterns, many featuring stylized "tiger - stripes '' below three balls or circles. Other silks have foliage designs comparable to those on Iznik pottery or carpets, with bands forming ogival compartments a popular motif. Some designs begin to show Italian influence. By the 16th century Persian silk was using smaller patterns, many of which showed relaxed garden scenes of beautiful boys and girls from the same world as those in contemporary album miniatures, and sometimes identifiable scenes from Persian poetry. A 16th - century circular ceiling for a tent, 97 cm across, shows a continuous and crowded hunting scene; it was apparently looted by the army of Suleiman the Magnificent in his invasion of Persia in 1543 -- 45, before being taken by a Polish general at the Siege of Vienna in 1683. Mughal silks incorporate many Indian elements, and often feature relatively realistic "portraits '' of plants, as found in other media.
The development and refinement of Indonesian batik cloth was closely linked to Islam. The Islamic prohibition on certain images encouraged batik design to become more abstract and intricate. Realistic depictions of animals and humans are rare on traditional batik. However, mythical serpents, humans with exaggerated features and the Garuda of pre-Islamic mythology are common motifs.
Although its existence pre-dates Islam, batik reached its zenith in royal Muslim courts such as Mataram and Yogyakarta, whose sultans encouraged and patronised batik production. Today, batik is undergoing a revival, and cloths are used for additional purposes such as wrapping the Quran.
The period of a rapid expansion of the Islamic era forms a reasonably accurate beginning for the label of Islamic art. Early geographical boundaries of the Islamic culture were in present - day Syria. It is quite difficult to distinguish the earliest Islamic objects from their predecessors in Persian or Sassanid and Byzantine art, and the conversion of the mass of the population, including artists, took a significant period, sometimes centuries, after the initial Muslim conquest. There was, notably, a significant production of unglazed ceramics, witnessed by a famous small bowl preserved in the Louvre, whose inscription assures its attribution to the Islamic period. Plant motifs were the most important in these early productions.
Influences from the Sassanian artistic tradition include the image of the king as a warrior and the lion as a symbol of nobility and virility. Bedouin tribal traditions mixed with the more sophisticated styles of the conquered territories. For an initial period coins had human figures in the Byzantine and Sassanian style, perhaps to reassure users of their continued value, before the Islamic style with lettering only took over.
Religious and civic architecture were developed under the Umayyad dynasty (661 -- 750), when new concepts and new plans were put into practice.
The Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem is one of the most important buildings in all of Islamic architecture, marked by a strong Byzantine influence (mosaic against a gold background, and a central plan that recalls that of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre), but already bearing purely Islamic elements, such as the great epigraphic frieze. The desert palaces in Jordan and Syria (for example, Mshatta, Qasr Amra, and Khirbat al - Mafjar) served the caliphs as living quarters, reception halls, and baths, and were decorated, including some wall - paintings, to promote an image of royal luxury.
Work in ceramics was still somewhat primitive (unglazed) during this period. Some metal objects have survived from this time, but it remains rather difficult to distinguish these objects from those of the pre-Islamic period.
' Abd al - Malik introduced standard coinage that featured Arabic inscriptions, instead of images of the monarch. The quick development of a localized coinage around the time of the Dome of the Rock 's construction demonstrates the reorientation of Umayyad acculturation. This period saw the genesis of a particularly Islamic art.
In this period, Umayyad artists and artisans did not invent a new vocabulary, but began to prefer those received from Mediterranean and Iranian late antiquity, which they adapted to their own artistic conceptions. For example, the mosaics in the Great Mosque of Damascus are based on Byzantine models, but replace the figurative elements with images of trees and cities. The desert palaces also bear witness to these influences. By combining the various traditions that they had inherited, and by readapting motifs and architectural elements, artists created little by little a typically Muslim art, particularly discernible in the aesthetic of the arabesque, which appears both on monuments and in illuminated Qur'āns.
The Abbasid dynasty (750 AD -- 1258) witnessed the movement of the capital from Damascus to Baghdad, and then from Baghdad to Samarra. The shift to Baghdad influenced politics, culture, and art. Art historian Robert Hillenbrand (1999) likens the movement to the foundation of an "Islamic Rome '', because the meeting of Eastern influences from Iranian, Eurasian steppe, Chinese, and Indian sources created a new paradigm for Islamic art. Classical forms inherited from Byzantine Europe and Greco - Roman sources were discarded in favor of those drawn from the new Islamic hub. Even the design of the city of Baghdad placed it in the "navel of the world '', as 9th - century historian al - Ya'qubi wrote.
The ancient city of Baghdad can not be excavated well, as it lies beneath the modern city. However, Abbasid Samarra, which was largely abandoned, has been well studied, and is known for its surviving examples of stucco reliefs, in which the prehistory of the arabesque can be traced. Motifs known from the stucco at Samarra permit the dating of structures built elsewhere, and are furthermore found on portable objects, particular in wood, from Egypt through to Iran.
Samarra witnessed the "coming of age '' of Islamic art. Polychrome painted stucco allowed for experimentation in new styles of moulding and carving. The Abbasid period also coincided with two major innovations in the ceramic arts: the invention of faience, and of metallic lusterware. Hadithic prohibition of the use of golden or silver vessels led to the development of metallic lusterware in pottery, which was made by mixing sulphur and metallic oxides to ochre and vinegar, painted onto an already glazed vessel and then fired a second time. It was expensive, and difficult to manage the second round through the kiln, but the wish to exceed fine Chinese porcelain led to the development of this technique.
Though the common perception of Abbasid artistic production focuses largely on pottery, the greatest development of the Abbasid period was in textiles. Government - run workshops known as tiraz produced silks bearing the name of the monarch, allowing for aristocrats to demonstrate their loyalty to the ruler. Other silks were pictorial. The utility of silk - ware in wall decor, entrance adornment, and room separation was not as important as its cash value along the "silk route ''.
Calligraphy began to be used in surface decoration on pottery during this period. Illuminated Qur'ans gained attention, letter - forms now more complex and stylized to the point of slowing down the recognition of the words themselves.
Beginning in the 9th century, Abbasid sovereignty was contested in the provinces furthest removed from the Iraqi center. The creation of a Shi'a dynasty, that of the north African Fatimids, followed by the Umayyads in Spain, gave force to this opposition, as well as small dynasties and autonomous governors in Iran.
The first Islamic dynasty to establish itself in Spain (or al - Andalus) was that of the Spanish Umayyads. As their name indicates, they were descended from the great Umayyads of Syria. After their fall, the Spanish Umayyads were replaced by various autonomous kingdoms, the taifas (1031 -- 91), but the artistic production from this period does not differ significantly from that of the Umayyads. At the end of the 11th century, two Berber tribes, the Almoravids and the Almohads, captured the head of the Maghreb and Spain, successively, bringing Maghrebi influences into art. A series of military victories by Christian monarchs had reduced Islamic Spain by the end of the 14th century to the city of Granada, ruled by the Nasirid dynasty, who managed to maintain their hold until 1492.
Al - Andalus was a great cultural center of the Middle Ages. Besides the great universities, which taught philosophies and sciences yet unknown in Christendom (such as those of Averroes), the territory was an equally vital center for art.
Many techniques were employed in the manufacture of objects. Ivory was used extensively for the manufacture of boxes and caskets. The pyxis of al - Mughira is a masterwork of the genre. In metalwork, large sculptures in the round, normally rather scarce in the Islamic world, served as elaborate receptacles for water or as fountain spouts. A great number of textiles, most notably silks, were exported: many are found in the church treasuries of Christendom, where they served as covering for saints ' reliquaries. From the periods of Maghrebi rule one may also note a taste for painted and sculpted woodwork.
The art of north Africa is not as well studied. The Almoravid and Almohad dynasties are characterized by a tendency toward austerity, for example in mosques with bare walls. Nevertheless, luxury arts continued to be produced in great quantity. The Marinid and Hafsid dynasties developed an important, but poorly understood, architecture, and a significant amount of painted and sculpted woodwork.
The Fatamid dynasty, which reigned in Egypt from 909 and 1171 introduced crafts and knowledge from politically troubled Baghdad to Cairo.
By the year 1070, the Seljuks emerged as the dominant political force in the Muslim world after they liberated Baghdad and defeated the Byzanties at Manzikert, during the rule of Malik Shah the Seljuks excelled in architecture at the same time in Syria, the atabegs (governors of Seljuk princes) assumed power. Quite independent, they capitalized on conflicts with the Frankish crusaders. In 1171, Saladin seized Fatimid Egypt, and installed the transitory Ayyubid dynasty on the throne. This period is notable for innovations in metallurgy and the widespread manufacture of the Damascus steel swords and daggers and the production ceramics, glass and metalwork of a high quality were produced without interruption, and enameled glass became another important craft.
In 1250, the Mamluks seized control of Egypt from the Ayyubids, and by 1261 had managed to assert themselves in Syria as well their most famous ruler was Baibars. The Mamluks were not, strictly speaking, a dynasty, as they did not maintain a patrilineal mode of succession; in fact, Mamluks were freed Turkish and Caucasian slaves, who (in theory) passed the power to others of like station. This mode of government persevered for three centuries, until 1517, and gave rise to abundant architectural projects (many thousands of buildings were constructed during this period), while patronage of luxury arts favored primarily enameled glass and metalwork, and is remembered as the golden age of medieval Egypt. The "Baptistère de Saint - Louis '' in the Louvre is an example of the very high quality of metalwork at this period.
In Iran and the north of India, the Tahirids, Samanids, Ghaznavids, and Ghurids struggled for power in the 10th century, and art was a vital element of this competition. Great cities were built, such as Nishapur and Ghazni, and the construction of the Great Mosque of Isfahan (which would continue, in fits and starts, over several centuries) was initiated. Funerary architecture was also cultivated, while potters developed quite individual styles: kaleidoscopic ornament on a yellow ground; or marbled decorations created by allowing colored glazes to run; or painting with multiple layers of slip under the glaze.
The Seljuqs, nomads of Turkic origin from present - day Mongolia, appeared on the stage of Islamic history toward the end of the 10th century. They seized Baghdad in 1048, before dying out in 1194 in Iran, although the production of "Seljuq '' works continued through the end of the 12th and beginning of the 13th century under the auspices of smaller, independent sovereigns and patrons. During their time, the center of culture, politics and art production shifted from Damascus and Baghdad to Merv, Nishapur, Rayy, and Isfahan, all in Iran.
Popular patronage expanded because of a growing economy and new urban wealth. Inscriptions in architecture tended to focus more on the patrons of the piece. For example, sultans, viziers or lower ranking officials would receive often mention in inscriptions on mosques. Meanwhile, growth in mass market production and sale of art made it more commonplace and accessible to merchants and professionals. Because of increased production, many relics have survived from the Seljuk era and can be easily dated. In contrast, the dating of earlier works is more ambiguous. It is, therefore, easy to mistake Seljuk art as new developments rather than inheritance from classical Iranian and Turkic sources.
Innovations in ceramics from this period include the production of minai ware and the manufacture of vessels, not out of clay, but out of a silicon paste ("fritware ''), while metalworkers began to encrust bronze with precious metals. Across the Seljuk era, from Iran to Iraq, a unification of book painting can be seen. These paintings have animalistic figures that convey strong symbolic meaning of fidelity, treachery, and courage.
During the 13th century, the Mongols under the leadership of Genghis Khan swept through the Islamic world. After his death, his empire was divided among his sons, forming many dynasties: the Yuan in China, the Ilkhanids in Iran and the Golden Horde in northern Iran and southern Russia.
A rich civilization developed under these "little khans '', who were originally subservient to the Yuan emperor, but rapidly became independent. Architectural activity intensified as the Mongols became sedentary, and retained traces of their nomadic origins, such as the north - south orientation of the buildings. At the same time a process of "iranisation '' took place, and construction according to previously established types, such as the "Iranian plan '' mosques, was resumed. The art of the Persian book was also born under this dynasty, and was encouraged by aristocratic patronage of large manuscripts such as the Jami ' al - tawarikh by Rashid - al - Din Hamadani. New techniques in ceramics appeared, such as the lajvardina (a variation on luster - ware), and Chinese influence is perceptible in all arts.
The early arts of the nomads of the Golden Horde are poorly understood. Research is only beginning, and evidence for town planning and architecture has been discovered. There was also a significant production of works in gold, which often show a strong Chinese influence. Much of this work is preserved today in the Hermitage.
The beginning of the third great period of medieval Iranian art, that of the Timurids, was marked by the invasion of a third group of nomads, under the direction of Timur. During the 15th century this dynasty gave rise to a golden age in Persian manuscript painting, including renowned painters such as Kamāl ud - Dīn Behzād, but also a multitude of workshops and patrons.
The Seljuq Turks pushed beyond Iran into Anatolia, winning a victory over the Byzantine Empire in the Battle of Manzikert (1071), and setting up a sultanate independent of the Iranian branch of the dynasty. Their power seems largely to have waned following the Mongol invasions in 1243, but coins were struck under their name until 1304. Architecture and objects synthesized various styles, both Iranian and Syrian, sometimes rendering precise attributions difficult. The art of woodworking was cultivated, and at least one illustrated manuscript dates to this period.
Caravanserais dotted the major trade routes across the region, placed at intervals of a day 's travel. The construction of these caravanserai inns improved in scale, fortification, and replicability. Also, they began to contain central mosques.
The Turkmen were nomads who settled in the area of Lake Van. They were responsible for a number of mosques, such as the Blue Mosque in Tabriz, and they had a decisive influence after the fall of the Anatolian Seljuqs. Starting in the 13th century, Anatolia was dominated by small Turkmen dynasties, which progressively chipped away at Byzantine territory. Little by little a major dynasty emerged, that of the Ottomans, who, after 1450, are referred to as the "first Ottomans ''. Turkmen artworks can be seen as the forerunners of Ottoman art, in particular the "Milet '' ceramics and the first blue - and - white Anatolian works.
Islamic book painting witnessed its first golden age in the thirteenth century, mostly from Syria and Iraq. Influence from Byzantine visual vocabulary (blue and gold coloring, angelic and victorious motifs, symbology of drapery) combined with Mongoloid facial types in 12th - century book frontispieces.
Earlier coinage necessarily featured Arabic epigraphs, but as Ayyubid society became more cosmopolitan and multi-ethnic, coinage began to feature astrological, figural (featuring a variety of Greek, Seleucid, Byzantine, Sasanian, and contemporary Turkish rulers ' busts), and animal images.
Hillenbrand suggests that the medieval Islamic texts called Maqamat, copied and illustrated by Yahya ibn Mahmud al - Wasiti were some of the earliest "coffee table books ''. They were among the first texts to hold up a mirror to daily life in Islamic art, portraying humorous stories and showing little to no inheritance of pictorial tradition.
The Indian subcontinent, some northern parts of which conquered by the Ghaznavids and Ghurids in the 9th century, did not become autonomous until 1206, when the Muizzi, or slave - kings, seized power, marking the birth of the Delhi Sultanate. Later other competing sultanates were founded in Bengal, Kashmir, Gujarat, Jaunpur, Malwa, and in the north Deccan (the Bahmanids). They separated themselves little by little from Persian traditions, giving birth to an original approach to architecture and urbanism, marked in particular by interaction with Hindu art. Study of the production of objects has hardly begun, but a lively art of manuscript illumination is known. The period of the sultanates ended with the arrival of the Mughals, who progressively seized their territories.
The Ottoman Empire, whose origins lie in the 14th century, continued in existence until shortly after World War I. This impressive longevity, combined with an immense territory (stretching from Anatolia to Tunisia), led naturally to a vital and distinctive art, including plentiful architecture, mass production of ceramics for both tiles and vessels, most notably Iznik ware, important metalwork and jewellery, Turkish paper marbling Ebru, Turkish carpets as well as tapestries and exceptional Ottoman miniatures and decorative Ottoman illumination.
Masterpieces of Ottoman manuscript illustration include the two "books of festivals '' (Surname - I Hümayun), one dating from the end of the 16th century, and the other from the era of Sultan Murad III. These books contain numerous illustrations and exhibit a strong Safavid influence; thus they may have been inspired by books captured in the course of the Ottoman - Safavid wars of the 16th century.
The Ottomans are also known for their development of a bright red pigment, "Iznik red '', in ceramics, which reached their height in the 16th century, both in tile - work and pottery, using floral motifs that were considerably transformed from their Chinese and Persian models. From the 18th century, Ottoman art came under considerable European influence, the Turks adopting versions of Rococo which had a lasting and not very beneficial effect, leading to over-fussy decoration.
The Mughal Empire in India lasted from 1526 until (technically) 1858, although from the late 17th century power flowed away from the emperors to local rulers, and later European powers, above all the British Raj, who were the main power in India by the late 18th century. The period is most notable for luxury arts of the court, and Mughal styles heavily influenced local Hindu and later Sikh rulers as well. The Mughal miniature began by importing Persian artists, especially a group brought back by Humayun when in exile in Safavid Persia, but soon local artists, many Hindu, were trained in the style. Realistic portraiture, and images of animals and plants, was developed in Mughal art beyond what the Persians had so far achieved, and the size of miniatures increased, sometimes onto canvas. The Mughal court had access to European prints and other art, and these had increasing influence, shown in the gradual introduction of aspects of Western graphical perspective, and a wider range of poses in the human figure. Some Western images were directly copied or borrowed from. As the courts of local Nawabs developed, distinct provincial styles with stronger influence from traditional Indian painting developed in both Muslim and Hindu princely courts.
The arts of jewelry and hardstone carving of gemstones, such as jasper, jade, adorned with rubies, diamonds and emeralds are mentioned by the Mughal chronicler Abu'l Fazl, and a range of examples survive; the series of hard stone daggers in the form of horses ' heads is particularly impressive.
The Mughals were also fine metallurgists they introduced Damascus steel and refined the locally produced Wootz steel, the Mughals also introduced the "bidri '' technique of metalwork in which silver motifs are pressed against a black background. Famous Mughal metallurgists like Ali Kashmiri and Muhammed Salih Thatawi created the seamless celestial globes.
The Iranian Safavids, a dynasty stretching from 1501 to 1786, is distinguished from the Mughal and Ottoman Empires, and earlier Persian rulers, in part through the Shi'a faith of its shahs, which they succeeded in making the majority denomination in Persia. Ceramic arts are marked by the strong influence of Chinese porcelain, often executed in blue and white. Architecture flourished, attaining a high point with the building program of Shah Abbas in Isfahan, which included numerous gardens, palaces (such as Ali Qapu), an immense bazaar, and a large imperial mosque.
The art of manuscript illumination also achieved new heights, in particular in the Shah Tahmasp Shahnameh, an immense copy of Ferdowsi 's poem containing more than 250 paintings. In the 17th century a new type of painting develops, based around the album (muraqqa). The albums were the creations of conoisseurs who bound together single sheets containing paintings, drawings, or calligraphy by various artists, sometimes excised from earlier books, and other times created as independent works. The paintings of Reza Abbasi figure largely in this new art of the book, depicting one or two larger figures, typically idealized beauties in a garden setting, often using the grisaille techniques previously used for border paintings for the background.
After the fall of the Safavids, the Qajars, a Turkmen tribe established from centuries on the banks of the Caspian Sea, assumed power. Qajar art displays an increasing European influence, as in the large oil paintings portraying the Qajar shahs. Steelwork also assumed a new importance. Like the Ottomans, the Qajar dynasty survived until 1925, a few years after the First World War.
From the 15th century, the number of smaller Islamic courts began to fall, as the Ottoman Empire, and later the Safavids and European powers, swallowed them up; this had an effect on Islamic art, which was usually strongly led by the patronage of the court. From at least the 18th century onwards, elite Islamic art was increasingly influenced by European styles, and in the applied arts either largely adopted Western styles, or ceased to develop, retaining whatever style was prevalent at some point in the late 18th or early 19th centuries. Many industries with very long histories, such as pottery in Iran, largely closed, while others, like metalwork in brass, became generally frozen in style, with much of their production going to tourists or exported as oriental exotica.
The carpet industry has remained large, but mostly uses designs that originated before 1700, and competes with machine - made imitations both locally and around the world. Arts and crafts with a broader social base, like the zellige mosaic tiles of the Maghreb, have often survived better. Islamic countries have developed modern and contemporary art, with very vigorous art worlds in some countries, but the degree to which these should be grouped in a special category as "Islamic art '' is questionable, although many artists deal with Islam - related themes, and use traditional elements such as calligraphy. Especially in the oil - rich parts of the Islamic world much modern architecture and interior decoration makes use of motifs and elements drawn from the heritage of Islamic art.
Books and journals
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when is the show this is us on tv | This Is Us (TV series) - Wikipedia
This Is Us is an American television series created by Dan Fogelman that premiered on NBC on September 20, 2016. The ensemble cast stars Milo Ventimiglia, Mandy Moore, Sterling K. Brown, Chrissy Metz, Justin Hartley, Susan Kelechi Watson, Chris Sullivan, and Ron Cephas Jones. It is about the family lives and connections of several people who all share the same birthday and the ways in which they are similar and different.
The series has received positive reviews since its premiere, receiving nominations for Best Television Series -- Drama at the 74th Golden Globe Awards and Best Drama Series at the 7th Critics ' Choice Awards, as well as being chosen as a Top Television Program by the American Film Institute. The cast has received accolades, with Mandy Moore and Chrissy Metz receiving Golden Globe nominations for Best Supporting Actress, and Sterling K. Brown receiving a SAG nomination for Outstanding Performance by a Male Actor in a Drama Series. In 2017, the series received ten Emmy nominations, including Outstanding Drama Series with Brown winning for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Drama Series.
On September 27, 2016, NBC picked up the series for a full season of 18 episodes. In January 2017, NBC renewed the series for two additional seasons of 18 episodes each. The second season is set to premiere on September 26, 2017.
The series follows siblings Kate, Kevin and Randall as their lives intertwine. Kate and Kevin were originally part of a triplet pregnancy, conceived in the bathroom of Froggy 's, a bar, during Super Bowl XIV. Their due date was October 12, 1980, but they were born six weeks early on August 31; their biological brother was stillborn. Their parents, Jack and Rebecca, having expected to bring home three babies, decide to adopt another newborn: Randall, a black child born the same day and brought to the same hospital after his biological father abandoned him at a fire station.
Episodes weave through the stories of the past and present of the characters, with most scenes taking place in 1980, 1989 -- 1995, and the present day (2016 -- 2017). Flashback scenes take place in Pittsburgh, while current scenes are typically split between Los Angeles, New Jersey, and New York City.
In May 2017, Hulu acquired the SVOD rights to new and past episodes of the series to air exclusively on Hulu, in addition to NBC.com and the NBC app.
The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reported a 89 % approval rating with an average rating of 7.7 / 10 based on 56 reviews. The website 's critical consensus reads, "Featuring full - tilt heartstring - tugging family drama, This Is Us will provide a suitable surrogate for those who have felt a void in their lives since Parenthood went off the air. '' Metacritic, which uses a weighted average, assigned a score of 76 out of 100 based on 34 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews ''.
Entertainment Weekly gave the first few episodes of This Is Us a rating of B, calling it "a refreshing respite from the relational violence and pessimism that marks the other buzz soaps that have bubbled forth from a culture of divisiveness ''. Moreover, they praised all the actors, specifically Sterling K. Brown, for being able to navigate "his scenes with such intelligence, authenticity, and charisma ''.
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who is the current chairman of the damodar valley corporation | Damodar Valley Corporation - wikipedia
The Damodar Valley Corporation (DVC) is a government aided organization which operates several power stations in the Damodar River area of West Bengal and Jharkhand states of India. The corporation operates both thermal power stations and hydel power stations under the Ministry of Power, Govt of India. DVC is headquartered in the city of Kolkata, West Bengal, India.
DVC emerged as a culmination of attempts made over a whole century to control the wild and erratic Damodar River. The valley has been ravaged frequently by floods at varying intensities. Serious floods occurred in 1730, 1823, 1848, 1856, 1882, 1898, 1901, 1916, 1923, 1935 & 1943. The river spans over an area of 25,235 sq. km covering the states of Bihar (now Jharkhand) & West Bengal. The catastrophe caused by the 1943 flood, led to serious public indignation gainst the Government. As a result, the Government of Bengal appointed a board of Enquiry titled "Damodar Flood Enquiry Committee '' with the Maharaja of Burdwan and the noted physicist Dr. Meghnad Saha as members for suggesting remedial measures.
The Damodar Flood Enquiry Committee suggested creation of an authority similar to the Tennessee Valley Authority in the USA, and recommended the construction of dams and storage reservoirs at the sites with a total capacity of 1.5 millions acre ft. (1.850 millions cu. M) and highlighted the possibilities of multipurpose development in the valley area. The Govt. of India then commissioned the ' Central Technical Power Board ' to study the proposal and appointed Mr. WL Voorduin, a senior engineer of the TVA to study the problem at the Damodar and to make his recommendation for comprehensive development of the valley. Accordingly, in August, 1944 Mr. Voorduin submitted his ' Preliminary Memorandum on the unified Development of the Damodar River. '
Mr. Voorduin 's "Preliminary Memorandum '' suggested a multipurpose development plan designed for achieving flood control, irrigation, power generation and navigation in the Damodar Valley. Four consultants appointed by the Government of India examined it. They also approved the main technical features of Voorduin 's scheme and recommended early initiation of construction beginning with Tilaiya to be followed by Maithon. By April 1947, full agreement was practically reached between the three Governments of Central, West Bengal and Bihar on the implementation of the scheme and in March 1948, the Damodar Valley Corporation Act (Act No. XIV of 1948) was passed by the Central Legislature, requiring the three Governments, The Central Government and the State Governments of West Bengal and Bihar (now Jharkhand) to participate jointly for the purpose of building the Damodar Valley Corporation. The Corporation came into existence on 7 July 1948 as the first multipurpose river valley project of independent India.
Command area: 24,235 km spread across the Damodar basin. Jharkhand: 2 districts fully (Dhanbad and Bokaro) and parts of 8 districts (Hazaribagh, Koderma, Chatra, Palamau, Ranchi, Revanth Loherdaga, Giridih and Dumka) West Bengal: 5 districts (Bardhhaman, Hoogly, Howrah, Bankura, Purulia)
The Damodar Valley Corporation has been generating and transmitting power since 1953.
DVC developed and expanded its infrastructure to six thermal power stations ' (7410 MW) ' and three hydro - electric power stations with a capacity of 147.2 MW which contribute to a total installed capacity of 7557.2 MW. Presently DVC has 49 sub-stations and receiving stations more than 8900 - circuit km of transmission and distribution lines. DVC has also four dams, a barrage and a network of canals (2494 km) that play an effective role in water management. The construction of check dams, development of forests and farms and upland and wasteland treatment developed by DVC play a vital role in eco conservation and environment management.
DVC has a network of four dams - Tilaiya and Maithon on Barakar River, Panchet on Damodar river and Konar on Konar river. Besides, Durgapur barrage and the canal network, handed over to Government of West Bengal in 1964, remained a part of the total system of water management. DVC dams are capable of moderating floods of 6.51 lac cusec to 2.5 lac cusecs.
Four multipurpose dams were constructed during the period 1948 to 1959.
Flood reserve capacity of 1,292 mcm has been provided in 4 reservoirs, which can moderate a peak flood of 18,395 cumec to a safe carrying capacity of 7,076 cumec. 419 mcm of water is stored in the 4 DVC reservoirs to supply 680 cusec of water to meet industrial, municipal and domestic requirements in West Bengal & Jharkhand. The Durgapur barrage on river Damodar was constructed in 1955 for supply of irrigation water to the districts of Burdwan, Bankura & Hooghly.
30,000 hectares (300 km) of land in the upper valley is being irrigated, every year by lift irrigation with the water available from 16,000 (approx) check dams constructed by DVC.
A joint venture company by DVC and Tata Power has been formed to implement 1,050 MW Maithon Right Bank Thermal Power Project for meeting the energy needs of power deficient regions on export basis.
A joint venture of DVC and SAIL has been established to operate and maintain the captive power and steam generation plant, hived off by SAIL and its Bokaro Steel Plant and supply power and steam exclusively to Bokaro Steel Ltd.
A joint venture company formed with Eastern Minerals & Trading Agency for development and operation of Captive Coal Mine Blocks and supply of coal exclusively to DVC Thermal Power Projects of 10th and 11th plan.
The Mining and Allied Machinery Corporation (MAMC) in Durgapur -- one of the PSU 's in India set up under the rupee - rouble agreement and enjoying Soviet patronage in the early sixties. Bharat Earth Movers has the highest stake (48 %) in the consortium while the other two PSUs -- DVC and Coal India -- have 26 % stake each.
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who do the two large marble statues in the school of athens represent | Laocoön and his sons - wikipedia
The statue of Laocoön and His Sons, also called the Laocoön Group (Italian: Gruppo del Laocoonte), has been one of the most famous ancient sculptures ever since it was excavated in Rome in 1506 and placed on public display in the Vatican, where it remains. It is very likely the same statue as that praised in the highest terms by the main Roman writer on art, Pliny the Elder. The figures are near life - size and the group is a little over 2 m (6 ft 7 in) in height, showing the Trojan priest Laocoön and his sons Antiphantes and Thymbraeus being attacked by sea serpents.
The group has been "the prototypical icon of human agony '' in Western art, and unlike the agony often depicted in Christian art showing the Passion of Jesus and martyrs, this suffering has no redemptive power or reward. The suffering is shown through the contorted expressions of the faces (Charles Darwin pointed out that Laocoön 's bulging eyebrows are physiologically impossible), which are matched by the struggling bodies, especially that of Laocoön himself, with every part of his body straining.
Pliny attributes the work, then in the palace of Emperor Titus, to three Greek sculptors from the island of Rhodes: Agesander, Athenodoros and Polydorus, but does not give a date or patron. In style it is considered "one of the finest examples of the Hellenistic baroque '' and certainly in the Greek tradition, but it is not known whether it is an original work or a copy of an earlier sculpture, probably in bronze, or made for a Greek or Roman commission. The view that it is an original work of the 2nd century BC now has few if any supporters, although many still see it as a copy of such a work made in the early Imperial period, probably of a bronze original. Others see it as probably an original work of the later period, continuing to use the Pergamene style of some two centuries earlier. In either case, it was probably commissioned for the home of a wealthy Roman, possibly of the Imperial family. Various dates have been suggested for the statue, ranging from about 200 BC to the 70s AD, though "a Julio - Claudian date (between 27 BC and 68 AD)... is now preferred ''.
Although mostly in excellent condition for an excavated sculpture, the group is missing several parts, and analysis suggests that it was remodelled in ancient times and has undergone a number of restorations since it was excavated. It is on display in the Museo Pio - Clementino, a part of the Vatican Museums.
The story of Laocoön, a Trojan priest, came from the Greek Epic Cycle on the Trojan Wars, though it is not mentioned by Homer. It had been the subject of a tragedy, now lost, by Sophocles and was mentioned by other Greek writers, though the events around the attack by the serpents vary considerably. The most famous account of these is now in Virgil 's Aeneid (see the Aeneid quotation at the entry Laocoön), but this dates from between 29 and 19 BC, which is possibly later than the sculpture. However, some scholars see the group as a depiction of the scene as described by Virgil.
In Virgil Laocoön was a priest of Poseidon who was killed with both his sons after attempting to expose the ruse of the Trojan Horse by striking it with a spear. In Sophocles, on the other hand, he was a priest of Apollo, who should have been celibate but had married. The serpents killed only the two sons, leaving Laocoön himself alive to suffer. In other versions he was killed for having had sex with his wife in the temple of Poseidon, or simply making a sacrifice in the temple with his wife present. In this second group of versions, the snakes were sent by Poseidon and in the first by Poseidon and Athena, or Apollo, and the deaths were interpreted by the Trojans as proof that the horse was a sacred object. The two versions have rather different morals: Laocoön was either punished for doing wrong, or for being right.
The snakes are depicted as both biting and constricting, and are probably intended as venomous, as in Virgil. Pietro Aretino thought so, praising the group in 1537:
... the two serpents, in attacking the three figures, produce the most striking semblances of fear, suffering and death. The youth embraced in the coils is fearful; the old man struck by the fangs is in torment; the child who has received the poison, dies.
In at least one Greek telling of the story the older son is able to escape, and the composition seems to allow for that possibility.
The style of the work is agreed to be that of the Hellenistic "Pergamene baroque '' which arose in Greek Asia Minor around 200 BC, and whose best known undoubtedly original work is the Pergamon Altar (dated ca 180 - 160 BC, now in Berlin). Here the figure of Alcyoneus is shown in a pose and situation (including serpents) which is very similar to those of Laocoön, though the style is "looser and wilder in its principles '' than the altar.
The execution of the Laocoön is extremely fine throughout, and the composition very carefully calculated, even though it appears that the group underwent adjustments in ancient times. The two sons are rather small in scale compared to their father, but this adds to the impact of the central figure. The fine white marble used is often thought to be Greek, but has not been identified by analysis.
In Pliny 's survey of Greek and Roman stone sculpture in his encyclopedic Natural History (XXXVI, 37), he says:
... in the case of several works of very great excellence, the number of artists that have been engaged upon them has proved a considerable obstacle to the fame of each, no individual being able to engross the whole of the credit, and it being impossible to award it in due proportion to the names of the several artists combined. Such is the case with the Laocoön, for example, in the palace of the Emperor Titus, a work that may be looked upon as preferable to any other production of the art of painting or of (bronze) statuary. It is sculptured from a single block, both the main figure as well as the children, and the serpents with their marvellous folds. This group was made in concert by three most eminent artists, Agesander, Polydorus, and Athenodorus, natives of Rhodes.
It is generally accepted that this is the same work as is now in the Vatican. It is now very often thought that the three Rhodians were copyists, perhaps of a bronze sculpture from Pergamon, created around 200 BC. It is noteworthy that Pliny does not address this issue explicitly, in a way that suggests "he regards it as an original ''. Pliny states that it was located in the palace of the emperor Titus, and it is possible that it remained in the same place until 1506 (see "Findspot '' section below). He also asserts that it was carved from a single piece of marble, though the Vatican work comprises at least seven interlocking pieces. The phrase translated above as "in concert '' (de consilii sententia) is regarded by some as referring to their commission rather than the artists ' method of working, giving in Nigel Spivey 's translation: "(the artists) at the behest of council designed a group... '', which Spivey takes to mean that the commission was by Titus, possibly even advised by Pliny among other savants.
The same three artists ' names, though in a different order (Athenodoros, Agesander, and Polydorus), with the names of their fathers, are inscribed on one of the sculptures at Tiberius 's villa at Sperlonga (though they may predate his ownership), but it seems likely that not all the three masters were the same individuals. Though broadly similar in style, many aspects of the execution of the two groups are drastically different, with the Laocoon group of much higher quality and finish.
Some scholars used to think that honorific inscriptions found at Lindos in Rhodes dated Agesander and Athenodoros, recorded as priests, to a period after 42 BC, making the years 42 to 20 BC the most likely date for the Laocoön group 's creation... However the Sperlonga inscription, which also gives the fathers of the artists, makes it clear that at least Agesander is a different individual from the priest of the same name recorded at Lindos, though very possibly related. The names may have recurred across generations, a Rhodian habit, within the context of a family workshop (which might well have included the adoption of promising young sculptors). Altogether eight "signatures '' (or labels) of an Athenodoros are found on sculptures or bases for them, five of these from Italy. Some, including that from Sperlonga, record his father as Agesander. The whole question remains the subject of academic debate.
The group was unearthed in February 1506 in the vineyard of Felice De Fredis; informed of the fact, Pope Julius II, an enthusiastic classicist, sent for his court artists. Michelangelo was called to the site of the unearthing of the statue immediately after its discovery, along with the Florentine architect Giuliano da Sangallo and his eleven - year - old son Francesco da Sangallo, later a sculptor, who wrote an account over sixty years later:
The first time I was in Rome when I was very young, the pope was told about the discovery of some very beautiful statues in a vineyard near Santa Maria Maggiore. The pope ordered one of his officers to run and tell Giuliano da Sangallo to go and see them. So he set off immediately. Since Michelangelo Buonarroti was always to be found at our house, my father having summoned him and having assigned him the commission of the pope 's tomb, my father wanted him to come along, too. I joined up with my father and off we went. I climbed down to where the statues were when immediately my father said, "That is the Laocoön, which Pliny mentions ''. Then they dug the hole wider so that they could pull the statue out. As soon as it was visible everyone started to draw (or "started to have lunch ''), all the while discoursing on ancient things, chatting as well about the ones in Florence.
Julius acquired the group on March 23, giving De Fredis a job as a scribe as well as the customs revenues from one of the gates of Rome. By August the group was placed for public viewing in a niche in the wall of the brand new Belvedere Garden at the Vatican (41 ° 54 ′ 15 '' N 12 ° 27 ′ 17 '' E / 41.90417 ° N 12.45472 ° E / 41.90417; 12.45472), now part of the Vatican Museums, which regard this as the start of their history. As yet it had no base, which was not added until 1511, and from various prints and drawings from the time the older son appears to have been completely detached from the rest of the group.
In July 1798 the statue was taken to France in the wake of the French conquest of Italy, though the replacement parts were left in Rome. It was on display when the new Musée Central des Arts, later the Musée Napoléon, opened at the Louvre in November 1800. A competition was announced for new parts to complete the composition, but there were no entries. Some plaster sections by François Girardon, over 150 years old, were used instead. After Napoleon 's final defeat at the Battle of Waterloo in 1815 most (but certainly not all) the artworks plundered by the French were returned, and the Laocoön reached Rome in January 1816.
When the statue was discovered, Laocoön 's right arm was missing, along with part of the hand of one child and the right arm of the other, and various sections of snake. The older son, on the right, was detached from the other two figures. The age of the altar used as a seat by Laocoön remains uncertain. Artists and connoisseurs debated how the missing parts should be interpreted. Michelangelo suggested that the missing right arms were originally bent back over the shoulder. Others, however, believed it was more appropriate to show the right arms extended outwards in a heroic gesture.
According to Vasari, in about 1510 Bramante, the Pope 's architect, held an informal contest among sculptors to make replacement right arms, which was judged by Raphael, and won by Jacopo Sansovino. The winner, in the outstretched position, was used in copies but not attached to the original group, which remained as it was until 1532, when Giovanni Antonio Montorsoli, a pupil of Michelangelo, added his even more straight version of Laocoön 's outstretched arm, which remained in place until modern times. In 1725 - 27 Agostino Cornacchini added a section to the younger son 's arm, and after 1816 Antonio Canova tidied up the group after their return from Paris, without being convinced by the correctness of the additions but wishing to avoid a controversy.
In 1906 Ludwig Pollak, archaeologist, art dealer and director of the Museo Barracco, discovered a fragment of a marble arm in a builder 's yard in Rome, close to the findspot of the group. Noting a stylistic similarity to the Laocoön group he presented it to the Vatican Museums: it remained in their storerooms for half a century. In 1957 the museum decided that this arm -- bent, as Michelangelo had suggested -- had originally belonged to this Laocoön, and replaced it. According to Paolo Liverani: "Remarkably, despite the lack of a critical section, the join between the torso and the arm was guaranteed by a drill hole on one piece which aligned perfectly with a corresponding hole on the other ''.
In the 1980s the statue was dismantled and reassembled, again with the Pollak arm incorporated. The restored portions of the children 's arms and hands were removed. In the course of disassembly, it was possible to observe breaks, cuttings, metal tenons, and dowel holes which suggested that in antiquity, a more compact, three - dimensional pyramidal grouping of the three figures had been used or at least contemplated. According to Seymour Howard, both the Vatican group and the Sperlonga sculptures "show a similar taste for open and flexible pictorial organization that called for pyrotechnic piercing and lent itself to changes at the site, and in new situations ''. The more open, planographic composition along a plane, used in the restoration of the Laocoön group, has been interpreted as "apparently the result of serial reworkings by Roman Imperial as well as Renaissance and modern craftsmen ''. A different reconstruction was proposed by Seymour Howard, to give "a more cohesive, baroque - looking and diagonally - set pyramidal composition '', by turning the older son as much as 90 °, with his back to the side of the altar, and looking towards the frontal viewer rather than at his father. Other suggestions have been made.
The discovery of the Laocoön made a great impression on Italian artists and continued to influence Italian art into the Baroque period. Michelangelo is known to have been particularly impressed by the massive scale of the work and its sensuous Hellenistic aesthetic, particularly its depiction of the male figures. The influence of the Laocoön, as well as the Belvedere Torso, is evidenced in many of Michelangelo 's later sculptures, such as the Rebellious Slave and the Dying Slave, created for the tomb of Pope Julius II. Several of the ignudi and the figure of Haman in the Sistine Chapel ceiling draw on the figures. Raphael used the face of Laocoön for his Homer in his Parnassus in the Raphael Rooms, expressing blindness rather than pain.
The Florentine sculptor Baccio Bandinelli was commissioned to make a copy by the Medici Pope Leo X. Bandinelli 's version, which was often copied and distributed in small bronzes, is in the Uffizi Gallery, Florence, the Pope having decided it was too good to send to François I of France as originally intended. A bronze casting, made for François I at Fontainebleau from a mold taken from the original under the supervision of Primaticcio, is at the Musée du Louvre. There are many copies of the statue, including a well - known one in the Grand Palace of the Knights of St. John in Rhodes. Many still show the arm in the outstretched position, but the copy in Rhodes has been corrected.
The group was rapidly depicted in prints as well as small models, and became known all over Europe. Titian appears to have had access to a good cast or reproduction from about 1520, and echoes of the figures begin to appear in his works, two of them in the Averoldi Altarpiece of 1520 - 22. A woodcut, probably after a drawing by Titian, parodied the sculpture by portraying three apes instead of humans. It has often been interpreted as a satire on the clumsiness of Bandinelli 's copy, but it has also been suggested that it was a commentary on debates of the time about similarities between human and ape anatomy. Over 15 drawings of the group made by Rubens in Rome have survived, and the influence of the figures can be seen in many of his major works, including his Descent from the Cross in Antwerp Cathedral.
The original was seized and taken to Paris by Napoleon Bonaparte after his conquest of Italy in 1799, and installed in a place of honour in the Musée Napoléon at the Louvre. Following the fall of Napoleon, it was returned by the Allies to the Vatican in 1816.
Pliny 's description of Laocoön as "a work to be preferred to all that the arts of painting and sculpture have produced '' has led to a tradition which debates this claim that the sculpture is the greatest of all artworks. Johann Joachim Winkelmann (1717 - 1768) wrote about the paradox of admiring beauty while seeing a scene of death and failure. The most influential contribution to the debate, Gotthold Ephraim Lessing 's essay Laocoon: An Essay on the Limits of Painting and Poetry, examines the differences between visual and literary art by comparing the sculpture with Virgil 's verse. He argues that the artists could not realistically depict the physical suffering of the victims, as this would be too painful. Instead, they had to express suffering while retaining beauty.
The most unusual intervention in the debate, William Blake 's annotated print Laocoön, surrounds the image with graffiti - like commentary in several languages, written in multiple directions. Blake presents the sculpture as a mediocre copy of a lost Israelite original, describing it as "Jehovah & his two Sons Satan & Adam as they were copied from the Cherubim Of Solomons Temple by three Rhodians & applied to Natural Fact or History of Ilium ''. This reflects Blake 's theory that the imitation of ancient Greek and Roman art was destructive to the creative imagination, and that Classical sculpture represented a banal naturalism in contrast to Judeo - Christian spiritual art.
The central figure of Laocoön served as loose inspiration for the Indian in Horatio Greenough 's The Rescue (1837 -- 1850) which stood before the east facade of the United States Capitol for over 100 years.
Near the end of Charles Dickens ' A Christmas Carol, Ebenezer Scrooge self - describes "making a perfect Laocoön of himself with his stockings '' - which directly references the statue of Laocoön, since Scrooge is in such a rush to get dressed that he becomes entangled in his clothes.
In 1910 the critic Irving Babbit used the title The New Laokoon: An Essay on the Confusion of the Arts for an essay on contemporary culture at the beginning of the 20th century. In 1940 Clement Greenberg adapted the concept for his own essay entitled Towards a Newer Laocoön in which he argued that abstract art now provided an ideal for artists to measure their work against. A 2007 exhibition at the Henry Moore Institute in turn copied this title while exhibiting work by modern artists influenced by the sculpture.
The location where the buried statue was found in 1506 was always known to be "in the vineyard of Felice De Fredis '' on the Oppian Hill (the southern spur of the Esquiline Hill), as noted in the document recording the sale of the group to the Pope. But over time, knowledge of the site 's precise location was lost, beyond "vague '' statements such as Sangallo 's "near Santa Maria Maggiore '' (see above) or it being "near the site of the Domus Aurea '' (the palace of the Emperor Nero); in modern terms near the Colosseum. An inscribed plaque of 1529 in the church of Santa Maria in Aracoeli records the burial of De Fredis and his son there, covering his finding of the group but giving no occupation. Research published in 2010 has recovered two documents in the municipal archives (badly indexed, and so missed by earlier researchers), which have established a much more precise location for the find: slightly to the east of the southern end of the Sette Sale, the ruined cistern for the successive imperial baths at the base of the hill by the Colosseum.
The first document records De Fredis ' purchase of a vineyard of about 1.5 hectares from a convent for 135 ducats on 14 November 1504, exactly 14 months before the finding of the statue. The second document, from 1527, makes it clear that there is now a house on the property, and clarifies the location; by then De Fredis was dead and his widow rented out the house. The house appears on a map of 1748, and still survives as a substantial building of three storeys, as of 2014 in the courtyard of a convent. The area remained mainly agricultural until the 19th century, but is now entirely built up. It is speculated that De Fredis began building the house soon after his purchase, and as the group was reported to have been found some four metres below ground, at a depth unlikely to be reached by normal vineyard - digging operations, it seems likely that it was discovered when digging the foundations for the house, or possibly a well for it.
The findspot was inside and very close to the Servian Wall, which was still maintained in the 1st century AD (possibly converted to an aqueduct), though no longer the city boundary, as building had spread well beyond it. The spot was within the Gardens of Maecenas, founded by Gaius Maecenas the ally of Augustus and patron of the arts. He bequeathed the gardens to Augustus in 8 BC, and Tiberius lived there after he returned to Rome as heir to Augustus in 2 AD. Pliny said the Laocoön was in his time at the palace of Titus (qui est in Titi imperatoris domo), then heir to his father Vespasian, but the location of Titus 's residence remains unknown; the imperial estate of the Gardens of Maecenas may be a plausible candidate. If the Laocoön group was already in the location of the later findspot by the time Pliny saw it, it might have arrived there under Maecenas or any of the emperors. The extent of the grounds of Nero 's Domus Aurea is now unclear, but they do not appear to have extended so far north or east, though the newly rediscovered findspot - location is not very far beyond them.
"Laocoön '' by William Blake, with the texts transcribed
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what's the speed limit in the usa | Speed limits in the United states - wikipedia
Speed limits in the United States are set by each state or territory. Highway speed limits can range from an urban low of 35 mph (56 km / h) to a rural high of 85 mph (137 km / h). Speed limits are typically posted in increments of five miles per hour (8 km / h). Some states have lower limits for trucks and at night, and occasionally there are minimum speed limits. Most speed limits are set by state or local statute, although each state allows various subdivisions (counties and municipalities) to set a different, generally lower, limit.
The highest speed limits are generally 70 mph (113 km / h) on the West Coast and the inland eastern states, 75 -- 80 mph (121 -- 129 km / h) in inland western states, along with Arkansas and Louisiana, and 65 -- 70 mph (105 -- 113 km / h) on the Eastern Seaboard. Alaska, Connecticut, Delaware, Massachusetts, New Jersey, New York, Puerto Rico, Rhode Island, and Vermont have a maximum limit of 65 mph (105 km / h), and Hawaii has a maximum limit of 60 mph (97 km / h). Washington, D.C. and the U.S. Virgin Islands have a maximum speed limit of 55 mph (89 km / h), and Guam and American Samoa have speed limits of 45 mph (72 km / h). Two territories in the U.S. Minor Outlying Islands have their own speed limits: 40 mph (64 km / h) in Wake Island, and 15 mph (24 km / h) in Midway Atoll. Unusual for any state east of the Mississippi River, much of I - 95 in Maine north of Bangor allows up to 75 mph (121 km / h), and the same is true for up to 600 miles of freeways in Michigan. Portions of the Idaho, Montana, Nevada, South Dakota, Texas, Utah, and Wyoming road networks have 80 mph (129 km / h) posted limits. The highest posted speed limit in the entire country can be found on the Texas State Highway 130, and it is 85 mph (137 km / h).
For 13 years (January 1974 -- April 1987), federal law withheld Federal highway trust funds to states that had speed limits above 55 mph (89 km / h). From April 1987 through December 8, 1995, an amended federal law disincentivized speed limits above 65 mph (105 km / h).
This table contains the most usual posted daytime speed limits, in miles per hour, on typical roads in each category. The values shown are not necessarily the fastest or slowest. They usually indicate, but not always, statutory speed limits. Some states and territories have lower truck speed limits applicable to heavy trucks. If present, they are usually only on freeways or other high - speed roadways. Washington allows for speeds up to 75 mph (121 km / h), but the highest posted signs are 70 mph (110 km / h). Mississippi allows speeds up to 80 mph (129 km / h) on toll roads, but no such roads exist. Oklahoma removed the maximum speed of 75 from its laws, though no road has been posted higher than 75.
Freeway: Interstate Highway or other state or U.S. Route built to Interstate standards.
Divided rural: State or U.S. route, generally with four or more lanes, not built to Interstate standards, but with a median or other divider separating directions of travel.
Undivided rural: County, State, or U.S. route, generally with two to four lanes, with no separator between directions of travel.
Residential Street / residential: Residential streets, business districts, or School zones.
(105 - 113 km / h)
Freeway: Interstate Highway or other state - or federally numbered road built to Interstate standards.
Divided: State - or federally numbered road, generally with four or more lanes, not built to Interstate standards, but with a median or other divider separating directions of travel.
Undivided rural: County, State, or U.S. route, generally with two to four lanes, with no separator between directions of travel.
Residential Street / residential: Residential streets, business districts, or School zones.
One of the first speed limits in what would become the United States (at the time, still a British colony) was set in Boston in 1701 by the board of selectmen (similar to a city council):
Ordered, That no person whatsoever Shall at any time hereafter ride or drive a gallop or other extream pace within any of the Streets, lanes, or alleys in this Town on penalty of forfeiting three Shillings for every such offence, and it may be lawfull for any of the Inhabitants of this Town to make Stop of such horse or Rider untill the name of the offender be known in order to prosecution
In response to the 1973 oil crisis, Congress enacted the National Maximum Speed Law that created the universal 55 miles per hour (89 km / h) speed limit. Whether this reduced gasoline consumption is debated and the impact on safety is unclear; studies and opinions of safety advocates are mixed.
The law was widely disregarded by motorists, even after the national maximum was increased to 65 miles per hour (105 km / h) on certain roads in 1987 and 1988. In 1995, the law was repealed, returning the choice of speed limit to each state.
Upon that repeal, there was effectively no speed limit on Montana 's interstates for daytime driving (the nighttime limit was set at 65 mph) from 1995 to 1999, when the state Supreme Court threw out the law as "unconstitutionally vague. '' The state legislature enacted a 75 mph daytime limit in May 1999.
As of May 15, 2017, 41 states have maximum speed limits of 70 mph or higher. 18 of those states have 75 mph speed limits or higher, while 7 states of that same portion have 80 mph speed limits.
In addition to the legally defined maximum speed, minimum speed limits may be applicable. Occasionally, there are default minimum speed limits for certain types of roads, generally freeways.
Comparable to the common basic speed rule, most jurisdictions also have laws prohibiting speeds so low they are dangerous or impede the normal and reasonable flow of traffic.
Some jurisdictions set lower speed limits that are applicable only to large commercial vehicles like heavy trucks and buses. While they are called "truck speed limits '', they generally do not apply to light trucks.
A 1987 study said that crash involvement significantly increases when trucks drive much slower than passenger vehicles, suggesting that the difference in speed between passenger vehicles and slower trucks could cause crashes that otherwise may not happen. In a review of available research, the Transportation Research Board said "(no) conclusive evidence could be found to support or reject the use of differential speed limits for passenger cars and heavy trucks '' and "a strong case can not be made on empirical grounds in support of or in opposition to differential speed limits ''. Another study said that two thirds (67 %) of truck / passenger car crashes are the fault of the passenger vehicle.
The basic speed rule requires drivers adjust speeds to the conditions. This is usually relied upon to regulate proper night speed reductions, if required. Numeric night speed limits, which generally begin 30 minutes after sunset and end 30 minutes before sunrise, are occasionally used where, in theory, safety problems require a speed lower than what is self - selected by drivers.
Examples include:
Some states create arbitrary night speed limits applicable to entire classes of roads. Until September 2011, Texas had a statutory 65 mph (105 km / h) night speed limit for all roads with a higher limit. Montana has a statutory 65 mph (105 km / h) night speed limit on all federal, state, and secondary roads except for Interstates.
Traffic violations can be a lucrative income source for jurisdictions and insurance companies. For example:
Thus, an authority that sets and enforces speed limits, such as a state government, regulates and taxes insurance companies, who also gain revenue from speeding enforcement. Furthermore, such an authority often requires "all '' drivers to have policies with those same companies, solidifying the association between the state and auto insurers. If a driver can not be covered under an insurance policy because of high risk, the state will assume that high risk for a greater monetary amount; thus resulting in even more revenue generation for the state.
When a speed limit is used to generate revenue but has no safety justification, it is called a speed trap. The town of New Rome, Ohio was such a speed trap, where speeding tickets raised up to $400,000 per year to fund the police department of a 12 - acre village with 60 residents.
Reduced speed limits are sometimes enacted for air quality reasons. The most prominent example includes Texas ' environmental speed limits.
Either of the following qualifies a crash as speed - related in accordance with U.S. government rules:
Speeds in excess of speed limits account for most speed - related traffic citations; generally, "driving too fast for conditions '' tickets are issued only after an incident where the ticket issuer found tangible evidence of unreasonable speed, such as a crash.
A criticism of the "exceeding speed limits '' definition of speeding is twofold:
Variable speed limits offer some potential to reduce speed - related crashes. However, due to the high cost of implementation, they exist primarily on freeways. Furthermore, most speed - related crashes occur on local and collector roads, which generally have far lower speed limits and prevailing speeds than freeways.
Most states have absolute speed limits, meaning that a speed in excess of the limit is illegal per se. However, some states have prima facie speed limits. This allows motorists to defend against a speeding charge if it can be proven that the speed was in fact reasonable and prudent.
Speed limits in Texas, Utah, and Rhode Island are prima facie. Some other states have a hybrid system: speed limits may be prima facie up to a certain speed or only on certain roads. For example, speed limits in California up to 55 mph, or 65 mph on highways, are prima facie, and those at or above those speeds are absolute.
A successful prima facie defense is rare. Not only does the burden of proof rest upon the accused, a successful defense may involve expenses well in excess of the cost of a ticket, such as an expert witness. Furthermore, because prima facie defenses must be presented in a court, such a defense is difficult for out - of - town motorists.
Metric speed limits are no longer included in the Federal Highway Administration 's Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices (MUTCD), which provides guidelines for speed limit signage, and therefore, new installations are not legal in the United States. Prior to 2009, a speed limit could be defined in kilometers per hour (km / h) as well as miles per hour (mph). The 2003 version of the MUTCD stated that "speed limits shown shall be in multiples of 10 km / h or 5 mph. '' If a speed limit sign indicated km / h, the number was circumscribed and "km / h '' was written below. Prior to 2003, metric speed limits were designated using the standard speed limit sign, usually with yellow supplemental "METRIC '' and "km / h '' plaques above it and below it, respectively.
In 1995, the National Highway System Designation Act prohibited use of federal funds to finance new metric signage.
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why is the us capital in washington dc | Washington, D.C. - Wikipedia
Washington, D.C., formally the District of Columbia and commonly referred to as Washington or D.C., is the capital of the United States. Founded after the American Revolution as the seat of government of the newly independent country, Washington was named after George Washington, first President of the United States and Founding Father. Washington is the principal city of the Washington metropolitan area, which has a population of 6,131,977. As the seat of the United States federal government and several international organizations, the city is an important world political capital. Washington is one of the most visited cities in the world, with more than 20 million annual tourists.
The signing of the Residence Act on July 16, 1790, approved the creation of a capital district located along the Potomac River on the country 's East Coast. The U.S. Constitution provided for a federal district under the exclusive jurisdiction of the Congress and the District is therefore not a part of any state. The states of Maryland and Virginia each donated land to form the federal district, which included the pre-existing settlements of Georgetown and Alexandria. Named in honor of President George Washington, the City of Washington was founded in 1791 to serve as the new national capital. In 1846, Congress returned the land originally ceded by Virginia; in 1871, it created a single municipal government for the remaining portion of the District.
Washington had an estimated population of 693,972 as of July 2017, making it the 20th largest American city by population. Commuters from the surrounding Maryland and Virginia suburbs raise the city 's daytime population to more than one million during the workweek. The Washington metropolitan area, of which the District is the principal city, has a population of over 6 million, the sixth - largest metropolitan statistical area in the country.
All three branches of the U.S. federal government are centered in the District: U.S. Congress (legislative), President (executive), and the U.S. Supreme Court (judicial). Washington is home to many national monuments and museums, which are primarily situated on or around the National Mall. The city hosts 177 foreign embassies as well as the headquarters of many international organizations, trade unions, non-profit, lobbying groups, and professional associations, including the Organization of American States, AARP, the National Geographic Society, the Human Rights Campaign, the International Finance Corporation, and the American Red Cross.
A locally elected mayor and a 13 ‐ member council have governed the District since 1973. However, Congress maintains supreme authority over the city and may overturn local laws. D.C. residents elect a non-voting, at - large congressional delegate to the House of Representatives, but the District has no representation in the Senate. The District receives three electoral votes in presidential elections as permitted by the Twenty - third Amendment to the United States Constitution, ratified in 1961.
Various tribes of the Algonquian - speaking Piscataway people (also known as the Conoy) inhabited the lands around the Potomac River when Europeans first visited the area in the early 17th century. One group known as the Nacotchtank (also called the Nacostines by Catholic missionaries) maintained settlements around the Anacostia River within the present - day District of Columbia. Conflicts with European colonists and neighboring tribes forced the relocation of the Piscataway people, some of whom established a new settlement in 1699 near Point of Rocks, Maryland.
In his Federalist No. 43, published January 23, 1788, James Madison argued that the new federal government would need authority over a national capital to provide for its own maintenance and safety. Five years earlier, a band of unpaid soldiers besieged Congress while its members were meeting in Philadelphia. Known as the Pennsylvania Mutiny of 1783, the event emphasized the need for the national government not to rely on any state for its own security.
Article One, Section Eight, of the Constitution permits the establishment of a "District (not exceeding ten miles square) as may, by cession of particular states, and the acceptance of Congress, become the seat of the government of the United States ''. However, the Constitution does not specify a location for the capital. In what is now known as the Compromise of 1790, Madison, Alexander Hamilton, and Thomas Jefferson came to an agreement that the federal government would pay each state 's remaining Revolutionary War debts in exchange for establishing the new national capital in the southern United States.
On July 9, 1790, Congress passed the Residence Act, which approved the creation of a national capital on the Potomac River. The exact location was to be selected by President George Washington, who signed the bill into law on July 16. Formed from land donated by the states of Maryland and Virginia, the initial shape of the federal district was a square measuring 10 miles (16 km) on each side, totaling 100 square miles (259 km).
Two pre-existing settlements were included in the territory: the port of Georgetown, Maryland, founded in 1751, and the city of Alexandria, Virginia, founded in 1749. During 1791 -- 92, Andrew Ellicott and several assistants, including a free African American astronomer named Benjamin Banneker, surveyed the borders of the federal district and placed boundary stones at every mile point. Many of the stones are still standing.
A new federal city was then constructed on the north bank of the Potomac, to the east of Georgetown. On September 9, 1791, the three commissioners overseeing the capital 's construction named the city in honor of President Washington. The federal district was named Columbia (a feminine form of "Columbus ''), which was a poetic name for the United States commonly in use at that time. Congress held its first session in Washington on November 17, 1800.
Congress passed the Organic Act of 1801, which officially organized the District and placed the entire territory under the exclusive control of the federal government. Further, the unincorporated area within the District was organized into two counties: the County of Washington to the east of the Potomac and the County of Alexandria to the west. After the passage of this Act, citizens living in the District were no longer considered residents of Maryland or Virginia, which therefore ended their representation in Congress.
On August 24 -- 25, 1814, in a raid known as the Burning of Washington, British forces invaded the capital during the War of 1812. The Capitol, Treasury, and White House were burned and gutted during the attack. Most government buildings were repaired quickly; however, the Capitol was largely under construction at the time and was not completed in its current form until 1868.
In the 1830s, the District 's southern territory of Alexandria went into economic decline partly due to neglect by Congress. The city of Alexandria was a major market in the American slave trade, and pro-slavery residents feared that abolitionists in Congress would end slavery in the District, further depressing the economy. Alexandria 's citizens petitioned Virginia to take back the land it had donated to form the District, through a process known as retrocession.
The Virginia General Assembly voted in February 1846 to accept the return of Alexandria and on July 9, 1846, Congress agreed to return all the territory that had been ceded by Virginia. Therefore, the District 's current area consists only of the portion originally donated by Maryland. Confirming the fears of pro-slavery Alexandrians, the Compromise of 1850 outlawed the slave trade in the District, although not slavery itself.
The outbreak of the American Civil War in 1861 led to the expansion of the federal government and notable growth in the District 's population, including a large influx of freed slaves. President Abraham Lincoln signed the Compensated Emancipation Act in 1862, which ended slavery in the District of Columbia and freed about 3,100 enslaved persons, nine months prior to the Emancipation Proclamation. In 1868, Congress granted the District 's African American male residents the right to vote in municipal elections.
By 1870, the District 's population had grown 75 % from the previous census to nearly 132,000 residents. Despite the city 's growth, Washington still had dirt roads and lacked basic sanitation. Some members of Congress suggested moving the capital further west, but President Ulysses S. Grant refused to consider such a proposal.
Congress passed the Organic Act of 1871, which repealed the individual charters of the cities of Washington and Georgetown, and created a new territorial government for the whole District of Columbia. President Grant appointed Alexander Robey Shepherd to the position of governor in 1873. Shepherd authorized large - scale projects that greatly modernized Washington, but ultimately bankrupted the District government. In 1874, Congress replaced the territorial government with an appointed three - member Board of Commissioners.
The city 's first motorized streetcars began service in 1888 and generated growth in areas of the District beyond the City of Washington 's original boundaries. Washington 's urban plan was expanded throughout the District in the following decades. Georgetown was formally annexed by the City of Washington in 1895. However, the city had poor housing conditions and strained public works. Washington was the first city in the nation to undergo urban renewal projects as part of the "City Beautiful movement '' in the early 1900s.
Increased federal spending as a result of the New Deal in the 1930s led to the construction of new government buildings, memorials, and museums in Washington. World War II further increased government activity, adding to the number of federal employees in the capital; by 1950, the District 's population reached its peak of 802,178 residents.
The Twenty - third Amendment to the United States Constitution was ratified in 1961, granting the District three votes in the Electoral College for the election of president and vice president, but still no voting representation in Congress.
After the assassination of civil rights leader Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr., on April 4, 1968, riots broke out in the District, primarily in the U Street, 14th Street, 7th Street, and H Street corridors, centers of black residential and commercial areas. The riots raged for three days until more than 13,600 federal troops stopped the violence. Many stores and other buildings were burned; rebuilding was not completed until the late 1990s.
In 1973, Congress enacted the District of Columbia Home Rule Act, providing for an elected mayor and 13 - member council for the District. In 1975, Walter Washington became the first elected and first black mayor of the District.
Washington, D.C., is located in the mid-Atlantic region of the U.S. East Coast. Due to the District of Columbia retrocession, the city has a total area of 68.34 square miles (177.0 km), of which 61.05 square miles (158.1 km) is land and 7.29 square miles (18.9 km) (10.67 %) is water. The District is bordered by Montgomery County, Maryland, to the northwest; Prince George 's County, Maryland, to the east; and Arlington and Alexandria, Virginia, to the south and west.
The south bank of the Potomac River forms the District 's border with Virginia and has two major tributaries: the Anacostia River and Rock Creek. Tiber Creek, a natural watercourse that once passed through the National Mall, was fully enclosed underground during the 1870s. The creek also formed a portion of the now - filled Washington City Canal, which allowed passage through the city to the Anacostia River from 1815 until the 1850s. The Chesapeake and Ohio Canal starts in Georgetown and was used during the 19th century to bypass the Little Falls of the Potomac River, located at the northwest edge of Washington at the Atlantic Seaboard fall line.
The highest natural elevation in the District is 409 feet (125 m) above sea level at Fort Reno Park in upper northwest Washington. The lowest point is sea level at the Potomac River. The geographic center of Washington is near the intersection of 4th and L Streets NW.
The District has 7,464 acres (30.21 km) of parkland, about 19 % of the city 's total area and the second - highest percentage among high - density U.S. cities. This factor contributed to Washington, D.C., being ranked as third in the nation for park access and quality in the 2018 ParkScore ranking of the park systems of the 100 most populous cities in the United States, according to the nonprofit Trust for Public Land.
The National Park Service manages most of the 9,122 acres (36.92 km) of city land owned by the U.S. government. Rock Creek Park is a 1,754 - acre (7.10 km) urban forest in Northwest Washington, which extends 9.3 miles (15.0 km) through a stream valley that bisects the city. Established in 1890, it is the country 's fourth - oldest national park and is home to a variety of plant and animal species, including raccoon, deer, owls, and coyotes. Other National Park Service properties include the C&O Canal National Historical Park, the National Mall and Memorial Parks, Theodore Roosevelt Island, Columbia Island, Fort Dupont Park, Meridian Hill Park, Kenilworth Park and Aquatic Gardens, and Anacostia Park. The D.C. Department of Parks and Recreation maintains the city 's 900 acres (3.6 km) of athletic fields and playgrounds, 40 swimming pools, and 68 recreation centers. The U.S. Department of Agriculture operates the 446 - acre (1.80 km) U.S. National Arboretum in Northeast Washington.
Washington is in the northern part of the humid subtropical climate zone (Köppen: Cfa) However, under the Trewartha climate classification, the city has a temperate maritime climate (Do). Winters are usually chilly with light snow, and summers are hot and humid. The District is in plant hardiness zone 8a near downtown, and zone 7b elsewhere in the city, indicating a humid subtropical climate.
Spring and fall are mild to warm, while winter is chilly with annual snowfall averaging 15.5 inches (39 cm). Winter temperatures average around 38 ° F (3 ° C) from mid-December to mid-February. Summers are hot and humid with a July daily average of 79.8 ° F (26.6 ° C) and average daily relative humidity around 66 %, which can cause moderate personal discomfort. The combination of heat and humidity in the summer brings very frequent thunderstorms, some of which occasionally produce tornadoes in the area.
Blizzards affect Washington on average once every four to six years. The most violent storms are called "nor'easters '', which often affect large sections of the East Coast. From January 27 to January 28, 1922, the city officially received 28 inches (71 cm) of snowfall, the largest snowstorm since official measurements began in 1885. According to notes kept at the time, the city received between 30 and 36 inches (76 and 91 cm) from a snowstorm in January 1772.
Hurricanes (or their remnants) occasionally track through the area in late summer and early fall, but are often weak by the time they reach Washington, partly due to the city 's inland location. Flooding of the Potomac River, however, caused by a combination of high tide, storm surge, and runoff, has been known to cause extensive property damage in the neighborhood of Georgetown.
Precipitation occurs throughout the year.
The highest recorded temperature was 106 ° F (41 ° C) on August 6, 1918, and on July 20, 1930. while the lowest recorded temperature was − 15 ° F (− 26 ° C) on February 11, 1899, right before the Great Blizzard of 1899. During a typical year, the city averages about 37 days at or above 90 ° F (32 ° C) and 64 nights at or below 32 ° F (0 ° C). On average, the first day at or below 32 ° F (0 ° C) is November 18 and the last day is March 27.
Washington, D.C., is a planned city. In 1791, President Washington commissioned Pierre (Peter) Charles L'Enfant, a French - born architect and city planner, to design the new capital. He enlisted Scottish surveyor Alexander Ralston to help lay out the city plan. The L'Enfant Plan featured broad streets and avenues radiating out from rectangles, providing room for open space and landscaping. He based his design on plans of cities such as Paris, Amsterdam, Karlsruhe, and Milan that Thomas Jefferson had sent to him. L'Enfant's design also envisioned a garden - lined "grand avenue '' approximately 1 mile (1.6 km) in length and 400 feet (120 m) wide in the area that is now the National Mall. President Washington dismissed L'Enfant in March 1792 due to conflicts with the three commissioners appointed to supervise the capital 's construction. Andrew Ellicott, who had worked with L'Enfant surveying the city, was then tasked with completing the design. Though Ellicott made revisions to the original plans, including changes to some street patterns, L'Enfant is still credited with the overall design of the city.
By the early 1900s, L'Enfant's vision of a grand national capital had become marred by slums and randomly placed buildings, including a railroad station on the National Mall. Congress formed a special committee charged with beautifying Washington 's ceremonial core. What became known as the McMillan Plan was finalized in 1901 and included re-landscaping the Capitol grounds and the National Mall, clearing slums, and establishing a new citywide park system. The plan is thought to have largely preserved L'Enfant's intended design.
By law, Washington 's skyline is low and sprawling. The federal Height of Buildings Act of 1910 allows buildings that are no taller than the width of the adjacent street, plus 20 feet (6.1 m). Despite popular belief, no law has ever limited buildings to the height of the United States Capitol or the 555 - foot (169 m) Washington Monument, which remains the District 's tallest structure. City leaders have criticized the height restriction as a primary reason why the District has limited affordable housing and traffic problems caused by urban sprawl.
The District is divided into four quadrants of unequal area: Northwest (NW), Northeast (NE), Southeast (SE), and Southwest (SW). The axes bounding the quadrants radiate from the U.S. Capitol building. All road names include the quadrant abbreviation to indicate their location and house numbers generally correspond with the number of blocks away from the Capitol. Most streets are set out in a grid pattern with east -- west streets named with letters (e.g., C Street SW), north -- south streets with numbers (e.g., 4th Street NW), and diagonal avenues, many of which are named after states.
The City of Washington was bordered by Boundary Street to the north (renamed Florida Avenue in 1890), Rock Creek to the west, and the Anacostia River to the east. Washington 's street grid was extended, where possible, throughout the District starting in 1888. Georgetown 's streets were renamed in 1895. Some streets are particularly noteworthy, such as Pennsylvania Avenue, which connects the White House to the Capitol and K Street, which houses the offices of many lobbying groups. Washington hosts 177 foreign embassies, constituting approximately 297 buildings beyond the more than 1,600 residential properties owned by foreign countries, many of which are on a section of Massachusetts Avenue informally known as Embassy Row.
The architecture of Washington varies greatly. Six of the top 10 buildings in the American Institute of Architects ' 2007 ranking of "America 's Favorite Architecture '' are in the District of Columbia: the White House, the Washington National Cathedral, the Thomas Jefferson Memorial, the United States Capitol, the Lincoln Memorial, and the Vietnam Veterans Memorial. The neoclassical, Georgian, gothic, and modern architectural styles are all reflected among those six structures and many other prominent edifices in Washington. Notable exceptions include buildings constructed in the French Second Empire style such as the Eisenhower Executive Office Building.
Outside downtown Washington, architectural styles are even more varied. Historic buildings are designed primarily in the Queen Anne, Châteauesque, Richardsonian Romanesque, Georgian revival, Beaux - Arts, and a variety of Victorian styles. Rowhouses are especially prominent in areas developed after the Civil War and typically follow Federalist and late Victorian designs. Georgetown 's Old Stone House was built in 1765, making it the oldest - standing original building in the city. Founded in 1789, Georgetown University features a mix of Romanesque and Gothic Revival architecture. The Ronald Reagan Building is the largest building in the District with a total area of approximately 3.1 million square feet (288,000 m).
The U.S. Census Bureau estimates that the District 's population was 693,972 on July 1, 2017, a 15.3 % increase since the 2010 United States Census. The increase continues a growth trend since 2000, following a half - century of population decline. The city was the 24th most populous place in the United States as of 2010. According to data from 2010, commuters from the suburbs increase the District 's daytime population to over one million people. If the District were a state it would rank 49th in population, ahead of Vermont and Wyoming.
The Washington Metropolitan Area, which includes the District and surrounding suburbs, is the sixth - largest metropolitan area in the United States with an estimated 6 million residents in 2014. When the Washington area is included with Baltimore and its suburbs, the Baltimore -- Washington Metropolitan Area had a population exceeding 9.6 million residents in 2016, the fourth - largest combined statistical area in the country.
According to 2017 Census Bureau data, the population of Washington, D.C., was 47.1 % Black or African American, 45.1 % White (36.8 % non-Hispanic White), 4.3 % Asian, 0.6 % American Indian or Alaska Native, and 0.1 % Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander. Individuals from two or more races made up 2.7 % of the population. Hispanics of any race made up 11.0 % of the District 's population.
Washington has had a significant African American population since the city 's foundation. African American residents composed about 30 % of the District 's total population between 1800 and 1940. The black population reached a peak of 70 % by 1970, but has since steadily declined due to many African Americans moving to the surrounding suburbs. Partly as a result of gentrification, there was a 31.4 % increase in the non-Hispanic white population and an 11.5 % decrease in the black population between 2000 and 2010.
About 17 % of D.C. residents were age 18 or younger in 2010; lower than the U.S. average of 24 %. However, at 34 years old, the District had the lowest median age compared to the 50 states. As of 2010, there were an estimated 81,734 immigrants living in Washington, D.C. Major sources of immigration include El Salvador, Vietnam, and Ethiopia, with a concentration of Salvadorans in the Mount Pleasant neighborhood.
Researchers found that there were 4,822 same - sex couples in the District of Columbia in 2010; about 2 % of total households. Legislation authorizing same - sex marriage passed in 2009 and the District began issuing marriage licenses to same - sex couples in March 2010.
A 2007 report found that about one - third of District residents were functionally illiterate, compared to a national rate of about one in five. This is attributed in part to immigrants who are not proficient in English. As of 2011, 85 % of D.C. residents age 5 and older spoke English at home as a primary language. Half of residents had at least a four - year college degree in 2006. D.C. residents had a personal income per capita of $55,755; higher than any of the 50 states. However, 19 % of residents were below the poverty level in 2005, higher than any state except Mississippi.
Of the District 's population, 17 % is Baptist, 13 % is Catholic, 6 % is evangelical Protestant, 4 % is Methodist, 3 % is Episcopalian / Anglican, 3 % is Jewish, 2 % is Eastern Orthodox, 1 % is Pentecostal, 1 % is Buddhist, 1 % is Adventist, 1 % is Lutheran, 1 % is Muslim, 1 % is Presbyterian, 1 % is Mormon, and 1 % is Hindu.
As of 2010, over 90 % of D.C. residents had health insurance coverage, the second - highest rate in the nation. This is due in part to city programs that help provide insurance to low - income individuals who do not qualify for other types of coverage. A 2009 report found that at least 3 % of District residents have HIV or AIDS, which the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) characterizes as a "generalized and severe '' epidemic.
Crime in Washington, D.C., is concentrated in areas associated with poverty, drug abuse, and gangs. A 2010 study found that 5 % of city blocks accounted for over one - quarter of the District 's total crime.
The more affluent neighborhoods of Northwest Washington are typically safe, especially in areas with concentrations of government operations, such as Downtown Washington, D.C., Foggy Bottom, Embassy Row, and Penn Quarter, but reports of violent crime increase in poorer neighborhoods generally concentrated in the eastern portion of the city. Approximately 60,000 residents are ex-convicts.
In 2012, Washington 's annual murder count had dropped to 88, the lowest total since 1961. The murder rate has since risen from that historic low, though it remains close to half the rate of the early 2000s. Washington was once described as the "murder capital '' of the United States during the early 1990s. The number of murders peaked in 1991 at 479, but the level of violence then began to decline significantly.
In 2016, the District 's Metropolitan Police Department tallied 135 homicides, a 53 % increase from 2012 but a 17 % decrease from 2015. Many neighborhoods such as Columbia Heights and Logan Circle are becoming safer and vibrant. However, incidents of robberies and thefts have remained higher in these areas because of increased nightlife activity and greater numbers of affluent residents. Even still, citywide reports of both property and violent crimes have declined by nearly half since their most recent highs in the mid-1990s.
On June 26, 2008, the Supreme Court of the United States held in District of Columbia v. Heller that the city 's 1976 handgun ban violated the right to keep and bear arms as protected under the Second Amendment. However, the ruling does not prohibit all forms of gun control; laws requiring firearm registration remain in place, as does the city 's assault weapon ban.
In addition to the District 's own Metropolitan Police Department, many federal law enforcement agencies have jurisdiction in the city as well -- most visibly the U.S. Park Police, founded in 1791.
Washington has a growing, diversified economy with an increasing percentage of professional and business service jobs. The gross state product of the District in 2010 was $103.3 billion, which would rank it No. 34 compared to the 50 states. The gross product of the Washington Metropolitan Area was $435 billion in 2014, making it the sixth - largest metropolitan economy in the United States. Between 2009 and 2016, GDP per capita in Washington, D.C has consistently ranked on the very top among U.S. states. In 2016, at $160,472, its GDP per capita is almost three times as high as that of Massachusetts, which ranked second place in the country. As of June 2011, the Washington Metropolitan Area had an unemployment rate of 6.2 %; the second - lowest rate among the 49 largest metro areas in the nation. The District of Columbia itself had an unemployment rate of 9.8 % during the same time period.
In December 2017, 25 % of the employees in Washington, D.C., were employed by a federal governmental agency. This is thought to immunize Washington, D.C., to national economic downturns because the federal government continues operations even during recessions. Many organizations such as law firms, defense contractors, civilian contractors, nonprofit organizations, lobbying firms, trade unions, industry trade groups, and professional associations have their headquarters in or near Washington, D.C., in order to be close to the federal government.
Tourism is Washington 's second - largest industry. Approximately 18.9 million visitors contributed an estimated $4.8 billion to the local economy in 2012. The District also hosts nearly 200 foreign embassies and international organizations such as the World Bank, the International Monetary Fund (IMF), the Organization of American States, the Inter-American Development Bank, and the Pan American Health Organization. In 2008, the foreign diplomatic corps in Washington employed about 10,000 people and contributed an estimated $400 million annually to the local economy.
The District has growing industries not directly related to government, especially in the areas of education, finance, public policy, and scientific research. Georgetown University, George Washington University, Washington Hospital Center, Children 's National Medical Center and Howard University are the top five non-government - related employers in the city as of 2009. According to statistics compiled in 2011, four of the largest 500 companies in the country were headquartered in the District. In the 2017 Global Financial Centres Index, Washington was ranked as having the 12th most competitive financial center in the world, and fifth most competitive in the United States (after New York City, San Francisco, Chicago, and Boston).
The National Mall is a large, open park in downtown Washington between the Lincoln Memorial and the United States Capitol. Given its prominence, the mall is often the location of political protests, concerts, festivals, and presidential inaugurations. The Washington Monument and the Jefferson Pier are near the center of the mall, south of the White House. Also on the mall are the National World War II Memorial at the east end of the Lincoln Memorial Reflecting Pool, the Korean War Veterans Memorial, and the Vietnam Veterans Memorial.
Directly south of the mall, the Tidal Basin features rows of Japanese cherry blossom trees that originated as gifts from the nation of Japan. The Franklin Delano Roosevelt Memorial, George Mason Memorial, Jefferson Memorial, Martin Luther King Jr. Memorial, and the District of Columbia War Memorial are around the Tidal Basin.
The National Archives houses thousands of documents important to American history, including the Declaration of Independence, the United States Constitution, and the Bill of Rights. Located in three buildings on Capitol Hill, the Library of Congress is the largest library complex in the world with a collection of over 147 million books, manuscripts, and other materials. The United States Supreme Court Building was completed in 1935; before then, the court held sessions in the Old Senate Chamber of the Capitol.
The Smithsonian Institution is an educational foundation chartered by Congress in 1846 that maintains most of the nation 's official museums and galleries in Washington, D.C. The U.S. government partially funds the Smithsonian and its collections are open to the public free of charge. The Smithsonian 's locations had a combined total of 30 million visits in 2013. The most visited museum is the National Museum of Natural History on the National Mall. Other Smithsonian Institution museums and galleries on the mall are: the National Air and Space Museum; the National Museum of African Art; the National Museum of American History; the National Museum of the American Indian; the Sackler and Freer galleries, which both focus on Asian art and culture; the Hirshhorn Museum and Sculpture Garden; the Arts and Industries Building; the S. Dillon Ripley Center; and the Smithsonian Institution Building (also known as "The Castle ''), which serves as the institution 's headquarters. The Smithsonian American Art Museum and the National Portrait Gallery are housed in the Old Patent Office Building, near Washington 's Chinatown. The Renwick Gallery is officially part of the Smithsonian American Art Museum but is in a separate building near the White House. Other Smithsonian museums and galleries include: the Anacostia Community Museum in Southeast Washington; the National Postal Museum near Union Station; and the National Zoo in Woodley Park.
The National Gallery of Art is on the National Mall near the Capitol and features works of American and European art. The gallery and its collections are owned by the U.S. government but are not a part of the Smithsonian Institution. The National Building Museum, which occupies the former Pension Building near Judiciary Square, was chartered by Congress and hosts exhibits on architecture, urban planning, and design.
There are many private art museums in the District of Columbia, which house major collections and exhibits open to the public such as the National Museum of Women in the Arts and The Phillips Collection in Dupont Circle, the first museum of modern art in the United States. Other private museums in Washington include the Newseum, the O Street Museum Foundation, the International Spy Museum, the National Geographic Society Museum, the Marian Koshland Science Museum and the Museum of the Bible. The United States Holocaust Memorial Museum near the National Mall maintains exhibits, documentation, and artifacts related to the Holocaust.
Washington, D.C., is a national center for the arts. The John F. Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts is home to the National Symphony Orchestra, the Washington National Opera, and the Washington Ballet. The Kennedy Center Honors are awarded each year to those in the performing arts who have contributed greatly to the cultural life of the United States. The historic Ford 's Theatre, site of the assassination of President Abraham Lincoln, continues to operate as a functioning performance space as well as a museum.
The Marine Barracks near Capitol Hill houses the United States Marine Band; founded in 1798, it is the country 's oldest professional musical organization. American march composer and Washington - native John Philip Sousa led the Marine Band from 1880 until 1892. Founded in 1925, the United States Navy Band has its headquarters at the Washington Navy Yard and performs at official events and public concerts around the city. Washington has a strong local theater tradition. Founded in 1950, Arena Stage achieved national attention and spurred growth in the city 's independent theater movement that now includes organizations such as the Shakespeare Theatre Company, Woolly Mammoth Theatre Company, and the Studio Theatre. Arena Stage opened its newly renovated home in the city 's emerging Southwest waterfront area in 2010. The GALA Hispanic Theatre, now housed in the historic Tivoli Theatre in Columbia Heights, was founded in 1976 and is a National Center for the Latino Performing Arts.
The U Street Corridor in Northwest D.C., known as "Washington 's Black Broadway '', is home to institutions like the Howard Theatre, Bohemian Caverns, and the Lincoln Theatre, which hosted music legends such as Washington - native Duke Ellington, John Coltrane, and Miles Davis. Washington has its own native music genre called go - go; a post-funk, percussion - driven flavor of rhythm and blues that was popularized in the late 1970s by D.C. band leader Chuck Brown.
The District is an important center for indie culture and music in the United States. The label Dischord Records, formed by Ian MacKaye, was one of the most crucial independent labels in the genesis of 1980s punk and eventually indie rock in the 1990s. Modern alternative and indie music venues like The Black Cat and the 9: 30 Club bring popular acts to the U Street area.
Washington is one of 13 cities in the United States with teams from all four major professional men 's sports and is home to one major professional women 's team. The Washington Wizards (National Basketball Association), the Washington Capitals (National Hockey League), and the Washington Mystics (Women 's National Basketball Association), play at the Capital One Arena in Chinatown. Nationals Park, which opened in Southeast D.C. in 2008, is home to the Washington Nationals (Major League Baseball). D.C. United (Major League Soccer) plays at Audi Field. The Washington Redskins (National Football League) play at FedExField in nearby Landover, Maryland.
Current D.C. teams have won a combined eleven professional league championships: the Washington Redskins have won five; D.C. United has won four; and the Washington Wizards (then the Washington Bullets) and Washington Capitals have each won a single championship.
Other professional and semi-professional teams in Washington include: the Washington Kastles (World TeamTennis); the Washington D.C. Slayers (USA Rugby League); the Baltimore Washington Eagles (U.S. Australian Football League); the D.C. Divas (Independent Women 's Football League); and the Potomac Athletic Club RFC (Rugby Super League). The William H.G. FitzGerald Tennis Center in Rock Creek Park hosts the Citi Open. Washington is also home to two major annual marathon races: the Marine Corps Marathon, which is held every autumn, and the Rock ' n ' Roll USA Marathon held in the spring. The Marine Corps Marathon began in 1976 and is sometimes called "The People 's Marathon '' because it is the largest marathon that does not offer prize money to participants.
The District 's four NCAA Division I teams, American Eagles, George Washington Colonials, Georgetown Hoyas and Howard Bison and Lady Bison, have a broad following. The Georgetown Hoyas men 's basketball team is the most notable and also plays at the Capital One Arena. From 2008 to 2012, the District hosted an annual college football bowl game at RFK Stadium, called the Military Bowl. The D.C. area is home to one regional sports television network, Comcast SportsNet (CSN), based in Bethesda, Maryland.
Washington, D.C., is a prominent center for national and international media. The Washington Post, founded in 1877, is the oldest and most - read local daily newspaper in Washington. "The Post '', as it is popularly called, is well known as the newspaper that exposed the Watergate scandal. It had the sixth - highest readership of all news dailies in the country in 2011. The Washington Post Company also publishes a daily free commuter newspaper called the Express, which summarizes events, sports and entertainment, as well as the Spanish - language paper El Tiempo Latino.
Another popular local daily is The Washington Times, the city 's second general interest broadsheet and also an influential paper in political circles. The alternative weekly Washington City Paper also has a substantial readership in the Washington area.
Some community and specialty papers focus on neighborhood and cultural issues, including the weekly Washington Blade and Metro Weekly, which focus on LGBT issues; the Washington Informer and The Washington Afro American, which highlight topics of interest to the black community; and neighborhood newspapers published by The Current Newspapers. Congressional Quarterly, The Hill, Politico and Roll Call newspapers focus exclusively on issues related to Congress and the federal government. Other publications based in Washington include the National Geographic magazine and political publications such as The Washington Examiner, The New Republic and Washington Monthly.
The Washington Metropolitan Area is the ninth - largest television media market in the nation, with two million homes, approximately 2 % of the country 's population. Several media companies and cable television channels have their headquarters in the area, including C - SPAN; Black Entertainment Television (BET); Radio One; the National Geographic Channel; Smithsonian Networks; National Public Radio (NPR); Travel Channel (in Chevy Chase, Maryland); Discovery Communications (in Silver Spring, Maryland); and the Public Broadcasting Service (PBS) (in Arlington, Virginia). The headquarters of Voice of America, the U.S. government 's international news service, is near the Capitol in Southwest Washington.
Article One, Section Eight of the United States Constitution grants the United States Congress "exclusive jurisdiction '' over the city. The District did not have an elected local government until the passage of the 1973 Home Rule Act. The Act devolved certain Congressional powers to an elected mayor, currently Muriel Bowser, and the thirteen - member Council of the District of Columbia. However, Congress retains the right to review and overturn laws created by the council and intervene in local affairs.
Each of the city 's eight wards elects a single member of the council and residents elect four at - large members to represent the District as a whole. The council chair is also elected at - large. There are 37 Advisory Neighborhood Commissions (ANCs) elected by small neighborhood districts. ANCs can issue recommendations on all issues that affect residents; government agencies take their advice under careful consideration. The Attorney General of the District of Columbia, currently Karl Racine, is elected to a four - year term.
Washington, D.C., observes all federal holidays and also celebrates Emancipation Day on April 16, which commemorates the end of slavery in the District. The flag of Washington, D.C., was adopted in 1938 and is a variation on George Washington 's family coat of arms.
The mayor and council set local taxes and a budget, which must be approved by Congress. The Government Accountability Office and other analysts have estimated that the city 's high percentage of tax - exempt property and the Congressional prohibition of commuter taxes create a structural deficit in the District 's local budget of anywhere between $470 million and over $1 billion per year. Congress typically provides additional grants for federal programs such as Medicaid and the operation of the local justice system; however, analysts claim that the payments do not fully resolve the imbalance.
The city 's local government, particularly during the mayoralty of Marion Barry, was criticized for mismanagement and waste. During his administration in 1989, The Washington Monthly magazine claimed that the District had "the worst city government in America. '' In 1995, at the start of Barry 's fourth term, Congress created the District of Columbia Financial Control Board to oversee all municipal spending. Mayor Anthony Williams won election in 1998 and oversaw a period of urban renewal and budget surpluses.
The District regained control over its finances in 2001 and the oversight board 's operations were suspended.
The District is not a state and therefore has no voting representation in Congress. D.C. residents elect a non-voting delegate to the House of Representatives, currently Eleanor Holmes Norton (D - D.C. At - Large), who may sit on committees, participate in debate, and introduce legislation, but can not vote on the House floor. The District has no official representation in the United States Senate. Neither chamber seats the District 's elected "shadow '' representative or senators. Unlike residents of U.S. territories such as Puerto Rico or Guam, which also have non-voting delegates, D.C., residents are subject to all federal taxes. In the financial year 2012, D.C., residents and businesses paid $20.7 billion in federal taxes; more than the taxes collected from 19 states and the highest federal taxes per capita.
A 2005 poll found that 78 % of Americans did not know that residents of the District of Columbia have less representation in Congress than residents of the 50 states. Efforts to raise awareness about the issue have included campaigns by grassroots organizations and featuring the city 's unofficial motto, "Taxation Without Representation '', on D.C. vehicle license plates. There is evidence of nationwide approval for D.C. voting rights; various polls indicate that 61 to 82 % of Americans believe that D.C. should have voting representation in Congress. However, despite public support the solution to the problem is not simple.
Several approaches to resolving these concerns been suggested over the years:
Opponents of D.C. voting rights propose that the Founding Fathers never intended for District residents to have a vote in Congress since the Constitution makes clear that representation must come from the states. Those opposed to making D.C. a state claim that such a move would destroy the notion of a separate national capital and that statehood would unfairly grant Senate representation to a single city, particularly one certain to elect Democratic representatives.
Washington, D.C., has fourteen official sister city agreements. Each of the listed cities is a national capital except for Sunderland, which includes the town of Washington, the ancestral home of George Washington 's family. Paris and Rome are each formally recognized as a partner city due to their special one sister city policy. Listed in the order each agreement was first established, they are:
District of Columbia Public Schools (DCPS) operates the city 's 123 public schools. The number of students in DCPS steadily decreased for 39 years until 2009. In the 2010 -- 11 school year, 46,191 students were enrolled in the public school system. DCPS has one of the highest - cost, yet lowest - performing school systems in the country, both in terms of infrastructure and student achievement. Mayor Adrian Fenty 's administration made sweeping changes to the system by closing schools, replacing teachers, firing principals, and using private education firms to aid curriculum development.
The District of Columbia Public Charter School Board monitors the 52 public charter schools in the city. Due to the perceived problems with the traditional public school system, enrollment in public charter schools has steadily increased. As of fall 2010, D.C., charter schools had a total enrollment of about 32,000, a 9 % increase from the prior year. The District is also home to 92 private schools, which enrolled approximately 18,000 students in 2008. The District of Columbia Public Library operates 25 neighborhood locations including the landmark Martin Luther King Jr. Memorial Library.
Private universities include American University (AU), the Catholic University of America (CUA), Gallaudet University, George Washington University (GW), Georgetown University (GU), Howard University, the Johns Hopkins University School of Advanced International Studies (SAIS), and Trinity Washington University. The Corcoran College of Art and Design, the oldest arts school in the capital, was absorbed into the George Washington University in 2014, now serving as its college of arts.
The University of the District of Columbia (UDC) is a public land - grant university providing undergraduate and graduate education. D.C. residents may also be eligible for a grant of up to $10,000 per year to offset the cost of tuition at any public university in the country.
The District is known for its medical research institutions such as Washington Hospital Center and the Children 's National Medical Center, as well as the National Institutes of Health in Bethesda, Maryland. In addition, the city is home to three medical schools and associated teaching hospitals at George Washington, Georgetown, and Howard universities.
There are 1,500 miles (2,400 km) of streets, parkways, and avenues in the District. Due to the freeway revolts of the 1960s, much of the proposed interstate highway system through the middle of Washington was never built. Interstate 95 (I - 95), the nation 's major east coast highway, therefore bends around the District to form the eastern portion of the Capital Beltway. A portion of the proposed highway funding was directed to the region 's public transportation infrastructure instead. The interstate highways that continue into Washington, including I - 66 and I - 395, both terminate shortly after entering the city.
The Washington Metropolitan Area Transit Authority (WMATA) operates the Washington Metro, the city 's rapid transit system, as well as Metrobus. Both systems serve the District and its suburbs. Metro opened on March 27, 1976 and, as of July 2014, consists of 91 stations and 117 miles (188 km) of track. With an average of about one million trips each weekday, Metro is the second - busiest rapid transit system in the country. Metrobus serves over 400,000 riders each weekday and is the nation 's fifth - largest bus system. The city also operates its own DC Circulator bus system, which connects commercial areas within central Washington.
Union Station is the city 's main train station and services approximately 70,000 people each day. It is Amtrak 's second - busiest station with 4.6 million passengers annually and is the southern terminus for the Northeast Corridor and Acela Express routes. Maryland 's MARC and Virginia 's VRE commuter trains and the Metrorail Red Line also provide service into Union Station. Following renovations in 2011, Union Station became Washington 's primary intercity bus transit center. Three major airports serve the District. Ronald Reagan Washington National Airport is across the Potomac River from downtown Washington in Arlington, Virginia and primarily handles domestic flights. Major international flights arrive and depart from Washington Dulles International Airport, 26.3 miles (42.3 km) west of the District in Fairfax and Loudoun counties in Virginia. Baltimore - Washington International Thurgood Marshall Airport is 31.7 miles (51.0 km) northeast of the District in Anne Arundel County, Maryland.
According to a 2010 study, Washington - area commuters spent 70 hours a year in traffic delays, which tied with Chicago for having the nation 's worst road congestion. However, 37 % of Washington - area commuters take public transportation to work, the second - highest rate in the country. An additional 12 % of D.C. commuters walked to work, 6 % carpooled, and 3 % traveled by bicycle in 2010. A 2011 study by Walk Score found that Washington was the seventh-most walkable city in the country with 80 % of residents living in neighborhoods that are not car dependent. In 2013, the Washington - Arlington - Alexandria metropolitan statistical area (MSA) had the eighth lowest percentage of workers who commuted by private automobile (75.7 percent), with 8 percent of area workers traveling via rail transit.
An expected 32 % increase in transit usage within the District by 2030 has spurred the construction of a new DC Streetcar system to interconnect the city 's neighborhoods. Construction has also started on an additional Metro line that will connect Washington to Dulles airport. The District is part of the regional Capital Bikeshare program. Started in 2010, it is currently one of the largest bicycle sharing systems in the country with over 4,351 bicycles and more than 395 stations all provided by PBSC Urban Solutions. By 2012, the city 's network of marked bicycle lanes covered 56 miles (90 km) of streets.
The District of Columbia Water and Sewer Authority (i.e. WASA or D.C. Water) is an independent authority of the D.C. government that provides drinking water and wastewater collection in Washington. WASA purchases water from the historic Washington Aqueduct, which is operated by the Army Corps of Engineers. The water, sourced from the Potomac River, is treated and stored in the city 's Dalecarlia, Georgetown, and McMillan reservoirs. The aqueduct provides drinking water for a total of 1.1 million people in the District and Virginia, including Arlington, Falls Church, and a portion of Fairfax County. The authority also provides sewage treatment services for an additional 1.6 million people in four surrounding Maryland and Virginia counties.
Pepco is the city 's electric utility and services 793,000 customers in the District and suburban Maryland. An 1889 law prohibits overhead wires within much of the historic City of Washington. As a result, all power lines and telecommunication cables are located underground in downtown Washington, and traffic signals are placed at the edge of the street. A plan announced in 2013 would bury an additional 60 miles (97 km) of primary power lines throughout the District.
Washington Gas is the city 's natural gas utility and serves over one million customers in the District and its suburbs. Incorporated by Congress in 1848, the company installed the city 's first gas lights in the Capitol, the White House, and along Pennsylvania Avenue.
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when does got season 7 ep 5 air | List of Game of Thrones episodes - wikipedia
Game of Thrones is an American fantasy drama television series created by David Benioff and D.B. Weiss. The series is based on the A Song of Ice and Fire novels by author George R.R. Martin. The series takes place on the fictional continents of Westeros and Essos and chronicles the power struggles among noble families as they fight for control of the Iron Throne of the Seven Kingdoms. The series starts when House Stark, led by Lord Eddard "Ned '' Stark (Sean Bean) is drawn into schemes against King Robert Baratheon (Mark Addy) when the Hand of the King Jon Arryn (Robert 's chief advisor) dies mysteriously.
The series premiered on April 17, 2011, on HBO. David Benioff and D.B. Weiss both serve as executive producers along with Carolyn Strauss, Frank Doelger, Bernadette Caulfield and George R.R. Martin. Filming for the series has taken place in a number of locations, including Croatia, Northern Ireland, Iceland and Spain. Episodes are broadcast on Sunday at 9: 00 pm Eastern Time, and the episodes are between 50 and 81 minutes in length. The first six seasons are available on DVD and Blu - ray.
The series was renewed for a seventh season in April 2016, which premiered on July 16, 2017 and consisted of seven episodes. The series will conclude with its eighth season, which will consist of six episodes. As of August 27, 2017, 67 episodes of Game of Thrones have aired, concluding the seventh season. The show 's episodes have won numerous awards including two Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Drama Series.
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what is the role of the ventral root | Ventral root of spinal nerve - Wikipedia
In anatomy and neurology, the ventral root or anterior root is the efferent motor root of a spinal nerve.
At its distal end, the ventral root joins with the dorsal root to form a mixed spinal nerve.
Cervical vertebra
Medulla spinalis
A spinal nerve with its anterior and posterior.
The motor tract.
Diagrammatic transverse section of the medulla spinalis and its membranes.
A portion of the spinal cord, showing its right lateral surface. The dura is opened and arranged to show the nerve roots.
Scheme showing structure of a typical spinal nerve.
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when can mediation be used to assist parties to resolve a dispute | Mediation - wikipedia
Mediation is a dynamic, structured, interactive process where a neutral third party assists disputing parties in resolving conflict through the use of specialized communication and negotiation techniques. All participants in mediation are encouraged to actively participate in the process. Mediation is a "party - centered '' process in that it is focused primarily upon the needs, rights, and interests of the parties. The mediator uses a wide variety of techniques to guide the process in a constructive direction and to help the parties find their optimal solution. A mediator is facilitative in that she / he manages the interaction between parties and facilitates open communication. Mediation is also evaluative in that the mediator analyzes issues and relevant norms ("reality - testing ''), while refraining from providing prescriptive advice to the parties (e.g., "You should do... ").
Mediation, as used in law, is a form of alternative dispute resolution (ADR), a way of resolving disputes between two or more parties with concrete effects. Typically, a third party, the mediator, assists the parties to negotiate a settlement. Disputants may mediate disputes in a variety of domains, such as commercial, legal, diplomatic, workplace, community and family matters.
The term "mediation '' broadly refers to any instance in which a third party helps others reach agreement. More specifically, mediation has a structure, timetable and dynamics that "ordinary '' negotiation lacks. The process is private and confidential, possibly enforced by law. Participation is typically voluntary. The mediator acts as a neutral third party and facilitates rather than directs the process. Mediation is becoming a more peaceful and internationally accepted solution in order to end conflict. Mediation can be used to resolve disputes of any magnitude.
The term "mediation '', however, due to language as well as national legal standards and regulations is not identical in content in all countries but rather has specific connotations and there are quite some differences between Anglo - Saxon definitions and other countries, especially countries with a civil, statutory law tradition like Germany or Austria.
Mediators use various techniques to open, or improve, dialogue and empathy between disputants, aiming to help the parties reach an agreement. Much depends on the mediator 's skill and training. As the practice gained popularity, training programs, certifications and licensing followed, producing trained, professional mediators committed to the discipline.
The activity of mediation appeared in very ancient times. Historians located early cases in Ancient India 10,000 BC or earliest developed and in western countries Phoenician commerce. The practice developed in Ancient Greece (which knew the non-marital mediator as a proxenetas), then in Roman civilization. (Roman law, starting from Justinian 's Digest of 530 - 533 CE) recognized mediation. The Romans called mediators by a variety of names, including internuncius, medium, intercessor, philantropus, interpolator, conciliator, interlocutor, interpres, and finally mediator.
Some cultures regarded the mediator as a sacred figure, worthy of particular respect; and the role partly overlapped with that of traditional wise men or tribal chief. Members of peaceful communities frequently brought disputes before local leaders or wise men to resolve local conflicts. This peaceful method of resolving conflicts was particularly prevalent in communities of Confucians and Buddhists.
The benefits of mediation include:
In addition to dispute resolution, mediation can function as a means of dispute prevention, such as facilitating the process of contract negotiation. Governments can use mediation to inform and to seek input from stakeholders in formulation or fact - seeking aspects of policy - making. Mediation is applicable to disputes in many areas:
Family:
Workplace:
Commercial:
Public disputes:
Other:
Within business and commercial mediation, frequently a distinction is made between business - to - business (B2B), business - to - employee (B2E) and business - to - consumer (B2C) situations.
Since the early 1980s a number of institutions have championed mediation. The Independent Mediation Service of South Africa (IMSSA) was established in 1984. It trained mediators who then worked through Local Dispute Resolution Committees set up as part of the National Peace Accord. Initial training was undertaken by the UK 's ACAS. IMSSA covers mediation within unionised environments. The more recently created Commission for Conciliation, Mediation and Arbitration (CCMA) was formed as result of the Labour Relation Act No 66 1995, and replaced the Industrial Courts in handling large areas of employment disputes.
Informal processes that engage a community in more holistic solution - finding are growing.
After 1995, the country established a legal right to take an employment dispute to conciliation / mediation. Mediation agreements are binding in law. The process has grown from generally covering collective agreements such as for wages or terms and conditions, to encompass more individual matters including dismissal.
Mediation was not always successful. In a Southern Cape town case, mediation with two municipal unions did not restore relationships and led to a worse breakdown.
Mediation evolved to include Med / Arb, Con / Arb and Arb / Med.
ADR, Alternative Dispute Resolution, began in industrial relations in Australia long before the arrival of the modern ADR movement. One of the first statutes passed by the Commonwealth parliament was the Conciliation and Arbitration Act 1904 (Cth). This allowed the Federal Government to pass laws on conciliation and arbitration for the prevention and settlement of industrial disputes extending beyond the limits of any one state. Conciliation has been the most prominently used form of ADR, and is generally far removed from modern mediation.
Significant changes in state policy took place from 1996 to 2007. The 1996 Workplace Relations Act (Cth) sought to shift the industrial system away from a collectivist approach, where unions and the Australian Industrial Relations Commission (AIRC) had strong roles, to a more decentralized system of individual bargaining between employers and employees. The Act diminished the traditional role of the AIRC by placing the responsibility of resolving disputes at the enterprise level. This allowed mediation to be used to resolve industrial relations disputes instead of traditional conciliation.
In industrial relations under the 2006 WorkChoices amendments to the Workplace Relations Act. Examples of this use of mediation can be seen in recent enterprise bargaining negotiations. The Australian government claimed the benefits of mediation to include the following:
The implementation of human resource management (HRM) policies and practices has evolved to focus on the individual worker, and rejects all other third parties such as unions and AIRC. HRM together with the political and economic changes undertaken by Australia 's Howard government created an environment where private ADR can be fostered in the workplace.
The decline of unionism and the rise of the individual encouraged the growth of mediation. This is demonstrated in the industries with the lowest unionization rates such as in the private business sector having the greatest growth of mediation.
The 2006 Work Choices Act made further legislative changes to deregulate industrial relations. A key element of the new changes was to weaken the AIRC by encouraging competition with private mediation.
A great variety of disputes occur in the workplace, including disputes between staff members, allegations of harassment, contractual disputes and workers compensation claims. At large, workplace disputes are between people who have an ongoing working relationship within a closed system, which indicate that mediation or a workplace investigation would be appropriate as dispute resolution processes. However the complexity of relationships, involving hierarchy, job security and competitiveness can complicate mediation.
Party - Directed Mediation (PDM) is an emerging mediation approach particularly suited for disputes between co-workers, colleagues or peers, especially deep - seated interpersonal conflict, multicultural or multiethnic disputes. The mediator listens to each party separately in a pre-caucus or pre-mediation before ever bringing them into a joint session. Part of the pre-caucus also includes coaching and role plays. The idea is that the parties learn how to converse directly with their adversary in the joint session. Some unique challenges arise when organizational disputes involve supervisors and subordinates. The Negotiated Performance Appraisal (NPA) is a tool for improving communication between supervisors and subordinates and is particularly useful as an alternate mediation model because it preserves the hierarchical power of supervisors while encouraging dialogue and dealing with differences in opinion.
Disputes involving neighbors often have no official resolution mechanism. Community mediation centers generally focus on neighborhood conflict, with trained local volunteers serving as mediators. Such organizations often serve populations that can not afford to utilize the courts or professional ADR - providers. Community programs typically provide mediation for disputes between landlords and tenants, members of homeowners associations and small businesses and consumers. Many community programs offer their services for free or at a nominal fee.
Experimental community mediation programs using volunteer mediators began in the early 1970s in several major U.S. cities. These proved to be so successful that hundreds of programs were founded throughout the country in the following two decades. In some jurisdictions, such as California, the parties have the option of making their agreement enforceable in court.
In Australia mediation was incorporated extensively into family law Family Law Act 1975 and the 2006 Amendments Mandatory, subject to certain exceptions, Family Dispute Resolution Mediation is required before courts will consider disputed parenting arrangements. The Family Dispute Resolution Practitioners who provide this service are accredited by the Attorney - Generals Department
A peer mediator is one who resembles the disputants, such as being of similar age, attending the same school or having similar status in a business. Purportedly, peers can better relate to the disputants than an outsider.
Peer mediation promotes social cohesion and aids development of protective factors that create positive school climates. The National Healthy School Standard (Department for Education and Skills, 2004) highlighted the significance of this approach to reducing bullying and promoting pupil achievement. Schools adopting this process recruit and train interested students to prepare them.
Peace Pals is an empirically validated peer mediation program. was studied over a 5 - year period and revealed several positive outcomes including a reduction in elementary school violence and enhanced social skills, while creating a more positive, peaceful school climate.
Peer mediation helped reduce crime in schools, saved counselor and administrator time, enhanced self - esteem, improved attendance and encouraged development of leadership and problem - solving skills among students. Such conflict resolution programs increased in U.S. schools 40 % between 1991 and 1999.
Peace Pals was studied in a diverse, suburban elementary school. Peer mediation was available to all students (N = 825). Significant and long - term reductions in school - wide violence over a five - year period occurred. The reductions included both verbal and physical conflict. Mediator knowledge made significant gains pertaining to conflict, conflict resolution and mediation, which was maintained at 3 - month follow - up. Additionally, mediators and participants viewed the Peace Pals program as effective and valuable, and all mediation sessions resulted in successful resolution.
Mediation was first applied to business and commerce and this domain remains the most common application, as measured by number of mediators and the total exchanged value. The result of business mediation is typically a bilateral contract.
Commercial mediation includes work in finance, insurance, ship - brokering, procurement and real estate. In some areas, mediators have specialized designations and typically operate under special laws. Generally, mediators can not themselves practice commerce in markets for goods in which they work as mediators.
Procurement mediation comprises disputes between a public body and a private body. In common law jurisdictions only regulatory stipulations on creation of supply contracts that derive from the fields of State Aids (EU Law and domestic application) or general administrative guidelines extend ordinary laws of commerce. The general law of contract applies in the UK accordingly. Procurement mediation occurs in circumstances after creation of the contract where a dispute arises in regard to the performance or payments. A Procurement mediator in the UK may choose to specialise in this type of contract or a public body may appoint an individual to a specific mediation panel.
In response to the Mabo decision, the Australian Government sought to engage the population and industry on Mabo 's implications for land tenure and use by enacting the Native Title Act 1993 (Cth), which required mediation as a mechanism to determine future native title rights. The process incorporated the Federal Court and the National Native Title Tribunal (NNTT). Mediation can occur in parallel with legal challenges, such as occurred in Perth.
Some features of native title mediation that distinguish it from other forms include lengthy time frames, the number of parties (ranging on occasion into the hundreds) and that statutory and case law prescriptions constrain some aspects of the negotiations.
Mediation 's effectiveness in trans - border disputes has been questioned, but an understanding of fundamental mediation principles points to the unlimited potential of mediation in such disputes. Mediators explicitly address and manage cultural and language differences in detail during the process. Voluntary referral to mediation is not required -- many mediations reach the table through binding contractual provisions, statutes, treaties, or international agreements and accords. The principle of voluntariness applies to the right of parties to self - determination once they are in the mediation -- not to the mechanism for initiating the mediation process. Many mediations also result form mutual consent because they are non-binding and they encourage the exploration of interests and mutual benefits of an agreement. Because the parties, themselves, create the terms of agreement, compliance with mediated settlement agreements is relatively high. Any compliance or implementation issues can be addressed by follow - up mediation, regular compliance monitoring, and other processes.
The mediator 's primary role is to act as a neutral third party who facilitates discussions between the parties. In addition, a mediator serves in an evaluative role when they analyze, assess the issues, and engage in reality - testing. A mediator is neutral and they are not the agent of any party. In their role, mediator 's do not offer prescriptive advice (e.g., "You should settle this case, '' or, "Your next offer should be X. ''). Mediators also manage the interaction between the parties and encourage constructive communication through the use of specialized communication techniques.
Finally, the mediator should restrict pressure, aggression and intimidation, demonstrate how to communicate through employing good speaking and listening skills, and paying attention to non-verbal messages and other signals emanating from the context of the mediation and possibly contributing expertise and experience. The mediator should direct the parties to focus on issues and stay away from personal attacks.
The role of the parties varies according to their motivations and skills, the role of legal advisers, the model of mediation, the style of mediator and the culture in which the mediation takes place. Legal requirements may also affect their roles. Party - Directed Mediation (PDM) is an emerging approach involving a pre-caucus between the mediator and each of the parties before going into the joint session. The idea is to help the parties improve their interpersonal negotiation skills so that in the joint session they can address each other with little mediator interference.
One of the general requirements for successful mediation is that those representing the respective parties have full authority to negotiate and settle the dispute. If this is not the case, then there is what Spencer and Brogan refer to as the "empty chair '' phenomenon, that is, the person who ought to be discussing the problem is simply not present.
The parties ' first role is to consent to mediation, possibly before preparatory activities commence. Parties then prepare in much the same way they would for other varieties of negotiations. Parties may provide position statements, valuation reports and risk assessment analysis. The mediator may supervise / facilitate their preparation and may require certain preparations.
Agreements to mediate, mediation rules, and court - based referral orders may have disclosure requirements. Mediators may have express or implied powers to direct parties to produce documents, reports and other material. In court - referred mediations parties usually exchange with each other all material which would be available through discovery or disclosure rules were the matter to proceed to hearing, including witness statements, valuations and statement accounts.
Mediation requires direct input from the parties. Parties must attend and participate in the mediation meeting. Some mediation rules require parties to attend in person. Participation at one stage may compensate for absence at another stage.
Choose an appropriate mediator, considering experience, skills, credibility, cost, etc. The criteria for mediator competence is under dispute. Competence certainly includes the ability to remain neutral and to move parties though various impasse - points in a dispute. The dispute is over whether expertise in the subject matter of the dispute should be considered or is actually detrimental to the mediator 's objectivity.
Preparatory steps for mediation can vary according to legal and other requirements, not least gaining the willingness of the parties to participate.
In some court - connected mediation programs, courts require disputants to prepare for mediation by making a statement or summary of the subject of the dispute and then bringing the summary to the mediation. In other cases, determining the matter (s) at issue can become part of the mediation itself.
Consider having the mediator meet the disputants prior to the mediation meeting. This can reduce anxiety, improve settlement odds and increase satisfaction with the mediation process.
Ensure that all participants are ready to discuss the dispute in a reasonably objective fashion. Readiness is improved when disputants consider the viability of various outcomes.
Provide reasonable estimates of loss and / or damage.
Identify other participants. In addition to the disputants and the mediator, the process may benefit from the presence of counsel, subject - matter experts, interpreters, family, etc.
Secure a venue for each mediation session. The venue must foster the discussion, address any special needs, protect privacy and allow ample discussion time.
Ensure that supporting information such as pictures, documents, corporate records, pay - stubs, rent - rolls, receipts, medical reports, bank - statements, etc., are available.
Have parties sign a contract that addresses procedural decisions, including confidentiality, mediator payment, communication technique, etc.
The typical mediation has no formal compulsory elements, although some elements usually occur:
Individual mediators vary these steps to match specific circumstances, given that the law does not ordinarily govern mediators ' methods.
Ratification and review provide safeguards for mediating parties. They also provide an opportunity for persons not privy to the mediation to undermine the result. Some mediated agreements require ratification by an external body -- such as a board, council or cabinet. In some situations the sanctions of a court or other external authority must explicitly endorse a mediation agreement. Thus if a grandparent or other non-parent is granted residence rights in a family dispute, a court counselor will be required to furnish a report to the court on merits of the proposed agreement to aid the court 's ultimate disposition of the case. In other situations it may be agreed to have agreements reviewed by lawyers, accountants or other professional advisers.
The implementation of mediated agreements must comply with the statues and regulations of the governing jurisdiction.
Parties to a private mediation may also wish to obtain court sanction for their decisions. Under the Queensland regulatory scheme on court connected mediation, mediators are required to file with a registrar a certificate about the mediation in a form prescribed in the regulations. A party may subsequently apply to a relevant court an order giving effect to the agreement reached. Where court sanction is not obtained, mediated settlements have the same status as any other agreements.
Mediators may at their discretion refer one or more parties to psychologists, accountants, social workers or others for post-mediation professional assistance.
In some situations, a post-mediation debriefing and feedback session is conducted between co-mediators or between mediators and supervisors. It involves a reflective analysis and evaluation of the process. In many community mediation services debriefing is compulsory and mediators are paid for the debriefing session.
Mediation recognized that in addition to the fact of reaching a settlement, party satisfaction and mediator competence could be measured. Surveys of mediation parties reveal strong levels of satisfaction with the process. Of course, if parties are generally satisfied post-settlement, then such measures may not be particularly explanatory.
The educational requirements for accreditation as a mediator differ between accrediting groups and from country to country. In some cases legislation mandates requirements; in others professional bodies impose accreditation standards. Many US universities offer graduate studies in mediation, culminating in the PhD or DMed degrees.
In Australia, for example, professionals wanting to practice in the area of family law must have tertiary qualifications in law or in social science, undertake 5 days training in mediation and engage in 10 hours of supervised mediation. Furthermore, they must also undertake 12 hours of education or training every 12 months.
Other institutions offer units in mediation across a number of disciplines such as law, social science, business and the humanities. Not all kinds of mediation - work require academic qualifications, as some deal more with practical skills than with theoretical knowledge. Membership organizations provide training courses. Internationally a similar approach to the training of mediators is taken by organizations such as the Centre for Effective Dispute Resolution, CEDR. Based in London, it has trained over 5000 CEDR mediators from different countries to date.
No legislated national standards on the level of education apply to all practitioner 's organizations. However, organizations such as the National Alternative Dispute Resolution Advisory Council (NADRAC) advocate for a wide scope on such issues. Other systems apply in other jurisdictions such as Germany, which advocates a higher level of educational qualification for practitioners of mediation.
Common elements of codes of conduct include:
In Australia mediation codes of conduct include those developed by the Law Societies of South Australia and Western Australia and those developed by organisations such as Institute of Arbitrators & Mediators Australia (IAMA) and LEADR. The CPR / Georgetown Ethics Commission, the Mediation Forum of the Union International des Avocats, and the European Commission have promulgated codes of conduct for mediators.
In Canada codes of conduct for mediators are set by professional organizations. In Ontario three distinct professional organizations maintain codes of conduct for mediators. The Family Dispute Resolution Institute of Ontario and the Ontario Association of Family Mediators set standards for their members who mediate family matters and the Alternative Dispute Resolution Institute of Ontario who sets standards for their members.
The Alternative Dispute Resolution Institute of Ontario, a regional affiliate of the Alternative Dispute Resolution Institute of Canada, uses the code of conduct from the federal organization to regulate the conduct of its members. The Code 's three objectives are to provide guiding principles for the conduct of mediators; to promote confidence in mediation as a process for resolving disputes; and to provide protection for members of the public who use mediators who are members of the institute.
In France, professional mediators have created an organization to develop a rational approach to conflict resolution. This approach is based on a "scientific '' definition of a person and a conflict. These definitions help to develop a structured mediation process. Mediators have adopted a code of ethics which guarantees professionalism.
In Germany, due to the Mediation Act of 2012, mediation as a process and the responsibilities of a mediator are legally defined. Based on the German language and the specific codification (so - called "funktionaler Mediator '') one has to take into account, that all persons who "mediate '' in a conflict (definied as facilitation without evaluation and proposals for solution!) are tied to the provisions of the Mediation Act even if they call their approach / process not mediation but facilitation (Prozessbegleitung), conciliation (Schlichtung), conflict counseling (Konflikt - Beratung), consulting (Organisationsberatung), conflict coaching or what so ever. For example, according to sec. 2 and sec. 3 of the German Mediation Act, the mediator has certain information and disclosure obligations as well as limittions of practice. In particular, a person who has been in any form of (legal, social, financial, etc.) counseling role to a party in this matter is not allowed to act as a mediator in the case (sec. 3 par. 3 and 4 German Mediation ACT -- so called "Vorbefassungsverbot '').
A range of organizations within Australia accredit mediators. Standards vary according to the specific mediation and the level of specificity that is desired. Standards apply to particular ADR processes.
The National Mediator Accreditation System (NMAS) commenced operation on 1 January 2008. It is an industry - based scheme which relies on voluntary compliance by mediator organisations that agree to accredit mediators in accordance with the requisite standards.
Mediator organizations have varying ideals of what makes a good mediator which reflect the training and accreditation of that particular organization. Australia did not adopt a national accreditation system, which may lead to suboptimal choice of mediators.
According to sec. 6 German Mediation Act the German government on June 21, 2016 has released the German regulation about education and training of the so - called (legal term) "certified mediators '' which from Sept. 1, 2017 postulates a minimum of 120 hours of initial specialized mediator training as well as case supervision and further ongoing training of 40 hours within 4 years. Beyond this basic qualification, the leading mediation associations (BAFM, BM, BMWA and DGM) have agreed on quality standards higher than the minimum standards of the national regulation to certify their mediators. To become an accredited mediator of these associations one has to complete an accredited mediation training program of a minimum of 200 hours incl. 30 hours of supervision as well as ongoing training (30 - 40 hours within three years). ''
Mediator selection is of practical significance given varying models of mediation, mediators ' discretion in structuring the process and the impact of the mediator 's professional background and personal style on the result.
In community mediation programs the director generally assigns mediators. In New South Wales, for example, when the parties can not agree on a mediator, the registrar contacts a nominating entity, such as the Bar Association which supplies the name of a qualified and experienced mediator.
As of 2006, formal mechanisms for objecting to the appointment of a particular mediator had not been established. Parties could ask the mediator to withdraw for reasons of conflict of interest. In some cases, legislation establishes criteria for mediators. In New South Wales, for example, the Family Law Act 1975 (Cth) proscribes qualifications for mediators.
The following are useful criteria for selecting a mediator:
Contracts that specify mediation may also specify a third party to suggest or impose an individual. Some third parties simply maintain a list of approved individuals, while others train mediators. Lists may be "open '' (any person willing and suitably qualified can join) or a "closed '' panel (invitation only).
In the UK and internationally, lists are generally open, such as The Chartered Institute of Arbitrators, the Centre for Effective Dispute Resolution. Alternatively, private panels co-exist and compete for appointments e.g., Savills Mediation.
Legal liability may stem from a mediation. For example, a mediator could be liable for misleading the parties or for even inadvertently breaching confidentiality. Despite such risks, follow - on court action is quite uncommon. Only one case reached that stage in Australia as of 2006. Damage awards are generally compensatory in nature. Proper training is mediators ' best protection.
Liability can arise for the mediator from Liability in Contract; Liability in Tort; and Liability for Breach of Fiduciary Obligations.
Liability in Contract arises if a mediator breaches (written or verbal) contract with one or more parties. The two forms of breach are failure to perform and anticipatory breach. Limitations on liability include the requirement to show actual causation.
Liability in Tort arises if a mediator influences a party in any way (compromising the integrity of the decision), defames a party, breaches confidentiality, or most commonly, is negligent. To be awarded damages, the party must show actual damage, and must show that the mediator 's actions (and not the party 's actions) were the actual cause of the damage.
Liability for Breach of Fiduciary Obligations can occur if parties misconceive their relationship with a mediator as something other than neutrality. Since such liability relies on a misconception, court action is unlikely to succeed.
As of 2008 Tapoohi v Lewenberg was the only case in Australia that set a precedent for mediators ' liability.
The case involved two sisters who settled an estate via mediation. Only one sister attended the mediation in person: the other participated via telephone with her lawyers present. An agreement was executed. At the time it was orally expressed that before the final settlement, taxation advice should be sought as such a large transfer of property would trigger capital gains taxes.
Tapoohi paid Lewenberg $1.4 million in exchange for land. One year later, when Tapoohi realized that taxes were owed, she sued her sister, lawyers and the mediator based on the fact that the agreement was subject to further taxation advice.
The original agreement was verbal, without any formal agreement. Tapoohi, a lawyer herself, alleged that the mediator breached his contractual duty, given the lack of any formal agreement; and further alleged tortious breaches of his duty of care.
Although the court dismissed the summary judgment request, the case established that mediators owe a duty of care to parties and that parties can hold them liable for breaching that duty of care. Habersberger J held it "not beyond argument '' that the mediator could be in breach of contractual and tortious duties. Such claims were required to be assessed at a trial court hearing.
This case emphasized the need for formal mediation agreements, including clauses that limit mediators ' liability.
Within the United States, the laws governing mediation vary by state. Some states have clear expectations for certification, ethical standards and confidentiality. Some also exempt mediators from testifying in cases they 've worked on. However, such laws only cover activity within the court system. Community and commercial mediators practising outside the court system may not have such legal protections. State laws regarding lawyers may differ widely from those that cover mediators. Professional mediators often consider the option of liability insurance.
Evaluative mediation is focused on providing the parties with an evaluation of their case and directing them toward settlement. During an evaluative mediation process, when the parties agree that the mediator should do so, the mediator will express a view on what might be a fair or reasonable settlement. The Evaluative mediator has somewhat of an advisory role in that s / he evaluates the strengths and weaknesses of each side 's argument and makes some predictions about what would happen should they go to court. Facilitative and transformative mediators do not evaluate arguments or direct the parties to a particular settlement. In Germany, due to national regulation "evaluative mediation '' is seen as an oxymoron and not allowed by the German mediation Act. Therefore, in Germany mediation is purly facilitative.
Facilitative mediators typically do not evaluate a case or direct the parties to a particular settlement. Instead, the Facilitative mediator facilitates the conversation. These mediators act as guardian of the process, not the content or the outcome. During a facilitative mediation session the parties in dispute control both what will be discussed and how their issues will be resolved. Unlike the transformative mediator, the facilitative mediator is focused on helping the parties find a resolution to their dispute and to that end, the facilitative mediator provides a structure and agenda for the discussion.
Transformative mediation looks at conflict as a crisis in communication. Success is not measured by settlement but by the parties shifts toward (a) personal strength, (b) interpersonal responsiveness, (c) constructive interaction, (d) new understandings of themselves and their situation, (e) critically examining the possibilities, (f) feeling better about each other, and (g) making their own decisions. Those decisions can include settlement agreements or not. Transformative mediation practice is focused on supporting empowerment and recognition shifts, by allowing and encouraging deliberation, decision - making, and perspective - taking. A competent transformative mediator practices with a microfocus on communication, identifying opportunities for empowerment and recognition as those opportunities appear in the parties ' own conversations, and responding in ways that provide an opening for parties to choose what, if anything, to do with them.
"The person is not the problem; the problem is the problem. ''
The Narrative approach to mediation shares with Narrative Therapy an emphasis on constructing stories as a basic human activity in understanding our lives and conflict. This approach emphasizes the sociological / psychological nature of conflict - saturated narratives, and values human creativity in acting and reacting to these narratives. "The narrative metaphor draws attention to the ways in which we use stories to make sense of our lives and our relationship. '' Narrative mediation advocates changing the way we speak about conflicts. In objectifying the conflict narrative, participants become less attached to the problem and more creative in seeking solutions.
Coming out of the tradition of Narrative Therapy, Narrative Mediation is a creative approach to mediation, contrasting a bargaining style, where creative solutions are fostered rather than simple compromise and bargaining.
Mediation has sometimes been utilized to good effect when coupled with arbitration, particularly binding arbitration, in a process called ' mediation / arbitration '. The process begins as a standard mediation, but if mediation fails, the mediator becomes an arbiter.
This process is more appropriate in civil matters where rules of evidence or jurisdiction are not in dispute. It resembles, in some respects, criminal plea - bargaining and Confucian judicial procedure, wherein the judge also plays the role of prosecutor -- rendering what, in Western European court procedures, would be considered an arbitral (even ' arbitrary ') decision.
Mediation / arbitration hybrids can pose significant ethical and process problems for mediators. Many of the options and successes of mediation relate to the mediator 's unique role as someone who wields no coercive power over the parties or the outcome. The parties awareness that the mediator might later act in the role of judge could distort the process. Using a different individual as the arbiter addresses this concern.
Online mediation employs online technology to provide disputants access to mediators and each other despite geographic distance, disability or other barriers to direct meeting. Online approaches also facilitate mediation when the value of the dispute does not justify the cost of face - to - face contact. Online mediation can also combine with face - to - face mediation -- to allow mediation to begin sooner and / or to conduct preliminary discussions.
Neutral mediators enter into a conflict with the main intention in ending a conflict. This goal tends to hasten a mediator to reach a conclusion. Biased mediators enter into a conflict with specific biases in favor of one party or another. Biased mediators look to protect their parties interest thus leading to a better, more lasting resolution.
Mediation is one of several approaches to resolving disputes. It differs from adversarial resolution processes by virtue of its simplicity, informality, flexibility, and economy.
Not all disputes lend themselves well to mediation. Success is unlikely unless:
Conciliation sometimes serves as an umbrella - term that covers mediation and facilitative and advisory dispute - resolution processes. Neither process determines an outcome, and both share many similarities. For example, both processes involve a neutral third - party who has no enforcing powers.
One significant difference between conciliation and mediation lies in the fact that conciliators possess expert knowledge of the domain in which they conciliate. The conciliator can make suggestions for settlement terms and can give advice on the subject - matter. Conciliators may also use their role to actively encourage the parties to come to a resolution. In certain types of dispute the conciliator has a duty to provide legal information. This helps ensure that agreements comply with relevant statutory frameworks. Therefore, conciliation may include an advisory aspect.
Mediation is purely facilitative: the mediator has no advisory role. Instead, a mediator seeks to help parties to develop a shared understanding of the conflict and to work toward building a practical and lasting resolution.
Both mediation and conciliation work to identify the disputed issues and to generate options that help disputants reach a mutually satisfactory resolution. They both offer relatively flexible processes. Any settlement reached generally must have the agreement of all parties. This contrasts with litigation, which normally settles the dispute in favour of the party with the strongest legal argument. In - between the two operates collaborative law, which uses a facilitative process where each party has counsel.
A counsellor generally uses therapeutic techniques. Some -- such as a particular line of questioning -- may be useful in mediation. But the role of the counsellor differs from the role of the mediator. The list below is not exhaustive but it gives an indication of important distinctions:
The technique of early neutral evaluation (ENE) have focus on market ineterships, and -- based on that focus -- offers a basis for sensible case - management or a suggested resolution of the entire case in its very early stages.
In early neutral evaluation, an evaluator acts as a neutral person to assess the strengths and weaknesses of each of the parties and to discuss the same with parties jointly or in caucuses, so that parties gain awareness (via independent evaluation) of the merits of their case.
Parties generally call on a senior counsel or on a panel with expertise and experience in the subject - matter under dispute in order to conduct ENE.
Binding Arbitration is a more direct substitute for the formal process of a court. Binding Arbitration is typically conducted in front of one or three arbitrators. The process is much like a mini trial with rules of evidence, etc. Arbitration typically proceeds faster than court and typically at a lower cost. The Arbiter makes the ultimate decision rather than the parties. Arbiters ' decisions are typically final and appeals are rarely successful even if the decision appears to one party to be completely unreasonable.
In litigation, courts impose their thoughts to both parties Courts in some cases refer litigants to mediation. Mediation is typically less costly, less formal and less complex. Unlike courts, mediation does not ensure binding agreements and the mediator does not decide the outcome.
While mediation implies bringing disputing parties face - to - face with each other, the strategy of "shuttle diplomacy '', where the mediator serves as a liaison between disputing parties, also sometimes occurs as an alternative.
The first paper at world level dedicated to this subject and representing the topic of a doctoral dissertation was published in 2013 in Bucharest. The work entitled "Philosophy of mediation '' '', whose author is Zeno Daniel Sustac, proposes "a new approach of the ADR phenomenon from the perspective of the origins on the basis of which they were created as well as from the perspective of the objectives that we would like to see accomplished ''.
Mediation can anticipate difficulties between parties before conflict emerges. Complaint handling and management is a conflict prevention mechanism designed to handle a complaint effectively at first contact, minimising the possibility of a dispute. One term for this role is "dispute preventer ''.
One of the hallmarks of mediation is that the process is strictly confidential. Two competing principles affect confidentiality. One principle encourages confidentiality to encourage people to participate, while the second principle states that all related facts should be available to courts.
The mediator must inform the parties of their responsibility for confidentiality.
Steps put in place during mediation to help ensure this privacy include:
Confidentiality is a powerful and attractive feature of mediation. It lowers the risk to participants of disclosing information and emotions and encourages realism by eliminating the benefits of posturing. In general, information discussed in mediation can not be used as evidence in the event that the matter proceeds to court, in accord with the mediation agreement and common law.
Few mediations succeed unless the parties can communicate fully and openly without fear of compromising a potential court case. The promise of confidentiality mitigates such concerns. Organisations often see confidentiality as a reason to use mediation in lieu of litigation, particularly in sensitive areas. This contrasts with the public nature of courts and other tribunals. However mediation need not be private and confidential. In some circumstances the parties agree to open the mediation in part or whole. Laws may limit confidentiality. For example, mediators must disclose allegations of physical or other abuse to authorities. The more parties in a mediation, the less likely that perfect confidentiality will be maintained. Some parties may even be required to give an account of the mediation to outside constituents or authorities.
Most countries respect mediator confidentiality.
The without - prejudice privilege in common law denotes that in honest attempts to reach settlement, any offers or admissions can not be used in court when the subject matter is the same. This applies to the mediation process. The rule comes with exceptions.
The privilege is visible in AWA Ltd v Daniels (t / as Deloitte Haskins and Sells). AWA Ltd commenced proceedings in the Supreme Court of NSW against Daniels for failing to properly audit their accounts. Mediation failed to produce an agreement. During mediation AWA Ltd disclosed that they had a document that gave its directors full indemnity with respect to any legal proceedings. AWA Ltd was under the impression that they had given this information without prejudice preventing its use in court.
During the subsequent litigation Daniels asked for a copy of the indemnity deed. AWA Ltd claimed privilege, but the presiding Rolfe J, admitted the document. Further to this Rolfe, J added that Daniels was "only seeking to prove a fact which was referred to in the mediation ''.
The without - prejudice privilege does not apply if it was excluded by either party or if the privilege was waived in proceedings. Although mediation is private and confidential, the disclosure of privileged information in the presence of a mediator does not represent a waiver of the privilege.
Parties who enter into mediation do not forfeit legal rights or remedies. If mediation does not result in settlement, each side can continue to enforce their rights through appropriate court or tribunal procedures. However, if mediation produces a settlement, legal rights and obligations are affected in differing degrees. In some situations, the parties may accept a memorandum or moral force agreement; these are often found in community mediations. In other instances, a more comprehensive deed of agreement, when registered with a court, is legally binding. It is advisable to have a lawyer draft or provide legal advice about the proposed terms.
"Court systems are eager to introduce mandatory mediation as a means to meet their needs to reduce case loads and adversarial litigation, and participants who understand the empowerment of mediation to self - determine their own agreements are equally as eager to embrace mediation as an alternative to costly and potentially harmful litigation. ''
Principles of mediation include non-adversarialism, responsiveness, self - determination and party autonomy.
Non-adversarialism is based on the actual process of mediation. It treats the parties as collaborating in the construction of an agreement. By contrast, litigation is explicitly adversarial in that each party attempts to subject the other to its views. Mediation is designed to conclude with an agreement rather than a winner and loser.
Responsiveness reflects the intent to allow the parties to craft a resolution outside of the strict rules of the legal system. A responsive mediation process also is informal, flexible and collaborative.
Self - determination and party autonomy allow and require parties to choose the area of agreement, rather than ceding the decision to an outside decision - maker such as a judge. This turns the responsibility for the outcome onto the parties themselves.
In the United States, mediator codes - of - conduct emphasize "client - directed '' solutions rather than imposed solutions. This has become a common, definitive feature of mediation in the US and UK.
Theorists, notably Rushworth Kidder, who founded the Institute for Global Ethics in 1980, claimed that mediation is the foundation of a ' postmodern ' ethics -- and that it sidesteps traditional ethical issues with pre-defined limits of morality.
Mediation can also be seen as a form of harm reduction or de-escalation, especially in its large - scale application in peace and similar negotiations, or the bottom - up way it is performed in the peace movement where it is often called mindful mediation. This form derived from methods of Quakers in particular.
Society perceives conflict as something that one should resolve as quickly as possible. Mediators see conflict as a fact of life that when properly managed can benefit the parties. The benefits of conflict include the opportunity to renew relationships and make positive changes for the future.
Zutter, Deborah. Preliminary Mediation Practices. Bond University, Australia: Unpublished Thesis, 2004.
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who did josh brolin play in avengers age of ultron | Avengers: Age of Ultron - wikipedia
Avengers: Age of Ultron is a 2015 American superhero film based on the Marvel Comics superhero team the Avengers, produced by Marvel Studios and distributed by Walt Disney Studios Motion Pictures. It is the sequel to 2012 's The Avengers and the eleventh film in the Marvel Cinematic Universe (MCU). The film was written and directed by Joss Whedon and features an ensemble cast that includes Robert Downey Jr., Chris Hemsworth, Mark Ruffalo, Chris Evans, Scarlett Johansson, Jeremy Renner, Don Cheadle, Aaron Taylor - Johnson, Elizabeth Olsen, Paul Bettany, Cobie Smulders, Anthony Mackie, Hayley Atwell, Idris Elba, Stellan Skarsgård, James Spader, and Samuel L. Jackson. In Avengers: Age of Ultron, the Avengers fight Ultron, an artificial intelligence obsessed with causing human extinction.
The sequel was announced in May 2012, after the successful release of The Avengers. Whedon, the director of the first film, was brought back on board in August and a release date was set. By April 2013, Whedon had completed a draft of the script, and casting began in June with the re-signing of Downey. Second unit filming began in February 2014 in South Africa with principal photography taking place between March and August 2014. The film was primarily shot at Shepperton Studios in Surrey, England, with additional footage filmed in Italy, South Korea, Bangladesh, New York City, and various locations around England. While in post-production, the film was converted to 3D and over 3,000 visual effects shots were added. With an estimated net production budget of $365 million, it is the second most expensive film ever made.
Avengers: Age of Ultron premiered in Los Angeles on April 13, 2015, and was released on May 1, 2015, in the United States, in 3D and IMAX 3D. The film received generally positive reviews from critics and grossed over $1.4 billion worldwide, becoming the fourth - highest - grossing film of 2015 as well as the fifth - highest - grossing film of all time. A sequel, Avengers: Infinity War, was released on April 27, 2018, and another untitled sequel is scheduled for release on May 3, 2019.
In the Eastern European country of Sokovia, the Avengers -- Tony Stark, Steve Rogers, Thor, Bruce Banner, Natasha Romanoff, and Clint Barton -- raid a Hydra facility commanded by Baron Wolfgang von Strucker, who has been experimenting on humans using the scepter previously wielded by Loki. They encounter two of Strucker 's test subjects -- twins Pietro Maximoff, who has superhuman speed, and Wanda Maximoff, who has telepathic and telekinetic abilities -- and apprehend Strucker, while Stark retrieves Loki 's scepter.
Stark and Banner discover an artificial intelligence within the scepter 's gem, and secretly decide to use it to complete Stark 's "Ultron '' global defense program. The unexpectedly sentient Ultron, believing he must eradicate humanity to save Earth, eliminates Stark 's A.I. J.A.R.V.I.S. and attacks the Avengers at their headquarters. Escaping with the scepter, Ultron uses the resources in Strucker 's Sokovia base to upgrade his rudimentary body and build an army of robot drones. Having killed Strucker, he recruits the Maximoffs, who hold Stark responsible for their parents ' deaths by his company 's weapons, and goes to the base of arms dealer Ulysses Klaue to obtain Wakandan vibranium. The Avengers attack Ultron and the Maximoffs, but Wanda subdues them with haunting visions, causing the Hulk (Banner) to rampage until Stark stops him with his anti-Hulk armor.
A worldwide backlash over the resulting destruction, and the fears Wanda 's hallucinations incited, send the team into hiding at a safe house. Thor departs to consult with Dr. Erik Selvig on the apocalyptic future he saw in his hallucination, while Nick Fury arrives and encourages the team to form a plan to stop Ultron. In Seoul, Ultron forces the team 's friend Dr. Helen Cho, who is enslaved by Loki 's scepter, to use her synthetic - tissue technology, together with vibranium and the scepter 's gem, to perfect a new body for him. As Ultron uploads himself into the body, Wanda is able to read his mind; discovering his plan for human extinction, the Maximoffs turn against Ultron. Rogers, Romanoff, and Barton find Ultron and retrieve the synthetic body, but Ultron captures Romanoff.
The Avengers fight amongst themselves when Stark secretly uploads J.A.R.V.I.S. -- who is still operational after hiding from Ultron inside the Internet -- into the synthetic body. Thor returns to help activate the body, explaining that the gem on its brow -- one of the six Infinity Stones, the most powerful objects in existence -- was part of his vision. This "Vision '' and the Maximoffs accompany the Avengers to Sokovia, where Ultron has used the remaining vibranium to build a machine to lift a large part of the capital city skyward, intending to crash it into the ground to cause global extinction. Banner rescues Romanoff, who awakens the Hulk for the battle. The Avengers fight Ultron 's army while Fury arrives in a Helicarrier with Maria Hill, James Rhodes and S.H.I.E.L.D. agents to evacuate civilians. Pietro dies when he shields Barton from gunfire, and a vengeful Wanda abandons her post to destroy Ultron 's primary body, which allows one of his drones to activate the machine. The city plummets, but Stark and Thor overload the machine and shatter the landmass. In the aftermath, the Hulk, unwilling to endanger Romanoff by being with her, departs in a Quinjet, while the Vision confronts and seemingly destroys Ultron 's last remaining body.
Later, with the Avengers having established a new base run by Fury, Hill, Cho, and Selvig, Thor returns to Asgard to learn more about the forces he suspects have manipulated recent events. As Stark leaves and Barton retires, Rogers and Romanoff prepare to train new Avengers: Rhodes, the Vision, Sam Wilson, and Wanda.
In a mid-credits scene, Thanos, dissatisfied by the failures of his pawns, dons a gauntlet and vows to retrieve the Infinity Stones himself.
Thomas Kretschmann and Henry Goodman reprise their roles as Baron Wolfgang von Strucker and Dr. List, Hydra leaders who specialize in human experimentation, advanced robotics, and artificial intelligence from Captain America: The Winter Soldier. Linda Cardellini portrays Laura Barton, Hawkeye 's wife. Claudia Kim portrays Helen Cho, a world - renowned geneticist who helps the Avengers from her office in Seoul, and Andy Serkis portrays Ulysses Klaue, a black - market arms dealer, smuggler and gangster who is a former acquaintance from Stark 's weapons - dealing days. Julie Delpy appears as Madame B., who mentored Black Widow into becoming an assassin. Kerry Condon voices the artificial intelligence F.R.I.D.A.Y., a replacement for J.A.R.V.I.S., while Spader also voices Stark 's Iron Legion droids. Josh Brolin makes an uncredited appearance during the mid-credits scene as Thanos, reprising his role from Guardians of the Galaxy. Avengers co-creator Stan Lee makes a cameo appearance in the film as a military veteran who attends the Avengers ' victory party. Tom Hiddleston was to reprise his role of Loki, but his scenes did not make the theatrical cut of the film.
-- Joss Whedon, director of Avengers: Age of Ultron, on balancing the film 's accessibility and continuity.
In October 2011, Kevin Feige, president of Marvel Studios said the studio was beginning to look at their Phase Two films, which would start with Iron Man 3 and would culminate in a second Avengers film. In March 2012, Joss Whedon, director of the first film, stated that he would want a sequel to be "smaller. More personal. More painful. By being the next thing that should happen to these characters, and not just a rehash of what seemed to work the first time. By having a theme that is completely fresh and organic to itself. '' Despite the production of the film becoming increasingly wider in scope, Feige maintained that this was not their intention, always looking to see where the team wanted to take the characters, over how to make it bigger than The Avengers.
At the premiere of The Avengers, Feige said the studio had an option for Whedon to return as director. In May 2012, after the successful release of the first film, Disney CEO Bob Iger announced a sequel was in development. Most of the film 's cast members were under contract to potentially appear in the sequel; however, Robert Downey Jr. was not, as his four - picture deal with Marvel expired after Iron Man 3.
At the 2012 San Diego Comic - Con International, Whedon said he was undecided about directing. However, in August 2012, Iger announced that Whedon would return to write and direct the sequel and develop the Marvel television series, Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D., for ABC. Later in the month, Disney set a May 1, 2015 release date. When asked about his decision to return, Whedon said, "Avengers 2, it was n't a tough decision. For a long time I thought, ' Well, it 's just not going to happen. ' Then when I actually started to consider it, it became so clear that I desperately wanted to say more about these characters, it would 've been an easy no and it was a spectacularly easy yes. There was no wrestling. '' Whedon said that they intended for the film 's production to not be as rushed as the first one.
In December 2012, Whedon stated that he had completed an outline for the film. In February, at the 2013 Jameson Dublin International Film Festival, Whedon said that death would play a theme in the sequel, and in March, he said that he looked to The Empire Strikes Back and The Godfather Part II as inspirations.
Feige revealed that Captain Marvel, who is scheduled to appear in her own MCU film in 2019, appeared in an early draft of the screenplay, but was removed since the character had not yet been cast, saying, "It did n't feel like the time. We did n't want to introduce her fully formed flying in a costume before you knew who she was or how she came to be. '' Whedon went so far as to shoot visual effects plates for Captain Marvel to fly into Avengers Headquarters at the end of the film; those shots were reused, however, for Scarlet Witch instead. Feige also revealed that an early draft of the script had Hulk 's Quinjet detected near Saturn at the end of the film, but it was finally decided to keep it Earth - based and leave his fate ambiguous in order to dispel rumors that a film based on the "Planet Hulk '' comic storyline was in development, which Marvel Studios had no plans to adapt at the time. Marvel would later decide to adapt "Planet Hulk '' for the film Thor: Ragnarok, in which the Hulk does end up leaving Earth.
By April 2013, filming was scheduled to begin in early 2014 at Shepperton Studios in England. At the Hollywood premiere of Iron Man 3, Whedon said that he had completed a draft of the script, started the storyboard process, and met with actors. Whedon also mentioned that he wrote with Downey in mind and included a "brother / sister act '' from the comic books, later confirming that he was referring to Quicksilver and Scarlet Witch. Whedon explained his rationale for including the characters in the film saying, "their powers are very visually interesting. One of the problems I had on the first one was everybody basically had punchy powers... (Quicksilver) 's got super speed. (Scarlet Witch) can weave spells and a little telekinesis, get inside your head. There 's good stuff that they can do that will help sort of keep it fresh, '' though cautioned he was not throwing in more characters for the sake of doing that. Whedon stated that the twins allowed him to add more conflict: "They do n't like America, and they do n't like the Avengers... The Avengers are like a world power, and not everybody 's on board with the Avengers coming in and starting fights, even in the name of justice. So you need that dissenting voice, and you need to understand it and sympathize with it. '' Because Marvel Studios shares the film rights to Quicksilver and Scarlet Witch with 20th Century Fox and had to avoid conflict with Fox 's X-Men films, Whedon introduced two important characters into the Marvel Cinematic Universe completely on his terms for the first time, which allowed him to connect their origin stories to the universe that they created and avoid the concept of mutants. Whedon relished at the storytelling opportunities by introducing a character with telepathic powers, explaining, "it meant we could spend a little time inside the Avengers ' heads -- either their past or their impressions of what 's going on, or their fears, or all of the above. '' By May, Downey had entered negotiations to extend his contract with Marvel Studios and reprise his role as Iron Man in the film. A month later, Downey signed on to return for the then - untitled Avengers sequel, as well as a third Avengers film.
At the 2013 San Diego Comic - Con International, Whedon announced the film would be subtitled Age of Ultron. Despite the subtitle, the film is not based on the 2013 comic book miniseries Age of Ultron. Feige explained that they simply liked the title Age of Ultron but the plot was taken from decades of Avengers story arcs. Whedon added that Ultron 's origin would differ from his comics roots, and that Hank Pym would not be involved with Ultron 's creation. Whedon disclosed that Edgar Wright had rights to the character first through his inclusion in Ant - Man, which was already in development. He also thought that Ultron needed to be conceived through the Avengers and since they already had Tony Stark and Bruce Banner on the team, it would not make sense to bring in a third scientist. Whedon also said the film would have a darker tone due to Ultron 's involvement.
The title of the film came as a surprise to many fans who were expecting Thanos, the mastermind behind the events of the first film, to be the main villain in the sequel, with Whedon saying, "Thanos was never meant to be the next villain. He 's always been the overlord of villainy and darkness. '' Commenting on finding the right balance between technology - and fantasy - based heroes in Avengers: Age of Ultron, Feige said "Iron Man is a very technological hero; his movies are always technologically based. The first Thor was all about introducing Asgard and Thor in that more fantastical realm into the more reality - based MCU... As we go into Ultron clearly he does come out of technology, but we 're using all of our tools at our disposal that we 've established so far as part of the MCU to build the storyline of Age of Ultron. ''
Casting continued into August 2013, with the announcement that James Spader would play Ultron. In November, Marvel confirmed that Elizabeth Olsen and Aaron Taylor - Johnson would play the Scarlet Witch and Quicksilver, respectively. Taylor - Johnson had been in negotiations since as early as June, while Olsen 's potential involvement was first reported in August. By the end of the year, Mark Ruffalo, Chris Evans, Samuel L. Jackson, Chris Hemsworth, Scarlett Johansson, Jeremy Renner and Cobie Smulders were confirmed to be returning to their roles from the first film, and Don Cheadle, who portrayed James Rhodes in the Iron Man films, had committed to a part in the film. In the early months of 2014, Thomas Kretschmann was cast as Baron Wolfgang von Strucker, Claudia Kim was cast in an unspecified role, and Paul Bettany, who voiced J.A.R.V.I.S. in previous MCU films, was cast as the Vision. Whedon said "juggling '' all the characters in the film was "a nightmare '' explaining, "They 're very disparate characters. The joy of the Avengers is they really do n't belong in the same room. It 's not like the X-Men, who are all tortured by the same thing and have similar costumes. These guys are just all over the place. And so it 's tough. Honestly, this is as tough as anything I 've ever done. ''
On January 24, 2014, the Forte di Bard Association announced that filming would take place at Fort Bard in the Aosta Valley region of Italy in March 2014, as well as other locations in Aosta Valley including Aosta, Bard, Donnas, Pont - Saint - Martin, and Verrès. The next month, the Gauteng Film Commission announced that action sequences would be filmed in Johannesburg, South Africa and other locations in Gauteng, beginning in mid-February. A few weeks later Marvel announced that portions of the film would be shot in South Korea. Feige cited the nation 's "cutting - edge technology, beautiful landscapes and spectacular architecture '' as ideal for the film. The nation 's capital, Seoul, and Seoul 's surrounding province, Gyeonggi, were selected as filming locations, with South Korea 's Ministry of Culture, Sports and Tourism reimbursing up to 30 % of the studio 's expenditures, as part of a state - funded incentive program.
Filming began on Tuesday, February 11, 2014 in Johannesburg, South Africa, having been postponed that Monday. Second unit crews shot action sequences without the main cast, to be used as background plates for scenes featuring the Hulk, in the Central Business District of Johannesburg for a period of two weeks. By mid-March, principal photography had begun at Shepperton Studios near London and was scheduled to film there for at least four months, under the working title After Party. Filming at Shepperton as well as other locations in England allowed Whedon to get a "number of different looks and textures and moods '' to give the film a different palette and fresh aesthetic from its predecessor. Production designer Charles Wood built an enormous, new Avengers Tower set, one of the largest sets ever built for a Marvel film. The set featured multiple connected environments and levels. On March 22, production moved to Fort Bard, Italy and continued in the Aosta Valley region through March 28. The region doubled as the fictional Eastern European nation of Sokovia, with crews replacing local storefronts with Cyrillic script. Filming in South Korea began on March 30 on the Mapo Bridge, and continued through April 14 at various locations in Seoul. While in Seoul, the production was able to attach cameras to drones and race cars to get unique camera angles and footage. An artificial island on the Han River known as the Saebit Dungdungseom served as the headquarters of an IT institute featured in the film. Scenes involving Ultron 's attack on parts of the city were shot in the Gangnam District.
In April, shooting began in Hawley Woods in Hampshire, England, and Hayley Atwell, who played Peggy Carter in previous MCU films, filmed scenes inside the Rivoli Ballroom in London while extras performed the Lindy Hop. That June, scenes were shot at the University of East Anglia in Norwich and at Dover Castle in Kent, with Dover Castle used for interior shots of Strucker 's Hydra base in Sokovia. The next month, filming took place at a training facility for London 's Metropolitan Police Service, which doubled as a city in Sokovia. Additional filming took place in Chittagong, Bangladesh, including the Chittagong Ship Breaking Yard, and in New York City. On August 6, Whedon announced on social media that he had completed principal photography on Avengers: Age of Ultron. Disney spent $330.6 million on Avengers: Age of Ultron from February 2013 to November 2014, but $50.7 million of this was offset by payments from the UK tax authority. A report on actual production costs for films from FilmL. A. Inc., indicated a gross budget of $444 million, with a net of $365 million for Avengers: Age of Ultron. This makes the film the second most expensive film ever made.
Cinematographer Ben Davis, who also worked with Marvel on Guardians of the Galaxy, shot the film with a main unit of three Arri Alexa cameras. Davis said, "Although the Alexa was Marvel 's preferred camera, we were n't locked into that choice from the start. What was n't negotiable was the fact that we were shooting digital: that 's how Marvel shoots all of its films. '' Davis also used Blackmagic Design 's Pocket Cinema Cameras to meet the needs of the second unit kit explaining, "The second unit typically needs a fleet of smaller cameras that are less expensive and are rugged enough to handle the various trials by fire, as it were, that we throw at them. '' About the camera system, Whedon stated that this film was shot very differently from the first one; using lots of long lenses, and that he aimed to shoot the film almost like a documentary. To create the scenes depicting how Quicksilver views the world, scenes were shot with an ultra-high - speed camera and later combined with shots of Taylor - Johnson moving through the same scene at normal speed.
In June 2014, the IMAX Corporation announced that the IMAX release of the film would be converted to IMAX 3D. Following the completion of principal photography several more cast members were revealed including Stellan Skarsgård, Anthony Mackie, Idris Elba, and Tom Hiddleston, reprising their roles from previous MCU films. However, Hiddleston 's scenes did not make the theatrical cut of the film, with Whedon saying what was shot "did n't play '' and he did not want the film to feel "overstuffed ''. According to Hiddleston, "In test screenings, audiences had overemphasized Loki 's role, so they thought that because I was in it, I was controlling Ultron, and it was actually imbalancing people 's expectations. '' Whedon later explained that Elba and Atwell appear in the film because of exploring the psyches of the Avengers from Scarlet Witch 's power. In December 2014, Kim 's role was revealed as Dr. Helen Cho. Additional scenes were scheduled to be filmed in January 2015 at Pinewood Studios. In February 2015, Marvel confirmed through promotional material that Serkis portrays Ulysses Klaue in the film. In early April 2015, Linda Cardellini and Julie Delpy were confirmed to be part of the film 's cast. At the same time, Whedon stated that the film would not contain a post-credits scene, which had become customary for MCU films. Whedon tried to come up with a post-credit scene but felt that he could not top the "Shawarma scene '' in The Avengers, explaining, "It did n't seem to lend itself in the same way, and we wanted to be true to what felt right. The first rule of making a sequel is take the best moments and do something else. Do n't do the Indiana Jones gun trick again differently. Just go somewhere else. Do n't try to hit the same highs, because people will sense it. '' However, Feige clarified, "There will be a tag (shortly after the credits start). But there 's not a post -- post -- credit scene. ''
In May 2015, Whedon revealed he was in conflict with Marvel executives and the film 's editors about certain scenes in the film. The executives were not "thrilled '' with the scenes at Hawkeye 's farm or the dream sequences the Avengers experience because of Scarlet Witch. Also, Whedon had originally shot a much longer scene with Thor and Selvig in the cave but the final version is shorter as test audiences did not respond well to the original cut. In the scene, Thor would be possessed by a Norn, a goddess of destiny, while Selvig would quiz her about Thor 's hallucination. Additionally, Whedon reiterated he had wanted to include Captain Marvel and Spider - Man at the end, but deals for each character (signing of an actress and a deal with Sony Pictures Entertainment, respectively) were not completed in time for their inclusion.
The film contains 3,000 visual effects shots, completed by ten different visual effects studios, including Industrial Light & Magic (ILM), Trixter, Double Negative, Animal Logic, Framestore, Lola VFX, Territory, Perception, Method Studios, Luma Pictures and The Third Floor. ILM opened a facility in London, citing Avengers: Age of Ultron as a catalyst for the expansion, and developed a new motion capture system for the film called Muse, which can better capture an actor 's performance and combine different takes. About the motion capture process, Ruffalo called it "more of a collaboration '' since the technology is advancing, with "the face capture and the motion capture can now (being) put together, (allowing) you (to) get a lot more latitude as a performer... you 're no longer constricted by the attributes that you have as a person: your age, or weight, or size. None of that matters anymore. And so there 's this whole exciting place to go that is kind of unknown. '' Visual effects supervisor Christopher Townsend said that the visual effects team considered depicting the Hulk when manipulated by Wanda Maximoff as being grey skinned with red eyes, but eventually decided against it, as they did not want to confuse audiences who might associate it with "Joe Fixit '', the grey Hulk from the comics.
Method Studios created the interior of the new Avengers training facility by digitally designing the training facility, extracting the characters from the original set and placing them into the new CG environment. Method also contributed to Iron Man 's new Mark 45 suit and played a key role in creating Scarlet Witch 's CG mind control effect. Following the trend in recent years, most of the computer screens in Stark 's lab, Dr Cho 's laboratory, the Quinjet and other locations in the film were not added in post-production but were actually working screens on set, adding to the realism of the film and saving some on the post-production budget. London - based Territory Studio delivered the screen visuals filled with unique imagery and animations that matched the character using them. Perception worked on the main - on - end and main titles for the film. Before settling on the marble monument depiction for the main - on - end titles, Perception created three other versions, which were based on Ultron 's hive mind ability from the film, "renderings of power and pure energy '' inspired by classic comic panels, and classic moments for each character. The final design was inspired by war monuments such as the Iwo Jima memorial. For the main titles, Marvel wanted the typeface to be a direct continuation of the first film. Perception made the typeface a marble texture to mimic the main - on - end titles and changed the title 's rotation (away from the camera instead of towards the camera in The Avengers), before "Age of Ultron '' overtakes "Avengers '' in a vibranium texture.
In March 2014, Brian Tyler signed on to compose the film 's score, replacing the composer for the first film, Alan Silvestri, while also marking his third film collaboration with Marvel following Iron Man 3 and Thor: The Dark World in 2013. Tyler stated that the score pays homage to John Williams ' scores for Star Wars, Superman, and Raiders of the Lost Ark and references the scores for the Iron Man, Thor, and Captain America films in order to create a similar musical universe, saying, "That 's the goal for sure. You have to build in nostalgia and do it upfront so you can relate to it. '' Danny Elfman also contributed music to the score, using Silvestri 's theme from the first film to create a new hybrid theme. Hollywood Records released the album digitally on April 28, 2015, and in physical formats on May 19.
Avengers: Age of Ultron made its world premiere at the Dolby Theatre in Hollywood on April 13, 2015, and held its European premiere on April 21 at the Vue West End in London. The film was released in 11 territories on April 22, with its release jumping to 55 % of its international market (44 countries) by the end of its first weekend, before releasing on May 1 in the United States, in 3D and IMAX 3D. In the United States, the film opened in 4,276 theaters, including 2,761 3D theaters, 364 IMAX, 400 premium large format, and 143 D - Box theaters. Many independent theater owners in Germany (approximately 700 screens) boycotted the film in response to Disney raising its rental fee from 47.7 % to 53 % of ticket sales. The owners felt that the "increased fees, coupled with the cost of digitization, and rising staff and marketing costs may force some of them out of business. ''
In September 2014, TNT acquired the US cable broadcast rights, for broadcast two years after its theatrical release. On March 4, 2015, ticket pre-sales for the film began. Variety noted, "The two - month gap between advance sales and the release is much wider than normal and reflects the heavy fan anticipation for '' the film.
At the 2013 San Diego Comic - Con International, Whedon introduced a teaser trailer for the film, which included a look at an Ultron helmet and a title treatment. Footage of the teaser, as well as a brief interview with Whedon, was made available as part of Iron Man 3 's second screen companion app for its Blu - ray release on September 24, 2013. On March 18, 2014, ABC aired a one - hour television special titled, Marvel Studios: Assembling a Universe, which included a sneak peek of Avengers: Age of Ultron. The special debuted concept art for Quicksilver and Scarlet Witch, as well as art of the Hulk fighting the "Hulkbuster '' Iron Man suit. Harley - Davidson partnered with Marvel to provide their first electric motorcycle, Project LiveWire, for use by Black Widow in the film. At the 2014 San Diego Comic - Con, the cast was introduced to promote the film, along with screening footage from the film. Avengers: Age of Ultron received the second most amount of social media mentions at the convention, following Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice, but had a higher intend - to - see response.
The first trailer was scheduled to premiere during the airing of an episode of Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. on October 28, 2014. However, on October 22, the trailer leaked online, and within a few hours Marvel officially released the trailer on YouTube. Entertainment Weekly and The Hollywood Reporter noted the effective use of the song "I 've Got No Strings '' from Pinocchio (1940) in the trailer. Scott Mendelson of Forbes felt the trailer was "such a textbook ' dark sequel ' trailer that it borders on parody '' but said, "it 's a pretty spectacular piece of marketing, one that elevates itself both by the music choices and by James Spader 's vocals as the title villain ''. The trailer received 34.3 million global views in 24 hours, 26.2 million from Marvel 's YouTube channel, which broke the previous record held by Iron Man 3 with 23.14 million views. In comparison, the original Avengers teaser received 20.4 million views in 24 hours after its debut. In response, Marvel agreed to air footage from Age of Ultron during the episode of Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. that was originally scheduled to premiere the trailer. At the end of October, Marvel Comic 's Editor - in - Chief Axel Alonso stated there were comic tie - in plans for the film.
In November 2014, ABC aired another one - hour television special titled Marvel 75 Years: From Pulp to Pop!, which featured behind the scenes footage of Age of Ultron. Also in November, an extended trailer debuted on Samsung Mobile 's YouTube channel, featuring product placement for various Samsung devices. In December 2014, additional behind the scenes footage was released as a special feature on the Guardians of the Galaxy Blu - ray, highlighting the various filming locations for the film. Also in the month, ABC announced that an episode of Marvel 's Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. would tie - in to the events of the film. The episodes "The Frenemy of My Enemy '' and "The Dirty Half Dozen '' feature "Easter eggs, plot threads and other connective tissue leading into the opening scene of Avengers: Age of Ultron '' while "Scars '' explores the aftermath of the film.
In January 2015, a featurette focusing on Ultron was shown at Samsung 's "Night With Marvel '' event at the 2015 Consumer Electronics Show (CES). Also at CES, Samsung revealed a selection of hardware inspired by the Avengers films, as well as a simulation of Avengers Tower via its Gear VR virtual reality device. A second trailer premiered on ESPN on January 12, 2015 during the broadcast of the 2015 College Football Playoff National Championship. Mendelson enjoyed the trailer, but wished it did not reveal as many story elements as it did. However, he added, "the marketing thus far (for the film) has been far superior to much of what sold The Avengers three years ago, both in terms of the specific footage and the artistic choices being made... I 'm sold, and I imagine most of the general moviegoers are already onboard too. ''
On February 3, 2014, Marvel "stealth released '' a one - shot digital - only tie - in comic, Avengers: Age of Ultron Prelude -- This Scepter 'd Isle. Written by Will Corona Pilgrim and illustrated by Wellinton Alves, it reveals how Strucker came into possession of Loki 's scepter and the origin of the Maximoff twins ' abilities. At the end of the month, the film 's official poster was revealed. Graeme McMillian of The Hollywood Reporter criticized it for its lack of originality, calling it "pretty much the poster for the first Avengers movie, except with added flying robots in the background '' and the fact that it incorporated many of the same tropes the other MCU Phase Two film posters did. These included: the hero (es) staring off camera; destruction in the background as well as something occurring in the sky; and poor Photoshop on the poster, highlighting the fact that each of the actors were obviously photographed separately and were later composited together into the poster. Mendelson agreed with many of McMillian 's observations, and called the poster "hilariously photoshopped ''.
The final trailer was "unlocked '' by fans on March 4, 2015, via the use of hashtags on Twitter, ahead of its broadcast debut during the series premiere of American Crime on March 5. Mendelson felt "this (was) a fine final trailer, teasing what we already know, hinting at the scale and a few new action beats without telling us much we do n't already know '' adding, "Here we have the fourth and final Avengers: Age of Ultron trailer and we do n't know all that much about what transpires in a moment - to - moment sense in the finished 150 - minute feature. I have expressed my concern dating back to October that Marvel and Disney would release too many trailers and would by default give away too much plot and character information between October and May. But if this really is the final Avengers 2 trailer, then at least on the trailer front they have kept the film relatively unspoiled. '' A week after the final trailer debuted, Marvel revealed that the trailer had "smashed records '' with over 35 million views.
In April 2015, members of the cast presented Downey with the MTV Generation Award at the 2015 MTV Movie Awards, along with debuting an exclusive clip from the film. On April 27, Downey and Renner along with executives from Marvel Entertainment rang the opening bell of the New York Stock Exchange in celebration of the film 's theatrical release. Disney spent a total of $26.9 million on television advertisements for the film, from an estimated total marketing budget of $180 million.
In January 2015, Warner Bros. Interactive Entertainment and Traveller 's Tales announced a Lego video game adaptation of the first film and Age of Ultron for release in late 2015 on a variety of video game consoles. In March 2015, Disney said it planned to broaden its merchandising strategy with Avengers: Age of Ultron by expanding the target demographics to women and to fans of the individual superheroes that make up the Avengers. Paul Gitter, senior vice president of Marvel licensing for Disney Consumer Products, said, "For the first film, we primarily focused on the Avengers property and the group shots... Now we 're broadening the line and scope to create skews that focus on the team and the individuals characters, as well. '' Disney Consumer Products partnered with Hasbro, Lego, Hot Wheels and Funko for action figures, playsets and other toys, and with Under Armour for apparel. Disney established new partnerships in the food and packaged - goods categories, including with Sage Fruit, ConAgra, Crunchpak and Chobani. Walt Disney India 's consumer products partnered with 50 brands to promote the film in India, considered the highest ever for any film -- Hollywood or Bollywood -- released in India (the previous record held by Ra. One had 25 partners). Some of the brands include Amazon India, toy retailer Hamleys India, online fashion store Myntra, Hero Cycles, Mountain Dew, Liberty Shoes, Tupperware, and Subway restaurants among others.
Avengers: Age of Ultron was released by Walt Disney Studios Home Entertainment on digital download on September 8, 2015 and on Blu - ray and DVD on October 2, 2015. The digital and Blu - ray releases include behind - the - scenes featurettes, audio commentary, deleted scenes and a blooper reel. The film was also collected in a 13 - disc box set, titled "Marvel Cinematic Universe: Phase Two Collection '', which includes all of the Phase Two films in the Marvel Cinematic Universe. It was released on December 8, 2015. In July 2015, Whedon stated that he did not intend on releasing a director 's cut of Avengers: Age of Ultron because despite the film 's complexity, he was satisfied with the theatrical version and did not think it needed to be tweaked.
Avengers: Age of Ultron grossed $459 million in the United States and Canada and $946.4 million in other territories for a worldwide total of $1.405 billion. It is the eighth - highest - grossing film worldwide and the fourth - highest - grossing 2015 film. Avengers: Age of Ultron 's worldwide opening of $392.5 million was the seventh - largest ever. The film set a worldwide IMAX opening - weekend record with $25.2 million (previously held by The Dark Knight Rises) and also broke the record for the fastest movie to make over $40 million in IMAX theaters, doing so in 12 days. According to some analysts, the opening weekend box office gross was lower than expected because of the weekend 's featured boxing match between Floyd Mayweather and Manny Pacquiao. Deadline Hollywood calculated the net profit of the film to be $382.32 million, when factoring together "production budgets, P&A, talent participations and other costs, with box office grosses, and ancillary revenues from VOD to DVD and TV, '' placing it fourth on their list of 2015 's "Most Valuable Blockbusters ''.
On May 15, 2015, Avengers: Age of Ultron became the twenty - first film in cinematic history, the third Marvel Studios film and the eighth film distributed by Disney to cross the $1 billion threshold at the box office.
Avengers: Age of Ultron earned $84.46 million on its opening day, marking the biggest opening day for a superhero film and the second - biggest opening and second - biggest single - day gross, behind Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows -- Part 2 ($91.7 million). The film 's Friday gross included $27.6 million from Thursday night, which began at 7 p.m., and was the sixth - highest ever for Thursday preview earnings and the highest among Marvel films. The film totaled $191.3 million in its opening weekend, the third - highest gross behind Jurassic World ($208.8 million) and The Avengers ($207.4 million). It also saw the second - highest IMAX opening weekend total with $18 million (behind The Dark Knight Rises), a record $13.5 million from premium large format theaters and the highest share for the first weekend in May, accounting for 85 % of the top twelve box office total earnings (previously held by Spider - Man 3). Of those in attendance the first weekend, 59 % were male, 41 % were female and 59 % were over the age of 25.
In its second weekend, the film fell 59 %, earning $77.7 million, which was the second - biggest second weekend gross behind The Avengers ' $103 million (both were surpassed a month later by Jurassic World 's $106.6 million). It holds the record for the second - biggest loss between first and second weekends with $113.6 million, only behind Deathly Hallows -- Part 2 's $121 million loss between its first and second weekends in 2011. It became the third - highest - grossing film of 2015.
Avengers: Age of Ultron earned $200.2 million in its first weekend from 44 countries, opening in first in all, which was 44 % above its predecessor 's opening. Additionally, the film saw the largest non-China international IMAX opening with $10.4 million. The top earning countries were South Korea ($28.2 million), the UK ($27.3 million) and Russia ($16.2 million). The film broke records in many countries, including: opening - day records in Mexico ($6.8 million), the Philippines ($1.6 million), and Indonesia ($900,000); opening - weekend records in Mexico ($25.5 million), Russia and the CIS ($16.2 million), Hong Kong ($6.4 million), and the Philippines ($7.7 million); and highest opening weekend for a superhero film in the UK, Ireland and Malta ($27.3 million), Germany ($9.3 million), Sweden, Norway, and the Netherlands.
In the UK, where Age of Ultron was filmed, it earned $5.4 million on its opening day and $27.3 million during the weekend, setting an opening - weekend record for a superhero film, Marvel 's biggest opening in Britain, the biggest April opening, the eighth - biggest debut. It also set the best single - day earning for a Disney and superhero film with its $9.4 million haul on Saturday. In South Korea, also where part of the film was shot, the film earned $4.9 million on its opening day and $28.2 through the weekend. It held the record for advance - ticket sales rate, accounting for 96 % of tickets reserved, breaking Transformers: Dark of the Moon 's record of 94.6 % in 2011, the widest release ever, across 1,826 screens, also breaking Dark of the Moon 's 1,420 screens, and the fastest imported film to surpass one million admissions, doing so in two days; it topped the box office for three consecutive weekends, and became the biggest Disney / Marvel release as well as the second - biggest Western film in the country. The Chinese opening scored the biggest weekday opening day, as well as the biggest Disney / Marvel opening, with $33.9 million, and the second - biggest six - day start with $156.3 million (behind Furious 7) of which $17.5 million came from IMAX theaters -- the biggest ever. Age of Ultron also opened at number one in Japan in early July 2015 with $6.5 million, the highest opening weekend for an MCU release. As of January 3, 2016, it is the seventh - highest - grossing film, and the fourth - highest - grossing 2015 film. Its largest markets were China ($240.1 million), South Korea ($78 million), and the UK, Ireland and Malta ($76.6 million).
The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reported a 75 % approval rating based on 327 reviews, with an average rating of 6.7 / 10. The website 's critical consensus reads, "Exuberant and eye - popping, Avengers: Age of Ultron serves as an overstuffed but mostly satisfying sequel, reuniting its predecessor 's unwieldy cast with a few new additions and a worthy foe. '' On Metacritic, the film achieved an average score of 66 out of 100, based on 49 critics, signifying "generally favorable reviews ''. CinemaScore reported that audiences gave the film an "A '' grade on an A+ to F scale, while PostTrak reported filmgoers gave it an overall positive score of 90 % and a 79 % recommend.
Todd McCarthy of The Hollywood Reporter said, "Avengers: Age of Ultron succeeds in the top priority of creating a worthy opponent for its superheroes and giving the latter a few new things to do, but this time the action scenes do n't always measure up. '' Scott Foundas of Variety wrote, "If this is what the apotheosis of branded, big - studio entertainment has come to look like in 2015, we could be doing much worse. Unlike its title character, Age of Ultron most definitely has soul. '' Writing for the Chicago Sun - Times and giving the film three - and - a-half out of four stars, Richard Roeper said, "Some day, an Avengers film might collapse under the weight of its own awesomeness. I mean, how many times can they save the world? But this is not that day. '' Peter Travers of Rolling Stone wrote, "Age of Ultron is a whole summer of fireworks packed into one movie. It does n't just go to 11, it starts there. (Joss Whedon) takes a few wrong turns, creating a jumble when the action gets too thick. But he recovers like a pro, devising a spectacle that 's epic in every sense of the word. '' Matt Zoller Seitz of RogerEbert.com gave the film three out of four stars, stating that despite being "bigger, louder and more disjointed '' than its predecessor, "it 's also got more personality -- specifically Whedon 's -- than any other film in the now seven - year - old franchise. '' Helen O'Hara of Empire praised the interactions between the characters, the action set - pieces and Whedon 's ability as a director in her review, stating that the film "redefines the scale we can expect from our superheroes. ''
Conversely, Kenneth Turan of the Los Angeles Times said, "Although this movie is effective moment to moment, very little of it lingers in the mind afterward. The ideal vehicle for our age of immediate sensation and instant gratification, it disappears without a trace almost as soon as it 's consumed. '' Scott Mendelson of Forbes said, "Avengers: Age of Ultron plays like an obligation, a box to be checked off on a list before all parties move onto the things they really want to do. '' Manohla Dargis of The New York Times wrote, "This Avengers does n't always pop the way that the first one sometimes did, partly because its villain is n't as memorable, despite Mr. Spader 's silky threat. '' Camilla Long of The Sunday Times remarked, "Two hours of boredom and boobs add up to a sorry basis for the new Avengers. '' Much like the release of Guardians of the Galaxy, the film received mixed reviews upon release in China, due to poor translations. The translations, which were said to be too literal, were thought "to have been done by Google Translate. ''
In December 2015, the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences placed Avengers: Age of Ultron on their shortlist of potential nominees for the Academy Award for Best Visual Effects at the 88th Academy Awards, but ultimately did not nominate it for the award.
Avengers: Infinity War and an untitled sequel were directed by Anthony and Joe Russo, from a script by Christopher Markus and Stephen McFeely. Infinity War was released on April 27, 2018, with the sequel scheduled for May 3, 2019. Much of the cast returns for Infinity War with additional cast and characters joining from other MCU films.
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harry potter and the cursed child delphi actress | Harry Potter and the Cursed Child - Wikipedia
Harry Potter and the Cursed Child is a two - part stage play written by Jack Thorne based on an original new story by Thorne, J.K. Rowling and John Tiffany. Previews of the play began at the Palace Theatre, London on 7 June 2016, and it officially premiered on 30 July 2016.
The play will open at Broadway on April 22, 2018, at the Lyric Theatre in New York. Its cast will be made up of a similar one to the first year on West - End, with actors including Sam Clemmett, Jamie Parker, Anthony Boyle, Noma Dumezweni and Paul Thornley.
The rehearsal script, which was not a novelisation of the play, was published.
The story begins nineteen years after the events of Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows and follows Harry Potter, now a Ministry of Magic employee, and his younger son Albus Severus Potter, who is about to attend Hogwarts School of Witchcraft and Wizardry.
At the 2017 Laurence Olivier Awards, the London production received a record - breaking eleven nominations and an again record - breaking nine awards, including Best New Play, Best Actor, Best Actor in a Supporting Role, Best Actress in a Supporting Role and Best Director.
The play 's official summary was released by the publisher (Pottermore) on 23 October 2015:
It was always difficult being Harry Potter and it is n't much easier now that he is an overworked employee of the Ministry of Magic, a husband, and the father of three school - age children.
While Harry grapples with a past that refuses to stay where it belongs, his youngest son Albus must struggle with the weight of a family legacy he never wanted. As past and present fuse ominously, both father and son learn the uncomfortable truth: sometimes, darkness comes from unexpected places.
Act 1
In the opening scene, set during the final chapter of Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows in 2017, Harry Potter and Ginny Weasley send their second son, Albus Severus Potter, on the Hogwarts Express to begin his first year at Hogwarts. Harry is now working in a desk job as the Head of Magical Law Enforcement at the Ministry of Magic, while Ginny is the editor of the sports section of the Daily Prophet. Ron Weasley and Hermione Granger also send their daughter Rose Granger - Weasley, on the train. Hermione is now Minister for Magic, while Ron manages Weasley 's Wizard Wheezes in Diagon Alley. Albus makes an unlikely friend in Slytherin with Scorpius Malfoy, the son of Harry 's unknown friend Draco Malfoy and Astoria Greengrass. Surprisingly, Albus is sorted into Slytherin house alongside Scorpius, as all Potters before him were sorted into Gryffindor. Both boys are bullied by other students over the next few years, Albus due to his perceived failure to live up to his parents, Scorpius due to unproven rumours that he is the son of Lord Voldemort. In addition, Albus and Harry begin to drift apart, owing to Albus 's struggles with his father 's shadow, and Harry 's uncertainty on how to deal with his son 's issues. Albus also drifts apart from Rose, who he was friends with before meeting Scorpius. Prior to Albus and Scorpius 's fourth year, Albus gets into a fight with his father after he is given Harry 's baby blanket and a love potion from Ron. During the fight, Harry accidentally says that he sometimes wishes Albus was not his son, and Albus spills the potion on the blanket.
Harry obtains a prototype of a more powerful version of the Time Turner that allows one to travel back several years into the past, and change history. Simultaneously, Harry 's scar begins to hurt again, causing him to become concerned that Voldemort may somehow be returning. Amos Diggory, who has become old and is cared for by his niece Delphi Diggory, asks Harry to use the Time Turner to prevent Cedric Diggory 's death. After overhearing Harry refuse to help the Diggorys, Albus is inspired to do so himself, and convinces Scorpius to help him. The two escape from the Hogwarts Express and the trolly operator, who is revealed to be a monster placed on the train to prevent students from escaping. The two arrive at St. Oswald 's Home for Old Witches and Wizards in Yorkshire, where Amos lives, and team up with Delphi to steal the Time Turner from Hermione 's office while disguised with Polyjuice Potion.
Act 2
Knowing that Cedric 's death was the result of him winning the Triwizard Tournament alongside Harry, the boys use the Time Turner to travel back to the first challenge of the Triwizard Tournament in 1995, and sabotage Cedric during the tournament 's first task in the hope of preventing his victory. Instead, they only succeed in creating an alternate reality in which Albus was sorted into Gryffindor, and Ron Weasley and Hermione never got together, and thus Rose was never born. Albus discovers that this was because they chose to disguise themselves as Durmstrang students, causing Hermione to become suspicious of Viktor Krum and go to the Yule Ball with Ron instead of Viktor. As a result, Ron never experienced the jealousy fundamental to his relationship with Hermione, fell in love with Padma Patil at the Ball, and eventually became married to her, having a son named Panju. Hermione, in turn, became a frustrated and mean professor at Hogwarts.
At around the same time, Harry 's fear that Voldemort may return increases as his scar continues to hurt and as he has Voldemort - related nightmares. After speaking with a portrait of Dumbledore, he becomes convinced that Scorpius is a threat to Albus and tries to have the boys kept apart at Hogwarts by forcing McGonagall to keep tabs on Albus using the Marauders ' Map. Albus and Scorpius 's friendship is destroyed, but the two eventually reconcile after Albus steals Harry 's old Invisibility Cloak from James, and after McGonagall refuses to enforce Harry 's request. Harry himself is persuaded to relent after a conversation with Draco and Ginny. Meanwhile, Albus and Scorpius decide to make another attempt to use the Time Turner to change Cedric 's fate, this time by humiliating him during the Triwizard Tournament 's second task. When Scorpius returns to the present day however, Albus is not with him, and Scorpius finds himself in a reality in which Harry is dead and Voldemort rules the wizarding world.
Act 3
Scorpius discovers - as a result of his actions - an embittered Cedric joined the Death Eaters and killed Neville Longbottom during the events of Deathly Hallows, preventing him from killing Nagini and allowing Voldemort to win the Battle of Hogwarts. With Harry now dead, Albus subsequently never existed, while Voldemort was able to completely consolidate power and transform the Ministry of Magic into a fascist regime. In the new timeline, Scorpius became a popular Head Boy and Quidditch star, helping the staff and students torment Muggle - borns. Dolores Umbridge became the new Headmistress of Hogwarts, and patrols the school with Dementors and a revived Inquisitorial Squad lead by Scorpius. Draco Malfoy occupies Harry 's old position as the Head of Magical Law Enforcement, using his post to encourage routine attacks on Muggles and bribe the Prime Minister to remain silent on the actions of the Death Eaters. With help from Ron, Hermione and Severus Snape, now the final members of a dwindling anti-Voldemort resistance movement, Scorpius is able to use the Time Turner to prevent the interference of Albus and his past self and restore the events of the original timeline, the alternate Ron, Hermione and Snape sacrificing themselves to the Dementors in order to allow him to do so. Scorpius reunites with Albus, and the two boys are eventually found by their parents, as well as Ron and Hermione. Following these events, Harry scolds Albus for his actions, but the two nevertheless begin to reconcile.
Recognizing the danger the Time Turner poses, and deciding their parents will continue to keep it, Scorpius and Albus attempt to destroy it themselves, but they are joined by Delphi. Scorpius realizes Delphi was in charge of the Ministry of Magic in the alternate timeline, and she takes them captive, later revealing her intention of restoring the alternate timeline. After the adults learn Albus and Scorpius were seen disappearing with Delphi, they confront Amos, only to discover Delphi is not his niece, but the daughter of Voldemort and Bellatrix Lestrange. Searching her room, they discover she is following a prophecy that, if fulfilled, would lead to Voldemort 's return. Delphi takes the boys to the final challenge of the Triwizard Tournament, but Albus and Scorpius prevent her from acting, and Delphi uses the Time Turner to travel further back in time. She inadvertently takes the boys with her, and destroys the Time Turner to leave them stranded in time.
Act 4
Abandoned by Delphi, Albus and Scorpius discover they have been taken back to the night Harry 's parents were killed, and assume Delphi is planning to kill Harry before Voldemort can do so. Albus and Scorpius write an invisible message on Harry 's baby blanket, knowing in the present, the blanket would become stained with love potion and expose the message to Harry. Meanwhile, Draco reveals the Time - Turner was actually a prototype for a perfected model owned by him, but they remain unable to rescue the boys due to their uncertainty over which time period they have entered. After Harry receives the message from the boys, he and his allies use Draco 's Time Turner to travel back in time to save them and stop Delphi. While waiting for Delphi, they deduce she intends to convince Voldemort to abandon his doomed attempt to kill Harry, ensuring her father 's survival and allowing her to be with him.
Harry disguises himself as Voldemort using Transfiguration to distract Delphi, and the group subdues her. They allow the murder of Harry 's parents to play out, unwilling to risk the consequences of altering the past. After returning to the present day, Delphi is sent to Azkaban Prison. Albus and Scorpius now decide to be more active at Hogwarts, with Scorpius expressing interest in trying out for Quidditch and asking Rose on a date. Harry and Albus visit Cedric 's grave, with Harry apologizing for his role in Cedric 's death.
In December 2013, it was revealed that a stage play based on Harry Potter had been in development for around a year, with the view to bringing it to the stage sometime in 2016. At the time of the announcement, Rowling revealed that the play would "explore the previously untold story of Harry 's early years as an orphan and outcast ''. The following May, Rowling began establishing the creative team for the project.
On 26 June 2015, the project was officially confirmed under the title of Harry Potter and the Cursed Child, and it was revealed it would receive its world premiere in mid-2016 at London 's Palace Theatre. The announcement marked the eighteenth anniversary of the publication of the first Harry Potter novel, Harry Potter and the Philosopher 's Stone, published on 26 June 1997.
On announcing plans for the project, Rowling stated that the play would not be a prequel. In response to queries regarding the choice of a play rather than a new novel, Rowling has stated that she "is confident that when audiences see the play they will agree that it is the only proper medium for the story ''. Rowling has also assured audiences that the play will contain an entirely new story and will not be a rehashing of previously explored content. On 24 September 2015, Rowling announced that the play had been split into two parts. The parts are designed to be viewed on the same day or consecutively over two evenings.
On 23 October, it was confirmed the plays were set nineteen years after the conclusion of the final novel Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows, and would open at London 's Palace Theatre in July 2016. The plays principally follow Harry, now Head of the Department of Magical Law Enforcement, and his younger son Albus Severus Potter. As of 22 July, little more had been revealed about the plot even by those who had attended the previews since 7 June.
Harry Potter and the Cursed Child, a two - part play, was written by British playwright Jack Thorne based on an original story by Thorne, John Tiffany and Rowling. Some websites were listing all three as authors of the script but by July 26, 2016, the official web site for the play and many others (including the BBC) were listing Thorne as the sole script writer.
Harry Potter and the Cursed Child is directed by John Tiffany with choreography by Steven Hoggett, set design by Christine Jones, costume design by Katrina Lindsay, lighting design by Neil Austin, music by Imogen Heap, and sound design by Gareth Fry. In addition, special effects were created by Jeremy Chernick, with illusions by Jamie Harrison, and musical supervision by Martin Lowe.
Previews at the West End Palace Theatre, London began on June 7, 2016, with the official opening night for both parts on July 30, and originally booking until September 18, 2016. Tickets went on sale to pre-registered priority bookers on October 28, 2015, with a public sale scheduled to commence on 30 October. In just under 8 hours of priority booking 175,000 tickets were sold for the world premiere production, with the play 's booking period extended to January 2017. On commencement of the public sale booking was extended until April 30, 2017, with a further extension issued the same day to May 27, 2017. At opening tickets were priced from £ 30 up to £ 130 for a ticket for both parts, although ticket resale agencies were selling seats for up to £ 3,000. Ticket resale has been banned by the producers, with tickets no longer valid if sold on. In mid-July 2016, the theatre began holding a ticket lottery at 1pm each Friday, releasing 40 for sale on their website for ' some of the best seats ' in the theatre for the lowest price, advertised at £ 20 per part. For example, the "Friday Forty '' tickets sold on July 29, 2016 were for performances on August 3, 5, 6, and 7.
The plays are recommended for ages 12 and up. On December 20, 2015, initial casting was announced with Jamie Parker playing Harry Potter, Noma Dumezweni playing Hermione Granger and Paul Thornley playing Ron Weasley. The casting of the dark - skinned Noma Dumezweni as Hermione sparked fervent discussion, to which Rowling responded that Hermione 's skin was never specified as white. Further notable casting includes Poppy Miller as Ginny Potter and Sam Clemmett as Albus Severus Potter. The production features an overall cast of 42.
Deadline reported on May 4, 2017 that the play will open on Broadway at the Lyric Theatre with an opening date of April 22, 2018, with Clemmett, Boyle, Dumezweni, Parker, Thornley and Miller reprising their roles.
Jamie Glover is to take over from Jamie Parker as Harry Potter, while Emma Lowndes will play his wife Ginny Potter. Thomas Aldridge is to play Ron Weasley, replacing Paul Thornley, while Rakie Ayola will play Hermione Granger, replacing Noma Dumezweni. Annabel Baldwin, previously playing Moaning Myrtle will take over from Esther Smith as Delphi.
Original cast members Helen Aluko and James Howard will play Rose Granger - Weasley and Draco Malfoy respectively. Samuel Blenkin and Theo Ancient - making their professional debut - will play Scorpius Malfoy and Albus Potter, respectively.
The lead cast are joined by new cast members David Annen, Ruthxjiah Bellenea, Danny Dalton, Leah Haile, Rupert Henderson, Elizabeth Hill, April Hughes, James McGregor, Sarah Miele, Jordan Paris, James Phoon, Henry Rundle, Ged Simmons, Mark Theodore, Gideon Turner and Ed White.
Original cast members who will continue include Nicola Alexis, Rosemary Annabella, Phoebe Austen, Annabel Baldwin, Jabez Cheeseman, Morag Cross, Esme Grace, Lowri James, Martin Johnston, Alfred Jones, Barry McCarthy, Sandy McDade, Tom Mackley, Harrison Noble, Ben Roberts, Nuno Silva, Hope Sizer and Joshua Wyatt.
The new cast took over on 24 May, with the original cast having their final performance on 21 May.
Both parts of the stage play 's script have been released in print and digital formats as Harry Potter and the Cursed Child Parts I & II.
The first edition, entitled "Special Rehearsal Edition '', corresponded to the script used in the preview shows and was scheduled to be published on 31 July 2016, the date of Harry 's birthday in the series and Rowling 's birthday, as well. Since revisions to the script continued after the book was printed, an edited version was released on 25 July 2017, as the "Definitive Collector 's Edition ''. According to CNN, this was the most preordered book of 2016.
In the United States and Canada, the book sold over 2 million copies in its first two days of release. 847,885 copies were sold during the book 's first week of release in the United Kingdom. By June 2017, the book had sold over 4.5 million copies in the United States.
Harry Potter and the Cursed Child has received extremely positive reviews from critics. Audiences and critics have complimented the casting and performances, while many debate the quality of the piece and how it compares to entries in the main Harry Potter series.
Publications awarding five star ratings included The Independent, the London Evening Standard, The Stage and WhatsOnStage.com. The Telegraph also gave five, although "there are some quibbles, '' while The Guardian 's Michael Billington awarded four stars.
Anthony Boyle 's performance as Scorpius Malfoy garnered particular acclaim. WhatsOnStage.com wrote that "Boyle gives a career - making performance, '' while The Wall Street Journal described him as "the break - out performance. '' Variety 's critic, Matt Trueman, agreed, writing, "it 's Boyle who really stands out '', and both Trueman and Henry Hitchings, in the Evening Standard, noted that his performance was sure to be a fan favourite.
The response to the play within the Harry Potter fandom was mixed. Some fans claim that the story diverged from previously established rules of the universe, criticizing the play 's characterization. Some also took issue with the style and plot of the play. These criticisms have led some of the fandom to reject the play as separate from the Potter canon. Notably, Rowling has stated that the play is canon.
However, other fans responded positively to the play and its characters, with Scorpius Malfoy being particularly popular. Notably, the published script was voted Best Fantasy in Good Reads Choice Awards 2016. Some fans commented that the dialogue between the familiar characters was "spot on. '' Others celebrated it as a faithful continuation of the books. Others have noted that the play sheds light on some of the relationships between the characters, such as Harry and Dumbledore 's. The response had been particularly positive among fans who watched the play on stage.
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one interpretation of the basic phenomenological philosophy is that | Martin Heidegger - wikipedia
Martin Heidegger (/ ˈhaɪdɛɡər, - dɪɡər /; German: (ˈmaɐ̯tiːn ˈhaɪdɛɡɐ); 26 September 1889 -- 26 May 1976) was a German philosopher and a seminal thinker in the Continental tradition and philosophical hermeneutics. According to the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, he is "widely acknowledged to be one of the most original and important philosophers of the 20th century ''. Heidegger is best known for his contributions to phenomenology and existentialism, though as the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy cautions, "his thinking should be identified as part of such philosophical movements only with extreme care and qualification ''.
His first and best known book, Being and Time (1927), though unfinished, is one of the central philosophical works of the 20th century. In the first division of the work, Heidegger attempted to turn away from "ontic '' questions about beings to ontological questions about Being, and recover the most fundamental philosophical question: the question of Being, of what it means for something to be. Heidegger approached the question through an inquiry into the being that has an understanding of Being, and asks the question about it, namely, Human being, which he called Dasein ("being - there ''). Heidegger argued that Dasein is defined by Care, its practically engaged and concernful mode of Being - in - the - world, in opposition to Rationalist thinkers like René Descartes who located the essence of man in our thinking abilities. For Heidegger thinking is thinking about things originally discovered in our everyday practical engagements. The consequence of this is that our capacity to think can not be the most central quality of our being because thinking is a reflecting upon this more original way of discovering the world. In the second division, Heidegger argues that human being is even more fundamentally structured by its Temporality, or its concern with, and relationship to time, existing as a structurally open "possibility - for - being. '' He emphasized the importance of Authenticity in human existence, involving a truthful relationship to our thrownness into a world which we are "always already '' concerned with, and to our Being - towards - death, the Finitude of the time and being we are given, and the closing down of our various possibilities for being through time.
Heidegger also made critical contributions to philosophical conceptions of truth, arguing that its original meaning was unconcealment, to philosophical analyses of art as a site of the revelation of truth, and to philosophical understanding of language as the "house of being. '' Heidegger 's later work includes criticisms of technology 's instrumentalist understanding in the Western tradition as "enframing, '' treating all of Nature as a "standing reserve '' on call for human purposes. Heidegger is a controversial figure, largely for his affiliation with Nazism, as Rector of the University of Freiburg for 11 months, before his resignation in April 1934, for which he neither apologized nor publicly expressed regret.
Heidegger was born in rural Meßkirch, Baden - Württemberg, the son of Johanna (Kempf) and Friedrich Heidegger. Raised a Roman Catholic, he was the son of the sexton of the village church that adhered to the First Vatican Council of 1870, which was observed mainly by the poorer class of Meßkirch. His family could not afford to send him to university, so he entered a Jesuit seminary, though he was turned away within weeks because of the health requirement and what the director and doctor of the seminary described as a psychosomatic heart condition. Heidegger was short and sinewy, with dark piercing eyes. He enjoyed outdoor pursuits, being especially proficient at skiing.
Studying theology at the University of Freiburg while supported by the church, later he switched his field of study to philosophy. Heidegger completed his doctoral thesis on psychologism in 1914, influenced by Neo-Thomism and Neo-Kantianism, and in 1916 finished his venia legendi with a habilitation thesis on Duns Scotus directed by Heinrich Rickert and influenced by Edmund Husserl 's phenomenology.
In the two years following, he worked first as an unsalaried Privatdozent then served as a soldier during the final year of World War I; serving "the last ten months of the war '' with "the last three of those in a meteorological unit on the western front ''.
In 1923, Heidegger was elected to an extraordinary Professorship in Philosophy at the University of Marburg. His colleagues there included Rudolf Bultmann, Nicolai Hartmann, and Paul Natorp. Heidegger 's students at Marburg included Hans - Georg Gadamer, Hannah Arendt, Karl Löwith, Gerhard Krüger, Leo Strauss, Jacob Klein, Gunther (Stern) Anders, and Hans Jonas. Following on from Aristotle, he began to develop in his lectures the main theme of his philosophy: the question of the sense of being. He extended the concept of subject to the dimension of history and concrete existence, which he found prefigured in such Christian thinkers as Saint Paul, Augustine of Hippo, Luther, and Kierkegaard. He also read the works of Dilthey, Husserl, and Max Scheler.
In 1927, Heidegger published his main work Sein und Zeit (Being and Time). When Husserl retired as Professor of Philosophy in 1928, Heidegger accepted Freiburg 's election to be his successor, in spite of a counter-offer by Marburg. Heidegger remained at Freiburg im Breisgau for the rest of his life, declining a number of later offers, including one from Humboldt University of Berlin. His students at Freiburg included Arendt, Günther Anders, Hans Jonas, Karl Löwith, Charles Malik, Herbert Marcuse and Ernst Nolte. Emmanuel Levinas attended his lecture courses during his stay in Freiburg in 1928.
Heidegger was elected rector of the University on 21 April 1933, and joined the National Socialist German Workers ' (Nazi) Party on 1 May. In his inaugural address as rector on 27 May he expressed his support of a German revolution, and in an article and a speech to the students from the same year he also supported Adolf Hitler. In November 1933, Heidegger signed the Loyalty Oath of German Professors to Adolf Hitler and the National Socialist State. He resigned the rectorate in April 1934, but remained a member of the Nazi Party until 1945 even though (as Julian Young asserts) the Nazis eventually prevented him from publishing.
According to historian Richard J. Evans, Heidegger was not only a member of the Nazi Party, but was enthusiastic about participating. He wanted to position himself as the philosopher of the Party, but the highly abstract nature of his work and the opposition of Alfred Rosenberg, who himself aspired to act in that position, limited Heidegger 's role. His resignation from the rectorate owed more to his frustration as an administrator than to any principled opposition to the Nazis.
Heidegger 's Black Notebooks, written between 1931 and 1941 and first published in 2014, contain several anti-semitic statements and have led to a re-evaluation of Heidegger 's relation to Nazism.
In late 1946, as France engaged in épuration légale in its Occupation zone, the French military authorities determined that Heidegger should be blocked from teaching or participating in any university activities because of his association with the Nazi Party. The denazification procedures against Heidegger continued until March 1949 when he was finally pronounced a Mitläufer (the second lowest of five categories of "incrimination '' by association with the Nazi regime). No punitive measures against him were proposed. This opened the way for his readmission to teaching at Freiburg University in the winter semester of 1950 -- 51. He was granted emeritus status and then taught regularly from 1951 until 1958, and by invitation until 1967.
Heidegger married Elfride Petri on 21 March 1917, in a Catholic ceremony officiated by his friend Engelbert Krebs (de), and a week later in a Protestant ceremony in the presence of her parents. Their first son, Jörg, was born in 1919. Elfride then gave birth to Hermann (de) in 1920. Heidegger knew that he was not Hermann 's biological father but raised him as his son. Hermann 's biological father, who became godfather to his son, was family friend and doctor Friedel Caesar. Hermann was told of this at the age of 14. Hermann became a historian and would later serve as the executor of Heidegger 's will.
Heidegger had a long romantic relationship with Hannah Arendt and a steamy affair (over many decades) with Elisabeth Blochmann, both students of his. Arendt was Jewish, and Blochmann had one Jewish parent, making them subject to severe persecution by the Nazi authorities. He helped Blochmann emigrate from Germany before the start of World War II and resumed contact with both of them after the war. Heidegger 's letters to his wife contain information about several other affairs of his.
Heidegger spent much time at his vacation home at Todtnauberg, on the edge of the Black Forest. He considered the seclusion provided by the forest to be the best environment in which to engage in philosophical thought.
A few months before his death, he met with Bernhard Welte, a Catholic priest, Freiburg university professor and earlier correspondent. The exact nature of the conversation is not known, but what is known is that it included talk of Heidegger 's relationship to the Catholic Church and subsequent Christian burial at which the priest officiated. Heidegger died on 26 May 1976, and was buried in the Meßkirch cemetery, beside his parents and brother.
Heidegger 's philosophy is founded on the attempt to conjoin what he considers two fundamental insights: the first is his observation that, in the course of over 2,000 years of history, philosophy has attended to all the beings that can be found in the world (including the world itself), but has forgotten to ask what Being itself is. Heidegger thought the presence of things for us is not their being, but merely them interpreted as equipment according to a particular system of meaning and purpose. For instance, when a hammer is efficiently used to knock in nails, we cease to be aware of it. This is termed "ready to hand '', and Heidegger considers it an authentic mode, saying that the given ("past '') has presence in an oversimplified way when reduced to possible future usefulness to us.
Heidegger claimed philosophy and science since ancient Greece had reduced things to their presence, which was a superficial way of understanding them. One crucial source of this insight was Heidegger 's reading of Franz Brentano 's treatise on Aristotle 's manifold uses of the word "being '', a work which provoked Heidegger to ask what kind of unity underlies this multiplicity of uses. Heidegger opens his magnum opus, Being and Time, with a citation from Plato 's Sophist indicating that Western philosophy has neglected Being because it was considered obvious, rather than as worthy of question. Heidegger 's intuition about the question of Being is thus a historical argument, which in his later work becomes his concern with the "history of Being '', that is, the history of the forgetting of Being, which according to Heidegger requires that philosophy retrace its footsteps through a productive destruction of the history of philosophy.
The second intuition animating Heidegger 's philosophy derives from the influence of Edmund Husserl, a philosopher largely uninterested in questions of philosophical history. Rather, Husserl argued that all that philosophy could and should be is a description of experience (hence the phenomenological slogan, "to the things themselves ''). But for Heidegger, this meant understanding that experience is always already situated in a world and in ways of being. Thus Husserl 's understanding that all consciousness is "intentional '' (in the sense that it is always intended toward something, and is always "about '' something) is transformed in Heidegger 's philosophy, becoming the thought that all experience is grounded in "care ''. This is the basis of Heidegger 's "existential analytic '', as he develops it in Being and Time. Heidegger argues that describing experience properly entails finding the being for whom such a description might matter. Heidegger thus conducts his description of experience with reference to "Dasein '', the being for whom Being is a question.
In Being and Time, Heidegger criticized the abstract and metaphysical character of traditional ways of grasping human existence as rational animal, person, man, soul, spirit, or subject. Dasein, then, is not intended as a way of conducting a philosophical anthropology, but is rather understood by Heidegger to be the condition of possibility for anything like a philosophical anthropology. Dasein, according to Heidegger, is care. In the course of his existential analytic, Heidegger argues that Dasein, who finds itself thrown into the world (Geworfenheit) amidst things and with others, is thrown into its possibilities, including the possibility and inevitability of one 's own mortality. The need for Dasein to assume these possibilities, that is, the need to be responsible for one 's own existence, is the basis of Heidegger 's notions of authenticity and resoluteness -- that is, of those specific possibilities for Dasein which depend on escaping the "vulgar '' temporality of calculation and of public life.
The marriage of these two observations depends on the fact that each of them is essentially concerned with time. That Dasein is thrown into an already existing world and thus into its mortal possibilities does not only mean that Dasein is an essentially temporal being; it also implies that the description of Dasein can only be carried out in terms inherited from the Western tradition itself. For Heidegger, unlike for Husserl, philosophical terminology could not be divorced from the history of the use of that terminology, and thus genuine philosophy could not avoid confronting questions of language and meaning. The existential analytic of Being and Time was thus always only a first step in Heidegger 's philosophy, to be followed by the "dismantling '' (Destruktion) of the history of philosophy, that is, a transformation of its language and meaning, that would have made of the existential analytic only a kind of "limit case '' (in the sense in which special relativity is a limit case of general relativity).
That Heidegger did not write this second part of Being and Time, and that the existential analytic was left behind in the course of Heidegger 's subsequent writings on the history of being, might be interpreted as a failure to conjugate his account of individual experience with his account of the vicissitudes of the collective human adventure that he understands the Western philosophical tradition to be. And this would in turn raise the question of whether this failure is due to a flaw in Heidegger 's account of temporality, that is, of whether Heidegger was correct to oppose vulgar and authentic time. There are also recent critiques in this regard that were directed at Heidegger 's focus on time instead of primarily thinking about being in relation to place and space, and to the notion of dwelling, with connections too to architectural theory as impacted by phenomenology.
Being and Time (German title: Sein und Zeit), published in 1927, was Heidegger 's first academic book. He had been under pressure to publish in order to qualify for Husserl 's (to whom he dedicated the work) chair at the University of Freiburg and the success of this work ensured his appointment to the post.
In Being and Time, Heidegger investigates the question of Being by asking about the being for whom Being is a question. Heidegger names this being Dasein (see above), and he pursues his investigation through themes such as mortality, care, anxiety, temporality, and historicity. It was Heidegger 's original intention to write a second half of the book, consisting of a "Destruktion '' of the history of philosophy -- that is, the transformation of philosophy by re-tracing its history -- but he never completed this project.
Being and Time influenced many thinkers, including such existentialist thinkers as Jean - Paul Sartre (although Heidegger distanced himself from existentialism -- see below).
Heidegger 's later works, beginning by 1930 and largely established by the early 1940s, seem to many commentators (e.g. William J. Richardson) to at least reflect a shift of focus, if not indeed a major change in his philosophical outlook, which is known as "the turn '' (die Kehre). One way this has been understood is as a shift from "doing '' to "dwelling '' (Wohnen) and from Being and Time to Time and Being (This aspect had a particular influence on architectural theorists in their focus on place and space in thinking about dwelling. Such is the case with the work of Christian Norberg - Schulz and the philosopher - architect Nader El - Bizri.) However, others feel that this is to overstate the difference. For example, in 2011 Mark Wrathall argued that Heidegger pursued and refined the central notion of unconcealment throughout his life as a philosopher. Its importance and continuity in his thinking, Wrathall states, shows that he did not have a "turn ''. A reviewer of Wrathall 's book stated: "An ontology of unconcealment (...) means a description and analysis of the broad contexts in which entities show up as meaningful to us, as well as the conditions under which such contexts, or worlds, emerge and fade. ''
Heidegger focuses less on the way in which the structures of being are revealed in everyday behavior, and more on the way in which behaviour itself depends on a prior "openness to being. '' The essence of being human is the maintenance of this openness. Heidegger contrasts this openness to the "will to power '' of the modern human subject, which is one way of forgetting this originary openness.
Heidegger understands the commencement of the history of Western philosophy as a brief period of authentic openness to being, during the time of the pre-Socratics, especially Anaximander, Heraclitus, and Parmenides. This was followed, according to Heidegger, by a long period increasingly dominated by the forgetting of this initial openness, a period which commences with Plato, and which occurs in different ways throughout Western history.
Two recurring themes of Heidegger 's later writings are poetry and technology. Heidegger sees poetry and technology as two contrasting ways of "revealing. '' Poetry reveals being in the way in which, if it is genuine poetry, it commences something new. Technology, on the other hand, when it gets going, inaugurates the world of the dichotomous subject and object, which modern philosophy commencing with Descartes also reveals. But with modern technology a new stage of revealing is reached, in which the subject - object distinction is overcome even in the "material '' world of technology. The essence of modern technology is the conversion of the whole universe of beings into an undifferentiated "standing reserve '' (Bestand) of energy available for any use to which humans choose to put it. Heidegger described the essence of modern technology as Gestell, or "enframing. '' Heidegger does not unequivocally condemn technology: while he acknowledges that modern technology contains grave dangers, Heidegger nevertheless also argues that it may constitute a chance for human beings to enter a new epoch in their relation to being. Despite this, some commentators have insisted that an agrarian nostalgia permeates his later work.
In a 1950 lecture he formulated the famous saying Language speaks, later published in the 1959 essays collection Unterwegs zur Sprache, and collected in the 1971 English book Poetry, Language, Thought.
Heidegger 's later works include Vom Wesen der Wahrheit ("On the Essence of Truth '', 1930), Der Ursprung des Kunstwerkes ("The Origin of the Work of Art '', 1935), Einführung in die Metaphysik ("Introduction to Metaphysics '', 1935), Bauen Wohnen Denken ("Building Dwelling Thinking '', 1951), and Die Frage nach der Technik ("The Question Concerning Technology '', 1954) and Was heisst Denken? (What Is Called Thinking? 1954). Also Beiträge zur Philosophie (Vom Ereignis) (Contributions to Philosophy (From Enowning)), composed in the years 1936 -- 38 but not published until 1989, on the centennial of Heidegger 's birth.
Heidegger believed the Western world to be on a trajectory headed for total war, and on the brink of profound nihilism (the rejection of all religious and moral principles), which would be the purest and highest revelation of Being itself, offering a horrifying crossroads of either salvation or the end of metaphysics and modernity; rendering the West a wasteland populated by tool - using brutes, characterized by an unprecedented ignorance and barbarism in which everything is permitted.
He thought the latter possibility would degenerate mankind generally into scientists, workers and brutes; living under the last mantle of one of three ideologies, Americanism, Marxism or Nazism (which he deemed metaphysically identical, as avatars of subjectivity and institutionalized nihilism), and an unfettered totalitarian world technology. Supposedly, this epoch would be ironically celebrated, as the most enlightened and glorious in human history.
He envisaged this abyss to be the greatest event in the West 's history because it would enable Humanity to comprehend Being more profoundly and primordially than the Pre-Socratics.
Recent scholarship has shown that Heidegger was substantially influenced by St. Augustine of Hippo and that Being and Time would not have been possible without the influence of Augustine 's thought. Augustine 's Confessions was particularly influential in shaping Heidegger 's thought.
Augustine viewed time as relative and subjective, and that being and time were bound up together. Heidegger adopted similar views, e.g. that time was the horizon of Being: '... time temporalizes itself only as long as there are human beings. '
Heidegger was influenced at an early age by Aristotle, mediated through Catholic theology, medieval philosophy and Franz Brentano. Aristotle 's ethical, logical, and metaphysical works were crucial to the development of his thought in the crucial period of the 1920s. Although he later worked less on Aristotle, Heidegger recommended postponing reading Nietzsche, and to "first study Aristotle for ten to fifteen years ''. In reading Aristotle, Heidegger increasingly contested the traditional Latin translation and scholastic interpretation of his thought. Particularly important (not least for its influence upon others, both in their interpretation of Aristotle and in rehabilitating a neo-Aristotelian "practical philosophy '') was his radical reinterpretation of Book Six of Aristotle 's Nicomachean Ethics and several books of the Metaphysics. Both informed the argument of Being and Time. Heidegger 's thought is original in being an authentic retrieval of the past, a repetition of the possibilities handed down by the tradition.
The idea of asking about being may be traced back via Aristotle to Parmenides. Heidegger claimed to have revived the question of being, the question having been largely forgotten by the metaphysical tradition extending from Plato to Descartes, a forgetfulness extending to the Age of Enlightenment and then to modern science and technology. In pursuit of the retrieval of this question, Heidegger spent considerable time reflecting on ancient Greek thought, in particular on Plato, Parmenides, Heraclitus, and Anaximander, as well as on the tragic playwright Sophocles.
Heidegger 's very early project of developing a "hermeneutics of factical life '' and his hermeneutical transformation of phenomenology was influenced in part by his reading of the works of Wilhelm Dilthey.
Of the influence of Dilthey, Hans - Georg Gadamer writes the following: "As far as Dilthey is concerned, we all know today what I have known for a long time: namely that it is a mistake to conclude on the basis of the citation in Being and Time that Dilthey was especially influential in the development of Heidegger 's thinking in the mid-1920s. This dating of the influence is much too late. '' He adds that by the fall of 1923 it was plain that Heidegger felt "the clear superiority of Count Yorck over the famous scholar, Dilthey. '' Gadamer nevertheless makes clear that Dilthey 's influence was important in helping the youthful Heidegger "in distancing himself from the systematic ideal of Neo-Kantianism, as Heidegger acknowledges in Being and Time. '' Based on Heidegger 's earliest lecture courses, in which Heidegger already engages Dilthey 's thought prior to the period Gadamer mentions as "too late '', scholars as diverse as Theodore Kisiel and David Farrell Krell have argued for the importance of Diltheyan concepts and strategies in the formation of Heidegger 's thought.
Even though Gadamer 's interpretation of Heidegger has been questioned, there is little doubt that Heidegger seized upon Dilthey 's concept of hermeneutics. Heidegger 's novel ideas about ontology required a gestalt formation, not merely a series of logical arguments, in order to demonstrate his fundamentally new paradigm of thinking, and the hermeneutic circle offered a new and powerful tool for the articulation and realization of these ideas.
There is disagreement over the degree of influence that Husserl had on Heidegger 's philosophical development, just as there is disagreement about the degree to which Heidegger 's philosophy is grounded in phenomenology. These disagreements centre upon how much of Husserlian phenomenology is contested by Heidegger, and how much this phenomenology in fact informs Heidegger 's own understanding.
On the relation between the two figures, Gadamer wrote: "When asked about phenomenology, Husserl was quite right to answer as he used to in the period directly after World War I: ' Phenomenology, that is me and Heidegger '. '' Nevertheless, Gadamer noted that Heidegger was no patient collaborator with Husserl, and that Heidegger 's "rash ascent to the top, the incomparable fascination he aroused, and his stormy temperament surely must have made Husserl, the patient one, as suspicious of Heidegger as he always had been of Max Scheler 's volcanic fire. ''
Robert J. Dostal understood the importance of Husserl to be profound:
Heidegger himself, who is supposed to have broken with Husserl, bases his hermeneutics on an account of time that not only parallels Husserl 's account in many ways but seems to have been arrived at through the same phenomenological method as was used by Husserl... The differences between Husserl and Heidegger are significant, but if we do not see how much it is the case that Husserlian phenomenology provides the framework for Heidegger 's approach, we will not be able to appreciate the exact nature of Heidegger 's project in Being and Time or why he left it unfinished.
Daniel O. Dahlstrom saw Heidegger 's presentation of his work as a departure from Husserl as unfairly misrepresenting Husserl 's own work. Dahlstrom concluded his consideration of the relation between Heidegger and Husserl as follows:
Heidegger 's silence about the stark similarities between his account of temporality and Husserl 's investigation of internal time - consciousness contributes to a misrepresentation of Husserl 's account of intentionality. Contrary to the criticisms Heidegger advances in his lectures, intentionality (and, by implication, the meaning of ' to be ') in the final analysis is not construed by Husserl as sheer presence (be it the presence of a fact or object, act or event). Yet for all its "dangerous closeness '' to what Heidegger understands by temporality, Husserl 's account of internal time - consciousness does differ fundamentally. In Husserl 's account the structure of protentions is accorded neither the finitude nor the primacy that Heidegger claims are central to the original future of ecstatic - horizonal temporality.
Heideggerians regarded Søren Kierkegaard as, by far, the greatest philosophical contributor to Heidegger 's own existentialist concepts. Heidegger 's concepts of anxiety (Angst) and mortality draw on Kierkegaard and are indebted to the way in which the latter lays out the importance of our subjective relation to truth, our existence in the face of death, the temporality of existence, and the importance of passionate affirmation of one 's individual being - in - the - world.
Friedrich Hölderlin and Friedrich Nietzsche were both important influences on Heidegger, and many of his lecture courses were devoted to one or the other, especially in the 1930s and 1940s. The lectures on Nietzsche focused on fragments posthumously published under the title The Will to Power, rather than on Nietzsche 's published works. Heidegger read The Will to Power as the culminating expression of Western metaphysics, and the lectures are a kind of dialogue between the two thinkers.
The fundamental differences between the philosophical delineations of Heidegger and Adorno can be found in their contrasting views of Hölderlin 's poetical works and to a lesser extent in their divergent views on German romanticism in general. For Heidegger, Hölderlin expressed the intuitive necessity of metaphysical concepts as a guide for ethical paradigms, devoid of reflection. Adorno, on the other hand, pointed to the dialectic reflection of historical situations, the sociological interpretations of future outcomes, and therefore opposed the liberating principles of intuitive concepts because they negatively surpassed the perception of societal realities. Nevertheless, it was Heidegger 's rationalization and later work on Hölderlin 's poems as well as on Parmenides ("For to be aware and to be are the same, '' DK B 3) and his consistent understanding of Nietzsche 's thought that formed the foundation of postmodern existentialism.
This is also the case for the lecture courses devoted to the poetry of Friedrich Hölderlin, which became an increasingly central focus of Heidegger 's work and thought. Heidegger grants to Hölderlin a singular place within the history of being and the history of Germany, as a herald whose thought is yet to be "heard '' in Germany or the West. Many of Heidegger 's works from the 1930s onwards include meditations on lines from Hölderlin 's poetry, and several of the lecture courses are devoted to the reading of a single poem (see, for example, Hölderlin 's Hymn "The Ister '').
Some writers on Heidegger 's work see possibilities within it for dialogue with traditions of thought outside of Western philosophy, particularly East Asian thinking. Despite perceived differences between Eastern and Western philosophy, some of Heidegger 's later work, particularly "A Dialogue on Language between a Japanese and an Inquirer '', does show an interest in initiating such a dialogue. Heidegger himself had contact with a number of leading Japanese intellectuals, including members of the Kyoto School, notably Hajime Tanabe and Kuki Shūzō. It has also been claimed that a number of elements within Heidegger 's thought bear a close parallel to Eastern philosophical ideas, particularly Zen Buddhism and Taoism. Reinhard May records Chang Chung - Yuan saying that "Heidegger is the only Western Philosopher who not only intellectually understands but has intuitively grasped Taoist thought. '' May sees great influence of Taoism and Japanese scholars in Heidegger 's work, although this influence is not acknowledged by the author. He asserts: "The investigation concludes that Heidegger 's work was significantly influenced by East Asian sources. It can be shown, moreover, that in particular instances Heidegger even appropriated wholesale and almost verbatim major ideas from the German translations of Daoist and Zen Buddhist classics. This clandestine textual appropriation of non-Western spirituality, the extent of which has gone undiscovered for so long, seems quite unparalleled, with far - reaching implications for our future interpretation of Heidegger 's work. ''
Heidegger has been influential in research on the relationship between Western philosophy and the history of ideas in Islam, particularly for some scholars interested in Arabic philosophical medieval sources. These include the Lebanese philosopher and architectural theorist Nader El - Bizri, who, as well as focusing on the critique of the history of metaphysics (as an ' Arab Heideggerian '), also moves towards rethinking the notion of "dwelling '' in the epoch of the modern unfolding of the essence of technology and Gestell, and realizing what can be described as a "confluence of Western and Eastern thought '' as well. It is claimed that the works of counter-enlightenment philosophers such as Heidegger, along with Friedrich Nietzsche and Joseph de Maistre, influenced Iran 's Shia Islamist scholars, notably Ali Shariati. A clearer impact of Heidegger in Iran is associated with thinkers such as Ahmad Fardid and Reza Davari Ardakani who have been closely associated with the unfolding of philosophical thinking in a Muslim modern theological legacy in Iran. This included the construction of the ideological foundations of the Iranian Revolution and modern political Islam in its connections with theology.
Heidegger 's thought influenced some architectural theorists in a direct manner, or through an impact via his reflections on ' dwelling ', the ' origin of the work of art ', ' the essence of technology ', and the unfolding of a broad interest in phenomenology within the contemporary circles of architectural theory. This is for instance evident in the works and profiles of theorists such as Christian Norberg - Schulz, Dalibor Vesely, Nader El - Bizri, Karsten Harries, Neil Leach, Adam Sharr, etc., within what is known as Architectural phenomenology and in contemporary architectural theory in general.
Adolf Hitler was sworn in as Chancellor of Germany on January 30, 1933. Heidegger was elected rector of the University of Freiburg on April 21, 1933, and assumed the position the following day. On May 1, he joined the Nazi Party.
Heidegger delivered his inaugural address, the Rektoratsrede, on "Die Selbstbehauptung der Deutschen Universität '' ("The Self - assertion of the German University '') on 27 May.
His tenure as rector was fraught with difficulties from the outset. Some National Socialist education officials viewed him as a rival, while others saw his efforts as comical. Some of Heidegger 's fellow National Socialists also ridiculed his philosophical writings as gibberish. He finally offered his resignation on 23 April 1934, and it was accepted on 27 April. Heidegger remained a member of both the academic faculty and of the Nazi Party until the end of the war.
Philosophical historian Hans Sluga wrote:
Though as rector he prevented students from displaying an anti-Semitic poster at the entrance to the university and from holding a book burning, he kept in close contact with the Nazi student leaders and clearly signaled to them his sympathy with their activism.
In 1945, Heidegger wrote of his term as rector, giving the writing to his son Hermann; it was published in 1983:
The rectorate was an attempt to see something in the movement that had come to power, beyond all its failings and crudeness, that was much more far - reaching and that could perhaps one day bring a concentration on the Germans ' Western historical essence. It will in no way be denied that at the time I believed in such possibilities and for that reason renounced the actual vocation of thinking in favor of being effective in an official capacity. In no way will what was caused by my own inadequacy in office be played down. But these points of view do not capture what is essential and what moved me to accept the rectorate.
Beginning in 1917, German - Jewish philosopher Edmund Husserl championed Heidegger 's work, and helped him secure the retiring Husserl 's chair in Philosophy at the University of Freiburg.
On 6 April 1933, the Reichskommissar of Baden Province, Robert Wagner, suspended all Jewish government employees, including present and retired faculty at the University of Freiburg. Heidegger 's predecessor as Rector formally notified Husserl of his "enforced leave of absence '' on 14 April 1933.
Heidegger became Rector of the University of Freiburg on 22 April 1933. The following week the national Reich law of 28 April 1933, replaced Reichskommissar Wagner 's decree. The Reich law required the firing of Jewish professors from German universities, including those, such as Husserl, who had converted to Christianity. The termination of the retired professor Husserl 's academic privileges thus did not involve any specific action on Heidegger 's part.
Heidegger had by then broken off contact with Husserl, other than through intermediaries. Heidegger later claimed that his relationship with Husserl had already become strained after Husserl publicly "settled accounts '' with Heidegger and Max Scheler in the early 1930s.
Heidegger did not attend his former mentor 's cremation in 1938. In 1941, under pressure from publisher Max Niemeyer, Heidegger agreed to remove the dedication to Husserl from Being and Time (restored in post-war editions).
Heidegger 's behavior towards Husserl has evoked controversy. Arendt initially suggested that Heidegger 's behavior precipitated Husserl 's death. She called Heidegger a "potential murderer. '' However, she later recanted her accusation.
In 1939, only a year after Husserl 's death, Heidegger wrote in his Black Notebooks: "The more original and inceptive the coming decisions and questions become, the more inaccessible will they remain to this (Jewish) ' race '. (Thus, Husserl 's step toward phenomenological observation, and his rejection of psychological explanations and historiological reckoning of opinions, are of enduring importance -- yet it never reaches into the domains of essential decisions '', seeming to imply that Husserl 's philosophy was limited purely because he was Jewish.
After the failure of Heidegger 's rectorship, he withdrew from most political activity, without canceling his membership in the NSDAP (Nazi Party). References to National Socialism continued to appear in his work.
The most controversial such reference occurred during a 1935 lecture which was published in 1953 as part of the book Introduction to Metaphysics. In the published version, Heidegger refers to the "inner truth and greatness '' of the National Socialist movement (die innere Wahrheit und Größe dieser Bewegung), but he then adds a qualifying statement in parentheses: "namely, the confrontation of planetary technology and modern humanity '' (nämlich die Begegnung der planetarisch bestimmten Technik und des neuzeitlichen Menschen). However, it subsequently transpired that this qualification had not been made during the original lecture, although Heidegger claimed that it had been. This has led scholars to argue that Heidegger still supported the Nazi party in 1935 but that he did not want to admit this after the war, and so he attempted to silently correct his earlier statement.
In private notes written in 1939, Heidegger took a strongly critical view of Hitler 's ideology; however, in public lectures, he seems to have continued to make ambiguous comments which, if they expressed criticism of the regime, did so only in the context of praising its ideals. For instance, in a 1942 lecture, published posthumously, Heidegger said of recent German classics scholarship:
In the majority of "research results, '' the Greeks appear as pure National Socialists. This overenthusiasm on the part of academics seems not even to notice that with such "results '' it does National Socialism and its historical uniqueness no service at all, not that it needs this anyhow.
An important witness to Heidegger 's continued allegiance to National Socialism during the post-rectorship period is his former student Karl Löwith, who met Heidegger in 1936 while Heidegger was visiting Rome. In an account set down in 1940 (though not intended for publication), Löwith recalled that Heidegger wore a swastika pin to their meeting, though Heidegger knew that Löwith was Jewish. Löwith also recalled that Heidegger "left no doubt about his faith in Hitler '', and stated that his support for National Socialism was in agreement with the essence of his philosophy.
After the end of World War II, Heidegger was summoned to appear at a denazification hearing. Heidegger 's former lover Arendt spoke on his behalf at this hearing, while Jaspers spoke against him. He was charged on four counts, dismissed from the university and declared a "follower '' (Mitläufer) of Nazism. Heidegger was forbidden to teach between 1945 and 1951. One consequence of this teaching ban was that Heidegger began to engage far more in the French philosophical scene.
In his postwar thinking, Heidegger distanced himself from Nazism, but his critical comments about Nazism seem "scandalous '' to some since they tend to equate the Nazi war atrocities with other inhumane practices related to rationalisation and industrialisation, including the treatment of animals by factory farming. For instance in a lecture delivered at Bremen in 1949, Heidegger said: "Agriculture is now a motorized food industry, the same thing in its essence as the production of corpses in the gas chambers and the extermination camps, the same thing as blockades and the reduction of countries to famine, the same thing as the manufacture of hydrogen bombs. ''
In 1967 Heidegger met with the Jewish poet Paul Celan, a concentration camp survivor. Celan visited Heidegger at his country retreat and wrote an enigmatic poem about the meeting, which some interpret as Celan 's wish for Heidegger to apologize for his behavior during the Nazi era.
On 23 September 1966, Heidegger was interviewed by Rudolf Augstein and Georg Wolff for Der Spiegel magazine, in which he agreed to discuss his political past provided that the interview be published posthumously. (It was published five days after his death, on 31 May 1976.) In the interview, Heidegger defended his entanglement with National Socialism in two ways: first, he argued that there was no alternative, saying that he was trying to save the university (and science in general) from being politicized and thus had to compromise with the Nazi administration. Second, he admitted that he saw an "awakening '' (Aufbruch) which might help to find a "new national and social approach, '' but said that he changed his mind about this in 1934, largely prompted by the violence of the Night of the Long Knives.
In his interview Heidegger defended as double - speak his 1935 lecture describing the "inner truth and greatness of this movement. '' He affirmed that Nazi informants who observed his lectures would understand that by "movement '' he meant National Socialism. However, Heidegger asserted that his dedicated students would know this statement was no eulogy for the NSDAP. Rather, he meant it as he expressed it in the parenthetical clarification later added to Introduction to Metaphysics (1953), namely, "the confrontation of planetary technology and modern humanity. ''
The Löwith account from 1936 has been cited to contradict the account given in the Der Spiegel interview in two ways: that he did not make any decisive break with National Socialism in 1934, and that Heidegger was willing to entertain more profound relations between his philosophy and political involvement. The Der Spiegel interviewers did not bring up Heidegger 's 1949 quotation comparing the industrialization of agriculture to the extermination camps. In fact, the interviewers were not in possession of much of the evidence now known for Heidegger 's Nazi sympathies.
Heidegger was one of the most influential philosophers of the 20th century, and his ideas have penetrated into many areas, but in France there is a very long and particular history of reading and interpreting his work which in itself resulted in deepening the impact of his thought in Continental Philosophy. His influence is clear on Jean Beaufret, François Fédier, Dominique Janicaud, Jean - Luc Marion, Jean - François Courtine and others. One can not even read Derrida or Levinas without taking into account their critiques of Heidegger that run deep at the basis of their thinking.
Heidegger 's influence on French philosophy began in the 1930s, when Being and Time, "What is Metaphysics? '' and other Heideggerian texts were read by Jean - Paul Sartre and other existentialists, as well as by thinkers such as Alexandre Kojève, Georges Bataille and Emmanuel Levinas. Because Heidegger 's discussion of ontology (the study of being) is rooted in an analysis of the mode of existence of individual human beings (Da - sein, or there - being), his work has often been associated with existentialism. The influence of Heidegger on Sartre 's Being and Nothingness is marked, but Heidegger felt that Sartre had misread his work, as he argued in later texts such as the "Letter on ' Humanism. ' '' In that text, intended for a French audience, Heidegger explained this misreading in the following terms:
Sartre 's key proposition about the priority of existentia over essentia (that is, Sartre 's statement that "existence precedes essence '') does, however, justify using the name "existentialism '' as an appropriate title for a philosophy of this sort. But the basic tenet of "existentialism '' has nothing at all in common with the statement from Being and Time (that "the ' essence ' of Dasein lies in its existence '') -- apart from the fact that in Being and Time no statement about the relation of essentia and existentia can yet be expressed, since there it is still a question of preparing something precursory.
"Letter on ' Humanism ' '' is often seen as a direct response to Sartre 's 1945 lecture "Existentialism is a Humanism ''. Aside from merely disputing readings of his own work, however, in "Letter on ' Humanism, ' '' Heidegger asserts that "Every humanism is either grounded in a metaphysics or is itself made to be the ground of one. '' Heidegger 's largest issue with Sartre 's existential humanism is that, while it does make a humanistic ' move ' in privileging existence over essence, "the reversal of a metaphysical statement remains a metaphysical statement. '' From this point onward in his thought, Heidegger attempted to think beyond metaphysics to a place where the articulation of the fundamental questions of ontology were fundamentally possible: only from this point can we restore (that is, re-give (redonner)) any possible meaning to the word "humanism ''.
After the war, Heidegger was banned from university teaching for a period on account of his activities as Rector of Freiburg University. He developed a number of contacts in France, where his work continued to be taught, and a number of French students visited him at Todtnauberg (see, for example, Jean - François Lyotard 's brief account in Heidegger and "the Jews '', which discusses a Franco - German conference held in Freiburg in 1947, one step toward bringing together French and German students). Heidegger subsequently made several visits to France, and made efforts to keep abreast of developments in French philosophy by way of correspondence with Jean Beaufret, an early French translator of Heidegger, and with Lucien Braun.
Deconstruction came to Heidegger 's attention in 1967 by way of Lucien Braun 's recommendation of Jacques Derrida 's work (Hans - Georg Gadamer was present at an initial discussion and indicated to Heidegger that Derrida 's work came to his attention by way of an assistant). Heidegger expressed interest in meeting Derrida personally after the latter sent him some of his work. There was discussion of a meeting in 1972, but this failed to take place. Heidegger 's interest in Derrida is said by Braun to have been considerable (as is evident in two letters, of September 29, 1967 and May 16, 1972, from Heidegger to Braun). Braun also brought to Heidegger 's attention the work of Michel Foucault. Foucault 's relation to Heidegger is a matter of considerable difficulty; Foucault acknowledged Heidegger as a philosopher whom he read but never wrote about. (For more on this see Penser à Strasbourg, Jacques Derrida, et al., which includes reproductions of both letters and an account by Braun, "À mi - chemin entre Heidegger et Derrida '').
Derrida attempted to displace the understanding of Heidegger 's work that had been prevalent in France from the period of the ban against Heidegger teaching in German universities, which amounted to an almost wholesale rejection of the influence of Jean - Paul Sartre and existentialist terms. In Derrida 's view, deconstruction is a tradition inherited via Heidegger (the French term "déconstruction '' is a term coined to translate Heidegger 's use of the words "Destruktion '' -- literally "destruction '' -- and "Abbau '' -- more literally "de-building ''). According to Derrida, Sartre 's interpretation of Dasein and other key Heideggerian concerns is overly psychologistic, anthropocentric, and misses the historicality central to Dasein in Being and Time.
Derrida, Lacoue - Labarthe, and Jean - François Lyotard, among others, all engaged in debate and disagreement about the relation between Heidegger 's philosophy and his Nazi politics. These debates included the question of whether it was possible to do without Heidegger 's philosophy, a position which Derrida in particular rejected. Forums where these debates took place include the proceedings of the first conference dedicated to Derrida 's work, published as "Les Fins de l'homme à partir du travail de Jacques Derrida: colloque de Cerisy, 23 juillet - 2 août 1980 '', Derrida 's "Feu la cendre / cio ' che resta del fuoco '', and the studies on Paul Celan by Lacoue - Labarthe and Derrida which shortly preceded the detailed studies of Heidegger 's politics published in and after 1987.
When in 1987 Víctor Farías published his book Heidegger et le nazisme, this debate was taken up by many others, some of whom were inclined to disparage so - called "deconstructionists '' for their association with Heidegger 's philosophy. Derrida and others not only continued to defend the importance of reading Heidegger, but attacked Farías on the grounds of poor scholarship and for what they saw as the sensationalism of his approach. Not all scholars agreed with this negative assessment: Richard Rorty, for example, declared that "(Farías ') book includes more concrete information relevant to Heidegger 's relations with the Nazis than anything else available, and it is an excellent antidote to the evasive apologetics that are still being published. ''
More recently, Heidegger 's thought has considerably influenced the work of the French philosopher Bernard Stiegler. This is evident even from the title of Stiegler 's multi-volume magnum opus, La technique et le temps (volume one translated into English as Technics and Time, 1: The Fault of Epimetheus). Stiegler offers an original reading of Heidegger, arguing that there can be no access to "originary temporality '' other than via material, that is, technical, supports, and that Heidegger recognised this in the form of his account of world historicality, yet in the end suppressed that fact. Stiegler understands the existential analytic of Being and Time as an account of psychic individuation, and his later "history of being '' as an account of collective individuation. He understands many of the problems of Heidegger 's philosophy and politics as the consequence of Heidegger 's inability to integrate the two.
Heidegger has been very influential on the work of Italian philosopher Giorgio Agamben. Agamben attended seminars in France led by Heidegger in the late 1960s.
Heidegger 's influence upon 20th century continental philosophy is unquestioned and has produced a variety of critical responses.
According to Husserl, Being and Time claimed to deal with ontology but only did so in the first few pages of the book. Having nothing further to contribute to an ontology independent of human existence, Heidegger changed the topic to Dasein. Whereas Heidegger argued that the question of human existence is central to the pursuit of the question of being, Husserl criticized this as reducing phenomenology to "philosophical anthropology '' and offering an abstract and incorrect portrait of the human being.
The Neo-Kantian Ernst Cassirer and Heidegger engaged in an influential debate located in Davos in 1929, concerning the significance of Kantian notions of freedom and rationality (see Cassirer -- Heidegger debate). Whereas Cassirer defended the role of rationality in Kant, Heidegger argued for the priority of the imagination.
Dilthey 's student Georg Misch wrote the first extended critical appropriation of Heidegger in Lebensphilosophie und Phänomenologie. Eine Auseinandersetzung der Diltheyschen Richtung mit Heidegger und Husserl, Leipzig 1930 (3rd ed. Stuttgart 1964).
Hegel - influenced Marxist thinkers, especially György Lukács and the Frankfurt School, associated the style and content of Heidegger 's thought with German irrationalism and criticized its political implications.
Initially members of the Frankfurt School were positively disposed to Heidegger, becoming more critical at the beginning of the 1930s. Heidegger 's student Herbert Marcuse became associated with the Frankfurt School. Initially striving for a synthesis between Hegelian Marxism and Heidegger 's phenomenology, Marcuse later rejected Heidegger 's thought for its "false concreteness '' and "revolutionary conservativism. '' Theodor Adorno wrote an extended critique of the ideological character of Heidegger 's early and later use of language in the Jargon of Authenticity. Contemporary social theorists associated with the Frankfurt School have remained largely critical of Heidegger 's works and influence. In particular, Jürgen Habermas admonishes the influence of Heidegger on recent French philosophy in his polemic against "postmodernism '' in The Philosophical Discourse of Modernity (1985). However, recent work by philosopher and critical theorist Nikolas Kompridis tries to show that Heidegger 's insights into world disclosure are badly misunderstood and mishandled by Habermas, and are of vital importance for critical theory, offering an important way of renewing that tradition.
Criticism of Heidegger 's philosophy has also come from analytic philosophy, beginning with logical positivism. In "The Elimination of Metaphysics Through Logical Analysis of Language '' (1932), Rudolf Carnap accused Heidegger of offering an "illusory '' ontology, criticizing him for committing the fallacy of reification and for wrongly dismissing the logical treatment of language which, according to Carnap, can only lead to writing "nonsensical pseudo-propositions. ''
The British logical positivist A.J. Ayer was strongly critical of Heidegger 's philosophy. In Ayer 's view, Heidegger proposed vast, overarching theories regarding existence, which are completely unverifiable through empirical demonstration and logical analysis. For Ayer, this sort of philosophy was a poisonous strain in modern thought. He considered Heidegger to be the worst example of such philosophy, which Ayer believed to be entirely useless.
Bertrand Russell commented, expressing the sentiments of many mid-20th - century analytic philosophers, that:
Highly eccentric in its terminology, his philosophy is extremely obscure. One can not help suspecting that language is here running riot. An interesting point in his speculations is the insistence that nothingness is something positive. As with much else in Existentialism, this is a psychological observation made to pass for logic.
Roger Scruton stated that: "His major work Being and Time is formidably difficult -- unless it is utter nonsense, in which case it is laughably easy. I am not sure how to judge it, and have read no commentator who even begins to make sense of it ''.
The analytic tradition values clarity of expression. Heidegger, however, has on occasion appeared to take an opposing view, stating for example:
those in the crossing must in the end know what is mistaken by all urging for intelligibility: that every thinking of being, all philosophy, can never be confirmed by "facts, '' i.e., by beings. Making itself intelligible is suicide for philosophy. Those who idolize "facts '' never notice that their idols only shine in a borrowed light. They are also meant not to notice this; for thereupon they would have to be at a loss and therefore useless. But idolizers and idols are used wherever gods are in flight and so announce their nearness.
Apart from the charge of obscurantism, other analytic philosophers considered the actual content of Heidegger 's work to be either faulty and meaningless, vapid or uninteresting. However, not all analytic philosophers have been as hostile. Gilbert Ryle wrote a critical yet positive review of Being and Time. Ludwig Wittgenstein made a remark recorded by Friedrich Waismann: "To be sure, I can imagine what Heidegger means by being and anxiety '' which has been construed by some commentators as sympathetic to Heidegger 's philosophical approach. These positive and negative analytic evaluations have been collected in Michael Murray (ed.), Heidegger and Modern Philosophy: Critical Essays (Yale University Press, 1978). Heidegger 's reputation within English - language philosophy has slightly improved in philosophical terms in some part through the efforts of Hubert Dreyfus, Richard Rorty, and a recent generation of analytically oriented phenomenology scholars. Pragmatist Rorty claimed that Heidegger 's approach to philosophy in the first half of his career has much in common with that of the latter - day Ludwig Wittgenstein. Nevertheless, Rorty asserted that what Heidegger had constructed in his writings was a myth of being rather than an account of it.
The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy states that Heidegger 's writing is "notoriously difficult '', possibly because his thinking was "original '' and clearly on obscure and innovative topics.
Even though Heidegger is considered by many observers to be the most influential philosopher of the 20th century in continental philosophy, aspects of his work have been criticised by those who nevertheless acknowledge this influence, such as Hans - Georg Gadamer and Jacques Derrida. Some questions raised about Heidegger 's philosophy include the priority of ontology, the status of animals, the nature of the religious, Heidegger 's supposed neglect of ethics (Levinas), the body (Maurice Merleau - Ponty), sexual difference (Luce Irigaray), or space (Peter Sloterdijk).
Levinas was deeply influenced by Heidegger, and yet became one of his fiercest critics, contrasting the infinity of the good beyond being with the immanence and totality of ontology. Levinas also condemned Heidegger 's involvement with National Socialism, stating: "One can forgive many Germans, but there are some Germans it is difficult to forgive. It is difficult to forgive Heidegger. ''
Heidegger 's defenders, notably Arendt, see his support for Nazism as arguably a personal "' error ' '' (a word which Arendt placed in quotation marks when referring to Heidegger 's Nazi - era politics). Defenders think this error was irrelevant to Heidegger 's philosophy. Critics such as Levinas, Karl Löwith, and Theodor Adorno claim that Heidegger 's support for National Socialism revealed flaws inherent in his thought.
Heidegger 's collected works are published by Vittorio Klostermann. The Gesamtausgabe was begun during Heidegger 's lifetime. He defined the order of publication and dictated that the principle of editing should be "ways not works. '' Publication has not yet been completed.
The contents are listed here: Heidegger Gesamtausgabe.
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johnny cash one peice at a time car | One Piece at a Time - wikipedia
"One Piece at a Time '' is a country novelty song written by Wayne Kemp and recorded by Johnny Cash and the Tennessee Three in 1976. It was the last song performed by Cash to reach number one on the Billboard Hot Country Singles chart and the last of Cash 's songs to reach the Billboard Hot 100, on which it peaked at number 29.
The singer leaves his home in Kentucky in 1949 to pursue work at General Motors in Detroit, Michigan. He installs wheels on Cadillacs, watching each one roll by day after day on the assembly line, knowing that he will never be able to afford one of his own.
Beginning almost immediately, he and a co-worker decide to "steal '' a Cadillac by way of using their assembly line jobs to obtain the parts via salami slicing. He takes the small parts home hidden in his unusually large lunch box; larger parts are smuggled out in his co-worker's motorhome.
The process of accumulating all the necessary parts turns out to take at least 25 years (the newest part mentioned, the engine, is from 1973), but once they have what they think is a complete car, they attempt to assemble the pieces. Because automakers inevitably make numerous changes to their models, designs and parts over the course of a quarter - century, the result was a hodgepodge of parts from different years and models that did not fit together well (the bolt holes disappear when attempting to fit the engine with a 1953 transmission, there was only one right headlight and two left headlights, and they only had one tail fin).
Despite these problems, the singer and his co-worker get the car in proper working condition. The singer 's wife is surprised at the outcome, but wants a ride in it anyway. Townspeople began laughing at the singer 's unique car as he takes it to have it registered. However, the folks at the courthouse were not as pleased -- it took the "whole staff '' to type up the vehicle title, which ended up weighing 60 pounds (27 kg).
The song ends with a CB radio conversation between the singer and a truck driver inquiring about the "psychobilly Cadillac '', in which the singer replies, "you might say I went right up to the factory and picked it up; it 's cheaper that way ''.
The song is in a moderate tempo in the key of F major, with a main chord pattern of F-B ♭ - C - F. The verses are done in a talking blues style; Cash had used a similar spoken - word format and chord progression in his earlier hit "A Boy Named Sue. ''
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who did oklahoma play in the bowl game last year | List of Oklahoma Sooners bowl games - wikipedia
The Oklahoma Sooners college football team competes as part of the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) Division I Football Bowl Subdivision (FBS), representing the University of Oklahoma in the Big 12 Conference. Since the establishment of the team in 1895, OU has appeared in 50 bowl games and has a record of 29 victories, 20 losses, and one tie. Oklahoma is one of only two schools to have appeared in all five of the BCS bowl games (2001 Orange, 2003 Rose, 2004 Sugar, 2007 Fiesta, 2009 BCS NCG), with the other being Ohio State.
Pound sign (#) denotes BCS National Championship Game.
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which is not true of the chi rho sign | Chi Rho - wikipedia
The Chi Rho (/ ˈkaɪ ˈroʊ /; also known as chrismon or sigla) is one of the earliest forms of christogram, formed by superimposing the first two (capital) letters -- chi and rho (ΧΡ) -- of the Greek word ΧΡΙΣΤΟΣ (Christos) in such a way that the vertical stroke of the rho intersects the center of the chi.
The Chi - Rho symbol was used by the Roman emperor Constantine I (r. 306 -- 337) as part of a military standard (vexillum). Constantine 's standard was known as the Labarum. Early symbols similar to the Chi Rho were the Staurogram () and the IX monogram ().
In pre-Christian times, the Chi - Rho symbol was also to mark a particularly valuable or relevant passage in the margin of a page, abbreviating chrēston (good). Some coins of Ptolemy III Euergetes (r. 246 -- 222 BC) were marked with a Chi - Rho.
Although formed of Greek characters, the device (or its separate parts) are frequently found serving as an abbreviation in Latin text, with endings added appropriate to a Latin noun, thus XPo, signifying Christo, "to Christ '', the dative form of Christus.
The Chi Rho symbol has two Unicode codepoints: U + 2627 ☧ Chi Rho in the Miscellaneous symbols block and U + 2CE9 ⳩ Coptic symbol Khi Ro in the Coptic block.
According to Lactantius, a Latin historian of North African origins saved from poverty by the Emperor Constantine I (r. 306 -- 337), who made him tutor to his son Crispus, Constantine had dreamt of being ordered to put a "heavenly divine symbol '' (Latin: coeleste signum dei) on the shields of his soldiers. The description of the actual symbol chosen by Emperor Constantine the next morning, as reported by Lactantius, is not very clear: it closely resembles a Chi - Rho or a staurogram (), a similar Christian symbol. That very day Constantine 's army fought the forces of Maxentius and won the Battle of the Milvian Bridge (312), outside Rome.
Eusebius of Caesarea (died in 339) gave two different accounts of the events. In his church history, written shortly after the battle, when Eusebius had n't yet had contact with Constantine, he does n't mention any dream or vision, but compares the defeat of Maxentius (drowned in the Tiber) to that of the biblical pharaoh and credits Constantine 's victory to divine protection.
In a memoir of the Roman emperor that Eusebius wrote after Constantine 's death (On the Life of Constantine, circa 337 -- 339), a miraculous appearance is said to have come in Gaul long before the Battle of the Milvian Bridge. In this later version, the Roman emperor had been pondering the misfortunes that befall commanders that invoke the help of many different gods, and decided to seek divine aid in the forthcoming battle from the One God. At noon, Constantine saw a cross of light imposed over the sun. Attached to it, in Greek characters, was the saying "Τούτῳ Νίκα! '' ("In this sign you will conquer! ''). Not only Constantine, but the whole army saw the miracle. That night, Christ appeared to the Roman emperor in a dream and told him to make a replica of the sign he had seen in the sky, which would be a sure defence in battle.
Eusebius wrote in the Vita that Constantine himself had told him this story "and confirmed it with oaths '' late in life "when I was deemed worthy of his acquaintance and company. '' "Indeed '', says Eusebius, "had anyone else told this story, it would not have been easy to accept it. ''
Eusebius also left a description of the labarum, the military standard which incorporated the Chi - Rho sign, used by Emperor Constantine in his later wars against Licinius.
An early visual representation of the connection between the Crucifixion of Jesus and his resurrection, seen in the 4th century sarcophagus of Domitilla in Rome, the use of a wreath around the Chi - Rho symbolizes the victory of the Resurrection over death.
After Constantine, the Chi - Rho became part of the official imperial insignia. Archaeologists have uncovered evidence demonstrating that the Chi - Rho was emblazoned on the helmets of some Late Roman soldiers. Coins and medallions minted during Emperor Constantine 's reign also bore the Chi - Rho. By the year 350, the Chi - Rho began to be used on Christian sarcophagi and frescoes. The usurper Magnentius appears to have been the first to use the Chi - Rho monogram flanked by Alpha and Omega, on the reverse of some coins minted in 353. In Roman Britannia, a tesselated mosaic pavement was uncovered at Hinton St. Mary, Dorset, in 1963. On stylistic grounds, it is dated to the 4th century; its central roundel represents a beardless male head and bust draped in a pallium in front of the Chi - Rho symbol, flanked by pomegranates, symbols of eternal life. Another Romano - British Chi - Rho, in fresco, was found at the site of a villa at Lullingstone (illustrated). The symbol was also found on Late Roman Christian signet rings in Britain.
In Insular Gospel books, the beginning of Matthew 1: 18, at the end of his account of the genealogy of Christ and introducing his account of the life, so representing the moment of the Incarnation of Christ, was usually marked with a heavily decorated page, where the letters of the first word "Christi '' are abbreviated and written in Greek as "XPI '', and often almost submerged by decoration. Though the letters are written one after the other and the "X '' and "P '' not combined in a monogram, these are known as Chi - Rho pages. Famous examples are in the Book of Kells and Book of Lindisfarne. The "X '' was regarded as the crux decussata, a symbol of the cross; this idea is found in the works of Isidore of Seville and other patristic and Early Medieval writers. The Book of Kells has a second Chi - Rho abbreviation on folio 124 in the account of the Crucifixion of Christ, and in some manuscripts the Chi - Rho occurs at the beginning of Matthew rather than mid-text at Matthew 1: 18. In some other works like the Carolingian Godescalc Evangelistary, "XPS '' in sequential letters, representing "Christus '' is given a prominent place.
The Chi Rho society is an independent philanthropic religious organization founded at Liberty University. The society is composed of students who are leaders, well knowledgeable in their field (s) of academic studies, demonstrate extraordinary talent, and show an exemplary example of being a follower in Christ. Additionally, the Chi Rho society encourages excellence through recognition. Chi Rho is considered the most secretive of Liberty University 's societies.
The organization 's membership chooses to remain anonymous because of the belief that servitude and fellowship should be executed out of self - indulgence, and not from an outside motive. Membership affiliation is not publicly known till after their graduation ceremony, where they will wear their Chi Rho Alumni ring. Selection for membership is considered a high honor at the University.
The name Chi Rho is based off the christogram, chrismon monogram that represents Jesus Christ. (⳩). Rumor has that rare markings or puzzles can be found engraved around Liberty 's campus. Puzzles are said to require a coptic, a version of the unicode block in order to solve.
The Chi - Rho symbol ☧, Catacombs of San Callisto, Rome.
Monogramme of Christ (the Chi Rho) on a plaque of a sarcophagus, 4th - century CE, marble, Musei Vaticani, on display in a temporary exhibition at the Colosseum in Rome, Italy
The Chi - Rho symbol ☧, Catacombs of Domitilla, Rome.
The Chi - Rho symbol ☧ with Alpha and Omega, Catacombs of Domitilla, Rome.
Constantinople Christian sarcophagus with XI monogram, circa 400.
The Chi - Rho with a wreath symbolizing the victory of the Resurrection, above Roman soldiers, circa 350.
Chi - Rho on a 4th - century altar, Khirbet Um El'Amad, Algeria.
Christian pendant of Maria (398 -- 407), wife of the Emperor Honorius (r. 395 -- 423), with text in the shape of a Chi - Rho, Louvre.
Roman Christian mosaic with Chi - Rho, Hinton St. Mary, England.
Christian Chi - Rho on a 5th - century marble table, Quiroga, Galicia.
Reconstruction of Chi - Rho fresco from Roman villa at Lullingstone, including Alpha and Omega.
Sarcophagus with Chi - Rho symbol and Alpha and Omega, 6th century, Soissons, France
Folio 34r of the Book of Kells is the Chi Rho page, expanding the first two letters of the word Christ.
Sequential "XPS '' in the Carolingian Godescalc Evangelistary.
Chi - Rho on the roof of the Basilica of St. John Lateran, Rome.
Chi - Rho and Alpha and Omega on a modern Catholic altar.
Chi - Rho on YMCA building, Over-the - Rhine, Cincinnati, Ohio.
With the Alpha and Omega at the Basilica of the Annunciation in Nazareth.
The Coat of Arms of the Anglican Diocese of Leeds, Yorkshire, United Kingdom
Notes
Bibliography
Further reading
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material requirement planning is more than an inventory system | Material requirements planning - wikipedia
Material requirements planning (MRP) is a production planning, scheduling, and inventory control system used to manage manufacturing processes. Most MRP systems are software - based, but it is possible to conduct MRP by hand as well.
An MRP system is intended to simultaneously meet three objectives:
Prior to MRP, and before computers dominated industry, reorder point (ROP) / reorder - quantity (ROQ) type methods like EOQ (economic order quantity) had been used in manufacturing and inventory management.
MRP was created initially to supply the Polaris program then, in 1964, as a response to the Toyota Manufacturing Program, Joseph Orlicky developed material requirements planning (MRP). The first company to use MRP was Black & Decker in 1964, with Dick Alban as project leader. Orlicky 's 1975 book Material Requirements Planning has the subtitle The New Way of Life in Production and Inventory Management. By 1975, MRP was implemented in 700 companies. This number had grown to about 8,000 by 1981.
In 1983, Oliver Wight developed MRP into manufacturing resource planning (MRP II). In the 1980s, Joe Orlicky 's MRP evolved into Oliver Wight 's manufacturing resource planning (MRP II) which brings master scheduling, rough - cut capacity planning, capacity requirements planning, S&OP in 1983 and other concepts to classical MRP. By 1989, about one third of the software industry was MRP II software sold to American industry ($1.2 billion worth of software).
Independent demand is demand originating outside the plant or production system, while dependent demand is demand for components. The bill of materials (BOM) specifies the relationship between the end product (independent demand) and the components (dependent demand). MRP takes as input the information contained in the BOM.
The basic functions of an MRP system include: inventory control, bill of material processing, and elementary scheduling. MRP helps organizations to maintain low inventory levels. It is used to plan manufacturing, purchasing and delivering activities.
"Manufacturing organizations, whatever their products, face the same daily practical problem - that customers want products to be available in a shorter time than it takes to make them. This means that some level of planning is required. ''
Companies need to control the types and quantities of materials they purchase, plan which products are to be produced and in what quantities and ensure that they are able to meet current and future customer demand, all at the lowest possible cost. Making a bad decision in any of these areas will make the company lose money. A few examples are given below:
MRP is a tool to deal with these problems. It provides answers for several questions:
MRP can be applied both to items that are purchased from outside suppliers and to sub-assemblies, produced internally, that are components of more complex items.
The data that must be considered include:
There are two outputs and a variety of messages / reports:
Messages and reports:
Well - known methods to find order quantities are:
MRP can be expressed as an optimal control problem:
Dynamics:
Constraints:
Objective:
Where x ' is local inventory (the state), z the order size (the control), d is local demand, k represents fixed order costs, c variable order costs, h local inventory holding costs. δ () is the Heaviside function. Changing the dynamics of the problem leads to a multi-item analogue of the dynamic lot - size model.
In 2011, the third edition of "Orlicky 's Materials Requirements Planning '' introduced a new type of MRP called "demand driven MRP '' (DDMRP). The new edition of the book was written, not by Orlicky himself (he died in 1986) but by Carol Ptak and Chad Smith at the invitation of McGraw Hill to update Orlicky 's work.
Demand driven MRP is a multi-echelon formal planning and execution technique with five distinct components:
These five components work together to greatly dampen, if not eliminate, the nervousness of traditional MRP systems and the bullwhip effect in complex and challenging environments. The Demand Driven Institute claims the following: In utilizing these approaches, planners will no longer have to try to respond to every single message for every single part that is off by even one day. This approach provides real information about those parts that are truly at risk of negatively impacting the planned availability of inventory. DDMRP sorts the significant few items that require attention from the many parts that are being managed. Under the DDMRP approach, fewer planners can make better decisions more quickly. That means companies will be better able to leverage their working and human capital as well as the huge investments they have made in information technology. One down - side, however, is that DDMRP can not run on the majority of MRPII / ERP systems in use today, so organisations will have to implement a compatible system in order to run DDMRP.
DDMRP has been successfully applied to a variety of environments including CTO (configure to order), MTS (make to stock), MTO (make to order) and ETO (engineer to order). The methodology is applied differently in each environments but the five step process remains the same. DDMRP leverages knowledge from theory of constraints (TOC), traditional MRP & DRP, Six Sigma and lean. It is effectively an amalgam of MRP and kanban techniques. As such, it incorporates the strengths of both but also the weaknesses of both; hence its limited adoption.
Additional references are included below.
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the hague convention apostille by the legalisation department of the foreign and commonwealth office | Apostille convention - wikipedia
The Hague Convention Abolishing the Requirement of Legalisation for Foreign Public Documents, the Apostille Convention, or the Apostille Treaty, is an international treaty drafted by the Hague Conference on Private International Law. It specifies the modalities through which a document issued in one of the signatory countries can be certified for legal purposes in all the other signatory states. A certification under the terms of the convention is called an apostille (from Latin post illa and then French: a marginal note) or Hague Apostille. It is an international certification comparable to a notarisation in domestic law, and normally supplements a local notarisation of the document. If the convention applies between two countries, such an apostille is sufficient to certify a document 's validity, and removes the need for double - certification, by the originating country and then by the receiving country.
Apostilles are affixed by Competent Authorities designated by the government of a state which is party to the convention. A list of these authorities is maintained by the Hague Conference on Private International Law. Examples of designated authorities are embassies, ministries, courts or (local) governments. For example, in the United States, the Secretary of State of each state and his or her deputies are usually competent authorities. In the United Kingdom all apostilles are issued by the Foreign and Commonwealth Office in Milton Keynes.
To be eligible for an apostille, a document must first be issued or certified by an officer recognised by the authority that will issue the apostille. For example, in the US state of Vermont, the Secretary of State maintains specimen signatures of all notaries public, so documents that have been notarised are eligible for apostilles. Likewise, courts in the Netherlands are eligible to place an apostille on all municipal civil status documents directly. In some cases, intermediate certifications may be required in the country in which the document originates before it is eligible for an apostille. For example, in New York City, the Office of Vital Records (which issues, among other things, birth certificates) is not directly recognised by the New York Secretary of State. As a consequence, the signature of the City Clerk must be certified by the County Clerk of New York County to make the birth certificate eligible for an apostille. In Japan all official documents are issued in Japanese; the Ministry of Foreign Affairs (MOFA, JAPAN) can then provide an apostille for these documents. In India the apostille certification can be obtained from the Ministry of External Affairs in New Delhi, after authentication by the administration of the Indian state where the document was issued (for educational documents).
The apostille itself is a stamp or printed form consisting of 10 numbered standard fields. On the top is the text APOSTILLE, under which the text Convention de La Haye du 5 octobre 1961 (French for "Hague Convention of 5 October 1961 ") is placed. This title must be written in French for the Apostille to be valid (article 4 of the Convention). In the numbered fields, the following information is added (may be in official language of the authority which issues it or in a second language):
1. Country... (e.g. Korea, Spain) This public document 2. has been signed by (e.g. Henry Cho) 3. acting in the capacity of (e.g. Notary Public) 4. bears the seal / stamp of (e.g. High Court of Hong Kong) Certified 5. at (e.g. Hong Kong) 6. the... (e.g. 16 April 2014) 7. by... (e.g. the Chief Executive of the Special Administrative Region of Hong Kong) 8. No... (e.g. 2536218517) 9. Seal / stamp... (of the authority giving the apostille) 10. Signature The information can be placed on the document itself, on the back of the document, or attached to the document as an allonge.
Four types of documents are mentioned in the convention:
A state that has not signed the Convention must specify how foreign legal documents can be certified for its use. Two countries may have a special convention on the recognition of each other 's public documents, but in practice this is infrequent. Otherwise, the document must be certified by the foreign ministry of the country in which the document originated, and then by the foreign ministry of the government of the state in which the document will be used; one of the certifications will often be performed at an embassy or consulate. In practice this means the document must be certified twice before it can have legal effect in the receiving country. For example, as Canada is not a signatory, Canadian documents for use abroad must be certified by the Deputy Minister of Foreign Affairs in Ottawa or by a Canadian consular official abroad, and subsequently by the relevant government office or consulate of the receiving state.
The convention has 115 parties and is in force for all members of the European Union and all but ten members of the Hague Conference on Private International Law. As of 2017 The convention had not entered into force in Bolivia and Tunisia; it entered into force in Guatemala on 18 September 2017.
Saudi Arabia is not a party to the convention.
The Apostille does not give information regarding the quality of the content in the underlying document, but certifies the signature (and the capacity of who placed it) and correctness of the seal / stamp on the document which must be certified. In 2005 The Hague Conference surveyed its members and produced a report in December 2008 which expressed serious concerns about Diplomas and Degree certificates issued by diploma mills. The possible abuse of the system was highlighted "Particularly troubling is the possible use of diploma mill qualifications to circumvent migration controls, possibly by potential terrorists. '' (page 5) The risk comes from the fact that the various government stamps give the document an air of authenticity without anyone having checked the underlying document. "An official looking certificate may be issued to a copy of a diploma mill qualification, and then subsequently issued with an Apostille, without anyone having ever verified the signature on, let alone the contents of, the diploma. '' (page 7) Further member states indicated "they would be obliged to issue an Apostille for certification of a certified copy of a diploma issued by a diploma mill ''. (page 15) The evaluation commission of the Hague Conference expressed concern as to whether this issue could affect the entire convention. "... the Apostille does not ' look through the certification ' and does not relate to the diploma itself... There is a clear risk that such practices may eventually undermine the effectiveness and therefore the successful operation of the Apostille Convention ''. (page 5)
In February 2009 the Hague Conference recommended to amend the wording on the Apostille to make it clear that only the seal and the signature were authenticated. The wording to be added is: "This Apostille only certifies the signature, the capacity of the signer and the seal or stamp it bears. It does not certify the content of the document for which it was issued. ''
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number of republicans and democrats in the senate 2017 | 115th United States Congress - wikipedia
The One Hundred Fifteenth United States Congress is the current meeting of the legislative branch of the United States federal government, composed of the Senate and the House of Representatives. It meets in Washington, D.C. from January 3, 2017, to January 3, 2019, during the final weeks of the Obama presidency and the first two years of Donald Trump 's presidency. The November 2016 elections maintained Republican control of both the House and Senate.
(Section contents: Senate: Majority (R), Minority (D) House: Majority (R), Minority (D))
The numbers refer to their Senate classes. All of the class 3 seats were contested in the November 2016 elections. In this Congress, Class 1 meant their term ended with this Congress, requiring re-election in 2018; Class 2 meant their term began in the last Congress, requiring re-election in 2020; and Class 3 meant their term began in this Congress, requiring re-election in 2022.
All 435 seats were filled by election on November 8, 2016.
Section contents: Senate, House, Joint
Listed alphabetically by chamber, including Chairman and Ranking Member.
1 (1789) 2 (1791) 3 (1793) 4 (1795) 5 (1797) 6 (1799) 7 (1801) 8 (1803) 9 (1805) 10 (1807)
11 (1809) 12 (1811) 13 (1813) 14 (1815) 15 (1817) 16 (1819) 17 (1821) 18 (1823) 19 (1825) 20 (1827)
21 (1829) 22 (1831) 23 (1833) 24 (1835) 25 (1837) 26 (1839) 27 (1841) 28 (1843) 29 (1845) 30 (1847)
31 (1849) 32 (1851) 33 (1853) 34 (1855) 35 (1857) 36 (1859) 37 (1861) 38 (1863) 39 (1865) 40 (1867)
41 (1869) 42 (1871) 43 (1873) 44 (1875) 45 (1877) 46 (1879) 47 (1881) 48 (1883) 49 (1885) 50 (1887)
51 (1889) 52 (1891) 53 (1893) 54 (1895) 55 (1897) 56 (1899) 57 (1901) 58 (1903) 59 (1905) 60 (1907)
61 (1909) 62 (1911) 63 (1913) 64 (1915) 65 (1917) 66 (1919) 67 (1921) 68 (1923) 69 (1925) 70 (1927)
71 (1929) 72 (1931) 73 (1933) 74 (1935) 75 (1937) 76 (1939) 77 (1941) 78 (1943) 79 (1945) 80 (1947)
81 (1949) 82 (1951) 83 (1953) 84 (1955) 85 (1957) 86 (1959) 87 (1961) 88 (1963) 89 (1965) 90 (1967)
91 (1969) 92 (1971) 93 (1973) 94 (1975) 95 (1977) 96 (1979) 97 (1981) 98 (1983) 99 (1985) 100 (1987)
101 (1989) 102 (1991) 103 (1993) 104 (1995) 105 (1997) 106 (1999) 107 (2001) 108 (2003) 109 (2005) 110 (2007)
111 (2009) 112 (2011) 113 (2013) 114 (2015) 115 (2017) 116 (2019)
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when did immigrants stop going through ellis island | Ellis Island - wikipedia
Ellis Island, in Upper New York Bay, was the gateway for over 12 million immigrants to the U.S. as the United States ' busiest immigrant inspection station for over 60 years from 1892 until 1954. Ellis Island was opened January 1, 1892. The island was greatly expanded with land reclamation between 1892 and 1934. Before that, the much smaller original island was the site of Fort Gibson and later a naval magazine. The island was made part of the Statue of Liberty National Monument in 1965 and has hosted a museum of immigration since 1990.
It was long considered part of New York, but a 1998 United States Supreme Court decision found that most of the island is in New Jersey. The south side of the island, home to the Ellis Island Immigrant Hospital, is closed to the general public and the object of restoration efforts spearheaded by Save Ellis Island.
Ellis Island is in Upper New York Bay, east of Liberty State Park and north of Liberty Island, in Jersey City, New Jersey, with a small section that is part of New York City. Largely created through land reclamation, the island has a land area of 27.5 acres (11.1 ha), most of which is part of New Jersey. The 2.74 - acre (1.11 ha) natural island and contiguous areas comprise the 3.3 acres (1.3 ha) that are part of New York.
The island has been owned and administered by the federal government of the United States since 1808 and operated by the National Park Service since 1965.
Since the September 11 attacks in 2001, the island is guarded by patrols of the United States Park Police Marine Patrol Unit. Public access is by ferry from either Communipaw Terminal in Liberty State Park or from the Battery at the southern tip of Manhattan. The ferry operator, Hornblower Cruises and Events, also provides service to the nearby Statue of Liberty. A bridge built for transporting materials and personnel during restoration projects connects Ellis Island with Liberty State Park but is not open to the public. The city of New York and the private ferry operator at the time opposed proposals to use it or replace it with a pedestrian bridge.
Much of the island, including the entire south side, has been closed to the public since 1954. The renovated area on the north side was again closed to the public after Hurricane Sandy in October 2012. The island was re-opened to the public and the museum partially re-opened on October 28, 2013, after major renovations.
Originally much of the west shore of Upper New York Bay consisted of large tidal flats which hosted vast oyster banks, a major source of food for the Lenape population who lived in the area prior to the arrival of Dutch settlers. There were several islands which were not completely submerged at high tide. Three of them (later to be known as Liberty Island, Black Tom Island and Ellis Island) were given the name Oyster Islands by the settlers of New Netherland, the first European colony in the region. The oyster beds remained a major source of food for nearly three centuries. Landfilling to build the railyards of the Lehigh Valley Railroad and the Central Railroad of New Jersey eventually obliterated the oyster beds, engulfed one island, and brought the shoreline much closer to the others. During the colonial period, Little Oyster Island was known as Dyre 's, then Bucking Island. In the 1760s, after some pirates were hanged from one of the island 's scrubby trees, it became known as Gibbet Island. It was acquired by Samuel Ellis, a colonial New Yorker and merchant possibly from Wales, around the time of the American Revolution. In 1785, he unsuccessfully attempted to sell the island:
TO BE SOLD By Samuel Ellis, no. 1, Greenwich Street, at the north river near the Bear Market, That pleasant situated Island called Oyster Island, lying in New York Bay, near Powle 's Hook, together with all its improvements which are considerable;...
The State of New York leased the island in 1794 and started to fortify it in 1795. Ownership was in question and legislation was passed for acquisition by condemnation in 1807 and then ceded to the United States in 1808. Shortly thereafter the War Department established a circular stone 14 - gun battery, a mortar battery (possibly of six mortars), magazine, and barracks. This was part of what was later called the second system of U.S. fortifications. From 1808 until 1814 it was a federal arsenal. The fort was initially called Crown Fort, but by the end of the War of 1812 the battery was named Fort Gibson, after Colonel James Gibson of the 4th Regiment of Riflemen, killed in the Siege of Fort Erie during the war. Parts of the wall foundations of the fort were uncovered while excavating for the Immigrant Wall of Honor, and they are preserved with an interpretive plaque. The island remained a military post for nearly 80 years before it was selected to be a federal immigration station.
In the 35 years before Ellis Island opened, more than eight million immigrants arriving in New York City had been processed by officials at Castle Garden Immigration Depot in Lower Manhattan, just across the bay. The federal government assumed control of immigration on April 18, 1890, and Congress appropriated $75,000 to construct America 's first federal immigration station on Ellis Island. Artesian wells were dug, and fill material was hauled in from incoming ships ' ballast and from construction of New York City 's subway tunnels, which doubled the size of Ellis Island to over six acres. While the building was under construction, the Barge Office nearby at the Battery was used for immigrant processing.
The first station was a three - story - tall structure with outbuildings, built of Georgia Pine, containing the amenities thought to be necessary. It opened with fanfare on January 1, 1892. Three large ships landed on the first day, and 700 immigrants passed over the docks. Almost 450,000 immigrants were processed at the station during its first year. On June 15, 1897, a fire of unknown origin, possibly caused by faulty wiring, turned the wooden structures on Ellis Island into ashes. No loss of life was reported, but most of the immigration records dating back to 1855 were destroyed. About 1.5 million immigrants had been processed at the first building during its five years of use. Plans were immediately made to build a new, fireproof immigration station. During the construction period, passenger arrivals were again processed at the Barge Office. Edward Lippincott Tilton and William A. Boring won the 1897 competition to design the first phase, including the Main Building (1897 -- 1900), Kitchen and Laundry Building (1900 -- 01), Main Powerhouse (1900 -- 01), and the Main Hospital Building (1900 -- 01).
The present main structure was designed in French Renaissance Revival style and built of red brick with limestone trim. After it opened on December 17, 1900, the facilities proved barely able to handle the flood of immigrants that arrived in the years before World War I. In 1913, writer Louis Adamic came to America from Slovenia, then part of the Austro - Hungarian Empire, and described the night he and many other immigrants slept on bunk beds in a huge hall. Lacking a warm blanket, the young man "shivered, sleepless, all night, listening to snores '' and dreams "in perhaps a dozen different languages ''. The facility was so large that the dining room could seat 1,000 people. It is reported the island 's first immigrant to be processed through was a teenager named Annie Moore from County Cork in Ireland.
After its opening, Ellis Island was again expanded, and additional structures were built. By the time it closed on November 12, 1954, 12 million immigrants had been processed by the U.S. Bureau of Immigration. It is estimated that 10.5 million immigrants departed for points across the United States from the Central Railroad of New Jersey Terminal, just across a narrow strait. Others would have used one of the other terminals along the North River (Hudson River) at that time. At first, the majority of immigrants arriving through the station were Northern and Western Europeans (Germany, France, Switzerland, Belgium, The Netherlands, Great Britain, and the Scandinavian countries). Eventually, these groups of peoples slowed in the rates that they were coming in, and immigrants came in from Southern and Eastern Europe, including Jews. Many reasons these immigrants came to the United States included escaping political and economic oppression, as well as persecution, destitution, and violence. Other groups of peoples being processed through the station were Poles, Hungarians, Czechs, Serbs, Slovaks, Greeks, Syrians, Turks, and Armenians.
Between 1905 and 1914, an average of one million immigrants per year arrived in the United States. Immigration officials reviewed about 5,000 immigrants per day during peak times at Ellis Island. Two - thirds of those individuals emigrated from eastern, southern and central Europe. The peak year for immigration at Ellis Island was 1907, with 1,004,756 immigrants processed. The all - time daily high occurred on April 17, 1907, when 11,747 immigrants arrived. After the Immigration Act of 1924 was passed, which greatly restricted immigration and allowed processing at overseas embassies, the only immigrants to pass through the station were those who had problems with their immigration paperwork, displaced persons, and war refugees. Today, over 100 million Americans -- about one - third to 40 % of the population of the United States -- can trace their ancestry to immigrants who arrived in America at Ellis Island before dispersing to points all over the country.
Generally, those immigrants who were approved spent from two to five hours at Ellis Island. Arrivals were asked 29 questions including name, occupation, and the amount of money carried. It was important to the American government the new arrivals could support themselves and have money to get started. The average the government wanted the immigrants to have was between 18 and 25 dollars ($600 in 2015 adjusted for inflation). Those with visible health problems or diseases were sent home or held in the island 's hospital facilities for long periods of time. More than 3,000 would - be immigrants died on Ellis Island while being held in the hospital facilities. Some unskilled workers were rejected because they were considered "likely to become a public charge. '' About 2 % were denied admission to the U.S. and sent back to their countries of origin for reasons such as having a chronic contagious disease, criminal background, or insanity. Ellis Island was sometimes known as "The Island of Tears '' or "Heartbreak Island '' because of those 2 % who were not admitted after the long transatlantic voyage. The Kissing Post is a wooden column outside the Registry Room, where new arrivals were greeted by their relatives and friends, typically with tears, hugs, and kisses.
During World War I, the German sabotage of the Black Tom Wharf ammunition depot damaged buildings on Ellis Island. The repairs included the Main Hall 's current barrel - vaulted ceiling.
To support the activities of the United States Bureau of Immigration, the United States Public Health Service operated an extensive medical service at the immigrant station, called U.S. Marine Hospital Number 43, more widely known as the Ellis Island Immigrant Hospital. It was the nation 's largest marine hospital. Uniformed military surgeons staffed the medical division, which was active in the hospital wards, the Barge Office at the Battery and the Main Building. They are best known for the role they played during the line inspection, in which they employed unusual techniques such as the use of the buttonhook to examine immigrants for signs of eye diseases (particularly, trachoma) and the use of a chalk mark code. Symbols were chalked on the clothing of potentially sick immigrants following the six - second medical examination. The doctors would look at the immigrants as they climbed the stairs from the baggage area to the Great Hall. Immigrants ' behavior would be studied for difficulties in getting up the staircase. Some immigrants supposedly entered the country by surreptitiously wiping the chalk marks off, or by turning their clothes inside out.
The symbols used were:
U.S. Immigrant Inspectors used some other symbols or marks as they interrogated immigrants in the Registry Room to determine whether to admit or detain them, including:
Many of the people immigrating to America hailed from Europe, with Eastern Europe and Southern European immigrants being the primary groups. During this time period, eugenic ideals gained broad popularity and made heavy impact on immigration to the United States by way of exclusion of disabled and "morally defective '' people.
Eugenicists of the late 19th and early 20th century believed reproductive selection should be carried out by the state as a collective decision. For many eugenicists, this was considered a patriotic duty as they held an interest in creating a greater national race. Henry Fairfield Osborn 's opening words to the New York Evening Journal in 1911 were, "As a biologist as well as a patriot..., '' on the subject on advocating for tighter inspections of immigrants of the United States.
Eugenic selection occurred on two distinguishable levels:
At the time, it was a broadly popular idea that immigration policies had ought to be based off eugenics principles in order to help create a "superior race '' in America. To do this, defective persons needed to be screened by immigration officials and denied entry on the basis of their disability.
Types of defects screened for included:
The people with moral or mental disability were of higher concern to officials and under the law, mandatorily excluded from immigrating to the United States. Persons with physical disability were under higher inspection and could be turned way on the basis of their disability. Much of this came in part of the eugenicist belief that defects were hereditary, especially those of the moral and mental nature those these were often outwardly signified by physical deformity as well.
In 1898, a Chicago surgeon named Eugene S. Talbot (Eugene Solomon) wrote "crime is hereditary, a tendency which is, in most cases, associated with bodily defects. '' Likewise, George Lydston, a medicine and criminal anthropology professor, argued further in 1906 that people with "defective physique '' were not just criminally associated but that defectiveness was a primary factor "in the causation of crime. ''
Between 1891 and 1930, Ellis Island reviewed over 25 million attempted immigrations. Of this 25 million, 700,000 were given certificates of disability or disease and of these 79,000 were barred from entry. Approximately 4.4 % of immigrants between 1909 and 1930 were classified as disabled or diseased per with 11 % being deported when this number spiked to 8.0 % in the years of 1918 - 1919. One percent of immigrants were deported yearly due to medical causes.
With the passing of the Emergency Quota Act of 1921, the number of immigrants being allowed into the United States declined greatly. The passing of the bill ended the era of mass immigration. After 1924, Ellis Island became primarily a detention and deportation processing station.
During and immediately following World War II, Ellis Island was used to hold German merchant mariners and "enemy aliens '' -- Axis nationals detained for fear of spying, sabotage, and other fifth column activity. In December 1941, Ellis Island held 279 Japanese, 248 Germans, and 81 Italians removed from the East Coast. Unlike other wartime immigration detention stations, Ellis Island was designated as a permanent holding facility and was used to hold foreign nationals throughout the war. A total of 7,000 Germans, Italians and Japanese would be ultimately detained at Ellis Island. It was also a processing center for returning sick or wounded U.S. soldiers, and a Coast Guard training base. Ellis Island still managed to process tens of thousands of immigrants per year during this time, but many fewer than the hundreds of thousands per year who arrived before the war. After the war, immigration rapidly returned to earlier levels.
The Internal Security Act of 1950 barred members of communist or fascist organizations from immigrating to the United States. Ellis Island saw detention peak at 1,500, but by 1952, after changes to immigration laws and policies, only 30 detainees remained.
One of the last detainees was the Indonesian Aceh separatist Hasan di Tiro who, while a student in New York in 1953, declared himself the "foreign minister '' of the rebellious Darul Islam movement. Due to this action, he was immediately stripped of his Indonesian citizenship, causing him to be imprisoned for a few months on Ellis Island as "an illegal alien. ''
The station 's commissioners were:
Other notable officials at Ellis Island included James R. O'Beirne (assistant commissioner, 1890 -- 93), Edward F. McSweeney (assistant commissioner, 1893 - 1902), Joseph E. Murray (assistant commissioner, 1902 -- 09), Byron Uhl (assistant commissioner, 1909 - 1940), Dr. George W. Stoner (chief surgeon), Augustus Frederick Sherman (chief clerk), Dr. Victor Heiser (surgeon) (surgeon), Dr. Thomas W. Salmon (surgeon), Dr. Howard Knox (surgeon), Antonio Frabasilis (interpreter), Peter Mikolainis (interpreter), Maud Mosher (matron), Fiorello H. La Guardia (interpreter), Samuel Hays, (special immigrant inspector) Roman Dobler (immigrant inspector), Philip Cowen (immigrant inspector), Philip Forman (immigrant inspector, 1930s; chief of detention, deportation and parole, 1940s, 1950s) and De Jalma West (immigrant inspector).
Prominent amongst the missionaries and immigrant aid workers were Rev. Michael J. Henry and Rev. Anthony J. Grogan (Irish Catholic), Rev. Gaspare Moretto (Italian Catholic), Alma E. Mathews (Methodist), Rev. Georg Doring (German Lutheran), Rev. Joseph L'Etauche (Polish Catholic), Rev. Reuben Breed (Episcopal), Michael Lodsin (Baptist), Brigadier Thomas Johnson (Salvation Army), Ludmila K. Foxlee (YWCA), Athena Marmaroff (Woman 's Christian Temperance Union), Alexander Harkavy (HIAS), and Cecilia Greenstone and Cecilia Razovsky (National Council of Jewish Women).
A myth persists that government officials on Ellis Island compelled immigrants to take new names against their wishes. In fact, no historical records bear this out. Immigration inspectors used the passenger lists they received from the steamship companies to process each foreigner. These were the sole immigration records for entering the country and were prepared not by the U.S. Bureau of Immigration but by steamship companies such as the Cunard Line, the White Star Line, the North German Lloyd Line, the Hamburg - Amerika Line, the Italian Steam Navigation Company, the Red Star Line, the Holland America Line, and the Austro - American Line. The Americanization of many immigrant families ' surnames was for the most part adopted by the family after the immigration process, or by the second or third generation of the family after some assimilation into American culture. However, many last names were altered slightly because of the disparity between English and other languages in the pronunciation of certain letters of the alphabet.
The first immigrant to pass through Ellis Island was Annie Moore, a 17 - year - old girl from Cork, Ireland, who arrived on the ship Nevada on January 1, 1892. She and her two brothers were coming to America to meet their parents, who had moved to New York two years prior. She received a greeting from officials and a $10 gold coin. It was the largest sum of money she had ever owned.
The last person to pass through Ellis Island was Norwegian merchant seaman Arne Peterssen in 1954.
The wooden structure built in 1892 to house the immigration station burned down after five years. The station 's new Main Building, which now houses the Immigration Museum, was opened in 1900. Architects Edward Lippincott Tilton and William Alciphron Boring received a gold medal at the 1900 Paris Exposition for the building 's design and constructed the building at a cost of $1.5 million. The architecture competition was the second under the Tarsney Act, which had permitted private architects rather than government architects in the Treasury Department 's Office of the Supervising Architect to design federal buildings.
After the immigration station closed in November 1954, the buildings fell into disrepair and were abandoned. Attempts at redeveloping the site were unsuccessful until its landmark status was established. On October 15, 1965, Ellis Island was proclaimed a part of Statue of Liberty National Monument. It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places on October 15, 1966.
Boston - based architectural firm Finegold Alexander + Associates Inc, together with the New York architectural firm Beyer Blinder Belle, designed the restoration and adaptive use of the Beaux - Arts Main Building, one of the most symbolically important structures in American history. A construction budget of $150 million was required for this significant restoration. This money was raised by a campaign organized by the political fundraiser Wyatt A. Stewart. The building reopened on September 10, 1990. Exhibits include Hearing Room, Peak Immigration Years, the Peopling of America, Restoring a Landmark, Silent Voices, Treasures from Home, and Ellis Island Chronicles. There are also three theaters used for film and live performances.
On May 20, 2015, the Ellis Island Immigration Museum was officially renamed the Ellis Island National Museum of Immigration, coinciding with the opening of the new Peopling of America galleries. The expansion tells the entire story of American immigration, including before and after the Ellis Island era. The Peopling of America Center was designed by ESI Design and fabricated by Hadley Exhibits, Inc. The architectural design was done by Highland Associates, with construction executed by Phelps Construction Group.
The Wall of Honor outside of the main building contains a partial list of immigrants processed on the island. Inclusion on the list is made possible by a donation to support the facility. In 2008 the museum 's library was officially named the Bob Hope Memorial Library in honor of one the station 's most famous immigrants.
The Ellis Island Medal of Honor is awarded annually at ceremonies on the island.
The south side of the island, home to the Ellis Island Immigrant Hospital, is closed to the general public and the object of restoration efforts spearheaded by Save Ellis Island.
Many of the facilities at Ellis Island were abandoned and remain unrenovated. The entire south side, called by some the "sad side '' of the island, is off limits to the general public. The Ellis Island Immigrant Hospital operated here from early 1902 to 1930. The foundation Save Ellis Island is spearheading preservation efforts. The New Ferry Building, built in the Art Deco style to replace an earlier one, was renovated in 2008, but remains only partially accessible to the general public.
As part of the National Park Service 's Centennial Initiative, the south side of the island was to be the target of a project to restore the 28 buildings that have not yet been rehabilitated.
The circumstances which led to an exclave of New York being located within New Jersey began in the colonial era, after the British takeover of New Netherland in 1664. An unusual clause in the colonial land grant outlined the territory that the proprietors of New Jersey would receive as being "westward of Long Island, and Manhitas Island and bounded on the east part by the main sea, and part by Hudson 's river '', rather than at the river 's midpoint, as was common in other colonial charters.
Attempts were made as early as 1804 to resolve the status of the state line. The City of New York claimed the right to regulate trade on all the waters. This was contested in Gibbons v. Ogden, which decided that the regulation of interstate commerce fell under the authority of the federal government, thus influencing competition in the newly developing steam ferry service in New York Harbor.
In 1830, New Jersey planned to bring suit to clarify the border, but the case was never heard. The matter was resolved with a compact between the states, ratified by U.S. Congress in 1834, which set the boundary line between them as the middle of the Hudson River and New York Harbor. This was later confirmed by the U.S. Supreme Court in other cases which also expounded on the compact.
The federal government, which had bought the island in 1808, began expanding the island by land fill, to accommodate the immigration station opened in 1892. Land filling continued in stages until 1934.
Nine - tenths of the current area is artificial island that did not exist at the time of the interstate compact. New Jersey contended that the new extensions were part of New Jersey, since they were outside New York 's border and were in fact within New Jersey 's border. In 1956, after the 1954 closing of the U.S. immigration station, the then Mayor of Jersey City, Bernard J. Berry, commandeered a U.S. Coast Guard cutter and led a contingent of New Jersey officials on an expedition to claim the island. In 1997, the state filed suit to establish its jurisdiction, leading New York City Mayor Rudolph Giuliani to remark dramatically that his father, an Italian who immigrated through Ellis Island, never intended to go to New Jersey. The border was redrawn using information based on studies using geographic information science.
The dispute eventually reached the Supreme Court of the United States, which ruled in New Jersey v. New York 523 U.S. 767 (1998), that New Jersey had jurisdiction over all portions of the island created after the original compact was approved (effectively, more than 80 % of the island 's present land). This caused several immediate instances of confusion: some buildings, for instance, fell into the territory of both states. New Jersey and New York soon agreed to share jurisdiction of the island. It remains wholly a federal property, however, and these legal decisions do not result in either state taking any fiscal or physical responsibility for the maintenance, preservation, or improvement of any of the historic properties.
The ruling had no effect on the status of Liberty Island, 4.17 acres (1.69 ha) of which was created by land reclamation.
For New York State tax purposes, it is assessed as Manhattan Block 1, Lot 201. Since 1998, the 22.8 acre portion of the island in New Jersey has been assessed in Jersey City as Block 21603, Lot 1.
Frank Lloyd Wright designed a key plan for the island that included housing, hotels, and large domes along the edges. The co-curator of the traveling exhibit, "Never Built New York '' in which it is included told AM New York, "It 's pretty remarkable but at the same time it 's a little bit horrifying that they could have gotten rid of Ellis Island. ''
In 1982 the National Parks Department embarked on an 8 - year renovation. During that time, David Simonton was part of The Ellis Island Project: Documentation / Interpretation and captured stunning, black and white photos giving insight into immigrant 's lives. Photographer Stephen Wilkes 's series Ellis Island: Ghosts of Freedom (2006) captured the abandoned south side of Ellis Island.
Emergency services on Ellis Island are provided by the following emergency divisions of the National Park Service:
Ellis Island has been a source of inspiration or used as a subject in popular culture. Its imagery or representation has been employed in literature (including novels, short stories and poetry), in song, musical composition, dance, theatre, including vaudeville, burlesque, musical comedy, revue, legitimate theatre, motion pictures (silent and sound), newsreels, and in radio and television.
Early films, including those from the silent era, which feature the station include Traffic in Souls (1913), How The Jews Care for Their Poor (educational film, 1914) The Yellow Passport (1916), My Boy (1921), Frank Capra 's The Strong Man (1926), We Americans (1928), The Mating Call (1928), This is Heaven (1929), Paddy O'Day (1935), Ellis Island (1936), Gateway (1938), Exile Express (1939), I, Jane Doe (1948), and Gambling House (1951). In The Godfather Part II, Vito Corleone immigrates via Ellis Island as a boy. The opening scene of The Brother From Another Planet is set there. The island is visited by the characters in the 2005 romantic comedy, Hitch, and is the setting for the climactic battle in X-Men.
Over the decades, Ellis Island was also widely referenced or remarked on in books, such as Mrs ' Arris Goes to New York (1960) by Paul Gallico, and in popular films such as Cafe Metropole (1937) and With a Song in My Heart (1952).
Some films have focused on the immigrant experience, such as the 1984 TV miniseries Ellis Island. The IMAX 3D movie Across the Sea of Time incorporates both modern footage and historical photographs of Ellis Island. The 2006 Italian movie The Golden Door, directed by Emanuele Crialese, takes place largely on Ellis Island. Forgotten Ellis Island, a film and book, focuses on the Ellis Island Immigrant Hospital. The Immigrant is a 2013 American drama film directed by James Gray, starring Marion Cotillard, Joaquin Phoenix, and Jeremy Renner. Ellis, a short, premiered in November 2015.
Ellis Island as a port of entry is described in detail in Mottel the Cantor 's Son by Sholom Aleichem.
Ellis Island: The Dream of America is a work for actors and orchestra with projected images by Peter Boyer, composed in 2001 - 02. The song "The New Ground - Isle of Hope, Isle of Tears '', on the 2010 album Songs from the Heart by the group Celtic Woman, is about Annie Moore and Ellis Island.
The USPS issued a 32 ¢ stamp on February 3, 1998 as part of the Celebrate the Century stamp sheet series.
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when does it start getting cold in south carolina | Climate of South Carolina - wikipedia
South Carolina has a humid subtropical climate, with hot summers and mild winters. On average, between 40 inches (1,000 mm) and 80 inches (2,000 mm) of precipitation falls annually across the state. Tropical cyclones, and afternoon thunderstorms due to hot and humid conditions, contribute to precipitation during the summer and sometimes fall months, while extratropical cyclones contribute to precipitation during the fall, winter, and spring months. Tornadoes happen mostly in the spring with a secondary peak in November. Hail and damaging winds often occur in summertime thunderstorms. Tornadoes are very uncommon in the summer unless a tropical cyclone is present.
South Carolina has a humid subtropical climate (Köppen climate classification Cfa), although high elevation areas in the "Upstate '' area have less subtropical characteristics than areas on the Atlantic coastline. In the summer, South Carolina is hot and humid with temperatures during the day averaging near 90 ° F (32 ° C) across most of the state with overnight lows near 70 ° F (21 ° C). Winter temperatures are much less uniform. Coastal areas of the state have very mild winters with high temperatures averaging about 60 ° F (16 ° C) and overnight lows close to 38 ° F (3 ° C). Further inland in the Piedmont, temperatures average between 50 ° F (10 ° C) during the day and 32 ° F (0 ° C) at night.
While precipitation is abundant the entire year in almost the entire state, the coastline tends to have a slightly wetter summer, while inland March tends to be the wettest month. During the cold season, extratropical cyclones is the main cause of precipitation, while during the summer, tropical cyclones and thunderstorms forming due to afternoon heating are the main causes of precipitation. A lee side rain shadow from the Appalachian Mountains lowers annual precipitation across central portions of the state. Inland sections average 40 inches (1,000 mm) to 50 inches (1,300 mm) of rainfall, while near the coast 50 inches (1,300 mm) to 60 inches (1,500 mm), and the Piedmont receives 70 inches (1,800 mm) to 80 inches (2,000 mm) of precipitation. Winter precipitation is determined in large by the El Niño - Southern Oscillation. During El Niño events, the jet stream is further south and east across the U.S., thus leading to cooler and wetter winters in South Carolina, while La Niña keeps the jet stream further north and west causing warmer and drier winters.
Annual snowfall across inland South Carolina is very small, and in coastal areas several years might pass without any measurable snowfall. The snowiest location in the state averages 12 inches (30 cm) of snow a year in the Blue Ridge Mountains of the state. Freezing rain is more common than snow and even rain across much of the state in the winter months. Along the coast snowfall is very rare, with only a few snow events on record. Charleston averages less than 1 inch annually, and often 5 to 10 years might pass without any snowfall.
The state is prone to tropical cyclones. This is an annual concern during hurricane season, which is from June through November. The peak time of vulnerability for the southeast Atlantic coast is from early August to early October when tropical cyclone frequency is highest. Major hurricanes can impact the Palmetto state, though there are no category 5 impacts on record. Two of the stronger hurricanes to strike South Carolina in recent times are Hurricane Hazel (1954) and Hurricane Hugo (1989), which were of category 4 strength. For weaker systems, rainfall and spin - up tornadoes in the outer bands are the main impacts to the state. The wettest known tropical cyclone to impact South Carolina was a tropical depression named Jerry in 1995 which stalled nearby and had previously been a tropical storm across Florida.
South Carolina averages around 64 days of thunderstorm activity per year. Most thunderstorms occur during the summer. South Carolina is vulnerable to tornadoes. Some notable tornadoes have struck South Carolina and the state averages around 14 tornadoes annually. There have been no F - 5 tornadoes on record but over a dozen F - 4 tornadoes have occurred in many counties in South Carolina.
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who does the voice of coach frank in skate 3 | Jason Lee (actor) - wikipedia
Jason Michael Lee (born April 25, 1970) is an American actor, photographer, producer and skateboarder. He is best known for his roles as Earl Hickey in the television comedy series My Name Is Earl, David Seville in the Alvin and the Chipmunks film franchise and the voice of Syndrome in The Incredibles. He is also known for his roles in Kevin Smith films such as Mallrats, Chasing Amy, Dogma, Jay and Silent Bob Strike Back, Jersey Girl, Clerks II and Cop Out. A skateboard enthusiast, Lee is the co-founder and co-owner of Stereo Skateboards, a company that manufactures skateboard decks.
Lee was born in Santa Ana, California on April 25, 1970. His father, Greg, was a car dealership manager and his mother, Carol, a homemaker. Lee was raised in Huntington Beach and attended Ocean View High School.
Before he became an actor, Lee was known as a professional skateboarder in the late 1980s and early 1990s. In 1992, he founded Stereo Sound Agency, known as Stereo Skateboards, with fellow skater Chris "Dune '' Pastras. In 2003, after the company had been defunct for a few years, the pair successfully revived the company. As of October 2013, Lee and Pastras remain on the professional "Classics '' team roster.
Lee was featured in the skateboarding promotional video, Video Days, filmed for the skateboarding company "Blind Skateboards ''. In 2004, Lee 's skateboarding was featured in Way Out East!, a film produced by Stereo Skateboards.
In August 2012, Lee was also featured in a brief video on the skateboard website The Berrics entitled "Jason Lee decided to come to the park. ''
In August 2012, Lee participated in the ninth annual Stand - Up for Skateparks Event, which he chaired with Tony Hawk. The event is held annually by the Tony Hawk Charitable Foundation and seeks to "help create free, quality public skateparks for youth in low - income communities. ''
In October that same year, a video was released by the Keep A Breast Foundation, featuring various skateboarding identities, including Lee, together with Pastras. The video, contributing to the Foundation 's aim to prevent and raise awareness of breast cancer, promotes the "I Love Boobies '' bracelet. It also features Clint Peterson (Stereo) and Giovanni Reda (WESC), who are both teammates of Lee.
Lee later worked with Tony Hawk when he lent his voice and likeness to Tony Hawk 's Project 8 to become a playable character. Lee then voiced Coach Frank, a character created during the development of Stereo, in Skate 3.
Professional skateboarder and owner of the Girl and Lakai Limited Footwear skateboard brands Mike Carroll has cited Lee as one of his skating influences.
After taking some minor acting roles in 1992 -- 1994 (including the music video for the Sonic Youth single "100 % '', a small part in Mi Vida Loca, and a bit part as a dance instructor on Chance and Things), Lee left professional skateboarding for a full - time acting career. His first major movie role was in Kevin Smith 's Mallrats, which became a cult hit. This started a friendship that subsequently led to appearances in many of Smith 's films, including Chasing Amy, Dogma, Jay and Silent Bob Strike Back, Clerks II, and Cop Out. Lee won an Independent Spirit Award for his role in Chasing Amy as Banky Edwards.
Lee graduated to leading man roles in Heartbreakers, Stealing Harvard, and A Guy Thing. He has had supporting roles in Vanilla Sky, Almost Famous, Dreamcatcher, Big Trouble, The Ballad of Jack and Rose, and Mumford, as well as a minor role in Enemy of the State. Lee also voiced Syndrome in The Incredibles and Jack - Jack Attack. He reprised the role as a "robot copy '' of Syndrome in Disney Presents Pixar 's The Incredibles in a Magic Kingdom Adventure. Lee is also the voice of Underdog in Underdog and portrays Dave Seville in the Alvin and the Chipmunks film franchise.
In 2005, Lee was offered the lead role in My Name Is Earl. According to interviews on the first - season DVD, he passed on the series twice before finally agreeing to read for the pilot. In the series, he stars as Earl Hickey. Lee received two Golden Globe nominations for Best Performance by an Actor in a Television Series -- Musical or Comedy in 2006 and 2007, as well as a nomination for the Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Male Actor in a Comedy Series in 2006. After four seasons of My Name is Earl NBC cancelled the series.
On June 22, 2010, Memphis Beat premiered. In the series, Lee starred with Alfre Woodard and portrayed Dwight Hendricks. In October 2011, it was announced the series was not renewed for a third season. He also guest - starred in 2010 and 2013 episodes of Raising Hope, created by My Name is Earl creator and producer Greg Garcia.
As of December 2011, Lee appeared in Up All Night, but after its second season, it was officially cancelled on May 9, 2013. In June 2013, a fourth installment of the Alvin and the Chipmunks franchise was then announced by the 20th Century Fox studio and a release date of December 18, 2015; it was titled The Road Chip.
Lee 's latest projects are with Amazon Studios and The Hallmark Channel. With Amazon Studios, Lee is seen in the pilot of Cocked, where he plays the character of Grady Paxson, one of three men who run a gun manufacturing company. The show premiered on January 15, 2015 and also stars Brian Dennehy, Diora Baird, Dreama Walker, and Sam Trammell. On January 25, 2015, The Hallmark Channel premiered Away & Back, a Hallmark Hall of Fame film starring Lee along with Maggie Elizabeth Jones and Minka Kelly.
Lee began shooting photos regularly in the early 2000s, and became interested in instant photography. He recently released a photo book through Refueled Magazine. It consists of "184 pages of Polaroid & Fuji Instant Film photographs from 2006 - 2016. '' Printed in a limited edition run of 500 copies, the book sold out before shipping began.
Lee married actress and photographer Carmen Llywelyn in 1995; they divorced in 2001. Llywelyn later cited Lee 's commitment to Scientology as the principal cause for their separation. Llywelyn wrote that their relationship collapsed when she revealed to her talent manager and fellow Scientologist, Gay Ribisi (mother of actor Giovanni Ribisi), that she had read A Piece of Blue Sky, an anti-Scientology book. Two days after her conversation with Ribisi, Llywelyn received a one - paragraph "disconnection letter '' from Lee and was labeled a Suppressive Person. Later, Llywelyn made a claim against Scientology, calling it a "sinister cult '' 13 years after leaving it. According to her detailed experiences, she never had freedom to make a decision and she had to think about her identity after she left Scientology.
Following his divorce from Llywelyn, Lee became engaged to actress Beth Riesgraf. Together, they have a son, Pilot Inspektor. Lee states their son 's name was inspired by "He 's Simple, He 's Dumb, He 's the Pilot '' by rock band Grandaddy.
Lee met fashion model and actress Ceren Alkaç at a concert while on vacation in Britain. Alkaç was born in İzmir, and emigrated with her family from Turkey to Australia soon afterward. Following their initial meeting, the pair stayed in touch via email and texts, with Alkaç subsequently moving to the United States and starting a relationship with Lee. The couple married in California in July 2008; a month later, Alkac gave birth to a daughter named Casper. The couple had their second child, a son named Sonny, in 2012. In 2017, the couple welcomed their third child, a daughter named Alberta ' Birdy ' Lee. Their separation was rumored in December 2015, again allegedly due to Lee 's strong attachment to Scientology. This was later proven to be false. As of 2016, Lee no longer practices Scientology.
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pain at base of skull and behind eyes | Occipital neuralgia - wikipedia
Occipital neuralgia is a medical condition characterized by chronic pain in the upper neck, back of the head and behind the eyes. These areas correspond to the locations of the lesser and greater occipital nerves. Wrapped around the greater occipital nerve is the occipital artery, which can contribute to the neuralgia. The condition is also sometimes characterized by diminished sensation in the affected area.
The main symptom of occipital neuralgia is chronic headache. The pain is commonly localized in the back and around or over the top of the head, sometimes up to the eyebrow or behind the eye. Because chronic headaches are a common symptom of numerous conditions, occipital neuralgia is often misdiagnosed at first, most commonly as tension headaches or migraines, leading to unsuccessful treatment attempts. Another symptom is sensitivity to light, especially when headaches occur.
Occipital neuralgia is characterized by severe pain that begins in the upper neck and back of the head. This pain is typically one - sided, although it can be on both sides if both occipital nerves have been affected. Additionally, the pain may radiate forward toward the eye as it follows the path of the occipital nerve (s). Individuals may notice blurred vision as the pain radiates near or behind the eye. The pain is commonly described as sharp, shooting, zapping, an electric shock, or stabbing. The bouts of pain are rarely consistent, but can occur frequently depending on the damage to the nerves. The amount of time the pain lasts typically varies each time the symptom appears; it may last a few seconds or be almost continuous. Occipital neuralgia can last for hours or for several days.
Other symptoms of occipital neuralgia may include:
Occipital neuralgia is caused by damage to the occipital nerves, which can arise from trauma (usually concussive), physical stress on the nerve, repetitive neck contraction, flexion or extension, or as a result of medical complications (such as osteochondroma, a benign bone tumour). A rare cause is a cerebrospinal fluid leak. Another is radio frequency nerve ablation. Rarely, occipital neuralgia may be a symptom of metastasis of certain cancers to the spine. Among other cranial neuropathies, Occipital Neuralgia is also known to occur in patients with Multiple Sclerosis.
There are several areas that have the potential to cause injury from compression:
The diagnosis is established clinically through characteristic anamnestic information (mostly short attacks of an intense sharp, piercing or electrifying pain with propagation along the occipital nerve from the lateral neck and under / behind the ear towards the side of the head and the eye, with often longer lasting background pain) and sometimes supporting clinical features (positive Hoffmann 's sign, Dysesthesia).
There are a wide range of non-invasive treatments, including manipulation, physical therapy, rest, heat, anti-inflammatory medication, antidepressants, anti-convulsants, opioid and non-opioid analgesics, and migraine prophylaxis medication. Alternatives include local nerve block, peripheral nerve stimulation, steroids, rhizotomy, phenol injections, and occipital cryoneurolysis. Less commonly, surgical neurolysis or microdecompression are used to treat the condition when conservative measures fail.
Frei R. Large study: Frequent nausea worsens migraine severity. Pain Med News 2011; 9 (8): 1 -- 20.
Liang, H. Occipital Neuralgia as a presenting symptom of gastic cancer metastasis. Imaging in Headache Medicine, April 2012. Saladin, Kenneth S. "Chapter 13: The Spinal Cord, Spinal Nerves, and Somatic Reflexes. '' Anatomy & Physiology: The Unity of Form and Function. 12th ed. New York, NY: McGraw - Hill, 2012. N. pag. Print.
Stedman, Thomas Lathrop. Stedman 's Medical Dictionary -- 27th Edition Illustrated in Color. 27th ed. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2000. 1206 +. Print.
Williamson et al. The Journal of Headache and Pain 2013, 1 (Suppl 1): P65 http://www.thejournalofheadacheandpain.com/content/1/S1/P65
http://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/neurology_neurosurgery/specialty_areas/headache/conditions/occipital_neuralgia.html
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who wrote the book that got modern physics started | Modern physics - wikipedia
Modern physics is the post-Newtonian conception of physics. It implies that classical descriptions of phenomena are lacking, and that an accurate, "modern '', description of nature requires theories to incorporate elements of quantum mechanics or Einsteinian relativity, or both. In general, the term is used to refer to any branch of physics either developed in the early 20th century and onwards, or branches greatly influenced by early 20th century physics.
Small velocities and large distances is usually the realm of classical physics. Modern physics, however, often involves extreme conditions: quantum effects typically involve distances comparable to atoms (roughly 10 m), while relativistic effects typically involve velocities comparable to the speed of light (roughly 10 m / s). In general, quantum and relativistic effects exist across all scales, although these effects can be very small in everyday life.
In a literal sense, the term modern physics, means up - to - date physics. In this sense, a significant portion of so - called classical physics is modern. However, since roughly 1890, new discoveries have caused significant paradigm shifts: the advent of quantum mechanics (QM) and of Einsteinian relativity (ER). Physics that incorporates elements of either QM or ER (or both) is said to be modern physics. It is in this latter sense that the term is generally used.
Modern physics is often encountered when dealing with extreme conditions. Quantum mechanical effects tend to appear when dealing with "lows '' (low temperatures, small distances), while relativistic effects tend to appear when dealing with "highs '' (high velocities, large distances), the "middles '' being classical behaviour. For example, when analysing the behaviour of a gas at room temperature, most phenomena will involve the (classical) Maxwell -- Boltzmann distribution. However near absolute zero, the Maxwell -- Boltzmann distribution fails to account for the observed behaviour of the gas, and the (modern) Fermi -- Dirac or Bose -- Einstein distributions have to be used instead.
German physicist Albert Einstein, founder of the theory of relativity
German physicist Max Planck, founder of quantum theory
Very often, it is possible to find -- or "retrieve '' -- the classical behaviour from the modern description by analysing the modern description at low speeds and large distances (by taking a limit, or by making an approximation). When doing so, the result is called the classical limit.
These are generally considered to be the topics regarded as the "core '' of the foundation of modern physics:
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where did the don't tread on me flag | Gadsden flag - Wikipedia
The Gadsden flag is a historical American flag with a yellow field depicting a rattlesnake coiled and ready to strike. Positioned below the rattlesnake are the words "DONT TREAD ON ME. '' The flag is named after American general and politician Christopher Gadsden (1724 -- 1805), who designed it in 1775 during the American Revolution. It was used by the Continental Marines as an early motto flag, along with the Moultrie flag.
Modern uses of the Gadsden flag include political ideologies and movements such as libertarianism and the Tea Party movement as well as American soccer supporter groups, including Sam 's Army and the American Outlaws since the late 1980s.
The timber rattlesnake can be found in the area of the original Thirteen Colonies. Its use as a symbol of the American colonies can be traced back to the publications of Benjamin Franklin. In 1751, he made the first reference to the rattlesnake in a satirical commentary published in his Pennsylvania Gazette. It had been the policy of Great Britain to send convicted criminals to the Americas, so Franklin suggested that they thank the British by sending rattlesnakes to England.
In 1754, during the French and Indian War, Franklin published his famous woodcut of a snake cut into eight sections. It represented the colonies, with New England joined together as the head and South Carolina as the tail, following their order along the coast. Under the snake was the message "Join, or Die ''. This was the first political cartoon published in an American newspaper.
As the American colonies came to identify more with their own communities and the concept of liberty, rather than as vassals of the British empire, icons that were unique to the Americas became increasingly popular. The rattlesnake, like the bald eagle and American Indian, came to symbolize American ideals and society.
As the American Revolution grew, the snake began to see more use as a symbol of the colonies. In 1774, Paul Revere added Franklin 's iconic cartoon to the nameplate of his paper, the Massachusetts Spy, depicted there as fighting a British dragon. In December 1775, Benjamin Franklin published an essay in the Pennsylvania Journal under the pseudonym American Guesser in which he suggested that the rattlesnake was a good symbol for the American spirit:
The rattlesnake symbol was first officially adopted by the Continental Congress in 1778 when it approved the design for the official Seal of the War Office (at that time and for many years thereafter, the War Office was a term associated with the Headquarters of the Army). At the top center of the Seal is a rattlesnake holding a banner which says: "This We 'll Defend ''. According to the US Army 's Institute of Heraldry, "' This We 'll Defend, ' on a scroll held by the rattlesnake is a symbol depicted on some American colonial flags and signifies the Army 's constant readiness to defend and preserve the United States. ' This design of the War Office Seal was carried forward -- with some minor modifications -- into the subsequent designs for the War Department 's Seal, and the Department of the Army 's Seal, Emblem and Flag. As such, the rattlesnake symbol has been in continuous official use by the US Army for over 236 years.
In fall 1775, the Continental Navy was established by General George Washington in his role as Commander in Chief of all Continental Forces, before Esek Hopkins was named Commodore of the Navy. The Navy began with seven ships, often called "Washington Cruisers '', that flew the "Liberty Tree Flag '', depicting a green pine tree with the motto "Appeal to Heaven ''. This is according to the October 20, 1775 letter of Washington 's aide Colonel Joseph Reed, which is stored in the Library of Congress.
Those first ships were used to intercept incoming British ships carrying war supplies to the British troops in the colonies to both deprive the supplies to the British and to supply to the Continental Army. One ship captured by Captain John Manley had 30,000 pairs of shoes on it. However, the admiralty agent demanded his 2 ⁄ per cent commission before he would release the cargo for Washington 's army, so many soldiers marched barefoot in the snow. To aid in this, the Second Continental Congress authorized the mustering of five companies of Marines to accompany the Navy on their first mission. The first Marines enlisted in the city of Philadelphia, and they carried drums painted yellow, depicting a coiled rattlesnake with thirteen rattles, and the motto "Do n't Tread on Me. '' This is the first recorded mention of the future Gadsden flag 's symbolism.
At the Congress, Continental Colonel Christopher Gadsden represented his home state of South Carolina. He was one of seven members of the Marine Committee who were outfitting the first naval mission.
Before the departure of that first mission in December 1775, the newly appointed commander - in - chief of the Navy, Commodore Esek Hopkins, received the yellow rattlesnake flag from Gadsden to serve as the distinctive personal standard of his flagship. It was displayed at the mainmast. Hopkins had previously led The United Companies of the Train of Artillery of the Town of Providence, before being appointed to lead the Navy. The 1775 flag of the Providence Train of Artillery 's featured a coiled timber rattlesnake and the motto "Do Not Tread on Me '' along with an anchor, cannons and the motto "In God We Hope '' on a gold background. The flag presented to Hopkins as Commander of the Continental Navy is a simplified version of that design.
Gadsden also presented a copy of this flag to the Congress of South Carolina in Charleston, South Carolina. This was recorded in the South Carolina congressional journals on February 9, 1776:
Many variations of the Gadsden flag exist:
The Culpeper Minutemen flag has a coiled rattlesnake and the same motto as the Gadsden flag. It has a white field, rather than yellow, and the additional motto "Liberty or Death '' and the name "The Culpeper Minute Men ''. It is the flag of Virginia volunteers from the Culpeper area.
The John Proctor 's Regiment flag of 1st Battalion Westmoreland County, Pennsylvania, had a coiled rattlesnake shown on its flag.
The United Companies of the Train of Artillery of the Town of Providence already used a coiled rattlesnake on a field of gold with the motto "Do Not Tread On Me '' on its flag. Before Esek Hopkins was named the first Commodore of the American Navy by the Continental Congress he served as a Brigadier General of the Rhode Island Militia Artillery, and would have been familiar with the design of the flag.
All four of the American - designed "Rattlesnake Flags '' show a coiled rattlesnake. The only other rattlesnake flag, the First Navy Jack, was "designed by '' the English artist Thomas Hart as background art.
The traditional version of the First Navy Jack has an uncoiled rattlesnake and the same motto as the Gadsden flag, on a field of 13 horizontal red and white stripes. Flag experts (vexillologists) speculate that the English artist Thomas Hart either did not know about the practice of rattlesnakes to coil in defense, or did, and intended to insult the fledgling American Navy as a weak and vulnerable creature as a rattlesnake is when not coiled and ready to strike, slithering on the ground, trying to escape, with its motto "(Please) Do n't Tread on Me! '' However, others suggest the snake pictured on the flag was being provoked, and is striking. Hence the warning, "Do n't tread on me (or I will strike) ''.
Considered one of the first flags of the United States, the flag was later replaced by the current Stars and Stripes (or Old Glory) flag. Since the Revolution, the flag has seen resurgences as a symbol of American patriotism, disagreement with government, or support for civil liberties.
The First Navy Jack, which was not directly related to the Gadsden flag, has been in use by the United States Navy since its beginnings. Unlike the Liberty Tree Flag with the letter by Colonel Joseph Reed that describes it, there is no document that describes the Snake on Stripes flag, only an image by English artist Thomas Hart in the background of a portrait of Commodore Esek Hopkins. In that same painting is a round "tree flag ''. The triangular Liberty Tree flag is derived from the only surviving tree flag from the Revolution, found in an old trunk in 1993 on Long Island, the 5th Regt. Connecticut Militia. The Snake on Stripes flag was included in a book of flags by Admiral Preble, but later Preble determined the flag not valid, so he removed it from his text. However, the book publisher used the old color plates, so the image was continued in the new edition and subsequently picked up by other publications and Webster 's Dictionary.
In preparation for the 1976 bicentennial year, staff officers in the Secretary of the Navy 's office sought a powerful image for the Navy 's Bicentennial. One Navy officer saw the Snake on Stripes Flag in Webster 's Dictionary, so the staff officers ordered a large number to give away as Navy promotional items and then turned to the Naval Historical Center to "get the history ''. They were told that the flag had probably never flown during the Revolution, based on Admiral Preble 's later discoveries, but a decision was made to use the Snake on Stripes Flag, or the "Fake Snake Flag '', anyway. Beginning in 1975, commissioned Navy ships flew this Jack in place of the Naval Jack (officially known as the Union Jack, not to be confused with the United Kingdom 's flag) at the bow. In 1977, the Secretary of the Navy directed that the ship in active status with the longest total period of active service shall display the First Navy Jack until decommissioned or transferred to inactive service, at which time the flag shall be passed to the next ship in line with appropriate honors. The display of this jack by the oldest ship in the fleet is intended as a form of recognition to promote pride of service, enhance morale, and contribute to the tradition of naval service. USS Enterprise (CVN 65) became the oldest active ship in the United States Navy upon the decommissioning of USS Kitty Hawk (CV 63) on May 12, 2009. Enterprise is only the third aircraft carrier ever to hold the honor of flying the First Navy Jack.
Since the first Patriot Day on September 11, 2002, which commemorates the lives lost in the September 11 attacks, the rattlesnake from the flag is also shown on the US Army 's Drill Sergeant Identification Badge. After the Snake on Stripes Flag became the Navy 's symbol for the Global War on Terrorism, flag history professionals (vexillologists) have done extensive research papers that further question the claim that the flag ever flew during the American Revolution, yet it continues to fly at the bow of American warships today.
For historical reasons, the Gadsden flag is still popularly flown in Charleston, South Carolina, the city where Christopher Gadsden first presented the flag and where it was commonly used during the revolution, along with the blue and white crescent flag of pre-Civil War South Carolina.
The Gadsden flag has become a popular specialty license plate in several states.
As of 2018, the following states offer the option of obtaining a Gadsden flag specialty license plate: Alabama, Arizona, Maryland, Missouri, Montana, Oklahoma, South Carolina, Tennessee, Texas, and Virginia.
Beginning in 2009 at Tea Party rallies, the Gadsden Flag has been adopted as a symbol of the American Tea Party movement. It was also displayed by members of Congress at Tea Party movement rallies. Some lawmakers have called it a "political symbol '' because of this association.
In March 2013, a resident of New Rochelle, New York, put up a Gadsden flag at the city 's vacant armory building. The city ordered its removal, fearing that the flag would be seen as political. The next month, a veterans group, the United Veterans Memorial & Patriotic Association, filed suit against the city.
Athletic apparel company Nike uses the image of a rattlesnake coiled around a soccer ball for an ongoing, patriotic "Do n't Tread on Me '' campaign in support of the United States men 's national soccer team. The phrase has become a rallying cry for American soccer fans and the Gadsden flag can occasionally be seen at national team games. A representation of the rattlesnake is contained on the inside of their uniforms, over the heart, with the initials "D.T.O.M. '', which were used in the 2010 World Cup.
In Hideo Kojima 's video game Metal Gear Solid 2: Sons of Liberty a variation of the flag can be seen on one of the connecting bridges of the "Big Shell '' facility, in a reference to both the original meaning and usage of the flag.
In the apocalyptic 2006 CBS TV drama Jericho, the flag makes several appearances, most notably in the series finale as Jericho 's acting mayor takes down the flag of the "Allied States of America '', which had been flying at the town hall following a federal coup. He replaces the red, white, and blue flag of the central government with a Gadsden Flag which the previous mayor had kept framed in his office. The scene depicts a once - collaborationist character as finally having summoned the courage to be in open defiance against a supreme government.
The heavy metal band Metallica recorded a song called "Do n't Tread on Me '' on their self - titled fifth studio album, released in 1991. The album cover features a dark grey picture of a coiled rattlesnake like the one found on the Gadsden Flag. The song 's lyrics refer to political phrases from the American Revolutionary War.
In addition, in the hit series The West Wing, Sam Seaborn 's office displays the flag hanging above his cabinet.
NASCAR driver Carl Edwards displayed the Gadsden Flag next to his facsimile signature on his race car.
In WWE, the tag team Real Americans, composed by Jack Swagger, Cesaro and the manager Zeb Colter, used the Gadsden Flag and the preamble "We the People ''.
In the 1979 novel Alongside Night, an organization called the Revolutionary Agorist Cadre, seeking a Second American Revolution, welcomes visitors to one of its undergrounds: "The room 's only decoration was a modified Gadsden flag draped on the wall adjoining the bar and medical areas (opposite the door), a golden field with ' LAISSEZ - FAIRE! ' in an upper left corner, a coiled rattlesnake facing left with its tongue out, and in the lower right, ' DONT TREAD ON ME! ' '' The Gadsden flag without the addition of "LAISSEZ - FAIRE! '' is carried over into the 2014 Alongside Night movie adaptation in which the Gadsden flag is used by the Revolutionary Agorist Cadre as well as the traditional anarchist black flag.
In 1970, on a verse from song Uncle John 's Band by Grateful Dead contains "Their wall are built of cannonballs, their motto is ' Do n't tread on me ' ''.
Media related to Gadsden flag at Wikimedia Commons
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where can i see the bleach live action movie | Bleach (2018 film) - wikipedia
Bleach (Japanese: ブリーチ, Hepburn: Burīchi) (also known as Bleach: The Soul Reaper Agent Arc) is a Japanese film produced by Warner Bros., based on the manga series of the same name by Tite Kubo, and directed by Shinsuke Sato. The film stars Sota Fukushi as the main protagonist, Ichigo Kurosaki. It was released in Japan on July 20, 2018. The film had its American premiere on July 28, 2018 at the New York Japan Cuts Festival in New York City. The film was released on Netflix on September 14, 2018.
Ichigo Kurosaki is a teenager who lives in Karakura Town with his father, Isshin, and younger twin sisters, Karin and Yuzu. He has the ability to see ghosts, a talent that brings him to the attention of a katana - wielding young woman, Rukia Kuchiki. Rukia explains that she is a Soul Reaper, whose duty is to guide dead souls to an afterlife called Soul Society. Those who die in anger are transformed into monstrous beings called Hollows and it is also a Reaper 's duty to purify them with their weapon, Zanpakutō. When Rukia struggles to contain a Hollow, Fishbone D, from attacking the Kurosaki residence, she decides to transfer her Reaper power, Reiryoku, to Ichigo, transforming him into a Reaper. He proceeds to purify the Hollow. The next day, Ichigo learns that Rukia is posing as a new transfer student to his high school. Rukia says that she had expended all her Reiryoku to Ichigo during the emergency transfer and can not return to Soul Society. Therefore, he has to fight Hollows in her stead until he accumulates enough Reiryoku to do a transfer.
Ichigo constantly refuses the exercise Rukia subjects him to to shape him up, much to her irritation. Meanwhile, Rukia 's older brother, Byakuya (Rukia had been adopted by Kuchiki family as a child), sends her childhood friend, Renji Abarai, to fetch her. He has a brief altercation with Ichigo that ends when someone threatens him with arrows, forcing him to flee. The person turns out to be Ichigo 's classmate, Uryū Ishida. Uryū is a Quincy, humans who are spiritually aware and can dispatch Hollows with bow and arrows. He hates Reapers for having massacred his kind a long time ago and challenges Ichigo, whom he identified as a Reaper, to fight Hollows by deliberately summoning them.
While Ichigo and Rukia are fighting a Hollow, Hexapodus, they are confronted by Renji and Byakuya. After Renji defeats Ichigo, Byakuya scolds Rukia for having broken the rule not to transfer Reiryoku to a human and gives her an ultimatum: either she forcibly extracts her Reiryoku from Ichigo, thus killing him, or returns to Soul Society as a convict and receives the capital punishment. Not wanting to endanger him, Rukia prepares to give herself up for punishment. However, Ichigo stops her at the last minute and makes a deal with Byakuya: he will purify a greater Hollow called Grand Fisher to gain enough Reiryoku for a non-fatal transfer.
Ichigo vigorously trains for the confrontation, piquing the interest of his classmates, Yasutora Sado and Orihime Inoue, who has a crush on him. He learns that Grand Fisher was the being who appeared to him and his late mother, Masaki, when he was young; Masaki was killed defending Ichigo from its attack. It continues to hunt him since. During a visit to Masaki 's grave, Karin and Yuzu are attacked by Grand Fisher. Ichigo is able to free them, before luring it away. Aided by Uryū, he is able to purify the Hollow. Shortly afterward, Renji appears, wounds Uryū, then duels Ichigo. Ichigo manages to defeat him. However, he is unable to land even a single hit at Byakuya and gravely injures himself while trying. To protect him, Rukia reconfirms her vow as a Reaper and does the Reiryoku transfer herself, bidding Ichigo goodbye before returning to Soul Society.
The next day, everyone in Karakura Town have forgotten Rukia. Nevertheless, the film leaves it open to the possibility that Ichigo still remembers her.
In 2008, Tite Kubo stated that he wished to make Bleach an experience that can be found only by reading manga, dismissing ideas of creating any live - action film adaptations of the series. When the film adaptation was announced, however, Kubo decided to be involved with its production to ensure its faithfulness to the manga and anime, so that both old and new fans may enjoy it. He also stated that his only concern was the color of Ichigo 's hair, which in the manga and anime is a bright shade of orange. He said, "If that color is in the live - action movie, it 'd be strange, so I wonder what they 're going to do! '' Regarding what fans could expect in the live - action adaptation, Sota Fukushi, who will portray Ichigo, stated that the film would feature "the monstrous Hollows, otherworldly Soul Society, and destructive Zanpakuto sword - fighting techniques ''.
The 10th issue of the 2018 Weekly Shōnen Jump magazine released the visual for Rukia Kuchiki, revealing that Hana Sugisaki will portray the character. In March 2018, the film 's official Twitter account revealed that Uryū Ishida, Renji Abarai and Byakuya Kuchiki will be portrayed by Ryo Yoshizawa, Taichi Saotome and Miyavi respectively. In May 2018, the film 's official twitter account revealed an additional cast that includes Erina Mano, Yu Koyanagi, Seiichi Tanabe, Yōsuke Eguchi and Masami Nagasawa, which portrays Orihime Inoue, Yasutora "Chad '' Sado, Kisuke Urahara, Isshin Kurosaki and Masaki Kurosaki respectively.
On October 7, 2018, Johnny Yong Bosch, voice actor for the anime revealed that there was an English dub produced for the film, and he would be reprising his role as Ichigo Kurosaki.
The film 's score was written by composer Yutaka Yamada. The film also features songs by Alexandros, "Mosquito Bite '' and "Milk ''. The soundtrack was distributed by Crown Tokuma Music Distribution in July 25, 2018.
After months of speculation from fans and critics, paired with months of silence from Warner Bros. Japan, a teaser trailer was released online on July 6, 2017, also revealing a poster for the movie in the process. On January 1, 2018, to hype the movie 's release in Summer of 2018, to commemorate the beginning of the new year and to thank the support of the fans of the anime and movie project, a short message was shared via the movie 's official Twitter account.
On February 5, 2018, it was revealed that the movie would premiere on July 20, 2018 in Japan. A teaser trailer was released on February 21, 2018 which was praised for its faithful adaptation of the series ' first chapter. In April 2018, the first official trailer was released, which also revealed the film 's theme song by Alexandros, titled "Mosquito Bite ''. In June 2018, Warner Bros. Japan released the final trailer for the film, which confirmed that the film 's main antagonist is the Hollow Grand Fisher.
Bleach was released on Netflix on September 14, 2018.
As of August 7, 2018, Bleach has grossed ¥ 448,895,200 ($4,001,919) in Japan. The filmed opened at # 4 on its opening weekend and grossed ¥ 135 million from Friday to Sunday. On the second weekend, it fell into # 5 and grossed an additional ¥ 64,199,600. In the third weekend, Bleach dropped off the top 10 and earned ¥ 23,459,400.
The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reported an 80 % approval rating based on 5 reviews, and an average rating of 6.1 / 10. Justine Smith for SciFiNow gave it a positive review with a consensus that "While clearly made for a dedicated fanbase, unlike some more recent anime live - action adaptations, one of the greatest assets of Bleach is how cohesively it outlines its mythology for the uninitiated. '' Additionally, Mark Schilling reviewed the film for The Japan Times and gave it a 3 star rating. He concluded that the film faithfully follows the mythology of the source material for the dedicated fans, but also simplifies it for casual viewers to understand.
Conversely, Rob Hunter from the Film School Rejects criticised the narrative of the story, especially when the female lead character, Rukia played by Hana Sugisaki, had to be reduced into a supporting - type character for the male lead character, Ichigo played by Sota Fukushi. He further praised Sugisaki 's performances and lamented the fact that the actress was given weak materials for the film.
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what is the total number of electrons that can be accommodated in main energy level = 3 | Electron shell - wikipedia
In chemistry and atomic physics, an electron shell, or a principal energy level, may be thought of as an orbit followed by electrons around an atom 's nucleus. The closest shell to the nucleus is called the "1 shell '' (also called "K shell ''), followed by the "2 shell '' (or "L shell ''), then the "3 shell '' (or "M shell ''), and so on farther and farther from the nucleus. The shells correspond with the principal quantum numbers (n = 1, 2, 3, 4...) or are labeled alphabetically with letters used in the X-ray notation (K, L, M,...).
Each shell can contain only a fixed number of electrons: The first shell can hold up to two electrons, the second shell can hold up to eight (2 + 6) electrons, the third shell can hold up to 18 (2 + 6 + 10) and so on. The general formula is that the nth shell can in principle hold up to 2 (n) electrons. Since electrons are electrically attracted to the nucleus, an atom 's electrons will generally occupy outer shells only if the more inner shells have already been completely filled by other electrons. However, this is not a strict requirement: atoms may have two or even three incomplete outer shells. (See Madelung rule for more details.) For an explanation of why electrons exist in these shells see electron configuration.
The electrons in the outermost occupied shell (or shells) determine the chemical properties of the atom; it is called the valence shell.
Each shell consists of one or more subshells, and each subshell consists of one or more atomic orbitals.
The shell terminology comes from Arnold Sommerfeld 's modification of the Bohr model. Sommerfeld retained Bohr 's planetary model, but added mildly elliptical orbits (characterized by additional quantum numbers l and m) to explain the fine spectroscopic structure of some elements. The multiple electrons with the same principal quantum number (n) had close orbits that formed a "shell '' of positive thickness instead of the infinitely thin circular orbit of Bohr 's model.
The existence of electron shells was first observed experimentally in Charles Barkla 's and Henry Moseley 's X-ray absorption studies. Barkla labeled them with the letters K, L, M, N, O, P, and Q. The origin of this terminology was alphabetic. A "J '' series was also suspected, though later experiments indicated that the K absorption lines are produced by the innermost electrons. These letters were later found to correspond to the n values 1, 2, 3, etc. They are used in the spectroscopic Siegbahn notation.
The physical chemist Gilbert Lewis was responsible for much of the early development of the theory of the participation of valence shell electrons in chemical bonding. Linus Pauling later generalized and extended the theory while applying insights from quantum mechanics.
The electron shells are labeled K, L, M, N, O, P, and Q; or 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7; going from innermost shell outwards. Electrons in outer shells have higher average energy and travel farther from the nucleus than those in inner shells. This makes them more important in determining how the atom reacts chemically and behaves as a conductor, because the pull of the atom 's nucleus upon them is weaker and more easily broken. In this way, a given element 's reactivity is highly dependent upon its electronic configuration.
Each shell is composed of one or more subshells, which are themselves composed of atomic orbitals. For example, the first (K) shell has one subshell, called 1s; the second (L) shell has two subshells, called 2s and 2p; the third shell has 3s, 3p, and 3d; the fourth shell has 4s, 4p, 4d and 4f; the fifth shell has 5s, 5p, 5d, and 5f and can theoretically hold more but the 5f subshell, although partially occupied in actinides, is not filled in any element occurring naturally. The various possible subshells are shown in the following table:
Although it is commonly stated that all the electrons in a shell have the same energy, this is an approximation. However, the electrons in one subshell do have exactly the same level of energy, with later subshells having more energy per electron than earlier ones. This effect is great enough that the energy ranges associated with shells can overlap (see valence shells and Aufbau principle).
Each subshell is constrained to hold 4l + 2 electrons at most, namely:
Therefore, the K shell, which contains only an s subshell, can hold up to 2 electrons; the L shell, which contains an s and a p, can hold up to 2 + 6 = 8 electrons, and so forth; in general, the nth shell can hold up to 2n electrons.
Although that formula gives the maximum in principle, in fact that maximum is only achieved (by known elements) for the first four shells (K, L, M, N). No known element has more than 32 electrons in any one shell. This is because the subshells are filled according to the Aufbau principle. The first elements to have more than 32 electrons in one shell would belong to the g - block of period 8 of the periodic table. These elements would have some electrons in their 5g subshell and thus have more than 32 electrons in the O shell (fifth principal shell).
The valence shell is the outermost shell of an atom. Valence electrons in non-transition metal elements reside in this shell. Such elements with complete valence shells (noble gases) are the most chemically non-reactive, while those with only one electron in their valence shells (alkali metals) or just missing one electron from having a complete shell (halogens) are the most reactive.
However, this terminology is somewhat misleading in the case of transition metals. In these elements, a valence electron can also be in an inner shell. Thus, the electrons that determine how an atom reacts chemically are those that travel farthest from the nucleus, that is, those with the highest energy, and not necessarily in the valence shell.
The list below gives the elements arranged by increasing atomic number and shows the number of electrons per shell. At a glance, one can see that subsets of the list show obvious patterns. In particular, the seven elements (in electric blue) before a noble gas (group 18, in yellow) higher than helium have the number of electrons in the valence shell in arithmetic progression. (However, this pattern may break down in the seventh period due to relativistic effects.)
Sorting the table by chemical group shows additional patterns, especially with respect to the last two outermost shells. (Elements 57 to 71 belong to the lanthanides, while 89 to 103 are the actinides.)
The list below is primarily consistent with the Aufbau principle. However, there are a number of exceptions to the rule; for example palladium (atomic number 46) has no electrons in the fifth shell, unlike other atoms with lower atomic number. Some entries in the table are uncertain, when experimental data is unavailable. (For example, the elements past 108 have such short half - lives that their electron configurations have not yet been measured.)
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what was the western border of the american nation established by the treaty of paris | Treaty of Paris (1783) - wikipedia
The Treaty of Paris, signed in Paris by representatives of King George III of Great Britain and representatives of the United States of America on September 3, 1783, ended the American Revolutionary War. The treaty set the boundaries between the British Empire in North America and the United States, on lines "exceedingly generous '' to the latter. Details included fishing rights and restoration of property and prisoners of war.
This treaty and the separate peace treaties between Great Britain and the nations that supported the American cause -- France, Spain, and the Dutch Republic -- are known collectively as the Peace of Paris. Only Article 1 of the treaty, which acknowledges the United States ' existence as free sovereign and independent states, remains in force.
Peace negotiations began in April 1782, and continued through the summer. Representing the United States were Benjamin Franklin, John Jay, Henry Laurens, and John Adams. David Hartley and Richard Oswald represented Great Britain. The treaty was signed at the Hotel d'York (presently 56 Rue Jacob) in Paris on September 3, 1783, by Adams, Franklin, Jay, and Hartley.
Regarding the American Treaty, the key episodes came in September 1782, when French Foreign Minister Vergennes proposed a solution that was strongly opposed by his ally, the United States. France was exhausted by the war, and everyone wanted peace except for Spain, which insisted on continuing the war until it could capture Gibraltar from the British. Vergennes came up with the deal that Spain would accept instead of Gibraltar. The United States would gain its independence but be confined to the area east of the Appalachian Mountains. Britain would take the area north of the Ohio River. In the area south of that would be set up an independent Indian state under Spanish control. It would be an Indian barrier state.
However, the Americans realized that they could get a better deal directly from London. John Jay promptly told the British that he was willing to negotiate directly with them, cutting off France and Spain. The British Prime Minister Lord Shelburne agreed. He was in charge of the British negotiations (some of which took place in his study at Lansdowne House, now a bar in the Lansdowne Club) and he now saw a chance to split the United States away from France and make the new country a valuable economic partner. The western terms were that the United States would gain all of the area east of the Mississippi River, north of Florida, and south of Canada. The northern boundary would be almost the same as today. The United States would gain fishing rights off Canadian coasts, and agreed to allow British merchants and Loyalists to try to recover their property. It was a highly favorable treaty for the United States, and deliberately so from the British point of view. Prime Minister Shelburne foresaw highly profitable two - way trade between Britain and the rapidly growing United States, as indeed came to pass.
Great Britain also signed separate agreements with France and Spain, and (provisionally) with the Netherlands. In the treaty with Spain, the territories of East and West Florida were ceded to Spain (without a clear northern boundary, resulting in a territorial dispute resolved by the Treaty of Madrid in 1795). Spain also received the island of Menorca; the Bahama Islands, Grenada, and Montserrat, captured by the French and Spanish, were returned to Britain. The treaty with France was mostly about exchanges of captured territory (France 's only net gains were the island of Tobago, and Senegal in Africa), but also reinforced earlier treaties, guaranteeing fishing rights off Newfoundland. Dutch possessions in the East Indies, captured in 1781, were returned by Britain to the Netherlands in exchange for trading privileges in the Dutch East Indies, by a treaty which was not finalized until 1784.
The United States Congress of the Confederation ratified the Treaty of Paris on January 14, 1784. Copies were sent back to Europe for ratification by the other parties involved, the first reaching France in March 1784. British ratification occurred on April 9, 1784, and the ratified versions were exchanged in Paris on May 12, 1784.
Preamble. Declares the treaty to be "in the name of the most holy and undivided Trinity '', states the bona fides of the signatories, and declares the intention of both parties to "forget all past misunderstandings and differences '' and "secure to both perpetual peace and harmony ''.
Eschatocol. "Done at Paris, this third day of September in the year of our Lord, one thousand seven hundred and eighty - three. ''
Historians have often commented that the treaty was very generous to the United States in terms of greatly enlarged boundaries. Historians such as Alvord, Harlow, and Ritcheson have emphasized that British generosity was based on a statesmanlike vision of close economic ties between Britain and the United States. The concession of the vast trans - Appalachian region was designed to facilitate the growth of the American population and create lucrative markets for British merchants, without any military or administrative costs to Britain. The point was the United States would become a major trading partner. As the French foreign minister Vergennes later put it, "The English buy peace rather than make it ''. Vermont was included within the boundaries because the state of New York insisted that Vermont was a part of New York, although Vermont was then under a government that considered Vermont not to be a part of the United States.
Privileges that the Americans had received from Britain automatically when they had colonial status (including protection from pirates in the Mediterranean Sea; see: the First Barbary War and the Second Barbary War) were withdrawn. Individual states ignored federal recommendations, under Article 5, to restore confiscated Loyalist property, and also ignored Article 6 (e.g., by confiscating Loyalist property for "unpaid debts ''). Some, notably Virginia, also defied Article 4 and maintained laws against payment of debts to British creditors. The British often ignored the provision of Article 7 about removal of slaves.
The actual geography of North America turned out not to match the details used in the treaty. The Treaty specified a southern boundary for the United States, but the separate Anglo - Spanish agreement did not specify a northern boundary for Florida, and the Spanish government assumed that the boundary was the same as in the 1763 agreement by which they had first given their territory in Florida to Britain. While that West Florida Controversy continued, Spain used its new control of Florida to block American access to the Mississippi, in defiance of Article 8. The treaty stated that the boundary of the United States extended from the "most northwesternmost point '' of the Lake of the Woods (now partly in Minnesota, partly in Manitoba, and partly in Ontario) directly westward until it reached the Mississippi River. But in fact the Mississippi does not extend that far northward; the line going west from the Lake of the Woods never intersects the river.
Great Britain violated the treaty stipulation that they should relinquish control of forts in United States territory "with all convenient speed. '' British troops remained stationed at six forts in the Great Lakes region, plus two at the north end of Lake Champlain. The British also built an additional fort in present - day Ohio in 1794, during the Northwest Indian War. They found justification for these actions in the unstable and extremely tense situation that existed in the area following the war, in the failure of the United States government to fulfill commitments made to compensate loyalists for their losses, and in the British need for time to liquidate various assets in the region. All posts were relinquished peacefully through diplomatic means as a result of the 1794 Jay Treaty. They were:
President of Pennsylvania (1785 -- 1788), Ambassador to France (1779 -- 1785)
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what is a member of birchfield harriers athletics club known as | Birchfield Harriers - wikipedia
Birchfield Harriers is an athletics club, founded in 1877. Its home is at Birmingham 's Alexander Stadium, England.
As well as welcoming recreational runners they cater for all levels of experience up to and including Olympic athletes whether able - bodied or wheelchair - using athletes.
The Club 's motto is Fleet and Free.
The Harriers were named after the Birchfield district of Birmingham, their previous home (from 1929 - 77), at nearby Perry Barr, was Alexander Sports Ground. It still carries their badge, a running stag, rendered in this case in Art Deco style, carved in 1929 and attributed to William Bloye. Both venues were named for members of the Alexander family, who were prominent members of the club.
Tom McCook, a former athlete and club chairman, was the club 's President from 2001 until standing down at the end of 2013.
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where is hell tomorrow when the war began | Tomorrow, When the War Began (film) - Wikipedia
Tomorrow, When the War Began is a 2010 Australian action - adventure war drama film written and directed by Stuart Beattie and based on the novel of the same name (the first in a series of seven) by John Marsden. The film was produced by Andrew Mason and Michael Boughen. The story follows Ellie Linton, one of seven teenagers waging a guerrilla war against an invading foreign power in their fictional hometown of Wirrawee. The film stars Caitlin Stasey as Ellie Linton and features an ensemble cast including Rachel Hurd - Wood, Lincoln Lewis and Phoebe Tonkin. Production began in September 2009.
Principal photography began on 28 September 2009, and concluded on 6 November 2009; filming took place in the Hunter Region and the Blue Mountains, in New South Wales. The teaser trailer for the film was released on 31 March 2010. The film was released in Australia and New Zealand on 2 September 2010. It was later released on 15 April 2011 in the United Kingdom, and on 24 February 2012 in the United States.
The film begins with a video log by Ellie. She asks the camera how she can tell their story. She suggests to herself "from the beginning. ''
Country high school student Ellie (Caitlin Stasey) sets off on a camping trip to "hell 's Gate '', with close childhood friend Corrie (Rachel Hurd - Wood), together with Corrie 's boyfriend Kevin, Ellie 's next - door neighbour Homer, high school crush Lee and friends Robyn and Fiona. After driving Ellie 's parents ' Land Rover into the mountains, they hike down into a remote valley known as "Hell ''.
During their second night camping, Ellie wakes to a sky full of military aircraft. Upon arriving back in town, the group finds their homes abandoned, without power, internet and telephone lines down. From the hill overlooking Robyn 's house, the group sees that the only lights on in town are at the hospital and showground. Upon reaching the showground, they find that the citizens of the town are being detained by a foreign military group. Ellie witnesses a man being executed with a shot to the head, and in her horror retreats too quickly, being spotted by a searchlight. They flee but are pursued by soldiers into the backyard of a house. Ellie, using Kevin 's singlet, lighter and the fuel tank of a ride - on lawn mower, creates an explosion that eliminates the squad.
On return to Corrie 's house, they find that Lee and Robyn are missing. Ellie and Corrie witness an RAAF jet fighter being shot down by enemy aircraft. Whilst the group gathers inside to plan for their return to Hell, an enemy helicopter performs a close examination of the house. Homer shoots out the helicopter 's searchlight, which retreats after dropping flares. The group barely escape with their lives, after a jet destroys the home.
That night, Ellie and Homer sneak back into town and find Robyn in her house. Lee has been wounded, and is being treated by Dr Clements (Colin Friels), the local dentist, who informs them that the invading forces are bringing in their vehicles and equipment from ships moored in Cobbler 's Bay over the Wirrawee Bridge. After a brief skirmish with a pair of armed buggies, Robyn, Homer, Lee and Ellie meet back up at Corrie 's home. They decide to return to Hell.
On the way, they stop at a house and are greeted by school mate Chris, who is incredibly stoned and has no idea that a war is going on. Chris joins the group. They return to Hell, with plans to use it as a secluded hideout where the enemy forces will not find them. While there, they hear a radio transmission revealing that Australia has been invaded by "The Coalition Nations '' from nearby Asia, who believe that they have a right to the country 's vast natural resources and wealth in order to sustain their growing populations. The transmission also reveals one of the three main ports being used to deposit soldiers into the country is nearby Cobbler 's Bay, the only exit from which is the Heron Bridge, which the group then makes plans to destroy.
The group sneaks back to Wirrawee, and devise a plan to blow up Heron Bridge. Ellie and Fi steal a petrol tanker from the council depot. They park it near the bridge and, while waiting for the rest of the team to take their positions. After being discovered by guards, they rush to drive the tanker forward under the bridge. The plan necessarily brought forward, Homer and Lee scare a herd of cattle onto the bridge, forcing the sentry guards to flee their posts, allowing Ellie to park the tanker under the bridge unhindered. Working together, they manage to explode the tanker, which utterly destroys the bridge. Corrie however is shot as the group escapes.
Despite certain capture, Kevin decides to drive Corrie, who is seriously wounded, to the hospital and remain by her side. The group return to Hell. Ellie then finishes her video log, revealing their ongoing guerilla war, the necessity to fight, and that they have yet to be found.
In June 2009, Screen Australia announced that it would fund the development of the feature film to be produced based on the novel, to be written and directed by screenwriter Stuart Beattie. The film was released on 2 September 2010. Critical response to the film was mixed and it failed to find an overseas audience.
Filming began in the Hunter Region of New South Wales, Australia on 28 September 2009 with early shooting in Dungog. Raymond Terrace was chosen as a major location for producing the film as it is "a great country town ''. Historic King Street, the former main street of the town, was transformed from a normally quiet location into Main Street, Wirrawee. The street began its transformation in September 2009, with set areas including the "Wirrawee Cinema '' and the Lee family 's Thai restaurant. Filming began in King Street on 21 October 2009 and continued until 27 October 2009. Filming in other locations in the town ended on 6 November 2009. Other filming locations included Maitland, the Blue Mountains and the Luskintyre bridge. The Fox Studios site in Sydney was also used. The explosions of the house and bridge were filmed, scaled - down, at Terrey Hills in northern Sydney.
Tomorrow, When the War Began received mixed reviews. Review aggregate website Rotten Tomatoes reports that 64 % of critics have given the film a positive review based on 54 reviews, with an average score of 5.6 / 10. The site 's consensus is that "While the script is n't amazing and the story 's race issues linger, this adaptation of John Marsden 's book is an exciting, action - heavy adventure that should please fans of the series. '' Marc Fennell of Triple J wrote that Tomorrow, When the War Began has "patchy acting, fantastic action and some great slivers of humour in a movie that only gives off the faintest whiff of a xenophobic nation terrified of being invaded. '' Margaret Pomeranz of At the Movies wrote that "Stuart Beattie handles the action well; I think he 's less adept at handling the development of character, but I 'm sure the numerous fans of the book will be satisfied with the movie. '' A review by the Australian Special Broadcasting Service was less generous, pointing out parallels to the 1984 film Red Dawn, starring Charlie Sheen and Patrick Swayze. It called the plot weak and the ending a letdown. Despite not coming close to its A $ 27 million budget, the film was popular at the Australian and New Zealand box office, though internationally it was far less successful. In Australia, the film debuted at No. 1 and made $3.86 million during its first weekend and grossed NZ $ 358,653 in its No. 1 debut in New Zealand. Within two weeks, the film grossed over $7.7 million in Australia to become the highest - grossing domestic film of 2010. Paramount acquired distribution rights for the UK, Russia, South Africa, Portugal and Scandinavia and said upon its acquisition that they "look forward to bringing this story to international audiences. '' Despite earning over $13.5 million at the Australian box office, the film "failed to find an international audience '' and earned a total of under $3 million in the rest of the world combined. This included $341,995 in the U.K. and $1,026,705 in New Zealand.
The DVD and Blu - ray editions of the film were released on 30 December 2010. Both editions were released in widescreen and have additional special features. Some Australian stores released the DVD of the film earlier than expected on 21 December 2010, nine days before the official release date. This was later confirmed by the film 's official Facebook page. Special features include John Marsden 's view and an alternate ending. Tomorrow, When the War Began now holds the record for the biggest first week sales for an Australian independently - produced and financed film after selling almost 105,000 DVD copies since its release on 30 December. The previous record was held by George Miller 's animated film Happy Feet, which sold about 95,000 copies in its first week in 2007.
In September 2010, executive producer Christopher Mapp stated that there may be two sequels, based on the novels The Dead of the Night and The Third Day, The Frost. He also stated that there may be a television series, adapting the remainder of the book series. In December 2010, The Age reported that The Dead of the Night had been green - lit for production, which would commence once the script by Stuart Beattie was completed, with release scheduled for 2012. Filming was due to commence in September 2011. On 20 November 2011, Sydney 's Daily Telegraph reported that the sequel had apparently been cancelled. Lincoln Lewis stated "At this stage it does n't look like it 's going to go ahead. '' In December 2011, the official Tomorrow, When the War Began Facebook page posted that Kieran Darcy - Smith is working on a script for a sequel. In August 2012, it was announced by producers that they hoped for filming to start in early 2013.
After several years of no word on the sequel, in 2015 it was announced that a television adaptation of the Tomorrow series was currently in the works. The cast from the film adaption did not reprise their roles. The series consists of six episodes and airs on ABC3. Filming took place from 14 September to 13 November 2015 in Melbourne, and premiered on 23 April 2016.
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who plays rodrick from diary of a wimpy kid | Devon Bostick - wikipedia
Devon Bostick (born November 13, 1991) is a Canadian actor best known for playing the lead role of Simon in the Atom Egoyan directed film Adoration, Brent in Saw VI, Rodrick Heffley in the first three Diary of a Wimpy Kid movies and Jasper Jordan on The CW show The 100 from 2014 to 2017.
Bostick was born in Toronto, Ontario, Canada. His mother, Stephanie Gorin, is a casting agent in Toronto, who works in stage and screen, and his father, Joe Bostick, is an actor as well as a film fight coordinator. His maternal grandparents are English immigrants, and his father is of part Norwegian descent. Devon began acting when in grade five. He is a graduate of the Etobicoke School of the Arts in Toronto.
He has had roles in the television series Degrassi: The Next Generation, Flashpoint and in the film Citizen Duane, and appeared in the series premiere of Rookie Blue. His film work has included roles in Godsend, Fugitive Pieces and The Stone Angel.
In Adoration, he plays Simon, a boy who is being raised by his uncle (played by Scott Speedman) after his parents ' death. He also appears in an online spoof trailer for a hoax movie called "Ice Fortress ''. He had roles in The Poet, a World War II drama starring Roy Scheider and Colm Feore, Saw VI as Brent and Assassin 's Creed: Lineage as Ezio Auditore. Bostick also played Erica 's deceased brother Leo in CBC Television 's series Being Erica, and Rodrick Heffley in the Diary of a Wimpy Kid movies.
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talcher coal fields are located in the state of | Talcher Coalfield - Wikipedia
Talcher Coalfield is located in Angul district in the Indian state of Odisha, in the valley of the Brahmani.
According to Geological Survey of India, the Talcher Coalfield has reserves of 38.65 billion tonnes, the highest in India.
Talcher Coalfield covers an area of 500 km (190 sq mi). The coal is of lower grade containing only about 35 per cent of fixed carbon, 70 per cent volatile matter and 25 per cent ash content. As of 2011, nearly one hundred thousand tonnes of coal is dispatched daily to power stations in Odisha, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, West Bengal and other parts of India.
Coal was discovered in the Talcher Coalfields at Gopalprasad in 1837. Handidhua Colliery was opened by M / s Villiers in 1921. NCDC opened several mines -- at South Balanda in 1960, Nandira in 1962 and Jagannath in 1972. Production rose from 0.91 million tonnes in 1972 - 73 to 33.10 million tonnes in 2001 - 02. Talcher Coalfield is subdivided into five production / administrative areas: Talcher, Jagannath, Kalinga, Lingaraj and Hingula.
Talcher Coalfield was linked by a rail line taking off from Nergundi on the east coast in 1922.
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who is the youngest player in the mls | Freddy Adu - wikipedia
Fredua Koranteng "Freddy '' Adu (born June 2, 1989) is an American soccer player who plays for Las Vegas Lights FC in the United Soccer League. Adu plays primarily as an attacking midfielder, but he is also used as a winger or forward.
At the age of 14, he became the youngest athlete ever to sign a professional contract in the United States, after he was selected by D.C. United in the 2004 MLS SuperDraft on January 16, 2004. Three months later, on April 3, 2004, he became the youngest player to appear in a Major League Soccer (MLS) game when he came on as a substitute in a game against the San Jose Earthquakes. Two weeks later, on April 17, he became the youngest scorer in MLS history, scoring a goal in a 3 -- 2 loss to the MetroStars.
From even before the time of his signing with D.C. United, Adu was spoken of and treated as the future of United States soccer; even being referred to as "the next Pelé ''. However, he failed to live up to the expectations and after leaving D.C. United in 2006, has turned into a journeyman, playing for thirteen teams in eight different countries: the United States, Portugal, Monaco, Greece, Turkey, Brazil, Serbia, and Finland.
Adu, a Ghanaian American, grew up in the port city of Tema, Ghana, where he played soccer against men three times his age. In 1997, when he was eight, his mother won the Green Card Lottery, and his family moved to Rockville, Maryland, in the United States, where he attended Sequoyah Elementary School. In February 2003, he became a U.S. citizen. Soon after arriving in the United States, he was discovered by a local soccer coach and began playing with boys several years older. Adu attended The Heights School, a private school in Potomac, Maryland, for several years.
While playing with the U.S. Olympic Development Program in an under - 14 tournament against the youth squads of such traditionally strong Italian teams as Lazio and Juventus, Adu 's team won the competition, he led the tournament in scoring, and he was named MVP.
At the age of 14, Adu became the youngest American ever to sign a major league professional contract in any team sport when he was chosen by D.C. United as the number one overall pick in the 2004 MLS SuperDraft. In order to allow Adu to play close to home, MLS assigned him to D.C. United on November 18, 2003, working a deal with the Dallas Burn, who owned the top pick in the 2004 MLS SuperDraft. Dallas was compensated with a player allocation. Having already signed with D.C. United, Adu effectively became the first player selected in that draft, two months before it officially took place. D.C. United had previously signed American youngsters Bobby Convey in 2000, and Santino Quaranta in 2001 -- both aged 16 and the youngest player in MLS at the times of being drafted.
On April 3, Adu came on in United 's first game of the 2004 season against the San Jose Earthquakes as a second - half substitute, making him the youngest player ever to appear in United States professional sports. On April 17, at the age of fourteen, Adu scored his first professional goal in the 75th minute of a 3 -- 2 away loss against the MetroStars. In doing so, he became the youngest player in MLS history to score a goal.
In his first season as a pro, Adu finished the year with five goals and three assists, while playing in all 30 regular season games. Although briefly a starter, Adu was relegated to a substitute when D.C. United acquired central midfielder Christian Gómez mid-season, and it was in this role that he appeared in United 's MLS Cup victory. He played in three of four playoff games by D.C. United, assisting in one goal during that time.
Adu was criticized from a number of different angles in his first season as a professional. Some commentators have suggested that Adu was too young to be playing professionally and that he needed more time to develop mentally and physically amongst players his own age. In his second season, he was suspended for one game after he complained about his playing time in the media. During November 2006, Adu had a trial with English club Manchester United for a fortnight, but he was not able to gain a work permit and so could not play in any competitive games, and only trained with several players from the Manchester United academy during his two weeks. Continued development, especially of his defensive skills, helped Adu become a starting midfielder during the 2006 season. In addition, Adu had been chosen to take spot kicks during D.C. United 's two penalty shootouts -- scoring on both attempts. He was selected to the MLS All - Star team twice, once as a commissioner 's choice and once as the coach 's. He was selected to the MLS 2006 semifinals Best XI by Soccer America magazine. In 2005, he was nominated for FIFPRO Young player of the year.
On December 11, 2006, D.C. United traded Adu and goalkeeper Nick Rimando to Real Salt Lake in exchange for a major allocation, goalkeeper Jay Nolly, and future considerations. Adu made his debut for Real Salt Lake on April 7, 2007, playing the full 90 minutes in a 2 -- 2 draw with FC Dallas. He scored his first goal for the club on May 20, 2007, converting a penalty kick in the 68th minute of a 2 -- 1 loss to FC Dallas. Adu went on to score his second goal with Salt Lake from another penalty in a 1 -- 1 draw in an exhibition against Boca Juniors. Adu was also captain of the U-20 United States men 's national team in the 2007 FIFA U-20 World Cup, where he made an impressive showing. After the conclusion of that tournament, Benfica of the Portuguese Liga secured Adu 's rights from MLS for a transfer fee of $2 million.
On July 28, 2007, Adu opted out of playing for Real in their regular - season match, and later that day, boarded a plane to Portugal to negotiate with Benfica. On July 30, Benfica issued an official statement announcing that Adu had been transferred to their club. The following day, the signing was completed and he trained with the team in Lisbon. Adu cost Benfica US $2 million. On August 14, 2007, Adu made his debut with Benfica against Copenhagen in a UEFA Champions League qualifying match, coming into the game in the 37th minute as a substitute.
In July 2008, Adu joined French club AS Monaco on a season - long loan, with an option to join the Ligue 1 club permanently at the end of the deal, an option that was eventually declined by Monaco. In July 2009, after participating in the Gold Cup game against Honduras, he returned to Benfica for training.
Adu was loaned to Portuguese club Belenenses for the 2009 -- 10 season. On October 13, Adu made his first league start in Portugal, a 1 -- 0 loss to Nacional. Adu was injured just before half time, and was substituted. In December 2009 Adu 's season long loan was cut short.
Adu signed a 12 - month loan deal with Greek side Aris in January 2010, joining fellow USA international Eddie Johnson. Assigned squad number 11, Adu made his debut on January 31 and assisted a 90th - minute goal by Johnson. He scored his first goal on February 14 against Ergotelis.
On February 1, 2011, Adu moved to Turkish Second Division side Çaykur Rizespor on what was his fourth loan deal away from Benfica. Adu made his debut for his new club on February 20. He set up teammates Mithat Yaşar and Gökhan Kaba with goals in a 3 -- 0 win over Orduspor and was named Man of the Match. Two weeks later, on March 6, Adu scored his first goal for his new club in a 1 -- 0 win over Gaziantep Büyükşehir Belediyespor.
In August 2011, Adu returned to Major League Soccer, signing with Philadelphia Union, reuniting him with former D.C. United and United States national U-23 coach Piotr Nowak. Though terms were not disclosed, as per club policy, it was stated that he was not a designated player. Adu debuted for Philadelphia Union on August 13 in a match against FC Dallas and scored his first goal for the club on September 7, 2011 against New England Revolution.
On April 5, 2013, Adu joined Bahia of Brazil. The deal also saw Kléberson move in the opposite direction. He was released by the club on November 7, 2013.
After his release from Bahia he started a succession of unsuccessful trials around Europe. In February 2014, Adu began training with Blackpool. However, at the end of February they decided against offering Adu a contract, though they gave permission for him to continue training with club to aid his fitness. In June 2014, Adu began training with Norwegian club Stabæk, managed by former United States national team coach Bob Bradley. In July 2014, Adu joined Dutch club AZ Alkmaar on trial, but he did not convince the club to offer him a contract.
After a trial with AZ that ended without a contract, Adu signed with Serbian club FK Jagodina on July 24, 2014. On July 25, it was announced that Adu had signed a one - and - a-half year contract with Jagodina. Adu made his debut for Jagodina on September 24, 2014, coming on as a second - half substitute in a Serbian Cup match against FK BSK Borča. To date, this is his only first - team appearance for the club. Adu was released by Jagodina, who opted not to renew his six - month contract, on December 21, 2014.
Following Adu 's release from Jagodina, Adu was linked with a move to the Swedish Allsvenskan in February 2015.
On March 28, 2015, KuPS announced the signing of Adu on a one - year contract, subject to passing a medical. Adu also played some games for KuPS ' reserve team SC Kufu in the Finnish third division. On July 7 of the same year Adu exercised an option in his contract to terminate it.
On July 14, 2015, Tampa Bay Rowdies of the North American Soccer League announced the signing of Adu. Contract details of the signing were not disclosed. It is his 12th professional club.
Prior to the 2017 MLS season, Adu went on trial with the Portland Timbers but was not offered a contract. Adu then went on trial with newly promoted Polish Ekstraklasa side Sandecja Nowy Sącz in August 2017.
Adu joined the expansion Las Vegas Lights FC on a trial basis prior to the 2018 season. Adu was not selected for either of the team 's first two preseason matches. He was selected for the third and final preseason match against his former club D.C. United, playing 30 minutes and notching an assist -- the first assist recorded in club history and his first in nearly three years -- in a 4 - 2 defeat. On March 15, 2018, Las Vegas added Adu to the regular season roster.
Adu played for the United States in five international youth tournaments: the 2003 FIFA U-17 World Championship in Finland, the 2003 FIFA World Youth Championship in the United Arab Emirates, the 2005 FIFA World Youth Championship in the Netherlands, the 2007 FIFA U-20 World Cup in Canada, and the 2008 Summer Olympics.
Adu captained the United States U-20 men 's national team in January 2007 as it qualified for the 2007 FIFA U-20 World Cup in Canada. By playing in the 2007 tournament finals, held from June to July, Adu became only the second player in the world to play in three FIFA U-20 World Cups. On July 3, 2007, Adu scored a hat - trick in U.S. 's 6 -- 1 victory over Poland in the group stage of the tournament. This accomplishment made him the first player to ever score a hat trick in both the U-20 and U-17 World Cups. In the following 2 -- 1 victory over Brazil Adu assisted on both USA goals by Jozy Altidore.
Adu helped lead the U-23 men 's national team in its campaign to qualify for the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing, China. He scored two goals from free kicks in the U.S. 's 3 -- 0 win over Canada in the semifinals of the tournament, which ultimately qualified them for the Olympics along with Honduras. He scored four goals in total in the three games in which he played, leading all players in scoring, and was selected to the tournament Best XI.
Adu was named to the 18 - man squad that represented the United States in the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing. Adu played in the first two games of group play against Japan and Netherlands. He assisted on a Sacha Kljestan goal in the Netherlands match, but he, as well as teammate Michael Bradley, was then suspended for the final game of group play against Nigeria after each player earned his second yellow card of group play late in the Netherlands match. The US team was eliminated from the Olympics after falling to Nigeria.
Adu was recruited early in his career by the Ghanaian national team. Although he was open to playing for Ghana, he ultimately decided against it.
Adu was called into the national team 's training camp by coach Bruce Arena in January 2006 for a friendly match against Canada. Adu was capped in that game on January 22 (at 16 years and 234 days), becoming the youngest player to debut with the U.S. national team when he replaced an injured Eddie Johnson in the 81st minute at Torero Stadium in San Diego, California.
Adu made his first start for the senior international team in a friendly against South Africa on November 17, 2007.
Adu played in both legs of the 2nd round qualifiers for the 2010 World Cup against Barbados on June 8 and 22, 2008, starting in the latter. He provided the assist on Eddie Lewis ' goal, the lone goal in the 2nd leg of the United States 1 -- 0 victory (9 -- 0 aggregate) in Barbados.
Adu scored his first international goal (at 19 years and 170 days) as a member of the full U.S. national squad from a free kick in a November 19, 2008, World Cup qualifier against Guatemala.
Despite a two - year absence from the national team due to his increasingly unstable club situation, Adu was a shock inclusion in the U.S. roster for the 2011 CONCACAF Gold Cup, making the team despite playing for a second division club. After having failed to make an appearance in the team 's friendly against Spain as well as the first four tournament matches, Adu was a surprise substitute in the semifinal against Panama, coming on in the second half of a scoreless draw for Juan Agudelo. It was Adu 's pass from mid-field that freed Landon Donovan on a counterattack, where he was able to cross the ball to Clint Dempsey for the winner. Adu started the following game, the 2011 CONCACAF Gold Cup final vs. Mexico. He had a hand in both of the U.S. goals as they lost 4 -- 2.
Adu dated American singer JoJo from May 2005 until September 2006. A Washington Post article in November 2006 reported that the couple split after one year. JoJo mentioned on American Top 40 with Ryan Seacrest that she and Adu were still good friends.
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what is the us military chain of command | Structure of the United States armed forces - wikipedia
The chain of command leads from the President (as commander - in - chief) through the Secretary of Defense down to the newest recruits. The United States armed forces are organized through the United States Department of Defense, which oversees a complex structure of joint command and control functions with many units reporting to various commanding officers. The following is an incomplete list of the various major military units, commands, and DOD offices and agencies, including civilian and military chains of command.
Joint Staff
Commander, USTRANSCOM: General Darren W. McDew, USAF
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first person to conduct heart transplantation in india | Panangipalli Venugopal - wikipedia
Panangipalli Venugopal is an Indian Cardiovascular surgeon and hospital administrator from Rajahmundry, Andhra Pradesh, India who is widely regarded as a pioneer in cardiac surgery. The Government of India honored him, in 1998, with the Padma Bhushan, the third highest civilian award, for his services to the field of Medicine.
Venogopal was born at Rajahmundry in the South Indian state of Andhra Pradesh, on 6 July 1942. He enrolled at the All India Institute of Medical Sciences (AIIMS), New Delhi, in 1959 to secure his MBBS and continued his higher education at the institute itself. His first post graduate degree was the Master of Surgery (MS) which was followed by MCh in cardiovascular thoracic surgery, which he passed with honors.
In 1970 - 71, subsequent to his specialization, he joined the Faculty of AIIMS. the major part of his career was spent at AIIMS where he rose progressively, serving as the professor, the Head of the Department and then the Dean, before reaching the post of the Director, the highest academic position on offer at AIIMS, on 1 July 2003.
Soon after joining AIIMS, Venugopal participated in two advanced training programs, an adult Open Heart Surgery training under Denton Cooley at the Texas Heart Institute and paediatric open heart surgery under S. Subramanian, at the Children 's Hospital, Buffalo, New York following which he launched the open heart surgery clinic at AIIMS, under the guidance of Professor N. Gopinath, in 1974. This was followed by the establishment of the Cardiothoracic Sciences Centre, where he performed the first heart transplantation in India on 3 August 1994 and, later, for the first time in Asia, the implantation of the Left Ventricular Assist Device
After retirement from AIIMS, Venugopal, moved to the Alchemist Institute of Medical Sciences, in Gurgaon, Haryana as the head of the Cardithoracic department. He got married at the age of 55 and has a daughter.
Venugopal has pioneered heart transplant surgery in India, having performed the first successful heart transplant in the country, the count now standing at 26 transplants. He performed the first implantation of left ventricular assist device, lasting for more than 90 days, in Asia. He introduced the stem cell therapy, for the first time in India, by the deployment of autologous stem cell implantation for repairing the myocardium as an alternative to transplantation, which he did on 26 patients. He pioneered the stem cell implantation procedure in pancreas for the treatment of Type II Diabetes. On the prolificacy of Venugopal, media reports are in general agreement of his involvement in the performance of over 50,000 open heart and 12,000 closed heart surgeries. He has been a recognized trainer, too, with more than 100 cardio - thoracic surgeons around the world, trained under him.
On the administrative front, he, along with N. Gopinath, started the open heart surgery in AIIMS. He was also behind the setting up of the Cardiothoracic Sciences Centre, which later became the venue of the first hear transplant surgery in India and the first Left Ventricular Assist Device implantation in Asia. The centre now handles around 3500 open heart surgical procedures annually.
The Organ Transplant Bill 1994 was passed in the Indian Parliament in May 1994 which legalized the organ transplants in India. The Bill was on the Table of the President of India for final approval when Venugopal led a team of doctors to perform the first successful heart transplant in India on 3 August 1994. This was the first of the 26 heart transplant procedures performed by Venugopal.
In the fag end of 2005 and at the beginning of 2006, about 200 faculty members, including 25 department heads, of AIIMS submitted their disapproval of Venugopal 's way of functioning to the Union Minister of Health and Family Welfare of the Government of India. The protest intensified when, a batch of students marched to the office of the Director, resulting in the suspension of 6 of them, an act which had no precedent in the Institute. The main argument of the faculty and the students that the hike in charges implemented by the Director went against the mandate of AIIMS.
Further, the grouse of the faculty was also aimed at the appointment of Venugopal, at the age of 61 and already past the retirement age, as the Director of the institute, with a clause to retain him for the next 5 years and until further orders. The move was reported to have shut out the chances of 6 senior faculty members. They were also against the Director holding two posts of the Head of the Cardiovascular Sciences Centre and the Head of Cardothoracic and Vascular Surgery as the posts required full - time attention. On 29 November 2007, Professor venugopal was removed in favor of Prof. TD Dogra, an authority on Forensic Medicine., by an order from the Union Minister of Health and Family Welfare, Anbumani Ramadoss, the reason reported to be Venugopal 's open criticism of the Union Government. The Health and Family Welfare ministry, it was reported, was not happy with Venugopal 's handling of the quota issue where the Government planned to reserve 50 per cent of the university seats for the socially under - privileged, a move Venugopal was said to have countered using student sentiments. He moved to the Supreme Court and was reinstated for a period 45 days in summer vacation of 2008 before his retirement.
The Ministry had appointed M.S. Valiathan, the noted cardiothoracic surgeon, to report on the functioning of AIIMS and make recommendations on improvements. Venugopal was reported to be unhappy about the Ministry 's intervention in the functioning of AIIMS and contested the termination at the Supreme Court of India, by way of a writ petition, on which the Court passed an interim order on 7 July 2006, staying the termination, till the validity of the decision was assessed. After a protracted legal battle, the Supreme Court, reinstated Venugopal, on 8 April 2008., terming the Government act as malafide and unconstitutional.
Academic recognitions
Social recognitions
^ https://www.firstpost.com/india/keep-the-student-in-you-alive-says-pm-modi-at-aiims-convocation-1765779.html
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who does the voice of hiccup on how to train your dragon | Jay Baruchel - Wikipedia
Jonathan Adam Saunders Baruchel (/ ˈbæruːʃɛl /; born April 9, 1982) is a Canadian actor, screenwriter, model, director, and producer. He played Josh Greenberg in the FXX comedy television series Man Seeking Woman and played the lead character in Judd Apatow 's comedy series, Undeclared. He is known for his voice role as Hiccup Horrendous Haddock III in the How to Train Your Dragon franchise, and for his roles in comedy movies such as Knocked Up, Tropic Thunder, Fanboys, She 's Out of My League, Goon, This Is the End and The Sorcerer 's Apprentice.
Baruchel was born in Ottawa, Ontario, the son of Robyne (née Ropell), a freelance writer, and Serge Baruchel, an antiques dealer. He grew up in the Notre - Dame - de-Grâce neighbourhood of Montreal, Quebec, and has a younger sister, Taylor. His paternal grandfather was a Sephardic Jew, while his three other grandparents were from a Christian background (of French, Irish, and German descent).
One of his first major acting roles was on local television series My Hometown in 1996. From 1997 to 1998, he co-hosted Popular Mechanics for Kids with Elisha Cuthbert. After appearing briefly in Cameron Crowe 's Oscar - winning Almost Famous, Baruchel won the role of Steven Karp on Judd Apatow 's acclaimed yet short - lived television series Undeclared, where he starred alongside Seth Rogen, Carla Gallo, Charlie Hunnam and Monica Keena. He then appeared with James Van Der Beek in Roger Avary 's The Rules of Attraction.
In 2004, Baruchel played boxing hopeful Danger Barch in Clint Eastwood 's Million Dollar Baby. Baruchel then starred in Nemesis Game and Fetching Cody, before appearing opposite Don Johnson on the WB 's Just Legal in 2005, and guest - starring on the CBS drama Numb3rs in 2006.
Baruchel appeared in the films Knocked Up (which reunited him with Judd Apatow, Jason Segel, and Seth Rogen), I 'm Reed Fish, Just Buried, and the Ben Stiller - directed Tropic Thunder, alongside Jack Black, Nick Nolte, Steve Coogan and Robert Downey, Jr. He co-starred with Seth Rogen in the 2007 trailer for Jay and Seth vs. The Apocalypse, created by Rogen and Evan Goldberg as a strategy to garner interest and funding for a similar, larger - scale project (later made in 2013 as This Is the End). In 2008, he appeared in Nick and Norah 's Infinite Playlist. He also made a brief appearance in Night at the Museum 2: Battle of the Smithsonian.
In 2010, Baruchel starred in the films The Trotsky, DreamWorks ' She 's Out of My League (opposite Alice Eve), and the live - action Disney adaptation of The Sorcerer 's Apprentice. He also voiced the starring role in the acclaimed animated feature, How to Train Your Dragon, a role he has subsequently continued throughout the franchise, including its television series. Also in 2010, he played two supporting characters in the Canadian comedy series The Drunk and On Drugs Happy Fun Time Hour. He developed the screenplay for Goon, with Evan Goldberg, playing Johnny Klutz, a character of his own creation. Goon co-stars Seann William Scott and fellow Canadian actor, Eugene Levy. Baruchel will also star in and direct the comedy / horror / slasher film Pig.
Baruchel also appeared in the 2010 Adidas Originals ad campaign, "Cantina '', in conjunction with the FIFA World Cup and in video clips for Canadian prog - rockers Rush 's 2012 -- 13 Clockwork Angels tour.
In July 2012, he appeared in the music video for the song "Toxsik Waltz '' by rapper Necro. In the summer of 2013, he starred in the hit apocalyptic comedy This Is the End and in 2014, he appeared in the RoboCop remake and reprised his role as Hiccup in How to Train Your Dragon 2.
Baruchel wrote directed and starred in the 2017 sports comedy film Goon: Last of the Enforcers, the sequel to the 2011 film Goon.
In July 2014, it was announced that Baruchel would be starring in the FXX comedy Man Seeking Woman which premiered in January 2015.
Baruchel is an investor in and a writer for the Canadian comic publisher Chapterhouse Comics. He helps write the series Captain Canuck.
Baruchel has said that he is "probably agnostic ''.
Baruchel was previously engaged to actress Alison Pill from 2011 to 2013. He alluded to their break - up in a Twitter posting on February 16, 2013.
Baruchel has several tattoos: a Celtic cross (on his upper right arm) to honour his Irish heritage, his mother 's maiden name (on his forearm) and a red Maple Leaf on his left pectoral (which can be seen in Fanboys, Knocked Up, Tropic Thunder and This Is the End).
Baruchel is also an avid fan of Celtic F.C. and the Montreal Canadiens. He appeared in the 2015 music video for the song "Every Little Means Trust '' by Idlewild.
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the best explanation for the shape of a short run marginal cost schedule is | Cost curve - wikipedia
In economics, a cost curve is a graph of the costs of production as a function of total quantity produced. In a free market economy, productively efficient firms use these curves to find the optimal point of production (minimizing cost), and profit maximizing firms can use them to decide output quantities to achieve those aims. There are various types of cost curves, all related to each other, including total and average cost curves, and marginal ("for each additional unit '') cost curves, which are equal to the differential of the total cost curves. Some are applicable to the short run, others to the long run.
Average variable cost (which is a short - run concept) is the variable cost (typically labor cost) per unit of output: SRAVC = wL / Q where w is the wage rate, L is the quantity of labor used, and Q is the quantity of output produced. The SRAVC curve plots the short - run average variable cost against the level of output and is typically drawn as U-shaped. However, whilst this is convenient for economic theory, it bears little relationship to the real world. Estimates show that, at least for manufacturing, the proportion of firms reporting a U-shaped cost curve is in the range of 5 to 11 percent.
The average total cost curve is constructed to capture the relation between cost per unit of output and the level of output, ceteris paribus. A perfectly competitive and productively efficient firm organizes its factors of production in such a way that the factors of production is at the lowest point. In the short run, when at least one factor of production is fixed, this occurs at the output level where it has enjoyed all possible average cost gains from increasing production. This is at the minimum point in the diagram on the right.
Short - run total cost is given by
S T C = P K. K + P L. L (\ displaystyle STC = P_ (K). K + P_ (L). L),
where P is the unit price of using physical capital per unit time, P is the unit price of labor per unit time (the wage rate), K is the quantity of physical capital used, and L is the quantity of labor used. From this we obtain short - run average cost, denoted either SATC or SAC, as STC / Q:
where AP = Q / K is the average product of capital and AP = Q / L is the average product of labor.
Within the graph shown in the figure, The Marginal cost curve, Average Fixed Cost curve and Average Variable cost curve can not start with zero as at quantity zero, these values are not defined.
Short run average cost equals average fixed costs plus average variable costs. Average fixed cost continuously falls as production increases in the short run, because K is fixed in the short run. The shape of the average variable cost curve is directly determined by increasing and then diminishing marginal returns to the variable input (conventionally labor).
A short - run marginal cost curve graphically represents the relation between marginal (i.e., incremental) cost incurred by a firm in the short - run production of a good or service and the quantity of output produced. This curve is constructed to capture the relation between marginal cost and the level of output, holding other variables, like technology and resource prices, constant. The marginal cost curve is usually U-shaped. Marginal cost is relatively high at small quantities of output; then as production increases, marginal cost declines, reaches a minimum value, then rises. The marginal cost is shown in relation to marginal revenue (MR), the incremental amount of sales revenue that an additional unit of the product or service will bring to the firm. This shape of the marginal cost curve is directly attributable to increasing, then decreasing marginal returns (and the law of diminishing marginal returns). Marginal cost equals w / MP. For most production processes the marginal product of labor initially rises, reaches a maximum value and then continuously falls as production increases. Thus marginal cost initially falls, reaches a minimum value and then increases. The marginal cost curve intersects both the average variable cost curve and (short - run) average total cost curve at their minimum points. When the marginal cost curve is above an average cost curve the average curve is rising. When the marginal costs curve is below an average curve the average curve is falling. This relation holds regardless of whether the marginal curve is rising or falling.
The long - run marginal cost curve shows for each unit of output the added total cost incurred in the long run, that is, the conceptual period when all factors of production are variable so as minimize long - run average total cost. Stated otherwise, LRMC is the minimum increase in total cost associated with an increase of one unit of output when all inputs are variable.
The long - run marginal cost curve is shaped by returns to scale, a long - run concept, rather than the law of diminishing marginal returns, which is a short - run concept. The long - run marginal cost curve tends to be flatter than its short - run counterpart due to increased input flexibility as to cost minimization. The long - run marginal cost curve intersects the long - run average cost curve at the minimum point of the latter. When long - run marginal costs are below long - run average costs, long - run average costs are falling (as to additional units of output). When long - run marginal costs are above long run average costs, average costs are rising. Long - run marginal cost equals short run marginal - cost at the least - long - run - average - cost level of production. LRMC is the slope of the LR total - cost function.
Cost curves can be combined to provide information about firms. In this diagram for example, firms are assumed to be in a perfectly competitive market. In a perfectly competitive market the price that firms are faced with would be the price at which the marginal cost curve cuts the average cost curve.
Assuming that factor prices are constant, the production function determines all cost functions. The variable cost curve is the inverted short - run production function or total product curve and its behavior and properties are determined by the production function. Because the production function determines the variable cost function it necessarily determines the shape and properties of marginal cost curve and the average cost curves.
If the firm is a perfect competitor in all input markets, and thus the per - unit prices of all its inputs are unaffected by how much of the inputs the firm purchases, then it can be shown that at a particular level of output, the firm has economies of scale (i.e., is operating in a downward sloping region of the long - run average cost curve) if and only if it has increasing returns to scale. Likewise, it has diseconomies of scale (is operating in an upward sloping region of the long - run average cost curve) if and only if it has decreasing returns to scale, and has neither economies nor diseconomies of scale if it has constant returns to scale. In this case, with perfect competition in the output market the long - run market equilibrium will involve all firms operating at the minimum point of their long - run average cost curves (i.e., at the borderline between economies and diseconomies of scale).
If, however, the firm is not a perfect competitor in the input markets, then the above conclusions are modified. For example, if there are increasing returns to scale in some range of output levels, but the firm is so big in one or more input markets that increasing its purchases of an input drives up the input 's per - unit cost, then the firm could have diseconomies of scale in that range of output levels. Conversely, if the firm is able to get bulk discounts of an input, then it could have economies of scale in some range of output levels even if it has decreasing returns in production in that output range.
Basic: For each quantity of output there is one cost minimizing level of capital and a unique short run average cost curve associated with producing the given quantity.
These statements assume that the firm is using the optimal level of capital for the quantity produced. If not, then the SRAC curve would lie "wholly above '' the LRAC and would not be tangent at any point.
Both the SRAC and LRAC curves are typically expressed as U-shaped. However, the shapes of the curves are not due to the same factors. For the short run curve the initial downward slope is largely due to declining average fixed costs. Increasing returns to the variable input at low levels of production also play a role, while the upward slope is due to diminishing marginal returns to the variable input. With the long run curve the shape by definition reflects economies and diseconomies of scale. At low levels of production long run production functions generally exhibit increasing returns to scale, which, for firms that are perfect competitors in input markets, means that the long run average cost is falling; the upward slope of the long run average cost function at higher levels of output is due to decreasing returns to scale at those output levels.
Evidence shows that cost curves are not typically U-shaped. In a survey by Wilford J. Eiteman and Glenn E. Guthrie in 1952 managers of 334 companies were shown a number of different cost curves, and asked to specify which one best represented the company 's cost curve. 95 % of managers responding to the survey reported cost curves with constant or falling costs.
Alan Blinder, former vice president of the American Economics Association, conducted the same type of survey in 1998, which involved 200 US firms in a sample that should be representative of the US economy at large. He found that about 40 % of firms reported falling variable or marginal cost, and 48.4 % reported constant marginal / variable cost.
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who played mr. carlson on wkrp in cincinnati | Arthur Carlson - Wikipedia
Arthur Carlson, aka "The Big Guy '' is a fictional character on the television situation comedy WKRP in Cincinnati (1978 -- 82), the general manager of the low - rated Cincinnati radio station WKRP. The character was also a regular on the "revival '' series, The New WKRP in Cincinnati (1991 -- 93), still working as general manager of WKRP. He was played by Gordon Jump in both shows.
Mr. Carlson is a well - meaning, bumbling, childlike man who is completely out of touch with the changes that have occurred in the radio and music business. He keeps his job as general manager of WKRP only because his mother, Lillian Carlson, better known as "Mama Carlson '', owns the station. Unbeknownst to him, his mother has set up WKRP as a tax write - off that is intended to lose money, and she keeps him at the station not because she wants him to succeed but because she expects him to fail.
Flashbacks in the episode "Bah, Humbug '' reveal that Mr. Carlson joined WKRP as sales manager in the early 1950s. When his mother fired the previous station manager for being too generous to the employees, Arthur got his job. With the rise of rock n ' roll music, WKRP 's "beautiful music '' format became outdated and a sure money - loser, appealing only to senior citizens.
In the pilot of WKRP, the new program director, Andy Travis, convinces Mr. Carlson that switching the format to rock n ' roll might make the station successful and profitable; Mr. Carlson, who wants desperately to prove to his mother that he can be a success, goes along with the change and even gets the nerve to defend Andy 's changes to his mother. Only when Arthur shows that much backbone does his mother relent and keep to the format change.
Though he accepts the format change, Mr. Carlson is not a fan of rock n ' roll music (though he does admit to Andy that he likes Crosby, Stills and Nash), and frequently does not even listen to his own station because he does n't enjoy the songs or the modern, with - it styles of the disc jockeys. As the series goes on, however, Mr. Carlson becomes more accepting of the format and the changing cultural trends. In the episode "In Concert, '' after eleven kids are trampled to death at a concert by The Who (based on a real - life incident that happened in Cincinnati in 1979), the staff fears that Mr. Carlson, who feels guilty about having helped to promote the concert, will change their format back to "elevator music. '' But Mr. Carlson, who was at the concert and actually found himself enjoying the music (before he learned what happened), understands that the stadium 's first - come, first - served seating was to blame for the tragedy, and not the band or the music. "We 're a rock n ' roll station, '' he declares, "and we 're going to stay a rock n ' roll station. ''
Because Mr. Carlson does n't know much about the music or about business, he spends most of his time sleeping or playing with various toys he keeps in his office: model trains, a miniature basketball and hoop, or toy soldiers. He defends this practice by saying "I 'm not a child -- I 'm a hobbyist. '' He is also an avid fisherman, keeping several rods and reels in his office at all times and speaking eloquently of the joys of hooking a fish and then throwing it back.
Mr. Carlson has trouble dealing with people, especially with saying "no ''; he will buy anything from a salesman (WKRP sales manager Herb Tarlek once sold him an insurance policy) and tends to whimper when someone yells at him. To protect him from the outside world, he depends on his receptionist, Jennifer Marlowe, whose main job is keeping people away from her boss by any means necessary, including telling them that he 's dead. Marlowe and Carlson have an agreement: she does n't take memos and she does n't serve coffee. ("Turkeys Away '')
Despite these foibles, Mr. Carlson has a very strong sense of right and wrong, and at times, stands up for what he believes in and can even be confrontational. This is revealed in an episode where a sleazy photographer (George Wyner) snaps nude pictures of Jennifer as she is changing in another room following a cheesecake photo shoot with Andy Travis. When Carlson finds the pictures in the photographer 's studio, he grabs the photographer by his shirt and threatens a lawsuit. In another episode, he gently but firmly supports Andy 's decision to fire a new disc jockey replacing Johnny Fever, after it is proven that the DJ (Philip Charles MacKenzie) is being paid with cocaine under a payola plan with a record producer.
Some episodes, particularly in the first season, show Mr. Carlson feeling left out at the station and wanting to prove that he, too, can come up with good ideas to make WKRP more successful. The most famous such attempt is chronicled in "Turkeys Away, '' where Mr. Carlson tries to become actively involved in every aspect of running the station, driving the employees crazy with incessant suggestions. He then comes up with what he describes as a brilliant idea for a Thanksgiving promotion, but, distrustful of Andy and the other "casually dressed '' employees, he wo n't tell anyone what the promotion is, except the obsequious Herb. On the day of the promotion, with news director Les Nessman covering it live, the WKRP staff discovers that Mr. Carlson and Herb are throwing live turkeys out of a helicopter, which promptly plummet to their deaths. When Mr. Carlson returns, covered with feathers, he admits: "As God is my witness, I thought turkeys could fly. '' (Carlson had released the remaining turkeys on the ground which promptly attacked Carlson and Herb - hence their being covered in feathers) Despite the fiasco, the employees realize that they need to make Mr. Carlson feel more respected and wanted at the station. This was not the only Carlson sales idea fiasco; according to Johnny Fever, Carlson once tried to sell 3,000 blonde Dolly Parton wigs on the air; when that failed, Carlson donated them to the Red Cross for earthquake victims! ("Turkeys Away '')
Being generally a straightforward, uncomplicated kind of person, Mr. Carlson sometimes acts as a father figure to members of his staff. By using a low - key, friendly approach, he helps Herb face up to his alcoholism problems, and in the episode "Who is Gordon Sims '', he assists Venus in coming to terms with his past as an Army deserter (albeit with mixed feelings, as Mr. Carlson himself had served in the Marine Corps and is initially very taken aback at hearing of Venus ' desertion).
Although genial and rather bumbling, Mr. Carlson does display a quick wit at times. In the episode "Changes '', after overhearing Venus and Johnny Fever discuss Venus ' racial identity concerns in the station 's record library, Mr. Carlson offers some advice to Venus. When Johnny then asks him what he was doing hanging out in the record library in the first place, Carlson replies, deadpan, that he was "looking for old Guy Lombardo records and smoking dope. ''
Arthur Carlson comes from a successful family of Cincinnati business people. Arthur 's grandfather, who is seen in one episode in a dream (also played by Gordon Jump), was a miserly businessman who built up Carlson Industries. He left it to Arthur 's father, Hank, a sweet - natured man who was more interested in having a good time than running the business. Hank married Lillian, a former actress in Broadway musicals, who soon proved to have a talent for business and took the family business more seriously than Hank did. Eventually Lillian took over the corporation entirely, and Hank died soon after. Because his father died when he was very young, Arthur Carlson was raised mostly by his mother and by her sarcastic butler, Hirsch (Ian Wolfe). Mr. Carlson served in the Marine Corps as an officer, presumably during the Korean War, however, this is never explicitly stated; he also makes reference to being at Guadalcanal, as well as learning some Japanese, which may be a vague indication that he served during World War II instead. He is explicitly referenced as being 48 in an episode aired in 1979, giving him a birth year of 1931 (or possibly 1930) making Korea a much more likely. At some point he saw combat, a fact he confirmed to Venus Flytrap.
Mama Carlson has never shown Arthur any open signs of affection, and constantly puts him down: when he tries to hug her, she pushes him aside and says "keep away from me! '' She admits to Andy Travis that she "pushed and bullied '' her son this way because she was trying to make him tough and self - sufficient, like her; instead, by her own admission, the tactic backfired, making him even more weak - willed than his father.
He is married to Carmen (Allyn Ann McLerie), a sweet - natured woman who is almost as shy as he is: though they are happily married, their main problem is that they are so anxious to avoid hurting each other 's feelings that they rarely tell each other what they really think. They have a son, Arthur Jr., whom they sent off to military school on Mama Carlson 's advice; this proved to be a mistake when it turns "Little Arthur '' into a nasty, racist, borderline fascist. In the first season, Mr. Carlson takes his son out of military school, to live with his parents and go to public school, but later references suggest that Little Arthur gets worse, not better; in one episode, it is revealed that Little Arthur wants to join the American branch of the Nazi Party, and in another it 's stated that he wants to join the PLO. During the course of the series, Carmen has a surprise pregnancy and, after she and Arthur decide they want the baby, she gives birth to a daughter, whom she and Arthur hope they can raise their own way, without the mistakes they made with their son. The girl 's name is later revealed to be Melanie in a subsequent episode.
In the episode "A Simple Little Wedding '', it is revealed that Arthur and Carmen have been married for 25 years, and that they eloped when Mama Carlson began taking control of their wedding. When they decide to renew their vows and have a small wedding ceremony (after a humorous aside when Jennifer and Bailey together seductively tell Mr. Carlson that he should "play the field '' first), Mama Carlson initially agrees to remain in the background. When Mama Carlson 's characteristic need to control asserts itself again, Arthur and Carmen decide to elope again for the second time.
Though Mr. Carlson pays the sexy Jennifer the highest salary of any employee at the station, there is never anything improper about their relationship. He relies on Jennifer to give him the kind of support he never got from his own mother. He also knows that Jennifer, despite her apparent self - reliance, really cares about him and, in her own way, depends on him too: "You need me to need you, '' he tells Jennifer in one episode. Carmen is friendly with Jennifer and shows no jealousy or suspicions of her.
Aside from Jennifer, Carlson also relies heavily on Andy Travis. Although their initial meeting was rocky (Carlson did n't remember hiring Andy over the phone, and then tried to fire him after the station 's format change to rock and roll), Carlson often turns to Andy for advice (such as when he decided to turn down a funeral home 's business because he found their advertising campaign to be tasteless) and often stands behind Andy when Andy 's required to make tough decisions (such as firing a DJ who was taking payola from a record company).
Mr. Carlson is tempted once in the course of the series, by his first receptionist, Joyce Armour (Rosemary Forsyth). When Joyce stops by to recruit WKRP 's business for her rep firm, she takes Carlson out for drinks and then asks him to come see her at her hotel room. A nervous Carlson initially thinks Joyce is coming on to him and so brushes her off, but eventually decides to visit her. After a couple of drinks, and some confused conversation, Joyce explains to Carlson that she was simply trying to drum up some business for her firm, and never intended to mislead him. Carlson replied that she did n't, it was merely his usual misinterpreting of a situation. Joyce then tells Carlson that she was flattered he was attracted to her, stating "If you were n't married I 'd camp on your doorstep, '' to which Carlson replied before departing, "If I was n't married, you would n't be camping very long. ''
Mr. Carlson is a Republican; he belongs to the local Kiwanis Club as well as the Rotary Club, attends church every Sunday, and teaches Sunday School. He also drives a Dodge (at a time when Chrysler was teetering on the brink of bankruptcy). In the episode "Clean Up Radio Everywhere, '' his socially conservative leanings cause him to befriend the Reverend Dr. Bob Halyers, the Jerry Falwell-esque leader of an organization dedicated to purging "obscene '' songs from the airwaves. Shocked at reading some of the sexually suggestive lyrics that are being played on his station, Mr. Carlson orders his employees to follow Halyers ' suggestions and not play those songs. But when Halyers delivers another list of songs to ban (including songs WKRP has n't played yet), Mr. Carlson defies Halyers and refuses to co-operate with him anymore, leading to a boycott of WKRP 's sponsors. In the closing scene of the episode, Mr. Carlson reaffirms that he likes Halyers personally, but that he wo n't submit to censorship, and he warns Halyers that anyone who would be cowardly enough to co-operate with him is bound to change his tune when the political winds shift. Carlson 's religious views are also brought forward in the episode "God Talks to Johnny ''; when Johnny believes that God is speaking to him and starts to go a little crazy, Carlson helps Johnny regain a sense of normalcy by telling him that it 's all right if he thinks God is speaking to him, as long as God does n't tell him to "get naked and hang out at the airport ''.
According to Jay Sandrich, director of the WKRP pilot, MTM Enterprises originally wanted Roddy McDowall to play Mr. Carlson. When McDowall was unavailable, Sandrich recommended Jump, who had just played a memorable role for Sandrich as the bumbling Police Chief Tinkler on the show Soap.
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who does robin end up with in how i met your mother | The Mother (How I Met Your Mother) - wikipedia
Tracy McConnell (colloquial: "The Mother '') is the title character from the CBS television sitcom How I Met Your Mother. The show, narrated by Future Ted (Bob Saget), tells the story of how Ted Mosby (Josh Radnor) met The Mother. Tracy McConnell appears in eight episodes, from "Lucky Penny '' to "The Time Travelers '', as an unseen character; she was first seen fully in "Something New '' and was promoted to a main character in season 9. The Mother is played by Cristin Milioti.
The story of how Ted met The Mother is the framing device behind the series; many facts about her are revealed throughout the series, including the fact that Ted once unwittingly owned her umbrella before accidentally leaving it behind in her apartment. Ted and The Mother meet at the Farhampton train station following Barney Stinson (Neil Patrick Harris) and Robin Scherbatsky 's (Cobie Smulders) wedding; this scene is shown in "Last Forever '', the series finale. The Mother 's death from an unspecified terminal illness in 2024, also revealed in the series finale, received a mixed reaction from fans.
An alternate ending was released in the ninth season DVD. In the alternate ending, Tracy Mosby is still living when Ted is telling the story in 2030. In the video, Future Ted is heard saying, "... When I think how lucky I am to wake up next to your mom every morning, I ca n't help but be amazed how easy it all really was... '', indirectly stating that The Mother is alive. The video ends right after the train passes at Farhampton station and credits start rolling, implying that Ted never went back to Robin and went on to have a long, happy marriage with Tracy.
During its first eight seasons, the successful sitcom How I Met Your Mother often hinted at the unseen character of The Mother. Well - known actresses often made guest appearances on the show. Many fans expected that another would play one of the most - wanted roles in Hollywood, but creators Carter Bays and Craig Thomas wanted an unknown. Using Anne Hathaway and Amy Adams as examples, Thomas said that "We did n't want it to be a big famous star because we did n't want the wider audience to have associations with whatever actress this would be... The whole idea is that Ted 's never seen this woman before, so it better feel that way to the audience '', similar to how Cobie Smulders being cast as Robin Scherbatsky had "kept the show alive '' when it began. Bays and Thomas also did not want a large casting call.
They chose Cristin Milioti after seeing her on 30 Rock and Once; her musical ability was also helpful, as The Mother had been described as a band member. After competing for the role against at least two others, Milioti filmed her first scene -- for the last episode of season 8 -- having never watched How I Met Your Mother; she recalled, "I had ignorance on my side. So I did n't know what it meant. '' Milioti learned of the character 's importance only after binge watching the show during the summer.
The Mother was born on September 19, 1984.
The Mother, joined by her roommate Kelly (Ahna O'Reilly), awaits the arrival of her boyfriend Max, only to receive a call informing her of his death. After the funeral service, she returns to the apartment to open Max 's last gift to her -- a ukulele. The Mother spends the next few years grieving the passing of the man she believes was her one true love.
In "Wait for It '', it is revealed that the short story of how they met involved her yellow umbrella. In "No Tomorrow '', Ted finds the umbrella at a club and takes it home after attending a St. Patrick 's Day party which she also attended, as it had been two and a half years since Max 's death. She is still grieving, but Kelly encourages her to go out and date again, bringing her to the same bar where Barney Stinson (Neil Patrick Harris) and Ted are celebrating. The two women run into Mitch (Adam Paul), her old orchestra instructor; The Mother offers to give Mitch her cello for his work at a school and they head to her apartment. Mitch tries to seduce her with a move called "The Naked Man '', but she turns him down. Whilst Mitch is still naked, prompting the Mother to crack some jokes at him, they sit on her couch and start talking. That is when Mitch encourages her to pursue her dreams. The Mother expresses her desire to end poverty by taking up economics in college.
On his first day of teaching as Professor Mosby, as seen in the season 4 finale "The Leap '', he is seen in front of the classroom of students, one of which Future Ted says is the titular mother. But in the first episode of season 5, "Definitions '', it is revealed that he was actually in the wrong classroom -- Economics instead of Architecture. At the same time in "How Your Mother Met Me '', the Mother sits her first session in Economics 305 and meets another graduate student named Cindy (Rachel Bilson), whom she offers to move in with her as her roommate. They see Ted enter the room, but when he announces the subject, The Mother thinks she is in the wrong room and runs off. She heads back to the room after seeing Ted scramble to his actual classroom.
Later, in "Girls Versus Suits '', Ted dates Cindy, not knowing that her roommate is his future wife. Throughout the episode, Ted notes that Cindy had spent most of their first date talking jealously about her roommate. When in Cindy and the mother 's apartment he picks up many of The Mother 's belongings, attempting to show how compatible he and Cindy are (thinking the items are Cindy 's) and glimpses the mother 's foot as she disappears into her room after taking a shower. Ted finds out at this time that she plays bass guitar in a band. Ted forgets to take the yellow umbrella with him when he goes out and Future Ted mentions, "this is how your mother got her yellow umbrella back. '' In "How Your Mother Met Me '', it is revealed that, after Ted left the apartment, the Mother had discovered the umbrella and, upon going to question Cindy, finds her in a state. As she tried to console her, Cindy said that she was a much better match for Ted, and began to lovingly list all of the reasons that Ted would find the mother attractive, before spontaneously kissing her, revealing that her jealousy towards her roommate was actually a crush. While this incident made Cindy realise that she is a lesbian, it also made the Mother decide to go back into dating, as the kiss was her first in a long time.
Some time after this, a man named Darren (Andrew Rannells) approaches The Mother and is welcomed into her band named Superfreakonomics. Darren gradually takes over the band.
In the season 6 opener "Big Days '' it is revealed Ted meets his future wife "the day of '' the wedding at which he is the best man. In the episode "False Positive '' Robin asks Ted to be her future best man, should she ever get married. In the episode "Challenge Accepted '', it is revealed that Ted meets the mother of his children the day of Barney 's wedding. In the last episode of season 7, "The Magician 's Code '' it is shown that Barney will marry Robin, and Ted will meet the mother "the day of '' their wedding. On the premiere of season 8, Ted 's wife appears after Barney and Robin 's wedding, outside at the "Farhampton '' station while holding a yellow umbrella and her bass guitar.
In the season 8 episode "Band or DJ?, '' Ted runs into Cindy and her partner on the subway and tells them that the band Barney and Robin hired to play at their wedding cancelled at the last minute. The end result of the encounter is that Cindy 's (now ex -) roommate 's band plays at Barney and Robin 's wedding.
The Mother is first shown meeting Louis (Louis Ferrigno Jr.) in "How Your Mother Met Me '' as she is left to carry the band equipment while the now - lead band member Darren talks to his fans. Later at MacLaren 's Pub, she tells him she 's not yet ready to date. Louis asks her to give him a call if she changes her mind, and they begin dating not long after. They live together for the next two years, but she knows deep down that she does n't love him.
The Mother meets all of Ted 's best friends - Barney, Robin, Lily Aldrin (Alyson Hannigan), and Marshall Eriksen (Jason Segel) - before she meets him. The Mother is responsible for convincing Barney to pursue Robin, as revealed through a flashback in "Platonish ''. In "The Locket '', Tracy meets Lily on a train journey.
In "Bass Player Wanted '', the Mother picks up a hitchhiking Marshall, carrying his infant son Marvin, on her way to Farhampton Inn. On their way, it is revealed that the Mother is a bass player in the band that is scheduled to play at the wedding reception, but Darren forced her to quit. The Mother ultimately decides to confront Darren and retake the band. Before she, however, Darren walks up to her, furious the groom 's best man punched him for "no reason '', and quits the band.
In "How Your Mother Met Me '', it is shown that after this incident, the Mother returns to Louis ' summer cottage not far from the Farhampton Inn where she has been staying for the duration of the wedding weekend. As she walks in the door, Louis proposes to her, but she goes outside to think about it for a few minutes. She looks skyward and asks Max for permission to let him go and move on; she takes a sudden gust of wind as a "yes '', says goodbye, and declines Louis ' proposal when she goes back inside. She leaves his cottage and checks in at Farhampton Inn. On her room 's balcony, she plays the ukulele and sings "La Vie en Rose ''. Ted hears her singing from his room next door.
In "Gary Blauman '', Ted and the Mother are on their first date. Ted picks her up at her New York City apartment and they proceed to walk to a Scottish - Mexican fusion restaurant for dinner. On the way there, Ted is telling her a story when they nearly have a run - in with Louis. She says that she is in the "weirdest place on earth '' right now and that it is too soon for her to be dating. Ted walks her back to her apartment. They say goodnight and Ted begins to walk away. The Mother then stops him and asks him to finish the story he was telling her. When the story is over, they say goodnight again. The Mother takes a step towards Ted and they kiss for the first time, before deciding to carry on their date.
In a flashforward in "The Lighthouse '', Ted proposes to the Mother at the top of the lighthouse near Farhampton Inn. She immediately accepts. In another flashfoward in "Unpause '', the Mother is revealed to be pregnant with their second child, Luke, in the year 2017. She goes into labor while she and Ted are staying at Farhampton.
The Mother 's real name is not revealed until the series finale, "Last Forever ''. When Ted meets her at the Farhampton train station, she reveals that her name is Tracy McConnell. In the season 1 episode "Belly Full of Turkey '', Ted meets a stripper named Tracy and says "... that, kids, is the true story of how I met your mother ''. The children are horrified, but then he says he is joking, which led some fans to correctly guess that The Mother 's name is Tracy.
In the series finale, it is revealed that six years prior to Ted telling the story to his children, Tracy died in 2024 from an undisclosed illness. In the finale the characters do not directly state that the mother is dead. Ted says that she "became sick '' and his children said that she has been "gone '' for six years. Many fans expressed considerable disappointment with The Mother 's death. Milioti cried when she learned her character was supposed to die, but came to accept the ending was what the writers had planned from the beginning. Bill Kuchman from Popculturology said that The Mother was "an amazing character '' and that "over the course of this final season HIMYM made us care about Tracy. Kuchman said that "asking fans to drop all of that with a simple line about The Mother getting sick and passing away was a very difficult request '', that the finale "advanced too quickly '' and that "HIMYM was a victim of its own success on this issue ''.
A petition was started, aiming to rewrite and reshoot the finale. The petition has over 20,000 signatures and considerable online news coverage. On April 5, 2014, Carter Bays announced on Twitter that an alternate ending would be included on the Season 9 DVD. No new material was shot for this scene. In the alternate ending, The Mother is still living when Ted is telling the story in 2030.
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when is the great pumpkin charlie brown coming on | Great Pumpkin - wikipedia
The Great Pumpkin is an unseen holiday figure in the comic strip Peanuts by Charles M. Schulz.
The Great Pumpkin is a holiday figure in whom only Linus van Pelt believes. According to Linus, the Great Pumpkin flies around bringing toys to sincere and believing children on Halloween evening. Every year, Linus sits in a pumpkin patch (a place Linus believes is the most sincere and lacking in hypocrisy) on Halloween night waiting for the Great Pumpkin to appear. Invariably, the Great Pumpkin fails to turn up, but a humiliated yet undefeated Linus stubbornly vows to wait for him again the following Halloween. Linus acknowledges the similarities between the Great Pumpkin and Santa Claus, the existence of which Linus considers to be ambiguous (in the television special, Linus tells Charlie Brown he 'll stop believing in the Great Pumpkin when Charlie Brown stops believing in Santa Claus, while writing to the Great Pumpkin that Santa Claus has better publicity). Charlie Brown attributes Linus 's belief in the Great Pumpkin to "denominational differences ''.
The Great Pumpkin was first mentioned by Linus in Peanuts in 1959, but the premise was reworked by Schulz many times throughout the run of the strip, and also inspired the 1966 animated television special It 's the Great Pumpkin, Charlie Brown and had brief mentions in You 're Not Elected, Charlie Brown (1972) (in which the mention of it almost blows Linus ' chances in a school election); It 's the Easter Beagle, Charlie Brown (1974) in which Sally expresses her concerns about the Easter Beagle 's reality to Linus, citing her previous experience with the non appearance of the Great Pumpkin; and You 're a Good Sport, Charlie Brown (1975) in which Linus goes into the pumpkin patch to make a makeshift motorcycle helmet for Charlie Brown for a motocross race, with Charlie being teased as being the Great Pumpkin by some race fans. The best - known quote regarding Linus and the Great Pumpkin, originally from the comic strip but made famous by the TV special, is: "There are three things I have learned never to discuss with people: religion, politics, and the Great Pumpkin. ''
While Schulz usually avoided outright politics, he enjoyed his Great Pumpkin strips and also enjoyed incorporating religious references in many of his comics and animated cartoons.
Peculiarly -- given that the Great Pumpkin is supposedly believed in only by Linus -- the strips of October 29 and November 1, 1961 make mention of officially reported Great Pumpkin sightings in Connecticut, Texas and New Jersey.
The Great Pumpkin has been a symbol of strong faith and foolish faith, leading to vastly different interpretations of creator Charles Schulz 's own faith. As described in the book on Schulz 's religious views, A Charlie Brown Religion, Schulz 's views were very personal and often misinterpreted. Linus ' seemingly unshakable belief in the Great Pumpkin, and his desire to foster the same belief in others, has been interpreted as a parody of Christian evangelism by some observers. Others have seen Linus ' belief in the Great Pumpkin as symbolic of the struggles faced by anyone with beliefs or practices that are not shared by the majority.
Still others view Linus ' lonely vigils, in the service of a being that may or may not exist and which never makes its presence known in any case, as a metaphor for mankind 's basic existential dilemmas. Charles Schulz himself, however, claimed no motivation beyond the humor of having one of his young characters confuse Halloween with Christmas. In the 1959 sequence of strips in which the Great Pumpkin is first mentioned, for instance, Schulz also has Linus suggest that he and the other kids "go out and sing pumpkin carols '', something which he also asks the trick - or - treating kids in the special itself.
College football coach Dee Andros (1924 -- 2003), was known by the nickname "The Great Pumpkin '' as head coach (1965 -- 75) and athletic director (1976 -- 85) at Oregon State University in Corvallis.
As the head coach of the orange and black Beavers, Andros had a round physique and often wore an orange windbreaker. He was first dubbed with the nickname in 1966 by a member of the Spokane press on Halloween weekend in Pullman, Washington, as his OSU team routed host Washington State 's Cougars, 41 -- 13.
In the late 1970s, Braniff Airways painted its fleet in bright colors, for visual appeal and marketability. The airline 's first 747 - 200 airliners were delivered painted in a striking shade of orange, causing several air traffic control centers across the USA to welcome the new Braniff acquisitions with the phrase "Welcome, Great Pumpkin ''. The 1973 Petersen Publications annual, Air Progress: World 's Greatest Aircraft, had its chapter devoted to the 747 headed "The Great Pumpkin Lives! ''
In 1996, Burlington Northern SD60M # 9297 (renumbered 8197 in 2008, renumbered 1474 in 2014) was jokingly dubbed the "Great Pumpkin '' by employees because of its bold orange paint scheme, one of many prototype paint designs created by the then newly formed Burlington Northern and Santa Fe Railway (BNSF), a merger of Burlington Northern and the Atchison, Topeka, and Santa Fe Railway (Santa Fe). This scheme eventually became the basis for BNSF 's "Heritage I '' paint design, while the "Great Pumpkin '' nickname has stuck among railfans for this particular locomotive.
One episode from season 2 was called "It 's the Great Pancake, Cleveland Brown ''.
In the opening cameo of "Treehouse of Horror II '' the Peanuts gang in Halloween costumes are passing in front of the Simpson house. The final segment of "Treehouse of Horror XIX '' (the fourth episode of the twentieth season of The Simpsons), called "It 's the Grand Pumpkin, Milhouse '', is a parody of It 's the Great Pumpkin, Charlie Brown and contains numerous references to the Peanuts characters. Milhouse Van Houten wears the same clothes and plays the same role as Linus van Pelt. Lisa Simpson is modeled after Sally Brown, and Bart is patterned after Charlie Brown (even saying "Good grief! '' at one point). A redesigned version of Santa 's Little Helper can be seen sleeping atop his dog house a la Snoopy, while Homer is seen sleeping on top of the family house in a similar manner.
When Marge first speaks, her voice is replaced with a muted trombone sound, a parody of the "wah wah wah '' voice that is used for adults in all Peanuts specials. The dance scene during the Halloween party is a parody of the dance scene in A Charlie Brown Christmas right down to Kang and Kodos in a nonspeaking cameo as the twins "3 and 4 ''. Parts of the segment had music by Vince Guaraldi (best known for composing music for animated adaptations of the Peanuts comic strip), which they had obtained the rights to use.
In the episode segment, Milhouse waits in a pumpkin patch on Halloween for the Grand Pumpkin (which Bart made up) with Lisa. After Lisa sees everyone at school having a Halloween party, she grows tired of waiting and leaves in frustration. Milhouse starts to cry and his tears and childlike belief bring the Grand Pumpkin to life. However, the Pumpkin is appalled to find that his kindred pumpkins are being carved up on Halloween and made into pumpkin bread, originally thinking it was bread especially made for pumpkins until Milhouse revealed it is made from them, and vows revenge. He devours Homer as he carves a pumpkin, then marches to the school and eats Nelson who threatens to stab a yellow pumpkin. It becomes apparent at this point that the Grand Pumpkin is racist towards this type of pumpkin and then eats Groundskeeper Willie after being offered roasted pumpkin seeds. Realizing that Milhouse can bring things to life by believing in them, Lisa tells him about "Tom Turkey '', a symbol of Thanksgiving. Milhouse starts to believe in Tom Turkey, who comes to life and kills the Grand Pumpkin, freeing everyone he ate. However, when Tom Turkey learns that people eat turkeys on Thanksgiving from Bart, he vows revenge and starts angrily chasing children around the school, devouring some of them whole as Marge wishes the viewers happy holidays.
A sketch in the episode ' Vegetable Funfest ' of the stop - motion parody show Robot Chicken featured a Peanuts parody in which Linus tires of never seeing the Great Pumpkin. He conducts a magical ritual involving burning a chicken in a pentagram to summon the entity, which is revealed to be Lovecraftian in nature, feeding on children. The Great Pumpkin murders Linus and proceeds to stalk the other characters with similar intentions. Charlie Brown is saved by the similarly demonic Kite - Eating Tree, which consumes the Pumpkin. Charlie Brown declares that his deceased friends can now rest in peace. The murdered characters are then shown in Hell dancing with the devil as Schroeder plays his piano.
When the Peanuts strip was first introduced in Italy, Halloween was almost unknown there as a festivity. The earlier translations turned the pumpkin into a watermelon ("Il Grande Cocomero '') because it was felt as a more Mediterranean fruit - figure and its name sounded better. The intentional mistranslation did somehow stick in the Italian pop culture, so that it was kept in all the later translations. There was also a movie named after Il grande cocomero in 1993, directed by Francesca Archibugi.
The Major League Baseball player Dan Johnson is nicknamed "The Great Pumpkin '' due to his orange - red beard and his notable late - season / autumn performance. Johnson was called to the majors late in three separate seasons (2008, 2010, 2011), and subsequently hit clutch home runs that propelled his team into the playoffs.
Season 4, episode 7 of the television series Supernatural is called "It 's the Great Pumpkin, Sam Winchester ''.
On October 30, 2015, the Wizard of Id comic strip made a tribute to Linus and the Great Pumpkin. The wizard makes a spell "making a dream come true for a special little boy ''. The last panel shows a large pumpkin, growling, chasing a boy who has a blue blanket (ostensibly Linus).
Charlie Brown, Linus, and the Great Pumpkin are referenced in Helloween 's song "Halloween '', alluding to the events in It 's the Great Pumpkin, Charlie Brown:
"Someone 's sitting in a field, never giving yield. Sitting there with gleaming eyes. Waiting for Big Pumpkin to arise. ''
"Bad luck if you get a stone like the good old Charlie Brown, you think Linus could be right. The kids will say it 's just a stupid lie. ''
In October 2010, forty - four years after the initial airing of It 's the Great Pumpkin, Charlie Brown, the pumpkin was the topic of a licensed use by the children 's internet site Poptropica. The site 's 15th quest (island) is "Great Pumpkin Island '', and features several of the Peanuts characters interacting with the avatars of Poptropica players. Again, the Great Pumpkin never appears.
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what happens to holden caulfield after the book | Holden Caulfield - wikipedia
Holden Caulfield is a fictional character in author J.D. Salinger 's 1951 novel The Catcher in the Rye. Since the book 's publication, Holden has become an icon for teenage rebellion and angst, and now stands among the most important characters of 20th - century American literature. The name Holden Caulfield was used in an unpublished short story written in 1942 and first appeared in print in 1945.
Although it has been conjectured that J.D. Salinger got the name for Holden Caulfield in The Catcher in the Rye when he saw a marquee for the 1947 film Dear Ruth, starring William Holden and Joan Caulfield, Salinger 's first Holden Caulfield story, "I 'm Crazy, '' appeared in Collier 's on December 22, 1945, a year and a half before this movie was released.
Holden is naive and at the same time resentful of the adult world. One of Holden 's most striking and quintessential qualities is his powerful revulsion for "phony '' qualities, a catch - all term for the perceived hypocrisy that irritates Holden. It is this cynicism that causes him to distance himself from other people, despite wanting connection as well. Holden is very much a character of contradiction; at seventeen years of age he is six feet two - and - a-half inches (189 cm) tall, and already has some grey hair -- though he himself admits that he sometimes acts more like a 13 - year - old than an adult. He continually fails classes.
Holden Caulfield is the narrator and main character of The Catcher in the Rye. The novel recounts Holden 's week in New York City during Christmas break following his expulsion from Pencey Prep, a preparatory school in Pennsylvania based loosely on Salinger 's alma mater Valley Forge Military Academy. Holden Caulfield tells his story with surprising honesty from a hospital in California in a cynical and jaded language.
The character, as Holden Morrisey Caulfield, also appears in Salinger 's "Slight Rebellion off Madison '', published in the December 21, 1946, issue of The New Yorker. An earlier version of this story, titled "Are You Banging Your Head Against a Wall? '' was accepted for publication by The New Yorker in October 1941, but was not published then because editors found the tone to be too desolate for its readership. An edited version of this short story later became the basis of several chapters in the middle - late section of The Catcher in the Rye dealing with Caulfield 's date with Sally Hayes, during which he confesses his desire to run away with her, he meets Carl Luce for drinks, and he makes a drunken phone call to the Hayes home. Unlike the similar sequence in the novel, Caulfield is on a Christmas break from school, and, in the story, the interlude with Sally is split into two occurrences. Also, the meeting with Carl Luce is considerably briefer in the story than in the novel.
Caulfield also figures as a character in the short story "I 'm Crazy '', published in Colliers (December 22, 1945), and other members of the Caulfield family are featured in "Last Day of the Last Furlough '', published in The Saturday Evening Post (July 15, 1944) and the unpublished short stories "The Last and Best of the Peter Pans '' (c. 1942) and "The Ocean Full of Bowling Balls '' (c. 1945). "I 'm Crazy '' is closely related to the first chapter of The Catcher in the Rye. It begins with Caulfield standing on a hill at "Pencey Prep '' watching a football game below, and develops as Holden visits with his history teacher, Mr. Spencer, for a talk about his expulsion from school and his future. Several other details match those found in the first chapter of Catcher, including a reference to the mother of one of Caulfield 's schoolmates and to his own mother sending him a gift of ice skates, but the story ends with his returning home instead of running away from school. Once home, he is not shown confronting his parents, who, according to the maid, are playing bridge. Instead, he goes to speak to Phoebe. Their dialogue is similar to that which appears in the later chapters of The Catcher in the Rye. The other notable feature of the story is that his sister Viola gets her first, and only, mention in the Caulfield saga.
"This Sandwich Has No Mayonnaise '' (Esquire, 1945) reveals that Holden went missing in action during the war.
"Last Day of the Last Furlough '' relates the final day of Babe Gladwaller before he leaves to fight in World War II. Gladwaller spends part of the day with his little sister before Vincent Caulfield (later renamed D.B. in the novel) arrives. At that point Vincent is a fellow soldier about to leave for the war. Vincent announces that his brother, Holden, has been declared missing in action. Gladwaller 's relationship with his younger sister can be seen as a parallel to Caulfield 's relationship with Phoebe.
"The Last and Best of the Peter Pans '' relates the story of Vincent 's (D.B.) draft questionnaire being hidden by his mother. The events occur just after the death of Kenneth (later renamed Allie) and reveal the anxiety of Mary Moriarity, an actress and Caulfield 's mother. The story is notable for the appearance of Phoebe and Vincent 's statements about a child crawling off a cliff.
In "The Ocean Full of Bowling Balls, '' Vincent (D.B.) recalls the day his brother Kenneth (Allie) died. The story is set at the Caulfield summer home on Cape Cod. Several details make their way from this story into Catcher, including the characterization of Allie; Allie 's poetry - inscribed left - handed baseball mitt; Vincent 's girlfriend, Helen, who keeps her kings in the back row (like Jane Gallagher); and Caulfield 's critical view of others. While the cause of death in Catcher is leukemia, here it is due to an unspecified heart condition. Toward the end of the story, Kenneth and Vincent are on the beach. Kenneth decides to go swimming and is knocked out by a wave. Holden, just home from camp, is waiting on the porch with his suitcases as Vincent comes back with Kenneth 's unconscious body. Kenneth passes away later the same night. The story was reportedly sold to a magazine, only to be taken back by Salinger before publication.
Another short story of note with relationship to Caulfield is "The Boy in the People Shooting Hat, '' which was submitted to The New Yorker sometime between 1948 and 1949 but was never published. It focuses on a fight between two characters named Bobby and Stradlater over Bobby 's feelings about Jane Gallagher. This story appears to form the basis for several key scenes in the first several chapters of The Catcher in the Rye.
In Seymour: An Introduction a Curtis Caulfield is mentioned in passing as "an exceptionally intelligent and likable boy '' who appeared on the same radio show as Seymour and the other Glass children. He is reportedly "killed during one of the landings in the Pacific. ''
Holden Caulfield is one of the most enduring characters in 20th - century American fiction. It has been suggested that Salinger himself related so closely to Holden that he was protective of the character. This was the reason he was unwilling to allow filming of the book or use of the character by other writers. The Catcher in the Rye is required reading in many high school English courses, although it has been banned from some school libraries by parent and teacher groups opposed to its use of profanity and perceived glorification of rebellion.
Salinger 's uncollected short stories
Fan sites
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where does the indian ocean start in south africa | Borders of the Oceans - wikipedia
The borders of the oceans are the limits of the Earth 's oceanic waters. The definition and number of oceans can vary depending on the adopted criteria.
Though generally described as several separate oceans, the world 's oceanic waters constitute one global, interconnected body of salt water sometimes referred to as the World Ocean or global ocean. This concept of a continuous body of water with relatively free interchange among its parts is of fundamental importance to oceanography.
The major oceanic divisions are defined in part by the continents, various archipelagos, and other criteria. The principal divisions (in descending order of area) are the: Pacific Ocean, Atlantic Ocean, Indian Ocean, Arctic Ocean, and Southern (Antarctic) Ocean. Smaller regions of the oceans are called seas, gulfs, bays, straits, and other names.
Geologically, an ocean is an area of oceanic crust covered by water. Oceanic crust is the thin layer of solidified volcanic basalt that covers the Earth 's mantle. Continental crust is thicker but less dense. From this perspective, the Earth has three oceans: the World Ocean, the Caspian Sea, and the Black Sea. The latter two were formed by the collision of Cimmeria with Laurasia. The Mediterranean Sea is at times a discrete ocean, because tectonic plate movement has repeatedly broken its connection to the World Ocean through the Strait of Gibraltar. The Black Sea is connected to the Mediterranean through the Bosporus, but the Bosporus is a natural canal cut through continental rock some 7,000 years ago, rather than a piece of oceanic sea floor like the Strait of Gibraltar.
Despite their names, some smaller landlocked "seas '' are not connected with the World Ocean, such as the Caspian Sea (which is nevertheless, geologically, itself a full - fledged ocean -- see above) and numerous salt lakes such as the Aral Sea.
A complete hierarchy showing which seas belong to which oceans, according to the International Hydrographic Organization (IHO) and for the whole planet, is available at the European Marine Gazetteer website. See also the list of seas article for the seas included in each ocean area. Also note there are many varying definitions of the world 's seas and no single authority.
The Arctic Ocean covers much of the Arctic and washes upon northern North America and Eurasia and is sometimes considered a sea or estuary of the Atlantic.
The International Hydrographic Organization (IHO) defines the limits of the Arctic Ocean (excluding the seas it contains) as follows:
Note that these definitions exclude any marginal waterbodies that are separately defined by the IHO (such as the Kara Sea and East Siberian Sea), though these are usually considered to be part of the Arctic Ocean.
The CIA defines the limits of the Arctic Ocean differently, as depicted in the map comparing its definition to the IHO 's definition.
The Atlantic Ocean separates the Americas from Europe and Africa. It may be further subdivided by the equator into northern and southern portions.
The 3rd edition, currently in force, of the International Hydrographic Organization 's (IHO) Limits of Oceans and Seas defines the limits of the North Atlantic Ocean (excluding the seas it contains) as follows:
The 3rd edition (currently in force) of the International Hydrographic Organization 's (IHO) Limits of Oceans and Seas defines the limits of the South Atlantic Ocean (excluding the seas it contains) as follows:
Note that these definitions exclude any marginal waterbodies that are separately defined by the IHO (such as the Bay of Biscay and Gulf of Guinea), though these are usually considered to be part of the Atlantic Ocean.
In its 2002 draft, the IHO redefined the Atlantic Ocean, moving its southern limit to 60 ° S, with the waters south of that line identified as the Southern Ocean. This new definition has not yet been ratified (and, in addition, a reservation was lodged in 2003 by Australia.) While the name "Southern Ocean '' is frequently used, some geographic authorities such as the 10th edition of the World Atlas from the U.S. National Geographic Society generally show the Atlantic, Indian, and Pacific Oceans continuing to Antarctica. If and when adopted, the 2002 definition would be published in the 4th edition of Limits of Oceans and Seas, re-instituting the 2nd edition 's "Southern Ocean '', omitted from the 3rd edition.
The Indian Ocean washes upon southern Asia and separates Africa and Australia.
The 3rd edition, currently in force, of the International Hydrographic Organization 's (IHO) Limits of Oceans and Seas defines the limits of the Indian Ocean (excluding the seas it contains) as follows:
Note that this definition excludes any marginal waterbodies that are separately defined by the IHO (such as the Bay of Bengal and Arabian Sea), though these are usually considered to be part of the Indian Ocean.
In its 2002 draft, the IHO redefined the Indian Ocean, moving its southern limit to 60 ° S, with the waters south of that line identified as the Southern Ocean. This new definition has not yet been ratified (and, in addition, a reservation was lodged in 2003 by Australia.) While the name "Southern Ocean '' is frequently used, some geographic authorities such as the 10th edition of the World Atlas from the U.S. National Geographic Society generally show the Atlantic, Indian, and Pacific Oceans continuing to Antarctica. If and when adopted, the 2002 definition would be published in the 4th edition of Limits of Oceans and Seas, re-instituting the 2nd edition 's "Southern Ocean '', omitted from the 3rd edition.
The boundary of the Indian Ocean is a constitutional issue for Australia. The Imperial South Australia Colonisation Act, 1834, which established and defined the Colony of South Australia defined South Australia 's southern limit as being the "Southern Ocean. '' This definition was carried through to Australian constitutional law upon the Federation of Australia in 1901.
The Pacific is the ocean that separates Asia and Australia from the Americas. It may be further subdivided by the equator into northern and southern portions.
The 3rd edition, currently in force, of the International Hydrographic Organization 's (IHO) Limits of Oceans and Seas defines the limits of the North Pacific Ocean (excluding the seas it contains) as follows:
The 3rd edition, currently in force, of the International Hydrographic Organization 's (IHO) Limits of Oceans and Seas defines the limits of the South Pacific Ocean (excluding the seas it contains) as follows:
Note that these definitions exclude any marginal waterbodies that are separately defined by the IHO (such as the Gulf of Alaska and Coral Sea), though these are usually considered to be part of the Pacific Ocean.
In its 2002 draft, the IHO redefined the Pacific Ocean, moving its southern limit to 60 ° S, with the waters south of that line identified as the Southern Ocean. This new definition has not yet been ratified (and, in addition, a reservation was lodged in 2003 by Australia.) While the name "Southern Ocean '' is frequently used, some geographic authorities such as the 10th edition of the World Atlas from the U.S. National Geographic Society generally show the Atlantic, Indian, and Pacific Oceans continuing to Antarctica. If and when adopted, the 2002 definition would be published in the 4th edition of Limits of Oceans and Seas, re-instituting the 2nd edition 's "Southern Ocean '', omitted from the 3rd edition.
The Southern Ocean contains the waters that surround Antarctica and sometimes is considered an extension of Pacific, Atlantic and Indian Oceans.
In 1928, the first edition of the International Hydrographic Organization 's (IHO) Limits of Oceans and Seas publication included the Southern Ocean around Antarctica. The Southern Ocean was delineated by land - based limits - the continent of Antarctica to the south, and the continents of South America, Africa, and Australia plus Broughton Island, New Zealand in the north. The detailed land - limits used were Cape Horn in South America, Cape Agulhas in Africa, the southern coast of Australia from Cape Leeuwin, Western Australia, to South East Cape, Tasmania, via the western edge of the water body of Bass Strait, and then Broughton Island before returning to Cape Horn.
The northern limits of the Southern Ocean were moved southwards in the IHO 's 1937 second edition of the Limits of Oceans and Seas. The Southern Ocean then extended from Antarctica northwards to latitude 40 ° south between Cape Agulhas in Africa (long. 20 ° east) and Cape Leeuwin in Western Australia (long. 115 ° east), and extended to latitude 55 ° south between Auckland Island of New Zealand (long. 165 ° or 166 ° east) and Cape Horn in South America (long. 67 ° west).
The Southern Ocean did not appear in the 1953 third edition because "... the northern limits... are difficult to lay down owing to their seasonal change... Hydrographic Offices who issue separate publications dealing with this area are therefore left to decide their own northern limits. (Great Britain uses the Latitude of 55 ° South) ''. Instead, in the IHO 1953 publication, the Atlantic, Indian and Pacific Oceans were extended southward, the Indian and Pacific Oceans (which had not previously touched pre 1953, as per the first and second editions) now abutted at the meridian of South East Cape, and the southern limits of the Great Australian Bight and the Tasman Sea were moved northwards.
The IHO readdressed the question of the Southern Ocean in a survey in 2000. Of its 68 member nations, 28 responded, and all responding members except Argentina agreed to redefine the ocean, reflecting the importance placed by oceanographers on ocean currents. The proposal for the name Southern Ocean won 18 votes, beating the alternative Antarctic Ocean. Half of the votes supported a definition of the ocean 's northern limit at 60 ° S (with no land interruptions at this latitude), with the other 14 votes cast for other definitions, mostly 50 ° S, but a few for as far north as 35 ° S.
The 4th edition of Limits of Oceans and Seas has yet to be published due to ' areas of concern ' by several countries relating to various naming issues around the world. The IHB circulated a new draft of the 4th edition of the publication in August 2002, however there were still various changes, 60 seas were added or renamed from the 3rd edition, and even the name of the publication was changed. A reservation had also been lodged by Australia regarding the Southern Ocean limits. Effectively, the 3rd edition (which did not delineate the Southern Ocean leaving delineation to local hydrographic offices) has yet to be superseded and IHO documents declare that it remains "currently in force. ''
Despite this, the 4th edition definition has de facto usage by many organisations, scientists and nations - even at times by IHO committees. Some nations ' hydrographic offices have defined their own boundaries; the United Kingdom used the 55 ° S parallel for example.
Other sources, such as the National Geographic Society, show the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian Oceans as extending to Antarctica, although articles on the National Geographic web site have begun to reference the Southern Ocean.
In Australia, cartographic authorities defined the Southern Ocean as including the entire body of water between Antarctica and the south coasts of Australia and New Zealand. This delineation is basically the same as the original (first) edition of the IHO publication and effectively the same as the second edition. In the second edition, the Great Australian Bight was defined as the only geographical entity between the Australian coast and the Southern Ocean. Coastal maps of Tasmania and South Australia label the sea areas as Southern Ocean, while Cape Leeuwin in Western Australia is described as the point where the Indian and Southern Oceans meet.
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what two events seem to provide a key to understanding the book of acts | Acts of the Apostles - wikipedia
Acts of the Apostles (Ancient Greek: Πράξεις τῶν Ἀποστόλων, Práxeis tôn Apostólōn; Latin: Actūs Apostolōrum), often referred to simply as Acts, is the fifth book of the New Testament; it tells of the founding of the Christian church and the spread of its message to the Roman Empire.
Acts and the Gospel of Luke make up a two - part work, Luke -- Acts, by the same anonymous author, usually dated to around 80 -- 90 AD. The first part, the Gospel of Luke, tells how God fulfilled his plan for the world 's salvation through the life, death, and resurrection of Jesus of Nazareth, the promised Messiah. Acts continues the story of Christianity in the 1st century, beginning with Jesus 's Ascension to Heaven and the central theme revolves around Holy Spirit confirming the message of salvation through Jesus Christ by displaying publicly and privately, mighty signs and wonders through ordinary believers as they preached the Gospel (the goods news you are set free through the name of Jesus). The early chapters, set in Jerusalem, describe the Day of Pentecost (the coming of the Holy Spirit) and the growth of the church in Jerusalem. From place to place, the salvation message (repent of your sins, believe Jesus as your savior to have died for your sins, be baptized and receive the gift of the Holy Spirit) was sent first through synagogues to the Jews. The responses varied from place to place, some readily accepted like Antioch of Pisidia, some like Berea studied extensively to verify it is truth before accepting, some, initially, were receptive to the Christian message, but repeatedly, a crowd would be stirred to turn against the followers of Jesus. Rejected by the Jews, as fulfilment to the Old Testament prophecies, the Apostles, like Apostle James, Apostle Peter took the message to the Gentiles, further fulfilling the prophecies that God will extend salvation to all mankind through the Jews. The mid chapters tell of Paul 's conversion, the signs and miracles Holy Spirit worked through his missions in Asia Minor and the Aegean confirming the salvation message, and finally his foreseen destiny in Rome, where, as the book ends, he awaits trial.
Luke -- Acts is an attempt to answer a theological problem, namely how the Messiah of the Jews came to have an overwhelmingly non-Jewish church; the answer it provides, and its central theme, is that the message of Christ was sent to the Gentiles because the Jews rejected it. It answers further that the truth of the Gospel of Jesus Christ was prophecied to reach beyond the walls of the Jewish Religion from the beginning of Abraham. This is rooted in the understanding that Christ came for the purpose of bringing the Kingdom of God from heaven into all people 's heart, through extending salvation to Jews and Gentiles alike. Acts 26: 23 explains that the ancient Old Testament prophetic truth of the suffering of Christ was to ensure that salvation was made available to those Jewish Israelites as well as others outside this special group.
Luke -- Acts can be also seen as a defense of (or "apology '' for) the Jesus movement addressed to the Jews: the bulk of the speeches and sermons in Acts are addressed to Jewish audiences, with the ruling Romans taking or abstaining from the role of arbiters, on disputes concerning Jewish customs and law. On the one hand Luke portrays the Christians as a sect of the Jews, as a fulfillment of the Messiah Jews had been waiting for, and therefore entitled to legal protection as a recognised religion; on the other, the author repeatedly presented the the celebration of the Jewishness of Jesus and his immediate followers for the salvation message was the fulfillment of the Jews, then, rejected God 's promised Messiah.
The title "Acts of the Apostles '' (Greek Πράξεις ἀποστόλων Praxeis Apostolon) was first used by Irenaeus in the late 2nd century. It is not known whether this was an existing title or one invented by Irenaeus; it does seem clear, however, that it was not given by the author.
The Gospel of Luke and Acts make up a two - volume work which scholars call Luke -- Acts. Together they account for 27.5 % of the New Testament, the largest contribution attributed to a single author, providing the framework for both the Church 's liturgical calendar and the historical outline into which later generations have fitted their idea of the story of Jesus and the early church.
The author is not named in either volume. According to Church tradition dating from the 2nd century, he was the "Luke '' named as a companion of the apostle Paul in three of the letters attributed to Paul himself; this view is still sometimes advanced, but "a critical consensus emphasizes the countless contradictions between the account in Acts and the authentic Pauline letters. '') (An example can be seen by comparing Acts 's accounts of Paul 's conversion (Acts 9: 1 -- 31, 22: 6 -- 21, and 26: 9 -- 23) with Paul 's own statement that he remained unknown to Christians in Judea after that event (Galatians 1: 17 -- 24).) He admired Paul, but his theology was significantly different from Paul 's on key points and he does not (in Acts) represent Paul 's views accurately. He was educated, a man of means, probably urban, and someone who respected manual work, although not a worker himself; this is significant, because more high - brow writers of the time looked down on the artisans and small business people who made up the early church of Paul and were presumably Luke 's audience.
The earliest possible date for the composition of Acts is set by the events with which it ends, Paul 's imprisonment in Rome c. 63 AD, but an early date is now rarely put forward. The last possible date would be set by its first definite citation by another author, but there is no unanimity on this -- some scholars find echoes of Acts in a work from c. 95 AD called I Clement, while others see no indisputable citation until the middle of the 2nd century. The majority of scholars date Luke -- Acts to 80 -- 90 AD, on the grounds that it uses Mark as a source and looks back on the destruction of Jerusalem, and does not show any awareness of the letters of Paul (which began circulating late in the century); if, however, it does show awareness of Paul and also of Josephus, then a date early in the 2nd century is more likely. In either case, there is evidence that it was still being substantially revised well into the 2nd century.
Luke (or more accurately the anonymous author of Luke -- Acts) aligned his work, Luke -- Acts, to the "narratives '' (διήγησις, diēgēsis) which many others had written, and described his own work as an "orderly account '' (ἀκριβῶς καθεξῆς). Acts, the second part, is widely thought of as a history, but it lacks exact analogies in Hellenistic or Jewish literature. The title "Acts of the Apostles '' (Praxeis Apostolon) would seem to identify it with the genre telling of the deeds and achievements of great men (praxeis), but it was not the title given by the author.
Luke seems to have taken as his model the works of two respected Classical authors, Dionysius of Halicarnassus, who wrote a well - known history of Rome, and the Jewish historian Josephus, author of a history of the Jews. Like them, he anchors his history by dating the birth of the founder (Romulus for Dionysius, Moses for Josephus, Jesus for Luke) and like them he tells how the founder is born from God, taught authoritatively, and appeared to witnesses after death before ascending to heaven. By and large the sources for Acts can only be guessed at, but Luke would have had access to the Septuagint (a Greek translation of the Jewish scriptures), the gospel of Mark and the collection of "sayings of Jesus '' called the Q source. He transposed a few incidents from Mark 's gospel to the time of the Apostles -- for example, the material about "clean '' and "unclean '' foods in Mark 7 is used in Acts 10, and Mark 's account of the accusation that Jesus has attacked the Temple (Mark 14: 58) is used in a story about Stephen (Acts 6: 14).) There are also points of contacts (meaning suggestive parallels but something less than clear evidence) with 1 Peter, the Letter to the Hebrews, and 1 Clement. Other sources can only be inferred from internal evidence -- the traditional explanation of the three "we '' passages, for example, is that they represent eye - witness accounts. The search for such inferred sources was popular in the 19th century, but by the mid-20th it had largely been abandoned.
Acts was read as a reliable history of the early church well into the post-Reformation era. By the 17th century, however, biblical scholars began to notice that it was incomplete and tendentious -- its picture of a harmonious church is quite at odds with that given by Paul 's letters, and it omits important events such as the deaths of both Peter and Paul. The mid-19th - century scholar Ferdinand Baur suggested that Luke had re-written history to present a united Peter and Paul and advance a single orthodoxy against the Marcionites. (Marcion was a 2nd - century heretic who wished to cut Christianity off entirely from the Jews). Baur continues to have enormous influence, but today there is less interest in determining Luke 's historical accuracy (although this has never died out) than in understanding his theological program. In How Jesus Became Christian Canadian religious historian Barrie Wilson has renewed Baur 's charge that Acts is a work of historical revisionism whose main purpose was to link Paul 's new and separate Christ religion to Jesus and Judaism.
Luke was written to be read aloud to a group of Jesus - followers gathered in a house to share the Lord 's supper. The author assumes an educated Greek - speaking audience, but directs his attention to specifically Christian concerns rather than to the Greco - Roman world at large. He begins his gospel with a preface addressed to Theophilus, informing him of his intention to provide an "ordered account '' of events which will lead his reader to "certainty ''. He did not write in order to provide Theophilus with historical justification -- "did it happen? '' -- but to encourage faith -- "what happened, and what does it all mean? ''
Acts (or Luke -- Acts) is intended as a work of "edification. '' Edification means "the empirical demonstration that virtue is superior to vice, '' but is not all of Luke 's purpose. He also engages with the question of a Christian 's proper relationship with the Roman Empire, the civil power of the day: could a Christian obey God and also Caesar? The answer is ambiguous. The Romans never move against Jesus or his followers unless provoked by the Jews, in the trial scenes the Christian missionaries are always cleared of charges of violating Roman laws, and Acts ends with Paul in Rome proclaiming the Christian message under Roman protection; at the same time, Luke makes clear that the Romans, like all earthly rulers, receive their authority from Satan, while Christ is ruler of the kingdom of God.
There are two major textual variants of Acts, the Western text - type and the Alexandrian. Western texts of Acts are 6.2 -- 8.4 % longer than Alexandrian texts, the additions tending to enhance the Jewish rejection of the Messiah and the role of the Holy Spirit, in ways that are stylistically different from the rest of Acts. These conflicts suggest that Acts was still being substantially revised well into the 2nd century. The majority of scholars prefer the Alexandrian (shorter) text - type over the Western as the more authentic, but this same argument would favour the Western over the Alexandrian for the gospel of Luke, as in that case the, Western version is the shorter. The debate therefore continues.
Acts has two key structural principles. The first is the geographic movement from Jerusalem, centre of God 's Covenantal people, the Jews, to Rome, centre of the Gentile world. This structure reaches back to the author 's preceding work, the Gospel of Luke, and is signaled by parallel scenes such as Paul 's utterance in Acts 19: 21, which echoes Jesus 's words 9: 51 (Paul has Rome as his destination, as Jesus had Jerusalem). The second key element is the roles of Peter and Paul, the first representing the Jewish Christian church, the second the mission to the Gentiles.
The Gospel of Luke began with a prologue addressed to Theophilus; Acts likewise opens with an address to Theophilus and refers to "my earlier book '', almost certainly the gospel.
The apostles and other followers of Jesus meet and elect Matthias to replace Judas as a member of The Twelve. On Pentecost, the Holy Spirit descends and confers God 's power on them, and Peter, along with John, preaches to many in Jerusalem, and performs Christ - like healings, casting out of evil spirits, and raising of the dead. At first many Jews follow Christ and are baptized, but the Christians begin to be increasingly persecuted by the Jews. Stephen is arrested for blasphemy, and after a trial, is found guilty and stoned by the Jews. Stephen 's death marks a major turning point: the Jews have rejected the message, and henceforth it will be taken to the Gentiles.
The message is taken to the Samaritans, a people rejected by Jews, and to the Gentiles. Saul of Tarsus, one of the Jews who persecuted the Christians, is converted by a vision to become a follower of Christ (an event which Luke regards as so important that he relates it three times). Peter, directed by a series of visions, preaches to Cornelius the Centurion, a Gentile God - fearer, who becomes a follower of Christ. The Holy Spirit descends on Peter and Cornelius, thus confirming that the message of eternal life in Christ is for all mankind. The Gentile church is established in Antioch (north - western Syria, the third - largest city of the empire), and here Christ 's followers are first called Christians.
The mission to the Gentiles is promoted from Antioch and confirmed at meeting in Jerusalem between Paul and the leadership of the Jerusalem church. Paul spends the next few years traveling through western Asia Minor and the Aegean, preaching, converting Gentiles, and founding new churches. On a visit to Jerusalem he is set on by a Jewish mob. Saved by the Roman commander, he is accused by the Jews of being a revolutionary, the "ringleader of the sect of the Nazarenes '', and imprisoned. Paul asserts his right as a Roman citizen, to be tried in Rome and is sent by sea to Rome, where he spends another two years under house arrest, proclaiming the Kingdom of God and teaching the "Lord Jesus Christ ''. Acts ends abruptly without recording the outcome of Paul 's legal troubles.
Prior to the 1950s, Luke -- Acts was seen as a historical work, written to defend Christianity before the Romans or Paul against his detractors; since then, however, the tendency has been to see the work as primarily theological. Luke 's theology is expressed primarily through his overarching plot, the way scenes, themes and characters combine to construct his specific worldview. His "salvation history '' stretches from the Creation to the present time of his readers, in three ages: first, the time of "the Law and the Prophets '' (Luke 16: 16), the period beginning with Genesis and ending with the appearance of John the Baptist (Luke 1: 5 -- 3: 1); second, the epoch of Jesus, in which the Kingdom of God was preached (Luke 3: 2 -- 24: 51); and finally the period of the Church, which began when the risen Christ was taken into Heaven, and would end with his second coming.
Luke -- Acts is an attempt to answer a theological problem, namely how the Messiah promised to the Jews came to have an overwhelmingly non-Jewish church; the answer it provides, and its central theme, is that the message of Christ was sent to the Gentiles because the Jews rejected it. This theme is introduced at the opening of the gospel of Luke, when Jesus, rejected in Nazareth, recalls that the prophets were rejected by Israel and accepted by Gentiles; at the end of the gospel he commands his disciples to preach his message to all nations, "beginning from Jerusalem. '' He repeats the command in Acts, telling them to preach "in Jerusalem, in all Judea and Samaria, and to the end of the Earth. '' They then proceed to do so, in the order outlined: first Jerusalem, then Judea, then Samaria, then the entire (Roman) world.
For Luke, the Holy Spirit is the driving force behind the spread of the Christian message, and he places more emphasis on it than do any of the other evangelists. The Spirit is "poured out '' at Pentecost, on the first Samaritan and Gentile believers, and on disciples who had been baptised only by John the Baptist, each time as a sign of God 's approval. The Holy Spirit represents God 's power (At his ascension, Jesus tells his followers, "You shall receive power when the Holy Spirit has come upon you ''): through it the disciples are given speech to convert thousands in Jerusalem, forming the first church (the term is used for the first time in Acts 5).
One issue debated by scholars is Luke 's political vision regarding the relationship between the early church and the Roman Empire. On the one hand, Luke generally does not portray this interaction as one of direct conflict. Rather, there are ways in which each may have considered having a relationship with the other rather advantageous to its own cause. For example, early Christians may have appreciated hearing about the protection Paul received from Roman officials against Gentile rioters in Philippi (Acts 16: 16 - 40) and Ephesus (Acts 19: 23 - 41), and against Jewish rioters on two occasions (Acts 17: 1 - 17; Acts 18: 12 - 17). Meanwhile, Roman readers may have approved of Paul 's censure of the illegal practice of magic (Acts 19: 17 - 19) as well as the amicability of his rapport with Roman officials such as Sergius Paulus (Acts 13: 6 - 12) and Festus (Acts 26: 30 - 32). Furthermore, Acts does not include any account of a struggle between Christians and the Roman government as a result of the latter 's imperial cult. Thus Paul is depicted as a moderating presence between the church and the Roman Empire.
On the other hand, events such as the imprisonment of Paul at the hands of the empire (Acts 22 - 28) as well as several encounters that reflect negatively on Roman officials (for instance, Felix 's desire for a bribe from Paul in Acts 24: 26) function as concrete points of conflict between Rome and the early church. Perhaps the most significant point of tension between Roman imperial ideology and Luke 's political vision is reflected in Peter 's speech to the Roman centurion, Cornelius (Acts 10: 36). Peter states that "this one '' (οὗτος), i.e. Jesus, "is lord (κύριος) of all. '' The title, κύριος, was often ascribed to the Roman emperor in antiquity, rendering its use by Luke as an appellation for Jesus an unsubtle challenge to the emperor 's authority. Thus, while the overt relationship between Christianity and empire in the book of Acts can generally be characterized as irenic, Luke insinuates the inevitability of conflict between the two over the issue of ultimate allegiance.
As the second part of the two - part work Luke -- Acts, Acts has significant links to the Gospel of Luke. Major turning points in the structure of Acts, for example, find parallels in Luke: the presentation of the child Jesus in the Temple parallels the opening of Acts in the Temple, Jesus 's forty days of testing in the wilderness prior to his mission parallel the forty days prior to his Ascension in Acts, the mission of Jesus in Samaria and the Decapolis (the lands of the Samaritans and Gentiles) parallels the missions of the Apostles in Samaria and the Gentile lands, and so on (see Gospel of Luke). These parallels continue through both books.
There are also differences between Luke and Acts, amounting at times to outright contradiction. For example, the gospel seems to place the Ascension on Easter Sunday, immediately after the Resurrection, while Acts 1 puts it forty days later. There are similar conflicts over the theology. While not seriously questioning the single authorship of Luke -- Acts, these differences do suggest the need for caution in seeking too much consistency in books written in essence as popular literature.
Acts agrees with Paul 's letters on the major outline of Paul 's career: as Saul he is converted and becomes Paul the Christian missionary and apostle, establishing new churches in Asia Minor and the Aegean and struggling to free Gentile Christians from the Jewish Law. There are also agreements on many incidents, such as Paul 's escape from Damascus, where he is lowered down the walls in a basket. But details of these same incidents are frequently contradictory: for example, according to Paul it was a pagan king who was trying to arrest him in Damascus, but according to Luke it was, characteristically, the Jews (2 Corinthians 11: 33 and Acts 9: 24). Many of the disagreements are not so immediately obvious: Acts speaks of "Christians '' and "disciples '', but Paul never uses either term, and it is striking that Acts never brings Paul into conflict with the Jerusalem church and places Paul under the authority of the Jerusalem church and its leaders, especially James and Peter (Acts 15 vs. Galatians 2). Acts omits much from the letters, notably Paul 's problems with his congregations (internal difficulties are said to be the fault of the Jews instead), and his apparent final rejection by the church leaders in Jerusalem (Acts has Paul and Barnabas deliver an offering that is accepted, a trip that has no mention in the letters). There are also major differences between Acts and Paul on Christology (the understanding of Christ 's nature), eschatology (understanding of the "last things ''), and apostleship.
Many quotations of Old Testament texts can be found in the books of the New Testament. Many forms of comparisons have also been made between the related texts of these two main sections of the Bible. In an intertextual reading of Genesis 1 - 12 and Acts 1 - 7, one may find three parallels in the two narratives in terms of soteriological themes of creation, sin and its curse, and creation of God 's people. The Genesis narrative starts with the creation story, then follows by repeated a sin - curse pattern of pre-ancestral narratives through Genesis 3 to 11. They include the sin and curses of Adam and Eve and the serpent in chapter 3, Cain in chapter 4, the whole of humankind and the flood in chapter 6. A renewed creation was given after the flood, but mankind began sinning again. The narrative continued with two more examples of sin - curse events (Genesis 6 - 11) that ended with God creating a people through Abraham who would "overcome the curse of sin with the blessing of God '' in chapter 12, thus begins the ancestral narratives. We find echoes of these themes in the Book of Acts, but they are presented in a different order. The Book of Acts begins with the ' creation of a people ' theme. We find in chapter 1 the disciples asking the resurrected Jesus a question before his ascension to heaven. They asked him "Lord, is this the time when you will restore the kingdom to Israel? '' (Acts 1: 6). Jesus told them not to worry about times, but they would receive power from the Holy Spirit and they would be his "witnesses in Jerusalem, in all Judea and Samaria, and to the ends of the earth. '' (Acts 1: 8). Jesus ' answer may look like an expansion of the defined ' God 's people ', but it can also be a correction of a false perspective or a misleading emphasis as is articulated by the question asked. It serves as a correction because in the account of God creating a people in Genesis 12, God promises to bless Abraham and in Abraham, "all the families of the earth shall be blessed. '' (Genesis 12: 3). The ' new creation ' theme follows in Acts 2 with "a sound like the rush of a violent wind ''. (Acts 2: 2). It is interesting to compare this verse with "a wind from God swept over the face of the earth '' (Genesis 1: 2) of the story of the Creation, and "God made a wind blow over the earth '' (Genesis 8: 1) as the end of the rain that made the flood in the story of Noah and the Ark. It is also interesting to find that after the new creation of Acts, there is a reversal of sin and its curse compared to the sin - curse sequence of Genesis. After the post-flood recreation was the curse of multiplication of languages in the Babel episode in Genesis 11, where there was "confusion of tongues ''. Acts reverses this curse in the event of the Pentecost with "gift of tongues ''. We may also find other examples of these sin - curse reversals like that of the comparisons between Noah 's drunkenness and the disciples being sober when the observers thought of them to have been drunk, and that of death coming to Eve and Adam compared to salvation being promised after the new creation in the Book of Acts. The ' sin and curse ' theme comes last in Acts in this comparison. It seems that humanity can not be freed from sin at all. We find sin returned. Ananias and Sapphira lied to God (Acts 5) and reminds us of Eve believing in the serpent 's lie. The punishment was death. Before this Ananias event, the church was in perfect unity (Acts 2: 42 - 47; 4: 32 - 37). But after this event we see the church began to experience disunity and unclear communication (Acts 6: 1). We are reminded of the Babel event.
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who is the bad guy in i know what you did last summer | I Know What You Did Last Summer - wikipedia
I Know What You Did Last Summer is a 1997 American slasher film directed by Jim Gillespie, written by Kevin Williamson, and starring Jennifer Love Hewitt, Sarah Michelle Gellar, Ryan Phillippe, and Freddie Prinze Jr., with Anne Heche, Bridgette Wilson, and Johnny Galecki appearing in supporting roles. Loosely based on the 1973 novel of the same name by Lois Duncan, the film centers on four young friends who are stalked by a hook - wielding killer one year after covering up a car accident in which they were involved. The film also draws inspiration from the urban legend known as the Hook.
After having written Scream (released in 1996), Williamson was approached to adapt Duncan 's source novel by producer Erik Feig. Where Williamson 's screenplay for Scream contained prominent elements of satire and self - referentiality, his adaptation of I Know What You Did Last Summer reworked the novel 's central plot to resemble a straightforward 1980s - era slasher film. Shot on location in both California and North Carolina in the spring of 1997, I Know What You Did Last Summer was released theatrically in the North America on October 17, 1997. It received varied reviews from critics but was commercially successful, grossing $72 million domestically, and remaining at number 1 on the U.S. box office for three consecutive weeks. It would go on to gross an additional $53 million in foreign markets, making for a total of over $125 million in international box office returns. It also was nominated for and won multiple awards.
The film was followed by two sequels, I Still Know What You Did Last Summer (1998) and the straight - to - DVD release I 'll Always Know What You Did Last Summer (2006). Though the former film has a continuation of the plotline established in its predecessor, the latter film establishes a new plotline and does not star any cast members from the previous two installments. I Know What You Did Last Summer has also been parodied and referenced in popular culture, and credited alongside Scream with revitalizing the contemporary slasher film in the late - 1990s.
On the Fourth of July 1996 in Southport, North Carolina, high school graduates Julie James, Ray Bronson, Helen Shivers, and Barry Cox drive to the beach after a night of partying. While driving along a coastal byway, they accidentally hit a pedestrian. Julie 's friend Max passes by them on the road. Julie reassures Max that everything is all right, and he leaves. After some arguing, the group decides to dispose of the body, dumping it in the water. They agree to never again discuss what had happened.
A year later, Julie returns home from her college in Boston for the summer. Since the incident, the friends have gone their separate ways. Julie receives a letter with no return address, stating, "I know what you did last summer! '' Disturbed, Julie tracks down Helen, who has returned to Southport to work at her family 's department store after a failed attempt at an acting career in New York City. The girls take the note to Barry, who immediately suspects Max. They confront Max on the docks, and Barry threatens him with a hook. Julie meets Ray, who is now working as a fisherman; he unsuccessfully tries to reconcile with her. Later, Max is killed by a figure in a rain slicker wielding a hook. Barry discovers a note in his gym locker saying, "I know. '' He is then ambushed by the same assailant driving Barry 's car.
Meanwhile, Julie researches newspaper articles which lead her to believe the man they ran over was a local named David Egan. Helen and Julie go to visit with David 's sister Missy at her home. Missy explains to them that their family was devastated by David 's death; she also mentions that a friend of David 's named Billy Blue also visited her to pay his last respects. Later that night, the killer sneaks into Helen 's house, cuts off her hair while she sleeps, and writes "Soon '' in lipstick on her vanity mirror.
The following morning, Julie finds Max 's corpse wearing Barry 's stolen jacket in the trunk of her car. When she calls the others, the body is missing. Julie, Helen, and Barry confront Ray about the recent events. Ray claims to have received a threatening letter as well. Julie goes back to visit Missy, while Barry and Helen go to participate in the Fourth of July parade. Missy reveals David allegedly committed suicide out of guilt for the death of his girlfriend Susie in a car accident and shows David 's suicide note to Julie. As the writing matches that of the note she received, Julie realizes it was not a suicide note, but a death threat.
At the Croaker Beauty Pageant, Helen witnesses Barry being murdered on the balcony. She rushes upstairs with a police officer but finds no sign of the killer or Barry. A police officer escorts Helen home, but the killer lures him into an alley and murders him. Helen flees to her nearby family store, where her sister Elsa is closing for the night. The killer enters the store and murders Elsa. Helen is chased to the third floor of the building and escapes through a window, falling to a long alleyway. She manages to run toward the street, but the killer stops her and slashes her to death, her screams being drowned out by the sound of the oncoming parade.
Julie finds an article mentioning Susie 's father, Ben Willis, and realizes that Ben was the man they ran over, moments after he had killed David to avenge his daughter. She then goes to the docks to tell Ray, but he refuses to believe her. Julie notices Ray 's boat is called Billy Blue and runs away. Ben appears, knocking Ray unconscious, and invites Julie to hide on his boat. On the boat, she finds photos and articles about her friends and her, and pictures of Susie. Ben 's boat leaves the docks, and he begins tormenting Julie, chasing her below deck; there, she uncovers the bodies of Helen and Barry in the boat 's ice box. Ray regains consciousness and steals a motorboat to rescue Julie. He ultimately uses the rigging to sever Ben 's hand and send him overboard. When the police question them, they deny knowing why Ben attempted to kill them, but they are relieved not to have actually killed anybody the previous summer, and reconcile.
A year later, Julie is in college in Boston. As she enters the shower, she notices the words "I still know '' on the mirror. Moments later, a dark figure crashes through it.
I Know What You Did Last Summer was a screenplay penned by Kevin Williamson several years beforehand, which was then rushed into production by Columbia Pictures upon the success of the Williamson - written Scream (1996). It was based on the 1973 novel of the same name by Lois Duncan, a youth - oriented suspense novel about four young people who are involved in a hit - and - run accident involving a young boy. Producer Erik Feig pitched the idea of a screen adaptation to Mandalay Entertainment, and subsequently appointed Williamson to retool the core elements of Duncan 's novel, rendering a screenplay more akin to a 1980s slasher film. Inspired by his father, who had been a commercial fisherman, Williamson changed the setting of the novel to a small fishing village, and made the villain a hook - wielding fisherman.
The killer 's arming of himself with a hook is a reference to the urban legend "The Hook, '' which the four main characters recount at the beginning of the film around a campfire. According to Williamson, he wrote the scene as a way of indicating what was to come: "Basically what I was doing was I was setting the framework to say, ' Alright, audience: That 's that legend. Now here 's a new one. ' '' Unlike Williamson 's screenplay for the film 's contemporary, Scream (1996), which incorporated satire of the slasher film, I Know What You Did Last Summer was written more as a straightforward slasher film. Gillespie commented in 2008: "The joy of this film for me as a filmmaker was in taking (the) elements that we 've seen before, and saying to the audience: ' Here 's something you 've seen before ' -- knowing that they 're saying ' We 've seen this before ' -- and still getting them to jump. '' Gillespie also claimed that he felt Williamson 's screenplay did not resemble a "slasher horror movie, '' and that he saw it rather as simply "a really good story '' with a morality tale embedded within it.
According to producer Stokely Chaffin, the producers sought out actors who were "beautiful, but likable. '' Director Gillespie recalled that, though he had been unfamiliar with the screenplay 's source material, that "roughly 60 to 65 % '' of the young women auditioning had read the novel as children. Jennifer Love Hewitt, who at the time was mainly known for her role on the television series Party of Five, was cast in the lead of Julie James based on her "ability to project vulnerability, '' which the producers, director Gillespie, and writer Williamson unanimously agreed upon. Initially, Hewitt was considered for the role of Helen. For the role of Barry, the crew had envisioned an actor with a "6 ft 2 in (1.88 m) quarterback '' appearance, as the character had been written as an intimidating figure. Ryan Phillipe was ultimately cast in the part based on his audition, despite the fact that he was not as physically tall as the script had called for. Director Gillespie chose Freddie Prinze, Jr. for the role of Ray, because he felt Prinze himself had an "everyman '' quality much like the character.
Sarah Michelle Gellar was the last of the lead performers to be cast in the role of Helen. Like Hewitt, Gellar was also known to American audiences at the time for her roles in television, primarily as the titular Buffy Summers on Buffy the Vampire Slayer. Gillespie commented on casting Gellar: "I wanted an actress that had a warmth to her, but could still come off as being a bitch. '' For the supporting role of Missy, Gillespie sought an actress with significant screen presence, as the character, despite appearing in only two scenes, is central to several major plot points. Anne Heche was cast in the role, which she recalled as being two days ' worth of work that required her to "be scary. ''
Scottish director Jim Gillespie was hired to direct the film after being suggested by writer Williamson. Star Hewitt would later state in 2008 that Gillespie was to date her "favorite director (she 's) ever worked with. '' Principal photography began on March 31, 1997 and took place over a period of ten weeks throughout the late spring - early summer of 1997. Approximately seven weeks of the ten - week shoot took place at night, which Gillespie says was difficult for the cast and crew, and also created commotion in primary small - town locations in which they shot. Gillespie devised a color scheme with cinematographer Denis Crossan which was marked by heavy blues throughout, and a notable lack of bright colors.
For the beginning of the film, coastal areas of Sonoma County, California stood in for North Carolina, where the film is set. The opening shots of the sun setting on a rugged coast were filmed at Kolmer Gulch, just north of the town of Jenner, on Highway 1. The car crash scene was also filmed on Highway 1 in the same area. The scene in which the four friends are seated around a campfire on the beach next to a wrecked boat was inspired by a painting Gillespie had seen in a reference book; to achieve the image, the art department purchased an old boat in Bodega Bay, cut it in half, and placed it at the beach location.
The remaining scenes were filmed primarily around the town of Southport, North Carolina. Specific sites included the Amuzu Theater, where the beauty pageant is held, the Old Yacht Basin and Southport Fish Company. Julie 's house is on Short Street just north of Southport Marina. The daytime sequences shot on the marina show multiple vessels traversing the water; though real vessels, the boat traffic was orchestrated by a marine traffic coordinator to make the waterway appear lively. The Shivers Department Store setting in the film was discovered on location in Southport by director Gillespie, who was so impressed by the location that he reworked elements of the script in order to incorporate it into the film; it eventually became the primary setting for Helen 's extended chase sequence with the killer. The exterior sequences of Julie 's Boston college campus were in fact shot at Duke University, while the hospital sequence was filmed at Southport 's Dosher Memorial Hospital in an unused wing of the hospital.
The final sequence on the boat was shot on an actual water - bound vessel on the Cape Fear River, which proved difficult for the actors and crew. According to Gillespie, the filmmakers nearly lost the boat while attempting to dock it due to the volatile waters, after which they were forced to leave and shoot other footage until the following day.
Gillespie chose to film virtually no onscreen blood as he did not want the film to be overly gratuitous in terms of violence. The scene in which Elsa has her throat slashed while standing against a glass door had originally been shot from behind without any blood appearing on the glass; however, producer Feig worried that the scene appeared "medically impossible, '' after which Gillespie re-shot it (post-principal photography) with a visual effect of blood spattering across the glass. Upon test screenings of the film, Gillespie and the producers decided that a death sequence needed to occur earlier in the film to establish a sense of legitimate danger for the main characters. The scene in which Max is murdered in the crab factory was subsequently filmed and implemented into the final cut to achieve this (in the original script, his character was not killed).
The original ending of the film featured a sequence in which Julie receives an email reading: "I Still Know. '' This ending was scrapped for the more dramatic ending featured in the final cut of the film, in which Julie finds the same message scrawled on a shower stall just before the killer comes crashing through the glass. This footage was also shot after principal photography, on a soundstage next - door to where Hewitt was filming Party of Five.
In anticipation of the film 's release, distributor Columbia Pictures began a summer marketing campaign that presented the film as being "From the creator of Scream. '' Miramax Pictures subsequently filed a lawsuit against Columbia, arguing the claim was inaccurate as the director of Scream was Wes Craven, not Williamson. The week following the film 's theatrical release, a federal judge awarded Miramax an injunction requiring that Columbia remove the claim from their advertising campaign. Williamson had requested its removal prior after seeing it on a theater poster.
Miramax won a subsequent lawsuit against Columbia during a March 1998 hearing; in a press release, executive Bob Weinstein noted plans to "vigorously pursue '' damage claims against Columbia Pictures for their use of the claim.
I Know What You Did Last Summer opened theatrically in North America on October 17, 1997. In its opening weekend, it grossed $15,818,645 in 2,524 theaters in the United States and Canada, ranking number one; it remained in the number one position for an additional two weekends. By the end of its theatrical run in December 1997, it had grossed $72,586,134 domestically and $53 million internationally for a worldwide total of $126 million.
According to data compiled by Box Office Mojo, I Know What You Did Last Summer is the sixth highest - grossing horror slasher film as of 2018.
Note (s): Box office ranking as of April 2018.
The film received mixed reviews upon release, inevitably drawing both positive and negative comparisons to Scream, also written by Williamson. Mick LaSalle thought it inferior to Scream, but Richard Harrington compared it favorably, stating that it was "... a smart, sharply drawn genre film with a moral center and a solid cast of young actors to hold it. '' Variety was also enthusiastic, calling it a "polished genre piece with superior fright elements that should perform at better than average theatrical levels. '' Critic Roger Ebert gave the film one of four stars and wrote in his review, "The best shot in this film is the first one. Not a good sign. '' An Entertainment Weekly columnist praised Hewitt 's performance, noting that Hewitt knows how to "scream with soul. ''
Lawrence Van Gelder of The New York Times wrote of the film: "This is n't real life. It 's the Grand Guignol of I Know What You Did Last Summer, laying its claim to succeed Scream as a high - grossing, blood - drenched date - night crowd - pleaser. And why should n't it? '' James Kendrick of the Q Network wrote that ' Williamson 's characters are all generic types, but they 're still believable as people and they react realistically according to the situations, '' adding that the film was "head and shoulders above earlier "dead teenager movies. '' '' TV Guide 's Maitland McDonagh awarded the film two out of five stars, noting: "Scream screenwriter Kevin Williamson takes a step back and writes the kind of movie Scream mocks. You can see him now, soaking up videos of Friday the 13th and Halloween -- not to mention the lesser likes of He Knows You 're Alone, Terror Train, and My Bloody Valentine -- and saying, "I can do that! '' And he can. ''
Critic James Berardinelli credited the film (along with Scream) as igniting a new boom of slasher films, adding: "There is one minor aspect of the plot that elevates I Know What You Did Last Summer above the level of a typical ' 80s slasher flick -- it has an interesting subtext. I 'm referring to the way the lives and friendships of these four individuals crumble in the wake of their accident. Guilt, confusion, and doubt build in them until they can no longer stand to be with each other or look at themselves in the mirror. Sadly, this potentially - fascinating element of the movie is dismissed quickly to facilitate a higher body count. And, as I said before, a few extra deaths can only make a slasher movie better, right? ''
Film scholar Adam Rockoff notes in his book Going to Pieces: The Rise and Fall of the Slasher Film, 1978 -- 1986 that at the time of its release, many critics branded I Know What You Did Last Summer as an imitation of Scream; however, he contends that it is a "much different film, '' even in spite of the fact that their respective screenplays were penned by the same writer:
Whereas Scream relied heavily on self - conscious references and its pop culture veneer, Last Summer was a throwback to the slasher films of the early ' 80s. While, like Scream, it employed the services of a group of young, sexy and almost impossibly good - looking actors, Last Summer played its horror straight. Those looking for a good old - fashioned slasher film were pleasantly surprised.
On the review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, the film has a 35 % approval rating. Metacritic reported an aggregate score of 52 out of 100 based on 17 reviews. Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "B - '' on an A+ to F scale.
The film produced two soundtracks. One of them featured the score composed by John Debney, while the other contained various rock songs found in the film.
Additional songs featured in the film (but not on a soundtrack):
The film was released on DVD by Columbia TriStar Home Video in the US on June 16, 1998. Special features included a theatrical trailer and filmmaker 's commentary.
Sony Pictures Home Entertainment released the film on Blu - ray for the first time on July 22, 2008, with additional special features including the director 's short film, Joyride. On September 30, 2014, Mill Creek Entertainment re-released the film on Blu - ray as a budget disc, featuring the film alone with no bonus materials.
The film was followed by two sequels: I Still Know What You Did Last Summer (1998) and I 'll Always Know What You Did Last Summer (2006), which went direct - to - video. Both were critically panned. In the first sequel, Jennifer Love Hewitt, Freddie Prinze Jr., and Muse Watson reprise their roles. The second sequel has very little relation to the first two, other than the premise, the villain, and the producers. It featured new characters and a different setting.
On September 14, 2014, Sony reported that they have plans to remake the film; Mike Flanagan and Jeff Howard are writing a script. In a June 1, 2016, Blumhouse.com "Shockwaves '' podcast, writer Mike Flanagan revealed and further confirmed this new iteration and reimagination of the franchise would not have any inventions of the Lois Duncan novel (the antagonist being a central character) nor the 1997 feature (the fisherman Ben Willis and four primary protagonists Julie James, Helen Shivers, Barry Cox, and Ray Bronson). Further, the new direction and scope of the film necessitates an estimated budget of $15 -- 20 million. Sony also states that the film is a high priority and is set for a release somewhere between 2017 and 2020.
I Know What You Did Last Summer has been referenced in various films and television series, and its central plot was parodied at length in the spoof film Scary Movie (2000).
It was also spoofed in The Simpsons ' "Treehouse of Horror X. ''
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when did they stop making white wall tires | Whitewall tire - wikipedia
Whitewall tires or white sidewall (WSW) tires are tires having a stripe or entire sidewall of white rubber. These tires were most commonly used from the early 1900s to around the mid 1970s.
The use of whitewall rubber for wheels has been traced to a small tire company in Chicago called Vogue Tyre and Rubber Co that made them for their horse and chauffeur drawn carriages in 1914.
Early automobile tires were made of pure natural rubber with various chemicals mixed into the tread compounds to make them wear better. The best of these was zinc oxide, a pure white substance that increased traction and also made the entire tire white. However, the white rubber did not offer sufficient endurance, so carbon black was added to the rubber to greatly increase tread life. Using carbon black only in the tread produced tires with inner and outer sidewalls of white rubber. Later, entirely black tires became available, the still extant white sidewalls being covered with a somewhat thin, black colored layer of rubber. Should a black sidewall tire have been severely scuffed against a curb, the underlying white rubber would be revealed; it is in a similar manner that raised white letter (RWL) tires are made.
The status of whitewall tires versus blackwall tires was originally the reverse of what it later became, with fully black tires requiring a greater amount of carbon black and less effort to maintain a clean appearance these were considered the premium tire; since the black tires first became available they were commonly fitted to many luxury cars through the 1930s. During the late - 1920s gleaming whitewalls contrasted against darker surroundings were considered a stylish, but high - maintenance feature. The popularity of whitewalls as an option increased during the 1930s. On April 6, 1934, Ford introduced whitewall tires as an $11.25 option on all its new cars. Automobile designs incorporating streamlining eventually rendered the two - sided whitewall obsolete.
The availability of whitewall tires was limited in the U.S. during the supply shortages of raw materials during World War II and the Korean War.
Wide whitewall tires reached their zenith in popularity by the early - 1950s. The 1957 production version of the Cadillac Eldorado Brougham was fitted with whitewalls that were reduced to a 1 '' wide stripe floating on the tire sidewall with a black area between this stripe and the wheel rim. The whitewall stripe width began to diminish as an attempt to reduce the perceived height of the wheel / tire. During the decade, increasingly lower vehicle heights were in vogue. During the 1950s, Fender skirts also covered up white wall tires.
Wide whitewalls generally fell out of favor in the U.S. by the 1962 model year. They continued as an option on the Lincoln Continental for some time thereafter but most common were narrower 3 / 4 "- 1 '' stripe whitewalls. During the mid-1960s variations on the striped whitewall began to appear; a red / white stripe combination was offered on Thunderbirds and other high - end Fords, and triple white stripe variations were offered on Cadillacs, Lincolns, and Imperials. Whitewall tires were a popular option on new cars during the 1950s and 1960s, as well as in the replacement market. In some cases, having whitewall tires were a "must have '' to get the right look on a car; and for those who could not afford the real deal, add - ons could be installed over the rim of the wheel that could leak if the pressure was too high.
New tires were wrapped in paper for shipping, to keep the white stripe clean, and for preventing the black of other tires from rubbing on the whitewall side. Maintaining a clean sidewall was an issue. Some motorists added aftermarket "curb feelers '' that were attached at the bottom of the wheel opening lip to help reduce scraping the whitewall tire against curbs.
By 1968, wide whitewall tires were no longer available on the Chevrolet Corvette; replaced by F70x15 bias - ply nylon cord tires with thin stripes, either a narrow white or narrow red stripe.
The single - sided whitewall remained a desirable option through the 1970s, becoming a hallmark of "traditional luxury ''. Radial tires made by Vogue Tyre featured a narrow whitewall with a thin gold stripe line toward the edge of the tire. They were most often fitted to luxury cars.
Full - fledged wide whitewalls had made a return within the modified car culture. The resurgence of traditional hot rods, customs, retro, lowriders and resto - cal cars have also contributed to the resurgence in whitewall tires.
Although wide whitewalls are virtually nonexistent as a factory option on modern automobiles, they are still manufactured in original bias - ply or radial form by specialty outlets such as Coker Tire and Vogue Tyre. The last car available in the United Kingdom with whitewall tires was the Kia Pride. Some companies manufacture wide whitewall inserts - the so - called "Portawall '' inserts are usually sold through Volkswagen Beetle restoration companies. Another modern incarnation has been tire decals, which can be applied to a normal tire to give the whitewall look.
Modern trends toward more minimal styling, and large wheels favoring very low - profile tires leave little room for a whitewall. The Lincoln Town Car continued to be offered with a factory whitewall option -- a narrow white stripe -- until its discontinuation in 2010. It is not currently offered as a factory option by any car manufacturer, but it is possible to order white walls for motorcycles (for example, the Indian Chief 2014).
Cars with whitewall tires:
1904 Auburn with very difficult to clean all white rubber tires
1913 American Underslung featured all white tires during its era
1915 Indian Big Twin with standard white rubber tires
Firestone Deluxe Champion Whitewall sparetire (with thick white band) on a 1932 Nash Coupe
Wide whitewall tires were popular on premium automobiles
1956 Oldsmobile Super 88 with Coker Classic whitewall tires
The white stripes on tires became narrower as the 1960s progressed
Narrow gold stripe performance tire from the 1960s
Redline tires were commonly fitted on performance cars in the late 1960s
Buick Electra with white stripe tire partially covered by a fender skirt
Narrow stripe white wall tires were common throughout the 1970s and into the early 1980s, some luxury carmakers still offered them late into the 1990s
A variation with white letters on the sidewall found on muscle car tires, these are still used on modern SUVs
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why the pharaohs of the new kingdom were buried in the valley of the kings | Valley of the Kings - wikipedia
Coordinates: 25 ° 44 ′ 27 '' N 32 ° 36 ′ 8 '' E / 25.74083 ° N 32.60222 ° E / 25.74083; 32.60222
The Valley of the Kings (Arabic: وادي الملوك Wādī al Mulūk, Coptic: ϫⲏⲙⲉ), the Valley of the Gates of the Kings (Arabic: وادي ابواب الملوك Wādī Abwāb al Mulūk), is a valley in Egypt where, for a period of nearly 500 years from the 16th to 11th century BC, rock cut tombs were excavated for the Pharaohs and powerful nobles of the New Kingdom (the Eighteenth to the Twentieth Dynasties of Ancient Egypt).
The valley stands on the west bank of the Nile, opposite Thebes (modern Luxor), within the heart of the Theban Necropolis. The wadi consists of two valleys, East Valley (where the majority of the royal tombs are situated) and West Valley.
With the 2005 discovery of a new chamber and the 2008 discovery of two further tomb entrances, the valley is known to contain 63 tombs and chambers (ranging in size from KV54, a simple pit, to KV5, a complex tomb with over 120 chambers). It was the principal burial place of the major royal figures of the Egyptian New Kingdom, as well as a number of privileged nobles. The royal tombs are decorated with scenes from Egyptian mythology and give clues as to the beliefs and funerary rituals of the period. Almost all of the tombs seem to have been opened and robbed in antiquity, but they still give an idea of the opulence and power of the Pharaohs.
This area has been a focus of archaeological and egyptological exploration since the end of the eighteenth century, and its tombs and burials continue to stimulate research and interest. In modern times the valley has become famous for the discovery of the tomb of Tutankhamun (with its rumours of the Curse of the Pharaohs), and is one of the most famous archaeological sites in the world. In 1979, it became a World Heritage Site, along with the rest of the Theban Necropolis. Exploration, excavation and conservation continues in the valley, and a new tourist centre has recently been opened.
The types of soil where the Valley of the Kings is located are an alternating sandwich of dense limestone and other sedimentary rock (which form the cliffs in the valley and the nearby Deir el - Bahri) and soft layers of marl. The sedimentary rock was originally deposited between 35 -- 56 million years ago during a time when the precursor to the Mediterranean Sea covered an area that extended much further inland than it does today. During the Pleistocene the valley was carved out of the plateau by steady rains. There is currently little year - round rain in this part of Egypt, but there are occasional flash floods that hit the valley, dumping tons of debris into the open tombs.
The quality of the rock in the Valley is inconsistent, ranging from finely - grained to coarse stone, the latter with the potential to be structurally unsound. The occasional layer of shale also caused construction and conservation difficulties, as this rock expands in the presence of water, forcing apart the stone surrounding it. It is thought that some tombs were altered in shape and size depending on the types of rock the builders encountered.
Builders took advantage of available geological features when constructing the tombs. Some tombs were quarried out of existing limestone clefts, others behind slopes of scree, or were at the edge of rock spurs created by ancient flood channels.
The problems of tomb construction can be seen with tombs of Ramesses III and his father Setnakhte. Setnakhte started to excavate KV11 but broke into the tomb of Amenmesse, so construction was abandoned and he instead usurped the tomb of Twosret, KV14. When looking for a tomb, Ramesses III extended the partly - excavated tomb started by his father. The tomb of Ramesses II returned to an early style, with a bent axis, probably due to the quality of the rock being excavated (following the Esna shale).
Between 1998 and 2002 the Amarna Royal Tombs Project investigated the valley floor using ground - penetrating radar and found that, below the modern surface, the Valley 's cliffs descend beneath the scree in a series of abrupt, natural "shelves '', arranged one below the other, descending several metres down to the bedrock in the valley floor.
The area of the Theban hills is subject to infrequent violent thunder storms, causing flash floods in the valley. Recent studies have shown that there are at least seven active flood stream beds leading down into the central area of the valley. This central area appears to have been flooded at the end of the Eighteenth Dynasty, with several tombs buried under metres of debris. The tombs KV63, KV62, and KV55 are dug into the actual wadi bedrock rather than the debris, showing that the level of the valley was five meters below its present level. After this event later dynasties leveled the floor of the valley, making the floods deposit their load further down the valley, and the buried tombs were forgotten and only discovered in the early 20th century. This was the area that was the subject of the Amarna Royal Tombs Project ground scanning radar investigation, which showed several anomalies, one of which was proved to be KV63.
The Theban Hills are dominated by the peak of al - Qurn, known to the Ancient Egyptians as ta dehent, or ' The Peak '. It has a pyramid - shaped appearance, and it is probable that this echoed the pyramids of the Old Kingdom, more than a thousand years prior to the first royal burials carved here. Its isolated position also resulted in reduced access, and special tomb police (the Medjay) were able to guard the necropolis.
While the iconic pyramid complexes of the Giza plateau have come to symbolize ancient Egypt, the majority of tombs were cut into rock. Most pyramids and mastabas contain sections which are cut into ground level, and there are full rock - cut tombs in Egypt that date back to the Old Kingdom.
After the defeat of the Hyksos and the reunification of Egypt under Ahmose I, the Theban rulers began to construct elaborate tombs that reflected their newfound power. The tombs of Ahmose and his son Amenhotep I (their exact location remains unknown) were probably in the Seventeenth Dynasty necropolis of Dra ' Abu el - Naga '. The first royal tombs in the valley were those of Amenhotep I (although this identification is also disputed), and Thutmose I, whose advisor, Ineni, notes in his tomb that he advised the king to place his tomb in the desolate valley (the identity of this actual tomb is unclear, but it is probably KV20 or KV38).
I saw to the excavation of the rock - tomb of his majesty, alone, no one seeing, no one hearing.
The Valley was used for primary burials from approximately 1539 BC to 1075 BC. It contains at least 63 tombs, beginning with Thutmose I (or possibly earlier, during the reign of Amenhotep I) and ending with Ramesses X or XI, although non-Royal burials continued in usurped tombs.
Despite its name, the Valley of the Kings also contains the tombs of favorite nobles as well as the wives and children of both nobles and pharaohs. Therefore, only about 20 of the tombs actually contain the remains of kings. The remains of nobles and of the royal family, together with unmarked pits and embalming caches, make up the rest. Around the time of Ramesses I (ca. 1301 BC) construction commenced in the separate Valley of the Queens.
The official name for the site in ancient times was The Great and Majestic Necropolis of the Millions of Years of the Pharaoh, Life, Strength, Health in The West of Thebes (see below for the hieroglyphic spelling), or Ta - sekhet - ma'at (the Great Field).
At the start of the Eighteenth Dynasty, only kings were buried within the valley in large tombs. When a non-royal person was buried, it was in a small rock cut chamber, close to the tomb of their master. Amenhotep III 's tomb was constructed in the Western Valley, and while his son Akhenaten moved his tomb 's construction to Amarna, it is thought that the unfinished WV25 may have originally been intended for him. With the return to religious orthodoxy at the end of the Eighteenth Dynasty, Tutankhamun, Ay, and Horemheb returned to the royal necropolis.
The Nineteenth and Twentieth Dynasties saw an increase in the number of burials (both here and in the Valley of the Queens), with Ramesses II and later Ramesses III constructing a massive tomb that was used for the burial of their sons (KV5 and KV3 respectively). There are some kings that are not buried within the valley or whose tomb has not been located: Thutmose II may have been buried in Dra ' Abu el - Naga ' (although his mummy was in the Deir el - Bahri tomb cache), Smenkhkare 's burial has never been located, and Ramesses VIII seems to have been buried elsewhere.
In the Pyramid Age, the tomb of the king was associated with a mortuary temple located close to the pyramid. As the tomb of the king was hidden, this mortuary temple was located away from the burial, closer to the cultivation facing toward Thebes. These mortuary temples became places visited during the various festivals held in the Theban necropolis. Most notable is the Beautiful festival of the valley, where the sacred barques of Amun - Re, his consort, Mut, and son, Khonsu, left the temple at Karnak in order to visit the funerary temples of deceased kings on the West Bank and their shrines in the Theban Necropolis.
The tombs were constructed and decorated by the workers of the village of Deir el - Medina, located in a small wadi between this valley and the Valley of the Queens, facing Thebes. The workers journeyed to the tombs through various routes over the Theban hills. The daily lives of these workers are quite well known and are recorded in tombs and official documents. Amongst the events documented is perhaps the first recorded worker 's strike, detailed in the Turin strike papyrus.
The area has been a major focus of modern Egyptological exploration for the last two centuries. Prior to this time it was a site for tourism in antiquity (especially during Roman times). This area illustrates the changes in the study of ancient Egypt, starting as antiquity hunting, and ending as scientific excavation of the whole Theban Necropolis. Despite the exploration and investigation noted below, only eleven of the tombs have actually been completely recorded.
Many of the tombs have graffiti written by these ancient tourists. Jules Baillet has located over 2,100 Greek and Latin instances of graffiti, along with a smaller number in Phoenician, Cypriot, Lycian, Coptic, and other languages. The majority of the ancient graffiti is found in KV9, which contains just under a thousand of them. The earliest positively dated graffiti dates to 278 B.C.
In 1799, members of Napoleon 's expedition to Egypt (especially Dominique Vivant) drew maps and plans of the known tombs, and for the first time noted the Western Valley (where Prosper Jollois and Édouard de Villiers du Terrage located the tomb of Amenhotep III, WV22). The Description de l'Égypte contains two volumes (out of a total of 24) on the area around Thebes.
European exploration continued in the area around Thebes during the nineteenth century, boosted by Champollion 's translation of hieroglyphs. Early in the century, the area was visited by Belzoni, working for Henry Salt, who discovered several tombs, including those of Ay in the West Valley (WV23) in 1816 and Seti I (KV17) the following year. At the end of his visits, Belzoni declared that all of the tombs had been located and nothing of note remained to be found. Working at the same time (and a great rival of Belzoni and Salt) was Bernardino Drovetti, the French Consul - General.
When Gaston Maspero was reappointed as head of the Egyptian Antiquities Service, the nature of the exploration of the valley changed again. Maspero appointed English archaeologist Howard Carter as the Chief Inspector of Upper Egypt, and the young man discovered several new tombs and explored several others, clearing KV42 and KV20.
Around the start of the 20th century American explorer Theodore M. Davis had the excavation permit in this valley. His team (led mostly by Edward R. Ayrton) discovered several royal and non-royal tombs (including KV43, KV46 and KV57). In 1907 they discovered the possible Amarna Period cache in KV55. After finding what they thought was all that remained of the burial of Tutankhamun (items recovered from KV54 and KV58), it was announced that the valley was completely explored and that no further burials were to be found. Davis 's 1912 publication, The Tombs of Harmhabi and Touatânkhamanou closes with the comment, "I fear that the Valley of Kings is now exhausted. ''
After Davis 's death early in 1915, Lord Carnarvon acquired the concession to excavate the valley, and he employed Howard Carter to explore it. After a systematic search, they discovered the actual tomb of Tutankhamun (KV62) in November 1922.
Various expeditions have continued to explore the valley, adding greatly to the knowledge of the area. In 2001 the Theban Mapping Project designed new signs for the tombs, providing information and plans of the open tombs.
A map of the Valley of the Kings with locations of tombs marked
The earliest tombs were located in cliffs at the top of scree slopes, under storm - fed waterfalls (KV34 and KV43). As these locations were filled, burials descended to the valley floor, gradually moving back up the slopes as the valley bottom filled with debris. This explains the location of the tombs KV62 and KV63 buried in the valley floor.
The usual tomb plan consisted of a long inclined rock - cut corridor, descending through one or more halls (possibly mirroring the descending path of the sun god into the underworld) to the burial chamber. In the earlier tombs, the corridors turn 90 degrees at least once (such as KV43, the tomb of Thutmose IV), and the earliest ones had cartouche - shaped burial chambers (for example, KV43, the tomb of Thutmose IV). This layout is known as ' Bent Axis ', After the burial the upper corridors were meant to be filled with rubble and the entrance to the tomb hidden. After the Amarna Period, the layout gradually straightened, with an intermediate ' Jogged Axis ' (the tomb of Horemheb, KV57 is typical of this and is one of the tombs that is sometimes open to the public), to the generally ' Straight Axis ' of the late Nineteenth and Twentieth Dynasty tombs (Ramesses III 's and Ramesses IX 's tombs, KV11 and KV6 respectively). As the tombs ' axes straightened, the slopes also lessened. They almost disappeared in the late Twentieth Dynasty. Another feature that is common to most tombs is the ' well ', which may have originated as an actual barrier intended to stop flood waters from entering the lower parts of the tomb. It seems to have developed a ' magical ' purpose later on as a symbolic shaft. In the later Twentieth Dynasty, the well itself was sometimes not excavated, but the well room was still present.
The majority of the royal tombs were decorated with religious texts and images. The early tombs were decorated with scenes from Amduat (' That Which is in the Underworld '), which describes the journey of the sun god through the twelve hours of the night. From the time of Horemheb, tombs were decorated with the Book of Gates, which shows the sun god passing through the twelve gates that divide the nighttime and ensures the tomb owner 's own safe passage through the night. These earliest tombs were generally sparsely decorated, and those of a non-royal nature were totally undecorated.
Late in the Nineteenth Dynasty the Book of Caverns, which divided the underworld into massive caverns containing deities as well as the deceased waiting for the sun to pass through and restore them to life, was placed in the upper parts of tombs. A complete version appears in the tomb of Ramesses VI. The burial of Ramesses III saw the Book of the Earth, where the underworld is divided into four sections, climaxing in the sun disc being pulled from the earth by Naunet.
The ceilings of the burial chambers were decorated (from the burial of Seti I onwards) with what became formalised as the Book of the Heavens, which again describes the sun 's journey through the twelve hours of night. Again from Seti I 's time, the Litany of Re, a lengthy hymn to the sun god began to appear.
Each burial was provided with equipment that would enable a comfortable existence in the afterlife. Also present in the tombs were items used to perform magic rituals, such as Shabtis and divine figurines. Some equipment was what the king may have used during his lifetime (Tutankhamun 's sandals for example), and some was specially constructed for the burial.
The modern abbreviation "KV '' stands for "Kings ' Valley '', and the tombs are numbered according to their order of ' discovery ', from KV1 (Rameses VII) to KV64 (discovered in 2012). Since the early 19th century AD, antiquarians and archaeologists have cleared and recorded tombs, with a total of 61 sepulchers being known by the start of the 20th century. KV5 was only rediscovered in the 1990s after being dismissed as unimportant by previous investigators. The West Valley tombs often carry the prefix "WV '', but they follow the same numbering system. Some of the tombs are unoccupied, others remain unidentifiable as regards to their owners, and still others are merely pits used for storage. Most of the open tombs in the Valley of the Kings are located in the East Valley, and this is where most of the tourist facilities are located.
The Eighteenth Dynasty tombs within the valley vary quite a bit in decoration, style, and location. It seems that at first there was no fixed plan. The tomb of Hatshepsut has a unique shape, twisting and turning down over 200 metres from the entrance, so that the burial chamber is 97 metres below the surface. The tombs gradually became more regular and formalised, and those of Thutmose III and Thutmose IV, KV34 and KV43, are good examples of Eighteenth Dynasty tombs, both with their bent axis, and simple decoration.
Perhaps the most imposing tomb of this period is that of Amenhotep III, WV22, located in the West Valley. It was re-investigated in the 1990s by a team from Waseda University, Japan, but it is not open to the public.
At the same time, powerful and influential nobles began to be buried with the royal family; the most famous of these tombs is the joint tomb of Yuya and Tjuyu, KV46. They were possibly the parents of Queen Tiy. Until the discovery of the tomb of Tutankhamun, this was the best - preserved of the tombs that had been discovered in the Valley.
The return of royal burials to Thebes after the end of the Amarna period marks a change to the layout of royal burials, with the intermediate ' jogged axis ' gradually giving way to the ' straight axis ' of later dynasties. In the Western Valley, there is a tomb commencement that is thought to have been started for Akhenaten, but it is no more than a gateway and a series of steps. The tomb of Ay, Tutankhamun 's successor is close by. It is likely that this tomb was started for Tutankhamun (its decoration is of a similar style) but later usurped for Ay 's burial. This would mean that KV62 may have been Ay 's original tomb, which would explain the smaller size and unusual layout for a royal tomb.
The other Amarna period tombs are located in a smaller, central area in the centre of the East Valley, with a possible mummy cache (KV55) that may contain the burials of several Amarna Period royals -- Tiy and Smenkhkare or Akhenaten.
In close proximity is the burial of Tutankhamun. This is perhaps the most famous discovery of modern Western archaeology. It was discovered here by Howard Carter on November 4, 1922, with clearance and conservation work continuing until 1932. This was the first royal tomb to be discovered that was still largely intact, although tomb robbers had entered. And until the excavation of KV63 on 10 March 2005, it was considered the last major discovery in the valley. The opulence of his grave goods notwithstanding, Tutankhamun was a relatively minor king, and other burials probably had more numerous treasures.
In the same central area as KV62 and KV63, is KV64, a radar anomaly believed to be a tomb or chamber announced on 28 July 2006. It is not an official designation, and the actual existence of a tomb at all is dismissed by the Supreme Council of Antiquities.
The nearby tomb of Horemheb, (KV57) is rarely open to visitors. But it has many unique features and is extensively decorated. The decoration shows a transition from the pre-Amarna tombs to those of the 19th dynasty tombs that followed.
The Nineteenth Dynasty saw a further standardisation of tomb layout and decoration. The tomb of the first king of the dynasty, Ramesses I, was hurriedly finished due to the death of the king and is little more than a truncated descending corridor and a burial chamber. However, KV16 has vibrant decoration and still contains the sarcophagus of the king. Its central location makes it one of the more frequently visited tombs. It shows the development of the tomb entrance and passage and of decoration.
His son and successor, Seti I 's tomb, KV17 (also known as Belzoni 's tomb, the tomb of Apis, or the tomb of Psammis, son of Necho), is usually regarded as the finest tomb in the valley. It has extensive relief work and paintings. When it was rediscovered by Belzoni in 1817, he referred to it as "... a fortunate day... ''
The son of Seti, Ramesses the Great, constructed a massive tomb, KV7, but it is in a ruinous state. It is currently undergoing excavation and conservation by a Franco - Egyptian team led by Christian Leblanc. The tomb is vast in size, about the same length, and a larger area, of the tomb of his father.
At the same time, and just opposite his own tomb, Ramesses enlarged the earlier small tomb of an unknown Eighteenth Dynasty noble (KV5) for his numerous sons. With 120 known rooms, and excavation work still underway, it is probably the largest tomb in the valley. Originally opened (and robbed) in antiquity, it is a low - lying structure that has been particularly prone to the flash floods that sometimes hit the area. Tonnes of debris and material has washed in over the centuries, ultimately concealing its vast size. It is not currently open to the public.
Ramesses II 's son and eventual successor, Merenptah 's tomb has been open since antiquity; it extends 160 metres, ending in a burial chamber that once contained a set of four nested sarcophagi. Well decorated, it is typically open to the public most years.
The last kings of the dynasty also constructed tombs in the valley, all of which follow the same general pattern of layout and decoration. Notable amongst these is the tomb of Siptah, which is well decorated, especially the ceiling.
The first ruler of the dynasty, Setnakhte, actually had two tombs constructed for himself. He started excavating the eventual tomb of his son, Ramesses III, but broke into another tomb and abandoned it in order to usurp and complete the tomb of the Nineteenth Dynasty female pharaoh, Twosret. Therefore, this tomb has two burial chambers, the later extensions making the tomb one of the largest of the Royal tombs, at over 150 metres.
The tomb of Ramesses III (known as Bruce 's Tomb or The Harper 's Tomb due to its decoration) is one of the largest tombs in the valley and is open to the public. It is located close to the central ' rest -- area ', and its location and superb decoration make this one of the tombs most visited by tourists.
The successors and offspring of Ramesses III constructed tombs that had straight axes. They all had similar decorations. Notable amongst these is KV2, the tomb of Ramesses IV, which has been open since antiquity, containing a large amount of hieratic graffiti. The tomb is mostly intact and is decorated with scenes from several religious texts. The joint tomb of Ramesses V and Ramesses VI, KV9 (also known as the Tomb of Memnon or La Tombe de la Métempsychose) is decorated with many sunk - relief carvings, depicting illustrated scenes from religious texts. Open since antiquity, it contains over a thousand examples of graffiti written in ancient Greek, Latin and Coptic. The spoil from the excavation and later clearance of this tomb, together with later construction of workers huts, covered the earlier burial of KV62 and seems to have been what protected that tomb from earlier discovery and looting.
The tomb of Ramesses IX, KV6, has been open since antiquity, as can be seen by the graffiti left on its walls by Roman and Coptic visitors. Located in the central part of the valley, it is between and slightly above KV5 and KV55. The tomb extends a total distance of 105 metres into the hillside, including extensive side chambers that were neither decorated nor finished. The hasty and incomplete nature of the rock - cutting and decorations (it is only decorated for a little over half its length) within the tomb indicate that the tomb was not completed by the time of Ramesses ' death, with the completed hall of pillars serving as the burial chamber.
Another notable tomb from this dynasty is KV19, the tomb of Mentuherkhepshef (son of Ramesses IX). This small tomb is simply a converted, unfinished corridor, but the decoration is extensive. The tomb has been newly restored and opened for visitors.
By the end of the New Kingdom, Egypt had entered a long period of political and economic decline. The priests at Thebes grew more powerful, and they effectively administered Upper Egypt, while kings ruling from Tanis controlled Lower Egypt. Some attempt at using the open tombs was made at the start of the Twenty - first Dynasty, with the High Priest of Amun, Pinedjem I, adding his cartouche to KV4. The Valley began to be heavily plundered, so during the Twenty - first Dynasty the priests of Amun opened most of the tombs and moved the mummies into three tombs in order to better protect them. They removed most of the treasure in order to further protect the bodies from robbers. Most of these were later moved to a single cache near Deir el - Bari (known as TT320). Located in the cliffs overlooking Hatshepsut 's famous temple, this mass reburial contained a large number of royal mummies. They were found in a great state of disorder, many placed in other 's coffins, and several are still unidentified. Other mummies were moved to the tomb of Amenhotep II, where over a dozen mummies, many of them royal, were later relocated.
During the later Third Intermediate Period and later periods, intrusive burials were introduced into many of the open tombs. In Coptic times, some of the tombs were used as churches, stables, and even houses.
The majority of the 65 numbered tombs in the Valley of the Kings can be considered as minor tombs, either because at present they have yielded little information or because the results of their investigations were only poorly recorded by their explorers. Some have received very little attention or were only cursorily noted. Most of these tombs are small, often consisting of only a single burial chamber accessed by a shaft or staircase with a corridor or a series of corridors leading to the chamber. But some are larger, multiple - chambered tombs. These minor tombs served various purposes: some were intended for burials of lesser royalty or private burials, some contained animal burials, and others apparently never received a primary burial. In many cases these tombs also served secondary functions, and later intrusive material has been found related to these secondary activities. While some of these tombs have been open since antiquity, the majority were discovered in the 19th and early 20th centuries during the height of exploration in the valley.
Almost all of the tombs have been ransacked. Several papyri have been found that describe the trials of tomb robbers. These date mostly from the late Twentieth Dynasty. One of these, Papyrus Mayer B, describes the robbery of the tomb of Ramesses VI and was probably written in Year Nine of Ramesses IX:
The foreigner Nesamun took us up and showed us the tomb of King Ramesses VI... And I spent four days breaking into it, we being present all five. We opened the tomb and entered it... We found a cauldron of bronze, three wash bowls of bronze...
The valley also seems to have suffered an official plundering during the virtual civil war, which started during the reign of Ramesses XI. The tombs were opened, all the valuables were removed, and the mummies were collected into two large caches. One in the tomb of Amenhotep II, contained sixteen, and others were hidden within Amenhotep I 's tomb. A few years later most of them were moved to the Deir el - Bahri cache, containing no fewer than forty royal mummies and their coffins. Only tombs whose locations were lost (KV62, KV63 and KV46, although both KV62 and KV46 were robbed soon after their actual closure) were undisturbed during this period.
Most of the tombs are not open to the public (18 of the tombs can be opened, but they are rarely open at the same time), and officials occasionally close those that are open for restoration work. The number of visitors to KV62 has led to a separate charge for entry into the tomb. The West Valley has only one open tomb -- that of Ay -- and a separate ticket is needed to visit this tomb. The tour guides are no longer allowed to lecture inside the tombs, and visitors are expected to proceed quietly and in single file through the tombs. This is to minimize time in the tombs and prevent the crowds from damaging the surfaces of the decoration. Photography is no longer allowed in the tombs.
In 1997, 58 tourists and four Egyptians were massacred at nearby Deir el - Bahri by Islamist militants from Al - Gama'a al - Islamiyya. This led to an overall drop in tourism in the area.
On most days of the week an average of 4,000 to 5,000 tourists visit the main valley. The West Valley is much less visited, as there is only one tomb that is open to the public.
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a legal opinion issued by an islamic judge is called a | Fatwā - wikipedia
A fatwā (/ ˈfætwɑː /; Arabic: فتوى ; plural fatāwā فتاوى) in the Islamic faith is a nonbinding but authoritative legal opinion or learned interpretation that the Sheikhul Islam, a qualified jurist or mufti, can give on issues pertaining to the Islamic law. The person who issues a fatwā is called, in that respect, a mufti, i.e. an issuer of fatwā, from the verb أَفْتَى ' aftā = "he gave a formal legal opinion on ''. This is not necessarily a formal position since most Muslims argue that anyone trained in Islamic law may give an opinion (fatwā) on its teachings. If a fatwā does not break new ground, then it is simply called a ruling.
An analogy might be made to the issue of legal opinions from courts in common - law systems. Fatwās generally contain the details of the scholar 's reasoning, typically in response to a particular case, and are considered binding precedent by those Muslims who have bound themselves to that scholar, including future muftis; mere rulings can be compared to memorandum opinions. The primary difference between common - law opinions and fatwās, however, is that fatwās are not universally binding; as Sharia is not universally consistent and Islam is very non-hierarchical in structure, fatwās do not carry the sort of weight as that of secular common - law opinion.
In a religious context, the word fatwā can carry more meaning. Oftentimes, when a Muslim has a question that they need to be answered from an Islamic point of view, they ask an Islamic scholar this question. The answer is commonly known as a fatwā, which typically carries more weight than the opinion of a lay Muslim. Muslim scholars are expected to give their fatwā based on religious scripture as opposed to personal belief. Therefore, their fatwā is sometimes regarded as a religious ruling. An example of a fatwā may be the following: Muslims are expected to pray five times every day at specific times during the day. A practicing Muslim who is going to be on a 12 - hour flight may not feel that they are able to perform their prayers on time; therefore, they might ask a Muslim scholar for a fatwā on what is the appropriate thing to do. The scholar would provide a response and support it with Muslim scripture. The fatwā is not legally binding or final; it is a respected interpretation of the sharia given by a mufti on a particular case. If the individual is not content with the fatwā given, they can seek out another Mufti or Qadi for a second opinion which might have the desired outcome.
In Islam, there are four sources from which Muslim scholars extract religious law or rulings, and upon which they base their fatwā. The first is the Quran, which is the holy book of Islam, and which Muslims believe is the direct and literal word of God, revealed to Prophet Mohammad. The second source is the Sunnah, which incorporates anything that the Prophet Mohammad said, did or approved of. The third source is the consensus of the scholars, meaning that if the scholars of a previous generation have all agreed on a certain issue, then this consensus is regarded as representing Islam. Finally, if no scripture is found regarding a specific question from the three first sources, then an Islamic scholar performs what is known as ijtihad. This means that they use their own logic and reasoning to come up with the best answer according to the best of their ability. Muslims believe that any given action that they perform in their lives falls into one of five categories:
All actions fall into the "permissible '' category, unless there is evidence from one of the four sources previously mentioned (Quran, Sunnah, Consensus, Ijtihad) that proves otherwise. Here are some examples:
When someone asks a Muslim scholar about performing a specific action, the reply will be a fatwa explaining which of these five categories this action would fall under. So if you ask a Muslim scholar to give a fatwa about adultery, they would tell you that it is "Not Permitted ''. If you ask about fasting in Ramadan, they would answer that it is "Obligatory ''. Muslims are usually encouraged to ask for reasoning and evidence behind any fatwa, and should avoid blindly following the opinions of Muslim scholars without understanding the reasons behind them. This is because Muslims should always feel that they are practicing Islam to gain the pleasure of God, and not to gain the pleasure of acceptance of any human being. Different scholars frequently have different opinions regarding any given question. This is why there is usually more than one fatwa regarding any one question. In fact, there are a number of methodologies for how to understand evidence gathered from the previously mentioned sources of Islamic law. Scholars who follow different methodologies will frequently arrive at different answers to the same question. It is well known that in Islam there are four schools of thought, and each of them differ with respect to certain aspects. However, these differences are usually about minor issues. For example, in terms of beliefs, the vast majority of Muslims agree on most aspects of belief, most importantly the concept of monotheism, and belief in the angels, Prophets, holy books and the Day of Judgment.
In the early days of Islam, fatwās were pronounced by distinguished scholars to provide guidance to other scholars, judges and citizens on how subtle points of Islamic law should be understood, interpreted or applied. There were strict rules on who was eligible to issue a valid fatwā and who could not, as well as on the conditions the fatwā must satisfy to be valid.
According to the usul al - fiqh (principles of jurisprudence), the fatwā must meet the following conditions in order to be valid:
With the existence of modern independent states, each with its own legislative system, or its own body of ulamas, each country develops and applies its own rules, based on its own interpretation of religious prescriptions. Many Muslim countries (such as Egypt and Tunisia) have an official mufti position; a distinguished expert in the sharia is appointed to this position by the civil authorities of the country. But his fatwās are binding on no one: neither the state that appoints him, nor any citizen.
Fatwas have been transmitted by publication, "in collections of individual muftis, in annual fatwa collections,... or in special religious columns of periodicals and newspapers ''. Starting in the 1990s, online fatwa services such as IslamQA.info, fatwa-online.com, and AskImam.org became available, making the searching and finding of fatwas on different subjects even easier. According to at least one source (Sadakat Kadri), these sources reintroduced the advice of trained scholars to many Muslims who had turned to do - it - yourself religious interpretation, but also changed the nature of fatwa advice giving, which had traditionally been local and so "relatively confidential and conditioned by customs familiar to both parties ''. Scholars from Cairo and Saudi Arabia exported their views to mostly (over 80 %) non-Arab Muslim world. Muslims are able to observe differences in opinions among scholars of different fatwa sites and to "contemplate previously unimagined dilemmas and temptations ''.
During what is often referred to as the Islamic Golden Age, in order for a scholar to be qualified to issue a fatwā, it was required that he obtained an ijazat attadris wa'l - ifta ("license to teach and issue legal opinions '') from a Madrasah in the medieval Islamic legal education system, which was developed by the 9th century during the formation of the Madh'hab legal schools. Traditionally, the primary issuers of fatwas were Muftis, who were scholars in Islam. Their job was to interpret Shari'a and they did so within their own communities. Their authority in law and their ability to issue fatwas was entirely based on their reputation and social standing.
In post-colonial Middle Eastern states, the issuing of Fatwas moved away from the Ancien Regime practice of coming from a Mufti and instead became much more centralized as governments did so. The state department gained the control over appointing Muftis and the fatwas they were allowed to issue to the public. This did cause some discourse among the public, because of the governments involvement in religious matters.
In nations where Islamic law is the basis of civil law, but has not been codified, as is the case of some Arab countries in the Middle East, fatāwā by the national religious leadership are debated prior to being issued. In theory, such fatāwā should rarely be contradictory. If two fatāwā are potentially contradictory, the ruling bodies (combined civil and religious law) would attempt to define a compromise interpretation that will eliminate the resulting ambiguity. In these cases, the national theocracies expect fatwā to be settled law.
In the majority of Arab countries, however, Islamic law has been codified in each country according to its own rules, and is interpreted by the judicial system according to the national jurisprudence. Fatāwā have no direct place in the system, except to clarify very unusual or subtle points of law for experts (not covered by the provisions of modern civil law), or to give moral authority to a given interpretation of a rule.
In nations where Islamic law is not the basis of law (as is the case in various Asian and African countries), different mujtahids can issue contradictory fatāwā. In such cases, Muslims would typically honour the fatwā deriving from the leadership of their religious tradition. For example, Sunni Muslims would favor a Sunni fatwā whereas Shiites would follow a Shi'a one.
There exists no international Islamic authority to settle fiqh issues today, in a legislative sense. The closest such organism is the Islamic Fiqh Academy, (a member of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation (OIC)), which has 57 member states. But it can only render fatwā that are not binding on anyone.
There is a binding rule that saves the fatwā pronouncements from creating judicial havoc, whether within a Muslim country or at the level of the Islamic world in general: it is unanimously agreed that a fatwā is only binding on its author. This was underlined by Sheikh Abdul Mohsen Al - Obeikan, vice-minister of Justice of Saudi Arabia, in an interview with the Arabic daily Asharq Al - Awsat, as recently as on July 9, 2006, in a discussion of the legal value of a fatwā by the Islamic Fiqh Academy (IFA) on the subject of misyar marriage, which had been rendered by IFA on April 12, 2006. He said, "Even the decisions of the official Ifta authority (the official Saudi fatwā institute) is binding on no one, whether for the people or the state. '' Al - Obeikan, however, was subsequently removed from his position as advisor to the royal cabinet in May 2012 after opposing moves to relax gender segregation, and in August 2012, Obeikan 's morning radio show "Fatwas on Air '', in which he would issue daily fatwas, was canceled after a royal decree that authorizes only members of the Council of Senior Scholars to issue fatwās.
Still, sometimes, even leading religious authorities and theologians misleadingly present their fatwā as obligatory, or try to adopt some "in - between '' position.
Thus, the Sheikh of al - Azhar in Cairo, Muhammad Sayid Tantawy, who is the leading religious authority in the Sunni Muslim establishment in Egypt, alongside the Grand Mufti of Egypt, said the following about fatwās issued by himself or the entire Dar al - Ifta:
"Fatwā issued by Al - Azhar are not binding, but they are not just whistling in the wind either; individuals are free to accept them, but Islam recognizes that extenuating circumstances may prevent it. For example, it is the right of Muslims in France who object to the law banning the veil to bring it up to the legislative and judicial authorities. If the judiciary decides in favor of the government because the country is secular, they would be considered to be Muslim individuals acting under compelling circumstances. '' Otherwise, in his view, they would be expected to adhere to the fatwā.
In Morocco, where king Mohammed VI is also Amir al - Muminin (Commander of the Faithful), the authorities have tried to organize the field by creating a scholars ' council (conseil des oulémas) composed of Muslim scholars (ulama), which is the only one allowed to issue fatwā. In this case, a national theocracy could in fact compel intra-national compliance with the fatwā, since a central authority is the source. Even then, however, the issue would not necessarily be religiously binding for the residents of that nation. For, the state may have the power to put a fatwā in effect, but that does not mean that the fatwā is to be religiously accepted by all. For instance, if a state fatwā council made abortion acceptable in the first trimester without any medical reason, that would have direct impact on official procedures in hospitals and courts in that country. Yet, this would not mean that the Muslims in that nation has to agree with that fatwā, or that the fatwā is religiously binding for them.
Sources of fatwas include:
Fatwā are expected to deal with religious issues, subtle points of interpretation of the fiqh as exemplified by the cases cited in the archives linked below. In certain cases, religious issues and political ones seem to be inextricably intertwined. The term fatwā is sometimes used by some Muslims to mean to "give permission '' to do a certain act that might be illegal under Islamic law; other Muslims view this to be incorrect.
Despite the word "fatwā '' not being included in the Qur'an, individuals commonly obtain fatwā to guide them in everyday life. Due to the lack of a central unifying rulemaker, different sheiks may give different answers to the same question. This leaves an opportunity for the controversial practice of "fatwā shopping '', in which an individual asks the same question of different sheiks until they receive an answer they like.
Examples of famous or controversial fatwā include the following:
On December 2, 1947, the University of Al - Azhar religious scholars, the most respected in the Sunni Muslim word, called for holy war against the Zionists.
In April 1974 the Muslim World League issued a fatwa stating that followers of the Ahmadiyyah movement are to be considered "non-Muslims ''.
Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini in 1989 pronounced a death sentence on Salman Rushdie, the author of The Satanic Verses.
In 2001, religious authorities in the United Arab Emirates issued a fatwā against the children 's game Pokémon, after finding that it encouraged gambling, and was based on the theory of evolution, "a Jewish - Darwinist theory, that conflicts with the truth about humans and with Islamic principles ''.
In 2001, Egypt 's Grand Mufti issued a fatwā stating that the show "Who will Win the Million? '' (modelled on the British show Who Wants to be a Millionaire?) was un-Islamic. The Sheikh of Cairo 's Al - Azhar University later rejected the fatwā, finding that there was no objection to such shows since they spread general knowledge.
In Syria, Grand Mufti Ahmad Badruddin Hassoun issued a fatwa prohibiting every type of smoking, including cigarettes and narghile, as well as the selling and buying of tobacco and any affiliation with tobacco distribution (see also Smoking in Syria).
Yusuf al - Qaradawi released a fatwā on April 14, 2004, stating that the boycott of American and Israeli products was an obligation for all who are able. The fatwā reads in part:
If people ask in the name of religion we must help them. The vehicle of this support is a complete boycott of the enemies ' goods. Each riyal, dirham... etc. used to buy their goods eventually becomes bullets to be fired at the hearts of brothers and children in Palestine. For this reason, it is an obligation not to help them (the enemies of Islam) by buying their goods. To buy their goods is to support tyranny, oppression and aggression. Buying goods from them will strengthen them; our duty is to make them as weak as we can. Our obligation is to strengthen our resisting brothers in the Sacred Land as much as we can. If we can not strengthen the brothers, we have a duty to make the enemy weak. If their weakness can not be achieved except by boycott, we must boycott them.
American goods, exactly like the great Israeli goods, are forbidden. It is also forbidden to advertise these goods, even though in many cases they prove to be superior. America today is a second Israel. It totally supports the Zionist entity. The usurper could not do this without the support of America. "Israel 's '' unjustified destruction and vandalism of everything has been using American money, American weapons, and the American veto. America has done this for decades without suffering the consequences of any punishment or protests about their oppressive and prejudiced position from the Islamic world.
Sheik Sadeq Abdallah bin Al - Majed, leader of the Muslim Brotherhood in Sudan, issued a fatwā that prohibits vaccination of children claiming it is a conspiracy of the Jews and Freemasons.
Indian Muslim scholars issued a fatwā of death against Taslima Nasreen, an exiled controversial Bangladeshi writer. Majidulla Khan Farhad of Hyderabad - based Majlis Bachao Tehriq issued the fatwā at the Tipu Sultan mosque in Kolkata after Juma prayers as saying Taslima has defamed Islam and announced an "unlimited financial reward '' to anybody who would kill her.
In 1998, Grand Ayatollah Sistani of Iraq issued a fatwā prohibiting University of Virginia professor Abdulaziz Sachedina from ever again teaching Islam due in part to Sachedina 's writings encouraging acceptance of religious pluralism in the Muslim world.
In June 1992, Egyptian writer Farag Foda was assassinated following a fatwa issued by ulamas from Al - Azhar who had adopted a previous fatwa by Sheikh al - Azhar, Jadd al - Haqq, accusing secularist writers such as Foda of being "enemies of Islam ''. The jihadist group Al - Gama'a al - Islamiyya claimed responsibility for the murder.
In September 1951, the mufti of Egypt issued a fatwa stating that both Coca - Cola and Pepsi - Cola were permissible for Muslims to drink. In order to arrive at that decision, the Department of Fatwas had the Ministry of Public Health analyze the composition of the two drinks. As they did not find the pepsin or any narcotic or alcoholic substances to be present, nor any "microbes harmful to health '', the mufti found that it was not forbidden under Islamic law. Occasionally the debate regarding whether or not Coca - Cola or Pepsi is drinkable by Muslims does continue to appear, notably recently in 2012 when a French study was released declaring that Coca - Cola contained a small amount of alcohol. Muslims are not permitted to drink alcohol, however the amount of alcohol found in the beverage was discovered so small as to be permissible according to the fatwa system.
Osama bin Laden issued two fatwās -- in 1996 and then again in 1998 -- that Muslims should kill civilians and military personnel from the United States and allied countries until they withdraw support for Israel and withdraw military forces from Islamic countries.
In 2003, on his television show John Safran Vs God, Australian comedian John Safran tricked Sheikh Omar Bakri into placing a fatwā on Safran 's colleague Rove McManus by showing him falsified evidence seeming to indicate that McManus had been making fun of Islam.
In 2005, the Leader of the Islamic Republic of Iran, Ayatollah Ali Khamenei, issued a fatwā that the production, stockpiling and use of nuclear weapons are forbidden under Islam and that Iran shall never acquire these weapons.
Another example of a fatwā is forbidding the smoking of cigarettes by Muslims.
In September 2007, the Central Java division and Jepara branch of the Indonesian organisation Nahdlatul Ulama (the Awakening of the Religious Scholars) declared the government 's proposal to build a nuclear power station nearby at Balong on the Muria peninsula haram or forbidden. The fatwā was issued following a two - day meeting of more than a hundred ulama to consider the pros and cons of the proposal addressed by government ministers, scientists and critics. The decision cited both positive and negative aspects of the proposal, which it had balanced to make its judgment. Key concerns were the question of long - term safe disposal and storage of radioactive waste, the potential local and regional environmental consequences of the plant 's operation, the lack of financial clarity about the project, and issues of foreign technological dependence.
In 2008, undercover reporting by a private TV channel in India showed several respected clerics demanding and receiving cash for issuing fatwās. In response, some were suspended from issuing fatwās and Indian Muslim leaders announced that they would create a new body that will monitor the issuing of fatwās in India.
In 2008, a Pakistani religious leader issued a fatwā on President Asif Ali Zardari for "indecent gestures '' toward Sarah Palin, U.S. Vice Presidential candidate.
In 2008, Indian Ulama from the world - renowned seminary of Deoband have categorically issued a fatwā against terrorism and mentioned that any sort of killing of innocent people or civilians is haram (forbidden). The fatwā also clarified that there is no jihad in Kashmir or against India as freedom of religion is guaranteed by the state as any state that guarantees freedom of religion can not have jihad sanctioned against it. This fatwā was reiterated in 2009 where Indian Home Minister P. Chidrambram hailed the move.
Deoband Ulama in India have repeatedly mentioned that the Taliban government in Afghanistan was un-Islamic. This was most recently reiterated at a convention in Karachi in 2009. These include the idea of establishing shariah rule with force in the name of Jihad and levying of jizya on Sikh citizens of Pakistan, which was termed as nothing more than extortion by armed gangs. The stand was explained by Maulana Abu Hassan Nadvi as below
This ca n't be called a war in the name of Islam. Even during a legitimate jihad, which is fought not by a rag - tag army of misguided youth but by the state against identified aggressors, Islam has set certain principles like you ca n't harm the old, sick, women and children. You ca n't attack any place of worship. But terrorists kill people indiscriminately. They are earning Allah 's punishment.
Suicide bombing in any form has also been declared haram by Indian ulama. This stand is also supported by Saudi scholars such as Shaykh Muhammad Bin Saalih al - ' Uthaymeen, who have issued fatawā declaring suicide bombings are haram and those who commit this act are not shaheed (martyrs).
Fatwas have the role of explaining religion and guiding the faithful in modern matters that were not previously tackled by scholars or specifically addressed by the Quran or the hadith of Mohammed. Some fatwas stand out as controversial and often lead to hardship and violence.
In 2012, Sheikh Murgan Salem al - Gohary of Egypt, a former Taliban, issued a fatwa calling for "the destruction of the Sphinx and the Giza Pyramids in Egypt '', because "God ordered Prophet Mohammed to destroy idols. '' Egypt is host to thousands of ancient statues and drawings that mainstream Muslims have not been bothered by for the past 1400 years. These monuments are a major attraction to tourists and scientists interested in ancient Egyptian culture, and not worship. It is unclear why the pyramids were added to the fatwa because they are tombs of pharaohs and not statues or idols.
In 2012, Abdul - Azeez ibn Abdullaah Aal ash - Shaikh, the Grand Mufti of Saudi Arabia, issued a religious edict prohibiting contact and cooperation with foreign media outlets because they seek to "spread chaos and strife in Muslim lands ''. He added that contacting foreign media outlets to "divulge the country 's secrets or address various matters '' was tantamount to "treason and major crime ''. He said that "It is not permissible and is considered betrayal and assistance to the enemies of Islam. '' Also, "A believer has to help keeping security, that of his nation and community, and protecting his religion. '' This fatwā is vague and itself is in need of another explanatory fatwā. Foreign media appears to have been singled out because it is mostly free and does not conform to Saudi Arabian government censorship. The fatwā uses the extremely strong terms (i.e., "haram '' or forbidden, "treason '', "betrayal '', and "major crime '') for the simple act of contacting the press. This fatwa has the potential to endanger the lives of ordinary citizens and members of the media due to the connotation of its language and overall ambiguity. It also threatens the financial interests of legitimate global business. In democratic societies, journalism and the media play an indispensable role in educating the public and combating corruption.
In 2011 -- 2012, Abdel - Bari Zamzami of Morocco issued a series of religious edicts that a man has the right to engage in sexual intercourse with his wife up to six hours after her death. Despite recognizing that such an action is despicable in mainstream society, Zamzami persisted in backing his original fatwā, claiming marriage does not end in death. Zamzami also announced that it is against the religion to take to the streets after the King delivers a speech; this fatwā made the population, as well as the media, question his intentions.
In 2012, the Indonesian Ulema Council issued an edict for Muslims not to wish Christians a happy Christmas. The edict said that wishing a happy Christmas was akin to confirming the "misguided '' teachings of Christianity.
In 2013, the grand mufti in Kashmir issued a fatwā terming singing as un-Islamic, forcing Kashmir 's only all - girls rock band to abandon it.
In 2014, the Supreme Court of India ruled that Sharia courts have no legal sanction and no one is bound to accept a fatwā in India.
Asharq Al - Awsat: From time to time and through its regular meetings, the Islamic Fiqh Academy usually issues various fatwās dealing with the concerns of Muslims. However, these fatwās are not considered binding for the Islamic states. What is your opinion of this?
Obeikan: Of course, they are not binding for the member Islamic states.
Asharq Al - Awsat: But, what is the point of the Islamic Fiqh Academy 's consensus on fatwās that are not binding for the member states?
Obeikan: There is a difference between a judge and a mufti. The judge issues a verdict and binds people to it. However, the mufti explains the legal judgment but he does not bind the people to his fatwā. The decisions of the Islamic Fiqh Academy are fatwā decisions that are not binding for others. They only explain the legal judgment, as the case is in fiqh books.
Asharq Al - Awsat: Well, what about the Ifta House (official Saudi fatwā organism)? Are its fatwās not considered binding on others?
Obeikan: I do not agree with this. Even the decisions of the Ifta House are not considered binding, whether for the people or the state.
Some fatwās have drawn a great deal of attention in Western media, giving rise to the term fatwā being used loosely for statements by non-Muslims that advocate an extreme religious or political position, and loosely or as slang for other sorts of decrees. Examples of such uses include the statements "The pope issued a fatwā '' and "According to sources in today 's Tibetan resistance, the Chinese Communist ' fatwā ' to silence Patterson has never been rescinded. ''
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who has won medals in the olympics this year | Great Britain at the Olympics - wikipedia
Great Britain or Team GB is the team that sends athletes from the United Kingdom (UK), all but three of its overseas territories, and the three Crown dependencies, to the Olympic Games. It has sent athletes to every Summer and Winter Games, along with France and Switzerland, since the start of the Olympics ' modern era in 1896, including the 1980 Summer Olympics and 1984 Summer Olympics, which were boycotted by a number of other nations on each occasion. From 1896 to 2016 inclusive, Great Britain has won 847 medals at the Summer Olympic Games, and another 31 at the Winter Olympic Games. It is the only national team to have won at least one Gold Medal at every Summer Games, and lies third globally in the winning of both Gold Medals and total medals, surpassed only by the United States and the former Soviet Union.
It is organised by the British Olympic Association (BOA) as the National Olympic Committee for the UK. While the International Olympic Committee (IOC) and BOA both refer to the team as ' Great Britain ' and the team uses the brand name Team GB, the BOA explains that it is a contraction of the full title, the Great Britain and Northern Ireland Olympic Team. Great Britain was one of 14 teams to compete in the first Games, the 1896 Summer Olympics in Athens, and is one of only three nations (France and Switzerland being the others) to have competed at every Summer and Winter Olympic Games.
The most successful British Olympians by gold medals won are Sir Chris Hoy and Jason Kenny, who have won six gold (and one silver) medals each in track cycling; two British Olympians come next with five gold medals -- fellow cyclist Sir Bradley Wiggins, and Sir Steve Redgrave, who won five gold medals in five consecutive Games in rowing, a record for an endurance event. Sailor Sir Ben Ainslie jointly holds the Great Britain record for most individual Olympic gold medals with Chris Hoy and Sir Mo Farah with four, and the most gold medals in a single event with three gold medals (in the Men 's Finn class sailing event 2004 -- 2012) - again shared with Jason Kenny (men 's team sprint 2008 -- 2016) and Steve Redgrave (men 's coxless pair 1988 -- 1996). Sir Chris Hoy holds the record for gold medals in different events, having reached the top step in four different disciplines -- men 's kilo, men 's team sprint, men 's match sprint and men 's kierin.
Cyclist Sir Bradley Wiggins has the most overall medals by a British Olympian (and thus often referred to in the media as the "most decorated British Olympian '') with eight. Sir Steve Redgrave is the only British Olympian to win a gold medal in five consecutive Olympic Games, winning his first in 1984 Los Angeles and last in 2000 Sydney. With five golds and a bronze, Redgrave is the most successful Olympic male rower of all time.
The most successful female Olympian for GB is cyclist Laura Trott, who has four gold medals, while the most decorated female Olympians are Katherine Grainger and Kathleen McKane Godfree, with five medals each - one gold and four silver for Grainger, a gold, two silver and two bronze for McKane Godfree. Alongside five time gold medalist Redgrave, Grainger, Ainslie, Wiggins and Jack Beresford are the only British Olympians to win medals of any colour in five successive Games. In 1908, the country finished in the Olympic table in first place for the first and only time in its history; its most successful performance both post-War and away from a home Games was in 2016, finishing second.
Chris Hoy and Jason Kenny are jointly the most successful cyclists in Olympic history and Ben Ainslie, with four golds at consecutive Games and a silver medal, is the most successful sailor in Olympic history.
Great Britain has hosted the Summer Games on three occasions -- 1908, 1948 and 2012, all in London -- second only to the United States. At the 2016 Summer Olympics in Rio, Great Britain became the first country to win more medals at a Summer Olympics immediately after hosting a Summer Olympics; they won 67 medals overall, coming in second place in the medal table ahead of China, two more than in London in 2012. This success came 20 years after finishing 36th in the medal table, after winning just one gold and fourteen other medals at the 1996 Summer Olympics in Atlanta, which led to significant changes into the management and funding of British sports and facilities.
At the Winter Olympics as a non-alpine nation Great Britain has historically been unable to replicate the amount of success they have achieved in the Summer Olympics although in recent years with the expansion of the Winter Olympics to include sports such as Curling, Snowboarding, Skeleton and Freestyle skiing has brought some increased success. Currently Great Britain is the most successful nation in women 's skeleton, having won a medal six times, at least one for each time the event has been held, including a gold medal for Amy Williams in 2010, and the same for Lizzy Yarnold in 2014 and 2018. Great Britain enjoyed a period of significant success between 1976 and 1984 in figure skating, winning golds in three successive games on the rink. Prior to the 2014 Games all Britain 's Winter Olympic medals had been won in sports performed on ice. Snowboarder Jenny Jones became the first British athlete to win a medal on snow in the 90 years of the winter games when she won a bronze medal in the women 's slopestyle event. At the 2018 Games, Izzy Atkin won Britain 's first skiing medal, winning a bronze in the women 's ski slopestyle.
The most successful Winter Olympian from Great Britain is Lizzy Yarnold, with two gold medals in the women 's skeleton.
As the National Olympic Committee (NOC) for the United Kingdom, the British Olympic Association (BOA) membership encompasses the four Home Nations of the United Kingdom (England, Scotland, Northern Ireland and Wales), plus the three Crown dependencies (Isle of Man, Jersey and Guernsey), and all but three of the British overseas territories (Cayman Islands, British Virgin Islands and Bermuda having their own NOCs).
Representatives of the devolved Northern Ireland government from a unionist background, however, have objected to the name "Team GB '', and have called for it to be renamed as Team UK to make it clearer that Northern Ireland is included on the team.
Under the IOC charter, the Olympic Council of Ireland is responsible for the entire island of Ireland. However, athletes from Northern Ireland can elect to represent either the UK or Ireland at the Olympics, as people from Northern Ireland. A number of Northern Ireland born athletes, particularly in boxing, have won medals for Ireland at the Games. Athletes from Ireland represented Great Britain up until the 1920 Olympics while the entire island was part of the United Kingdom.
London is the only city in the UK that has hosted the games, and the only city in the world to have hosted them three times. London also won the right to host the 1944 Summer Olympics. However, the 1944 games were cancelled due to WW2.
Host country
This table excludes seven medals -- one gold, two silver, and four bronze -- awarded in the 1908 and 1920 figure skating events.
This table includes seven medals -- one gold, two silver, and four bronze -- awarded in the 1908 and 1920 figure skating events.
According to official data of the International Olympic Committee. This is a list of people who have won three or more Olympic gold medals for Great Britain. Medals won in the 1906 Intercalated Games are not included. It includes top - three placings in 1896 and 1900, before medals were awarded for top - three placings.
In addition to the above, the female British Olympian with the most medals (five) is rower Katherine Grainger who, from 2000 - 2016 won one gold and four silver medals. Kathleen McKane Godfree also won five medals, but were one gold, two silvers, and two bronzes. Lizzy Yarnold is the most successful British athlete at the Winter Olympics, with two gold medals.
Chris Hoy, Jason Kenny (both cycling), Ben Ainslie (sailing) Alistair Brownlee (Triathlon) and Lizzy Yarnold (skeleton) are the most successful Olympic competitors in their sports, as of 2018.
Steve Redgrave and Reginald Doherty are the most successful male athletes in their respective sports, rowing and tennis. In addition, Shirley Robertson, Sarah Ayton and Sarah Webb with two gold medals in sailing, Nicola Adams in boxing and Stephanie Cook in modern pentathlon) share the position as most successful woman in their respective sports.
Great Britain has competed in all Badminton events held at the Summer Olympics since badminton made its full debut as an Olympic sport in 1992.
The figures from 1972 do not count towards the total as badminton was a demonstration sport.
Great Britain made its Olympic boxing debut in 1908.
Great Britain and France were the only two nations to compete in the only Olympic cricket match, in 1900. The British team won, making them the only nation to win an Olympic cricket contest and the only Olympic gold medalists in cricket.
Great Britain made its Olympic diving debut in 1908.
Great Britain first competed in the 1912 competition having not competed in the first event held in 1900.
Great Britain won its first fencing medal, a silver, in 1908 at the London Games.
Great Britain hosted the first Olympic figure skating contests in 1908.
Great Britain and Ireland -- now represented separately by Team Ireland and Team Great Britain -- was one of three nations to play in the inaugural football tournament, winning their only match to take the first Olympic gold medal in football. They competed in the nine Olympics in the table below.
In 1974, the FA abolished the distinction between "amateur '' and "professional '' footballers in England. This ended the practice of "shamateurism '', where players claimed to be amateur but still got irregular payments from their clubs. Also, Great Britain is not a member of FIFA and its athletes participate in international football competitions as members of the national teams of the home nations (England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland), none of which have National Olympic Committees. As a result, Great Britain usually does not participate in Olympic qualifying tournaments.
Great Britain was one of four nations to play golf at the first Olympic golf events in 1900. They did not compete in the Olympic golf competition held in 1904. When the sport returned in the 2016 Rio Olympics, after a 112 - year absence, Justin Rose won gold.
Great Britain 's first gymnastics medal came in 1908 with a silver in the men 's individual all - around. Until 2008, Great Britain 's last medal for gymnastics was a Bronze in the Women 's all - round team event in 1928. At the 2012 Summer Games in London, Great Britain equaled its tally for all previous games combined, winning 4 medals to bring their all - time total to eight.
Great Britain 's men 's and women 's handball teams were allowed to take up host places at the 2012 Olympics. This is the only time that Great Britain has competed in handball at the Olympics.
Great Britain hosted the first Olympic field hockey tournament in 1908.
Great Britain hosted the only Olympic jeu de paume tournament in 1908.
Great Britain has competed in all judo events held at the Summer Olympics since judo made its full debut as an Olympic sport in 1964. Although Great Britain has won 18 judo medals, none have been gold.
Great Britain 's Olympic lacrosse debut was in 1908.
Great Britain 's Olympic modern pentathlon debut was in 1912 when the it was first included in the Olympics. Since the women 's event was added in 2000, Great Britain has medalled in that event at every Games. The most successful Games was in 2000, when Great Britain won the gold and bronze medals.
Great Britain was one of four nations to compete in the debut of Olympic polo. Three of the five teams had British players, and those three teams took both the top two places and split the third place with the Mexican team.
Great Britain hosted the only Olympic rackets tournament, in 1908.
Britain took a bronze medal in the first Olympic rowing competition, in 1900.
Britain took a silver medal in the first Olympic rugby competition, in 1900.
Britain took four gold medals in the first Olympic sailing events in 1900. In addition, British sailors were part of two mixed teams that won gold.
Great Britain 's first shooting medals came when the nation hosted the 1908 Games, at which the British shooters dominated the competitions. There were 215 shooters from 14 nations in the shooting events, including 67 from Great Britain.
Great Britain was the third most successful nation in swimming in 2008, with 2 golds, 2 silvers and 2 bronzes, with Rebecca Adlington winning two of these, making her the most successful female British swimmer in 100 years.
Great Britain appeared in the first synchronized swimming competition in 1984.
Great Britain have competed in all four taekwondo competitions that have taken place since 2000. Their best result is a gold, silver and bronze in 2016.
John Pius Boland dominated the 1896 tennis tournaments. Tennis in 1896 was a sport that allowed mixed teams, and both Boland and George S. Robertson joined partners from other nations to win their medals. Britain again dominated in 1900, taking all four gold medals and adding seven others (three as part of mixed teams).
Great Britain have competed in all five triathlon competitions that have taken place since 2000. Their best finish is a 1st and 2nd place in the men 's triathlon, and 3rd - place finish in the women 's triathlon, in 2016.
Great Britain 's Olympic tug of war debut came when the nation hosted the Games in 1908. Great Britain was then one of only two teams to compete in 1912 and also won the last Tug of War competition held in the Olympics in 1920.
Prior to participating, as host nation, in the 2012 volleyball tournaments, Great Britain had never competed in Olympic volleyball with the exception of the women 's team participating in the inaugural Beach volleyball tournament in 1996.
Great Britain hosted the only Olympic water motorsports contests, in 1908.
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what is the purpose of the white el cadejo | Cadejo - wikipedia
The cadejo (Spanish pronunciation: (kaˈðexo)) is a supernatural character from Central American and southern Mexican folklore. There is a good white cadejo and an evil black cadejo. Both are spirits that appear at night to travelers: the white to protect them from harm during their journey, the black (sometimes an incarnation of the devil) to kill them. The colors of the cadejo are sometimes exchanged according to local tradition. In some places, the black cadejo is seen as the good one and the white cadejo the evil one. They usually appear in the form of a large (up to the size of a cow), shaggy dog with burning red eyes and a goat 's hooves, although in some areas they have more bull - like characteristics. According to the stories, many have tried to kill the black cadejo but have failed and perished. It is also said that if a cadejo is killed, it will smell terrible for several days, and then its body will disappear. Some Salvadoran folklore also tells of a cadejo that guards drunks against anyone who tries to rob or hurt them. When the cadejo is near, it is said to bring about a strong goat - like smell. Most people say never to turn your back to the creature because otherwise you will go crazy. Speaking to the cadejo will also induce insanity.
In popular etymology, the name cadejo is thought to have derived from the Spanish word "cadena '', meaning "chain ''; the cadejo is at times represented as dragging a chain behind him. There is a fairly large member of the weasel family, the tayra, which in common speech is called a cadejo and is cited as a possible source of the legend.
In El Salvador, the dog - like creature is known as El Cadejo, is said to look like a dog but is not a dog, has deer - like hooves and also moves like a deer, rather than a dog. The white Cadejos are known to be benevolent and eat bell - like flowers that only grows on volcanoes. The white Cadejo protects people including drunks, vagabonds, and people with grudges from all evil foot steps and even La Siguanaba, and bad choices which are sometimes caused by the evil black Cadejo. The black Cadejo is malevolent and lures people to make bad choices. The black Cadejo has glowing red eyes and eats new born puppies and sometimes the black Cadejo is said to be the devil himself. The black Cadejo is said to be able to stand on two feet like a man and swiftly throw punches on its victims, letting them know that they are no ordinary dog. The novel "Los perros magicos de los volcanes '' (Magic Dogs of the Volcanoes) by Manilo Argueta, describes the Cadejos as mythical dog - like creatures that figure prominently in the folklore of El Salvador. They mysteriously appear at night and lovingly protect the villagers who live on the slopes of the volcanoes from danger. In El Salvador the legend of El Cadejo revolves around La Siguanaba and El Cipitio legends.
The cadejo ranges in size according to different tales in various regions. It lurks in graveyards and dark alleys, waiting to attack a passing victim. It has a distinctive smell of concentrated urine and burning sulphur. It rattles with a jerking motion, contracting its pharynx. Its gaze freezes anyone who makes eye contact. It glitters in the pitch dark with skin and short hair, similar to that of a pig.
There are three types of black cadejos:
The first is the devil himself in the form of a large, wounded dog with hoofed feet that are bound with red - hot chains. It is said that not even the white cadejo is able to completely stop him. Unlike the regular black cadejo it is not likely to pursue and attack a passing person, as it is a scout - the eyes of evil. Instead, anyone who spots him will have a sad event. In the short story "Leyenda del Cadejo '' ("Legend of the Cadejo '') by Nobel Prize laureate Miguel Ángel Asturias, this variety of cadejo terrorizes a young abbess and robs her of her braid.
The second type of cadejo is the regular cadejo, the mysterious evil dog. It kills and savagely tears through its victim. First it demoralizes him with a series of sounds and other signs that it is nearby. Then, after the victim is scared, it leaps forward, and will kill him if the white cadejo is not near.
The final, and least powerful type of black cadejo is the offspring of a normal dog and the "regular '' cadejo. It is a mortal hybrid and can (with difficulty) be killed by a strong man (bearing in mind that most men in those regions only carry a machete for protection). Once dead, it will completely rot in a matter of seconds, leaving behind a stain of evil, on which grass and moss will never grow again. This cadejo will never bite its victim. Instead, he kicks and pecks them with his snout. After this happens, people say "Lo jugó el cadejo '' which means "he \ she was handled by the cadejo ''. The victim goes mad. This term is sometimes applied to people that are born with a mental illness.
A fairly popular version of the legend in El Salvador talks about two brothers who walk into the house of a black magician. During a storm, he asks the boys to help him with some logs for a fire. Both boys slack on the job but eat the man 's food. Once he finds out the little bit of food he had is missing and that there is not enough wood for his fire, he puts a curse on the road that leads to the boys ' village. Voices bother the boys and when they turn their backs on the voices they get turned into creatures: a white cadejo and a black one. After going back to their village in their cursed form they get kicked out and have no choice but to wander.
In the early 1900s, Juan Carlos was a guardian who lived in a thatched house near Los Arcos, in the country fields near La Aurora in Guatemala. He worked near Parroquia Vieja and arrived at his house at midnight. Almost all the time, his wife and small children spend the whole day alone, in the middle of the fields. Juan found a white dog when he arrived at his house one day. When the dog saw him coming, it would shake, turn around and disappear. Juan always tried to follow the dog, but he could never reach him. One day, when he arrived, the white dog never moved, and when he approached the dog, it did not make a single sound. But then Juan touched his paw, and all of a sudden it opened his eyes. Juan was scared; the dog said, ' you do not need my help anymore '. Frightened, Juan exclaimed, ' what help '? And the dog said, in pain, ' I am a dog sent from above. My mission was to protect you from any danger. But you had showed me you do not need my help anymore. ' Right after that, the white dog closed his eyes. Juan buried him, and every time he came home, he remembered the white dog.
The Guatemalan born artist, Carlos Loarca, born in 1937, was a painter known for utilizing the cadejo as a main motif in his paintings. As a child, Loarca was told the legend, and he believed that the cadejo protected his father, as he always came home safely from the cantina. As an adult, Loarca felt the protecting spirit, and helped him break his own alcohol habit. The cadejo first appeared in his paintings in the 1970s, and still is brought into reality through his paintings. Loarca states the "dog '' has been a companion, guide, and has grown old with him.
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who are the barbarians in waiting for the barbarians | Waiting for the Barbarians - wikipedia
Waiting for the Barbarians is a novel by the South African - born Nobel laureate J.M. Coetzee. First published in 1980, it was chosen by Penguin for its series Great Books of the 20th Century and won both the James Tait Black Memorial Prize and Geoffrey Faber Memorial Prize for fiction. American composer Philip Glass has also written an opera of the same name based on the book which premiered in September 2005 at Theater Erfurt, Germany.
Coetzee took the title from the poem "Waiting for the Barbarians '' by the Greek poet Constantine P. Cavafy.
The story is narrated in the first person by the unnamed magistrate of a small colonial town that exists as the territorial frontier of "the Empire ''. The Magistrate 's rather peaceful existence comes to an end with the Empire 's declaration of a state of emergency and with the deployment of the Third Bureau -- special forces of the Empire -- due to rumours that the area 's indigenous people, called "barbarians '' by the colonists, might be preparing to attack the town. Consequently, the Third Bureau conducts an expedition into the land beyond the frontier. Led by a sinister Colonel Joll, the Third Bureau captures a number of barbarians, brings them back to town, tortures them, kills some of them, and leaves for the capital in order to prepare a larger campaign.
In the meantime, the Magistrate begins to question the legitimacy of imperialism and personally nurses a barbarian girl who was left crippled and partly blinded by the Third Bureau 's torturers. The Magistrate has an intimate yet uncertain relationship with the girl. Eventually, he decides to take her back to her people. After a life - threatening trip through the barren land, during which they have sex, he succeeds in returning her -- finally asking, to no avail, if she will stay with him -- and returns to his own town. The Third Bureau soldiers have reappeared there and now arrest the Magistrate for having deserted his post and consorting with "the enemy ''. Without much possibility of a trial during such emergency circumstances, the Magistrate remains in a locked cellar for an indefinite period, experiencing for the first time a near - complete lack of basic freedoms. He finally acquires a key that allows him to leave the makeshift jail, but finds that he has no place to escape to and only spends his time outside the jail scavenging for scraps of food.
Later, Colonel Joll triumphantly returns from the wilderness with several barbarian captives and makes a public spectacle of their torture. Although the crowd is encouraged to participate in their beatings, the Magistrate bursts onto the scene to stop it, but is subdued. Taking the Magistrate, a group of soldiers hangs him up by his arms, culminating his understanding of imperialistic violence in a personal experience of torture. With the Magistrate 's spirit clearly crushed, the soldiers mockingly let him roam freely through the town, knowing he has nowhere to go and no longer poses a threat to their mission. The soldiers, however, begin to flee the town as winter approaches and their campaign against the barbarians collapses. The Magistrate tries to confront Joll on his final return from the wild, but the colonel refuses to speak to him, hastily abandoning the town with the last of the soldiers. The predominant belief in the town is that the barbarians intend to invade soon, and although the soldiers and many civilians have now departed, the Magistrate helps encourage the remaining townspeople to continue their lives and to prepare for the winter. There is no sign of the barbarians by the time the season 's first snow falls on the town.
After Coetzee won the Nobel Prize in Literature in 2003, Penguin Books named Waiting for the Barbarians for its series "Great Books of the 20th Century ''. The Nobel Prize committee called Waiting for the Barbarians "a political thriller in the tradition of Joseph Conrad, in which the idealist 's naiveté opens the gates to horror ''.
The opera by Philip Glass is based on Coetzee 's book and Christopher Hampton 's libretto adapts the story faithfully. The opera premiered on September 10, 2005, at the Theater of Erfurt, Germany, under the direction of Guy Montavon. The lead role of the Magistrate was sung by British baritone Richard Salter, Colonel Joll by American baritone Eugene Perry, who has starred in a number of Glass operas, and the barbarian girl by Elvira Soukop. The musical director of the premiere was Dennis Russell Davies. As Glass told journalists and the Erfurt audience at a matinée, he sees scary parallels between the opera 's story and the Iraq War: a military campaign, scenes of torture, talk about threats to the Empire 's peace and safety, but no proof. The Austin Lyric Opera performed the American premiere of Waiting for the Barbarians on January 19, 2007, conducted by Richard Buckley and under the direction of Guy Montavon, who was joined again by Richard Salter and Eugene Perry as the Magistrate and Colonel Joll, respectively, and mezzo - soprano Adriana Zabala as the Barbarian Girl. In August 2012, the Baxter Theatre in Cape Town presented Alexandre Marine 's stage adaptation of the novel. The production toured at Montreal 's Segal Centre for Performing Arts in January and February, 2013.
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who inspired the creation of the first public key exchange | Public - key cryptography - wikipedia
Public key cryptography, or asymmetrical cryptography, is any cryptographic system that uses pairs of keys: public keys which may be disseminated widely, and private keys which are known only to the owner. This accomplishes two functions: authentication, where the public key verifies a holder of the paired private key sent the message, and encryption, where only the paired private key holder can decrypt the message encrypted with the public key.
In a public key encryption system, any person can encrypt a message using the receiver 's public key. That encrypted message can only be decrypted with the receiver 's private key. To be practical, the generation of a public and private key - pair must be computationally economical. The strength of a public key cryptography system relies on the computational effort (work factor in cryptography) required to find the private key from its paired public key. If so, effective security only requires keeping the private key private; the public key can be openly distributed without compromising security.
Public key cryptography systems often rely on cryptographic algorithms based on mathematical problems that currently admit no efficient solution -- particularly those inherent in certain integer factorization, discrete logarithm, and elliptic curve relationships. Public key algorithms, unlike symmetric key algorithms, do not require a secure channel for the initial exchange of one (or more) secret keys between the parties.
Because of the computational complexity of asymmetric encryption, it is usually used only for small blocks of data, typically the transfer of a symmetric encryption key (e.g. a session key). This symmetric key is then used to encrypt the rest of the potentially long message sequence. The symmetric encryption / decryption is based on simpler algorithms and is much faster.
In a public key signature system, a person can combine a message with a private key to create a short digital signature on the message. Anyone with the corresponding public key can combine a message, a putative digital signature on it, and the known public key to verify whether the signature was valid -- made by the owner of the corresponding private key. Changing the message, even replacing a single letter, will cause verification to fail: in a secure signature system, it is computationally infeasible for anyone who does not know the private key to deduce it from the public key or from any number of signatures, or to find a valid signature on any message for which a signature has not hitherto been seen. Thus the authenticity of a message can be demonstrated by the signature, provided the owner of the private key keeps the private key secret.
Public key algorithms are fundamental security ingredients in cryptosystems, applications and protocols. They underpin various Internet standards, such as Transport Layer Security (TLS), S / MIME, PGP, and GPG. Some public key algorithms provide key distribution and secrecy (e.g., Diffie -- Hellman key exchange), some provide digital signatures (e.g., Digital Signature Algorithm), and some provide both (e.g., RSA).
Public key cryptography finds application in, among others, the information technology security discipline, information security. Information security (IS) is concerned with all aspects of protecting electronic information assets against security threats. Public key cryptography is used as a method of assuring the confidentiality, authenticity and non-repudiability of electronic communications and data storage.
Two of the best - known uses of public key cryptography are:
An analogy to public key encryption is that of a locked mail box with a mail slot. The mail slot is exposed and accessible to the public -- its location (the street address) is, in essence, the public key. Anyone knowing the street address can go to the door and drop a written message through the slot. However, only the person who possesses the key can open the mailbox and read the message.
An analogy for digital signatures is the sealing of an envelope with a personal wax seal. The message can be opened by anyone, but the presence of the unique seal authenticates the sender.
A central problem with the use of public key cryptography is confidence / proof that a particular public key is authentic, in that it is correct and belongs to the person or entity claimed, and has not been tampered with or replaced by a malicious third party. The usual approach to this problem is to use a public key infrastructure (PKI), in which one or more third parties -- known as certificate authorities -- certify ownership of key pairs. PGP, in addition to being a certificate authority structure, has used a scheme generally called the "web of trust '', which decentralizes such authentication of public keys by a central mechanism, and substitutes individual endorsements of the link between user and public key. To date, no fully satisfactory solution to the "public key authentication problem '' has been found.
During the early history of cryptography, two parties would rely upon a key that they would exchange by means of a secure, but non-cryptographic, method such as a face - to - face meeting or a trusted courier. This key, which both parties kept absolutely secret, could then be used to exchange encrypted messages. A number of significant practical difficulties arise with this approach to distributing keys.
In his 1874 book The Principles of Science, William Stanley Jevons wrote:
Can the reader say what two numbers multiplied together will produce the number 8616460799? I think it unlikely that anyone but myself will ever know.
Here he described the relationship of one - way functions to cryptography, and went on to discuss specifically the factorization problem used to create a trapdoor function. In July 1996, mathematician Solomon W. Golomb said: "Jevons anticipated a key feature of the RSA Algorithm for public key cryptography, although he certainly did not invent the concept of public key cryptography. ''
In 1970, James H. Ellis, a British cryptographer at the UK Government Communications Headquarters (GCHQ), conceived of the possibility of "non-secret encryption '', (now called public key cryptography), but could see no way to implement it. In 1973, his colleague Clifford Cocks implemented what has become known as the RSA encryption algorithm, giving a practical method of "non-secret encryption '', and in 1974, another GCHQ mathematician and cryptographer, Malcolm J. Williamson, developed what is now known as Diffie -- Hellman key exchange. The scheme was also passed to the USA 's National Security Agency. With a military focus, and low computing power, the power of public key cryptography was unrealised in both organisations:
I judged it most important for military use... if you can share your key rapidly and electronically, you have a major advantage over your opponent. Only at the end of the evolution from Berners - Lee designing an open internet architecture for CERN, its adaptation and adoption for the Arpanet... did public key cryptography realise its full potential.
-- Ralph Benjamin
Their discovery did not become public knowledge for 27 years, until the research was declassified by the British government in 1997.
In 1976, an asymmetric key cryptosystem was published by Whitfield Diffie and Martin Hellman who, influenced by Ralph Merkle 's work on public key distribution, disclosed a method of public key agreement. This method of key exchange, which uses exponentiation in a finite field, came to be known as Diffie -- Hellman key exchange. This was the first published practical method for establishing a shared secret - key over an authenticated (but not confidential) communications channel without using a prior shared secret. Merkle 's "public key - agreement technique '' became known as Merkle 's Puzzles, and was invented in 1974 and published in 1978.
In 1977, a generalization of Cocks ' scheme was independently invented by Ron Rivest, Adi Shamir and Leonard Adleman, all then at MIT. The latter authors published their work in 1978, and the algorithm came to be known as RSA, from their initials. RSA uses exponentiation modulo a product of two very large primes, to encrypt and decrypt, performing both public key encryption and public key digital signature. Its security is connected to the extreme difficulty of factoring large integers, a problem for which there is no known efficient general technique. In 1979, Michael O. Rabin published a related cryptosystem that is probably secure as long as the factorization of the public key remains difficult -- it remains an assumption that RSA also enjoys this security.
Since the 1970s, a large number and variety of encryption, digital signature, key agreement, and other techniques have been developed in the field of public key cryptography. The ElGamal cryptosystem, invented by Taher ElGamal relies on the similar and related high level of difficulty of the discrete logarithm problem, as does the closely related DSA, which was developed at the US National Security Agency (NSA) and published by NIST as a proposed standard.
The introduction of elliptic curve cryptography by Neal Koblitz and Victor Miller, independently and simultaneously in the mid-1980s, has yielded new public key algorithms based on the discrete logarithm problem. Although mathematically more complex, elliptic curves provide smaller key sizes and faster operations for approximately equivalent estimated security.
Public key cryptography is often used to secure electronic communication over an open networked environment such as the Internet, without relying on a hidden or covert channel, even for key exchange. Open networked environments are susceptible to a variety of communication security problems, such as man - in - the - middle attacks and spoofs. Communication security typically includes requirements that the communication must not be readable during transit (preserving confidentiality), the communication must not be modified during transit (preserving the integrity of the communication), the communication must originate from an identified party (sender authenticity), and the recipient must not be able to repudiate or deny receiving the communication. Combining public key cryptography with an Enveloped Public Key Encryption (EPKE) method, allows for the secure sending of a communication over an open networked environment. In other words, even if an adversary listens to an entire conversation including the key exchange, the adversary would not be able to interpret the conversation.
The distinguishing technique used in public key cryptography is the use of asymmetric key algorithms, where a key used by one party to perform encryption is not the same as the key used by another in decryption. Each user has a pair of cryptographic keys -- a public encryption key and a private decryption key. For example, a key pair used for digital signatures consists of a private signing key and a public verification key. The public key may be widely distributed, while the private key is known only to its proprietor. The keys are related mathematically, but the parameters are chosen so that calculating the private key from the public key is unfeasible.
In contrast, symmetric key algorithms use a single secret key, which must be shared and kept private by both the sender (for encryption) and the receiver (for decryption). To use a symmetric encryption scheme, the sender and receiver must securely share a key in advance.
Because symmetric key algorithms are nearly always much less computationally intensive than asymmetric ones, it is common to exchange a key using a key - exchange algorithm, then transmit data using that key and a symmetric key algorithm. PGP and the SSL / TLS family of schemes use this procedure, and are thus called hybrid cryptosystems.
Some encryption schemes can be proven secure on the basis of the presumed difficulty of a mathematical problem, such as factoring the product of two large primes or computing discrete logarithms. Note that "secure '' here has a precise mathematical meaning, and there are multiple different (meaningful) definitions of what it means for an encryption scheme to be "secure ''. The "right '' definition depends on the context in which the scheme will be deployed.
The most obvious application of a public key encryption system is confidentiality -- a message that a sender encrypts using the recipient 's public key can be decrypted only by the recipient 's paired private key. This assumes, of course, that no flaw is discovered in the basic algorithm used.
Another application in public key cryptography is the digital signature. Digital signature schemes can be used for sender authentication and non-repudiation. The sender computes a digital signature for the message to be sent, then sends the signature (together with the message) to the intended receiver. Digital signature schemes have the property that signatures can be computed only with the knowledge of the correct private key. To verify that a message has been signed by a user and has not been modified, the receiver needs to know only the corresponding public key. In some cases (e.g., RSA), a single algorithm can be used to both encrypt and create digital signatures. In other cases (e.g., DSA), each algorithm can only be used for one specific purpose.
To achieve both authentication and confidentiality, the sender should include the recipient 's name in the message, sign it using his private key, and then encrypt both the message and the signature using the recipient 's public key.
These characteristics can be used to construct many other (sometimes surprising) cryptographic protocols and applications, such as digital cash, password - authenticated key agreement, multi-party key agreement, time - stamping services, non-repudiation protocols, etc.
Enveloped Public Key Encryption (EPKE) is the method of applying public key cryptography and ensuring that an electronic communication is transmitted confidentially, has the contents of the communication protected against being modified (communication integrity) and can not be denied from having been sent (non-repudiation). This is often the method used when securing communication on an open networked environment such by making use of the Transport Layer Security (TLS) or Secure Sockets Layer (SSL) protocols.
EPKE consists of a two - stage process that includes both Public Key Encryption (PKE) and a digital signature. Both Public Key Encryption and digital signatures make up the foundation of Enveloped Public Key Encryption (these two processes are described in full in their own sections).
For EPKE to work effectively, it is required that:
To send a message using EPKE, the sender of the message first signs the message using their own private key, this ensures non-repudiation of the message. The sender then encrypts their digitally signed message using the receiver 's public key thus applying a digital envelope to the message. This step ensures confidentiality during the transmission of the message. The receiver of the message then uses their private key to decrypt the message thus removing the digital envelope and then uses the sender 's public key to decrypt the sender 's digital signature. At this point, if the message has been unaltered during transmission, the message will be clear to the receiver.
Due to the computationally complex nature of RSA - based asymmetric encryption algorithms, the time taken to encrypt large documents or files to be transmitted can be relatively long. To speed up the process of transmission, instead of applying the sender 's digital signature to the large documents or files, the sender can rather hash the documents or files using a cryptographic hash function and then digitally sign the generated hash value, therefore enforcing non-repudiation. Hashing is a much faster computation to complete as opposed to using an RSA - based digital signature algorithm alone. The sender would then sign the newly generated hash value and encrypt the original documents or files with the receiver 's public key. The transmission would then take place securely and with confidentiality and non-repudiation still intact. The receiver would then verify the signature and decrypt the encrypted documents or files with their private key.
Note: The sender and receiver do not usually carry out the process mentioned above manually though, but rather rely on sophisticated software to automatically complete the EPKE process.
The goal of Public Key Encryption (PKE) is to ensure that the communication being sent is kept confidential during transit.
To send a message using PKE, the sender of the message uses the public key of the receiver to encrypt the contents of the message. The encrypted message is then transmitted electronically to the receiver and the receiver can then use their own matching private key to decrypt the message.
The encryption process of using the receiver 's public key is useful for preserving the confidentiality of the message as only the receiver has the matching private key to decrypt the message. Therefore, the sender of the message can not decrypt the message once it has been encrypted using the receiver 's public key. However, PKE does not address the problem of non-repudiation, as the message could have been sent by anyone that has access to the receiver 's public key.
A digital signature is meant to prove a message came from a particular sender; neither can anyone impersonate the sender nor can the sender deny having sent the message. This is useful for example when making an electronic purchase of shares, allowing the receiver to prove who requested the purchase. Digital signatures do not provide confidentiality for the message being sent.
The message is signed using the sender 's private signing key. The digitally signed message is then sent to the receiver, who can then use the sender 's public key to verify the signature.
In order for Enveloped Public Key Encryption to be as secure as possible, there needs to be a "gatekeeper '' of public and private keys, or else anyone could create key pairs and masquerade as the intended sender of a communication, proposing them as the keys of the intended sender. This digital key "gatekeeper '' is known as a certification authority. A certification authority is a trusted third party that can issue public and private keys, thus certifying public keys. It also works as a depository to store key chain and enforce the trust factor.
An analogy that can be used to understand the advantages of an asymmetric system is to imagine two people, Alice and Bob, who are sending a secret message through the public mail. In this example, Alice wants to send a secret message to Bob, and expects a secret reply from Bob.
With a symmetric key system, Alice first puts the secret message in a box, and locks the box using a padlock to which she has a key. She then sends the box to Bob through regular mail. When Bob receives the box, he uses an identical copy of Alice 's key (which he has somehow obtained previously, maybe by a face - to - face meeting) to open the box, and reads the message. Bob can then use the same padlock to send his secret reply.
In an asymmetric key system, Bob and Alice have separate padlocks. First, Alice asks Bob to send his open padlock to her through regular mail, keeping his key to himself. When Alice receives it, she uses it to lock a box containing her message, and sends the locked box to Bob. Bob can then unlock the box with his key and read the message from Alice. To reply, Bob must similarly get Alice 's open padlock to lock the box before sending it back to her.
The critical advantage in an asymmetric key system is that Bob and Alice never need to send a copy of their keys to each other. This prevents a third party -- perhaps, in this example, a corrupt postal worker who opens unlocked boxes -- from copying a key while it is in transit, allowing the third party to spy on all future messages sent between Alice and Bob. So, in the public key scenario, Alice and Bob need not trust the postal service as much. In addition, if Bob were careless and allowed someone else to copy his key, Alice 's messages to Bob would be compromised, but Alice 's messages to other people would remain secret, since the other people would be providing different padlocks for Alice to use.
Another kind of asymmetric key system, called a three - pass protocol, requires neither party to even touch the other party 's padlock (or key to get access); Bob and Alice have separate padlocks. First, Alice puts the secret message in a box, and locks the box using a padlock to which only she has a key. She then sends the box to Bob through regular mail. When Bob receives the box, he adds his own padlock to the box, and sends it back to Alice. When Alice receives the box with the two padlocks, she removes her padlock and sends it back to Bob. When Bob receives the box with only his padlock on it, Bob can then unlock the box with his key and read the message from Alice. Note that, in this scheme, the order of decryption is NOT the same as the order of encryption -- this is only possible if commutative ciphers are used. A commutative cipher is one in which the order of encryption and decryption is interchangeable, just as the order of multiplication is interchangeable (i.e., A * B * C = A * C * B = C * B * A). This method is secure for certain choices of commutative ciphers, but insecure for others (e.g., a simple XOR). For example, let E () and E () be two encryption functions, and let "M '' be the message so that if Alice encrypts it using E () and sends E (M) to Bob. Bob then again encrypts the message as E (E (M)) and sends it to Alice. Now, Alice decrypts E (E (M)) using E (). Alice will now get E (M), meaning when she sends this again to Bob, he will be able to decrypt the message using E () and get "M ". Although none of the keys were ever exchanged, the message '' M "may well be a key (e.g., Alice 's Public key). This three - pass protocol is typically used during key exchange.
Not all asymmetric key algorithms operate in this way. In the most common, Alice and Bob each own two keys, one for encryption and one for decryption. In a secure asymmetric key encryption scheme, the private key should not be deducible from the public key. This makes possible public key encryption, since an encryption key can be published without compromising the security of messages encrypted with that key.
In other schemes, either key can be used to encrypt the message. When Bob encrypts a message with his private key, only his public key will successfully decrypt it, authenticating Bob 's authorship of the message. In the alternative, when a message is encrypted with the public key, only the private key can decrypt it. In this arrangement, Alice and Bob can exchange secret messages with no prior secret agreement, each using the other 's public key to encrypt, and each using his own private key to decrypt.
Among symmetric key encryption algorithms, only the one - time pad can be proven to be secure against any adversary -- no matter how much computing power is available. However, there is no public key scheme with this property, since all public key schemes are susceptible to a "brute - force key search attack ''. Such attacks are impractical if the amount of computation needed to succeed -- termed the "work factor '' by Claude Shannon -- is out of reach of all potential attackers. In many cases, the work factor can be increased by simply choosing a longer key. But other algorithms may have much lower work factors, making resistance to a brute - force attack irrelevant. Some special and specific algorithms have been developed to aid in attacking some public key encryption algorithms -- both RSA and ElGamal encryption have known attacks that are much faster than the brute - force approach. These factors have changed dramatically in recent decades, both with the decreasing cost of computing power and with new mathematical discoveries.
Aside from the resistance to attack of a particular key pair, the security of the certification hierarchy must be considered when deploying public key systems. Some certificate authority -- usually a purpose - built program running on a server computer -- vouches for the identities assigned to specific private keys by producing a digital certificate. Public key digital certificates are typically valid for several years at a time, so the associated private keys must be held securely over that time. When a private key used for certificate creation higher in the PKI server hierarchy is compromised, or accidentally disclosed, then a "man - in - the - middle attack '' is possible, making any subordinate certificate wholly insecure.
Major weaknesses have been found for several formerly promising asymmetric key algorithms. The ' knapsack packing ' algorithm was found to be insecure after the development of a new attack. Recently, some attacks based on careful measurements of the exact amount of time it takes known hardware to encrypt plain text have been used to simplify the search for likely decryption keys (see "side channel attack ''). Thus, mere use of asymmetric key algorithms does not ensure security. A great deal of active research is currently underway to both discover, and to protect against, new attack algorithms.
Another potential security vulnerability in using asymmetric keys is the possibility of a "man - in - the - middle '' attack, in which the communication of public keys is intercepted by a third party (the "man in the middle '') and then modified to provide different public keys instead. Encrypted messages and responses must also be intercepted, decrypted, and re-encrypted by the attacker using the correct public keys for different communication segments, in all instances, so as to avoid suspicion. This attack may seem to be difficult to implement in practice, but it is not impossible when using insecure media (e.g., public networks, such as the Internet or wireless forms of communications) -- for example, a malicious staff member at Alice or Bob 's Internet Service Provider (ISP) might find it quite easy to carry out. In the earlier postal analogy, Alice would have to have a way to make sure that the lock on the returned packet really belongs to Bob before she removes her lock and sends the packet back. Otherwise, the lock could have been put on the packet by a corrupt postal worker pretending to be Bob, so as to fool Alice.
One approach to prevent such attacks involves the use of a certificate authority, a trusted third party responsible for verifying the identity of a user of the system. This authority issues a tamper - resistant, non-spoofable digital certificate for the participants. Such certificates are signed data blocks stating that this public key belongs to that person, company, or other entity. This approach also has its weaknesses -- for example, the certificate authority issuing the certificate must be trusted to have properly checked the identity of the key - holder, must ensure the correctness of the public key when it issues a certificate, must be secure from computer piracy, and must have made arrangements with all participants to check all their certificates before protected communications can begin. Web browsers, for instance, are supplied with a long list of "self - signed identity certificates '' from PKI providers -- these are used to check the bona fides of the certificate authority and then, in a second step, the certificates of potential communicators. An attacker who could subvert any single one of those certificate authorities into issuing a certificate for a bogus public key could then mount a "man - in - the - middle '' attack as easily as if the certificate scheme were not used at all. In an alternate scenario rarely discussed, an attacker who penetrated an authority 's servers and obtained its store of certificates and keys (public and private) would be able to spoof, masquerade, decrypt, and forge transactions without limit.
Despite its theoretical and potential problems, this approach is widely used. Examples include SSL and its successor, TLS, which are commonly used to provide security for web browser transactions (for example, to securely send credit card details to an online store).
The public key algorithms known thus far are relatively computationally costly compared with most symmetric key algorithms of apparently equivalent security. The difference factor is the use of typically quite large keys. This has important implications for their practical use. Most are used in hybrid cryptosystems for reasons of efficiency -- in such a cryptosystem, a shared secret key ("session key '') is generated by one party, and this much briefer session key is then encrypted by each recipient 's public key. Each recipient then uses his own private key to decrypt the session key. Once all parties have obtained the session key, they can use a much faster symmetric algorithm to encrypt and decrypt messages. In many of these schemes, the session key is unique to each message exchange, being pseudo-randomly chosen for each message.
The binding between a public key and its "owner '' must be correct, or else the algorithm may function perfectly and yet be entirely insecure in practice. As with most cryptography applications, the protocols used to establish and verify this binding are critically important. Associating a public key with its owner is typically done by protocols implementing a public key infrastructure -- these allow the validity of the association to be formally verified by reference to a trusted third party in the form of either a hierarchical certificate authority (e.g., X. 509), a local trust model (e.g., SPKI), or a web of trust scheme, like that originally built into PGP and GPG, and still to some extent usable with them. Whatever the cryptographic assurance of the protocols themselves, the association between a public key and its owner is ultimately a matter of subjective judgment on the part of the trusted third party, since the key is a mathematical entity, while the owner -- and the connection between owner and key -- are not. For this reason, the formalism of a public key infrastructure must provide for explicit statements of the policy followed when making this judgment. For example, the complex and never fully implemented X. 509 standard allows a certificate authority to identify its policy by means of an object identifier, which functions as an index into a catalog of registered policies. Policies may exist for many different purposes, ranging from anonymity to military classifications.
A public key will be known to a large and, in practice, unknown set of users. All events requiring revocation or replacement of a public key can take a long time to take full effect with all who must be informed (i.e., all those users who possess that key). For this reason, systems that must react to events in real time (e.g., safety - critical systems or national security systems) should not use public key encryption without taking great care. There are four issues of interest:
A malicious (or erroneous) revocation of some (or all) of the keys in the system is likely, or in the second case, certain, to cause a complete failure of the system. If public keys can be revoked individually, this is a possibility. However, there are design approaches that can reduce the practical chance of this occurring. For example, by means of certificates, we can create what is called a "compound principal '' -- one such principal could be "Alice and Bob have Revoke Authority ''. Now, only Alice and Bob (in concert) can revoke a key, and neither Alice nor Bob can revoke keys alone. However, revoking a key now requires both Alice and Bob to be available, and this creates a problem of reliability. In concrete terms, from a security point of view, there is now a "single point of failure '' in the public key revocation system. A successful Denial of Service attack against either Alice or Bob (or both) will block a required revocation. In fact, any partition of authority between Alice and Bob will have this effect, regardless of how it comes about.
Because the principle allowing revocation authority for keys is very powerful, the mechanisms used to control it should involve both as many participants as possible (to guard against malicious attacks of this type), while at the same time as few as possible (to ensure that a key can be revoked without dangerous delay). Public key certificates that include an expiration date are unsatisfactory in that the expiration date may not correspond with a real - world revocation but at least such certificates need not all be tracked down system - wide, nor must all users be in constant contact with the system at all times.
After a key has been revoked or when a new user is added to a system, a new key must be distributed in some predetermined manner. Assume that Carol 's key has been revoked. Until a new key has been distributed, no one will be able to send her messages and messages from her can not be signed without violating system protocols (i.e., without a valid public key, no one can encrypt messages to her).
One could leave the power to create, certify, and revoke keys in the hands of each user, as the original PGP design did, but this raises problems of user understanding and operation. For security reasons, this approach has considerable difficulties -- if nothing else, some users could be forgetful, inattentive, or confused. On one hand, a message revoking a public key certificate should be spread as fast as possible, while on the other hand, parts of the system might be rendered inoperable before a new key can be installed. The time window can be reduced to zero by always issuing the new key together with the certificate that revokes the old one, but this requires co-location of authority to both revoke keys and generate new keys.
It is most likely a system - wide failure if the (possibly combined) principal that issues new keys fails by issuing keys improperly. This is an instance of a "common mutual exclusion '' -- a design can make the reliability of a system high, but only at the cost of system availability (and vice versa).
Notification of a key certificate revocation must be spread to all those who might potentially hold it, and as rapidly as possible.
There are but two means of spreading information (i.e., a key revocation) in a distributed system: either the information is "pushed '' to users from a central point (or points), or else it is "pulled '' from a central point (or points) by the end users.
Pushing the information is the simplest solution, in that a message is sent to all participants. However, there is no way of knowing whether all participants will actually receive the message. If the number of participants is large, and some of their physical or network distances are great, then the probability of complete success (which is, in ideal circumstances, required for system security) will be rather low. In a partly updated state, the system is particularly vulnerable to "denial of service '' attacks as security has been breached, and a vulnerability window will continue to exist as long as some users have not "gotten the word ''. Put another way, pushing certificate revocation messages is neither easy to secure, nor very reliable.
The alternative to pushing is pulling. In the extreme, all certificates contain all the keys needed to verify that the public key of interest (i.e., the one belonging to the user to whom one wishes to send a message, or whose signature is to be checked) is still valid. In this case, at least some use of the system will be blocked if a user can not reach the verification service (i.e., one of the systems that can establish the current validity of another user 's key). Again, such a system design can be made as reliable as one wishes, at the cost of lowering security -- the more servers to check for the possibility of a key revocation, the longer the window of vulnerability.
Another trade - off is to use a somewhat less reliable, but more secure, verification service, but to include an expiration date for each of the verification sources. How long this "timeout '' should be is a decision that requires a trade - off between availability and security that will have to be decided in advance, at the time of system design.
Assume that the principal authorized to revoke a key has decided that a certain key must be revoked. In most cases, this happens after the fact -- for instance, it becomes known that at some time in the past an event occurred that endangered a private key. Let us denote the time at which it is decided that the compromise occurred as T.
Such a compromise has two implications. First, messages encrypted with the matching public key (now or in the past) can no longer be assumed to be secret. One solution to avoid this problem is to use a protocol that has perfect forward secrecy. Second, signatures made with the no - longer - trusted - to - be-actually - private key after time T can no longer be assumed to be authentic without additional information (i.e., who, where, when, etc.) about the events leading up to the digital signature. These will not always be available, and so all such digital signatures will be less than credible. A solution to reduce the impact of leaking a private key of a signature scheme is to use timestamps.
Loss of secrecy and / or authenticity, even for a single user, has system - wide security implications, and a strategy for recovery must thus be established. Such a strategy will determine who has authority to, and under what conditions one must, revoke a public key certificate. One must also decide how to spread the revocation, and ideally, how to deal with all messages signed with the key since time T (which will rarely be known precisely). Messages sent to that user (which require the proper -- now compromised -- private key to decrypt) must be considered compromised as well, no matter when they were sent.
Examples of well - regarded asymmetric key techniques for varied purposes include:
Examples of asymmetric key algorithms not widely adopted include:
Examples of notable -- yet insecure -- asymmetric key algorithms include:
Examples of protocols using asymmetric key algorithms include:
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who has the most at bats in mlb history | List of major League Baseball career at - bat leaders - wikipedia
In baseball, an at bat (AB) or time at bat is a batter 's turn batting against a pitcher. An at bat is different from a plate appearance. A batter is credited with a plate appearance regardless of what happens during his turn at bat. A batter is only credited with an at bat if that plate appearance does not have one of the results enumerated below. While at bats are used to calculate certain statistics, including batting average, on - base percentage, and slugging percentage, a player can only qualify for the season - ending rankings in these categories if he accumulates 502 plate appearances during the season.
Pete Rose is the all - time leader in at bats with 14,053. Rose is also the only player in MLB history with more than 13,000 or 14,000 at bats. There are only 28 players in MLB history that have reached 10,000 career at bats, with Adrián Beltré being the only one active.
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economic freedom fighters v speaker of the national assembly and others 2016 (3) sa 580 (cc) | Economic Freedom Fighters v Speaker of the National Assembly - wikipedia
Economic Freedom Fighters v Speaker of the National Assembly and Others; Democratic Alliance v Speaker of the National Assembly and Others (2016) ZACC 11 is a major judgment of the Constitutional Court of South Africa which finds that President Jacob Zuma breached the South African Constitution by failing to implement the recommendations in the Public Protector 's Nkandla report.
In 2009, during President Zuma 's first term, his Nkandla homestead was extensively renovated and upgraded. The Presidency said these were lawful security upgrades. However, it soon emerged that the upgrades included non-security features like a swimming pool and cattle kraal. The Public Protector, Thuli Madonsela, began an investigation into the apparent misuse of state resources. On 19 March 2014, she released her so - called Nkandla report, which found that some of the upgrades were unlawful and recommended that President Zuma pay back the money used for them.
The report proved highly controversial, as Zuma and his ANC government refused to act on it and questioned its legitimacy. On three occasions during 2014, the Presidency wrote letters to the Public Protector taking a skeptical attitude to the report. On 14 August 2014 Zuma said he would allow Parliament, and the Minister of Police, to determine what remedial steps, if any, he should take. He later denied that the Public Protector 's recommendations were legally binding. Zuma 's evasiveness led to severe and widespread criticism, including by opposition parties the Economic Freedom Fighters and Democratic Alliance. EFF MPs frequently interrupted parliamentary proceedings to demand that Zuma "pay back the money '', leading to confrontations between them and Speaker of the National Assembly Baleka Mbete, considered by some to be partial to Zuma in her management of parliamentary proceedings. On one such occasion, at Zuma 's 2015 State of the Nation address, these interruptions led to brawl between MPs and security personnel and a subsequent court action (which was decided against the government). When Zuma appeared in Parliament he repeatedly ignored or laughed off questions about Nkandla. Eventually the EFF announced, in May 2015, that it would file a court application to compel Zuma to act on the Public Protector 's report. The DA filed a similar application shortly thereafter.
As anticipated, the ANC - controlled National Assembly constituted an ad hoc committee to conduct a parallel investigative process led by Minister of Police Nathi Nhleko, whose report, released in August 2015, purported to "exonerate '' Zuma. This report was adopted by Parliament on 18 August 2015. On this basis, Zuma continued to ignore the Public Protector 's recommendations.
On 8 October 2015 the Supreme Court of Appeal of South Africa handed down a judgment in a separate matter (namely SABC v DA, about the Hlaudi Motsoeneng saga) that found the Public Protector 's reports are legally binding. In doing so the Court reversed the High Court, whose judgment on 24 October 2014 had said the reports are merely advisory.
A week before the hearing, the Presidency made a surprise attempt to settle the matter and compiled a draft order offering to pay back some of the money. The Public Protector noted that the draft order reflected only "partial '' compliance with her recommendations. The EFF made a counter-offer in the form of a draft order stating that the Nkandla report was legally binding on Zuma and that by failing to implement it he had breached the South African Constitution and his oath of office. The parties failed to reach a settlement.
The hearing took place on 9 February 2016. At it, Zuma 's counsel, Jeremy Gauntlett SC, made a series of major concessions, including that the Nkandla report was binding on Zuma, but asked the Court not to declare that Zuma had acted unconstitutionally. The issue was significant because such a declaration would be a basis for Zuma 's impeachment. Zuma 's strategy was perceived as an attempt to evade responsibility and throw his ministers under the bus. Minister Nhleko 's legal team, in turn, said his "hands were tied '' because he was following instructions from Zuma and the National Assembly. Only Speaker Baleka Mbete 's counsel, Lindi Nkosi - Thomas SC, seriously disputed the EFF and DA 's account of the facts and law, but was ultimately forced to capitulate and was widely mocked for her "bumbling '' performance.
The Constitutional Court 's unanimous judgment was delivered on 31 March 2016 by Chief Justice Mogoeng Mogoeng. It confirms the SCA 's holding in SABC v DA that the Public Protector 's recommendations are binding. It does this on the basis of a purposive interpretation of the South African Constitution; without the power to make binding recommendations, Mogoeng CJ holds, the Public Protector would be ineffectual:
The upshot, according to Mogoeng, is that the Public Protector 's recommendations must be implemented unless they are set aside by a court:
Since President Zuma ignored the report even without having them set aside, Mogoeng held he had breached the South African Constitution:
Mogoeng also found that the National Assembly had acted unlawfully by failing to implement the report:
The Court 's order substantially repeated the remedial steps required by the Public Protector. The National Treasury -- headed by Pravin Gordhan, who had recently locked horns with Zuma 's administration -- was ordered, within 60 days, to determine the costs of the non-security upgrades at Nkandla, and the proportion thereof to be repaid by Zuma. The President was ordered to make this repayment within a further 45 days and to "reprimand '' the ministers who had overseen the building work.
Mogoeng 's "powerful '' and "profound '' judgment was hailed as a "triumph for the rule of law '', and a major blow to the widely criticised President, of whose conduct the judgment was "scathing ''. One commentator said Mogoeng 's judgment was "his moment of triumph and redemption '', and marked his transformation from a supposed "tool '' of the establishment to a "national hero '' in a manner reminiscent of Earl Warren. Political analyst Steven Friedman said the judgment was "the clearest message yet that the Constitution is working ''; another commentator said the judgment 's importance was that "it is a muscular assertion that all rule in this country is subject to the Constitution ''. Former President Thabo Mbeki said the judges of the Constitutional Court should be "salute (d) '' for "the meticulous manner in which they discharged their constitutional responsibilities as our apex court ''. Justice Edwin Cameron, who sat in the case, suggested in a public address that it was one of the Court 's two most significant ever judgments. One commentator noted, however, that President Zuma 's counsel had conceded most of the points the Court decided against him.
The exception was the Court 's declaration that Zuma had breached the Constitution, which was a potential basis for Zuma 's impeachment. In the immediate wake of the judgment, Julius Malema and Mmusi Maimane, the leaders of the two victorious applicants in the case, called for Zuma to step down. However, Zuma sought to downplay the judgment. In a press statement the following evening, he said he welcomed the judgment and had always accepted the Public Protector 's reports were binding, and noted that the Court found he had been entitled to institute a parallel investigative process and had acted "honestly '' and "in good faith ''. Legal commentators condemned these claims as serious misrepresentations of the judgment. They pointed out that it could not possibly have been the case, as Zuma claimed, that he was merely adopting the High Court 's approach to the powers of the Public Protector in its DA v SABC judgment, because that was handed down six weeks after Zuma signaled his intention not to comply with her report. Commentators also condemned the Presidency 's statement that the Court had never found Zuma breached his office, since that was the judgment 's unmistakable implication.
But the ANC continued to support Zuma. The ANC Women 's League had released a statement hours after the judgment saying its faith in Zuma "remains unshaken ''. Secretary - General Gwede Mantashe, speaking on behalf of the so - called Top Six, said he "welcomed '' Zuma 's apologetic statement but that calls for his impeachment were "over-exaggerated ''. Chief whip Jackson Mthembu and Deputy Minister of Justice John Jeffery took the view that, although Zuma had breached the Constitution, the breach was not "serious ''. The impeachment bid by opposition MPs on 5 April 2016 failed by over 120 votes. Some were surprised that even Zuma 's opponents within the ANC like Cyril Ramaphosa and Pravin Gordhan had voted against the motion. The Congress of the People, an opposition party, said it would boycott parliamentary proceedings in light of the National Assembly 's failure to implement the Court 's judgment.
Nevertheless, many analysts said the judgment might prove a fatal blow to Zuma, although factional battles within the ANC would be the ultimate decider. One suggested that powerful ANC members had lost faith in Zuma and might move to oust him at a more opportune moment. The South African Communist Party, part of Zuma 's own tripartite alliance, had been skeptical about the adequacy of his response to the judgment. Some ANC members booed Zuma at his next subsequent appearance. And several prominent members of civil society and former ANC insiders, including Ahmed Kathrada, Ronnie Kasrils, Trevor Manuel, Cheryl Carolus, and retired Constitutional Court judge Zak Yacoob, called for Zuma 's resignation, prompting a backlash from certain Zuma allies. The South African Council of Churches did the same, saying Zuma had "lost all moral authority ''. The Gauteng ANC, led by noted Zuma critic Paul Mashatile, formally resolved that Zuma must resign; doubts were raised about Zuma 's leadership even within his traditional strongholds like the ANC 's Limpopo branches; and an internal ANC memorandum sent by party veterans to the Top Six allegedly demanded Zuma 's recall and compared him to detested apartheid - era President P.W. Botha. Finally, members of the Gupta family, thought to be Zuma 's long - standing allies and crucial financial backers, resigned from their major holding company and fled South Africa for Dubai in the week after the judgment -- leaving Zuma, in the opinion of some analysts, extremely vulnerable. In the wake of these developments, Malema said it was now time to "crush the head of the snake ''. On 12 April 2016, Max du Preez said the key question, "now that the balance of power has turned irrevocably against Zuma '', was how to ensure he makes a managed -- and non-violent -- exit.
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how many episodes does attack on titan have in season 2 | List of Attack on Titan episodes - Wikipedia
Attack on Titan is an anime series adapted from the manga of the same title by Hajime Isayama. It is set in a world where humanity lives inside cities surrounded by enormous walls due to the Titans, gigantic humanoid beings who devour humans seemingly without reason. The story follows the adventures of Eren Yeager, his adopted friend Mikasa Ackerman, and their friend Armin Arlert, whose lives are changed forever after a Colossal Titan breaches the wall of their home town. Vowing revenge and to reclaim the world from the Titans, Eren and his friends join the Survey Corps, an elite group of soldiers who fight Titans.
Produced by IG Port 's Wit Studio and directed by Tetsurō Araki, Attack on Titan was broadcast on the Mainichi Broadcasting System from April 7 to September 29, 2013, and later aired on Tokyo MX, FBS, TOS, HTB, TVA and BS11. Both Funimation and Crunchyroll have streamed the series with subtitles on their respective websites. Funimation has also licensed the anime for home video release in 2014. Episode 1 of the English version premiered at Anime Boston, with other episodes put on Funimation 's subscription services. On television of the series has broadcast weekly on Adult Swim 's Toonami block on May 3, 2014, starting at 11: 30 p.m. EST.
From episode 1 to 13, the anime 's opening theme song is "Feuerroter Pfeil und Bogen '' (紅蓮 の 弓矢, Guren no Yumiya, lit. "Crimson Bow and Arrow '') by Linked Horizon and the ending theme song is "Utsukushiki Zankoku na Sekai '' (美しき 残酷 な 世界, lit. "A Beautiful Cruel World '') by Yōko Hikasa. From episode 14 to 25, the anime 's opening theme song is "Die Flügel der Freiheit '' (自由 の 翼, Jiyū no Tsubasa, lit. "The Wings of Freedom '') by Linked Horizon and the ending theme song is "great escape '' by Cinema Staff. The opening themes were collected on Linked Horizon 's single "Jiyū e no Shingeki '' which sold over 100 thousand copies in its first week of sales.
A second season premiered on April 1, 2017 on MBS and other television networks. Funimation and Crunchyroll are streaming the second season on their respective websites, with Adult Swim airing a dubbed version. The opening theme song is "Opfert eure Herzen! '' (心臓 を 捧げよ!, Shinzō o Sasageyo!, lit. "Dedicate Your Hearts! '') by Linked Horizon and the ending theme song is "Yūgure no Tori '' (夕暮れ の 鳥) by Shinsei Kamattechan.
On June 17, 2017, a third season was announced at the close of the second season 's final episode, with a release date slated for April 2018.
The following bonus original video animation episodes were released alongside select volumes of the manga.
Chibi Theater: Fly, Cadets, Fly! (ち み キャラ 劇場 と んで け! 訓練 兵団, Chimi Kyara Gekijō -- Tondeke! Kunren Heidan) is a series of flash animated gag shorts included with the Blu - ray Disc / DVD releases, featuring the characters in chibi form based on designs by Yuupon.
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top 10 bollywood all time box office collection | List of highest - grossing Indian films - Wikipedia
This is a ranking of the highest grossing Indian films which includes films from various languages based on the conservative global box office estimates as reported by reputable sources. There is no official tracking of domestic box office figures within India, and Indian sites publishing data are frequently pressured to increase their domestic box office estimates.
Indian films have been screened in markets around the world since the early 20th century. As of 2003, there are markets in over 90 countries where films from India are screened. During the first decade of the 21st century, there was a steady rise in the ticket price, a tripling in the number of theaters and an increase in the number of prints of a film being released, which led to a large increase in the box office collections.
The majority of highest - grossing Indian films are Bollywood (Hindi) films. As of 2014, Bollywood represents 43 % of the net box office revenue in India, while Tamil and Telugu cinema represent 36 %, and other regional industries constitute 21 %. See List of highest - grossing films in India for domestic gross figures and List of highest - grossing Indian films in overseas markets for overseas gross figures.
The following list shows India 's top 25 highest - grossing films, which include films from all the Indian languages. The figures are not adjusted for inflation.
The following list of films is sorted in terms of Indian rupees. Currency conversions to US dollars are also given as reference points, but may not be consistent, as the dollar - rupee exchange rate has varied over time, from 48 rupees per dollar in 2009 to over 65 rupees per dollar in 2017.
Bengali cinema was the center of Indian cinema in the 1930s, and accounted for a quarter of India 's film output in the 1950s. Cinema in South India accounted for nearly half of India 's cinema halls in the 1940s. In 2009, South India accounted for 75 % of film revenues in India. As of 2014, Bollywood (Hindi cinema) represents 43 % of net box office revenue in India, while Tamil and Telugu cinema represent 36 %, and other regional industries constitute 21 %.
Bengali cinema is the Bengali language film industry centered in the Tollygunge neighborhood of Kolkata, West Bengal. It has been known by the nickname Tollywood, a portmanteau of the words Tollygunge and Hollywood, since 1932.
The Bhojpuri cinema produces films in the Bhojpuri language. It caters to an audience from eastern Uttar Pradesh, western Bihar and Nepal.
The Gujarati cinema produces films in Gujarati language and is primarily focused on the audience in Gujarat and Maharashtra. The film industry is sometimes referred to as Dhollywood or Gollywood.
The Hindi language film industry, based in Mumbai, India, is frequently known as Bollywood. Bollywood is the largest film producer in India and one of the largest centres of film production in the world.
Bengaluru is the center for the Kannada cinema, films produced in the Kannada language. It is sometimes known by the nickname "Sandalwood ''.
Malayalam cinema is a part of Indian cinema based in Kerala dedicated to the production of motion pictures in the Malayalam language. It is sometimes known by the nickname "Mollywood '' by certain media outlets. These are the top 10 highest grossing Malayalam films.
The Marathi cinema industry produces films in the Marathi language and is based in the state of Maharashtra, India. India 's first full - length film, Raja Harishchandra, was released in 1913 in Marathi. It is sometimes known by the nickname "M - town '' by media.
Punjabi cinema, producing films in the Punjabi language, is primarily based in the state of Punjab.
Tamil cinema, the Tamil language film industry is based in the Kodambakkam neighbourhood of Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India. It is sometimes colloquially known as "Kollywood '', a portmanteau of Kodambakkam and Hollywood. Worldwide gross figures (including dubbed versions) are given below.
Telugu cinema, also known by its nickname "Tollywood '' is a part of Indian cinema producing films in the Telugu language, in the states of Andhra Pradesh and Telangana and is centered in the Hyderabad neighbourhood of Film Nagar.
₹ 150 crore (US $23 million) # +
The Khiladi franchise was the first film franchise to gross over ₹ 100 crore, followed by the Krrish film series. Baahubali is the only franchise to collect over ₹ 1,000 crore at the box office, and the only franchise where both its films have grossed more than ₹ 500 crore worldwide.
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when did the samsung galaxy s8+ come out | Samsung Galaxy S8 - wikipedia
(S8) Smartphone
Sensors:
Other:
The Samsung Galaxy S8, Samsung Galaxy S8+ (shortened to S8 and S8+, respectively) and Samsung Galaxy S8 Active are Android phablet smartphones (with the S8+ being the phablet smartphone) produced by Samsung Electronics as their eighth generation of the Samsung Galaxy S series. The S8 and S8+ were unveiled on 29 March 2017 and directly succeed the Samsung Galaxy S7 and S7 edge, with a North American release on 21 April 2017 and international rollout throughout April and May. The S8 Active was announced on 8 August 2017 and is exclusive to certain U.S. cellular carriers.
The S8 and S8+ contain upgraded hardware and major design changes over the S7 line, including larger screens with a taller aspect ratio and curved sides on both the smaller and larger models, iris and face recognition, a new suite of virtual assistant features known as Bixby (along with a new dedicated physical button for launching the assistant), a shift from MicroUSB to USB - C charging, and Samsung DeX, a docking station accessory that allows the phones to be used with a desktop interface with keyboard and mouse input support. The S8 Active features tougher materials designed for protection against shock, shatter, water and dust, with a metal frame and a tough texture for improved grip that makes the S8 Active have a rugged design. The Active 's screen measures the same size as the standard S8 model but loses the curved edges in favor of a metal frame.
The S8 and S8+ received mostly positive reviews. Their design and form factor received praise, while critics also liked the updated software and camera optimizations. They received criticism for duplicate software apps, lackluster Bixby features at launch, for the placement of the fingerprint sensor on the rear next to the camera. A video published after the phones ' release proved that the devices ' facial and iris scanners can be fooled by suitable photographs of the user.
The S8 and S8+ were in high demand at release. During the pre-order period, a record one million units were booked in South Korea, and overall sales numbers were 30 % higher than the Galaxy S7. However, subsequent reports in May announced sales of over five million units, a notably lower first - month sales number than previous Galaxy S series models.
On March 11, 2018, Samsung unveiled the successor to the S8 flagship, the Samsung Galaxy S9.
Prior to its official announcement, media outlets reported on rumors and information from industry insiders. In December 2016, SamMobile reported that the Galaxy S8 would not feature a 3.5 mm headphone jack, later reported to be a false rumor. In January 2017, The Guardian reported on bigger screens for both of the two phone sizes, with edge - to - edge "infinity '' displays and very limited bezels, and an iris scanner. Additionally, The Guardian stated that the phones would come with 64 gigabytes of storage and support microSD cards, use USB - C connectors, and feature a "Bixby '' intelligent personal assistant. Soon after, VentureBeat revealed photos of the phones and additional details, including the lack of physical navigation and home buttons, in which the fingerprint sensor was moved to the back of the phone. Evan Blass tweeted in mid-March about color options for the phones.
The Galaxy S8 and S8+ were officially unveiled on 29 March 2017, with pre-orders beginning 30 March and official U.S. release on 21 April 2017. Following Best Buy retail listings in March, Samsung opened pre-orders for unlocked U.S. handsets on 9 May 2017, with availability starting 31 May.
The devices have also been released internationally. On 21 April 2017, they were made available in South Korea, Canada, and Taiwan. On 28 April, they were made available in the United Kingdom, Australia, Ireland, and Russia. followed by Singapore one day later. On 5 May, they were made available in Malaysia. New Zealand, India, the Philippines, and Thailand. followed by Brazil on 12 May. On 25 May, they were made available in China, and Hong Kong. On 8 June, they were made available in Japan.
In July 2017, pictures of the Galaxy S8 Active were leaked on Reddit, and the following month, AT&T "accidentally '' confirmed its existence through a document in a promotional campaign. It officially became available for pre-order, exclusively through AT&T, on 8 August 2017, with in - store purchase available 11 August. VentureBeat reported in late September that the device would also become available through T - Mobile in November, and Samsung subsequently confirmed both T - Mobile and Sprint availability in early November.
The Galaxy S8 and S8+ both feature 1440p OLED displays, with an 18.5: 9 (37: 18) aspect ratio taller than the 16: 9 ratio used by the majority of smartphones; the S8 has a 5.8 - inch panel, while the S8+ uses a larger 6.2 - inch panel. The displays on both devices curve along the side bezels of the device, with minimal bezels that Samsung markets as an "Infinity Display '', and the display panel itself has rounded edges. They use DCI - P3, offering what screen - testing website DisplayMate describes as the largest native color gamut, highest peak brightness, highest contrast rating in ambient light, highest screen resolution, lowest reflectance, and highest contrast ratio. The S8 features an octa - core Exynos 8895 system - on - chip and 4 GB of RAM; models in North American and East Asian markets utilize the Qualcomm Snapdragon 835 instead. Both chips are manufactured by Samsung with a 10 nm process. They contain 64 GB of internal storage, expandable via microSD card. The Galaxy S8 is one of the first smartphones to support Bluetooth 5, supporting new capabilities such as connecting two wireless headphones to the device at once. It is also bundled with Harman AKG earbuds. Both smartphones have improved satellite navigation over the predecessors by including Galileo receivers. In the United States, the S8 and S8+ are available in Midnight Black, Orchid Gray, and Arctic Silver color options, whereas gold and blue are available internationally. The blue option was made available in the U.S. in July 2017.
Unlike past Galaxy S series models, the S8 line does not feature physical navigation keys, electing to use on - screen keys instead. However, unlike other implementations, the home button can still be activated if it is hidden or the screen is off. The S8 's display features pressure sensitivity limited to the home button. To prevent the home button from burn - in damage, its position moves slightly. While The Verge claims that the S8 uses exactly the same 12 - megapixel rear camera as the S7, though with software improvements, a report from PhoneArena claims that the phones carry new, custom camera modules. The front - facing camera was upgraded to an 8 - megapixel sensor with autofocus. The S8 features fingerprint and iris scanners; the fingerprint reader is relocated to the rear of the device, to the left of the camera, due to the removal of the physical home button. In addition to an iris scanner, the S8 also features face - scanning as an option to unlock the phone. Face recognition technology had previously been implemented in earlier models since the Galaxy S III.
The S8 and S8+ use non-removable 3000 and 3500 mAh batteries respectively; Samsung stated that it had engineered the batteries to retain their capacity for a longer period of time than previous models. The S8 supports AirFuel Inductive (formerly PMA) and Qi wireless charging standards. Due to the recalls of the Samsung Galaxy Note 7, Samsung said in a press conference it is committed to stricter quality control and safety testing procedures on all of the company 's future products.
Samsung also launched a Galaxy S8+ with 128 GB of storage and 6 GB of RAM exclusively in China and South Korea, and a bundle offer in the countries provides both the exclusive model and the Samsung DeX docking station. The unique variant was also released in India in June 2017.
The Galaxy S8 Active features a rugged design and significantly tougher materials to make it shock, shatter, water, and dust resistant. It has a larger battery than either of the regular S8s, at 4000 mAh. Unlike the previous phones in the Active line, the S8 Active does not have tactile buttons, instead using onscreen keys like the regular variants of the S8. It also no longer has the dedicated action button of previous versions which could be reprogrammed to be a shortcut to favorite apps, with the action button being replaced with the Bixby button. The "infinity '' edge display of the standard models is removed, replaced with a metal frame and bumpers in the corners to protect from shocks, while the back is fitted with a "rugged, tough texture for a secure grip ''. Its screen also measures 5.8 inches, the size of the regular S8, and has quad HD Super AMOLED in 18.5: 9 aspect ratio. The S8 Active is sold in Meteor Gray, but AT&T also has a Titanium Gold color. The T - Mobile US version of the S8 Active also supports the company 's 600 MHz LTE network that was starting to be rolled out at the time the device was announced.
The Galaxy S8 launched with the Android 7.0 "Nougat '' operating system with the proprietary Samsung Experience (formerly TouchWiz) user interface and software suite. The software features a suite of assistant functions known as "Bixby '', which is designed primarily to interact with Samsung 's bundled applications and other supported services. The feature allows the use of voice commands to perform phone functions, can generate cards shown on a home screen page (replacing the Flipboard integration formerly featured) based on a user 's interactions, and perform searches utilizing object recognition via the camera.
Bixby supports third - party integration via an SDK. The S8 supports the use of a docking station known as Samsung DeX to access a PC - like desktop environment on an external display, with support for mouse and keyboard input. On 21 April 2017, coinciding with the phone 's official retail date, reports surfaced that the default music player on the Galaxy S8 would be Google Play Music, continuing a trend that started with the S7 in 2016. However, for the S8, Samsung partnered with Google to incorporate additional exclusive features into the app, including the ability to upload up to 100,000 tracks to the service 's cloud storage, an increase from the 50,000 tracks users are normally allowed to upload. Additionally, new users get a three - month free trial to the service, the same as given to users who purchase Google 's own Pixel smartphone. Furthermore, Google stated that more Samsung - exclusive features will be added to the app in the future, and that the Bixby assistant will also be supported by the app. Bixby replaces S Voice, the voice recognition technology previously found in Samsung Galaxy models.
In May 2017, Google announced that the Galaxy S8 and S8+ will support the company 's Daydream virtual reality platform after Samsung rolls out a software update scheduled for mid-2017. In July 2017, Verizon began rolling out an update for its devices, with support for Daydream. The Galaxy S8 was one of the first Android phones to support ARCore, Google 's augmented reality engine.
In February 2018, the official Android 8.0 Oreo update began rolling out to the Samsung Galaxy S8, Samsung Galaxy S8+, and Samsung Galaxy S8 Active.
Besides the phone 's protective case reportedly cracking and peeling away in under 2 months of use, Dan Seifert of The Verge praised the design of the Galaxy S8, describing it as a "stunning device to look at and hold '' that was "refined and polished to a literal shine '', and adding that it "truly does n't look like any other phone you might have used before ''. The hardware of the device was described as "practically flawless ''. Seifert also liked the new software, writing that "Samsung is known less for polish and more for clumsiness. In a refreshing change of pace, the software on the S8 is, dare I say, good (sic) ''. However, he criticized the Bixby assistant, writing that "in its current state, it does n't do much at all '', and also criticized the number of duplicate apps. Regarding performance, he wrote that the S8 was "fast and responsive, but so is virtually every other premium phone you can buy, and the S8 is n't noticeably faster or quicker than a Google Pixel, LG G6, or iPhone 7 ''. Fellow Verge reporter Vlad Savov felt that the placement of the fingerprint sensor was "a perplexing decision if we consider it as a deliberate design choice '', but noted reports from Korea claiming that Samsung had originally intended for the fingerprint reader to be built directly into the screen, but was unable to reach a desirable implementation in time for release. The Verge wrote that "Samsung 's six - month - old S8 has cutting edge features and design with fewer issues than other Android phones '' like the Google Pixel 2 and LG V30, and that the "OLED screen stretches to the edges of the device and curves on its sides in an almost liquid fashion. It makes the S8 look just as fresh today as it did when it debuted '', and pointing out that the S8 's popularity and carrier support guaranteed plenty of third - party accessories.
Chris Velazco of Engadget similarly praised the design, stating that "from their rounded edges to their precisely formed metal - and - glass bodies, they feel like smaller, sleeker versions of the Galaxy Note 7 '', and also praised the display as being simply "awesome ''. Velazco also praised the software, calling Samsung 's added interface "subtle and thoughtful in its design choices ''. While noting that the Bixby assistant was n't ready yet, he did compliment the promised voice features as being more granular than those offered through Siri or Google Assistant, and wrote that "With that kind of complexity involved, maybe it 's no surprise this stuff is n't done yet ''. Also praising performance and the camera, though noting that "The 12 - megapixel sensors on the back have n't changed much since last year. That 's not a bad thing since they were great cameras to start with '', Velazco summarized his review by writing that the devices "are n't perfect, but they 're as close as Samsung has ever gotten ''. Brandon Russell of TechnoBuffalo claimed that the camera could not beat Google 's Pixel smartphone.
Ron Amadeo of Ars Technica noted that the device 's unusual aspect ratio resulted in pillarboxing when watching 16: 9 video without zooming or stretching it. He complimented the feel of the S8, calling it "perfected '', but criticized the glass back for being "more fragile '' and that "Glossy, slippery glass does n't feel as good in your hand as metal does, either. For the top - tier premium price tag, we 'd prefer Samsung to put in the extra work and use a metal back ''. He criticized the biometric options for unlocking the phones, writing that "There 's an iris scanner, a fingerprint reader, and face unlock. The problem is none of them are any good '', and also criticized duplicate apps, writing that "most of which ca n't be removed and are n't very compelling ''. Additionally, he criticized Bixby, calling it "an odd addition '' due to the phone 's Google Assistant functionality already present.
Prior to the phone 's official announcement, reports suggested that Bixby would support "7 - 8 languages '' at launch. Later reports after the phone 's announcement clarified that Bixby would only support Korean and American English languages at its release, though noting that more languages would be coming "in the following months ''. In mid-April, The Wall Street Journal reported that Bixby would be launched without support for American English. On 19 July 2017, Samsung announced that Bixby had begun rolling out to Galaxy S8 users in the United States.
The Samsung Galaxy S8 and Galaxy S8+ broke pre-order records in South Korea, with more than 720,000 units booked in one week, a notable increase from the 100,000 units of the Galaxy S7 and 200,000 units of the Note 7. By mid-April, the number had increased to one million pre-orders. On 24 April 2017, Samsung announced that sales of the Galaxy S8 was its "best ever ''. Although it did not release specific sales numbers, it announced that sales of the S8 were 30 % higher year - over-year than the Galaxy S7. Subsequent reports in May announced that Samsung had sold over five million units. Jon Fingas of Engadget wrote that, although Samsung advertised its pre-order records, sales comparisons to other models on the market were difficult due to unannounced sales figures. However, a report from AppleInsider took a comparison look at previous Galaxy S models ' first - month sales, writing that the Galaxy S7 saw 7 - 9 million units shipped in its first month, and the Galaxy S4 sold 10 million. The publication further wrote that "Each year since reaching Peak Galaxy in 2014, Samsung has floated the idea that its new model has outpaced sales, shipments (or sometimes "preorders '') of the previous edition, but in reality Galaxy S sales -- and subsequently Samsung Mobile profits -- have actually never recovered since the Galaxy S4 ".
Prior to the official release, it was reported that some Galaxy S8 displays had a bad white balance, causing them to exhibit a reddish tint. Samsung stated that the Galaxy S8 was "built with an adaptive display that optimizes the colour range, saturation, and sharpness depending on the environment '', but noted that the device 's operating system provides settings for manually adjusting the display 's appearance and white balance. On 21 April, Samsung stated that the red tinting was purely a software issue, and would be patched in a future update. The Investor reported that Samsung would replace the affected devices if a software update did not fix the issue. Updates in various regions started rolling out in early May, fixing the issue.
Reports surfaced at the end of April that some Galaxy S8 devices were "restarting by themselves ''. Samsung has not yet commented on the issue.
Shortly after the phone 's unveiling, bloggers produced a video showing that the Galaxy S8 's facial recognition scanner could be tricked to unlock the phone by showing it a photo of the user. In a statement to Business Insider, a Samsung spokesperson stated that "Facial recognition is a convenient action to open your phone -- similar to the ' swipe to unlock ' action. We offer the highest level of biometric authentication -- fingerprint and iris -- to lock your phone and authenticate access to Samsung Pay or Secure Folder ''.
In May 2017, researchers from the Chaos Computer Club posted a video showing that the S8 's iris recognition system can be fooled with a contact lens and a suitable photograph of an eye. Samsung told BBC News that it was "aware of the issue '', and stated that "If there is a potential vulnerability or the advent of a new method that challenges our efforts to ensure security at any time, we will respond as quickly as possible to resolve the issue ''.
In October 2017, Galaxy S8 users reported on Reddit that they were unable to receive SMS messages, with no fix available and without any comment from Samsung.
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which is the largest dam idukki or mullaperiyar | Idukki dam - Wikipedia
The Idukki Dam is a double curvature Arch dam constructed across the Periyar River in a narrow gorge between two granite hills locally known as Kuravan and Kurathi in Kerala, India. At 168.91 metres (554.2 ft), it is one of the highest arch dams in Asia. It is constructed and owned by the Kerala State Electricity Board. It supports a 780 MW hydroelectric power station in Moolamattom, which started generating power on 4 October 1975. The dam type is a concrete, double curvature parabolic, thin arc dam.
This dam was constructed along with two other dams at Cheruthoni and Kulamavu. Together, the three dams have created an artificial lake that is 60 km (23 sq mi) in area. The stored water is used to produce electricity at the Moolamattom Power house, which is located inside nearby rocky caves. The Government of Canada aided in the building of the dam with long term loans and grants..
The idea of constructing a dam for power generation was first conceived in 1919 in a report submitted by Italian engineer Jacob to the Travancore government, which was rejected. As per history, Shri Chemban Karuvellayan Kolumban, the head of ' Oorali ' race during 1922, showed the way to the Malankara Estate Superintendent W.J. John and his friend AC Thomas Edattu, who were on hunting trip to forests near the present Arch Dam. Upon hearing the legend of Kuravan and Kurathi Hills, Thomas impressed by the sight of water flow between the mountains; suggested the spot suitable for an Arch dam. In 1932, W.J. John submitted a report to the Government of Travancore on the possibility of constructing a dam at Idukki for Power Generation.
In 1935, assembly member Shri. K.A. Narayana Pillai brought the Idukki project to the attention of Government of Travancore. Italian engineers Angelo Omedayo and Clantheyo Masele conducted a study in 1937 but things did n't go forward.
In 1947, a preliminary investigation report was prepared and submitted by Sri. P. Joseph John, the then Chief Electrical Engineer to the Government of Travancore. It was during 1956 that the Central Water Commission conducted a detailed investigation based on the Government 's request. The project report was prepared in 1961 and the Planning Commission accorded sanction for implementing the scheme in 1963. In 1964, under the leadership of Sri. E.U. Philipose, Superintending Engineer, preliminary works of the project were started.
The construction of this Dam commenced on 30 April 1969 under the guidance of several engineers like Sri. C.V Mathews (Retired Chief Engineer, Electricity Board). The Government of Canada aided the Project with long term loans and grants. SNC - Lavalin, Canada, a well - known firm of Consulting Engineers were advising and assisting Project Engineers under Canadian aid, while Hindustan Construction Company (a.k.a. HCC) of Walchand group won the bid for construction.
Storage of water in Idukki reservoir commenced in February, 1973. The inauguration of trial run of the first machine was celebrated on 4 October 1975. Commercial operation of the Power Station was Commissioned on 12 February 1976 by the then Hon. Prime Minister Smt. Indira Gandhi.
Idukki Dam is 168.91 m (554.2 ft) tall, constructed between the two mountains - Kuravanmala (839 m (2,753 ft)) and Kuravathimala (925 m (3,035 ft)). Length of the dam on its top is 365.85 m (1,200.3 ft). It has a width of 7.62 m (25.0 ft) in the top and 19.81 m (65.0 ft) in the bottom. About 464,000 m (16,400,000 cu ft) of concrete was used in the construction of the dam. This project is situated in Idukki District and its underground power house is located at Moolamattom which is about 43 km (27 mi) from the dam. One thing to be noted is, Idukki Arch dam does n't have any shutters to be opened so it has to rely on the Cheruthoni dam to maintain the reservoir water level.
Power Generation
The Project harnesses a major portion of the power potential of Periyar, the largest river in Kerala, by the creation of a reservoir of 2,000 M. cum (2 Billion Tonnes) capacity, diversion of waters thus impounded through a water conductor system consisting of a power tunnel and two underground pressure shafts to an underground power house situated in Moolamattom. The installed capacity of the Power House is 780MW consisting of 6 Units of Pelton - type turbines with a power generation capacity of 130 MW each. The regulated waters of Periyar falls through a drop of about 669.2 m (2,196 ft) while generating power in the underground power house. The generated power is given to two sub stations, One double circuit line to Kalamassery; one single circuit line to Tamil Nadu; One single circuit line to Pallom, 3 feeder bays for future.
Irrigation
The tail waters flowing to Kudayathurpuzha through tunnel and open channel is diverted for irrigation purposes in the Muvattupuzha Valley.
Tourist destination and attraction
Earlier, there was a blanket ban on public entry in to the dam due to security reasons. Later, it was relaxed opening the dam for public for 10 days during the Onam and the Christmas seasons. The duration has been increased to one month since last year. Cameras and cell phones are not allowed inside the dam area. The entry fee is Rs. 25 for adults and Rs. 5 for children. The fee for 15 - minute boating service for five persons is Rs. 600.
Idukki valley is 121 km (75 mi) away from Kottayam, and is a small hill town surrounded by a spread of beautiful, wooded valleys and meandering streams. Idukki is a well known tourist center in Kerala.
The Idukki Wildlife Sanctuary extends over the Thodupuzha and Udumbanchola taluks of Idukki district, spread over 77 km (48 mi) and is about 450 -- 748 m (1,476 -- 2,454 ft) above sea level. The Idukki Reservoir formed by three dams - Cheruthoni, Idukki and Kulamavu - extends to 33 km (21 mi). One can find elephants, bisons, sambar deer, wild dogs, jungle cats, tigers, wild boars etc. and a variety of snakes like cobra, viper, krait and a number of non-venomous snakes in this sanctuary. The birds of Idukki are Jungle fowl, myna, laughing thrush, black bulbul, peafowl, woodpecker, kingfisher, eagle etc.
Interesting Facts about Idukki dam
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