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who plays jesse's ex husband on nashville | List of Nashville cast members - wikipedia
Nashville is an American musical drama television series. It was created by Academy Award winner Callie Khouri and produced by R.J. Cutler, Khouri, Dee Johnson, Steve Buchanan, and Connie Britton. The series stars Connie Britton as Rayna Jaymes, a legendary country music superstar, whose stardom begins fading, and Hayden Panettiere as rising younger star Juliette Barnes. This is a list of current and former regular cast members, as well as recurring and guest - stars. A number of country musicians and celebrities have also appeared, including Brad Paisley, Katie Couric, Kelly Clarkson, Conan O'Brien, Luke Bryan, and Michelle Obama.
Notes:
Rayna Jaymes is a nine - time Grammy Award -- winner and fifteen - time CMA Award -- nominee, is the daughter of the late Virginia Wyatt and her husband, politician Lamar Wyatt. She grew up in a wealthy family whose father is Lamar Wyatt, former mayor of Nashville. Her mom died when she was 12. She and her father are estranged for a long time. She loves country music, but her father never approved of it and kicked her out of the house at 16. Early in her career she dated songwriter and guitar player Deacon Claybourne, who is an alcoholic. Soon after Rayna sent Deacon to rehab (which would be his last time), she married Teddy Conrad. The couple had two daughters, Maddie and Daphne. Teddy is not Maddie 's biological father, and there are hints that it may be Deacon -- which is revealed to be true later in season one, she marries Deacon in season four.
Juliette Barnes originally from Alabama, was discovered singing at a country fair by her manager, Glenn Goodman, who believed he could turn her into one of America 's biggest country stars. Juliette, being young, beautiful and ambitious, had no qualms about leaving her dysfunctional home life and her drug - addicted mother behind. She quickly rose to become Edgehill Republic Records biggest star, a pop - country sensation, with legions of young teenage fans and sell out tours. Despite Juliette 's singing talent being questioned by several characters, including Rayna Jaymes, she shows not only raw talent but has also proven herself to be a capable songwriter and works with talented musicians such as Deacon Clayborne and Avery Barkley. Juliette and Rayna, however, have two things in common, both of them had bad parents and both of them left home when they were 16 to become famous country music stars. Juliette is initially played as a demanding, arrogant diva, but there is another side to her. The main reason why she was the main antagonist in the series. She is a girl who has fought for everything she has and is prepared to do anything to get to the top. However, her hard exterior shields a world of pain that she rarely lets people see. She has no friends, no - one she can truly turn to, and she has seen the worst of people growing up, which has left her unable to connect with people emotionally. As a result, she shows a desperate desire to be loved by anyone who shows her the slightest bit of affection, such as when she falls in love with her mother 's drug counselor.
Scarlett O'Connor is a poet and songwriter. She is also Deacon 's niece, and musician partner with Gunnar (they later perform as The Exes). Introduced, she is dating Avery Barkley. She befriends Bluebird soundboard engineer Gunnar Scott who suggests putting her poetry to music. This leads to them being noticed by Rayna Jaymes who wants them to embark on a music career as a duo. The two also pursue a romantic relationship after she splits from Avery but she calls it off after rejecting his marriage proposal. When her best friend Zoey Dalton arrives in town and starts waitressing at the Bluebird she befriends Gunnar and the two start dating. Scarlett becomes jealous of their relationship and refuses to talk to Zoey. She continues on singing as a soloist and has a short relationship with producer Liam McGuinnis, who also supplies her with prescription medication to help combat tiredness when he has her working all night to get songs out of her. Rayna tells him to break off the relationship when she catches them kissing and Liam departs for Tokyo, leaving Scarlett devastated. Her is verbally abusive to her daughter since the latter is a big success and Beverly never got the chance. Scarlett eventually has a breakdown on stage and is hospitalized with severe depression. After she is released, Rayna agrees to let her go from her contract.
After Zoey breaks up with Gunnar since she thinks he still has feelings for Scarlett, the latter takes her place in the band she formed with Gunnar and Avery and their name is changed to the Triple X 's. Following the birth of his daughter, Avery departs the band and Gunnar and Scarlett continue on as a duo. Gunnar also falls for a technician called Erin and has a short fling with her as well as singer Autumn Chase while Scarlett realizes she is still in love with Gunnar. They eventually get back together.
Their relationship lasts a few months until the arrival of Damien George, who has been hired to direct one of their music videos. Scarlett realizes she may have romantic feelings for him and breaks up with Gunnar again. She later discovers that she is pregnant but does not know who the father is. She requests a paternity test, which confirms that Gunnar is not the father of her baby.
Teddy Conrad is Rayna 's husband who, after a business failure, is now living on his wife 's income. He runs for mayor with help from his father - in - law and wins election, later divorcing Rayna. Teddy became mayor for four years and was arrested for Lamar 's shady dealings in the past in the end of season 3 and the prison give him a three day pass to mourn his ex-wife and be their for her kids and will be released from prison in October 2016.
Avery Barkley began as an aspiring musician with a bad - boy streak. He and Scarlett are in a relationship when the series begins, but soon separate. In season two, he dates Juliette but breaks up with her after finding out that she cheated on him with Jeff Fordham. In season three, it is revealed that Avery is the father of Juliette 's baby, and Avery and Juliette marry later in the season, but divorce in season four after Juliette abandons him. However, they reunited, and put their wedding rings on, but did not discuss their issues they had the past two seasons. Juliette survives a plane crash that leaves her as the sole survivor he takes care of her and their daughter, eventually asking if they are back together or not. Juliette is unsure about where their relationship is at that particular time. In season five, when he gets an offer to go out on tour he turns it down due to Juliette needing his help as she continues to recover.
Gunnar Scott is a kind - hearted aspiring musician who dates Scarlett in season one, and dates Zoey in season two. He faces an on, and off again relationship with Scareltt for the rest of the series.
In season one, Gunnar and Scarlett O'Connor both work at the Bluebird Café. He encourages her to turn some poems she 's written into songs, and volunteers her to sing at an open mic night. She gets him to play with her on guitar. Watty White hears them singing and offers to cut a demo for them. He also calls Rayna Jaymes to give her a listen. Sometime later, when Rayna 's aiming to start her own record label, she remembers, and has Scarlett and Gunnar invited to audition for her. However, Gunnar is grieving for his brother, Jason Scott, and does n't make it to the audition. Scarlett auditions alone, with her banjo. Rayna leaves the audition early, but is impressed enough that Scarlett is offered a recording contract. However, she keeps the offer a secret from Gunnar, until their new upstairs neighbor, Will Lexington, hands them some mail that he says was misdirected. Will seems to be a good influence on Gunnar, getting him song - writing again. It is revealed that Will is gay, when he makes a move on Gunnar. Gunnar turns him down, but they remain friends and someone that Will can confide in, and who he can act himself around. Scarlett arranges for Gunnar to be given a chance to audition for Rayna, but he wants to sing a new type of music with Will, and wants time to figure out what kind of music he wants to play. He finds some lyrics written by his dead brother, Jason and, with some tips on performance from Will, Gunnar earns a business card from an agent, Jack Nelson, who offers to record a demo for him.
In the season one finale, Gunnar proposes to Scarlett but it is eventually revealed in season two that she turned it down and they break up. When her best friend Zoey Dalton shows up in town Gunnar and her start dating, which causes tension between the two best friends. Zoey starts to become jealous when Gunnar 's ex-girlfriend Kiley shows up and she has a son named Micah, who she says is Gunnar 's son. However, she later reveals that Jason raped her and Micah is actually his son. When Micah learns that Gunnar is not the father he wants to leave with his parents but the two eventually make amends.
In season three, Gunnar forms a new band with Zoey and Avery, called "ZAG '' but Zoey ends up becoming jealous when Gunnar starts reconnecting with Scarlett and they split with her leaving town when she sees Scarlett onstage with Gunnar and Avery at the Nashville winter music festival. The trio are renamed "The Triple Exes ''.
After Avery departs the band following Juliette giving birth to their daughter and raising his daughter, Scarlett and Gunnar continue on as a duo called "The Exes ''. Gunnar and Scarlett, for a short time, reconnect during season four.
In season five, their relationship is tested once more by the arrival of music video director Damien George. After he challenges her to let herself go, she realizes she may have feelings for him and she breaks up from Gunnar again. She eventually finds out that she is pregnant but is not sure who the father is. Gunnar is revealed not to be the father, but he says he wants to be there for Scarlett anyway.
Coleman Carlisle is a one - time mayoral candidate, and later Deputy Mayor. He is a close friend of Rayna, and serves as Deacon 's sobriety sponsor.
In Season 2, Coleman leaves Nashville, deciding to enjoy his life with his family.
Lamar Wyatt is Rayna 's father and a wealthy, powerful, and controlling patriarch and local politician who disapproves of his daughter 's career as a country singer. He dies of a heart attack while Teddy watches and does nothing.
In season one, it was revealed that Lamar 's wife died, leaving him a widow and single father to his two daughters, Rayna and Tandy. Tandy worked at his side and is the heir apparent to Lamar 's fortune and business empire. She was his top aid while in politics. Rayna and Lamar had a strained relationship.
In season two, Lamar was arrested when his shady business dealings caught up with him. Lamar planned an assassination attempt on Teddy, and weeks after returning home from jail, he died from a heart attack, and Teddy let him die.
He starts a relationship with talent show runner - up Layla Grant, which is merely a publicity stunt, but in spite of Gunnar 's attempts to get him to confess his true sexuality to her he proposes to her instead, and they marry, while filming a reality TV show, Love & Country, Will unknowingly confesses that he is gay to Layla while the cameras are rolling, having been hidden in their private room. After she attempts to commit suicide he agrees to grant her a divorce but they remain close friends afterwards, after she blackmails him in season three. Will falls for songwriter Kevin Bicks and they have an on - off relationship when Will is still unsure about coming out since it could harm his fame. When his father visits he has to hide his true nature since his father is homophobic but when Will holds a press conference he finally has the courage to come out, in the season three finale, as he wants to be open and with Kevin. Although his father initially disowns his son they make up when Will 's mother dies. He continually has to defend himself in the media and resumes his relationship with Kevin Bicks which ends once again when he does not want to move in with him, in season five, when the writers dumped Bicks in favor of a new character. He moves on when he meets Zach. They eventually start to date, but Zach may have ulterior motives.
Each of the following characters of Nashville may or may not be particularly significant to the story of the series; each was introduced in one season and would usually appear in subsequent seasons.
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what are the features of web 2.0 technologies | Web 2.0 - Wikipedia
Web 2.0 refers to World Wide Web websites that emphasize user - generated content, usability (ease of use, even by non-experts), and interoperability (this means that a website can work well with other products, systems, and devices) for end users. The term was popularized by Tim O'Reilly and Dale Dougherty at the O'Reilly Media Web 2.0 Conference in late 2004, though it was coined by Darcy DiNucci in 1999. Web 2.0 does not refer to an update to any technical specification, but to changes in the way Web pages are designed and used.
A Web 2.0 website may allow users to interact and collaborate with each other in a social media dialogue as creators of user - generated content in a virtual community, in contrast to the first generation of Web 1.0 - era websites where people were limited to the passive viewing of content. Examples of Web 2.0 features include social networking sites and social media sites (e.g., Facebook), blogs, wikis, folksonomies ("tagging '' keywords on websites and links), video sharing sites (e.g., YouTube), hosted services, Web applications ("apps ''), collaborative consumption platforms, and mashup applications.
Whether Web 2.0 is substantively different from prior Web technologies has been challenged by World Wide Web inventor Tim Berners - Lee, who describes the term as jargon. His original vision of the Web was "a collaborative medium, a place where we (could) all meet and read and write. '' On the other hand, the term Semantic Web (sometimes referred to as Web 3.0) was coined by Berners - Lee to refer to a web of content where the meaning can be processed by machines.
Web 1.0 is a retronym referring to the first stage of the World Wide Web 's evolution. According to Cormode, G. and, Krishnamurthy, B. (2008): "content creators were few in Web 1.0 with the vast majority of users simply acting as consumers of content. '' Personal web pages were common, consisting mainly of static pages hosted on ISP - run web servers, or on free web hosting services such as GeoCities. With the advent of Web 2.0, it was more common for the average web user to have social networking profiles on sites such as Myspace and Facebook, as well as personal blogs on one of the new low - cost web hosting services or a dedicated blog host like Blogger or LiveJournal. The content for both was generated dynamically from stored content, allowing for readers to comment directly on pages in a way that was not previously common.
Some Web 2.0 capabilities were present in the days of Web 1.0, but they were implemented differently. For example, a Web 1.0 site may have had a guestbook page to publish visitor comments, instead of a comment section at the end of each page. Server performance and bandwidth considerations had to be taken into account, and a long comments thread on each page could potentially slow down the site. Terry Flew, in his 3rd edition of New Media, described the differences between Web 1.0 and Web 2.0:
"move from personal websites to blogs and blog site aggregation, from publishing to participation, from web content as the outcome of large up - front investment to an ongoing and interactive process, and from content management systems to links based on "tagging '' website content using keywords (folksonomy) ".
Flew believed it to be the above factors that form the basic change in trends that resulted in the onset of the Web 2.0 "craze ''.
Some design elements of a Web 1.0 site include:
The term "Web 2.0 '' was first used in January 1999 by Darcy DiNucci, an information architecture consultant. In her article, "Fragmented Future '', DiNucci writes:
The Web we know now, which loads into a browser window in essentially static screenfuls, is only an embryo of the Web to come. The first glimmerings of Web 2.0 are beginning to appear, and we are just starting to see how that embryo might develop. The Web will be understood not as screenfuls of text and graphics but as a transport mechanism, the ether through which interactivity happens. It will (...) appear on your computer screen, (...) on your TV set (...) your car dashboard (...) your cell phone (...) hand - held game machines (...) maybe even your microwave oven.
Writing when Palm Inc. was introducing its first Web - capable personal digital assistant, supporting Web access with WAP, DiNucci saw the Web "fragmenting '' into a future that extended beyond the browser / PC combination it was identified with. She focused on how the basic information structure and hyperlinking mechanism introduced by HTTP would be used by a variety of devices and platforms. As such, her use of the "2.0 '' designation refers to a next version of the Web that does not directly relate to the term 's current use.
The term Web 2.0 did not resurface until 2002. These authors focus on the concepts currently associated with the term where, as Scott Dietzen puts it, "the Web becomes a universal, standards - based integration platform ''. In 2004, the term began its rise in popularity when O'Reilly Media and MediaLive hosted the first Web 2.0 conference. In their opening remarks, John Battelle and Tim O'Reilly outlined their definition of the "Web as Platform '', where software applications are built upon the Web as opposed to upon the desktop. The unique aspect of this migration, they argued, is that "customers are building your business for you ''. They argued that the activities of users generating content (in the form of ideas, text, videos, or pictures) could be "harnessed '' to create value. O'Reilly and Battelle contrasted Web 2.0 with what they called "Web 1.0 ''. They associated this term with the business models of Netscape and the Encyclopædia Britannica Online. For example,
Netscape framed "the web as platform '' in terms of the old software paradigm: their flagship product was the web browser, a desktop application, and their strategy was to use their dominance in the browser market to establish a market for high - priced server products. Control over standards for displaying content and applications in the browser would, in theory, give Netscape the kind of market power enjoyed by Microsoft in the PC market. Much like the "horseless carriage '' framed the automobile as an extension of the familiar, Netscape promoted a "webtop '' to replace the desktop, and planned to populate that webtop with information updates and applets pushed to the webtop by information providers who would purchase Netscape servers.
In short, Netscape focused on creating software, releasing updates and bug fixes, and distributing it to the end users. O'Reilly contrasted this with Google, a company that did not at the time focus on producing end - user software, but instead on providing a service based on data such as the links Web page authors make between sites. Google exploits this user - generated content to offer Web search based on reputation through its "PageRank '' algorithm. Unlike software, which undergoes scheduled releases, such services are constantly updated, a process called "the perpetual beta ''. A similar difference can be seen between the Encyclopædia Britannica Online and Wikipedia: while the Britannica relies upon experts to write articles and releases them periodically in publications, Wikipedia relies on trust in (sometimes anonymous) community members to constantly write and edit content. Wikipedia editors are not required to have educational credentials, such as degrees, in the subjects in which they are editing. Wikipedia is not based on subject - matter expertise, but rather on an adaptation of the open source software adage "given enough eyeballs, all bugs are shallow ''. This maxim is stating that if enough users are able to look at a software product 's code (or a website), then these users will be able to fix any "bugs '' or other problems. Wikipedia 's volunteer editor community produces, edits and updates articles constantly. O'Reilly's Web 2.0 conferences have been held every year since 2004, attracting entrepreneurs, representatives from large companies, tech experts and technology reporters.
The popularity of Web 2.0 was acknowledged by 2006 TIME magazine Person of The Year (You). That is, TIME selected the masses of users who were participating in content creation on social networks, blogs, wikis, and media sharing sites. In the cover story, Lev Grossman explains:
It 's a story about community and collaboration on a scale never seen before. It 's about the cosmic compendium of knowledge Wikipedia and the million - channel people 's network YouTube and the online metropolis MySpace. It 's about the many wresting power from the few and helping one another for nothing and how that will not only change the world but also change the way the world changes.
Instead of merely reading a Web 2.0 site, a user is invited to contribute to the site 's content by commenting on published articles or creating a user account or profile on the site, which may enable increased participation. By increasing emphasis on these already - extant capabilities, they encourage the user to rely more on their browser for user interface, application software ("apps '') and file storage facilities. This has been called "network as platform '' computing. Major features of Web 2.0 include social networking websites, self - publishing platforms (e.g., WordPress ' easy - to - use blog and website creation tools), "tagging '' (which enables users to label websites, videos or photos in some fashion), "like '' buttons (which enable a user to indicate that they are pleased by online content), and social bookmarking. Users can provide the data that is on a Web 2.0 site and exercise some control over that data. These sites may have an "architecture of participation '' that encourages users to add value to the application as they use it. Users can add value in many ways, such as by commenting on a news story on a news website, by uploading a relevant photo on a travel website, or by adding a link to a video or TED talk which is pertinent to the subject being discussed on a website. Some scholars argue that cloud computing is an example of Web 2.0 because cloud computing is simply an implication of computing on the Internet.
Web 2.0 offers almost all users the same freedom to contribute. While this opens the possibility for serious debate and collaboration, it also increases the incidence of "spamming '', "trolling '', and can even create a venue for racist hate speech, cyberbullying and defamation. The impossibility of excluding group members who do not contribute to the provision of goods (i.e., to the creation of a user - generated website) from sharing the benefits (of using the website) gives rise to the possibility that serious members will prefer to withhold their contribution of effort and "free ride '' on the contributions of others. This requires what is sometimes called radical trust by the management of the Web site. According to Best, the characteristics of Web 2.0 are: rich user experience, user participation, dynamic content, metadata, Web standards, and scalability. Further characteristics, such as openness, freedom and collective intelligence by way of user participation, can also be viewed as essential attributes of Web 2.0. Some websites require users to contribute user - generated content to have access to the website, to discourage "free riding ''.
The key features of Web 2.0 include:
In 2005, Tim O'Reilly and Dale Dougherty held a brainstorming session to elucidate characteristics and components of the Web 1.0 to Web 2.0 transition and what changed:
The client - side (Web browser) technologies used in Web 2.0 development include Ajax and JavaScript frameworks. Ajax programming uses JavaScript and the Document Object Model to update selected regions of the page area without undergoing a full page reload. To allow users to continue to interact with the page, communications such as data requests going to the server are separated from data coming back to the page (asynchronously). Otherwise, the user would have to routinely wait for the data to come back before they can do anything else on that page, just as a user has to wait for a page to complete the reload. This also increases overall performance of the site, as the sending of requests can complete quicker independent of blocking and queueing required to send data back to the client. The data fetched by an Ajax request is typically formatted in XML or JSON (JavaScript Object Notation) format, two widely used structured data formats. Since both of these formats are natively understood by JavaScript, a programmer can easily use them to transmit structured data in their Web application. When this data is received via Ajax, the JavaScript program then uses the Document Object Model (DOM) to dynamically update the Web page based on the new data, allowing for a rapid and interactive user experience. In short, using these techniques, Web designers can make their pages function like desktop applications. For example, Google Docs uses this technique to create a Web - based word processor.
As a widely available plugin independent of W3C standards (the World Wide Web Consortium is the governing body of Web standards and protocols), Adobe Flash is capable of doing many things that were not possible pre-HTML5. Of Flash 's many capabilities, the most commonly used is its ability to integrate streaming multimedia into HTML pages. With the introduction of HTML5 in 2010 and growing concerns with Flash 's security, the role of Flash is decreasing. In addition to Flash and Ajax, JavaScript / Ajax frameworks have recently become a very popular means of creating Web 2.0 sites. At their core, these frameworks use the same technology as JavaScript, Ajax, and the DOM. However, frameworks smooth over inconsistencies between Web browsers and extend the functionality available to developers. Many of them also come with customizable, prefabricated ' widgets ' that accomplish such common tasks as picking a date from a calendar, displaying a data chart, or making a tabbed panel. On the server - side, Web 2.0 uses many of the same technologies as Web 1.0. Languages such as Perl, PHP, Python, Ruby, as well as Enterprise Java (J2EE) and Microsoft.NET Framework, are used by developers to output data dynamically using information from files and databases. This allows websites and web services to share machine readable formats such as XML (Atom, RSS, etc.) and JSON. When data is available in one of these formats, another website can use it to integrate a portion of that site 's functionality.
Web 2.0 can be described in three parts:
As such, Web 2.0 draws together the capabilities of client - and server - side software, content syndication and the use of network protocols. Standards - oriented Web browsers may use plug - ins and software extensions to handle the content and the user interactions. Web 2.0 sites provide users with information storage, creation, and dissemination capabilities that were not possible in the environment now known as "Web 1.0 ''.
Web 2.0 sites include the following features and techniques, referred to as the acronym SLATES by Andrew McAfee:
While SLATES forms the basic framework of Enterprise 2.0, it does not contradict all of the higher level Web 2.0 design patterns and business models. It includes discussions of self - service IT, the long tail of enterprise IT demand, and many other consequences of the Web 2.0 era in enterprise uses.
A third important part of Web 2.0 is the social web. The social Web consists of a number of online tools and platforms where people share their perspectives, opinions, thoughts and experiences. Web 2.0 applications tend to interact much more with the end user. As such, the end user is not only a user of the application but also a participant by:
The popularity of the term Web 2.0, along with the increasing use of blogs, wikis, and social networking technologies, has led many in academia and business to append a flurry of 2.0 's to existing concepts and fields of study, including Library 2.0, Social Work 2.0, Enterprise 2.0, PR 2.0, Classroom 2.0, Publishing 2.0, Medicine 2.0, Telco 2.0, Travel 2.0, Government 2.0, and even Porn 2.0. Many of these 2.0 s refer to Web 2.0 technologies as the source of the new version in their respective disciplines and areas. For example, in the Talis white paper "Library 2.0: The Challenge of Disruptive Innovation '', Paul Miller argues
Blogs, wikis and RSS are often held up as exemplary manifestations of Web 2.0. A reader of a blog or a wiki is provided with tools to add a comment or even, in the case of the wiki, to edit the content. This is what we call the Read / Write web. Talis believes that Library 2.0 means harnessing this type of participation so that libraries can benefit from increasingly rich collaborative cataloging efforts, such as including contributions from partner libraries as well as adding rich enhancements, such as book jackets or movie files, to records from publishers and others.
Here, Miller links Web 2.0 technologies and the culture of participation that they engender to the field of library science, supporting his claim that there is now a "Library 2.0 ''. Many of the other proponents of new 2.0 s mentioned here use similar methods. The meaning of Web 2.0 is role dependent. For example, some use Web 2.0 to establish and maintain relationships through social networks, while some marketing managers might use this promising technology to "end - run traditionally unresponsive I.T. department (s). '' There is a debate over the use of Web 2.0 technologies in mainstream education. Issues under consideration include the understanding of students ' different learning modes; the conflicts between ideas entrenched in informal on - line communities and educational establishments ' views on the production and authentication of ' formal ' knowledge; and questions about privacy, plagiarism, shared authorship and the ownership of knowledge and information produced and / or published on line.
Web 2.0 is used by companies, non-profit organizations and governments for interactive marketing. A growing number of marketers are using Web 2.0 tools to collaborate with consumers on product development, customer service enhancement, product or service improvement and promotion. Companies can use Web 2.0 tools to improve collaboration with both its business partners and consumers. Among other things, company employees have created wikis -- Web sites that allow users to add, delete, and edit content -- to list answers to frequently asked questions about each product, and consumers have added significant contributions. Another marketing Web 2.0 lure is to make sure consumers can use the online community to network among themselves on topics of their own choosing. Mainstream media usage of Web 2.0 is increasing. Saturating media hubs -- like The New York Times, PC Magazine and Business Week -- with links to popular new Web sites and services, is critical to achieving the threshold for mass adoption of those services. User web content can be used to gauge consumer satisfaction. In a recent article for Bank Technology News, Shane Kite describes how Citigroup 's Global Transaction Services unit monitors social media outlets to address customer issues and improve products. According to Google Timeline, the term Web 2.0 was discussed and indexed most frequently in 2005, 2007 and 2008. Its average use is continuously declining by 2 -- 4 % per quarter since April 2008.
In tourism industries, social media is an effective channel to attract travellers and promote the tourism product and services by engaging with customers. The brand of tourist destinations can be built through the marketing campaigns on social media by engaging with customers. For example, the "Snow at First Sight '' campaign launched by the State of Colorado aimed at a brand awareness of Colorado as a winter destination. The campaign used social media platforms, for examples, Facebook and Twitter, to promote this competition, and requested the participates to share experiences, pictures and videos on social medias. As a result, Colorado enhanced the image of winter destination and a campaign worth was about $2.9 million.
The tourism organisation can earn a brand royalty from interactive marketing campaigns on social media with engaging passive communication tactics. For example, "Moms '' advisors of the Walt Disney World are responsibilities for offer suggestions and reply answers about the family trips at the Walt Disney World. Due to its characteristic of experts in Disney, the "Moms '' was chosen to represent the campaign. The social networking such as Facebook can be used as a platform for providing a detailed information about the marketing campaign, as well as real - time online communication with customers. Korean Airline Tour created and maintained a relationship with customers by using Facebook for individual communication purposes.
Travel 2.0 refers a model of Web 2.0 on tourism industries which provided virtual travel communities. Travel 2.0 model allow user to create their own contents and exchange their words through globally interactive features on websites. The users also can contribute their experiences, images and suggestions regarding their trips on online travel communities. For example, TripAdvisor is an online travel community which enables user to rate and share autonomously their reviews and feedbacks on hotels and tourist destinations. Non pre-associate users can interact socially and discuss through discussion forums on Tripadvior. Social media, especially Travel 2.0 website, plays a crucial role in decision - making behaviours of travellers. The user - generated contents on social media tools have a significant impact on travellers ' choices and organisation preferences. The travel 2.0 emerged a radical change in receiving information methods of travellers from business - to - customer marketing into peer - to - peer reviews. The user - generated contents become a vital tool for helping a number of travellers manage their international travels for the first time visiting. The travellers tend to trust and rely on peer - to - peer reviews and virtual communications on social media rather than the information provided by travel supplier. In addition, An autonomous review feature on social media would help traveller reduce risks and uncertainties before purchasing stages. Social media is also a channel for customer complaints and negative feedbacks which can damage images of organisations and destinations. For example, a majority of UK travellers read customer reviews before booking hotels and the bookings of hotels receiving negative feedbacks would be refrained by half of customers. Therefore, the organisations should develop strategic plans to handle and manage the negative feedbacks on social media. Although the user - generated content and rating system on social media are out of business controls, the businesses can monitor those conversations and participate in communities to enhance a customer loyalty and maintain customer relationships.
Web 2.0 could allow for more collaborative education. For example, blogs give students a public space to interact with one another and the content of the class. Some studies suggest that Web 2.0 can increase the public 's understanding of science, which could improve governments ' policy decisions. A 2012 study by researchers at the University of Wisconsin - Madison notes that "... the internet could be a crucial tool in increasing the general public 's level of science literacy. This increase could then lead to better communication between researchers and the public, more substantive discussion, and more informed policy decision. ''
Ajax has prompted the development of Web sites that mimic desktop applications, such as word processing, the spreadsheet, and slide - show presentation. WYSIWYG wiki and blogging sites replicate many features of PC authoring applications. Several browser - based services have emerged, including EyeOS and YouOS. (No longer active.) Although named operating systems, many of these services are application platforms. They mimic the user experience of desktop operating - systems, offering features and applications similar to a PC environment, and are able to run within any modern browser. However, these so - called "operating systems '' do not directly control the hardware on the client 's computer. Numerous web - based application services appeared during the dot - com bubble of 1997 -- 2001 and then vanished, having failed to gain a critical mass of customers.
Many regard syndication of site content as a Web 2.0 feature. Syndication uses standardized protocols to permit end - users to make use of a site 's data in another context (such as another Web site, a browser plugin, or a separate desktop application). Protocols permitting syndication include RSS (really simple syndication, also known as Web syndication), RDF (as in RSS 1.1), and Atom, all of which are XML - based formats. Observers have started to refer to these technologies as Web feeds. Specialized protocols such as FOAF and XFN (both for social networking) extend the functionality of sites and permit end - users to interact without centralized Web sites.
Web 2.0 often uses machine - based interactions such as REST and SOAP. Servers often expose proprietary Application programming interfaces (API), but standard APIs (for example, for posting to a blog or notifying a blog update) have also come into use. Most communications through APIs involve XML or JSON payloads. REST APIs, through their use of self - descriptive messages and hypermedia as the engine of application state, should be self - describing once an entry URI is known. Web Services Description Language (WSDL) is the standard way of publishing a SOAP Application programming interface and there are a range of Web service specifications.
Critics of the term claim that "Web 2.0 '' does not represent a new version of the World Wide Web at all, but merely continues to use so - called "Web 1.0 '' technologies and concepts. First, techniques such as Ajax do not replace underlying protocols like HTTP, but add an additional layer of abstraction on top of them. Second, many of the ideas of Web 2.0 were already featured in implementations on networked systems well before the term "Web 2.0 '' emerged. Amazon.com, for instance, has allowed users to write reviews and consumer guides since its launch in 1995, in a form of self - publishing. Amazon also opened its API to outside developers in 2002. Previous developments also came from research in computer - supported collaborative learning and computer supported cooperative work (CSCW) and from established products like Lotus Notes and Lotus Domino, all phenomena that preceded Web 2.0. Tim Berners - Lee, who developed the initial technologies of the Web, has been an outspoken critic of the term, while supporting many of the elements associated with it. In the environment where the Web originated, each workstation had a dedicated IP address and always - on connection to the Internet. Sharing a file or publishing a web page was as simple as moving the file into a shared folder.
Perhaps the most common criticism is that the term is unclear or simply a buzzword. For many people who work in software, version numbers like 2.0 and 3.0 are for software versioning or hardware versioning only, and to assign 2.0 arbitrarily to many technologies with a variety of real version numbers has no meaning. The web does not have a version number. For example, in a 2006 interview with IBM developerWorks podcast editor Scott Laningham, Tim Berners - Lee described the term "Web 2.0 '' as a jargon:
"Nobody really knows what it means... If Web 2.0 for you is blogs and wikis, then that is people to people. But that was what the Web was supposed to be all along... Web 2.0, for some people, it means moving some of the thinking (to the) client side, so making it more immediate, but the idea of the Web as interaction between people is really what the Web is. That was what it was designed to be... a collaborative space where people can interact. ''
Other critics labeled Web 2.0 "a second bubble '' (referring to the Dot - com bubble of 1997 -- 2000), suggesting that too many Web 2.0 companies attempt to develop the same product with a lack of business models. For example, The Economist has dubbed the mid - to late - 2000s focus on Web companies as "Bubble 2.0 ''.
In terms of Web 2.0 's social impact, critics such as Andrew Keen argue that Web 2.0 has created a cult of digital narcissism and amateurism, which undermines the notion of expertise by allowing anybody, anywhere to share and place undue value upon their own opinions about any subject and post any kind of content, regardless of their actual talent, knowledge, credentials, biases or possible hidden agendas. Keen 's 2007 book, Cult of the Amateur, argues that the core assumption of Web 2.0, that all opinions and user - generated content are equally valuable and relevant, is misguided. Additionally, Sunday Times reviewer John Flintoff has characterized Web 2.0 as "creating an endless digital forest of mediocrity: uninformed political commentary, unseemly home videos, embarrassingly amateurish music, unreadable poems, essays and novels... (and that Wikipedia is full of) mistakes, half truths and misunderstandings ''. In a 1994 Wired interview, Steve Jobs, forecasting the future development of the web for personal publishing, said "The Web is great because that person ca n't foist anything on you - you have to go get it. They can make themselves available, but if nobody wants to look at their site, that 's fine. To be honest, most people who have something to say get published now. '' Michael Gorman, former president of the American Library Association has been vocal about his opposition to Web 2.0 due to the lack of expertise that it outwardly claims, though he believes that there is hope for the future.
"The task before us is to extend into the digital world the virtues of authenticity, expertise, and scholarly apparatus that have evolved over the 500 years of print, virtues often absent in the manuscript age that preceded print ''.
There is also a growing body of critique of Web 2.0 from the perspective of political economy. Since, as Tim O'Reilly and John Batelle put it, Web 2.0 is based on the "customers... building your business for you, '' critics have argued that sites such as Google, Facebook, YouTube, and Twitter are exploiting the "free labor '' of user - created content. Web 2.0 sites use Terms of Service agreements to claim perpetual licenses to user - generated content, and they use that content to create profiles of users to sell to marketers. This is part of increased surveillance of user activity happening within Web 2.0 sites. Jonathan Zittrain of Harvard 's Berkman Center for the Internet and Society argues that such data can be used by governments who want to monitor dissident citizens. The rise of AJAX - driven web sites where much of the content must be rendered on the client has meant that users of older hardware are given worse performance versus a site purely composed of HTML, where the processing takes place on the server. Accessibility for disabled or impaired users may also suffer in a Web 2.0 site.
Others have noted that Web 2.0 technologies are tied to particular political ideologies. "Web 2.0 discourse is a conduit for the materialization of neoliberal ideology. '' Marwick, Alice (2010). "Status Update: Celebrity, publicity and Self - Branding in Web 2.0 '' (PDF). The technologies of Web 2.0 may also "function as a disciplining technology within the framework of a neoliberal political economy. '' Jarrett, Kylie (2008). "Interactivity Is Evil! A Critical Investigation of Web 2.0 ''. First Monday. 13 (3).
In November 2004, CMP Media applied to the USPTO for a service mark on the use of the term "WEB 2.0 '' for live events. On the basis of this application, CMP Media sent a cease - and - desist demand to the Irish non-profit organization IT@Cork on May 24, 2006, but retracted it two days later. The "WEB 2.0 '' service mark registration passed final PTO Examining Attorney review on May 10, 2006, and was registered on June 27, 2006. The European Union application (which would confer unambiguous status in Ireland) was declined on May 23, 2007.
After the appearance of the term "Web 2.0 '', a nomenclature appeared to describe the present, the past and the future of the Web. The uses presented here are not necessarily the only ones. In addition, for certain numbers uses are very rare (e.g. Web 2.1).
Numbers of existing versions:
Bloggers humorously published articles on what would be Web n. 0 or use it as the site name, or simply to mock ads about improvements from one version to the other quite identical. A start - up announced in a press release a parody on his "discovery '' of Web 5.0. The organizers of a conference on Web 3.0 in April 2007 noted that in search engines were at that time many answers even for the term "Web 9.0 ''.
Nicholas Carr imagined for its part the evolution of Web 1.0 to Web 5.0 by making the progression towards a world - against technological utopia.
In a drawing satirizing Web 2.0, François Cointe showed Google suggesting Web ∞. 0 (of course the ``. 0 '' is not used with the symbol of infinity); on the same drawing, a pipe bore the inscription "Web 2.0 '', and he went a bubble 2.0.
Symmetrically, below 1 there are numbers used to discuss the development of the Web. Thus in the MIT thesis, the term "Web 0.2 '' is used to designate the first sites, and "Web. 9 '' for dating sites just before the onset of the digital economy.
The ``. 0 '' was widely used by allusion. In particular, there is the suffix "2.0 '' attached to any XXX concept. In most cases, the concept XXX 2.0 does not necessarily mean a "major update '' (the greatest transformation since its creation, since it get the number 2) of XXX concept, but use of web 2.0 as part of the XXX concept. A non-exhaustive list of expressions emerged for acceptance include:
But there are also uses that have nothing to do with Web 2.0 itself, and just use the fashionable terminology. A distant example of the original domain is the use of "Depression 2.0 '' on the cover of Time (October 13, 2008) to discuss the 2008 financial crisis.
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when was the dictation test introduced in australia | Immigration Restriction Act 1901 - wikipedia
The Immigration Restriction Act 1901 was an Act of the Parliament of Australia which limited immigration to Australia and formed the basis of the White Australia policy which sought to exclude all non-Europeans from Australia. The law granted immigration officers a wide degree of discretion to prevent individuals from entering Australia. The Act prohibited various classes of people from immigrating and provided for illegal immigrants to be deported.
Because of opposition from the British government, a more explicit racial policy was avoided in the legislation, with the control mechanism being a dictation test, which required a person seeking entry to Australia to write out a passage of fifty words dictated to them in any European language, not necessarily English, at the discretion of an immigration officer. The test was not designed to allow immigration officers to evaluate applicants on the basis of language skills, rather the language chosen was always one known beforehand that the person would fail.
The initial bill was based on similar legislation in South Africa.
The Act specifically prohibited various classes of people from immigrating, including people with infectious diseases and people who had recently been imprisoned.
The Act automatically allowed certain classes of people to enter Australia, such as all members of the British Army or the Royal Navy, the captain and crew of any ship visiting an Australian port, any person sent on the business of a foreign government, family members of permitted immigrants, and former residents of Australia.
Prospective immigrants were allowed to apply for a Certificate of Exemption, issued by the Minister for External Affairs (or a representative), which would exempt a person from the provisions of the Act such as the dictation test for a specified time.
The Act provided that any would - be immigrant could be subjected to a 50 word dictation test:
Such a person would be a "prohibited immigrant '' and was to be prevented from landing.
This was similar to tests previously used in Western Australia, New South Wales and Tasmania. It enabled immigration officials to exclude individuals on the basis of race without explicitly saying so. After 1903 the passage chosen was not important in itself as it was already decided the person could not enter Australia and so failure was inevitable. Although the test could theoretically be given to any person arriving in Australia, in practice it was given selectively on the basis of race, and others considered undesirables. Between 1902 and 1909, only 59 people passed the test out of 1,359 who were given it. After 1903 passes were largely due to early immigration officers not understanding their role in this fraud or being unable to choose a language other than English. No - one passed the dictation test after 1909.
The Act established a range of federal crimes relating to immigration. Illegal immigrants could be imprisoned for up to six months, and could then be deported. Both the captain and the owners of ships which transported illegal immigrants to Australia could be fined GBP 100 for each immigrant, unless the immigrant was European. The Minister for Foreign Affairs was also able to detain ships which were suspected of carrying illegal immigrants. People who brought ill or insane immigrants into Australia were also liable for the costs of caring for them, on top of other penalties.
The dictation test came into disrepute when it began to be used to exclude and deport individuals which the government considered undesirable.
Jewish political activist Egon Kisch from Czechoslovakia, who was exiled from Germany for opposing Nazism, arrived in Australia in 1934. The Government of Joseph Lyons went to extraordinary lengths to exclude Kisch, including using the dictation test. Kisch was fluent in a number of European languages, and after completing passages in several languages, he finally failed when he was tested in Scottish Gaelic. The officer who tested him had grown up in northern Scotland, and did not have a particularly good grasp of Scottish Gaelic himself. In the High Court case of R v Wilson; ex parte Kisch the court found that Scottish Gaelic was not within the fair meaning of the Act, and overturned Kisch 's convictions for being an illegal immigrant. The failure to exclude Kisch brought the dictation test into widespread public ridicule.
In 1936, the dictation test was controversially used again to exclude Mabel Freer, a white British woman born in India. She was twice set the test in Italian, which she failed. In the face of a long press and legal campaign for her admission, the government was unable or unwilling to provide a convincing reason for her exclusion and eventually she was admitted, welcomed by a huge crowd at the quay in Sydney. Interior Minister Thomas Paterson resigned from the Lyons Cabinet in 1937 as a result of the controversy.
At first the dictation test had to be given in any European language and the dictation test could be administered any time within the first year of a person 's arrival to Australia. In 1905 the Act was amended to allow the government to prescribe the languages in which the test could be given. This wording was used to placate the objection from Japan that only European languages could be used. In 1932 the period during which the test could be given was extended to the first five years of residence and officials could give the test to an individual an unlimited number of times.
The Immigration Restriction Act was replaced by the Migration Act 1958, which replaced the dictation test with a universal visa system (or entry permits), and removed many of the other restrictions, although many migrants from southern Europe and Asia were already living in Australia, some of them having arrived as refugees during or after World War II.
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which of the following naval accomplishments was the first to occur | Maritime history - wikipedia
Maritime history is the study of human activity at sea. It covers a broad thematic element of history that often uses a global approach, although national and regional histories remain predominant. As an academic subject, it often crosses the boundaries of standard disciplines, focusing on understanding humankind 's various relationships to the oceans, seas, and major waterways of the globe. Nautical history records and interprets past events involving ships, shipping, navigation, and seafarers.
Maritime history is the broad overarching subject that includes fishing, whaling, international maritime law, naval history, the history of ships, ship design, shipbuilding, the history of navigation, the history of the various maritime - related sciences (oceanography, cartography, hydrography, etc.), sea exploration, maritime economics and trade, shipping, yachting, seaside resorts, the history of lighthouses and aids to navigation, maritime themes in literature, maritime themes in art, the social history of sailors and passengers and sea - related communities. There are a number of approaches to the field, sometimes divided into two broad categories: Traditionalists, who seek to engage a small audience of other academics, and Utilitarians, who seek to influence policy makers and a wider audience.
Historians from many lands have published monographs, popular and scholarly articles, and collections of archival resources. A leading journal is International Journal of Maritime History, a fully refereed scholarly journal published twice a year by the International Maritime Economic History Association. Based in Canada with an international editorial board, it explores the maritime dimensions of economic, social, cultural, and environmental history. For a broad overview, see the four - volume encyclopedia edited by John B. Hattendorf, Oxford Encyclopedia of Maritime History (Oxford, 2007). It contains over 900 articles by 400 scholars and runs 2900 pages. Other major reference resources are Spencer Tucker, ed., Naval Warfare: An International Encyclopedia (3 vol. ABC - CLIO, 2002) with 1500 articles in 1231, pages, and I.C.B. Dear and Peter Kemp, eds., Oxford Companion to Ships and the Sea (2nd ed. 2005) with 2600 articles in 688 pages.
Typically, studies of merchant shipping and of defensive navies are seen as separate fields. Inland waterways are included within ' maritime history, ' especially inland seas such as the Great Lakes of North America, and major navigable rivers and canals worldwide.
One approach to maritime history writing has been nicknamed ' rivet counting ' because of a focus on the minutiae of the vessel. But revisionist scholars are creating new turns in the study of maritime history. This includes a post-1980s turn towards the study of human users of ships (which involves sociology, cultural geography, gender studies and narrative studies); and post-2000 turn towards seeing sea travel as part of the wider history of transport and mobilities. This move is sometimes associated with Marcus Rediker and Black Atlantic studies, but most recently has emerged from the International Association for the History of Transport, Traffic and Mobilities (T2M)
Throughout history sailing has been instrumental in the development of civilization, affording humanity greater mobility than travel over land, whether for trade, transport or warfare, and the capacity for fishing. The earliest representation of a ship under sail appears on a painted disc found in Kuwait dating to the late 5th millennium BC.
In the time before ancient maritime history, the first boats are presumed to have been dugout canoes, developed independently by various stone age populations, and used for coastal fishing and travel. The Indigenous of the Pacific Northwest are very skilled at crafting wood. Best known for totem poles up to 80 feet (24 m) tall, they also construct dugout canoes over 60 feet (18 m) long for everyday use and ceremonial purposes.
The earliest seaworthy boats may have been developed as early as 45,000 years ago, according to one hypothesis explaining the habitation of Australia.
The Ancient Egyptians had knowledge of sail construction. This is governed by the science of aerodynamics. According to the Greek historian Herodotus, Necho II sent out an expedition of Phoenicians, which in three years sailed from the Red Sea around Africa to the mouth of the Nile. Some current historians believe Herodotus on this point, even though Herodotus himself was in disbelief that the Phoenicians had accomplished the act.
China 's multi-mast sailing junks were carrying over 200 people as early as 200 AD and by the medieval period were particularly massive. The Southeast Asian Seafarers, Polynesians, and Northern European Vikings concurrently developed oceangoing vessels and depended heavily upon them for travel and population movements prior to 1000 AD. In early modern India and Arabia the lateen - sail ship known as the dhow was used on the waters of the Red Sea, Indian Ocean, and Persian Gulf.
The astrolabe was the chief tool of Celestial navigation in early maritime history. It was invented in ancient Greece and developed by Islamic astronomers. In ancient China, the engineer Ma Jun (c. 200 - 265 AD) invented the south - pointing chariot, a wheeled device employing a differential gear that allowed a fixed figurine to point always in the southern cardinal direction.
The magnetic needle compass for navigation was not attested until the Dream Pool Essays in 1088 AD by Shen Kuo (1031 -- 1095), who was also the first to document the concept of true north to discern a compass ' magnetic declination from the physical) North Pole). By at least 1117 AD, the Chinese used a magnetic needle that was submersed in a bowl of water, and would point in the southern cardinal direction. The first use of a magnetized needle for seafaring navigation in Europe was written of by Alexander Neckham, circa 1190 AD. Around 1300 AD, the pivot - needle dry - box compass was invented in Europe, its cardinal direction pointed north, similar to the modern - day mariners compass. There was also the addition of the compass - card in Europe, which was later adopted by the Chinese through contact with Japanese pirates in the 16th century.
Various ships were in use during the Middle Ages. The longship was a type of ship that was developed over a period of centuries and perfected by its most famous user, the Vikings, in approximately the 9th century. The ships were clinker - built, utilizing overlapping wooden strakes. The knaar, a relative of the longship, was a type of cargo vessel. It differed from the longship in that it was larger and relied solely on its square rigged sail for propulsion. The cog was a design which is believed to have evolved from (or at least been influenced by) the longship, and was in wide use by the 12th century. It too used the clinker method of construction. The caravel was a ship invented in Islamic Iberia and used in the Mediterranean from the 13th century. Unlike the longship and cog, it used a carvel method of construction. It could be either square rigged (Caravela Redonda) or lateen rigged (Caravela Latina). The carrack was another type of ship invented in the Mediterranean in the 15th century. It was a larger vessel than the caravel. Columbus 's ship, the Santa María, was a famous example of a carrack.
The Arab Empire maintained and expanded a wide trade network across parts of Asia, Africa and Europe. This helped establish the Arab Empire (including the Rashidun, Umayyad, Abbasid and Fatimid caliphates) as the world 's leading extensive economic power throughout the 7th - 13th centuries. The Belitung is the oldest discovered Arabic ship to reach the Asian sea, dating back over 1000 years.
Apart from the Nile, Tigris and Euphrates, navigable rivers in the Islamic regions were uncommon, so transport by sea was very important. Islamic geography and navigational sciences were highly developed, making use of a magnetic compass and a rudimentary instrument known as a kamal, used for celestial navigation and for measuring the altitudes and latitudes of the stars. When combined with detailed maps of the period, sailors were able to sail across oceans rather than skirt along the coast. According to the political scientist Hobson, the origins of the caravel ship, used for long - distance travel by the Spanish and Portuguese since the 15th century, date back to the qarib used by Andalusian explorers by the 13th century.
The Hanseatic League was an alliance of trading guilds that established and maintained a trade monopoly over the Baltic Sea, to a certain extent the North Sea, and most of Northern Europe for a time in the Late Middle Ages and the early modern period, between the 13th and 17th centuries. Historians generally trace the origins of the League to the foundation of the Northern German town of Lübeck, established in 1158 / 1159 after the capture of the area from the Count of Schauenburg and Holstein by Henry the Lion, the Duke of Saxony. Exploratory trading adventures, raids and piracy had occurred earlier throughout the Baltic (see Vikings) -- the sailors of Gotland sailed up rivers as far away as Novgorod, for example -- but the scale of international economy in the Baltic area remained insignificant before the growth of the Hanseatic League. German cities achieved domination of trade in the Baltic with striking speed over the next century, and Lübeck became a central node in all the seaborne trade that linked the areas around the North Sea and the Baltic Sea.
The 15th century saw the climax of Lübeck 's hegemony. (Visby, one of the midwives of the Hanseatic league in 1358, declined to become a member. Visby dominated trade in the Baltic before the Hanseatic league, and with its monopolistic ideology, suppressed the Gotlandic free - trade competition.) By the late 16th century, the League imploded and could no longer deal with its own internal struggles, the social and political changes that accompanied the Reformation, the rise of Dutch and English merchants, and the incursion of the Ottoman Turks upon its trade routes and upon the Holy Roman Empire itself. Only nine members attended the last formal meeting in 1669 and only three (Lübeck, Hamburg and Bremen) remained as members until its final demise in 1862.
During the Age of the Ajuran, the Somali sultanates and republics of Merca, Mogadishu, Barawa, Hobyo and their respective ports flourished. They had a lucrative foreign commerce with ships sailing to and coming from Arabia, India, Venetia, Persia, Egypt, Portugal and as far away as China. In the 16th century, Duarte Barbosa noted that many ships from the Kingdom of Cambaya in what is modern - day India sailed to Mogadishu with cloths and spices, for which they in return received gold, wax and ivory. Barbosa also highlighted the abundance of meat, wheat, barley, horses, and fruit on the coastal markets, which generated enormous wealth for the merchants.
In the early modern period, successor states of the Adal and Ajuran empires began to flourish in Somalia who continued the seaborne trade established by previous Somali empires. The rise of the 19th century Gobroon Dynasty in particular saw a rebirth in Somali maritime enterprise. During this period, the Somali agricultural output to Arabian markets was so great that the coast of Somalia came to be known as the Grain Coast of Yemen and Oman.
The Age of Discovery was a period from the early 15th century and continuing into the early 17th century, during which European ships traveled around the world to search for new trading routes and partners to feed burgeoning capitalism in Europe. Historians often refer to the ' Age of Discovery ' as the pioneer Portuguese and later Spanish long - distance maritime travels in search of alternative trade routes to "the East Indies '', moved by the trade of gold, silver and spices. In the process, Europeans encountered peoples and mapped lands previously unknown to them.
Christopher Columbus was a navigator and maritime explorer who is one of several historical figures credited as the discoverer of the Americas. It is generally believed that he was born in Genoa, although other theories and possibilities exist. Columbus ' voyages across the Atlantic Ocean began a European effort at exploration and colonization of the Western Hemisphere. While history places great significance on his first voyage of 1492, he did not actually reach the mainland until his third voyage in 1498. Likewise, he was not the earliest European explorer to reach the Americas, as there are accounts of European transatlantic contact prior to 1492. Nevertheless, Columbus 's voyage came at a critical time of growing national imperialism and economic competition between developing nation states seeking wealth from the establishment of trade routes and colonies. Therefore, the period before 1492 is known as Pre-Columbian.
John Cabot was a Genoese navigator and explorer commonly credited as one of the first early modern Europeans to land on the North American mainland aboard the Matthew in 1497. Sebastian Cabot was an Italian explorer and may have sailed with his father John Cabot in May 1497. John Cabot and perhaps Sebastian, sailing from Bristol, took their small fleet along the coasts of a "New Found Land ''. There is much controversy over where exactly Cabot landed, but two likely locations that are often suggested are Nova Scotia and Newfoundland. Cabot and his crew (including perhaps Sebastian) mistook this place for China, without finding the passage to the east they were looking for. Some scholars maintain that the name America comes from Richard Amerik, a Bristol merchant and customs officer, who is claimed on very slender evidence to have helped finance the Cabot voyages.
Jacques Cartier was a French navigator who first explored and described the Gulf of St - Lawrence and the shores of the Saint Lawrence River, which he named Canada. Juan Fernández was a Spanish explorer and navigator. Probably between 1563 and 1574 he discovered the Juan Fernández Islands west of Valparaíso, Chile. He also discovered the Pacific islands of San Félix and San Ambrosio (1574). Among the other famous explorers of the period were Vasco da Gama, Pedro Álvares Cabral, Yermak, Juan Ponce de León, Francisco Coronado, Juan Sebastián Elcano, Bartolomeu Dias, Ferdinand Magellan, Willem Barentsz, Abel Tasman, Jean Alfonse, Samuel de Champlain, Willem Jansz, Captain James Cook, Henry Hudson, and Giovanni da Verrazzano.
Peter Martyr d'Anghiera was an Italian - born historian of Spain and of the discoveries of her representatives during the Age of Exploration. He wrote the first accounts of explorations in Central and South America in a series of letters and reports, grouped in the original Latin publications of 1511 -- 1530 into sets of ten chapters called "decades. '' His Decades are thus of great value in the history of geography and discovery. His De Orbe Novo (published 1530; "On the New World '') describes the first contacts of Europeans and Native Americans and contains, for example, the first European reference to India rubber.
Richard Hakluyt was an English writer, and is principally remembered for his efforts in promoting and supporting the settlement of North America by the English through his works, notably Divers Voyages Touching the Discoverie of America (1582) and The Principal Navigations, Voiages, Traffiques and Discoueries of the English Nation (1598 -- 1600).
Although Europe is the world 's second - smallest continent in terms of area, it has a very long coastline, and has arguably been influenced more by its maritime history than any other continent. Europe is uniquely situated between several navigable seas and intersected by navigable rivers running into them in a way which greatly facilitated the influence of maritime traffic and commerce.
When the carrack and then the caravel were developed by the Portuguese, European thoughts returned to the fabled East. These explorations have a number of causes. Monetarists believe the main reason the Age of Exploration began was because of a severe shortage of bullion in Europe. The European economy was dependent on gold and silver currency, but low domestic supplies had plunged much of Europe into a recession. Another factor was the centuries long conflict between the Iberians and the Muslims to the south. The eastern trade routes were controlled by the Ottoman Empire after the Turks took control of Constantinople in 1453, and they barred Europeans from those trade routes. The ability to outflank the Muslim states of North Africa was seen as crucial to their survival. At the same time, the Iberians learnt much from their Arab neighbours. The carrack and caravel both incorporated the Mediterranean lateen sail that made ships far more manoeuvrable. It was also through the Arabs that Ancient Greek geography was rediscovered, for the first time giving European sailors some idea of the shape of Africa and Asia.
In 1492, Christopher Columbus reached the Americas, after which European exploration and colonization rapidly expanding. The post-1492 era is known as the Columbian Exchange period. The first conquests were made by the Spanish, who quickly conquered most of South and Central America and large parts of North America. The Portuguese took Brazil. The British, French and Dutch conquered islands in the Caribbean Sea, many of which had already been conquered by the Spanish or depopulated by disease. Early European colonies in North America included Spanish Florida, the British settlements in Virginia and New England, French settlements in Quebec and Louisiana, and Dutch settlements in New Netherlands. Denmark - Norway revived its former colonies in Greenland from the 18th until the 20th century, and also colonised a few of the Virgin Islands.
From its very outset, Western colonialism was operated as a joint public - private venture. Columbus ' voyages to the Americas were partially funded by Italian investors, but whereas the Spanish state maintained a tight rein on trade with its colonies (by law, the colonies could only trade with one designated port in the mother country and treasure was brought back in special convoys), the English, French and Dutch granted what were effectively trade monopolies to joint - stock companies such as the East India Companies and the Hudson 's Bay Company.
In the exploration of Africa, there was the proliferation of conflicting European claims to African territory. By the 15th century, Europeans explored the African coast in search of a water route to India. These expeditions were mostly conducted by the Portuguese, who had been given papal authority to exploit all non-Christian lands of the Eastern Hemisphere. The Europeans set up coastal colonies to prosecute the slave trade, but the interior of the continent remained unexplored until the 19th century. This was a cumulative period that resulted in European colonial rule in Africa and altered the future of the African continent.
Imperialism in Asia traces its roots back to the late 15th century with a series of voyages that sought a sea passage to India in the hope of establishing direct trade between Europe and Asia in spices. Before 1500 European economies were largely self - sufficient, only supplemented by minor trade with Asia and Africa. Within the next century, however, European and Asian economies were slowly becoming integrated through the rise of new global trade routes; and the early thrust of European political power, commerce, and culture in Asia gave rise to a growing trade in lucrative commodities -- a key development in the rise of today 's modern world capitalist economy. European colonies in India were set up by several European nations beginning at the beginning of the 16th century. Rivalry between reigning European powers saw the entry of the Dutch, British and French among others.
During this time, the clipper route was established by clipper ships between Europe and the Far East, Australia and New Zealand. The route ran from west to east through the Southern Ocean, in order to make use of the strong westerly winds of the Roaring Forties. Many ships and sailors were lost in the heavy conditions along the route, particularly at Cape Horn, which the clippers had to round on their return to Europe. In September 1578, Sir Francis Drake, in the course of his circumnavigation of the world, discovered Cape Horn. This discovery went unused for some time, as ships continued to use the known passage through the Strait of Magellan. By the early 17th century, the Dutch merchant Jacob le Maire, together with navigator Willem Schouten, set off to investigate Drake 's suggestion of a route to the south of Tierra del Fuego. At the time it was discovered, the Horn was believed to be the southernmost point of Tierra del Fuego; the unpredictable violence of weather and sea conditions in the Drake Passage made exploration difficult, and it was only in 1624 that the Horn was discovered to be an island. It is an interesting testament to the difficulty of conditions there that Antarctica, only 650 kilometres (400 mi) away across the Drake Passage, was discovered as recently as 1820, despite the passage having been used as a major shipping route for 200 years. The clipper route fell into commercial disuse with the introduction of steam ships, and the opening of the Suez and Panama Canals.
The age of exploration is generally said to have ended in the early 17th century. By this time European vessels were well enough built and their navigators competent enough to travel to virtually anywhere on the planet. Exploration, of course, continued. The Arctic and Antarctic seas were not explored until the 19th century.
The Age of Sail originates from ancient seafaring exploration, during the rise of ancient civilizations. Including Mesopotamia, the Far East and the Cradle of Civilization, the Arabian Sea has been an important marine trade route since the era of the coastal sailing vessels from possibly as early as the 3rd millennium BC, certainly the late 2nd millennium BC up to and including the later days of Age of Sail. By the time of Julius Caesar, several well - established combined land - sea trade routes depended upon water transport through the Sea around the rough inland terrain features to its north. These routes usually began in the Far East with transshipment via historic Bharuch (Bharakuccha), traversed past the inhospitable coast of today 's Iran then split around Hadhramaut into two streams north into the Gulf of Aden and thence into the Levant, or south into Alexandria via Red Sea ports such as Axum. Each major route involved transhipping to pack animal caravans, travel through desert country and risk of bandits and extortionate tolls by local potentiates. Southern coastal route past the rough country in the southern Arabian peninsula (Yemen and Oman today) was significant, and the Egyptian Pharaohs built several shallow canals to service the trade, one more or less along the route of today 's Suez canal, and another from the Red Sea to the Nile River, both shallow works that were swallowed up by huge sand storms in antiquity.
In the modern western countries, the European "Age of Sail '' is the period in which international trade and naval warfare were both dominated by sailing ships. The age of sail mostly coincided with the age of discovery, from the 15th to the 18th century. After the 17th century, English naval maps stopped using the term of British Sea for the English Channel. From 15th to the 18th centuries, the period saw square rigged sailing ships carry European settlers to many parts of the world in one of the most important human migrations in recorded history. This period was marked by extensive exploration and colonization efforts on the part of European kingdoms. The sextant, developed in the 18th century, made more accurate charting of nautical position possible.
Juan of Austria was a military leader whose most famous victory was in the naval Battle of Lepanto in 1571. Philip had appointed Juan to command the naval forces of the Holy League which was pitted against the Ottoman Empire. Juan, by dint of leadership ability and charisma, was able to unite this disparate coalition and inflict a historic defeat upon the Ottomans and their corsair allies in the Battle of Lepanto. His role in the battle is commemorated in the poem "Lepanto '' by G.K. Chesterton.
Maarten Tromp was an officer and later admiral in the Dutch navy. In 1639, during the Dutch struggle for independence from Spain, Tromp defeated a large Spanish fleet bound for Flanders at the Battle of the Downs, marking the end of Spanish naval power. In a preliminary battle, the Action of 18 September 1639, Tromp was the first fleet commander known to deliberately use line of battle tactics. His flagship in this period was Aemilia. In the First Anglo - Dutch War of 1652 -- 1653 Tromp commanded the Dutch fleet in the battles of Dungeness, Portland, the Gabbard and Scheveningen. In the last of these, he was killed by a sharpshooter in the rigging of William Penn 's ship. His acting flag captain, Egbert Bartholomeusz Kortenaer, on Brederode kept up fleet morale by not lowering Tromp 's standard, pretending Tromp was still alive.
Cornelis Tromp was a Commander in Chief of the Dutch and Danish navy. In 1656 he participated in the relief of Gdańsk (Danzig). In 1658 it was discovered he had used his ships to trade in luxury goods; as a result he was fined and not allowed to have an active command until 1662. Just before the Second Anglo - Dutch War he was promoted to Vice-Admiral on 29 January 1665; at the Battle of Lowestoft he prevented total catastrophe by taking over fleet command to allow the escape of the larger part of the fleet. In 1676 he became Admiral - General of the Danish navy and Knight in the Order of the Elephant. He defeated the Swedish navy in the Battle of Öland, his only victory as a fleet commander.
Charles Hardy was a British naval officer and colonial governor. He was appointed governor and commander - in - chief of the British colony of Newfoundland in 1744. In 1758, he and James Wolfe attacked French posts around the mouth of the St. Lawrence River and destroyed all of the French fishing stations along the northern shores of what is now New Brunswick and along the Gaspé peninsula.
Augustus Keppel, 1st Viscount Keppel was a British admiral who held sea commands during the Seven Years ' War and the War of American Independence. During the final years of the latter conflict he served as First Lord of the Admiralty. During the Seven Years ' War he saw constant service. He was in North America in 1755, on the coast of France in 1756, was detached on a cruise to reduce the French settlements on the west coast of Africa in 1758, and his ship Torbay (74) was the first to get into action in the Battle of Quiberon Bay in 1759. In 1757 he had formed part of the court martial which had condemned Admiral Byng, but was active among those who endeavoured to secure a pardon for him; but neither he nor those who had acted with him could produce any serious reason why the sentence should not be carried out. When Spain joined France in 1762 he was sent as second in command with Sir George Pocock in the expedition which took Havana. His health suffered from the fever which carried off an immense proportion of the soldiers and sailors, but the £ 25,000 of prize money which he received freed him from the unpleasant position of younger son of a family ruined by the extravagance of his father.
Edward Hawke, 1st Baron Hawke was a naval officer of the Royal Navy. During the War of the Austrian Succession he was promoted to rear admiral. In the Seven Years ' War, Hawke replaced Admiral John Byng as commander in the Mediterranean in 1756.
Richard Howe, 1st Earl Howe was a British admiral. During the rebellion in North America, Howe was known to be sympathetic to the colonists -- he had in prior years sought the acquaintance of Benjamin Franklin, who was a friend of Howe 's sister, a popular lady in London society. During his career, Howe displayed a tactical uncommon originality. His performance was unexcelled even by Nelson, who, like Howe 's other successors, was served by more highly trained squadrons and benefitted from Howe 's example.
Horatio Nelson, 1st Viscount Nelson was a British admiral famous for his participation in the Napoleonic Wars, most notably in the Battle of Trafalgar, a decisive British victory in the war, where he lost his life. Nelson was noted for his considerable ability to inspire and bring out the best in his men, to the point that it gained a name: "The Nelson Touch ''. His actions during these wars meant that before and after his death he was revered like few military figures have been throughout British history. Alexander Davison was a contemporary and close friend of Horatio Nelson. Davison is responsible for several acts that glorified Nelson 's public image. These included the creation of a medal commemorating the victory at the Battle of the Nile and the creation of the Nelson Memorial at his estate at Swarland, Northumberland. As a close friend of the Admiral he acted as an intermediary when Nelson 's marriage to his wife, Frances Nelson fell apart due in large part to his affair with Emma Hamilton.
Hyde Parker in 1778 was engaged in the Savannah expedition, and in the following year his ship was wrecked on the hostile Cuban coast. His men, however, entrenched themselves, and were in the end brought off safely. Parker was with his father at the Dogger Bank, and with Richard Howe in the two actions in the Straits of Gibraltar. In 1793, having just become rear admiral, he served under Samuel Hood at Toulon and in Corsica, and two years later, now a vice admiral, he took part, under Lord Hotham, in the indecisive fleet actions on 13 March 1795 and the 13 July 1795. From 1796 to 1800 he was in command at Jamaica and ably conducted the operations in the West Indies.
Edward Pellew, 1st Viscount Exmouth was a British naval officer who fought during the American War of Independence, the French Revolutionary, and the Napoleonic Wars. Pellew is remembered as an officer and a gentleman of great courage and leadership, earning his land and titles through courage, leadership and skill -- serving as a paradigm of the versatility and determination of Naval Officers during the Napoleonic Wars.
Antoine de Sartine, a French statesman, was the Secretary of State for the Navy under King Louis XVI. Sartine inherited a strong French Navy, resurrected by Choiseul after the disasters of the Seven Years ' War when France lost Canada, Louisiana, and India, and which would later defeat the British Navy in the War of American Independence.
James Saumarez, 1st Baron de Saumarez was an admiral of the British Royal Navy, notable for his victory at the Battle of Algeciras. In 1801 he was raised to the rank of Rear Admiral of the Blue, was created a baronet, and received the command of a small squadron which was destined to watch the movements of the Spanish fleet at Cadiz. Between 6 and 12 July he performed a brilliant piece of service, in which after a first repulse at Algeciras he routed a much superior combined force of French and Spanish ships at the Battle of Algeciras. For his services Saumarez received the order of the Bath and the freedom of the City of London.
David Porter during the First Barbary War (1801 -- 07) was 1st lieutenant of USS Enterprise, USS New York and USS Philadelphia and was taken prisoner when Philadelphia ran aground in Tripoli harbor 31 October 1803. After his release 3 June 1805 he remained in the Mediterranean as acting captain of USS Constitution and later captain of Enterprise. He was in charge of the naval forces at New Orleans 1808 -- 1810. As commander of USS Essex in the War of 1812, Captain Porter achieved fame by capturing the first British warship of the conflict, HMS Alert, 13 August 1812 as well as several merchantmen. In 1813 he sailed Essex around Cape Horn and cruised in the Pacific warring on British whalers. On 28 March 1814 Porter was forced to surrender off Valparaiso after an unequal contest with the frigates HMS Phoebe and HMS Cherub and only when his ship was too disabled to offer any resistance.
The Spanish Armada was the Spanish fleet that sailed against England under the command of the Duke of Medina Sidona in 1588. The Spanish Armada was sent by King Philip II of Spain, who had been king consort of England until the death of his wife Mary I of England thirty years earlier. The purpose of the expedition was to escort the Duke of Parma 's army of tercios from the Spanish Netherlands across the North Sea for a landing in south - east England. Once the army had suppressed English support for the United Provinces -- part of the Spanish Netherlands -- it was intended to cut off attacks against Spanish possessions in the New World and the Atlantic treasure fleets. It was also hoped to reverse the Protestant revolution in England, and to this end the expedition was supported by Pope Sixtus V, with the promise of a subsidy should it make land. The command of the fleet was originally entrusted to Alvaro de Bazan, a highly experienced naval commander who died a few months before the fleet sailed from Lisbon in May 1588.
The Spanish Armada consisted of about 130 warships and converted merchant ships. After forcing its way up the English Channel, it was attacked by a fleet of 200 English ships, assisted by the Dutch navy, in the North Sea at Gravelines off the coastal border between France and the Spanish Netherlands. A fire - ship attack drove the Armada ships from their safe anchorage, and in the ensuing battle the Spanish abandoned their rendezvous with Parma 's army.
The Spanish Armada was blown north up the east coast of England and in a hasty strategic move, attempted a return to Spain by sailing around Scotland and out into the Atlantic, past Ireland. But very severe weather destroyed a portion of the fleet, and more than 24 vessels were wrecked on the north and western coasts of Ireland, with the survivors having to seek refuge in Scotland. Of the Spanish Armada 's initial complement of vessels, about 50 did not return to Spain. However, the loss to Philip 's Royal Navy was comparatively small: only seven ships failed to return, and of these only three were lost to enemy action.
The English Armada was a fleet of warships sent to the Iberian coast by Queen Elizabeth I of England in 1589, during the Anglo - Spanish War (1585 -- 1604). It was led by Sir Francis Drake as admiral and Sir John Norreys as general, and failed in its attempt to drive home the advantage England had won upon the defeat and dispersal of the Spanish Armada in the previous year. With the opportunity to strike a decisive blow against the weakened Spanish lost, the failure of the expedition further depleted the crown treasury that had been so carefully restored during the long reign of Elizabeth I. The Anglo - Spanish war was very costly to both sides, and Spain itself, also fighting France and the United Provinces, had to default on its debt repayments in 1596, following another raid on Cadiz. But the failure of the English Armada was a turning point, and the fortunes of the various parties to this complicated conflict fluctuated until the Treaty of London in 1604, when a peace was agreed.
Spain 's rebuilt navy had quickly recovered and exceeded its pre-Armada dominance of the sea, until defeats by the Dutch fifty years later marked the beginning of its decline. With the peace, the English were able to consolidate their hold on Ireland and make a concerted effort to establish colonies in North America.
The maritime history of the United States starts in the modern sense with the first successful English colony established in 1607, on the James River at Jamestown. It languished for decades until a new wave of settlers arrived in the late 17th century and set up commercial agriculture based on tobacco. The connection between the American colonies and Europe, with shipping as its cornerstone, would continue to grow unhindered for almost two hundred years.
The Continental Navy was formed during the American Revolution in 1774 -- 1775. Through the efforts of the Continental Navy 's apparent patron, John Adams and vigorous congressional support in the face of stiff opposition, the fleet cumulatively became relatively substantial when considering the limitations imposed upon the Patriot supply poole. The "Six original United States frigates '' were the first United States frigates of the United States Navy, first authorized by the Congress with the Naval Act of 1794 on March 27, 1794 at a cost of $688,888.82.
John Paul Jones was America 's first well - known naval hero in the American Revolutionary War. John Paul adopted the alias John Jones when he fled to his brother 's home in Fredericksburg, Virginia in 1773 in order to avoid the hangman 's noose in Tobago after an incident when he was accused of murdering a sailor under his command. He began using the name John Paul Jones as his brother suggested during the start of the American Revolution. Though his naval career never rose above the rank of Captain in the Continental Navy after his victory over HMS Serapis with the frigate USS Bonhomme Richard, John Paul Jones remains the first genuine American Naval hero, and a highly regarded battle commander.
Jonathan Haraden was a privateer during the American Revolution, being the First Lieutenant of the sloop - of - war Tyrannicide, fourteen guns. On board for two years, he captured many prizes, becoming her commander in 1777.
George H. Preble was an American naval officer and writer, notable for his history of the flag of the United States and for taking the first photograph of the Fort McHenry flag that inspired The Star - Spangled Banner. George entered the Navy as a midshipman on 10 December 1835, serving on USS United States until 1838.
Edward Preble was a U.S. naval officer. Following his Revolutionary War service, he was appointed 1st Lieutenant in the U.S. Navy. In January 1799, he assumed command of the 14 - gun brig USS Pickering and took her to the West Indies to protect American commerce during the Quasi-War with France. Commissioned Captain 7 June 1799, he took command of USS Essex in December and sailed in January 1800 for the Pacific to provide similar protective services for Americans engaged in the East Indies trade. Given command of the 3rd Squadron, with USS Constitution as his flagship, in 1803, he sailed for the Barbary coast and by October had promoted a treaty with Morocco and established a blockade off Tripoli in the First Barbary War.
Shipping, whether of cargo or passengers, is a business and the duties of a ship 's captain reflect that. A captain 's first duty was to the ship 's owner and often the captain was encouraged to buy into the business with at least a one eighth share of the ship. A captain 's second duty was to the cargo itself followed thirdly by the crew.
Crew were broken into two shifts that served four hour alternating watches often with all hands jointly serving the noon to 4: 00 watch. American ships would commonly alternate watches with the addition of a two - hour dog watch. Work for sailors during their shift consisted primarily of general ship maintenance, washing, sanding, painting and repairs from general wear and tear or damage from storms. General ship operations like raising and lowering the anchor or furling and unfurling sails were done as needed. During the off shift hours, sailors could take care of their personal chores, washing and repairing clothes, sleeping and eating. Leisure time could was often spent reading, writing in journals, playing an instrument, wood carving or fancy rope work. The American Seaman 's Friend Society in New York City would loan boxes of books to ships for sailor 's use.
Life aboard ship for immigrant travelers was much harsher and sometimes deadly. Ship owners would pack as many people as they could on board to maximize profits and little government oversight existed to ensure they received proper care during the voyage. British immigrant ships would often show less care to the passengers than criminals on prison ships to Australia. In 1803 the Passenger Vessel Act in Britain limited occupancy to one person per two tons of the ship 's register. America issue stricter laws in 1819 limiting ships to a 1 to 5 ratio with fine levied should an overcrowded ship arrive at port. The Act of Feb. 1847 further increased the amount of space granted to passengers with the confiscation of a ship as the penalty for overcrowding.
Stephen Decatur was an American naval officer notable for his heroism in the First Barbary War and the Second Barbary War and in the War of 1812. He was the youngest man to reach the rank of captain in the history of the U.S. Navy, and the first American celebrated as a national military hero who had not played a role in the American Revolution.
James Lawrence was an American naval hero. During the War of 1812, he commanded USS Chesapeake in a single - ship action against HMS Shannon (commanded by Philip Broke). He is probably best known today for his dying command "Do n't give up the ship! '', which is still a popular naval battle cry.
John H. Aulick was an officer in the United States Navy whose service extended from the War of 1812 to the end of the antebellum era. During the War of 1812, he served in USS Enterprise and took part in her battle with HMS Boxer on 4 September 1813. After that engagement ended in an American victory, Aulick served as prize master of the prize.
Thomas Macdonough was an early 19th - century American naval officer, most notably as commander of American naval forces on Lake Champlain during the War of 1812. One of the leading members of "Preble 's Boys '', a small group of naval officers who served during the First Barbary War, Macdonough 's actions during the decisive Battle of Lake Champlain are often cited as a model of tactical preparation and execution.
The HMS Challenger, built in 1858, undertook the first global marine research expedition called the Challenger expedition in 1872. To enable her to probe the depths, all but two of the Challenger 's guns had been removed and her spars reduced to make more space available. Laboratories, extra cabins and a special dredging platform were installed. She was loaded with specimen jars, alcohol for preservation of samples, microscopes and chemical apparatus, trawls and dredges, thermometers and water sampling bottles, sounding leads and devices to collect sediment from the sea bed and great lengths of rope with which to suspend the equipment into the ocean depths. In all she was supplied with 181 miles (291 km) of Italian hemp for sounding, trawling and dredging. As the first true oceanographic cruise, the Challenger expedition laid the groundwork for an entire academic and research discipline.
Like most periodic eras the definition is inexact and close enough to serve as a general description. The age of sail runs roughly from the Battle of Lepanto in 1571, the last significant engagement in which oar - propelled galleys played a major role, to the Battle of Hampton Roads in 1862, in which the steam - powered CSS Virginia destroyed the sailing ships USS Cumberland and USS Congress, finally culminating with the advance of steam power, rendering sail power obsolete.
The history of submarines covers the historical chronology and facts related to submarines, the ships and boats which operate underwater. The modern underwater boat proposal was made by the Englishman William Bourne who designed a prototype submarine in 1578. Unfortunately for him these ideas never got beyond the planning stage. The first submersible proper to be actually built in modern times was built in 1620 by Cornelius Jacobszoon Drebbel, a Dutchman in the service of James I: it was based on Bourne 's design. It was propelled by means of oars. The precise nature of the submarine type is a matter of some controversy; some claim that it was merely a bell towed by a boat. Two improved types were tested in the Thames between 1620 and 1624.
Steam was first applied to boats in the 1770s. With the advent of economical steam engines, efficient external combustion heat engines that makes use of the heat energy that exists in steam and converting it to mechanical work, the prime mover was steam for ships. The technology only became relevant to trans - oceanic travel after 1815, the year Pierre Andriel crossed the English Channel aboard the steamship Élise.
A steamboat, sometimes called a steamer, became the primary method of propulsion is the age of steam power, typically driving a propeller or paddlewheel. Small and large steamboats and riverboats worked on lakes and rivers. Steamships gradually replaced sailing ships for commercial shipping through the 19th century. From 1815 on, steamships increased significantly in speed and size.
Ironclads are steam - propelled warships of the later 19th century, protected by iron or steel armor plates. The ironclad was developed as a result of the vulnerability of wooden warships to explosive or incendiary shells. The first ironclad battleship, Gloire, was launched by the French Navy in 1859; she prompted the British Royal Navy to start building ironclads. After the first clashes of ironclads took place during the American Civil War, it became clear that the ironclad had replaced the unarmored line - of - battle ship as the most powerful warship afloat.
In 1880, the American passenger steamer Columbia became the first ship to utilize the dynamo and incandescent light bulb. Furthermore, Columbia was the first structure besides Thomas Edison 's laboratory in Menlo Park, New Jersey to use the incandescent light bulb.
The Greek War of Independence was a successful war waged by the Greeks to win independence for Greece from the Ottoman Empire. Success at sea was vital for the Greeks. If they failed to counter the Ottoman Navy, it would be able to resupply the isolated Ottoman garrisons and land reinforcements from the Ottoman Empire 's Asian provinces at will, crushing the rebellion. The Greeks decided to use fireships and found an effective weapon against the Ottoman vessels. Conventional naval actions were also fought, at which naval commanders like Andreas Miaoulis, Nikolis Apostolis, Iakovos Tombazis and Antonios Kriezis distinguished themselves. The early successes of the Greek fleet in direct confrontations with the Ottomans at Patras and Spetsai gave the crews confidence, and contributed greatly to the survival and success of the uprising in the Peloponnese. Despite victories at Samos and Gerontas, the Revolution was threatened with collapse until the intervention of the Great Powers in the Battle of Navarino in 1827. The Ottoman fleet was decisively defeated by the combined fleets of the Britain, France and the Russian Empire, effectively securing the independence of Greece.
Most warships used steam propulsion until the advent of the gas turbine. Steamships were superseded by diesel - driven ships in the second half of the 20th century.
The Confederate States Navy (CSN) was the naval branch of the Confederate States armed forces established by an act of the Confederate Congress on February 21, 1861. It was responsible for Confederate naval operations during the American Civil War. The two major tasks of the Confederate Navy during the whole of its existence were the protection of Southern harbors and coastlines from outside invasion, and making the war costly for the North by attacking merchant ships and breaking the Union Blockade.
David Farragut was the first senior officer of the United States Navy during the American Civil War. He was the first rear admiral, vice admiral, and full admiral of the Navy. He is remembered in popular culture for his possibly apocryphal order at the Battle of Mobile Bay, usually paraphrased: "Damn the torpedoes, full speed ahead! ''.
Franklin Buchanan was an officer in the United States Navy who became an admiral in the Confederate Navy during the American Civil War. He was the captain of the ironclad CSS Virginia (formerly USS Merrimack) during the Battle of Hampton Roads in Virginia. He climbed to the top deck of Virginia and began furiously firing toward shore with a carbine as USS Congress was shelled. He soon was brought down by a sharpshooter 's minie ball to the thigh. He would eventually recover from his leg wound. He never did get to command Virginia against USS Monitor. That honor went to Catesby ap Roger Jones. But Buchanan had handed the US Navy the worst defeat it would take until Pearl Harbor.
Raphael Semmes was an officer in the United States Navy from 1826 to 1860 and the Confederate States Navy from 1860 to 1865. During the American Civil War he was captain of the famous commerce raider CSS Alabama, taking a record fifty - five prizes. Late in the war he was promoted to admiral and also served briefly as a brigadier general in the Confederate States Army.
In Italy, Carlo Pellion di Persano was an Italian admiral and commander of the Regia Marina fleet at the Battle of Lissa. He commanded the fleet from 1860 to 1861, and saw action in the struggle for Italian unification. After unification he was elected to the legislature; he became Minister of Marine in 1862 and in 1865 he was nominated a Senator. However, his career was marred during the war with Austria when he commanded the Italian fleet at Lissa. After the defeat, he was condemned for incapacity, and discharged.
Again in America, Charles Edgar Clark was an officer in the United States Navy during the American Civil War and the Spanish -- American War. He commanded the battleship USS Oregon at the Mare Island Naval Shipyard, San Francisco, and when war with Spain was deemed inevitable, he received orders to proceed to Key West, Florida, with all haste. After a most remarkable voyage of over 14,000 miles (23,000 km), around Cape Horn, he joined the American fleet in Cuban waters on May 26, and on July 3 commanded his ship at the destruction of Cervera 's squadron.
George Dewey was an admiral of the United States Navy, best known for his victory (without the loss of a single life of his own forces due to combat; one man died of a heart attack) at the Battle of Manila Bay during the Spanish -- American War. He was also the only person in the history of the United States to have attained the rank of Admiral of the Navy, the most senior rank in the United States Navy.
Garrett J. Pendergrast was an officer in the United States Navy during the American Civil War. He commanded USS Boston during the Mexican -- American War in 1846. In 1856, he commissioned USS Merrimack, the ship that would later become CSS Virginia.
Lewis Nixon was a shipbuilding executive, naval architect, and political activist. Nixon graduated first in his class from the Naval Academy in 1882 and was sent to study naval architecture at the Royal Naval College where, again, he graduated first in the class in 1885. In 1890, with help from assistant naval constructor David W. Taylor, he designed the Indiana - class battleships which included USS Indiana, USS Massachusetts and USS Oregon.
Patricio Montojo was the Spanish naval commander at the Battle of Manila Bay (May 1, 1898), a decisive battle of the Spanish -- American War. At the outbreak of the Spanish -- American War, Montojo was in command of the Spanish Squadron that was destroyed by the U.S. Asiatic Squadron in the Battle of Manila Bay on May 1, 1898. Montojo was wounded during this battle, as was also one of his two sons who were participating in this battle. United States naval forces under Commodore George Dewey decisively defeated Spain 's Pacific fleet, at anchor in Manila Bay, the Philippines. Most of the seven Spanish vessels sank or surrendered.
In the 20th century, the internal combustion engine and gas turbine came to replace the steam engine in most ship applications. Trans - oceanic travel, transatlantic and transpacific, was a particularly important application, with steam powered Ocean liners replacing sailing ships, then culminating in the massive Superliners which included the RMS Titanic. The event with the Titanic lead to the Maritime Distress Safety System.
At the start of the war, the German Empire had cruisers scattered across the globe. Some of them were subsequently used to attack Allied merchant shipping. The British Royal Navy systematically hunted them down, though not without some embarrassment from its inability to protect allied shipping. For example, the detached light cruiser SMS Emden, part of the East - Asia squadron stationed at Tsingtao, seized or destroyed 15 merchantmen, as well as sinking a Russian cruiser and a French destroyer. However, the bulk of the German East - Asia squadron -- consisting of the armoured cruisers SMS Scharnhorst and SMS Gneisenau, light cruisers SMS Nürnberg and SMS Leipzig and two transport ships -- did not have orders to raid shipping and was instead underway to Germany when it was lost at the Battle of the Falkland Islands in December 1914.
Soon after the outbreak of hostilities, Britain initiated a naval blockade of Germany, preventing supplies from reaching its ports. The strategy proved effective, cutting off vital military and civilian supplies, although this blockade violated generally accepted international law codified by international agreements. A blockade of stationed ships within a three - mile (5 km) radius was considered legitimate, however Britain mined international waters to prevent any ships from entering entire sections of ocean, causing danger to even neutral ships. Though there was limited response to this tactic, some expected a better response for German 's aim with its unrestricted submarine warfare.
German U-boats attempted to cut the supply lines between North America and Britain. The nature of submarine warfare meant that attacks often came without warning, giving the crews of the merchant ships little hope of survival. After the infamous sinking of the passenger ship RMS Lusitania in 1915, Germany promised not to target passenger liners. In 1916 the United States launched a protest over a cross-channel passenger ferry sinking, Germany modified its rules of engagement. Finally, in early 1917 Germany adopted a policy of unrestricted submarine warfare, realizing the Americans would eventually enter the war. Germany sought to strangle Allied sea lanes before the U.S. could transport a large army overseas.
The U-boat threat lessened in 1917, when merchant ships entered convoys escorted by destroyers. This tactic made it difficult for U-boats to find targets. The accompanying destroyers might sink a submerged submarine with depth charges. The losses to submarine attacks were reduced significantly. But the convoy system slowed the flow of supplies. The solution to the delays was a massive program to build new freighters. Various troop ships were too fast for the submarines and did not have to travel the North Atlantic in convoys.
The First World War also saw the first use of aircraft carriers in combat, with HMS Furious launching Sopwith Camels in a successful raid against the Zeppelin hangars at Tondern in July 1918.
In the North Atlantic, German U-boats attempted to cut supply lines to the United Kingdom by sinking merchant ships. In the first four months of the war they sank more than 110 vessels. In addition to supply ships, the U-boats occasionally attacked British and Canadian warships. One U-boat sank the British carrier HMS Courageous, while another managed to sink the battleship HMS Royal Oak in her home anchorage of Scapa Flow.
In the summer of 1941, the Soviet Union entered the war on the side of the Allies. Although the Soviets had tremendous reserves in manpower, they had lost much of their equipment and manufacturing base in the first few weeks following the German invasion. The Western Allies attempted to remedy this by sending Arctic convoys, which travelled from the United Kingdom and the United States to the northern ports of the Soviet Union - Archangel and Murmansk. The treacherous route around the North Cape of Norway was the site of many battles as the Germans continually tried to disrupt the convoys using U-boats, bombers, and surface ships.
Following the entry of the United States into the war in December 1941, U-boats sank shipping along the East Coast of the United States and Canada, the waters around Newfoundland, the Caribbean Sea, and the Gulf of Mexico. They were initially so successful that this became known among U-boat crews as the second happy time. Eventually, the institution of shore blackouts and an interlocking convoy system resulted in a drop in attacks and U-boats shifted their operations back to the mid-Atlantic.
The turning point of the Battle of the Atlantic took place in early 1943 as the Allies refined their naval tactics, effectively making use of new technology to counter the U-Boats. The Allies produced ships faster than they were sunk, and lost fewer ships by adopting the convoy system. Improved anti-submarine warfare meant that the life expectancy of a typical U-boat crew would be measured in months. The vastly improved Type 21 U-boat appeared as the war was ending, but too late to affect the outcome. In December 1943, the last major sea battle between the Royal Navy and Nazi Germany 's Kriegsmarine took place. At the Battle of North Cape, the German battleship Scharnhorst, was sunk by HMS Duke of York, HMS Belfast, and several destroyers.
The Pacific War was the part of World War II, especially following the successful Japanese attack on United States forces at Pearl Harbor to 1945. The main American naval theaters were as Pacific Ocean Areas and Southwest Pacific Area. The British fought chiefly in the Indian Ocean. It was a war of logistics, with American home bases in California and Hawaii sending supplies to Australia. The U.S. used its submarines to sink Japanese transports and oil tankers, thereby cutting off Japan 's supplies to its outposts and causing a severe shortage of gasoline.
Island hopping was the key strategy to bypass heavily fortified Japanese positions and instead concentrate the limited Allied resources on strategically important islands that were not well defended but capable of supporting the drive to the main islands of Japan. This strategy was possible in part because the Allies used submarine and air attacks to blockade and isolate Japanese bases, weakening their garrisons and reducing the Japanese ability to resupply and reinforce. Most Japanese soldiers killed in the Pacific died of starvation, and Japan used its submarine fleet to try to resupply them.
Hard - fought battles on the Japanese home islands of Iwo Jima, Okinawa, and others resulted in horrific casualties on both sides, but finally produced a Japanese retreat. Faced with the loss of most of their experienced pilots, the Japanese increased their use of kamikaze tactics in an attempt to create unacceptably high casualties for the Allies. After the turning point of the Pacific where a third of the Imperial Japanese Navy fleet was hit in the Battle of Midway, the United States Department of the Navy recommended various positions for and against an invasion of Japan in 1945. Some staff proposed to force a Japanese surrender through a total naval blockade or air raids.
In the latter half of the 20th century, various vessels, notably aircraft carriers, nuclear submarines, and nuclear - powered icebreakers, made use of nuclear marine propulsion. Sonar and radio augmented existing navigational technology.
Various blockades were set up in international action. The Egyptian set up blockades of the Straits of Tiran prior to the 1956 Suez War and the 1967 Arab - Israeli War. The United States set up a blockade of Cuba during the Cuban missile crisis in 1962. The Israelis set up a sea blockade of the Gaza Strip since the outbreak of the Second Intifada (2000) and up to the present. The Israeli blockades of some or all the shores of Lebanon at various times during the Lebanese Civil War (1975 -- 1990), the 1982 Lebanon War, and the 1982 - 2000 South Lebanon conflict - resumed during the 2006 Israel - Lebanon conflict.
The Cuban Missile Crisis was a confrontation in October 1962 during the Cold War between the United States and the Soviet Union. The Soviets sent nuclear missiles to Cuba, and the US responded with a selective sea blockade; Soviet ships turned back. The blockade ended when the two powers resolved the issue peacefully.
The Gulf of Tonkin Incident was an alleged pair of attacks by the Democratic Republic of Vietnam against two American warships in 1964. The US Congress responded with the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution that gave President Lyndon B. Johnson wide power to conduct the war on land, at sea and in the war. The Resolution was repealed in January 1971.
The Falklands War was fought in 1982 between Argentina and the United Kingdom over the disputed Falkland Islands, South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands. Britain was initially taken by surprise by the Argentine attack on the South Atlantic islands, but launched a naval task force to engage the Argentine Navy and Air Force, and retake the islands by amphibious assault. The British eventually prevailed and the islands remained under British control.
Though controversial within the United States, a process of handing the Panama canal lead to Panamanian control of the Panama Canal Zone by the Panama Canal Authority (ACP). It was effective at noon on December 31, 1999. Before this handover, the government of Panama held an international bid to negotiate a 25 - year contract for operation of the Canal 's container shipping ports (chiefly two facilities at the Atlantic and Pacific outlets), which was won by the Chinese firm Hutchison Whampoa, a Hong Kong - based shipping concern whose owner Li Ka Shing is the wealthiest man in Asia. One of the conditions on the handover to the Panama Canal Authority by the United States was the permanent neutrality of the Canal and the explicit statements that allowed the United States to come back at any time.
Since the turn of the millennium, the construction of stealth ships have occurred. These are ships which employs stealth technology construction techniques in an effort to ensure that it is harder to detect by one or more of radar, visual, sonar, and infrared methods. These techniques borrow from stealth aircraft technology, although some aspects such as wake reduction are unique to stealth ships ' design.
Some of the major social changes of this period include women becoming admirals in defensive navies, being allowed to work on submarines, and being appointed captains of cruise ships.
Seaborne piracy against transport vessels remains a significant issue (with estimated worldwide losses of US $13 to $16 billion per year), particularly in the waters between the Red Sea and Indian Ocean, off the Somali coast, and also in the Strait of Malacca and Singapore, which are used by over 50,000 commercial ships a year.
Modern pirates favor small boats and taking advantage of the small number of crew members on modern cargo vessels. They also use large vessels to supply the smaller attack / boarding vessels. Modern pirates can be successful because a large amount of international commerce occurs via shipping. Major shipping routes take cargo ships through narrow bodies of water (such as the Gulf of Aden and the Strait of Malacca) making them vulnerable to be overtaken and boarded by small motorboats. Other active areas include the South China Sea and the Niger Delta. As usage increases, many of these ships have to lower cruising speeds to allow for navigation and traffic control, making them prime targets for piracy.
The International Maritime Bureau (IMB) maintains statistics regarding pirate attacks dating back to 1995. Their records indicate hostage - taking overwhelmingly dominates the types of violence against seafarers. For example, in 2006, there were 239 attacks, 77 crew members were kidnapped and 188 taken hostage but only 15 of the pirate attacks resulted in murder. In 2007 the attacks rose by 10 % to 263 attacks. There was a 35 % increase on reported attacks involving guns. Crew members that were injured numbered 64 compared to just 17 in 2006. That number does not include hostages / kidnapping where they were not injured.
Modern definitions of piracy include the following acts:
Listed by date
Media related to Maritime history at Wikimedia Commons
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classification of land on the basis of ownership | Ownership - wikipedia
Ownership of property may be private, collective, or common, and the property may be of objects, land or real estate, or intellectual property. Determining ownership in law involves determining who has certain rights and duties over the property. These rights and duties, sometimes called a "bundle of rights '', can be separated and held by different parties.
The process and mechanics of ownership are fairly complex: one can gain, transfer, and lose ownership of property in a number of ways. To acquire property one can purchase it with money, trade it for other property, win it in a bet, receive it as a gift, inherit it, find it, receive it as damages, earn it by doing work or performing services, make it, or homestead it. One can transfer or lose ownership of property by selling it for money, exchanging it for other property, giving it as a gift, misplacing it, or having it stripped from one 's ownership through legal means such as eviction, foreclosure, seizure, or taking. Ownership is self - propagating in that the owner of any property will also own the economic benefits of that property.
Over the millennia and across cultures, notions regarding what constitutes "property '' and how it is treated culturally have varied widely. Ownership is the basis for many other concepts that form the foundations of ancient and modern societies such as money, trade, debt, bankruptcy, the criminality of theft, and private vs. public property. Ownership is the key building block in the development of the capitalist socio - economic system. Adam Smith stated that one of the sacred laws of justice was to guard a person 's property and possessions.
Individuals may own property directly. In some societies only adult men may own property; in other societies (such as the Haudenosaunee), property is matrilinear and passed on from mother to the offspring. In most societies both men and women can own property with no restrictions and limitations at all.
Throughout history, nations (or governments) and religious organizations have owned property. These entities exist primarily for other purposes than to own or operate property; hence, they may have no clear rules regarding the disposition of their property.
To own and operate property, structures (often known today as legal entities) have been created in many societies throughout history. The differences in how they deal with members ' rights is a key factor in determining their type. Each type has advantages and disadvantages derived from their means of recognizing or disregarding (rewarding or not) contributions of financial capital or personal effort.
Cooperatives, corporations, trusts, partnerships, and condominium associations are only some of the many varied types of structured ownership; each type has many subtypes. Legal advantages or restrictions on various types of structured ownership have existed in many societies past and present. To govern how assets are to be used, shared, or treated, rules and regulations may be legally imposed or internally adopted or decreed.
Ownership by definition does not necessarily imply a responsibility to others for actions regarding the property. A "legal shield '' is said to exist if the entity 's legal liabilities do not get redistributed among the entity 's owners or members. An application of this, to limit ownership risks, is to form a new entity to purchase, own and operate each property. Since the entity is separate and distinct from others, if a problem occurs which leads to a massive liability, the individual is protected from losing more than the value of that one property. Many other properties are protected, when owned by other distinct entities.
In the loosest sense of group ownership, a lack of legal framework, rules and regulations may mean that group ownership of property places every member in a position of responsibility (liability) for the actions of each other member. A structured group duly constituted as an entity under law may still not protect members from being personally liable for each other 's actions. Court decisions against the entity itself may give rise to unlimited personal liability for each and every member. An example of this situation is a professional partnership (e.g. law practice) in some jurisdictions. Thus, being a partner or owner in a group may give little advantage in terms of share ownership while producing a lot of risk to the partner, owner or participant.
At the end of each financial year, accounting rules determine a surplus or profit, which may be retained inside the entity or distributed among owners according to the initial setup intent when the entity was created. For public corporations, common shareholders have no right to receive any of the profit.
Entities with a member focus will give financial surplus back to members according to the volume of financial activity that the participating member generated for the entity. Examples of this are producer cooperatives, buyer cooperatives and participating whole life policyholders in both mutual and share - capital insurance companies.
Entities with share voting rights that depend on financial capital distribute surplus among shareholders without regard to any other contribution to the entity. Depending on internal rules and regulations, certain classes of shares have the right to receive increases in financial "dividends '' while other classes do not. After many years the increase over time is substantial if the business is profitable. Examples of this are common shares and preferred shares in private or publicly listed share capital corporations.
Entities with a focus on providing service in perpetuam do not distribute financial surplus; they must retain it. It will then serve as a cushion against losses or as a means to finance growth activities. Examples of this are not - for - profit entities: they are allowed to make profits, but are not permitted to give any of it back to members except by way of discounts in the future on new transactions.
Depending on the charter at the foundation of the entity, and depending on the legal framework under which the entity was created, the form of ownership is determined once and for all time. To change it requires significant work in terms of communicating with stakeholders (member - owners, governments, etc.) and acquiring their approval. Whatever structural constraints or disadvantages exist at the creation thus remain an integral part of the entity. Common in for instance New York City, Hamburg and Berlin in Germany is a form of real estate ownership known as a cooperative (also co-operative or co-op, in German Wohnungsgenossenschaft - apartment co-operative, also "Wohnbaugenossenschaft '' or simply "Baugenossenschaft '') which relies heavily on internal rules of operation instead of the legal framework governing condominium associations. These "co-ops '', owning the building for the mutual benefit of its members, can ultimately perform most of the functions of a legally constituted condominium, i.e. restricting use appropriately and containing financial liabilities to within tolerable levels. To change their structure now that they are up and operating would require significant effort to achieve acceptance among members and various levels of government.
The owning entity makes rules governing use of property; each property may comprise areas that are made available to any and every member of the group to use. When the group is the entire nation, the same principle is in effect whether the property is small (e.g. picnic rest stops along highways) or large such as national parks, highways, ports, and publicly owned buildings. Smaller examples of shared use include common areas such as lobbies, entrance hallways and passages to adjacent buildings.
One disadvantage of communal ownership, known as the Tragedy of the Commons, occurs where unlimited unrestricted and unregulated access to a resource (e.g. pasture land) destroys the resource because of over-exploitation. The benefits of exploitation accrue to individuals immediately, while the costs of policing or enforcing appropriate use, and the losses dues to over exploitation, are distributed among many, and are only visible to these gradually.
In a communist nation the means of production of goods would be owned communally by all people of that nation; the original thinkers did not specify rules and regulations.
Personal property is a type of property. In the common law systems personal property may also be called chattels. It is distinguished from real property, or real estate. In the civil law systems personal property is often called movable property or movables - any property that can be moved from one location or another. This term is used to distinguish property that different from immovable property or immovables, such as land and buildings. This also means the direct owner of the item (s) is in full control of them / it until either stolen, confiscated by law enforcement, or destroyed.
Personal property may be classified in a variety of ways; such as goods, money, negotiable instruments, securities, and intangible assets including choses in action.
Real estate or immovable property is a legal term (in some jurisdictions) that encompasses land along with anything permanently affixed to the land, such as buildings. Real estate (immovable property) is often considered synonymous with real property, in contrast from personal property (also sometimes called chattel or personalty). However, for technical purposes, some people prefer to distinguish real estate, referring to the land and fixtures themselves, from real property, referring to ownership rights over real estate. The terms real estate and real property are used primarily in common law, while civil law jurisdictions refer instead to immovable property.
In law, the word real means relating to a thing (from Latin reālis, ultimately from rēs, ' matter ' or ' thing '), as distinguished from a person. Thus the law broadly distinguishes between real property (land and anything affixed to it) and personal property (everything else, e.g., clothing, furniture, money). The conceptual difference is between immovable property, which would transfer title along with the land, and movable property, which a person would retain title to. Incidentally, the word real in real estate is not derived from the notion of land having historically been "royal '' property. The word royal -- and its Spanish cognate, real -- come from the unrelated Latin word rēgālis ' kingly, ' which is a derivative of rēx, meaning ' king '.
With the development of private property ownership, real estate has become a major area of business.
An individual or group of individuals can own shares in corporations and other legal entities, but do not necessarily own the entities themselves. A legal entity is a legal construct through which the law allows a group of natural persons to act as if it were an individual for certain purposes.
Some duly incorporated entities may not be owned by individuals nor by other entities; they exist without being owned once they are created. Not being owned, they can not be bought and sold. Mutual life insurance companies, credit unions, foundations and cooperatives, not for profit organizations, and public corporations are examples of this. No person can purchase the company, as their ownership is not legally available for sale, neither as shares nor as a single whole.
Intellectual property (IP) refers to a legal entitlement which sometimes attaches to the expressed form of an idea, or to some other intangible subject matter. This legal entitlement generally enables its holder to exercise exclusive rights of use in relation to the subject matter of the IP. The term intellectual property reflects the idea that this subject matter is the product of the mind or the intellect, and that IP rights may be protected at law in the same way as any other form of property.
Intellectual property laws confer a bundle of exclusive rights in relation to the particular form or manner in which ideas or information are expressed or manifested, and not in relation to the ideas or concepts themselves (see idea - expression divide). It is therefore important to note that the term "intellectual property '' denotes the specific legal rights which authors, inventors and other IP holders may hold and exercise, and not the intellectual work itself.
Intellectual property laws are designed to protect different forms of intangible subject matter, although in some cases there is a degree of overlap.
Patents, trademarks and designs fall into a particular subset of intellectual property known as industrial property.
Like other forms of property, intellectual property (or rather the exclusive rights which subsist in the IP) can be transferred (with or without consideration) or licensed to third parties. In some jurisdictions it may also be possible to use intellectual property as security for a loan.
The basic public policy rationale for the protection of intellectual property is that IP laws facilitate and encourage disclosure of innovation into the public domain for the common good, by granting authors and inventors exclusive rights to exploit their works and invention for a limited period.
However, various schools of thought are critical of the very concept of intellectual property, and some characterise IP as intellectual protectionism. There is ongoing debate as to whether IP laws truly operate to confer the stated public benefits, and whether the protection they are said to provide is appropriate in the context of innovation derived from such things as traditional knowledge and folklore, and patents for software and business methods. Manifestations of this controversy can be seen in the way different jurisdictions decide whether to grant intellectual property protection in relation to subject matter of this kind, and the North - South divide on issues of the role and scope of intellectual property laws.
The living human body is, in most modern societies, considered something which can not be the property of anyone but the person whose body it is. This is in contrast to chattel slavery. Chattel slavery is a type of slavery defined as the absolute legal ownership of a person or persons, including the legal right to buy and sell them. The slaves do not have the freedom to live life as they choose, but as they are instructed by their owners, and their rights may be either severely limited or nonexistent. In most countries, chattel slaves were considered as movable property.
Slavery is currently illegal in every country around the world, however, up until the 19th century slavery and ownership of people had existed in one form or another in nearly every society on earth. Notwithstanding the illegality according to codes of law, slavery still exists in various forms today.
The question of ownership reaches back to the ancient philosophers, Plato and Aristotle, who held different opinions on the subject. Plato (428 / 427 BC -- 348 / 347 BC) thought private property created divisive inequalities, while Aristotle (384 BC -- 322 BC) thought private property enabled people to receive the full benefit of their labor. Private property can circumvent what is now referred to as the "tragedy of the commons '' problem, where people tend to degrade common property more than they do private property. Given a short - sighted owner, however, a private property system can make these tragedies worse -- for example, a private owner of a piece of oil - rich property, depending on his worldview, might be more interested in short - term financial gain than incremental use with an eye toward other 's concerns (e.g., those of future generations, the disenfranchised, etc.). While Aristotle justified the existence of private ownership, he left open questions of (1) how to allocate property between what is private and common and (2) how to allocate the private property within society.
In modern Western popular culture some people believe that exclusive ownership of property underlies much social injustice, and facilitates tyranny and oppression on an individual and societal scale. Others consider the striving to achieve greater ownership of wealth as the driving factor behind human technological advancement and increasing standards of living. Right - libertarians not only believe that ownership is the driving factor behind human technological advancement and increasing standards of living, but is also necessary for liberty itself.
Ownership society was a political slogan used by United States President George W. Bush to promote a series of policies aimed to increase the control of individual citizens over health care and social security payments and policies. Critics have claimed that slogan hid an agenda that sought to implement tax cuts and curtail the government 's role in health care and retirement saving.
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describe any three loan activities of banks in india | All India financial institutions - wikipedia
All India Financial Institutions (AIFI) is a group composed of Development Finance Institutions (DFI) and Investment Institutions that play a pivotal role in the financial markets. Also known as "financial instruments '', the financial institutions assist in the proper allocation of resources, sourcing from businesses that have a surplus and distributing to others who have deficits - this also assists with ensuring the continued circulation of money in the economy. Possibly of greatest significance, the financial institutions act as an intermediary between borrowers and final lenders, providing safety and liquidity. This process subsequently ensures earnings on the investments and savings involved.
In Post-Independence India, people were encouraged to increase savings, a tactic intended to provide funds for investment by the Indian government. However, there was a huge gap between the supply of savings and demand for the investment opportunities in the country.
According to Economic Survey 2012 - 13, at the end of March 2012, there were four institutions regulated by Reserve Bank of India as all - India Financial Institutions:
IDBI is no more an AIFI and has been converted into universal bank by Government of India. The IDBI was established to provide credit for major financial facilities to assist with the industrial development of India. It was established in 1964 by RBI, and was transferred to the government of India in 1976. The government holdings in IDBI, after the IPO, is 51.4 %. By the end of September 2004, the IDBI asset base was Rs. 36850 crore.
Since 1990, IDBI has set up number of institutes, including:
In 1960, the first State Industrial Development Corporations (SIDC) was established in Bihar. These mainly autonomous bodies are controlled by the State government, who may own a stake in the corporation. There are approximately 29 SIDCs in India.
Their main functions include the promotion of rapid industrialization in India. They mainly work at the grass roots level, providing development in the backward and less frequented parts of India. They offer financial leases and offer guarantees. They also administer the schemes of the central and state governments. The projects and surveys of the industrial potential areas are conducted by them, as well as the evaluation of SEZs.
The first Mutual funds in India were created in 1964 by the UTI or The Unit Trust of India. In 1987, the leading public sector banks of the country, such as SBI and Canara Bank, set up their mutual funds. It became popular after the 1991 liberalization of the Indian Economy.
By the end of 2006, there were around 200 mutual funds schemes in India. The amount of assets that are managed by the mutual funds grew from Rs. 47,000 Crores to Rs. 217,707 by 31 March 2006. The mutual funds are managed by fund managers for small investors, who often does not have enough information to adequately invest there funds.
The mutual funds in India has 5 constituents:
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who came in 2nd on america's got talent 2017 | America 's Got Talent (Season 12) - wikipedia
Season twelve of the reality competition series America 's Got Talent was ordered on August 2, 2016 and premiered on NBC on Tuesday, May 30, 2017. Howie Mandel, Mel B, Heidi Klum and Simon Cowell returned as judges for their respective eighth, fifth, fifth and second seasons. Supermodel and businesswoman Tyra Banks replaced Nick Cannon, who hosted the show for eight seasons, making her the first female host of the show. The live shows returned to the Dolby Theatre in Los Angeles beginning August 15, 2017.
The format of the show was the same as in season eleven, and Dunkin Donuts sponsors the show for a third consecutive season. A guest judge joined the panel for each episode of the Judge Cuts round: Chris Hardwick, DJ Khaled, Laverne Cox and Seal.
Darci Lynne Farmer was named the winner on the season finale, September 20, 2017. She was the third ventriloquist, third child and third female to win a season of America 's Got Talent. 10 - year - old singer Angelica Hale placed second, and glow light dance troupe Light Balance came in third. Farmer won the show 's prize of $1 million and a headlining performance in Las Vegas.
On October 4, 2016, Simon Cowell signed a contract to remain as a judge through 2019.
Long - time host Nick Cannon announced, on February 13, 2017, that he would not return as host for the twelfth season, soon after he made disparaging remarks about NBC in his 2017 Showtime comedy special, Stand Up, Do n't Shoot. Cannon was still under contract to host, and NBC executives did not initially accept his resignation, but they ultimately searched for a new host.
On March 12, 2017, NBC announced supermodel and host Tyra Banks as the host for Season 12.
The season had preliminary open call auditions in Chicago, Austin, Cleveland, Jacksonville, Philadelphia, Las Vegas, San Diego, New York City, Charleston, Memphis, and Los Angeles. As in years past, prospective contestants could also submit online auditions.
Judges ' auditions were taped in March at the Pasadena Civic Auditorium in Los Angeles. The premiere aired May 30, 2017.
The Golden Buzzer returned for its fourth consecutive season. Any act that received a golden buzzer during the preliminary auditions was sent directly to the live shows and did not compete in the Judge Cuts round. In the first episode of preliminary auditions, Mel B pressed the golden buzzer for 12 - year - old singing ventriloquist Darci Lynne Farmer. In subsequent episodes, Simon Cowell pressed it for 29 - year - old deaf singer Mandy Harvey, Howie Mandel chose 16 - year - old former blind singer Christian Guardino, Tyra Banks pressed it for Light Balance dance crew, and Heidi Klum chose 13 - year - old singer Angelina Green.
Each Judge Cuts act that received a golden buzzer advanced to the live shows without any voting by the judges. During the Judge Cuts round, guest judges Chris Hardwick pressed his golden buzzer for 9 - year old singer Angelica Hale, DJ Khaled pressed it for 21 - year old singer - songwriter and guitarist Chase Goehring, Laverne Cox pressed it for 9 - year old singer Celine Tam, and Seal pressed it for soul singer Johnny Manuel.
On June 11, 2017, contestant Brandon Rogers died in an automobile accident. Rogers was an American physician who specialized in family medicine. Earlier in 2017, after seeing YouTube videos of Rogers singing, Boyz II Men invited him to sing with them as a guest in three of their Las Vegas shows. His successful AGT audition aired on July 11, 2017, in his memory. He competed in the Judge Cuts round, but his performance in that round was not televised.
The Judge Cuts round began on Tuesday, July 18, 2017. Like the previous season, one guest judge joined the judges ' panel each show and was given one golden buzzer opportunity to send an act straight to the live shows. Twenty acts were shown each week and seven advanced, including the guest judge 's golden buzzer choice. Guest judges were not given a red buzzer to use. Any act that received all four red buzzers was immediately eliminated from the competition. The four guest judges were Chris Hardwick, DJ Khaled, Laverne Cox, and Seal.
After the Judge Cuts, three wildcards were chosen from eliminated acts to perform in the live shows: Final Draft, Bello Nock and Oskar and Gaspar (who did not perform in the Judge Cuts round). All three of these acts were eliminated in the Quarterfinals.
Guest judge: Chris Hardwick
Date: July 18, 2017
Guest judge: DJ Khaled
Date: July 25, 2017
As of 2017, this is the only Judge Cuts episode in the show 's history in which an act with at least one "X '' buzzer was nevertheless promoted to the live shows. This was also the only Judge Cuts episode of the season in which an act received 4 red buzzers.
Guest judge: Laverne Cox
Date: August 1, 2017
This was the first Judge Cuts episode in which no acts received a red buzzer from any of the judges.
Guest judge: Seal
Date: August 8, 2017
The quarterfinals were broadcast live from the Dolby Theatre in Los Angeles starting on August 15, 2017. They featured the nine golden buzzer acts, the 24 other acts promoted during the Judge Cuts round, and three wildcard acts chosen by the producers and judges. Twelve acts performed each week, with results announced the on following nights; each week seven acts were sent through to the semifinals. Puddles Pity Party and Mirror Image received an "X '' in the Quarterfinals. Demian Aditya received "X 's '' by Brown and Cowell in the second Quarterfinals.
Guests: Grace VanderWaal, August 16
^ 1 After the judges split evenly in the Judges ' Choice, Yoli Mayor was announced to have received more of America 's votes than Just Jerk, and she advanced to the semi-finals.
Guests: Circus 1903, August 23
^ 1 After the judges split evenly in the Judges ' Choice, Eric Jones was announced to have received more of America 's votes than The Masqueraders, and he advanced to the semi-finals.
^ 2 Due to a technical issue, Light Balance 's performance was based on their dress rehearsal.
^ 3 Another technical issue occurred when the sealed box Aditya was in did n't fall as planned.
Guests: Mat Franco, Piff the Magic Dragon, and Jon Dorenbos, August 30
^ 1 Sara added another dog named Loki in her act. Loki performed throughout the rest of the competition.
The live semifinals started on September 5, 2017. They featured the 21 acts voted to the semifinals, plus the judges ' semifinal wildcard pick. Each week, eleven acts performed; five went through to the finals, and six were eliminated. No acts were buzzed.
Guests: The Clairvoyants
^ 1 Chase Goehring, DaNell Daymon & Greater Works, and Mike Yung were not initially announced as performing on week one of semifinals.
^ 1 Merrick Hanna and Mandy Harvey were switched to perform on Week 2 although they were on the Week 1 promo.
^ 2 Klum 's voting intention was not revealed.
The final performances took place on September 19, followed by the final results show on September 20, 2017. No acts were buzzed.
Guest performers in the finale included Kelly Clarkson, Shania Twain, James Arthur, Derek Hough and Terry Fator. Other celebrity appearances included Marlee Matlin.
The following chart describes the acts, appearances and segments presented during the finale.
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where does the cotton come from that is used to make clothing plants algae bacteria worms | Moss - wikipedia
Mosses are small flowerless plants that typically grow in dense green clumps or mats, often in damp or shady locations. The individual plants are usually composed of simple leaves that are generally only one cell thick, attached to a stem that may be branched or unbranched and has only a limited role in conducting water and nutrients. Although some species have conducting tissues, these are generally poorly developed and structurally different from similar tissue found in vascular plants. Mosses do not have seeds and after fertilisation develop sporophytes with unbranched stalks topped with single capsules containing spores. They are typically 0.2 -- 10 cm (0.1 -- 3.9 in) tall, though some species are much larger. Dawsonia, the tallest moss in the world, can grow to 50 cm (20 in) in height.
Mosses are commonly confused with lichens, hornworts, and liverworts. Lichens may superficially look like mosses, and have common names that include the word "moss '' (e.g., "reindeer moss '' or "iceland moss ''), but are not related to mosses. Mosses used to be grouped together with the hornworts and liverworts as "non-vascular '' plants in the former division "bryophytes '', all of them having the haploid gametophyte generation as the dominant phase of the life cycle. This contrasts with the pattern in all vascular plants (seed plants and pteridophytes), where the diploid sporophyte generation is dominant.
Mosses are now classified on their own as the division Bryophyta. There are approximately 12,000 species.
The main commercial significance of mosses is as the main constituent of peat (mostly the genus Sphagnum), although they are also used for decorative purposes, such as in gardens and in the florist trade. Traditional uses of mosses included as insulation and for the ability to absorb liquids up to 20 times their weight.
Botanically, mosses are non-vascular plants in the land plant division Bryophyta. They are small (a few centimeters tall) herbaceous (non-woody) plants that absorb water and nutrients mainly through their leaves and harvest carbon dioxide and sunlight to create food by photosynthesis. They differ from vascular plants in lacking water - bearing xylem tracheids or vessels. As in liverworts and hornworts, the haploid gametophyte generation is the dominant phase of the life cycle. This contrasts with the pattern in all vascular plants (seed plants and pteridophytes), where the diploid sporophyte generation is dominant. Mosses reproduce using spores, not seeds, and have no flowers.
Moss gametophytes have stems which may be simple or branched and upright or prostrate. Their leaves are simple, usually only a single layer of cells with no internal air spaces, often with thicker midribs. They do not have proper roots, but have threadlike rhizoids that anchor them to their substrate. Mosses do not absorb water or nutrients from their substrate through their rhizoids. They can be distinguished from liverworts (Marchantiophyta or Hepaticae) by their multi-cellular rhizoids. Spore - bearing capsules or sporangia of mosses are borne singly on long, unbranched stems, thereby distinguishing them from the polysporangiophytes, which include all vascular plants. The spore - bearing sporophytes (i.e. the diploid multicellular generation) are short - lived and dependent on the gametophyte for water supply and nutrition. Also, in most mosses, the spore - bearing capsule enlarges and matures after its stalk elongates, while in liverworts the capsule enlarges and matures before its stalk elongates. Other differences are not universal for all mosses and all liverworts, but the presence of clearly differentiated stem with simple - shaped, ribbed leaves, without deeply lobed or segmented leaves and not arranged in three ranks, all point to the plant being a moss.
Vascular plants have two sets of chromosomes in their vegetative cells and are said to be diploid, i.e. each chromosome has a partner that contains the same, or similar, genetic information. By contrast, mosses and other bryophytes have only a single set of chromosomes and so are haploid (i.e. each chromosome exists in a unique copy within the cell). There is a period in the moss life cycle when they do have a double set of paired chromosomes, but this happens only during the sporophyte stage.
The moss life - cycle starts with a haploid spore that germinates to produce a protonema (pl. protonemata), which is either a mass of thread - like filaments or thalloid (flat and thallus - like). Massed moss protonemata typically look like a thin green felt, and may grow on damp soil, tree bark, rocks, concrete, or almost any other reasonably stable surface. This is a transitory stage in the life of a moss, but from the protonema grows the gametophore ("gamete - bearer '') that is structurally differentiated into stems and leaves. A single mat of protonemata may develop several gametophore shoots, resulting in a clump of moss.
From the tips of the gametophore stems or branches develop the sex organs of the mosses. The female organs are known as archegonia (sing. archegonium) and are protected by a group of modified leaves known as the perichaetum (plural, perichaeta). The archegonia are small flask - shaped clumps of cells with an open neck (venter) down which the male sperm swim. The male organs are known as antheridia (sing. antheridium) and are enclosed by modified leaves called the perigonium (pl. perigonia). The surrounding leaves in some mosses form a splash cup, allowing the sperm contained in the cup to be splashed to neighboring stalks by falling water droplets.
Mosses can be either dioicous (compare dioecious in seed plants) or monoicous (compare monoecious). In dioicous mosses, male and female sex organs are borne on different gametophyte plants. In monoicous (also called autoicous) mosses, both are borne on the same plant. In the presence of water, sperm from the antheridia swim to the archegonia and fertilisation occurs, leading to the production of a diploid sporophyte. The sperm of mosses is biflagellate, i.e. they have two flagellae that aid in propulsion. Since the sperm must swim to the archegonium, fertilisation can not occur without water. Some species (for example Mnium hornum or several species of Polytrichum) keep their antheridia in so called ' splash cups ', bowl - like structures on the shoot tips that propel the sperm several decimeters when water droplets hit it, increasing the fertilization distance.
After fertilisation, the immature sporophyte pushes its way out of the archegonial venter. It takes about a quarter to half a year for the sporophyte to mature. The sporophyte body comprises a long stalk, called a seta, and a capsule capped by a cap called the operculum. The capsule and operculum are in turn sheathed by a haploid calyptra which is the remains of the archegonial venter. The calyptra usually falls off when the capsule is mature. Within the capsule, spore - producing cells undergo meiosis to form haploid spores, upon which the cycle can start again. The mouth of the capsule is usually ringed by a set of teeth called peristome. This may be absent in some mosses.
Most mosses rely on the wind to disperse the spores. In the genus Sphagnum the spores are projected about 10 -- 20 cm (4 -- 8 in) off the ground by compressed air contained in the capsules; the spores are accelerated to about 36,000 times the earth 's gravitational acceleration g.
It has recently been found that microarthropods, such as springtails and mites, can effect moss fertilization and that this process is mediated by moss - emitted scents. Male and female fire moss, for example emit different and complex volatile organic scents. Female plants emit more compounds than male plants. Springtails were found to choose female plants preferentially, and one study found that springtails enhance moss fertilization, suggesting a scent - mediated relationship analogous to the plant - pollinator relationship found in many seed plants. The stinkmoss species Splachnum sphaericum develops insect pollination further by attracting flies to its sporangia with a strong smell of carrion, and providing a strong visual cue in the form of red - coloured swollen collars beneath each spore capsule. Flies attracted to the moss carry its spores to fresh herbivore dung, which is the favoured habitat of the species of this genus.
In many mosses, e.g. Ulota phyllantha, green vegetative structures called gemmae are produced on leaves or branches, which can break off and form new plants without the need to go through the cycle of fertilization. This is a means of asexual reproduction, and the genetically identical units can lead to the formation of clonal populations.
Moss dwarf males (also known as nannandry or phyllodioicy) originate from wind - dispersed male spores that settle and germinate on the female shoot where their growth is restricted to a few millimeters. In some species, dwarfness is genetically determined, in that all male spores become dwarf. More often, however, it is environmentally determined in that male spores that land on a female become dwarf, while those that land elsewhere develop into large, female - sized males. In the latter case, dwarf males that are transplanted from females to another substrate develop into large shoots, suggesting that the females emit a substance which inhibits the growth of germinating males and possibly also quickens their onset of sexual maturation. The nature of such a substance is unknown, but the phytohormone auxin may be involved
Having the males growing as dwarfs on the female is expected to increase the fertilization efficiency by minimizing the distance between male and female reproductive organs. Accordingly, it has been observed that fertilization frequency is positively associated with the presence of dwarf males in several phyllodioicous species.
Dwarf males occur in several unrelated lineages and is showing to be more common than previously thought. For example, it is estimated that between one quarter and half of all dioicous pleurocarps have dwarf males.
The moss Phycomitrella patens has proven to be an excellent model organism for analyzing repair of DNA damages in plants, especially repair by the homologous recombination pathway. Loss of the ability to repair double - strand breaks and other DNA damages by homologous recombination in somatic cells leads to cell dysfunction or death, and loss of this ability during meiosis leads to infertility. The determination of the genome sequence of P. patens has allowed identification of numerous genes that encode proteins necessary for removal of DNA damages by homologous recombination and by other DNA repair pathways. Studies of P. patens mutants defective in key steps of homologous recombination have provided insight into the functions of this process in plants. For example, a study of P. patens mutants defective in RpRAD51, a gene that encodes a protein at the core of the recombinational repair reaction, indicated that homologous recombination is essential for repairing DNA double - strand breaks in this plant. Similarly, studies of mutants defective in Ppmre11 or Pprad50 (that encode key proteins of the MRN complex, the principal sensor of DNA double - strand breaks) showed that these genes are necessary for repair of DNA damages as well as for normal growth and development.
Traditionally, mosses were grouped with the liverworts and hornworts in the division Bryophyta (bryophytes, or Bryophyta sensu lato), within which the mosses made up the class Musci. However, this definition of Bryophyta was paraphyletic, as the mosses appear to be more closely related to vascular plants than to liverworts. Bryophytes are now split among three divisions: Bryophyta, Marchantiophyta and Anthocerotophyta. The current circumscription of Bryophyta includes only the mosses.
The mosses, now division Bryophyta (Bryophyta sensu stricto), are divided into eight classes:
liverworts
hornworts
vascular plants
Takakiopsida
Sphagnopsida
Andreaeopsida
Andreaeobryopsida
Oedipodiopsida
Polytrichopsida
Tetraphidopsida
Bryopsida
Six of the eight classes contain only one or two genera each. Polytrichopsida includes 23 genera, and Bryopsida includes the majority of moss diversity with over 95 % of moss species belonging to this class.
The Sphagnopsida, the peat - mosses, comprise the two living genera Ambuchanania and Sphagnum, as well as fossil taxa. However, the genus Sphagnum is a diverse, widespread, and economically important one. These large mosses form extensive acidic bogs in peat swamps. The leaves of Sphagnum have large dead cells alternating with living photosynthetic cells. The dead cells help to store water. Aside from this character, the unique branching, thallose (flat and expanded) protonema, and explosively rupturing sporangium place it apart from other mosses.
Andreaeopsida and Andreaeobryopsida are distinguished by the biseriate (two rows of cells) rhizoids, multiseriate (many rows of cells) protonema, and sporangium that splits along longitudinal lines. Most mosses have capsules that open at the top.
Polytrichopsida have leaves with sets of parallel lamellae, flaps of chloroplast - containing cells that look like the fins on a heat sink. These carry out photosynthesis and may help to conserve moisture by partially enclosing the gas exchange surfaces. The Polytrichopsida differ from other mosses in other details of their development and anatomy too, and can also become larger than most other mosses, with e.g. Polytrichum commune forming cushions up to 40 cm (16 in) high. The tallest land moss, a member of the Polytrichidae is probably Dawsonia superba, a native to New Zealand and other parts of Australasia.
The fossil record of moss is sparse, due to their soft - walled and fragile nature. Unambiguous moss fossils have been recovered from as early as the Permian of Antarctica and Russia, and a case is put forwards for Carboniferous mosses. It has further been claimed that tube - like fossils from the Silurian are the macerated remains of moss calyptræ. Mosses also appear to evolve 2 -- 3 times slower than ferns, gymnosperms and angiosperms.
Recent research show that ancient moss could explain why the Ordovician ice ages occurred. When the ancestors of today 's moss started to spread on land 470 million years ago, they absorbed CO from the atmosphere and extracted minerals by secreting organic acids that dissolved the rocks they were growing on. These chemically altered rocks in turn reacted with the atmospheric CO and formed new carbonate rocks in the ocean through the weathering of calcium and magnesium ions from silicate rocks. The weathered rocks also released a lot of phosphorus and iron which ended up in the oceans, where it caused massive algal blooms, resulting in organic carbon burial, extracting more carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. Small organisms feeding on the nutrients created large areas without oxygen, which caused a mass extinction of marine species, while the levels of CO dropped all over the world, allowing the formation of ice caps on the poles.
Since moss gametophytes are autotrophic they require enough sunlight to perform photosynthesis. Shade tolerance varies by species, just as it does with higher plants. In most areas, mosses grow chiefly in areas of dampness and shade, such as wooded areas and at the edges of streams; but they can grow anywhere in cool damp cloudy climates, and some species are adapted to sunny, seasonally dry areas like alpine rocks or stabilized sand dunes.
Choice of substrate varies by species as well. Moss species can be classed as growing on: rocks, exposed mineral soil, disturbed soils, acid soil, calcareous soil, cliff seeps and waterfall spray areas, streamsides, shaded humusy soil, downed logs, burnt stumps, tree trunk bases, upper tree trunks, and tree branches or in bogs. Moss species growing on or under trees are often specific about the species of trees they grow on, such as preferring conifers to broadleaf trees, oaks to alders, or vice versa. While mosses often grow on trees as epiphytes, they are never parasitic on the tree.
Mosses are also found in cracks between paving stones in damp city streets, and on roofs. Some species adapted to disturbed, sunny areas are well adapted to urban conditions and are commonly found in cities. Examples would be Rhytidiadelphus squarrosus, a garden weed in Vancouver and Seattle areas; Bryum argenteum, the cosmopolitan sidewalk moss, and Ceratodon purpureus, red roof moss, another cosmopolitan species. A few species are wholly aquatic, such as Fontinalis antipyretica, common water moss; and others such as Sphagnum inhabit bogs, marshes and very slow - moving waterways. Such aquatic or semi-aquatic mosses can greatly exceed the normal range of lengths seen in terrestrial mosses. Individual plants 20 -- 30 cm (8 -- 12 in) or more long are common in Sphagnum species for example.
Wherever they occur, mosses require liquid water for at least part of the year to complete fertilisation. Many mosses can survive desiccation, sometimes for months, returning to life within a few hours of rehydration.
It is generally believed that in northern latitudes, the north side of trees and rocks will generally have more luxuriant moss growth on average than other sides. This is assumed to be because the sun on the south side creates a dry environment. South of the equator the reverse would be true. However, naturalists feel that mosses grow on the damper side of trees and rocks. In some cases, such as sunny climates in temperate northern latitudes, this will be the shaded north side of the tree or rock. On steep slopes it may be the uphill side. For mosses that grow on tree branches, this is generally the upper side of the branch on horizontally growing sections or near the crotch. In cool damp cloudy climates, all sides of tree trunks and rocks may be equally damp enough for mosses. And different species of mosses have different moisture and sun requirements so will grow on different sections of the same tree or rock.
In boreal forests, some species of moss play an important role in providing nitrogen for the ecosystem due to their relationship with nitrogen - fixing cyanobacteria. Cyanobacteria colonizes moss and receives shelter in return for providing fixed nitrogen. Moss releases the fixed nitrogen, along with other nutrients, into the soil "upon disturbances like drying - rewetting and fire events, '' making it available throughout the ecosystem.
Moss is often considered a weed in grass lawns, but is deliberately encouraged to grow under aesthetic principles exemplified by Japanese gardening. In old temple gardens, moss can carpet a forest scene. Moss is thought to add a sense of calm, age, and stillness to a garden scene. Moss is also used in bonsai to cover the soil and enhance the impression of age. Rules of cultivation are not widely established. Moss collections are quite often begun using samples transplanted from the wild in a water - retaining bag. However, specific species of moss can be extremely difficult to maintain away from their natural sites with their unique requirements of combinations of light, humidity, substrate chemistry, shelter from wind, etc.
Growing moss from spores is even less controlled. Moss spores fall in a constant rain on exposed surfaces; those surfaces which are hospitable to a certain species of moss will typically be colonised by that moss within a few years of exposure to wind and rain. Materials which are porous and moisture retentive, such as brick, wood, and certain coarse concrete mixtures are hospitable to moss. Surfaces can also be prepared with acidic substances, including buttermilk, yogurt, urine, and gently puréed mixtures of moss samples, water and ericaceous compost.
In the cool cloudy damp Pacific Northwest, moss is sometimes allowed to grow naturally as a lawn substitute, one that needs little or no mowing, fertilizing or watering. In this case, grass is considered to be the weed. Landscapers in the Seattle area sometimes collect boulders and downed logs growing mosses for installation in gardens and landscapes. Woodland gardens in many parts of the world can include a carpet of natural mosses. The Bloedel Reserve on Bainbridge Island, Washington State, is famous for its moss garden. The moss garden was created by removing shrubby underbrush and herbaceous groundcovers, thinning trees, and allowing mosses to fill in naturally.
Mosses are sometimes used in green roofs. Advantages of mosses over higher plants in green roofs include reduced weight loads, increased water absorption, no fertilizer requirements, and high drought tolerance. Since mosses do not have true roots, they require less planting medium than higher plants with extensive root systems. With proper species selection for the local climate, mosses in green roofs require no irrigation once established and are low maintenance.
Moss can be a troublesome weed in containerized nursery operations and greenhouses. Vigorous moss growth can inhibit seedling emergence and penetration of water and fertilizer to the plant roots.
Moss growth can be inhibited by a number of methods:
The application of products containing ferrous sulfate or ferrous ammonium sulfate will kill moss; these ingredients are typically in commercial moss control products and fertilizers. Sulfur and Iron are essential nutrients for some competing plants like grasses. Killing moss will not prevent regrowth unless conditions favorable to their growth are changed.
A passing fad for moss - collecting in the late 19th century led to the establishment of mosseries in many British and American gardens. The mossery is typically constructed out of slatted wood, with a flat roof, open to the north side (maintaining shade). Samples of moss were installed in the cracks between wood slats. The whole mossery would then be regularly moistened to maintain growth.
Preindustrial societies made use of the mosses growing in their areas.
Laplanders, North American tribes, and other circumpolar people used mosses for bedding. Mosses have also been used as insulation both for dwellings and in clothing. Traditionally, dried moss was used in some Nordic countries and Russia as an insulator between logs in log cabins, and tribes of the northeastern United States and southeastern Canada used moss to fill chinks in wooden longhouses. Circumpolar and alpine peoples have used mosses for insulation in boots and mittens. Ötzi the Iceman had moss - packed boots.
The capacity dried mosses have to absorb fluids, has made their use practical in both medical and culinary uses. North American tribal people used mosses for diapers, wound dressing, and menstrual fluid absorption. Tribes of the Pacific Northwest in the United States and Canada used mosses to clean salmon prior to drying, and packed wet moss into pit ovens for steaming camas bulbs. Food storage baskets and boiling baskets were also packed with mosses.
There is a substantial market in mosses gathered from the wild. The uses for intact moss are principally in the florist trade and for home decoration. Decaying moss in the genus Sphagnum is also the major component of peat, which is "mined '' for use as a fuel, as a horticultural soil additive, and in smoking malt in the production of Scotch whisky.
Sphagnum moss, generally the species cristatum and subnitens, is harvested while still growing and is dried out to be used in nurseries and horticulture as a plant growing medium. The practice of harvesting peat moss should not be confused with the harvesting of moss peat. Peat moss can be harvested on a sustainable basis and managed so that regrowth is allowed, whereas the harvesting of moss peat is generally considered to cause significant environmental damage as the peat is stripped with little or no chance of recovery.
Some sphagnum mosses can absorb up to 20 times their own weight in water. In World War I, Sphagnum mosses were used as first - aid dressings on soldiers ' wounds, as these mosses said to absorb liquids three times faster than cotton, retain liquids better, better distribute liquids uniformly throughout themselves, and are cooler, softer, and be less irritating. It was also claimed that they have mild antibacterial properties. Native Americans were one of the peoples to use Sphagnum for diapers and napkins, which is still done in Canada.
In rural UK, Fontinalis antipyretica was traditionally used to extinguish fires as it could be found in substantial quantities in slow - moving rivers and the moss retained large volumes of water which helped extinguish the flames. This historical use is reflected in its specific Latin / Greek name, the approximate meaning of which is "against fire ''.
In Finland, peat mosses have been used to make bread during famines. In Mexico, Moss is used as a Christmas decoration.
Physcomitrella patens is increasingly used in biotechnology. Prominent examples are the identification of moss genes with implications for crop improvement or human health and the safe production of complex biopharmaceuticals in the moss bioreactor, developed by Ralf Reski and his co-workers.
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turkey is the worlds largest producer of this fruit | List of largest producing countries of agricultural commodities - Wikipedia
Production (and consumption) of agricultural plant commodities has a diverse geographical distribution. Along with climate and corresponding types of vegetation, the economy of a nation also influences the level of agricultural production. Production of some products is highly concentrated in a few countries while other are widely produced. For instance, China, the leading producer of wheat and ramie in 2013, produces 6 % of the world 's ramie fiber but only 17 % of the world 's wheat. Products with more evenly distributed production see more frequent changes in ranking of the top producers.
The major agricultural products can be broadly grouped into foods, fibers, fuels, and raw materials.
As of 2016, FAOSTAT, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations:
As of 2016, FAOSTAT, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations:
As of 2016, FAOSTAT, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations:
As of 2016, FAOSTAT, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
As of 2013, FAOSTAT, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (1)
As of 2014, FAOSTAT, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (2)
As of 2013, FAOSTAT, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (3)
As of 2013, FAOSTAT, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (4)
As of 2013, FAOSTAT, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (5)
As of 2013, FAOSTAT, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.
As of 2013, FAOSTAT, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (6)
Wood fuel includes all wood for fuel as firewood, wood pellets, and charcoal Sawnwood includes all sawn wood, dimensional lumber Wood - based panel includes all plywood, particleboard, fiberboard and veneer sheets Paper and Paperboard includes all paper, sanitary paper, and packaging materials Dissolving wood pulp includes cellulose extracted from wood for making synthetic fibres, cellulose plastic materials, lacquers and explosives
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map of new brunswick canada and nova scotia | New Brunswick - Wikipedia
New Brunswick (French: Nouveau - Brunswick; Canadian French pronunciation: (nuvobʁɔnzwɪk) (listen)) is one of three Maritime provinces on the east coast of Canada.
The original inhabitants of the land were the Mi'kmaq, the Maliseet, and the Passamaquoddy peoples.
Being relatively close to Europe, New Brunswick was among the first places in North America to be explored and settled, starting with the French in the early 1600s, who eventually colonized most of the Maritimes and some of Maine as the colony of Acadia. The area was caught up in the global conflict between the British and French empires, and in 1755 became part of Nova Scotia, to be partitioned off in 1784 following an influx of refugees from the American Revolutionary War. Large groups of English, Scottish, and French people settled in the area.
In 1785, Saint John became the first incorporated city in Canada. The same year, the University of New Brunswick became one of the first universities in North America. The province prospered in the early 1800s due to logging, shipbuilding, and related activities. The population grew rapidly in part due to waves of Irish immigration to Saint John and Miramichi regions, reaching about a quarter of a million by mid-century. In 1867 New Brunswick was one of four founding provinces of Canada, along with Nova Scotia, Quebec, and Ontario.
After confederation, wooden shipbuilding and lumbering declined, while protectionist policy disrupted traditional economic patterns with New England. The mid-1900s found New Brunswick to be one of the poorest regions of Canada, but that has been mitigated somewhat by federal transfer payments and improved support for rural areas.
As of 2002, provincial gross domestic product was derived as follows: services (about half being government services & public administration) 43 %; construction, manufacturing, and utilities 24 %; real estate rental 12 %; wholesale & retail 11 %; agriculture, forestry, fishing, hunting, mining, oil and gas extraction 5 %; transportation & warehousing 5 %.
According to the Constitution of Canada New Brunswick is the only bilingual province. About two thirds of the population declare themselves anglophones and a third francophones. One third of the overall population describe themselves as bilingual. Atypically for Canada, only about half of the population lives in urban areas, mostly in the capital Fredericton, Greater Moncton, and Greater Saint John.
Unlike the other Maritime provinces, New Brunswick 's terrain is mostly forested uplands, with much of the land further from the coast, giving it a harsher climate. New Brunswick is 83 % forested, and less densely - populated than the rest of the Maritimes.
Tourism accounts for about 9 % of the labour force directly or indirectly. Popular destinations include Fundy National Park and the Hopewell Rocks, Kouchibouguac National Park, and Roosevelt Campobello International Park. In 2013, 64 cruise ships called at Port of Saint John carrying on average 2600 passengers each.
Indigenous peoples have been present in the area since about 7000 BC. At the time of European contact, inhabitants were the Mi'kmaq, the Maliseet, and the Passamaquoddy. Although these tribes did not leave a written record, their language is present in many placenames, such as Aroostook, Bouctouche, Petitcodiac, Quispamsis, and Shediac.
New Brunswick may have been part of Vinland, the area explored by Vikings, and the Bay of Fundy may have been visited in the early 1500s by Basque, Breton, and Norman fishermen.
The first documented European visits were by Jacques Cartier in 1534. A party led by Pierre du Gua de Monts and Samuel de Champlain visited the mouth of the Saint John River on the eponymous Saint - Jean - Baptiste Day in 1604. Now Saint John, this was later the site of the first permanent European settlement in New Brunswick. French settlement extended up the river to the site of present - day Fredericton.
Other settlements in the southeast extended from Beaubassin, near the present - day border with Nova Scotia, and extending to Baie Verte, and up the Petitcodiac, Memramcook, and Shepody Rivers.
By the early 1700s the area that is now New Brunswick was part of the French colony of Acadia, which was in turn part of New France. Acadia comprised most of what is now the Maritimes, as well as parts of Québec and Maine. The peace and prosperity of the colony was ended by rivalry between Britain and France for control of territory in Europe and North America starting in the early 1700s. With the 1713 Treaty of Utrecht, the part of Acadia today known as peninsular Nova Scotia became another British colony on the eastern seaboard. Île Saint - Jean (Prince Edward Island) and Île Royale (Cape Breton Island) remained French. The ownership of New Brunswick was disputed, with an informal border on the Isthmus of Chignecto.
To defend the area, the French built Fort Nashwaak, Fort Boishebert, Fort Menagoueche in Bay of Fundy, and in the southeast Fort Gaspareaux and Fort Beauséjour. The latter was captured by British and New England troops in 1755, followed soon after by the Expulsion of the Acadians.
Present - day New Brunswick became part of the colony of Nova Scotia. Hostilities ended with the Treaty of Paris in 1763, and Acadians returning from exile discovered several thousand immigrants, mostly from New England, on their former lands. Some settled around Memramcook and along the Saint John River.
Settlement was initially slow. Pennsylvanian immigrants founded Moncton in 1766. An American settlement also developed at Saint John, and English settlers from Yorkshire arrived in the Sackville area.
After the American Revolution, about 10,000 loyalist refugees settled along the north shore of the Bay of Fundy, commemorated in the province 's motto, Spem reduxit ("hope restored ''). In 1784 New Brunswick was partitioned from Nova Scotia, and that year saw its first elected assembly. The colony was named New Brunswick in honour of George III, King of Great Britain, King of Ireland, and prince - elector of the Electorate of Brunswick - Lüneburg in what is now Germany. In 1785 Saint John became Canada 's first incorporated city.
Although New Brunswick has limited arable land, the 1800s saw an age of prosperity based on wood export and shipbuilding, bolstered by The Canadian -- American Reciprocity Treaty of 1854 and demand from the American Civil War. St. Martins became the third most productive shipbuilding town in the Maritimes, producing over 500 vessels.
The first half of the 1800s saw large - scale immigration from Ireland and Scotland, with the population reaching 252,047 by 1861.
In 1848, responsible home government was granted and the 1850s saw the emergence of political parties largely organised along religious and ethnic lines.
The notion of unifying the separate colonies of British North America was discussed increasingly in the 1860s. Many felt that the American Civil war was the result of weak central government, and wished to avoid such violence and chaos. The 1864 Charlottetown Conference had been intended to discuss a Maritime Union, but concerns over possible conquest by the Americans coupled with a belief that Britain was unwilling to defend its colonies against American attack led to a request from the Province of Canada (now Ontario and Quebec) to expand the scope of the meeting. In 1866 the US cancelled the Canadian -- American Reciprocity Treaty leading to loss of trade with New England and prompting a desire to build trade within British North America, while Fenian raids increased support for union.
On 1 July 1867 New Brunswick entered the Canadian Confederation along with Nova Scotia, Quebec and Ontario.
Confederation brought into existence the Intercolonial Railway in 1872, a consolidation of the existing Nova Scotia Railway, European and North American Railway, and Grand Trunk Railway. In 1879 John A. Macdonald 's Conservatives enacted the National Policy which called for high tariffs and opposed free trade, disrupting the trading relationship between the Maritimes and New England. The economic situation was worsened by the decline of the wooden ship building industry. The railways and tariffs did foster the growth of new industries in the province such as textile manufacturing, iron mills, and sugar refineries, many of which eventually failed to compete with better capitalized industry in central Canada.
In 1937 New Brunswick had the highest infant mortality and illiteracy rates in Canada. At the end of the Great Depression the New Brunswick standard of living was much below the Canadian average. In 1940 the Rowell -- Sirois Commission reported that federal government attempts to manage the depression illustrated grave flaws in the Canadian constitution. While the federal government had most of the revenue gathering powers, the provinces had many expenditure responsibilities such as healthcare, education, and welfare, which were becoming increasingly expensive. The Commission recommended the creation of equalization payments, implemented in 1957.
The Acadians in northern New Brunswick had long been geographically and linguistically isolated from the more numerous English speakers to the south. The population of French origin grew dramatically after Confederation, from about 16 per cent in 1871 to 34 per cent in 1931. Government services were often not available in French, and the infrastructure in Francophone areas was less developed than elsewhere. In 1960 Premier Louis Robichaud embarked on the New Brunswick Equal Opportunity program, in which education, rural road maintenance, and healthcare fell under the sole jurisdiction of a provincial government that insisted on equal coverage throughout the province, rather than the former county - based system.
The flag of New Brunswick, based on the coat of arms, was adopted in 1965. The conventional heraldic representations of a lion and a ship represent colonial ties with Europe, and the importance of shipping at the time the coat of arms was assigned.
Roughly square, New Brunswick is bordered on the north by Quebec, on the east by the Atlantic Ocean, on the south by the Bay of Fundy, and on the west by the US state of Maine. The southeast corner of the province is connected to Nova Scotia at the isthmus of Chignecto.
Glaciation has left much of New Brunswick 's uplands with only shallow, acidic soils which have discouraged settlement, but are home to enormous forests.
New Brunswick is within the Appalachian Mountains and is divided into:
All of the rivers of New Brunswick drain either into the Gulf of Saint Lawrence to the east, or into the Bay of Fundy to the south. These watersheds include lands in Quebec and Maine.
During the glacial period New Brunswick was covered by thick layers of ice. It cut U-shaped valleys in the Saint John and Nepisiguit River valleys, and pushed granite boulders from the Mirimachi highlands south and east, leaving them as erratics when the ice receded at the end of the Wisconsin glaciation, along with deposits such as the eskers between Woodstock and St George, today sources of sand and gravel.
Most of New Brunswick is forested, nearly all tertiary or secondary forest. Some boreal forest exists in the uplands of the extreme of the province, and in the central highlands. This area is characterized by spruce and fir. Most of the forest is Acadian forest. Hillsides are dominated by hardwoods like yellow birch, beech, and sugar maple, while moister soils are dominated by red spruce and other conifers. Red spruce and tamarack are often subjected to outbreaks of spruce budworm, and over 3,600,000 hectares were sprayed at least once between 1952 and 1967.
Forest ecosystems support large carnivores such as the bobcat, Canada lynx, and black bear, and the large herbivores moose and white - tailed deer.
Fiddlehead greens are harvested from the Ostrich fern which grows on riverbanks.
Furbish 's lousewort a perennial herb endemic to the shores of the upper Saint John River, is an endangered species threatened by habitat destruction, riverside development, forestry, littering and recreational use of the riverbank. Many wetlands are being disrupted by the highly invasive Introduced species purple loosestrife.
New Brunswick 's climate is more severe than that of the other Maritime provinces, which are lower and have more shoreline along the moderating sea. New Brunswick has a humid continental climate, with slightly milder winters on the Gulf of St. Lawrence coastline. Elevated parts of the far north of the province have a subarctic climate.
Below is data for Fredericton from 1981 to 2010. The climate if similar across the province, although places near the coast are slightly cooler in July (Saint John 's maximum 22 to Fredericton 's 25) and milder in January (Saint John 's minimum − 2 to Fredericton 's − 4).
On average Fredericton gets 130 frost free days from 18 May to 24 September.
Evidence of climate change in New Brunswick includes: more intense precipitation events, more frequent winter thaws, and one quarter to half the amount of snowpack.
Today the sea level is about 30 cm higher than it was 100 years ago, and is expected to rise twice that much again by the year 2100.
Bedrock types range from 1 billion to 200 million years old. Much of the bedrock in the west and north derives from ocean deposits in the Ordovician, which were then subject to folding and igneous intrusion, and were eventually covered with lava during the Paleozoic, peaking during the Acadian orogeny.
During the Carboniferous era, about 340 million years ago, New Brunswick was in the Maritimes Basin, a sedimentary basin near the equator. Sediments, brought by rivers from surrounding highlands, accumulated there and after being compressed, producing the Albert oil shales of southern New Brunswick. Eventually sea water from the Panthalassic Ocean invaded the basin, forming the Windsor Sea. Once this receded, conglomerates, sandstones, and shales accumulated. The rust colour of these was caused by the oxidation of iron in the beds between wet and dry periods. Such late carboniferous rock formed the Hopewell Rocks, which have been shaped by the extreme tidal range of the Bay of Fundy.
In the early Triassic, as Pangea drifted north it was rent apart, forming the rift valley that is the Bay of Fundy. Magma pushed up through the cracks, forming basalt columns on Grand Manan.
New Brunswick is the eighth-most populous province in Canada with 751,171 residents as of the Canada 2011 Census.
The urban - rural split has been, since 1951, roughly even, whereas previously the province had been largely rural. Since 1971, the year in which the overall Canadian rural population fell below 25 %, the province has been an outlier in this statistical category, along with the other Atlantic provinces.
New Brunswick 's 107 municipalities cover 7000860000000000000 ♠ 8.6 % of the province 's land mass but are home to 7001653000000000000 ♠ 65.3 % of its population. The three major urban areas are in the south of the province and are:
In the 2001 census, the most commonly reported ethnicities were French Canadian or Acadian 31 %, British Isles 60 %, other European 7 %, First Nations 3 %, Asian Canadian 2 %. There is also a significant Irish population in coastal areas such as Miramichi and Saint John where 33.6 % of the Saint John residents reported in the census as being. Each person could choose more than one ethnicity.
According to the Canadian Constitution, both English and French are the official languages of New Brunswick, making it the only officially bilingual province. Anglophone New Brunswickers make up roughly two - thirds of the population, with about one - third being Francophone. Recently there has been growth in the numbers of people reporting themselves as bilingual, with 34 % reporting that they speak both English and French. This reflects a trend across Canada.
In the 2011 census, 15 per cent of New Brunswickers declared themselves unaffiliated with any religion, while 84 per cent reported themselves as Christian, of which 52 % were Roman Catholic, 8 % Baptist, 8 % United Church of Canada, and 7 % Anglican.
As of October 2017 seasonally - adjusted employment is 73,400 for the goods - producing sector, and 280,900 for the services - producing sector.
Those in the goods producing industries are mostly employed in manufacturing or construction, while those in services work in social assistance, trades, and health care.
The US is the province 's largest export market, accounting for 92 % of a foreign trade valued in 2014 at almost $13 billion, with refined petroleum making up 63 % of that, followed by seafood products, pulp, paper and sawmill products and non-metallic minerals (chiefly potash).
More than 13,000 New Brunswickers work in agriculture, shipping products worth over $1 billion, half of which is from crops, and half of that from potatoes, mostly in the Saint John River valley. McCain Foods is one of the world 's largest manufacturers of frozen potato products. Other products include apples, cranberries, and maple syrup. New Brunswick was in 2015 the biggest producer of wild blueberries in Canada.
The value of the livestock sector is about a quarter of a billion dollars, nearly half of which is dairy. Other sectors include poultry, fur, and goats, sheep, and pigs.
The value of exports, mostly to the United States, was $1.6 billion in 2016. About half of that came from lobster. Other products include salmon, crab, and herring.
About 83 % of New Brunswick is forested. Historically important, it accounted for more than 80 % of exports in the mid 1800s. By the end of the 1800s the industry, and shipbuilding, were declining due to external economic factors. The 1920s saw the development of a pulp and paper industry. In the mid-1960s, forestry practices changed from the controlled harvests of a commodity to the cultivation of the forests.
The industry employs nearly 12,000, generating revenues around $437 million.
Mining was historically unimportant in the province, but since the 1950s has grown and in 2012 was an estimated $1.1 billion. Mines in New Brunswick produce lead, zinc, copper, and potash.
In 2015, spending on non-resident tourism in New Brunswick was $441 million, which provided $87 million in tax revenue.
The Department of Transportation and Infrastructure maintains government facilities and the province 's highway network and ferries. The Trans - Canada Highway is not under federal jurisdiction, and traverses the province from Edmundston following the Saint John River Valley, through Fredericton, Moncton, and on to Nova Scotia and PEI.
Via Rail 's Ocean service, which connects Montreal to Halifax, is currently the oldest continuously operated passenger route North America, with stops from west to east at Campbellton, Charlo, Jacquet River, Petit Rocher, Bathurst, Miramichi, Rogersville, Moncton, and Sackville.
Canadian National Railway operates freight services along the same route, as well as a subdivision from Moncton to Sain John.
The New Brunswick Southern Railway, a division of J.D. Irving Limited, together with its sister company Eastern Maine Railway form a continuous 305 km (190 mi) main line connecting Saint John and Brownville Junction, Maine.
Energy Capacity by source in NB
Publicly - owned NB Power operates 13 of New Brunswick 's generating stations, deriving power from fuel oil and diesel (1497 MW), hydro (889 MW), nuclear (660 MW), and coal (467 MW). There were 30 active natural gas production sites in 2012.
Under Canadian federalism, power is divided between federal and provincial governments. Among areas under federal jurisdiction are citizenship, foreign affairs, national defence, fisheries, criminal law, Indian policies, and many others. Provincial jurisdiction covers public lands, health, education, and local government, among other things. Jurisdiction is shared for immigration, pensions, agriculture, and welfare.
The parliamentary system of government is modelled on the British Westminster system. Forty - nine representatives, nearly always members of political parties, are elected to the Legislative Assembly of New Brunswick. The head of government is the Premier of New Brunswick, normally the leader of the party or coalition with the most seats in the legislative assembly. Governance is handled by the executive council (cabinet), with about 32 ministries.
Ceremonial duties of the Monarchy in New Brunswick are mostly carried out by the Lieutenant Governor of New Brunswick.
Under amendments to the province 's Legislative Assembly Act in 2007, a provincial election is held every four years. The two main political parties are the New Brunswick Liberal Association and the Progressive Conservative Party of New Brunswick.
The Court of Appeal of New Brunswick is the highest provincial court. It hears appeals from:
The system consists of eight Judicial Districts, loosely based on the counties. The Chief Justice of New Brunswick serves at the apex of this court structure.
Ninety - two per cent of the land in the province, inhabited by about 35 % of the population, is under provincial administration and has no local, elected representation. The 51 % of the province that is Crown land is administered by the Department of Energy and Resource Development.
Most of the province is administrated as a local service district (LSD), an unincorporated unit of local governance. As of 2017 there are 237 LSDs. Services, paid for by property taxes, include a variety of services such as fire protection, solid waste management, street lighting, and dog regulation. LSDs may elect advisory committees and work with the Department of Local Government to recommend how to spend locally collected taxes.
In 2006 there were three rural communities. This is a relatively new entity, and to be created requires a population of 3,000 and a tax base of $200 million.
In 2006 there were 101 municipalities.
Regional Service Commissions, which number 12, were introduced in 2013 to regulate regional planning and solid waste disposal, and provide a forum for discussion on a regional level of police and emergency services, climate change adaptation planning, and regional sport, recreational and cultural facilities. The commissions ' administrative councils are populated by the mayors of each municipality or rural community within a region.
Historically the province was divided into counties with elected governance, but this was abolished in 1966. These were subdivided into 152 parishes which also lost their political significance in 1966, but are still used as census subdivisions by Statistics Canada.
New Brunswick has the most poorly - performing economy of any Canadian province, with a per capita income of $28,000. The government has historically run at a large deficit. With about half of the population being rural, it is expensive for the government to provide education and health services, which account for 60 per cent of government expenditure. Thirty - six per cent of the provincial budget is covered by federal cash transfers.
The government has frequently attempted to create employment through subsidies, which has often failed to generate long - term economic prosperity and resulted in bad debt, examples of which include Bricklin, Atcon, and the Marriott call centre in Fredericton.
According to a 2014 study by the Atlantic Institute for Market Studies the large public debt is a very serious problem. Government revenues are shrinking because of a decline in federal transfer payments. Though expenditures are down (through government pension reform and a reduction in the number of public employees), they have increased relative to GDP, necessitating further measures to reduce debt in the future.
In the 2014 -- 15 fiscal year, provincial debt reached $12.2 billion or 37.7 per cent of nominal GDP, an increase over the $10.1 billion recorded in 2011 -- 12. The debt - to - GDP ratio is projected to reach 41.9 % in 2017 -- 2018, compared to a ratio of 25 % in 2007 -- 2008.
Public education in the province is administered by the NB Department of Education. New Brunswick has a parallel system of Anglophone and Francophone public schools. There are also secular and religious private schools in the province, such as the Moncton Flight College.
The New Brunswick Community College system has campuses in all regions of the province.
The two comprehensive provincial universities are the University of New Brunswick (Fredericton and Saint John) and the Université de Moncton (Moncton, Shippegan and Edmundston). These have extensive postgraduate programs and Law schools. Medical education programs have also been established at both the Université de Moncton and at UNBSJ in Saint John (affiliated with Université de Sherbrooke and Dalhousie University respectively). Other public funded universities include Mount Allison University in Sackville and Saint Thomas University in Fredericton. Mount Allison University is a highly regarded undergraduate university with over 50 Rhodes Scholars to its credit. There are several private universities in the province as well, the largest being Crandall University in Moncton.
Julia Catherine Beckwith born in Fredericton, was Canada 's first published novelist. Charles G.D. Roberts was one of the first Canadians to achieve international fame. Antonine Maillet was the first non-European winner of France 's Prix Goncourt. Other modern writers include Alfred Bailey, Alden Nowlan, John Thompson, Douglas Lochhead, K.V. Johansen, David Adams Richards, Raymond Fraser, and France Daigle. A recent New Brunswick Lieutenant - Governor, Herménégilde Chiasson, is a poet and playwright.
The Fiddlehead, established in 1945 at UNB, is Canada 's oldest literary magazine.
Mount Allison University in Sackville began offering classes in 1854. The program came into its own under John A. Hammond, from 1893 to 1916. Alex Colville and Lawren Harris later studied and taught art there and both Christopher Pratt and Mary Pratt were trained at Mount Allison. The University 's art gallery -- which opened in 1895 and is named for its patron, John Owens of Saint John -- is Canada 's oldest. Modern New Brunswick artists include landscape painter Jack Humphrey, sculptor Claude Roussel, and Miller Brittain.
Music of New Brunswick includes artists such as Henry Burr, Roch Voisine, Lenny Breau, and Édith Butler. Symphony New Brunswick, based in Saint John, tours extensively in the province.
Symphony New Brunswick based in Saint John and the Atlantic Ballet Theatre of Canada (based in Moncton), tours nationally and internationally. Theatre New Brunswick (based in Fredericton), tours plays around the province. Canadian playwright Norm Foster saw his early works premiere at TNB. Other live theatre troops include the Théatre populaire d'Acadie in Caraquet, and Live Bait Theatre in Sackville. The refurbished Imperial and Capitol Theatres are found in Saint John and Moncton, respectively; the more modern Playhouse is located in Fredericton.
New Brunswick has four daily newspapers: the Times & Transcript, serving eastern New Brunswick, the Telegraph - Journal, based in Saint John and distributed province - wide, The Daily Gleaner, based in Fredericton, and L'Acadie Nouvelle, based in Caraquet. The three English - language dailies and the majority of the weeklies are owned and operated by Brunswick News, privately owned by J.K. Irving.
The Canadian Broadcasting Corporation has Anglophone television and radio operations in Fredericton. Télévision de Radio - Canada is based in Moncton.
There are about 61 historic places in New Brunswick, including Fort Beauséjour, Kings Landing Historical Settlement and the Village Historique Acadien, and many New Brunswick museums.
Coordinates: 46 ° N 66 ° W / 46 ° N 66 ° W / 46; - 66
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when did 13 reasons why book come out | Thirteen Reasons Why - wikipedia
Thirteen Reasons Why is a young adult novel written in 2007 by Jay Asher. It is the story of a young high school student as she descends into despair brought on by betrayal and bullying, culminating with her suicide. She details the thirteen reasons why in an audio diary which was mailed to a friend two weeks after her death.
Thirteen Reasons Why has received recognition and awards from several young adult literary associations, and the paperback edition reached # 1 on the New York Times Best Seller list in July 2011. A screenplay was written, based on the original release of the book, that became the basis of the dramatic television series 13 Reasons Why released through Netflix on March 31, 2017. The screenplay contains several deviations from the book, including, but not limited to, name changes, plot elements and character personalities.
Thirteen Reasons Why was first published in hardcover on October 18, 2007 by RazorBill, a young adult imprint of Penguin Books. The audiobook on CD was released at the same time by Listening Library, a division of Penguin Books, featuring the voices of Debra Wiseman as Hannah and Joel Johnstone as Clay.
The novel was published in trade paperback format by Penguin Young Readers Group, a division of Penguin Random House on June 14, 2011. Thirteen Reasons Why had remained in hardcover long past the usual one - year release - to - paperback schedule due to its continued grassroots popularity and sales fueled by author participation.
On December 27, 2016, the Tenth Anniversary Edition of Thirteen Reasons Why was published in hardcover, also by Penguin Young Readers Group. In this edition, the book 's original ending is included, as well as a new introduction and an essay from the author, pages from the notebook that the author used while writing this novel, reader reactions, and a reading guide.
Clay Jensen, a shy high school student, returns home from school one day to find that he has received a mysterious package in the mail. It contains seven cassette tapes recorded by Hannah Baker, a classmate who recently committed suicide. The tapes had been sent to various other people before arriving at Clay 's door.
The first person to receive the tapes was Justin Foley. Hannah and Justin kissed in the park once, after she developed a crush on him. Despite this, Justin betrayed her by telling his friends that more had happened in the park than a kiss, earning Hannah the reputation of a slut at school.
The second person was Alex Standall. Alex published a "hot or not '' list comparing the girls in their class based on their body parts. He awarded Hannah the title of Best Ass, which only reinforced her reputation as a slut. He also awarded his ex-girlfriend Jessica the title of Worst Ass, in revenge for her breaking up with him.
The third person was Jessica Davis. After being compared to Hannah on the "hot or not '' list, Jessica accused Hannah of stealing Alex from her. When Hannah denied it, Jessica slapped Hannah, leaving a scar on her forehead and ending their friendship. It is hinted that Jessica may have believed the rumors about Hannah being a slut, leading her to believe that Hannah had stolen Alex from her. Jessica then began spreading rumors that Hannah was the reason of her breakup with Alex.
The fourth person to receive the tapes was Tyler Down, a classmate who worked as a photographer for the yearbook. After suspecting that someone was taking pictures of her through her bedroom window, Hannah enlisted her classmate Courtney Crimsen, who was unnamed at this point, to help catch the Peeping Tom. They staged a massage and then Courtney exclaimed over some "toys '' she pretended to find. Based on the glimpse she got as the perpetrator ran away and his reaction at school, Hannah was able to determine that Tyler was the one at the window.
The fifth person was Courtney Crimsen. Courtney used Hannah to get a ride to a party, but then she left Hannah to herself. Courtney started spreading a rumor at the party regarding the sexual "toys '' she had "found '' in Hannah 's bedroom, further reinforcing Hannah 's reputation as a slut. Hannah left Courtney at the party and gave Tyler a ride home.
The sixth person was Marcus Cooley. Hannah matched up with him through a Valentine fundraiser for the cheerleaders. They went on a date at a diner where Marcus tried to take advantage of her. Hannah pushed him to the floor, then he left, calling her a "tease ''.
The seventh person was Zach Dempsey, who tried to comfort Hannah after Marcus ditched her. After Hannah fails to respond the way he wants, he takes classroom "notes of encouragement '' from her pigeonhole as revenge. Hannah had considered this class her "haven '' as the teacher did not tolerate bullying. She had left an anonymous note about contemplating suicide, but the teacher and the class felt that the note was just an attempt to get attention.
The eighth person was Ryan Shaver. He attended a poetry class outside of school that Hannah signed up for. After gaining her trust, Ryan stole a poem written by Hannah and published the poem anonymously in the school newspaper. When students and teachers criticized the poem harshly, Hannah took the criticism to heart, although no one knew who had actually written it.
The ninth person to receive the tapes was Clay. However, Hannah apologized for including Clay, saying that he did not deserve to be on the list. She admitted that Clay was the nicest person she had ever met and that she wished they had had more time to get to know each other. Hannah broke curfew and went to a party she knew Clay would be at. They had a long conversation and ended it with what she called a "fantastic '' kiss, which ended when Hannah began recalling her kiss with Justin and react badly. That was the last time Clay and Hannah spoke to each other.
The tenth person was Justin. After Clay left her, Justin and Jessica entered the bedroom, not noticing Hannah on the floor. Justin tried to have sex with Jessica on the bed, but her drunken state kept her from responding. Justin left the room and Hannah got up and hid in a closet. She then witnessed a now unconscious Jessica being raped by the unnamed at this point Bryce Walker. Justin knew about the rape and let it happen.
The eleventh person was Jenny Kurtz, a cheerleader who offered Hannah a ride home from the house party. She hit a stop sign while driving and did not tell the police, leading to a car accident which killed one of their classmates.
The twelfth person was Bryce Walker. After another party she had attended on another night, Hannah took a walk. Bryce called her to a hot tub at Courtney 's house. She knew better than to join them, but she had given up. She removed her clothing and got in the tub wearing only a bra and panties. Bryce began touching Hannah, and Courtney left the hot tub. When she did n't actively resist his attentions, he raped her.
The thirteenth to receive the tapes was Mr. Porter, the temporary school counselor. Hannah secretly recorded a conversation they had, in which she expressed a desire to end her life. Overwhelmed, Mr. Porter simply told Hannah that if she was unwilling to press charges against "the boy '', she should just try to move on.
After sending the tapes to the next person on the list, Clay returned to school and ran into his classmate Skye Miller, whom he had reason to suspect was becoming suicidal. The novel ends with Clay reaching out to her.
Universal Pictures purchased film rights to the novel on February 8, 2011. On October 29, 2015, it was announced Netflix and Paramount Television would be taking on the book to become a miniseries, with Selena Gomez as an executive producer. The series was released on March 31, 2017. On May 7, 2017, Netflix announced that they had ordered a second season of the series.
In 2009, Asher adapted the novel into a stage play for high school performance.
In May 2017, the curriculum director in Mesa County School District in Colorado ordered librarians to stop circulating the book due to a rash of student suicides. After three hours of deliberation by librarians and counselors, the books were returned to circulation when it was determined that the book was not as graphic as the TV series. Notices were sent to parents within the school district alerting them to the possible influence of the series.
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united arab emirates is a country situated in which continent | United Arab Emirates - wikipedia
Coordinates: 24 ° N 54 ° E / 24 ° N 54 ° E / 24; 54
in the Arabian Peninsula (white)
The United Arab Emirates (UAE; Arabic: دولة الإمارات العربية المتحدة Dawlat al - Imārāt al - ' Arabīyah al - Muttaḥidah), sometimes simply called the Emirates (Arabic: الإمارات al - Imārāt), is a federal sovereign absolute monarchy in Western Asia at the southeast end of the Arabian Peninsula on the Persian Gulf, bordering Oman to the east and Saudi Arabia to the south, as well as sharing maritime borders with Qatar to the west and Iran to the north. The country is a federation of seven emirates consisting of Abu Dhabi (which serves as the capital), Ajman, Dubai, Fujairah, Ras al - Khaimah, Sharjah and Umm al - Quwain. Each emirate is governed by a Ruler; together, they jointly form the Federal Supreme Council. One of the rulers serves as the President of the United Arab Emirates. In 2013, the UAE 's population was 9.2 million, of which 1.4 million are Emirati citizens and 7.8 million are expatriates.
Human occupation of the present UAE has been traced back to the emergence of anatomically modern man from Africa some 125,000 BCE through finds at the Faya - 1 site in Mleiha, Sharjah. Burial sites dating back to the Neolithic Age and the Bronze Age include the oldest known such inland site at Jebel Buhais. Following decades of maritime conflict, the coastal emirates became known as the Trucial States with the signing of a Perpetual Treaty of Maritime Peace with the British in 1819 (ratified in 1853 and again in 1892), which established the Trucial States as a British Protectorate. This arrangement ended with independence and the establishment of the United Arab Emirates on 2 December 1971, immediately following the British withdrawal from its treaty obligations. Six emirates joined the UAE in 1971, the seventh, Ras al - Khaimah, joined the federation on the 10th February 1972.
Islam is the official religion and Arabic is the official language of the UAE. The UAE 's oil reserves are the seventh - largest in the world while its natural gas reserves are the world 's seventeenth - largest. Sheikh Zayed, ruler of Abu Dhabi and the first President of the UAE, oversaw the development of the Emirates and steered oil revenues into healthcare, education and infrastructure. The UAE 's economy is the most diversified in the Gulf Cooperation Council, while its most populous city of Dubai is an important global city and an international aviation and maritime trade hub. Nevertheless, the country is much less reliant on oil and gas than in previous years and is economically focusing on tourism and business. The UAE government does not levy income tax although there is a system of corporate tax in place and value added tax was established in 2018 at 5 %.
The UAE 's rising international profile has led to it being recognised as a regional and middle power. It is a member of the United Nations, the Arab League, the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation, OPEC, the Non-Aligned Movement and the Gulf Cooperation Council.
The land of the Emirates has been occupied for thousands of years. Stone tools recovered from Jebel Faya in the emirate of Sharjah reveal a settlement of people from Africa some 127,000 years ago and a stone tool used for butchering animals discovered at Jebel Barakah on the Arabian coast suggests an even older habitation from 130,000 years ago. There is no proof of contact with the outside world at that stage, although in time lively trading links developed with civilisations in Mesopotamia, Iran and India 's Harappan culture. This contact persisted and became wide - ranging, probably motivated by the trade in copper from the Hajar Mountains, which commenced around 3000 BCE. Sumerian sources talk of the UAE as home to the ' Makkan ' or Magan people.
There are six major periods of human settlement with distinctive behaviours in the pre-Islamic UAE: the Hafit period from 3200 - 2600 BCE; the Umm Al Nar culture spanned from 2600 - 2000 BCE, the Wadi Suq peopl e dominated from 2000 - 1300 BCE. From 1200 BC to the advent of Islam in Eastern Arabia, through three distinctive iron ages (Iron age 1, 1200 - 1000 BC; Iron age 2, 1000 - 600 BC and Iron age 3 600 - 300 BC) and the Mleiha period (300 BC onward), the area was variously occupied by Archaemenid and other forces and saw the construction of fortified settlements and extensive husbandry thanks to the development of the falaj irrigation system.
In ancient times, Al Hasa (today 's Eastern Province of Saudi Arabia) was part of Al Bahreyn and adjoined Greater Oman (today 's UAE and Oman). From the second century AD, there was a movement of tribes from Al Bahreyn towards the lower Gulf, together with a migration among the Azdite Qahtani (or Yamani) and Quda'ah tribal groups from south - west Arabia towards central Oman. Sassanid groups were present on the Batinah coast. In 637, Julfar (in the area of today 's Ra 's al - Khaimah) was an important port that was used as a staging post for the Islamic invasion of the Sassanian Empire. The area of the Al Ain / Buraimi Oasis was known as Tu'am and was an important trading post for camel routes between the coast and the Arabian interior.
The earliest Christian site in the UAE was first discovered in the 1990s, an extensive monastic complex on what is now known as Sir Bani Yas Island and which dates back to the 7th century. Thought to be Nestorian and built in 600 AD, the church appears to have been abandoned peacefully in 750 AD. It forms a rare physical link to a legacy of Christianity which is thought to have spread across the peninsula from 50 to 350 AD following trade routes. Certainly, by the 5th century, Oman had a bishop named John -- the last bishop of Oman being Etienne, in 676 AD.
The spread of Islam to the North Eastern tip of the Arabian Peninsula is thought to have followed directly from a letter sent by the Islamic prophet, Muhammad, to the rulers of Oman in 630 AD, nine years after the hijrah. This led to a group of rulers travelling to Medina, converting to Islam and subsequently driving a successful uprising against the unpopular Sassanids, who dominated the Northern coasts at the time. Following the death of Muhammad, the new Islamic communities south of the Persian Gulf threatened to disintegrate, with insurrections against the Muslim leaders. The Caliph Abu Bakr sent an army from the capital Medina which completed its reconquest of the territory (the Ridda Wars) with the battle of Dibba in which 10,000 lives are thought to have been lost. This assured the integrity of the Caliphate and the unification of the Arabian Peninsula under the newly emerging Rashidun Caliphate.
The harsh desert environment led to the emergence of the "versatile tribesman '', nomadic groups who subsisted due to a variety of economic activities, including animal husbandry, agriculture and hunting. The seasonal movements of these groups led to not only frequent clashes between groups but also the establishment of seasonal and semi-seasonal settlements and centres. These formed tribal groupings whose names are still carried by modern Emiratis, including the Bani Yas and Al Bu Falah of Abu Dhabi, Al Ain, Liwa and the Al Bahrain coast, the Dhawahir, Awamir, Al Ali and Manasir of the interior, the Sharqiyin of the east coast and the Qawasim to the North.
By the 16th century, ports in the Persian Gulf and part of the population that today form the coastal Iraq, Kuwait and Saudi Arabia, came under the direct influence of the Ottoman Empire. At the same time, the Portuguese, English and Dutch colonial forces also appeared in the Persian Gulf region. By the 17th century, the Bani Yas confederation was the dominant force in most of the area now known as Abu Dhabi. The Portuguese maintained an influence over the coastal settlements, building forts in the wake of the bloody 16th - century conquests of coastal communities by Albuquerque and the Portuguese commanders who followed him -- particularly on the east coast at Muscat, Sohar and Khor Fakkan.
The southern coast of the Persian Gulf was known to the British as the "Pirate Coast '', as boats of the Al Qawasim (Al Qasimi) federation based in the area harassed British - flagged shipping from the 17th century into the 19th. The charge of piracy is disputed by modern Emirati historians, including the current Ruler of Sharjah, Sheikh Sultan Al Qasim i, in his 1986 book The Myth of Arab Piracy in the Gulf.
British expeditions to protect the Indian trade from raiders at Ras al - Khaimah led to campaigns against that headquarters and other harbours along the coast in 1809 and subsequently 1819. The following year, Britain and a number of local rulers signed a treaty to combat piracy along the Persian Gulf coast, giving rise to the term Trucial States, which came to define the status of the coastal emirates. A further treaty was signed in 1843 and, in 1853 the Perpetual Treaty of Maritime Truce was agreed. To this was added the ' Exclusive Agreements ', signed in 1892, which made the Trucial States a British protectorate.
Under the 1892 treaty, the trucial sheikhs agreed not to dispose of any territory except to the British and not to enter into relationships with any foreign government other than the British without their consent. In return, the British promised to protect the Trucial Coast from all aggression by sea and to help in case of land attack. The Exclusive Agreement was signed by the Rulers of Abu Dhabi, Dubai, Sharjah, Ajman, Ras Al Khaimah and Umm Al Quwain between 6 and 8 March 1892. It was subsequently ratified by the Viceroy of India and the British Government in London. British maritime policing meant that pearling fleets could operate in relative security. However, the British prohibition of the slave trade meant an important source of income was lost to some sheikhs and merchants.
In 1869, the Qubaisat tribe settled at Khawr al Udayd and tried to enlist the support of the Ottomans, whose flag was occasionally seen flying there. Khawr al Udayd was claimed by Abu Dhabi at that time, a claim supported by the British. In 1906, the British Political Resident, Percy Cox, confirmed in writing to the ruler of Abu Dhabi, Zayed bin Khalifa Al Nahyan (' Zayed the Great ') that Khawr al Udayd belonged to his sheikhdom.
During the 19th and early 20th centuries, the pearling industry thrived, providing both income and employment to the people of the Persian Gulf. The First World War had a severe impact on the industry, but it was the economic depression of the late 1920s and early 1930s, coupled with the invention of the cultured pearl, that wiped out the trade. The remnants of the trade eventually faded away shortly after the Second World War, when the newly independent Government of India imposed heavy taxation on pearls imported from the Arab states of the Persian Gulf. The decline of pearling resulted in extreme economic hardship in the Trucial States.
The British set up a development office that helped in some small developments in the emirates. The seven sheikhs of the emirates then decided to form a council to coordinate matters between them and took over the development office. In 1952, they formed the Trucial States Council, and appointed Adi Bitar, Dubai 's Sheikh Rashid 's legal advisor, as Secretary General and Legal Advisor to the Council. The council was terminated once the United Arab Emirates was formed. The tribal nature of society and the lack of definition of borders between emirates frequently led to disputes, settled either through mediation or, more rarely, force. The Trucial Oman Scouts was a small military force used by the British to keep the peace.
In 1955, the United Kingdom sided with Abu Dhabi in the latter 's dispute with Oman over the Buraimi Oasis, another territory to the south. A 1974 agreement between Abu Dhabi and Saudi Arabia would have settled the Abu Dhabi - Saudi border dispute, but this has not been ratified. The UAE 's border with Oman was ratified in 2008.
In 1922, the British government secured undertakings from the trucial rulers not to sign concessions with foreign companies. Aware of the potential for the development of natural resources such as oil, following finds in Persia (from 1908) and Mesopotamia (from 1927), a British - led oil company, the Iraq Petroleum Company (IPC), showed an interest in the region. The Anglo - Persian Oil Company (APOC, later to become British Petroleum, or BP) had a 23.75 % share in IPC. From 1935, onshore concessions to explore for oil were agreed with local rulers, with APOC signing the first one on behalf of Petroleum Concessions Ltd (PCL), an associate company of IPC. APOC was prevented from developing the region alone because of the restrictions of the Red Line Agreement, which required it to operate through IPC. A number of options between PCL and the trucial rulers were signed, providing useful revenue for communities experiencing poverty following the collapse of the pearl trade. However, the wealth of oil which the rulers could see from the revenues accruing to surrounding countries such as Iran, Bahrain, Kuwait, Qatar and Saudi Arabia remained elusive. The first bore holes in Abu Dhabi were drilled by IPC 's operating company, Petroleum Development (Trucial Coast) Ltd (PDTC) at Ras Sadr in 1950, with a 13,000 - foot - deep (4,000 - metre) bore hole taking a year to drill and turning out dry, at the tremendous cost at the time of £ 1 million.
In 1953, a subsidiary of BP, D'Arcy Exploration Ltd, obtained an offshore concession from the ruler of Abu Dhabi. BP joined with Compagnie Française des Pétroles (later Total) to form operating companies, Abu Dhabi Marine Areas Ltd (ADMA) and Dubai Marine Areas Ltd (DUMA). A number of undersea oil surveys were carried out, including one led by the famous marine explorer Jacques Cousteau. In 1958, a floating platform rig was towed from Hamburg, Germany, and positioned over the Umm Shaif pearl bed, in Abu Dhabi waters, where drilling began. In March, it struck oil in the Upper Thamama, a rock formation that would provide many valuable oil finds. This was the first commercial discovery of the Trucial Coast, leading to the first exports of oil in 1962. ADMA made further offshore discoveries at Zakum and elsewhere, and other companies made commercial finds such as the Fateh oilfield off Dubai and the Mubarak field off Sharjah (shared with Iran).
PDTC had continued its onshore exploration activities, drilling five more bore holes that were also dry, but on 27 October 1960, the company discovered oil in commercial quantities at the Murban No. 3 well on the coast near Tarif. In 1962, PDTC became the Abu Dhabi Petroleum Company. As oil revenues increased, the ruler of Abu Dhabi, Zayed bin Sultan Al Nahyan, undertook a massive construction program, building schools, housing, hospitals and roads. When Dubai 's oil exports commenced in 1969, Sheikh Rashid bin Saeed Al Maktoum, the ruler of Dubai, was able to invest the revenues from the limited reserves found to spark the diversification drive that would create the modern global city of Dubai.
By 1966, it had become clear the British government could no longer afford to administer and protect what is now the United Arab Emirates. British MPs debated the preparedness of the Royal Navy to defend the sheikhdoms. Secretary of State for Defence Denis Healey reported that the British Armed Forces were seriously overstretched and in some respects dangerously under - equipped to defend the sheikhdoms. On 24 January 1968, British Prime Minister Harold Wilson announced the government 's decision, reaffirmed in March 1971 by Prime Minister Edward Heath to end the treaty relationships with the seven Trucial Sheikhdoms, that had been, together with Bahrain and Qatar, under British protection. Days after the announcement, the ruler of Abu Dhabi, Sheikh Zayed bin Sultan Al Nahyan, fearing vulnerability, tried to persuade the British to honour the protection treaties by offering to pay the full costs of keeping the British Armed Forces in the Emirates. The British Labour government rejected the offer. After Labour MP Goronwy Roberts informed Sheikh Zayed of the news of British withdrawal, the nine Persian Gulf sheikhdoms attempted to form a union of Arab emirates, but by mid-1971 they were still unable to agree on terms of union even though the British treaty relationship was to expire in December of that year.
Fears of vulnerability were realized the day before independence. An Iranian destroyer group broke formation from an exercise in the lower Gulf, sailing to the Tunb islands. The islands were taken by force, civilians and Arab defenders alike allowed to flee. A British warship stood idle during the course of the invasion. A destroyer group approached the island Abu Musa as well. But there, Sheikh Khalid bin Mohammed Al Qasimi had already negotiated with the Iranian Shah, and the island was quickly leased to Iran for $3 million a year. Meanwhile, Saudi Arabia laid claim to swathes of Abu Dhabi.
Originally intended to be part of the proposed Federation of Arab Emirates, Bahrain became independent in August, and Qatar in September 1971. When the British - Trucial Sheikhdoms treaty expired on 1 December 1971, they became fully independent. On 2 December 1971, at the Dubai Guesthouse, now known as Union House, six of the emirates agreed to enter into a union called the United Arab Emirates. Ras al - Khaimah joined later, on the 10th January 1972. In February 1972, the Federal National Council (FNC) was created; it was a 40 - member consultative body appointed by the seven rulers. The UAE joined the Arab League on 6 December 1971 and the United Nations on 9 December. It was a founding member of the Gulf Cooperation Council in May 1981, with Abu Dhabi hosting the first GCC summit. UAE forces joined the allies against Iraq after the invasion of Kuwait in 1990.
The UAE supported military operations from the US and other coalition nations engaged in the war against the Taliban in Afghanistan (2001) and Saddam Hussein in Iraq (2003) as well as operations supporting the Global War on Terror for the Horn of Africa at Al Dhafra Air Base located outside of Abu Dhabi. The air base also supported Allied operations during the 1991 Persian Gulf War and Operation Northern Watch. The country had already signed a military defense agreement with the U.S. in 1994 and one with France in 1995. In January 2008, France and the UAE signed a deal allowing France to set up a permanent military base in the emirate of Abu Dhabi. The UAE joined international military operations in Libya in March 2011.
On 2 November 2004, the UAE 's first president, Sheikh Zayed bin Sultan Al Nahyan, died. His eldest son, Sheikh Khalifa bin Zayed Al Nahyan, succeeded as Emir of Abu Dhabi. In accordance with the constitution, the UAE 's Supreme Council of Rulers elected Khalifa as president. Sheikh Mohammed bin Zayed Al Nahyan succeeded Khalifa as Crown Prince of Abu Dhabi. In January 2006, Sheikh Maktoum bin Rashid Al Maktoum, the prime minister of the UAE and the ruler of Dubai, died, and the crown prince Sheikh Mohammed bin Rashid Al Maktoum assumed both roles.
The first ever national elections were held in the UAE on 16 December 2006. A small number of hand - picked voters chose half of the members of the Federal National Council, an advisory body. UAE has largely escaped the Arab Spring, which other countries have had; however, more than 100 Emirati activists were jailed and tortured because they sought reforms. Furthermore, some people have had their nationality revoked. Mindful of the protests in nearby Bahrain, in November 2012 the UAE outlawed online mockery of its own government or attempts to organise public protests through social media.
The United Arab Emirates is situated in Middle East, bordering the Gulf of Oman and the Persian Gulf, between Oman and Saudi Arabia; it is in a strategic location slightly south of the Strait of Hormuz, a vital transit point for world crude oil.
The UAE lies between 22 ° 30 ' and 26 ° 10 ' north latitude and between 51 ° and 56 ° 25 ′ east longitude. It shares a 530 - kilometre (330 mi) border with Saudi Arabia on the west, south, and southeast, and a 450 - kilometre (280 mi) border with Oman on the southeast and northeast. The land border with Qatar in the Khawr al Udayd area is about nineteen kilometres (12 miles) in the northwest; however, it is a source of ongoing dispute. Following Britain 's military departure from the UAE in 1971, and its establishment as a new state, the UAE laid claim to islands resulting in disputes with Iran that remain unresolved. The UAE also disputes claim on other islands against the neighboring state of Qatar. The largest emirate, Abu Dhabi, accounts for 87 % of the UAE 's total area (67,340 square kilometres (26,000 sq mi)). The smallest emirate, Ajman, encompasses only 259 km (100 sq mi) (see figure).
The UAE coast stretches for more than 650 km (404 mi) along the southern shore of the Persian Gulf. Most of the coast consists of salt pans that extend far inland. The largest natural harbor is at Dubai, although other ports have been dredged at Abu Dhabi, Sharjah, and elsewhere. Numerous islands are found in the Persian Gulf, and the ownership of some of them has been the subject of international disputes with both Iran and Qatar. The smaller islands, as well as many coral reefs and shifting sandbars, are a menace to navigation. Strong tides and occasional windstorms further complicate ship movements near the shore. The UAE also has a stretch of the Al Bāţinah coast of the Gulf of Oman, although the Musandam Peninsula, the very tip of Arabia by the Strait of Hormuz, is an exclave of Oman separated by the UAE.
South and west of Abu Dhabi, vast, rolling sand dunes merge into the Rub al - Khali (Empty Quarter) of Saudi Arabia. The desert area of Abu Dhabi includes two important oases with adequate underground water for permanent settlements and cultivation. The extensive Liwa Oasis is in the south near the undefined border with Saudi Arabia. About 100 km (62 mi) to the northeast of Liwa is the Al - Buraimi oasis, which extends on both sides of the Abu Dhabi - Oman border. Lake Zakher is a human - made lake near the border with Oman.
Prior to withdrawing from the area in 1971, Britain delineated the internal borders among the seven emirates in order to preempt territorial disputes that might hamper formation of the federation. In general, the rulers of the emirates accepted the British intervention, but in the case of boundary disputes between Abu Dhabi and Dubai, and also between Dubai and Sharjah, conflicting claims were not resolved until after the UAE became independent. The most complicated borders were in the Al - Hajar al - Gharbi Mountains, where five of the emirates contested jurisdiction over more than a dozen enclaves.
The oases grow date palms, acacia and eucalyptus trees. In the desert, the flora is very sparse and consists of grasses and thorn bushes. The indigenous fauna had come close to extinction because of intensive hunting, which has led to a conservation program on Bani Yas Island initiated by Sheikh Zayed bin Sultan Al Nahyan in the 1970s, resulting in the survival of, for example, Arabian Oryx, Arabian camel and leopards. Coastal fish and mammals consist mainly of mackerel, perch, and tuna, as well as sharks and whales.
The climate of the UAE is subtropical - arid with hot summers and warm winters. The hottest months are July and August, when average maximum temperatures reach above 45 ° C (113 ° F) on the coastal plain. In the Al Hajar Mountains, temperatures are considerably lower, a result of increased elevation. Average minimum temperatures in January and February are between 10 and 14 ° C (50 and 57 ° F). During the late summer months, a humid southeastern wind known as Sharqi (i.e. "Easterner '') makes the coastal region especially unpleasant. The average annual rainfall in the coastal area is less than 120 mm (4.7 in), but in some mountainous areas annual rainfall often reaches 350 mm (13.8 in). Rain in the coastal region falls in short, torrential bursts during the summer months, sometimes resulting in floods in ordinarily dry wadi beds. The region is prone to occasional, violent dust storms, which can severely reduce visibility.
On 28 December 2004, there was snow recorded in the UAE for the very first time, in the Jebel Jais mountain cluster in Ras al - Khaimah. A few years later, there were more sightings of snow and hail. The Jebel Jais mountain cluster has experienced snow only twice since records began.
The United Arab Emirates is a federation of hereditary absolute monarchies. It is governed by a Federal Supreme Council made up of the seven emirs of Abu Dhabi, Ajman, Fujairah, Sharjah, Dubai, Ras al - Khaimah and Umm al - Qaiwain. All responsibilities not granted to the national government are reserved to the emirates. A percentage of revenues from each emirate is allocated to the UAE 's central budget.
Although elected by the Supreme Council, the presidency and prime ministership are essentially hereditary; the Emir of Abu Dhabi holds the presidency, and the Emir of Dubai is prime minister. All prime ministers but one have served concurrently as vice president. Sheikh Zayed bin Sultan Al Nahyan was the UAE 's president from the nation 's founding until his death on 2 November 2004. On the following day the Federal Supreme Council elected his son, Sheikh Khalifa bin Zayed Al Nahyan, to the post. Abu Dhabi 's crown prince, Mohammed bin Zayed Al Nahyan, is the heir apparent.
The UAE convened a half - elected Federal National Council in 2006. The FNC consists of 40 members drawn from all the emirates. Half are appointed by the rulers of the constituent emirates, and the other half are indirectly elected to serve two - year terms. However, the FNC is restricted to a largely consultative role. The UAE eGovernment is the extension of the UAE Federal Government in its electronic form. On 10 February 2016, 22 - year - old Oxford and NYU - Abu Dhabi graduate Shamma Al Mazrui was named Minister of State for Youth Affairs, the youngest minister in the cabinet. Shaikh Mohammed noted that as head of the Youth Council, Al Mazrui will "represent the hopes of our youth ''.
The UAE is frequently described as an "autocracy ''. According to the New York Times, the UAE is "an autocracy with the sheen of a progressive, modern state ''. The UAE ranks poorly in freedom indices measuring civil liberties and political rights. The UAE is annually ranked as "Not Free '' in Freedom House 's annual Freedom in the World report, which measures civil liberties and political rights. The UAE also ranks poorly in the annual Reporters without Borders ' Press Freedom Index.
Al Nahyan family, one of the six ruling families of the United Arab Emirates, is believed to have a fortune of $150 billion collectively as a family.
The UAE has extensive diplomatic and commercial relations with other countries. It plays a significant role in OPEC and the UN, and is one of the founding members of the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC).
The UAE was one of only three countries to recognise the Taliban as Afghanistan 's legitimate government (Pakistan and Saudi Arabia were the other two countries). The UAE maintained diplomatic relations with the Taliban until 11 September attacks in 2001. Via the whistleblowing initiative GlobaLeaks, distributed hacked emails from the inbox of Yousef Al Otaiba, UAE 's Ambassador to US, were covered by The New York Times, Huff Post and other major media. The leaks showed that the UAE supported a major effort to spread scepticism about Qatar in the United States. The New York Times further reported that UAE wanted to host a Taliban embassy and used massive sums to influence decisions of D.C. diplomats. The UAE has long maintained close relations with Egypt and is Egypt 's largest investor from the Arab world. Pakistan was the first country to formally recognize the UAE upon its formation and continues to be one of its major economic and trading partners; about 400,000 Pakistani expatriates are employed in the UAE.
The UAE and China have been strong international allies, with significant cooperation across economic, political and cultural aspects. The UAE also spends more than any other country in the world to influence U.S. policy and shape domestic debate, and it pays former high - level government officials who worked with it to carry out its agenda within the U.S. The largest expatriate presence in the UAE is Indian. Following British withdrawal from the UAE in 1971 and the establishment of the UAE as a state, the UAE disputed rights to a number of islands in the Persian Gulf against Iran. The UAE went so far as to bring the matter to the United Nations, but the case was dismissed. The dispute has not significantly impacted relations because of the large Iranian community presence and strong economic ties.
In its dispute with the United States and Israel, Iran has repeatedly threatened to close the strait at the mouth of the Persian Gulf, a vital oil - trade route. Therefore, in July 2012, the UAE began operating a key overland oil pipeline which bypasses the Strait of Hormuz in order to mitigate any consequences of an Iranian shut - off.
Commercially, the UK and Germany are the UAE 's largest export markets and bilateral relations have long been close as a large number of their nationals reside in the UAE. Diplomatic relations between UAE and Japan were established as early as UAE 's independence in December 1971. The two countries had always enjoyed friendly ties and trade between each other. Exports from the UAE to Japan include crude oil and natural gas and imports from Japan to UAE include cars and electric items.
The United Arab Emirates has been accused of actively supporting the separatist Southern Transitional Council in Yemen. The UAE, as part of the ongoing Saudi - led intervention in Yemen, landed troops on the island of Socotra. According to The Independent, "the UAE has all but annexed this sovereign piece of Yemen, building a military base, setting up communications networks, conducting its own census and inviting Socotra residents to Abu Dhabi by the planeload for free healthcare and special work permits. '' Yemen 's Shabwa province 's security Chief Awad Al - Dahboul said about 200 al - Qaida members received payments from UAE. He did not learn the exact amounts, but said he knew that 100,000 Saudi rials ($26,000) were paid to one al - Qaida commander in the presence of Emiratis.
The commercial networks that sustain charcoal exports from Somalia and imports into the United Arab Emirates remain in place, thus benefitting the terrorist group Al - Shabaab financially. The United Nations Monitoring Group continues to receive reports of dhows with charcoal departing from Somalia and arriving in the United Arab Emirates and there are currently no effective barriers to prevent Al - Shabaab from reverting to systematically taxing the production and transport of charcoal in Somalia. However The UAE has been notable for its improved enforcement of the charcoal ban by importing countries, which had created an identifiable deterrent effect on charcoal exporters in Somalia as at May 2016. Tony Blair is a paid adviser to the Mubadala Development Company and lobbies UK Ministers on behalf of the UAE government officials.
France and the United States have played the most strategically significant roles with defence cooperation agreements and military material provision. The UAE discussed with France the possibility of a purchase of 60 Rafale fighter aircraft in January 2013. The UAE helped the US launch its first air offensive against Islamic State targets in Syria.
Although initially small in number, the UAE armed forces have grown significantly over the years and are presently equipped with some of the most modern weapon systems, purchased from a variety of outside countries, mainly France, the US and the UK (the former protector of the UAE). Most officers are graduates of the United Kingdom 's Royal Military Academy at Sandhurst, with others having attended the United States Military Academy at West Point, the Royal Military College, Duntroon, and St Cyr, the military academy of France. France opened the Abu Dhabi Base in May 2009. In March 2011, the UAE agreed to join the enforcement of the no - fly - zone over Libya by sending six F - 16 and six Mirage 2000 multi-role fighter aircraft. During the Gulf war, the US had troops and equipment stationed in the UAE as well as other parts of the Persian Gulf.
In 2015, UAE participated in the Saudi Arabian - led military intervention in Yemen against the Shia Houthis and forces loyal to former President Ali Abdullah Saleh, who was deposed in the 2011 uprising. UAE has been secretly buying foreign weapons and American F - 16 through offset payments which were channelled to DC thinktanks such as Middle East Institute.
On Friday 4 September 2015, at least 50 soldiers from the United Arab Emirates and Bahrain were killed in Marib Area of central Yemen. The Houthis claimed responsibility for the attack which was conducted using a Soviet - era rocket known as Tochka. It was later found out that this rocket targeted a weapons cache and caused a large explosion leading to the death of Emirati and Bahraini troops.
According to SIPRI, between 2012 and 2016, the UAE was the 3rd largest importer of arms among countries in the world. Norway has suspended any kind of arms exports to the UAE due its involvement in Yemen War which on an estimate has killed 10 thousand people.
The United Arab Emirates is divided into seven emirates. Dubai is the most populated Emirate with 35.6 % of the UAE population. The Emirate of Abu Dhabi has a further 31.2 %, meaning that over two - thirds of the UAE population live in either Abu Dhabi or Dubai.
Abu Dhabi has an area of 67,340 square kilometres (26,000 square miles), which is 86.7 % of the country 's total area, excluding the islands. It has a coastline extending for more than 400 km (250 mi) and is divided for administrative purposes into three major regions. The Emirate of Dubai extends along the Persian Gulf coast of the UAE for approximately 72 km (45 mi). Dubai has an area of 3,885 square kilometres (1,500 square miles), which is equivalent to 5 % of the country 's total area, excluding the islands. The Emirate of Sharjah extends along approximately 16 km (10 mi) of the UAE 's Persian Gulf coastline and for more than 80 km (50 mi) into the interior. The northern emirates which include Fujairah, Ajman, Ras al - Khaimah, and Umm al - Qaiwain all have a total area of 3,881 square kilometres (1,498 square miles). There are two areas under joint control. One is jointly controlled by Oman and Ajman, the other by Fujairah and Sharjah.
There is an Omani exclave surrounded by UAE territory, known as Wadi Madha. It is located halfway between the Musandam peninsula and the rest of Oman in the Emirate of Sharjah. It covers approximately 75 square kilometres (29 square miles) and the boundary was settled in 1969. The north - east corner of Madha is closest to the Khor Fakkan - Fujairah road, barely 10 metres (33 feet) away. Within the Omani exclave of Madha, is a UAE exclave called Nahwa, also belonging to the Emirate of Sharjah. It is about eight kilometres (5.0 miles) on a dirt track west of the town of New Madha. It consists of about forty houses with its own clinic and telephone exchange.
The UAE has a federal court system. There are three main branches within the court structure: civil, criminal and Sharia law. The UAE 's judicial system is derived from the civil law system and Sharia law. The court system consists of civil courts and Sharia courts. UAE 's criminal and civil courts apply elements of Sharia law, codified into its criminal code and family law.
Flogging is a punishment for criminal offences such as adultery, premarital sex and alcohol consumption. According to Sharia court rulings, flogging ranges from 80 to 200 lashes. Verbal abuse pertaining to a person 's honour is illegal and punishable by 80 lashes. Between 2007 and 2014, many people in the UAE were sentenced to 100 lashes. More recently in 2015, two men were sentenced to 80 lashes for hitting and insulting a woman. In 2014, an expatriate in Abu Dhabi was sentenced to 10 years in prison and 80 lashes after alcohol consumption and raping a toddler. Alcohol consumption for Muslims is illegal and punishable by 80 lashes; many Muslims have been sentenced to 80 lashes for alcohol consumption. Sometimes 40 lashes are given. Illicit sex is sometimes penalized by 60 lashes. 80 lashes is the standard number for anyone sentenced to flogging in several emirates. Sharia courts have penalized domestic workers with floggings. In October 2013, a Filipino housemaid was sentenced to 100 lashes for illegitimate pregnancy. Drunk - driving is strictly illegal and punishable by 80 lashes; many expatriates have been sentenced to 80 lashes for drunk - driving. In Abu Dhabi, people have been sentenced to 80 lashes for kissing in public. Under UAE law, premarital sex is punishable by 100 lashes.
Stoning is a legal punishment in the UAE. In May 2014, an Asian housemaid was sentenced to death by stoning in Abu Dhabi. Other expatriates have been sentenced to death by stoning for committing adultery. Between 2009 and 2013, several people were sentenced to death by stoning. Abortion is illegal and punishable by a maximum penalty of 100 lashes and up to five years in prison. In recent years, several people have retracted their guilty plea in illicit sex cases after being sentenced to stoning or 100 lashes. The punishment for committing adultery is 100 lashes for unmarried people and stoning to death for married people.
Sharia courts have exclusive jurisdiction over family law cases and also have jurisdiction over several criminal cases including adultery, premarital sex, robbery, alcohol consumption and related crimes. The Sharia - based personal status law regulates matters such as marriage, divorce and child custody. The Islamic personal status law is applied to Muslims and sometimes non-Muslims. Non-Muslim expatriates can be liable to Sharia rulings on marriage, divorce and child custody.
Apostasy is a crime punishable by death in the UAE. Blasphemy is illegal; expatriates involved in insulting Islam are liable for deportation. UAE incorporates hudud crimes of Sharia (i.e., crimes against God) into its Penal Code -- apostasy being one of them. Article 1 and Article 66 of UAE 's Penal Code requires hudud crimes to be punished with the death penalty; therefore, apostasy is punishable by death in the UAE.
In several cases, the courts of the UAE have jailed women who have reported rape. For example, a British woman, after she reported being gang raped by three men, was charged with the crime of "alcohol consumption ''. Another British woman was charged with "public intoxication and extramarital sex '' after she reported being raped, while an Australian woman was similarly sentenced to jail after she reported gang rape in the UAE. In another recent case, an 18 - year Emirati woman withdrew her complaint of gang rape by six men when the prosecution threatened her with a long jail term and flogging. The woman still had to serve one year in jail. In July 2013, a Norwegian woman, Marte Dalelv, reported rape to the police and received a prison sentence for "illicit sex and alcohol consumption ''.
Emirati women must receive permission from a male guardian to marry and remarry. This requirement is derived from the UAE 's interpretation of Sharia, and has been federal law since 2005. In all emirates, it is illegal for Muslim women to marry non-Muslims. In the UAE, a marriage union between a Muslim woman and non-Muslim man is punishable by law, since it is considered a form of "fornication ''.
Kissing in public is illegal and can result in deportation. Expats in Dubai have been deported for kissing in public. In Abu Dhabi, people have been sentenced to 80 lashes for kissing in public. A new federal law in the UAE prohibits swearing in Whatsapp and penalizes swearing by a $68,061 fine and imprisonment; expatriates are penalized by deportation. In July 2015, an Australian expatriate was deported for swearing on Facebook.
Homosexuality is illegal and is a capital offense in the UAE. In 2013, an Emirati man was on trial for being accused of a "gay handshake ''. Article 80 of the Abu Dhabi Penal Code makes sodomy punishable with imprisonment of up to 14 years, while article 177 of the Penal Code of Dubai imposes imprisonment of up to 10 years on consensual sodomy.
Amputation is a legal punishment in the UAE due to the Sharia courts. Crucifixion is a legal punishment in the UAE. Article 1 of the Federal Penal Code states that "provisions of the Islamic Law shall apply to the crimes of doctrinal punishment, punitive punishment and blood money. '' The Federal Penal Code repealed only those provisions within the penal codes of individual emirates which are contradictory to the Federal Penal Code. Hence, both are enforceable simultaneously.
During the month of Ramadan, it is illegal to publicly eat, drink, or smoke between sunrise and sunset. Exceptions are made for pregnant women and children. The law applies to both Muslims and non-Muslims, and failure to comply may result in arrest. Dancing in public is illegal in the UAE.
Flogging and stoning are legal punishments in the UAE. The requirement is derived from Sharia law, and has been federal law since 2005. Some domestic workers in the UAE are victims of the country 's interpretations of Sharia judicial punishments such as flogging and stoning. The annual Freedom House report on Freedom in the World has listed the United Arab Emirates as "Not Free '' every year since 1999, the first year for which records are available on their website.
The UAE has escaped the Arab Spring; however, more than 100 Emirati activists were jailed and tortured because they sought reforms. Since 2011, the UAE government has increasingly carried out forced disappearances. Many foreign nationals and Emirati citizens have been arrested and abducted by the state. The UAE government denies these people are being held (to conceal their whereabouts), placing these people outside the protection of the law. According to Human Rights Watch, the reports of forced disappearance and torture in the UAE are of grave concern.
The Arab Organization for Human Rights has obtained testimonies from many defendants, for its report on "Forced Disappearance and Torture in the UAE '', who reported that they had been kidnapped, tortured and abused in detention centres. The report included 16 different methods of torture including severe beatings, threats with electrocution and denying access to medical care.
In 2013, 94 Emirati activists were held in secret detention centres and put on trial for allegedly attempting to overthrow the government. Human rights organizations have spoken out against the secrecy of the trial. An Emirati, whose father is among the defendants, was arrested for tweeting about the trial. In April 2013, he was sentenced to 10 months in jail. The latest forced disappearance involves three sisters from Abu Dhabi.
Repressive measures were also used against non-Emiratis in order to justify the UAE government 's claim that there is an "international plot '' in which UAE citizens and foreigners were working together to destabilize the country. Foreign nationals were also subjected to a campaign of deportations. There are many documented cases of Egyptians and other foreign nationals who had spent years working in the UAE and were then given only a few days to leave the country.
Foreign nationals subjected to forced disappearance include two Libyans and two Qataris. Amnesty reported that the Qatari men have been abducted by the UAE government and the UAE government has withheld information about the men 's fate from their families. Amongst the foreign nationals detained, imprisoned and expelled is Iyad El - Baghdadi, a popular blogger and Twitter personality. He was arrested by UAE authorities, detained, imprisoned and then expelled from the country. Despite his lifetime residence in the UAE, as a Palestinian citizen, El - Baghdadi had no recourse to contest this order. He could not be deported back to the Palestinian territories, therefore he was deported to Malaysia.
In 2007, the UAE government attempted to cover up information on the rape of a French teenage boy by three Emirati locals, one of whose HIV - positive status was hidden by Emirati authorities. Diplomatic pressure led to the arrest and conviction of the Emirati rapists.
In April 2009, a video tape of torture smuggled out of the UAE showed Sheikh Issa bin Zayed Al Nahyan torturing a man (Mohammed Shah Poor) with whips, electric cattle prods, wooden planks with protruding nails and running him over repeatedly with a car. In December 2009, Issa appeared in court and proclaimed his innocence. The trial ended on 10 January 2010, when Issa was cleared of the torture of Mohammed Shah Poor. Human Rights Watch criticised the trial and called on the government to establish an independent body to investigate allegations of abuse by UAE security personnel and other persons of authority. The US State Department has expressed concern over the verdict and said all members of Emirati society "must stand equal before the law '' and called for a careful review of the decision to ensure that the demands of justice are fully met in this case.
In recent years, a large number of Shia Muslim expatriates have been deported from the UAE. Lebanese Shia families in particular have been deported for their alleged sympathy for Hezbollah. According to some organizations, more than 4,000 Shia expatriates have been deported from the UAE in recent years.
The issue of sexual abuse among female domestic workers is another area of concern, particularly given that domestic servants are not covered by the UAE labour law of 1980 or the draft labour law of 2007. Worker protests have been suppressed and protesters imprisoned without due process. In its 2013 Annual Report, Amnesty International drew attention to the United Arab Emirates ' poor record on a number of human rights issues. They highlighted the government 's restrictive approach to freedom of speech and assembly, their use of arbitrary arrest and torture, and UAE 's use of the death penalty.
In 2012, Dubai police subjected three British citizens to beatings and electric shocks after arresting them on drugs charges. The British Prime Minister, David Cameron, expressed "concern '' over the case and raised it with the UAE President, Sheikh Khalifa bin Zayed Al Nahyan, during his 2013 state visit to the UK. The three men were pardoned and released in July 2013.
In a report released on July 12, 2018, Amnesty International urged for ' war crimes ' probe on UAE - run prisons in Yemen.
The treatment of migrant workers in the UAE has been likened to "modern - day slavery ''. Migrant workers are excluded from the UAE 's collective labour rights, hence migrants are vulnerable to forced labour. Migrant workers in the UAE are not allowed to join trade unions. Moreover, migrant workers are banned from going on strike. Dozens of workers were deported in 2014 for going on strike. As migrant workers do not have the right to join a trade union or go on strike, they do n't have the means to denounce the exploitation they suffer. Those who protest risk prison and deportation. The International Trade Union Confederation has called on the United Nations to investigate evidence that thousands of migrant workers in the UAE are treated as slave labour.
In 2013, police arrested a US citizen and some UAE citizens, in connection with a YouTube parody video which allegedly portrayed Dubai and its residents in a bad light. The video was shot in areas of Satwa, Dubai, and featured gangs learning how to fight using simple weapons, including shoes, the aghal, etc. In 2015, nationals from different countries were put in jail for offences. An Australian woman was accused of ' writing bad words on social media ', after she had posted a picture of a vehicle parked illegally. She was later deported from the UAE.
The State Security Apparatus in the UAE has been accused of a series of atrocities and human rights abuses including enforced disappearance, arbitrary arrests and torture, the latest being the forced disappearance of Turkish businessman Dr Amer Al Shawa on 2 October 2014.
Freedom of association is also severely curtailed. All associations and NGOs have to register through the Ministry of Social Affairs and are therefore under de facto State control. About twenty non-political groups operate on the territory without registration. All associations have to be submitted to censorship guidelines and all publications have first to be approved by the government.
Secret Dubai was an independent blog in Dubai, from 2002 until 2010. It generated a significant following in the Middle East Blogosphere until the UAE 's Telecoms Regulatory Authority (TRA) in the UAE blocked the website.
The UAE has a modest dress code. The dress code is part of Dubai 's criminal law. Most malls in the UAE have a dress code displayed at entrances. At Dubai 's malls, females should cover their shoulders and knees; therefore women are not permitted to wear sleeveless tops. But people can wear swimwear at the pools and beaches.
People are also requested to wear modest clothing when entering mosques, such as the Sheikh Zayed Mosque in Abu Dhabi.
The UAE 's media is annually classified as "not free '' in the Freedom of the Press report by Freedom House. The UAE ranks poorly in the annual Press Freedom Index by Reporters without Borders. Dubai Media City and twofour54 are the UAE 's main media zones. The UAE is home to some pan-Arab broadcasters, including the Middle East Broadcasting Centre and Orbit Showtime Network. In 2007, Sheikh Mohammed bin Rashid Al Maktoum decreed that journalists can no longer be prosecuted or imprisoned for reasons relating to their work. At the same time, the UAE has made it illegal to disseminate online material that can threaten "public order ''.
Criticism of the government is not allowed. Criticism of government officials and royal family members is not allowed. Prison terms have been given to those who "deride or damage '' the reputation of the state and "display contempt '' for religion. There have been many politically motivated press freedom violations; for example in 2012 a YouTube user was arrested in Dubai for filming and uploading a video of a UAE local (who happened to be a Government official) hitting an overseas worker.
UAE has the second largest economy in the GCC (after Saudi Arabia), with a gross domestic product (GDP) of $377 billion (1.38 trillion AED) in 2012. Since independence in 1971, UAE 's economy has grown by nearly 231 times to 1.45 trillion AED in 2013. The non-oil trade has grown to 1.2 trillion AED, a growth by around 28 times from 1981 to 2012. UAE is ranked as the 26th best nation in the world for doing business based on its economy and regulatory environment, ranked by the Doing Business 2017 Report published by the World Bank Group.
Although UAE has the most diversified economy in the GCC, the UAE 's economy remains extremely reliant on oil. With the exception of Dubai, most of the UAE is dependent on oil revenues. Petroleum and natural gas continue to play a central role in the economy, especially in Abu Dhabi. More than 85 % of the UAE 's economy was based on the oil exports in 2009. While Abu Dhabi and other UAE emirates have remained relatively conservative in their approach to diversification, Dubai, which has far smaller oil reserves, was bolder in its diversification policy. In 2011, oil exports accounted for 77 % of the UAE 's state budget. Successful efforts at economic diversification have reduced the portion of GDP based on oil / gas output to 25 %. Dubai suffered from a significant economic crisis in 2007 -- 2010 and was bailed out by Abu Dhabi 's oil wealth. Dubai is running a balanced budget, reflecting economic growth. Tourism acts as a growth sector for the entire UAE economy. Dubai is the top tourism destination in the Middle East. According to the annual MasterCard Global Destination Cities Index, Dubai is the fifth most popular tourism destination in the world. Dubai holds up to 66 % share of the UAE 's tourism economy, with Abu Dhabi having 16 % and Sharjah 10 %. Dubai welcomed 10 million tourists in 2013. The UAE has the most advanced and developed infrastructure in the region. Since the 1980s, the UAE has been spending billions of dollars on infrastructure. These developments are particularly evident in the larger emirates of Abu Dhabi and Dubai. The northern emirates are rapidly following suit, providing major incentives for developers of residential and commercial property. Property prices in Dubai fell dramatically when Dubai World, the government construction company, sought to delay a debt payment.
UAE law does not allow trade unions to exist. The right to collective bargaining and the right to strike are not recognised, and the Ministry of Labour has the power to force workers to go back to work. Migrant workers who participate in a strike can have their work permits cancelled and be deported. Consequently, there are very few anti-discrimination laws in relation to labour issues, with Emiratis -- other GCC Arabs -- getting preference in public sector jobs despite lesser credentials than competitors and lower motivation. In fact, just over eighty percent of Emirati workers hold government posts, with many of the rest taking part in state - owned enterprises such as Emirates airlines and Dubai Properties.
Dubai International Airport was the busiest airport in the world by international passenger traffic in 2014, overtaking London Heathrow. A 1,200 km (750 mi) country - wide railway is under construction which will connect all the major cities and ports. The Dubai Metro is the first urban train network in the Arabian Peninsula. The major ports of the United Arab Emirates are Khalifa Port, Zayed Port, Port Jebel Ali, Port Rashid, Port Khalid, Port Saeed, and Port Khor Fakkan.
The UAE is served by two telecommunications operators, Etisalat and Emirates Integrated Telecommunications Company ("du ''). Etisalat operated a monopoly until du launched mobile services in February 2007. Internet subscribers were expected to increase from 0.904 million in 2007 to 2.66 million in 2012. The regulator, the Telecommunications Regulatory Authority, mandates filtering websites for religious, political and sexual content.
UAE launched a successful bid for Expo 2020 with Dubai. The win is unprecedented in the region. World Expos are a meeting point for the global community to share innovations and make progress on issues such as the global economy, sustainable development and improved quality of life. World Expos can be a catalyst for economic, cultural and social transformation and generates legacies for the host city and nation.
Emirati culture is based on Arabian culture and has been influenced by the cultures of Persia, India, and East Africa. Arabian and Persian inspired architecture is part of the expression of the local Emirati identity. Persian influence on Emirati culture is noticeably visible in traditional Emirati architecture and folk arts. For example, the distinctive wind tower which tops traditional Emirati buildings, the barjeel has become an identifying mark of Emirati architecture and is attributed to Persian influence. This influence is derived both from traders who fled the tax regime in Persia in the early 19th Century and from Emirati ownership of ports on the Persian coast, for instance the Al Qassimi port of Lingeh.
The United Arab Emirates has a diverse society. Major holidays in the United Arab Emirates include Eid al Fitr, which marks the end of Ramadan, and National Day (2 December), which marks the formation of the United Arab Emirates. Emirati males prefer to wear a kandura, an ankle - length white tunic woven from wool or cotton, and Emirati women wear an abaya, a black over-garment that covers most parts of the body.
Ancient Emirati poetry was strongly influenced by the 8th - century Arab scholar Al Khalil bin Ahmed. The earliest known poet in the UAE is Ibn Majid, born between 1432 and 1437 in Ras Al - Khaimah. The most famous Emirati writers were Mubarak Al Oqaili (1880 -- 1954), Salem bin Ali al Owais (1887 -- 1959) and Ahmed bin Sulayem (1905 -- 1976). Three other poets from Sharjah, known as the Hirah group, are observed to have been heavily influenced by the Apollo and Romantic poets. The Sharjah International Book Fair is the oldest and largest in the country.
The list of museums in the United Arab Emirates includes some of regional repute, most famously Sharjah with its Heritage District containing 17 museums, which in 1998 was the Cultural Capital of the Arab World. In Dubai, the area of Al Quoz has attracted a number of art galleries as well as museums such as the Salsali Private Museum. Abu Dhabi has established a culture district on Saadiyat Island. Six grand projects are planned, including the Guggenheim Abu Dhabi and the Louvre Abu Dhabi. Dubai also plans to build a Kunsthal museum and a district for galleries and artists.
Emirati culture is a part of the culture of Eastern Arabia. Liwa is a type of music and dance performed locally, mainly in communities that contain descendants of Bantu peoples from the African Great Lakes region. The Dubai Desert Rock Festival is also another major festival consisting of heavy metal and rock artists. The cinema of the United Arab Emirates is minimal but expanding.
The traditional food of the Emirates has always been rice, fish, and meat. The people of the United Arab Emirates have adopted most of their foods from other West and South Asian countries including Iran, Saudi Arabia, Pakistan, India and Oman. Seafood has been the mainstay of the Emirati diet for centuries. Meat and rice are other staple foods; lamb and mutton are the more favored meats, than goat and beef. Popular beverages are coffee and tea, which can be complemented with cardamom, saffron, or mint to give them a distinct flavor. Fast food has become very popular among young people, to the extent that campaigns are underway to highlight the dangers of fast food excesses. Alcohol is allowed to be served only in hotel restaurants and bars. All nightclubs are permitted to sell alcohol. Specific supermarkets may sell alcohol, but these products are sold in separate sections. Note that although alcohol may be consumed, it is illegal to be intoxicated in public or drive a motor vehicle with any trace of alcohol in the blood.
Formula One is particularly popular in the United Arab Emirates, and is annually held at the Yas Marina Circuit. The race is held at evening time, and is the first ever Grand Prix to start in daylight and finish at night. Other popular sports include camel racing, falconry, endurance riding, and tennis. The emirate of Dubai is also home to two major golf courses: The Dubai Golf Club and Emirates Golf Club.
In the past, child camel jockeys were used, leading to widespread criticism. Eventually the UAE passed laws banning the use of children for the sport, leading to the prompt removal of almost all child jockeys. Recently the robotic jockeys were introduce to over come this problem of child camel jockeys which was an issue of human right violations. Ansar Burney is often praised for the work he has done in this area.
Football is a popular sport in the UAE. Al Nasr SC, Al - Ain, Al - Wasl, Al - Sharjah, Al - Wahda, and Shabab Al Ahli Dubai are the most popular teams and enjoy the reputation of long - time regional champions. The United Arab Emirates Football Association was established in 1971 and since then has dedicated its time and effort to promoting the game, organizing youth programs and improving the abilities of not only its players, but also the officials and coaches involved with its regional teams. The UAE national football team qualified for the FIFA World Cup in 1990 with Egypt. It was the third consecutive World Cup with two Arab nations qualifying, after Kuwait and Algeria in 1982, and Iraq and Algeria again in 1986. The UAE won the Gulf Cup Championship two times: the first cup in January 2007 held in Abu Dhabi and the second in January 2013, held in Bahrain. The country is scheduled to host the 2019 AFC Asian Cup.
Cricket is one of the most popular sports in the UAE, largely because of the expatriate population from the SAARC countries, the United Kingdom, and Australia. The Sharjah Cricket Association Stadium in Sharjah has hosted four international test cricket matches so far. Sheikh Zayed Cricket Stadium in Abu Dhabi also hosted international cricket matches. Dubai has two cricket stadiums (Dubai Cricket Ground No. 1 and No. 2) with a third, the DSC Cricket Stadium, as part of Dubai Sports City. Dubai is also home to the International Cricket Council. The UAE national cricket team qualified for the 1996 Cricket World Cup and narrowly missed out on qualification for the 2007 Cricket World Cup. They qualified for the 2015 Cricket World Cup held in Australia and New Zealand. The next edition of the Asia Cup Cricket tournament is likely to be held next year in the first week of March.
The education system through secondary level is monitored by the Ministry of Education in all emirates except Abu Dhabi, where it falls under the authority of the Abu Dhabi Education Council. It consists of primary schools, middle schools and high schools. The public schools are government - funded and the curriculum is created to match the United Arab Emirates ' development goals. The medium of instruction in the public school is Arabic with emphasis on English as a second language. There are also many private schools which are internationally accredited. Public schools in the country are free for citizens of the UAE, while the fees for private schools vary.
The higher education system is monitored by the Ministry of Higher Education. The ministry also is responsible for admitting students to its undergraduate institutions. The adult literacy rate in 2011 was 90 %. Thousands of nationals are pursuing formal learning at 86 adult education centres spread across the country.
The UAE has shown a strong interest in improving education and research. Enterprises include the establishment of the CERT Research Centers and the Masdar Institute of Science and Technology and Institute for Enterprise Development. According to the QS Rankings, the top - ranking universities in the country are the United Arab Emirates University (421 -- 430th worldwide), Khalifa University (441 -- 450th worldwide), the American University of Sharjah (431 -- 440th) and University of Sharjah (551 -- 600th worldwide).
The demography of the UAE is extremely diverse. In 2010, the UAE 's population was estimated to be 8,264,070, of whom only 11.48 % were UAE nationals or Emiratis. The country 's net migration rate stands at 21.71, the world 's highest. Under Article 8 of UAE Federal Law no. 17, an expatriate can apply for UAE citizenship after residing in the country for 20 years, providing that person has never been convicted of a crime and can speak fluent Arabic. According to an estimate by the World Bank, the UAE 's population in 2018 stands at 9.543 million. Expatriates and immigrants account for 88.52 % while Emiratis make up remaining 11.48 % of the population.
There are 1.4 million Emirati citizens. The United Arab Emirates ' population is ethnically diverse. According to the CIA, in 2015, 40 % of residents were Emirati; 10.2 % were Pakistanis; 30 % were South Asian.
In 2009, Emirati citizens accounted for 16.5 % of the total population; South Asian (Bangladeshi, Pakistani, Sri Lankans and Indians) constituted the largest group, making up 12 % of the total; other Asians (Filipinos, Iranians) made up 16.7 %, while Western expatriates were 8.4 % of the total population.
Indian and Pakistani expatriates make up more than a third (23 %) of the population of three emirates -- Dubai, Sharjah, and Ajman according to the latest 2014 statistics provided by Euromonitor International, a market intelligence company. The five most populous nationalities in the three emirates, are: Indian (11 %), Pakistani (10 %), Emirati (40 %), Bangladeshi (7 %), and Filipino (6 %).
There is a growing presence of Europeans especially in multicultural cities such as Dubai. Western expatriates, from Europe, Australia, Northern America and Latin America make up 500,000 of the UAE population. More than 100,000 British nationals live in the country. The rest of the population were from other Arab states.
About 88 % of the population of the United Arab Emirates is urban. The average life expectancy was 76.7 in 2012, higher than for any other Arab country. With a male / female sex ratio of 2.2 males for each female in the total population and 2.75 to 1 for the 15 -- 65 age group, the UAE 's gender imbalance is second highest in the world after Qatar.
Islam is the largest and the official state religion of the UAE. The government follows a policy of tolerance toward other religions and rarely interferes in the activities of non-Muslims. By the same token, non-Muslims are expected to avoid interfering in Islamic religious matters or the Islamic upbringing of Muslims.
The government imposes restrictions on spreading other religions through any form of media as it is considered a form of proselytizing. There are approximately 31 churches throughout the country, one Hindu temple in the region of Bur Dubai, one Sikh Gurudwara in Jebel Ali and also a Buddhist temple in Al Garhoud.
Based on the Ministry of Economy census in 2005, 76 % of the total population was Muslim, 13 % Christian, and 11 % other (mainly Hindu). Census figures do not take into account the many "temporary '' visitors and workers while also counting Baha'is and Druze as Muslim. Among Emirati Muslim citizens, 97 % are Sunni, while 3 % are Shi'a, mostly concentrated in the emirates of Sharjah and Dubai. Omani immigrants are mostly Ibadi, while Sufi influences exist too.
Arabic is the national language of the United Arab Emirates. The Gulf dialect of Arabic is spoken natively by the Emirati people. Since the area was occupied by the British until 1971, English is the primary lingua franca in the UAE. As such, a knowledge of the language is a requirement when applying for most local jobs. Other world languages are represented by expatriate population drawn from a wide mix of nationalities.
The life expectancy at birth in the UAE is at 76.96 years. Cardiovascular disease is the principal cause of death in the UAE, constituting 28 % of total deaths; other major causes are accidents and injuries, malignancies, and congenital anomalies. According to World Health Organisation data from 2014, 37.2 % of adults in the UAE are clinically obese, with a Body mass index (BMI) score of 30 or more.
In February 2008, the Ministry of Health unveiled a five - year health strategy for the public health sector in the northern emirates, which fall under its purview and which, unlike Abu Dhabi and Dubai, do not have separate healthcare authorities. The strategy focuses on unifying healthcare policy and improving access to healthcare services at reasonable cost, at the same time reducing dependence on overseas treatment. The ministry plans to add three hospitals to the current 14, and 29 primary healthcare centres to the current 86. Nine were scheduled to open in 2008.
The introduction of mandatory health insurance in Abu Dhabi for expatriates and their dependants was a major driver in reform of healthcare policy. Abu Dhabi nationals were brought under the scheme from 1 June 2008 and Dubai followed for its government employees. Eventually, under federal law, every Emirati and expatriate in the country will be covered by compulsory health insurance under a unified mandatory scheme. The country has benefited from medical tourists from all over the Cooperation Council for the Arab States of the Gulf. The UAE attracts medical tourists seeking plastic surgery and advanced procedures, cardiac and spinal surgery, and dental treatment, as health services have higher standards than other Arab countries in the Persian Gulf.
In 2018, the Emirati passport became the highest climber in the Henley & Partners Passport Index over the past decade, increasing its global rank by 28 places. it currently ranks 21st in the world. The UAE Ministry of Foreign Affairs and International Cooperation has stated it plans to make the UAE passport one of the 5 strongest passports in the world by 2021.
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who put the benzedrine in mrs. murphy's ovaltine lyrics | Harry Gibson - wikipedia
Harry "The Hipster '' Gibson (June 27, 1915 -- May 3, 1991) was a jazz pianist, singer, and songwriter. Gibson played New York style stride piano and boogie woogie while singing in a wild, unrestrained style. His music career began in the late 1920s, when as the young Harry Raab, his birth name, he played stride piano in Dixieland jazz bands in Harlem. He continued to perform there throughout the 1930s, adding the barrelhouse boogie of the time to his repertoire, and was discovered by Fats Waller in 1939 and brought down to mid-town Manhattan, where he made a splash and changed his surname to Gibson. Between 1939 and 1945, he played at Manhattan jazz clubs on 52nd Street ("Swing Street ''), most notably the Three Deuces, run by Irving Alexander, and Leon and Eddie 's run by Leon Enkin and Eddie Davis.
In the 1940s, Gibson was known for writing unusual songs, which are considered ahead of their time. He was also known for his unique, wild singing style, his energetic and unorthodox piano styles, and his intricate mixture of hardcore, gutbucket boogie rhythms with ragtime, stride and jazz piano styles. Gibson took the boogie woogie beat of his predecessors, but he made it frantic, similar to the rock and roll music of the 1950s. Examples of his wild style are found in "Riot in Boogie '' and "Barrelhouse Boogie ''. An example of his strange singing style is "The Baby and the Pup. '' Other songs that he recorded were "Handsome Harry, the Hipster '', "I Stay Brown All Year ' Round '', "Get Your Juices at the Deuces '', and "Stop That Dancin ' Up There. '' He recorded often, but there are very few examples on film. However, in New York in 1944, he filmed three songs for the Soundies film jukeboxes, and he went to Hollywood in 1946 to guest star in the feature - length film musical Junior Prom. He preceded white rock and rollers by a decade, but the Soundies he recorded are similar to rock and roll.
While working on "Swing Street '' at night, Gibson was a fellow at the Juilliard Graduate School during the day. At the time, Juilliard was strictly a classical music academy; Gibson excelled there, which partly explains the richness of the music he brought to the jazz world. The other part of the explanation is his own inventiveness, and Gibson was almost always billed and promoted as a musical genius.
Unlike Mezz Mezzrow, who was white but consciously abandoned his ethnicity to adopt black music and culture as a "white negro, '' Gibson grew up near Harlem, New York City. Gibson 's constant use of black jive talk was not an affectation; it was simply his uptown New York dialect. His song, "I Stay Brown All Year Round '' is based on this. In his autobiography, Gibson claims he coined the term hipster between 1939 and 1945 when he was performing on Swing Street, and he started using "Harry the Hipster '' as his stage name.
His career went into a tailspin in 1947, when his song "Who Put the Benzedrine in Mrs. Murphy 's Ovaltine '' put him on the music industry blacklist. His own drug use led to his decline, and with the rising popularity of young rock and roll musicians among teenagers in the 1950s, older musicians were not in demand. He spent time in Miami during the 1950s, and before Christmas 1956 he appeared at the Ball & Chain on the same bill with Billie Holiday. In the 1960s, when Gibson saw the huge success of The Beatles, he switched to rock and roll. By the 1970s, he was playing hard rock, blues, bop, novelty songs and a few songs that mixed ragtime with rock and roll. His hipster act became a hippie act. His old records were revived on the Dr. Demento radio show, particularly "Benzedrine '', which was included on the 1975 compilation album Dr. Demento 's Delights.
His comeback resulted in three more albums: Harry the Hipster Digs Christmas, Everybody 's Crazy but Me, (its title taken from the lyrics of "Stop That Dancin ' Up There '') (Progressive, 1986), and Who Put the Benzedrine in Mrs. Murphy 's Ovaltine (Delmark, 1989). Those two include some jazz, blues, ragtime, and rock and roll songs about reefer, nude bathing, hippie communes, strip clubs, male chauvinists, "rocking the 88s '', and Shirley MacLaine.
Gibson may have been the only pianist of the 1930s and 1940s to go on to play in blues bands in the 1970s and 1980s. Unlike his 1940s contemporaries, most of whom continued to play the same music for decades, he gradually shifted gears from the 1940s to the 1970s, switching from jazz to rock. The only constants were his tendency to play hard - rocking boogie woogie and his tongue - in - cheek references to drug use. In 1991, shortly before his death, Gibson 's family made a biographical movie short on his life and music: Boogie in Blue, published as a VHS video that year.
Suffering from congestive heart failure, and wanting to avoid further health complications from illness, Gibson committed suicide by a self - inflicted gunshot on May 3, 1991.
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where is the saved by the bell cast | Saved by the Bell - wikipedia
Saved by the Bell is an American television sitcom that aired on NBC from 1989 to 1993. A reboot of the Disney Channel series Good Morning, Miss Bliss, the show follows a group of friends and their principal. Primarily focusing on lighthearted comedic situations, it occasionally touches on serious social issues, such as drug use, driving under the influence, homelessness, remarriage, death, women 's rights, and environmental issues. The series starred Mark - Paul Gosselaar, Lark Voorhies, Tiffani - Amber Thiessen, Elizabeth Berkley, Mario Lopez, Dustin Diamond, and Dennis Haskins.
The show spawned two spin - off series: Saved by the Bell: The College Years (1993 -- 1994), a primetime series that follows several of the characters to college, and Saved by the Bell: The New Class (1993 -- 2000), a Saturday morning series that follows a new group of students at Bayside High School. The series also spawned two TV movies, Saved by the Bell: Hawaiian Style in 1992 and Saved by the Bell: Wedding in Las Vegas in 1994.
Saved by the Bell, which pre-dates the enforcement of the 1990 Children 's Television Act, has since been classified as educational and informational. The show was named one of the "20 Best School Shows of all Time '' by AOL TV.
In casting Good Morning, Miss Bliss, Peter Engel knew the success of the show would not hinge on Miss Bliss herself, but on her students. Engel particularly envisioned one character, Zack Morris, who "would be that incorrigible kid who could lie to your face, letting you know very well that he 's lying, and make you love him for it all the same. '' Engel insisted that the show could not go on without Zack Morris, but he turned out to be one of the most difficult characters to cast. Engel 's casting director, Shana Landsburg, finally happened across fourteen - year old Mark - Paul Gosselaar and was immediately struck by the teen 's charisma, charm, and good looks. After a quick read - through, Gosselaar was immediately given the role.
After casting Zack Morris, the next character sought after was Morris 's nerdy friend, Samuel "Screech '' Powers. Gosselaar was asked to read through the script with a number of kids, and a second audition was scheduled for finalists. It was Gosselaar himself who insisted that Dustin Diamond was right for the part as he believed Diamond was Screech in real life. After reading through the script, Diamond was given the part, although Engel later found out that he had misread his head shot and Diamond was considerably younger than the rest of the cast -- a fact that, had he been aware, might have prevented Engel from casting him.
Lisa Turtle was originally conceived as a rich Jewish princess from Long Island, spoiled, materialistic, and obsessed with shopping. While still casting from the role, African - American actress Lark Voorhies was brought into Engel 's office, and he immediately knew she was perfect for the role despite the fact that it meant rewriting the character.
The school principal, Mr. Gerald Belding, as originally conceived on Good Morning, Miss Bliss, was an older, humorless man, and was played in the 1987 pilot by character actor Oliver Clark. After the show was retooled for Disney Channel, the character 's first name was changed to Richard and he was recast, with Dennis Haskins ultimately winning the role. Mr. Belding was rewritten to be significantly younger and to have a much different sense of humor
When Good Morning, Miss Bliss was retooled as Saved by the Bell, four actors and their respective characters from the original series were brought over to the new series: Gosselaar, Diamond, Voorhies, and Haskins. The rest of the cast was fired, and Engel sought to replace them with new characters who would complement the old ones.
The first of the new characters, A.C. Slater, was conceived as a young John Travolta type who would be an army brat and wear a leather jacket. He was originally conceived of as Italian - American. However, when all efforts to cast the character were unsuccessful, Engel asked that the part be opened up to other races. Two days later, Mario Lopez, a dancer and drummer of Latino descent from Kids Incorporated auditioned for the role. Lopez was, by far, the best actor who auditioned, and was cast.
For Kelly Kapowski, the love interest of both Zack and Slater, producers were able to narrow the field down to three actresses: Tiffani - Amber Thiessen, Elizabeth Berkley, and Jennie Garth. Engel had originally met Thiessen in 1988 while casting for Good Morning, Miss Bliss and was impressed with how much her acting had improved. He wanted her for the role, believing she had the perfect all - American girl appeal for the role, while others felt that Berkley, as the more experienced actress, would be a more reliable choice. Ultimately, Engel convinced the others after a read - through with Lopez, and Thiessen received the role.
Engel and the other producers did not want to lose Berkley, however, as she was the strongest actress they 'd seen during casting. Berkley originally auditioned for the role of Karen, a love - interest of Zack 's on Good Morning, Miss Bliss, but lost the role because she was so much taller than Gosselaar at the time. Engel believed that, now that her height was more even with the rest of the cast, she could be perfect. They were not having much luck in casting the third new character, Jessie Spano, who was conceived as a strong, feminist activist and a straight - A student, so Engel suggested offering the role to Berkley, who gladly accepted it.
Rounding out the new cast was real - life magician Ed Alonzo as Max, the owner of the gang 's frequent cafe hangout, The Max, who frequently performed magic tricks. Alonzo 's role, however, would ultimately only last through the end of the first season, and he left after a single guest appearance during season two.
In 1992, Saved by the Bell unexpectedly received an order for an additional eleven episodes to be shot after the graduation episode. However, Thiessen and Berkley had already decided to leave the show. Though producers knew they could n't replace Kelly and Jessie, they also knew they could n't leave Lisa as the only girl on the show. A new character, Tori Scott, was created as a cool but pretty biker girl who would also serve as a love interest for Zack and also act as a nemesis for him initially. Leanna Creel was cast for the part. Rather than develop a second new character, the producers decided to rely more on minor recurring characters such as Ginger, Ox, and Big Pete.
In 1986, Brandon Tartikoff, then - president of NBC, asked Peter Engel to develop the pilot for a new prime time series, Good Morning, Miss Bliss Tartikoff had been inspired by his sixth grade teacher, Miss Bliss, and had long wanted to make a show about someone like her. The series would focus on Miss Carrie Bliss, a recently married sixth grade teacher at the fictional John F. Kennedy Junior High School in Indianapolis. Though Sandy Duncan was originally considered for the titular role, the series ultimately became a vehicle for former British child star Hayley Mills. Veteran writer Sam Bobrick was brought on to write the episode and the cast included future stars Jonathan Brandis, Brian Austin Green, and Jaleel White.
The pilot aired on June 11, 1987, but NBC had decided not to pick up the series even before it was shown. Tartikoff did n't want to give up on the show, though, and made a deal with the Disney Channel to air thirteen episodes of the series in prime time. If the initial order did well, Disney was prepared to order an additional seven - seven. The show was completely retooled, with Mills the sole remaining cast member from the pilot. Miss Bliss 's class was changed from the sixth grade to the eight grade, and the kids would be more central to the story.
Good Morning, Miss Bliss aired from 1988 to 1989. However, the show failed to pick up a following and did poorly in the ratings. By the time the last episode aired, Disney had already decided against ordering more.
Tartikoff felt there had been strong elements to Good Morning, Miss Bliss and wanted to try the show again with a different time slot and a different approach. The elements featuring the kids had been well - received, so Tartikoff wanted to drop Miss Bliss from the show altogether and focus entirely on the teens. NBC had been losing the high end of their animated audience, kids from ten to twelve, so the idea was to create a live action comedy to air on Saturday mornings, a new idea at the time.
Engel was skeptical of the new format at first, and did not want to make children 's programming. However, his wife convinced him that making the show would be a worthwhile endeavor, and he soon told Tartikoff he would do the show. Engel felt, however, that Indianapolis was not exciting as a location, and moved the show to a semi-fictional part of Los Angeles, "the Palisades. '' The main locations of the show would be the teenager 's school, Bayside High, and The Max, a fictional eatery they frequent. In addition, they would film before a live studio audience.
The majority of the cast was replaced, and Tartikoff gave a seven episode commitment for the show. In a meeting with Engel and Tartikoff, senior producer Tom Tenowich suggested the name Saved by the Bell. Though Engel hated the name, Tartikoff loved it. The name stuck, and filming commenced, with the first episode, "Dancing to the Max, '' airing in prime time on August 20, 1989.
In 1992, NBC approved the production of a feature - length made - for - television Saved by the Bell film to air in prime time. Titled Saved by the Bell: Hawaiian Style, the film followed the six teenagers from the show as they vacationed in Hawaii with Kelly 's grandfather, Harry Bannister (Dean Jones). They soon discover Mr. Belding also happens to be there, and the seven are caught up in a plan to save Harry 's resort from a greedy developer.
The film was written by Bennet Tramer and directed by Don Barnhart. Due to budget constraints, the much of the film was shot in Santa Monica, with only location shots that could not easily be faked were shot in Hawaii. The shooting schedule in Hawaii turned out to be massive, even after Engel and Barnhart scouted the location. Real - life lifeguards were hired as extras during beach scenes to ensure the safety of the cast.
Saved by the Bell: Hawaiian Style was ultimately successful in the ratings, and ultimately paved the way for Saved by the Bell: The College Years airing in prime time.
Following the cancellation of Saved by the Bell: The College Years on a cliffhanger in 1994, NBC President Warren Littlefield commissioned a second Saved by the Bell film to both conclude the story started in the final episode of Saved by the Bell: The College Years in which Zack and Kelly become engaged, and acts as a series finale for the original Saved by the Bell. The story features Zack, Kelly, Slater, Screech, and Lisa travelling to Las Vegas so Zack and Kelly can elope after their parents disapprove of their impending marriage.
The show was popular enough to justify two spin - offs, both of which premiered in 1993.
Following the conclusion of Saved by the Bell, an idea came out of a focus group for Saved by the Bell: The New Class, in addition to creating a new cast of characters, to continue the story of the original Saved by the Bell cast. The new show aired in prime time and feature only Zack, Slater, and Screech from the original cast attending the fictional California University and living in a suite with a new cast of girls. Kelly later joined the cast after the pilot.
Although ratings started out promising, they quickly plateaued against the competition of Full House and Rescue 911, two well - established, popular shows in prime time. Saved by the Bell: The College Years was ultimately cancelled after only one season of nineteen episodes. The events of the final episode would lead directly into the second Saved by the Bell film: Saved by the Bell: Wedding in Las Vegas.
In 1993, NBC decided it wanted to extend the Saved by the Bell franchise with a new show, Saved by the Bell: The New Class. Also set at Bayside, the show would follow a new cast of characters as they navigate their high school years. Reprising his role from the original series was Dennis Haskins, once again as their principal, Mr. Belding. Following the cancellation of Saved by the Bell: The College Years in 1994, Peter Engel asked Dustin Diamond to reprise his role as Samuel "Screech '' Powers, who was returning to Bayside on a work - study program as Mr. Belding 's administrative assistant.
Saved by the Bell: The New Class ran for seven seasons and 143 episodes, from 1993 to 2000. The cast was constantly revolving, with Haskins as the only constant throughout all seven seasons. By the end of the series, the show had run out of ideas. The show was not generally well - received, and some today believe that it failed to recapture the charm of the original series.
On April 9, 2006, Cartoon Network 's Adult Swim announced that Saved by the Bell would air at midnight as a two - week special starting April 17. On April 19, 2006, Adult Swim also posted on their website that Saved by the Bell was back in production. A week later, the announcement was exposed as a joke.
On March 27, 2009, NBC 's Late Night with Jimmy Fallon launched a campaign to get the cast on board for a Saved by the Bell reunion. Fans signed an online petition and pledged their support for the cast to reunite on the show. Dennis Haskins, Lark Voorhies, Mario Lopez, Elizabeth Berkley, and Mark - Paul Gosselaar agreed to a reunion. Gosselaar reprised his role as Zack Morris in a skit on Late Night on June 8, 2009, while promoting his then current TNT drama, Raising the Bar. The spoof interview closed with a performance of "Friends Forever, '' originally by Zack Attack, where Zack played guitar and sang with backing from Fallon 's house band, The Roots. Tiffani Thiessen posted a parody video to the website Funny or Die, where she claimed she was too busy to join the reunion.
The cast reunited in August 2009 for a photo shoot in People Magazine. Diamond was not invited to participate in the photo shoot because of poor relationships with the rest of the cast. Diamond 's image was also edited out of the 1989 cast photo that was used on the cover inset of an issue of People Magazine to show how the cast looked 20 years later.
The cast convened again when Haskins, Diamond, Gosselaar, Voorhies, and Lopez did their own voices in a Saved by the Bell Saw parody, called "Sawed by the Bell '', on "Boo Cocky '', a season three episode of Robot Chicken. Gosselaar also provided audio commentary for the episode on the DVD.
On February 4, 2015, the cast appeared on a skit on The Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon while episodes of the program were taped in Los Angeles. Haskins, Gosselaar, Lopez, Berkley and Thiessen all participated, though Voorhies and Diamond did not, with Thiessen 's real - life pregnancy, Lopez 's involvement with Dancing with the Stars and Berkley 's film Showgirls the targets of some of the humor.
The theme song for Saved by the Bell was written by composer Scott Gayle against the implicit instructions of Engel. Though Engel had not been able to keep the show from being named Saved by the Bell, he was determined to prevent the phrase from showing up in the theme. He gave explicit orders to his team of composers that he would not accept any theme that referenced the title, and the group agreed to leave out the phrase.
A week later, Engel listened to the first four composers and, though they followed his instructions, the songs were flat and nothing special. Gayle played his song next and, though he explicitly violated Engel 's instructions, Engel could n't help but admit it was the best and perfect for the show. Engel would later comment that he was glad Gayle had not followed his instructions.
Lionsgate Home Entertainment released all four seasons of Saved By The Bell, broken into five seasons (season 4 split in two) on DVD in Region 1. However, the episodes on these and all subsequent releases are the edited versions as used in syndication, with scenes cut for time. Lionsgate released the two feature - length TV movies on DVD, in Region 1, on August 7, 2007. On March 13, 2012, Lionsgate (distributed by Alliance Films) released Saved By The Bell: The Complete Collection on DVD in Canada. The 13 - disc set features all 86 episodes of the series as well as the two reunion tele - films.
On November 5, 2013, Lionsgate released a complete - series set in the United States. It does not contain the reunion movies but does include some bonus commentaries.
In Region 2, Fabulous Films has released all 5 seasons on DVD in the UK.
Contender Entertainment Group released the 2 reunion tele - films on DVD in the UK in 2004.
In Region 4, Shock Entertainment released Season One on DVD in Australia on February 10, 2010.
In - depth Documentary Focusing on Series Phenomenon
2 Saved By The Bell Movies
It 's Alright: Back To The Bell
Selected Episodes Commentaries
In - depth Documentary Focusing On Series Phenomenon
A CD and cassette tape soundtrack was released on April 11, 1995. It contained songs used throughout the series. The track listing is as follows:
There have 21 novelizations based on the show, released by the publisher Boxtree Ltd, all written by Beth Cruise. The books all feature the main cast and have the same storylines that relate to the main - plots in the TV shows.
Several unofficial books relating to the show have also been published.
In 1992, Harvey Comics published a short - lived Saved by the Bell Comic series. Seven issues were released, including a Christmas and a Summer special. The comic was generally not well - received, with comic book critic Matt D. Wilson saying "its character likenesses for the show 's starts were rough at best. ''
In 2014, Lion Forge Comics announced that its new all - ages imprint, ROAR Comics, would publish a new Saved by the Bell comic. Set initially during the gang 's freshman year of high school, the comic serves as a modern update to the classic series. It premiered in March 2014 alongside ROAR 's adaptation of Punky Brewster.
In 2009, Dustin Diamond published an inside story of the show 's cast and crew from his point of view, entitled Behind the Bell. The book paints an unflattering portrait of many of Diamond 's colleagues and their alleged backstage behavior. Some of Diamond 's claims have been refuted by colleagues and questioned by critics. Diamond also alleges in the book that he had sex with 2,000 women, one of them being NBC 's Vice President of children 's programming, Linda Mancuso, who was 18 years his senior. Diamond later disclaimed responsibility for much of the book 's content, blaming his ghostwriter for fabricating salacious stories.
The Unauthorized Saved by the Bell Story aired on Lifetime on September 1, 2014.
In September 2013, Bayside! The Musical! The unauthorized parody of Saved by the Bell opened at NYC 's Theatre 80. Bayside! The Musical! was named a New York Times Critics ' Pick. Bayside! The Musical! was written and directed by Bob and Tobly McSmith, the same creative team behind Showgirls! The Musical! In contrast to the wholesome nature of Saved by the Bell, Bayside! The Musical! contains strong language and adult situations throughout. The show 's run has been extended 6 times.
Bayside! originally debuted in 2005 under the title Bayside! The UnMusical! The following year a sequel was produced called Bayside 2! Electric Screechio The show then took several years off, reopening in 2012 at NYC 's Kraine Theatre with a revamped script and new cast Following the success of Showgirls! The Musical! the show 's creators Bob and Tobly McSmith revisited their script and reworked it from the ground up.
The show has had appearances from original Saved by the Bell cast members such as Dustin Diamond and Dennis Haskins.
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it starts with a deck of playing cards | Stripped deck - wikipedia
A stripped deck (US) or shortened pack (UK) is a set of playing cards from which some cards have been removed. The removed cards are usually the pip cards. Many card games use stripped decks, and stripped decks for popular games are commercially available.
When playing cards first arrived in Europe during the 1370s, they had the same format as the modern standard 52 - card deck, consisting of four suits each with ten pip cards and three face cards. During the late 14th and 15th centuries, the Spanish and Portuguese decks dropped the 10s while the German and Swiss packs removed the Aces to create 48 - card decks. It is far easier to print 48 cards using two woodblocks than 52 cards. While the removal of the above cards was motivated by manufacturing considerations, later expulsions are the result of trying to speed up card games to make them more exciting. Trappola is the first known card game to be played with a deck that was stripped for game play. It removed all the cards from 6 to 3 to create a 36 - card deck.
The most popular card game in 16th - century Europe was Piquet, played with a 36 - card deck that dropped ranks from 5 to 2. Around 1700, it dropped the 6s as well to create the 32 - card deck which is now the most popular format in France. 32 and 36 - card decks are the most widespread in countries that were once part of the Holy Roman (the Low Countries, Germany, and Switzerland), Austro - Hungarian, and Russian empires. 24 - card decks to play Schnapsen are widely available in central Europe although it may be shortened to 20 in the future as that is how the modern variant is now commonly played.
The Spanish, Portuguese, Italians, and Latin Americans use mostly 40 - card decks. Unlike the countries above, they drop the higher - ranking numerals so that the 7 is located immediately under the face cards. This was due to the popularity of Ombre, the game that introduced the concept of bidding.
The British and the Scandinavians are the most resistant against stripped decks, having maintained the 52 - card format since receiving them in the 15th century. The British have also propagated that deck size through whist, the most popular card game of the 19th century. In the 20th century, this has been followed by contract bridge, gin rummy, canasta, and poker which all require that deck size. The British prefer games involving four players as opposed to the continental three - player games which uses smaller decks.
Asian countries also created stripped decks using their traditional playing cards. In contrast to the Western practice of removing ranks, Asians remove suits. During the Qing dynasty, the Chinese money - suited cards dropped one suit as shedding - type games became more popular. In India, the gambling game of Naqsha overtook the Ganjifa trick - taking game and many decks were made with only half of the traditional suits.
The opposite of a stripped deck is an expanded deck. Many commercial attempts have tried and failed to increase the standard deck above 52 cards. The most successful addition to the standard deck is the Joker which first appeared during the American Civil War as a Euchre trump card. The Joker has since been adopted as a wild card in a few other standard playing card games with different values and quantities depending on which game is being played. 500 is a Euchre offshoot invented by the United States Playing Card Company (USPCC) during the early 20th century. To play the six - handed version, USPCC created a deck with ranks 11, 12, and 13. 500 decks are now produced by other manufacturers and are sold primarily in English - speaking countries where the game is played. A much older expanded deck is tarot, invented in 15th - century Italy, with an extra suit of trumps. Tarot card games were the most popular card games of the 18th century but have since declined. They are still played in various continental European countries with France having the largest community. Tarot decks are not immune to stripping either. The Tarocco Bolognese, Tarocco Siciliano, Industrie und Glück, and Cego decks have excised some pip cards.
A French - suited deck of 32 cards, consisting of 7, 8, 9, 10, Jack, Queen, King and Ace in four suits each, is used in the two - player game Piquet, which dates back to the 16th century. Games played with a piquet deck (or the equivalent German - or Swiss - suited decks) are still among the most popular in some parts of Europe. This includes belote and klaverjas (the national games of France and the Netherlands, respectively) and skat (the German national game, which is also played with the equivalent German - suited decks in some regions). Bezique is played with two piquet decks.
Stripped decks are used in certain poker variants. The earliest form of poker was played with only 20 cards. The Australian game of Manila uses a piquet deck, and Mexican stud is played with the 8s, 9s, and 10s removed from the deck (and a joker added). This may require adjusting hand values: in both of these games, a flush ranks above a full house, because having fewer cards of each suit available makes flushes rarer.
A hand such as 6 - 7 - J-Q-K plays as a straight in Mexican stud, skipping over the removed ranks. Some places may allow a hand such as 10 - 9 - 8 - 7 - A to play as a straight (by analogy to a wheel) in the 32 - card game, the A playing low and skipping over the removed ranks (although this is not the case in Manila). Finally, the relative frequency of straights versus three of a kind is also sensitive to the deck composition (and to the number of cards dealt), so some places may consider three of a kind to be superior to a straight, but the difference is small enough that this complication is not necessary for most games. Similarly, a full house tends to occur more often than a flush in a piquet deck, due to the increased frequency of each playing card rank, creating a change in poker combination ranking.
Five - card stud is also often played with a piquet deck. In lively home games it might work better to only strip three ranks (2s through 4s) with seven or eight players; with only two or three players 7s and 8s could be stripped as well, leaving the same 24 - card deck used in euchre. In any of these cases, a flush should rank above a full house (in a 24 - card deck it is actually rarer than four of a kind, but is rarely played that flushes are superior to four of a kind). Stripped deck five - card stud is a game particularly well - suited to cheating by collusion, because it is easy for partners to signal a single hole card and the relative value of knowing the location of a single card is higher than with a full deck.
The game of euchre is also played with a 24 - card stripped deck, consisting of only 9 - 10 - J-Q-K-A of each suit, the 2 - 8 being stripped from the deck. The game of pinochle is played with 48 cards, consisting of a doubled euchre deck (that is, two copies of 9 - A of each suit).
In some games, a small number of cards are stripped from the deck to make the deal exact. For example, it is customary to remove the 2 ♣ when three people play Hearts.
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what powers does congress have under the constitution | Powers of the United States Congress - wikipedia
Powers of the United States Congress are implemented by the United States Constitution, defined by rulings of the Supreme Court, and by its own efforts and by other factors such as history and custom. It is the chief legislative body of the United States. Some powers are explicitly defined by the Constitution and are called enumerated powers; others have been assumed to exist and are called implied powers.
Article I of the Constitution sets forth most of the powers of Congress, which include numerous explicit powers enumerated in Section 8. Constitutional amendments have granted Congress additional powers. Congress also has implied powers derived from the Necessary and Proper Clause of the Constitution.
Congress has authority over financial and budgetary matters, through the enumerated power to lay and collect taxes, duties, imposts and excises, to pay the debts and provide for the common defense and general welfare of the United States. The Sixteenth Amendment, ratified in 1913, extended power of taxation to include income taxes. The Constitution also grants Congress exclusively the power to appropriate funds. This power of the purse is one of Congress ' primary checks on the executive branch. Other powers granted to Congress include the authority to borrow money on the credit of the United States, regulate commerce with foreign nations and among the states, and coin money. Generally both Senate and House have equal legislative authority although only the House may originate revenue bills and, by tradition, appropriation bills.
The Constitution also gives Congress an important role in national defense, including the exclusive power to declare war, to raise and maintain the armed forces, and to make rules for the military. Some critics charge that the executive branch has usurped Congress 's Constitutionally - defined task of declaring war. While historically presidents initiated the process for going to war, they asked for and received formal war declarations from Congress for the War of 1812, the Mexican -- American War, the Spanish -- American War, World War I, and World War II, although President Theodore Roosevelt 's military move into Panama in 1903 did not get Congressional assent. Presidents have initiated war without Congressional war declarations; Truman called the Korean War a "police action '' and the Vietnam War lasted over a decade without a declaration of war. In 1970, Time magazine noted: "All told, it has been calculated, U.S. presidents have ordered troops into position or action without a formal congressional declaration a total of 149 times '' before 1970. In 1993, one writer noted "Congress 's war power has become the most flagrantly disregarded provision in the Constitution, '' and that the "real erosion (of Congressional authority to declare war) began after World War II. '' President George H.W. Bush claimed he could begin Operation Desert Storm and launch a "deliberate, unhurried, post -- Cold War decision to start a war '' without Congressional approval. Critics charge that President George W. Bush largely initiated the Iraq War with little debate in Congress or consultation with Congress, despite a Congressional vote on military force authorization. Disagreement about the extent of congressional versus presidential power regarding war has been present periodically throughout the nation 's history.
Congress also has the power to establish post offices and post roads, issue patents and copyrights, fix standards of weights and measures, establish courts inferior to the Supreme Court, and "To make all laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying into execution the foregoing powers, and all other powers vested by this Constitution in the government of the United States, or in any department or officer thereof. '' Article Four gives Congress the power to admit new states into the Union.
One of the foremost non-legislative functions of the Congress is the power to investigate and to oversee the executive branch. Congressional oversight is usually delegated to committees and is facilitated by Congress ' subpoena power. Some critics have charged that Congress has in some instances failed to do an adequate job of overseeing the other branches of government. In the Valerie Plame Wilson episode sometimes known as the Plame affair, some critics, including Representative Henry A. Waxman, charged that Congress was not doing an adequate job of oversight in this case. Other critics charge Congress was lax in its oversight duties regarding presidential actions such as warrantless wiretapping, although others respond that Congress did investigate the legality of decisions by President George W. Bush involving such matters.
Congress also has the exclusive impeachment power, allowing impeachment, trial, and removal of the President, federal judges and other federal officers.
Among the powers specifically given to Congress in Article I Section 8, are the following:
1.To lay and collect taxes, duties, imposts and excises, to pay the debts and provide for the common defense and general welfare of the United States; but all duties, imposts and excises shall be uniform throughout the United States;
2. To borrow money on the credit of the United States;
3. To regulate commerce with foreign nations, and among the several states, and with the Native American tribes;
4. To establish a uniform rule of naturalization, and uniform laws on the subject of bankruptcies throughout the United States;
5. To coin money, regulate the value thereof, and of foreign coin, and fix the standard of weights and measures;
6. To provide for the punishment of counterfeiting the securities and current coin of the United States;
7. To establish post offices and post roads;
8. To promote the progress of science and useful arts, by securing for limited times to authors and inventors the exclusive right to their respective writings and discoveries;
9. To constitute tribunals inferior to the Supreme Court;
10. To define and punish piracies and felonies committed on the high seas, and offenses against the law of nations;
11. To declare war, grant letters of marque and reprisal, and make rules concerning captures on land and water;
12. To raise and support armies, but no appropriation of money to that use shall be for a longer term than two years;
13. To provide and maintain a navy;
14. To make rules for the government and regulation of the land and naval forces;
15. To provide for calling forth the militia to execute the laws of the union, suppress insurrections and repel invasions;
16. To provide for organizing, arming, and disciplining, the militia, and for governing such part of them as may be employed in the service of the United States, reserving to the states respectively, the appointment of the officers, and the authority of training the militia according to the discipline prescribed by Congress;
17. To exercise exclusive legislation in all cases whatsoever, over such District (not exceeding ten miles (16 km) square) as may, by cession of particular states, and the acceptance of Congress, become the seat of the government of the United States, and to exercise like authority over all places purchased by the consent of the legislature of the state in which the same shall be, for the erection of forts, magazines, arsenals, dockyards, and other needful buildings.
Other congressional powers have been granted, or confirmed, by constitutional amendments. The Thirteenth (1865), Fourteenth (1868), and Fifteenth Amendments (1870) gave Congress authority to enact legislation to enforce rights of all citizens regardless of race, including voting rights, due process, and equal protection under the law. Generally militia forces are controlled by state governments, not Congress.
Congress also has implied powers, which derive from the Necessary and Proper Clause of the Constitution and permit Congress "To make all laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying into execution the foregoing powers, and all other powers vested by this Constitution in the government of the United States, or in any department or officer thereof. '' Broad interpretations of this clause and of the Commerce Clause, the enumerated power to regulate commerce, in rulings such as McCulloch v Maryland, have effectively widened the scope of Congress ' legislative authority far beyond that prescribed in Section 8.
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who played young celie in the movie the color purple | Desreta Jackson - Wikipedia
Desreta Jackson (born April 19, 1975) is a Virgin Islander actress, producer and entrepreneur. She is best known for her role as Young Celie in the movie The Color Purple.
Jackson was born in Tortola in the British Virgin Islands and immigrated to the United States at the age of nine. Her family settled in a skid row area of Los Angeles and her mother collected cans to support her. After two years, her mother found housing in South Central Los Angeles. After acting in a scene in a school play, she told her mother that she wanted to take drama classes. Her mother enrolled her in acting classes to keep her away from gang activity where they lived in California.
After landing various roles in television and movies, Jackson earned a degree in Directing from Los Angeles City College.
Jackson 's career began after only a short time in acting school. She was at a casting call for the movie The Color Purple when she was spotted by Producer Reuben Cannon. She was called back for more casting calls after her first audition. She landed the role of the young Celie Harris (with Whoopi Goldberg as adult Celie), who is forced to marry a wealthy young local widower (Danny Glover) who abuses her.
Jackson continued her career while landing roles in both television and film.
Jackson is the founder of BlackSilk Products, a hair care product company that she launched in 2011. She began the business from home in 2002, making her own hair care products such as oils, hair treatments, as well as shampoos and conditioners.
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who was the host of where the action is | Where the Action Is - wikipedia
Where the Action Is or (WTAI) was a music - based television variety show in the United States from 1965 -- 67. It was carried by the ABC network and aired each weekday afternoon. Created by Dick Clark as a spin - off of American Bandstand, Where the Action Is premiered on June 27, 1965. The show was another step in the then - current trend of entertainment programs that targeted the teenage audience by focusing on pop music, following in the footsteps set by Shindig! (premiered in the fall of 1964, also on ABC) and Hullabaloo (premiered January 1965 on NBC). Dick Clark 's voice could be heard doing the artist introductions, but he was rarely seen on the show.
Originally intended as a summer replacement and broadcast at 2 P.M. EDT, the show was successful enough for it to continue throughout the 1965 -- 66 TV season, with a change in time period to 4: 30 P.M. Eastern time following the horror soap opera Dark Shadows. Both programs attracted a young audience who watch the shows after school. It was in black and white.
The show 's theme song, "Action '', became a hit single for Freddy "Boom Boom '' Cannon, peaking on the charts (# 13) in September 1965. Most of these black - and - white telecasts were taped at various locales in Southern California. A handful of segments were taped elsewhere around The United States. The theme song was written by Steve Venet and Tommy Boyce. Later, Boyce co-wrote songs for The Monkees.
The program had its own stable of performers, most notably Paul Revere & the Raiders, who served as the de facto house band. When the group departed the show in 1966, they were replaced by The Robbs and The Hard Times. Other regular performers on Action included the dance troupe Pete Manifee and the Action Kids. Individual episodes featured a wide range of guest performers, as detailed below. Tina Mason was a regular singer being promoted by Dick Clark on the show. She met and later married Phil Volk, the bass player for Paul Revere and the Raiders, whom she met on the "Action '' set. They married on the second anniversary of the show 's premiere, June 27, 1967.
Also appearing were Steve Alaimo, Keith Allison (a Paul McCartney look - alike who later became a member of Paul Revere and the Raiders), and Linda Scott. Ms. Scott had a few hit singles as a teenager in the early 1960s; she was only 20 when "Action '' premiered. Typically, the show featured 2 or 3 performers lip - synching their recent hits with a bunch of teenagers clapping and swaying in the background, and a dance segment featuring the Action dancers. There would occasionally be an interview segment. A few episodes featured only one performer, such as Herman 's Hermits or James Brown. The regular appearances of the Raiders helped to promote the band 's lead singer, Mark Lindsay, as a teen idol. Lindsay 's face and signature pony - tail haircut would grace the cover of many teen magazines of the mid - and late - 60s.
The weekday program was cancelled on March 31, 1967, with the network giving its local affiliates the time slot. However, members of the program 's mainstay band Paul Revere and the Raiders (with lead vocalist Mark Lindsay) hosted very similar follow - up shows; both Revere and Lindsay hosted Happening ' 68, a Saturday afternoon follow - up to American Bandstand, and a weekday version of the same show, It 's Happening, from 1968 to 1969. Both shows were produced by Dick Clark 's production company for ABC.
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at what age did michael jordan started playing basketball | Michael Jordan - wikipedia
Michael Jeffrey Jordan (born February 17, 1963), also known by his initials, MJ, is an American retired professional basketball player, businessman, and principal owner and chairman of the Charlotte Hornets. Jordan played 15 seasons in the National Basketball Association (NBA) for the Chicago Bulls and Washington Wizards. His biography on the NBA website states: "By acclamation, Michael Jordan is the greatest basketball player of all time. '' Jordan was one of the most effectively marketed athletes of his generation and was considered instrumental in popularizing the NBA around the world in the 1980s and 1990s.
Jordan played three seasons for coach Dean Smith at the University of North Carolina. As a freshman, he was a member of the Tar Heels ' national championship team in 1982. Jordan joined the Bulls in 1984 as the third overall draft pick. He quickly emerged as a league star, entertaining crowds with his prolific scoring. His leaping ability, demonstrated by performing slam dunks from the free throw line in slam dunk contests, earned him the nicknames Air Jordan and His Airness. He also gained a reputation for being one of the best defensive players in basketball. In 1991, he won his first NBA championship with the Bulls, and followed that achievement with titles in 1992 and 1993, securing a "three - peat ''. Although Jordan abruptly retired from basketball before the beginning of the 1993 -- 94 NBA season to pursue a new venture in minor league baseball, he returned to the Bulls in March 1995 and led them to three additional championships in 1996, 1997, and 1998, as well as a then - record 72 regular - season wins in the 1995 -- 96 NBA season. Jordan retired for a second time in January 1999, but returned for two more NBA seasons from 2001 to 2003 as a member of the Wizards.
Jordan 's individual accolades and accomplishments include five Most Valuable Player (MVP) Awards, ten All - NBA First Team designations, nine All - Defensive First Team honors, fourteen NBA All - Star Game appearances, three All - Star Game MVP Awards, ten scoring titles, three steals titles, six NBA Finals MVP Awards, and the 1988 NBA Defensive Player of the Year Award. Among his numerous accomplishments, Jordan holds the NBA records for highest career regular season scoring average (30.12 points per game) and highest career playoff scoring average (33.45 points per game). In 1999, he was named the greatest North American athlete of the 20th century by ESPN, and was second to Babe Ruth on the Associated Press 's list of athletes of the century. Jordan is a two - time inductee into the Basketball Hall of Fame, having been enshrined in 2009 for his individual career, and again in 2010 as part of the group induction of the 1992 United States men 's Olympic basketball team ("The Dream Team ''). He became a member of the FIBA Hall of Fame in 2015.
Jordan is also known for his product endorsements. He fueled the success of Nike 's Air Jordan sneakers, which were introduced in 1985 and remain popular today. Jordan also starred in the 1996 feature film Space Jam as himself. In 2006, he became part - owner and head of basketball operations for the then - Charlotte Bobcats, buying a controlling interest in 2010. In 2015, Jordan became the first billionaire NBA player in history as a result of the increase in value of NBA franchises. He is the third - richest African - American, behind Oprah Winfrey and Robert F. Smith.
Jordan was born in Brooklyn, New York, to Deloris (née Peoples), who worked in banking, and James R. Jordan Sr., an equipment supervisor. His family moved to Wilmington, North Carolina, when he was a toddler.
Jordan is the fourth of five children. He has two older brothers, Larry Jordan and James R. Jordan, Jr., one older sister, Deloris, and one younger sister, Roslyn. Jordan 's brother James retired in 2006 as the Command Sergeant Major of the 35th Signal Brigade of the XVIII Airborne Corps in the U.S. Army.
Jordan attended Emsley A. Laney High School in Wilmington, where he highlighted his athletic career by playing basketball, baseball, and football. He tried out for the varsity basketball team during his sophomore year, but at 5'11 '' (1.80 m), he was deemed too short to play at that level. His taller friend, Harvest Leroy Smith, was the only sophomore to make the team.
Motivated to prove his worth, Jordan became the star of Laney 's junior varsity squad, and tallied several 40 - point games. The following summer, he grew four inches (10 cm) and trained rigorously. Upon earning a spot on the varsity roster, Jordan averaged about 20 points per game over his final two seasons of high school play. As a senior, he was selected to the McDonald 's All - American Team after averaging a triple - double: 29.2 points, 11.6 rebounds, and 10.1 assists.
Jordan was recruited by numerous college basketball programs, including Duke, North Carolina, South Carolina, Syracuse, and Virginia. In 1981, Jordan accepted a basketball scholarship to North Carolina, where he majored in cultural geography.
As a freshman in coach Dean Smith 's team - oriented system, he was named ACC Freshman of the Year after he averaged 13.4 points per game (ppg) on 53.4 % shooting (field goal percentage). He made the game - winning jump shot in the 1982 NCAA Championship game against Georgetown, which was led by future NBA rival Patrick Ewing. Jordan later described this shot as the major turning point in his basketball career. During his three seasons at North Carolina, he averaged 17.7 ppg on 54.0 % shooting, and added 5.0 rebounds per game (rpg). He was selected by consensus to the NCAA All - American First Team in both his sophomore (1983) and junior (1984) seasons. After winning the Naismith and the Wooden College Player of the Year awards in 1984, Jordan left North Carolina one year before his scheduled graduation to enter the 1984 NBA draft. The Chicago Bulls selected Jordan with the third overall pick, after Hakeem Olajuwon (Houston Rockets) and Sam Bowie (Portland Trail Blazers). One of the primary reasons why Jordan was not drafted sooner was because the first two teams were in need of a center. However, Trail Blazers general manager Stu Inman contended that it was not a matter of drafting a center, but more a matter of taking Sam Bowie over Jordan, in part because Portland already had Clyde Drexler, who was a guard with similar skills to Jordan. ESPN, citing Bowie 's injury - laden college career, named the Blazers ' choice of Bowie as the worst draft pick in North American professional sports history. Jordan returned to North Carolina to complete his degree in 1986.
During his rookie season in the NBA, Jordan averaged 28.2 ppg on 51.5 % shooting. He quickly became a fan favorite even in opposing arenas, and appeared on the cover of Sports Illustrated with the heading "A Star Is Born '' just over a month into his professional career. Jordan was also voted in as an All - Star starter by the fans in his rookie season. Controversy arose before the All - Star game when word surfaced that several veteran players -- led by Isiah Thomas -- were upset by the amount of attention Jordan was receiving. This led to a so - called "freeze - out '' on Jordan, where players refused to pass the ball to him throughout the game. The controversy left Jordan relatively unaffected when he returned to regular season play, and he would go on to be voted Rookie of the Year. The Bulls finished the season 38 -- 44 and lost to the Milwaukee Bucks in four games in the first round of the playoffs.
Jordan 's second season was cut short when he broke his foot in the third game of the year, causing him to miss 64 games. Despite Jordan 's injury and a 30 -- 52 record (at the time it was fifth worst record of any team to qualify for the playoffs in NBA history), the Bulls made the playoffs. Jordan recovered in time to participate in the playoffs and performed well upon his return. Against a 1985 -- 86 Boston Celtics team that is often considered one of the greatest in NBA history, Jordan set the still - unbroken record for points in a playoff game with 63 in Game 2. The Celtics, however, managed to sweep the series.
Jordan had completely recovered in time for the 1986 -- 87 season, and he had one of the most prolific scoring seasons in NBA history. He joined Wilt Chamberlain as the only two players to score 3,000 points in a season, averaging a league high 37.1 points on 48.2 % shooting. In addition, Jordan demonstrated his defensive prowess, as he became the first player in NBA history to record 200 steals and 100 blocked shots in a season. Despite Jordan 's success, Magic Johnson won the league 's Most Valuable Player Award. The Bulls reached 40 wins, and advanced to the playoffs for the third consecutive year. However, they were again swept by the Celtics.
Jordan again led the league in scoring during the 1987 -- 88 season, averaging 35.0 ppg on 53.5 % shooting and won his first league MVP Award. He was also named the Defensive Player of the Year, as he had averaged 1.6 blocks and a league high 3.16 steals per game. The Bulls finished 50 -- 32, and made it out of the first round of the playoffs for the first time in Jordan 's career, as they defeated the Cleveland Cavaliers in five games. However, the Bulls then lost in five games to the more experienced Detroit Pistons, who were led by Isiah Thomas and a group of physical players known as the "Bad Boys ''.
In the 1988 -- 89 season, Jordan again led the league in scoring, averaging 32.5 ppg on 53.8 % shooting from the field, along with 8 rpg and 8 assists per game (apg). The Bulls finished with a 47 -- 35 record, and advanced to the Eastern Conference Finals, defeating the Cavaliers and New York Knicks along the way. The Cavaliers series included a career highlight for Jordan when he hit The Shot over Craig Ehlo at the buzzer in the fifth and final game of the series. However, the Pistons again defeated the Bulls, this time in six games, by utilizing their "Jordan Rules '' method of guarding Jordan, which consisted of double and triple teaming him every time he touched the ball.
The Bulls entered the 1989 -- 90 season as a team on the rise, with their core group of Jordan and young improving players like Scottie Pippen and Horace Grant, and under the guidance of new coach Phil Jackson. Jordan averaged a league leading 33.6 ppg on 52.6 % shooting, to go with 6.9 rpg and 6.3 apg in leading the Bulls to a 55 -- 27 record. They again advanced to the Eastern Conference Finals after beating the Bucks and Philadelphia 76ers. However, despite pushing the series to seven games, the Bulls lost to the Pistons for the third consecutive season.
In the 1990 -- 91 season, Jordan won his second MVP award after averaging 31.5 ppg on 53.9 % shooting, 6.0 rpg, and 5.5 apg for the regular season. The Bulls finished in first place in their division for the first time in 16 years and set a franchise record with 61 wins in the regular season. With Scottie Pippen developing into an All - Star, the Bulls had elevated their play. The Bulls defeated the New York Knicks and the Philadelphia 76ers in the opening two rounds of the playoffs. They advanced to the Eastern Conference Finals where their rival, the Detroit Pistons, awaited them. However, this time the Bulls beat the Pistons in a four - game sweep.
The Bulls advanced to the NBA Finals for the first time in franchise history to face the Los Angeles Lakers, who had Magic Johnson and James Worthy, two formidable opponents. The Bulls won the series four games to one, and compiled an outstanding 15 -- 2 playoff record along the way. Perhaps the best known moment of the series came in Game 2 when, attempting a dunk, Jordan avoided a potential Sam Perkins block by switching the ball from his right hand to his left in mid-air to lay the shot into the basket. In his first Finals appearance, Jordan posted per game averages of 31.2 points on 56 % shooting from the field, 11.4 assists, 6.6 rebounds, 2.8 steals, and 1.4 blocks. Jordan won his first NBA Finals MVP award, and he cried while holding the NBA Finals trophy.
Jordan and the Bulls continued their dominance in the 1991 -- 92 season, establishing a 67 -- 15 record, topping their franchise record from 1990 to 91. Jordan won his second consecutive MVP award with averages of 30.1 points, 6.4 rebounds and 6.1 assists per game on 52 % shooting. After winning a physical 7 - game series over the New York Knicks in the second round of the playoffs and finishing off the Cleveland Cavaliers in the Conference Finals in 6 games, the Bulls met Clyde Drexler and the Portland Trail Blazers in the Finals. The media, hoping to recreate a Magic -- Bird rivalry, highlighted the similarities between "Air '' Jordan and Clyde "The Glide '' during the pre-Finals hype. In the first game, Jordan scored a Finals - record 35 points in the first half, including a record - setting six three - point field goals. After the sixth three - pointer, he jogged down the court shrugging as he looked courtside. Marv Albert, who broadcast the game, later stated that it was as if Jordan was saying, "I ca n't believe I 'm doing this. '' The Bulls went on to win Game 1, and defeat the Blazers in six games. Jordan was named Finals MVP for the second year in a row and finished the series averaging 35.8 ppg, 4.8 rpg, and 6.5 apg, while shooting 53 % from the floor.
In the 1992 -- 93 season, despite a 32.6 ppg, 6.7 rpg, and 5.5 apg campaign, Jordan 's streak of consecutive MVP seasons ended as he lost the award to his friend Charles Barkley. Coincidentally, Jordan and the Bulls met Barkley and his Phoenix Suns in the 1993 NBA Finals. The Bulls won their third NBA championship on a game - winning shot by John Paxson and a last - second block by Horace Grant, but Jordan was once again Chicago 's leader. He averaged a Finals - record 41.0 ppg during the six - game series, and became the first player in NBA history to win three straight Finals MVP awards. He scored more than 30 points in every game of the series, including 40 or more points in 4 consecutive games. With his third Finals triumph, Jordan capped off a seven - year run where he attained seven scoring titles and three championships, but there were signs that Jordan was tiring of his massive celebrity and all of the non-basketball hassles in his life.
During the Bulls ' playoff run in 1993, controversy arose when Jordan was seen gambling in Atlantic City, New Jersey, the night before a game against the New York Knicks. In that same year, he admitted that he had to cover $57,000 in gambling losses, and author Richard Esquinas wrote a book claiming he had won $1.25 million from Jordan on the golf course. In 2005, Jordan talked to Ed Bradley of the CBS evening show 60 Minutes about his gambling and admitted that he made some reckless decisions. Jordan stated, "Yeah, I 've gotten myself into situations where I would not walk away and I 've pushed the envelope. Is that compulsive? Yeah, it depends on how you look at it. If you 're willing to jeopardize your livelihood and your family, then yeah. '' When Bradley asked him if his gambling ever got to the level where it jeopardized his livelihood or family, Jordan replied, "No. ''
On October 6, 1993, Jordan announced his retirement, citing a loss of desire to play the game. Jordan later stated that the death of his father earlier in the year also shaped his decision. Jordan 's father was murdered on July 23, 1993, at a highway rest area in Lumberton, North Carolina, by two teenagers, Daniel Green and Larry Martin Demery, who carjacked the luxury vehicle. The assailants were traced from calls that they made on James Jordan 's cellular phone. The two criminals were caught, convicted at trial, and sentenced to life in prison. Jordan was close to his father; as a child he had imitated his father 's proclivity to stick out his tongue while absorbed in work. He later adopted it as his own signature, displaying it each time he drove to the basket. In 1996, he founded a Chicago area Boys & Girls Club and dedicated it to his father.
In his 1998 autobiography For the Love of the Game, Jordan wrote that he had been preparing for retirement as early as the summer of 1992. The added exhaustion due to the Dream Team run in the 1992 Olympics solidified Jordan 's feelings about the game and his ever - growing celebrity status. Jordan 's announcement sent shock waves throughout the NBA and appeared on the front pages of newspapers around the world.
Jordan then further surprised the sports world by signing a minor league baseball contract with the Chicago White Sox on February 7, 1994. He reported to spring training in Sarasota, Florida, and was assigned to the team 's minor league system on March 31, 1994. Jordan has stated this decision was made to pursue the dream of his late father, who had always envisioned his son as a Major League Baseball player. The White Sox were another team owned by Bulls owner Jerry Reinsdorf, who continued to honor Jordan 's basketball contract during the years he played baseball.
In 1994, Jordan played for the Birmingham Barons, a Double - A minor league affiliate of the Chicago White Sox, batting. 202 with three home runs, 51 runs batted in, 30 stolen bases, 114 strikeouts, 51 base on balls, and 11 errors. He also appeared for the Scottsdale Scorpions in the 1994 Arizona Fall League, batting. 252 against the top prospects in baseball. On November 1, 1994, his number 23 was retired by the Bulls in a ceremony that included the erection of a permanent sculpture known as The Spirit outside the new United Center.
In the 1993 -- 94 season, the Bulls, without Jordan, achieved a 55 -- 27 record, and lost to the New York Knicks in the second round of the playoffs. But the 1994 -- 95 Bulls were a shell of the championship team of just two years earlier. Struggling at mid-season to ensure a spot in the playoffs, Chicago was 31 -- 31 at one point in mid-March. The team received help, however, when Jordan decided to return to the NBA for the Bulls.
In March 1995, Jordan decided to quit baseball due to the ongoing Major League Baseball strike, as he wanted to avoid becoming a potential replacement player. On March 18, 1995, Jordan announced his return to the NBA through a two - word press release: "I 'm back. '' The next day, Jordan took to the court with the Bulls to face the Indiana Pacers in Indianapolis, scoring 19 points. The game had the highest Nielsen rating of a regular season NBA game since 1975. Although he could have opted to wear his normal number in spite of the Bulls having retired it, Jordan instead wore number 45, as he had while playing baseball.
Although he had not played an NBA game in a year and a half, Jordan played well upon his return, making a game - winning jump shot against Atlanta in his fourth game back. He then scored 55 points in the next game against the Knicks at Madison Square Garden on March 28, 1995. Boosted by Jordan 's comeback, the Bulls went 13 -- 4 to make the playoffs and advanced to the Eastern Conference Semifinals against the Orlando Magic. At the end of Game 1, Orlando 's Nick Anderson stripped Jordan from behind, leading to the game - winning basket for the Magic; he would later comment that Jordan "did n't look like the old Michael Jordan '' and that "No. 45 does n't explode like No. 23 used to. ''
Jordan responded by scoring 38 points in the next game, which Chicago won. Before the game, Jordan decided that he would resume wearing his former number, 23, immediately. The Bulls were fined $25,000 for failing to report the impromptu number change to the NBA. Jordan was fined an additional $5,000 for opting to wear white shoes as the rest of the Bulls wore black. He averaged 31 points per game in the series, but Orlando won the series in 6 games.
Freshly motivated by the playoff defeat, Jordan trained aggressively for the 1995 -- 96 season. Strengthened by the addition of rebound specialist Dennis Rodman, the Bulls dominated the league, starting the season 41 -- 3, and eventually finishing with the then - best regular season record in NBA history (later surpassed by the 2015 -- 16 Golden State Warriors): 72 -- 10. Jordan led the league in scoring with 30.4 ppg, and won the league 's regular season and All - Star Game MVP awards.
In the playoffs, the Bulls lost only three games in four series (Miami Heat 3 -- 0, New York Knicks 4 -- 1, Orlando Magic 4 -- 0). They defeated the Seattle SuperSonics 4 -- 2 in the NBA Finals to win their fourth championship. Jordan was named Finals MVP for a record fourth time, surpassing Magic Johnson 's three Finals MVP awards. He also achieved only the second sweep of the MVP Awards in the All - Star Game, regular season and NBA Finals, Willis Reed having achieved the first, during the 1969 -- 70 season. Because this was Jordan 's first championship since his father 's murder, and it was won on Father 's Day, Jordan reacted very emotionally upon winning the title, including a memorable scene of him crying on the locker room floor with the game ball.
In the 1996 -- 97 season, the Bulls started out 69 -- 11, but missed out on a second consecutive 70 - win season by losing their final two games to finish 69 -- 13. However, this year Jordan was beaten for the NBA MVP Award by Karl Malone. The Bulls again advanced to the Finals, where they faced Malone and the Utah Jazz. The series against the Jazz featured two of the more memorable clutch moments of Jordan 's career. He won Game 1 for the Bulls with a buzzer - beating jump shot. In Game 5, with the series tied at 2, Jordan played despite being feverish and dehydrated from a stomach virus. In what is known as the "Flu Game '', Jordan scored 38 points, including the game - deciding 3 - pointer with 25 seconds remaining. The Bulls won 90 -- 88 and went on to win the series in six games. For the fifth time in as many Finals appearances, Jordan received the Finals MVP award. During the 1997 NBA All - Star Game, Jordan posted the first triple double in All - Star Game history in a victorious effort; however, he did not receive the MVP award.
Jordan and the Bulls compiled a 62 -- 20 record in the 1997 -- 98 season. Jordan led the league with 28.7 points per game, securing his fifth regular - season MVP award, plus honors for All - NBA First Team, First Defensive Team and the All - Star Game MVP. The Bulls won the Eastern Conference Championship for a third straight season, including surviving a seven - game series with the Indiana Pacers in the Eastern Conference Finals; it was the first time Jordan had played in a Game 7 since the 1992 Eastern Conference Semifinals with the Knicks. After winning, they moved on for a rematch with the Jazz in the Finals.
The Bulls returned to the Delta Center for Game 6 on June 14, 1998, leading the series 3 -- 2. Jordan executed a series of plays, considered to be one of the greatest clutch performances in NBA Finals history. With the Bulls trailing 86 -- 83 with 41.9 seconds remaining in the fourth quarter, Phil Jackson called a timeout. When play resumed, Jordan received the inbound pass, drove to the basket, and hit a shot over several Jazz defenders, cutting the Utah lead to 86 -- 85. The Jazz brought the ball upcourt and passed the ball to forward Karl Malone, who was set up in the low post and was being guarded by Rodman. Malone jostled with Rodman and caught the pass, but Jordan cut behind him and took the ball out of his hands for a steal. Jordan then dribbled down the court and paused, eyeing his defender, Jazz guard Bryon Russell. With 10 seconds remaining, Jordan started to dribble right, then crossed over to his left, possibly pushing off Russell, although the officials did not call a foul. With 5.2 seconds left, Jordan gave Chicago an 87 -- 86 lead with a game - winning jumper, the climactic shot of his Bulls career. Afterwards, John Stockton missed a game - winning three - pointer. Jordan and the Bulls won their sixth NBA championship and second three - peat. Once again, Jordan was voted the Finals MVP, having led all scorers averaging 33.5 points per game, including 45 in the deciding Game 6. Jordan 's six Finals MVPs is a record; Shaquille O'Neal, Magic Johnson, LeBron James and Tim Duncan are tied for second place with three apiece. The 1998 Finals holds the highest television rating of any Finals series in history. Game 6 also holds the highest television rating of any game in NBA history.
With Phil Jackson 's contract expiring, the pending departures of Scottie Pippen and Dennis Rodman looming, and being in the latter stages of an owner - induced lockout of NBA players, Jordan retired for the second time on January 13, 1999. On January 19, 2000, Jordan returned to the NBA not as a player, but as part owner and President of Basketball Operations for the Washington Wizards. Jordan 's responsibilities with the Wizards were comprehensive. He controlled all aspects of the Wizards ' basketball operations, and had the final say in all personnel matters. Opinions of Jordan as a basketball executive were mixed. He managed to purge the team of several highly paid, unpopular players (such as forward Juwan Howard and point guard Rod Strickland), but used the first pick in the 2001 NBA draft to select high schooler Kwame Brown, who did not live up to expectations and was traded away after four seasons.
Despite his January 1999 claim that he was "99.9 % certain '' that he would never play another NBA game, in the summer of 2001 Jordan expressed interest in making another comeback, this time with his new team. Inspired by the NHL comeback of his friend Mario Lemieux the previous winter, Jordan spent much of the spring and summer of 2001 in training, holding several invitation - only camps for NBA players in Chicago. In addition, Jordan hired his old Chicago Bulls head coach, Doug Collins, as Washington 's coach for the upcoming season, a decision that many saw as foreshadowing another Jordan return.
On September 25, 2001, Jordan announced his return to the NBA to play for the Washington Wizards, indicating his intention to donate his salary as a player to a relief effort for the victims of the September 11, 2001 attacks. In an injury - plagued 2001 -- 02 season, he led the team in scoring (22.9 ppg), assists (5.2 apg), and steals (1.42 spg). However, torn cartilage in his right knee ended Jordan 's season after only 60 games, the fewest he had played in a regular season since playing 17 games after returning from his first retirement during the 1994 -- 95 season. Jordan started 53 of his 60 games for the season, averaging 24.3 points, 5.4 assists, and 6.0 rebounds, and shooting 41.9 % from the field in his 53 starts. His last seven appearances were in a reserve role, in which he averaged just over 20 minutes per game.
Playing in his 14th and final NBA All - Star Game in 2003, Jordan passed Kareem Abdul - Jabbar as the all - time leading scorer in All - Star Game history (a record since broken by Kobe Bryant). That year, Jordan was the only Washington player to play in all 82 games, starting in 67 of them. He averaged 20.0 points, 6.1 rebounds, 3.8 assists, and 1.5 steals per game. He also shot 45 % from the field, and 82 % from the free throw line. Even though he turned 40 during the season, he scored 20 or more points 42 times, 30 or more points nine times, and 40 or more points three times. On February 21, 2003, Jordan became the first 40 - year - old to tally 43 points in an NBA game. During his stint with the Wizards, all of Jordan 's home games at the MCI Center were sold out, and the Wizards were the second most - watched team in the NBA, averaging 20,172 fans a game at home and 19,311 on the road. However, neither of Jordan 's final two seasons resulted in a playoff appearance for the Wizards, and Jordan was often unsatisfied with the play of those around him. At several points he openly criticized his teammates to the media, citing their lack of focus and intensity, notably that of the number one draft pick in the 2001 NBA draft, Kwame Brown.
With the recognition that 2002 -- 03 would be Jordan 's final season, tributes were paid to him throughout the NBA. In his final game at his old home court, the United Center in Chicago, Jordan received a four - minute standing ovation. The Miami Heat retired the number 23 jersey on April 11, 2003, even though Jordan never played for the team. At the 2003 All - Star Game, Jordan was offered a starting spot from Tracy McGrady and Allen Iverson, but refused both. In the end, he accepted the spot of Vince Carter, who decided to give it up under great public pressure.
Jordan played in his final NBA game on April 16, 2003 in Philadelphia. After scoring only 13 points in the game, Jordan went to the bench with 4 minutes and 13 seconds remaining in the third quarter and with his team trailing the Philadelphia 76ers, 75 -- 56. Just after the start of the fourth quarter, the First Union Center crowd began chanting "We want Mike! ''. After much encouragement from coach Doug Collins, Jordan finally rose from the bench and re-entered the game, replacing Larry Hughes with 2: 35 remaining. At 1: 45, Jordan was intentionally fouled by the 76ers ' Eric Snow, and stepped to the line to make both free throws. After the second foul shot, the 76ers in - bounded the ball to rookie John Salmons, who in turn was intentionally fouled by Bobby Simmons one second later, stopping time so that Jordan could return to the bench. Jordan received a three - minute standing ovation from his teammates, his opponents, the officials and the crowd of 21,257 fans.
Jordan played on two Olympic gold medal - winning American basketball teams. He won a gold medal as a college player in the 1984 Summer Olympics. The team was coached by Bob Knight and featured players such as Patrick Ewing, Sam Perkins, Chris Mullin, Steve Alford, and Wayman Tisdale. Jordan led the team in scoring, averaging 17.1 ppg for the tournament.
In the 1992 Summer Olympics, he was a member of the star - studded squad that included Magic Johnson, Larry Bird, and David Robinson and was dubbed the "Dream Team ''. Jordan was the only player to start all 8 games in the Olympics. Playing limited minutes due to the frequent blowouts, Jordan averaged 14.9 ppg, finishing second on the team in scoring. Jordan and fellow Dream Team members Patrick Ewing and Chris Mullin are the only American men 's basketball players to win Olympic gold medals as amateurs and professionals.
After his third retirement, Jordan assumed that he would be able to return to his front office position as Director of Basketball Operations with the Wizards. However, his previous tenure in the Wizards ' front office had produced the aforementioned mixed results and may have also influenced the trade of Richard "Rip '' Hamilton for Jerry Stackhouse (although Jordan was not technically Director of Basketball Operations in 2002). On May 7, 2003, Wizards owner Abe Pollin fired Jordan as Washington 's President of Basketball Operations. Jordan later stated that he felt betrayed, and that if he knew he would be fired upon retiring he never would have come back to play for the Wizards.
Jordan kept busy over the next few years. He stayed in shape, played golf in celebrity charity tournaments, and spent time with his family in Chicago. He also promoted his Jordan Brand clothing line and rode motorcycles. Since 2004, Jordan has owned Michael Jordan Motorsports, a professional closed - course motorcycle road racing team that competed with two Suzukis in the premier Superbike championship sanctioned by the American Motorcyclist Association (AMA) until the end of the 2013 season. In 2006, Jordan and his wife Juanita pledged $5 million to Chicago 's Hales Franciscan High School. The Jordan Brand has made donations to Habitat for Humanity and a Louisiana branch of the Boys & Girls Clubs of America.
On June 15, 2006, Jordan bought a minority stake in the Charlotte Bobcats, becoming the team 's second - largest shareholder behind majority owner Robert L. Johnson. As part of the deal, Jordan took full control over the basketball side of the operation, with the title "Managing Member of Basketball Operations. '' Despite Jordan 's previous success as an endorser, he has made an effort not to be included in Charlotte 's marketing campaigns. A decade earlier, Jordan had made a bid to become part - owner of Charlotte 's original NBA team, the Charlotte Hornets, but talks collapsed when owner George Shinn refused to give Jordan complete control of basketball operations.
In February 2010, it was reported that Jordan was seeking majority ownership of the Bobcats. As February wore on, it became apparent that Jordan and former Houston Rockets president George Postolos were the leading contenders for ownership of the team. On February 27, the Bobcats announced that Johnson had reached an agreement with Jordan and his group, MJ Basketball Holdings, to buy the team pending NBA approval. On March 17, the NBA Board of Governors unanimously approved Jordan 's purchase, making him the first former player to become the majority owner of an NBA team. It also made him the league 's only African - American majority owner of an NBA team.
During the 2011 NBA lockout, The New York Times wrote that Jordan led a group of 10 to 14 hardline owners who wanted to cap the players ' share of basketball - related income at 50 percent and as low as 47. Journalists observed that, during the labor dispute in 1998, Jordan had told Washington Wizards then - owner Abe Pollin, "If you ca n't make a profit, you should sell your team. '' Jason Whitlock of FoxSports.com called Jordan a "sellout '' wanting "current players to pay for his incompetence. '' He cited Jordan 's executive decisions to draft disappointing players Kwame Brown and Adam Morrison.
During the 2011 -- 12 NBA season that was shortened to 66 games by the lockout, the Bobcats posted a 7 -- 59 record. Their. 106 winning percentage was the worst in NBA history. "I 'm not real happy about the record book scenario last year. It 's very, very frustrating '', Jordan said later that year.
Jordan was a shooting guard who was also capable of playing as a small forward (the position he would primarily play during his second return to professional basketball with the Washington Wizards), and as a point guard. Jordan was known throughout his career for being a strong clutch performer. With the Bulls, he decided 25 games with field goals or free throws in the last 30 seconds, including two NBA Finals games and five other playoff contests. His competitiveness was visible in his prolific trash - talk and well - known work ethic. As the Bulls organization built the franchise around Jordan, management had to trade away players who were not "tough enough '' to compete with him in practice. To help improve his defense, he spent extra hours studying film of opponents. On offense, he relied more upon instinct and improvisation at game time. Noted as a durable player, Jordan did not miss four or more games while active for a full season from 1986 -- 87 to 2001 -- 02, when he injured his right knee. He played all 82 games nine times. Jordan has frequently cited David Thompson, Walter Davis, and Jerry West as influences. Confirmed at the start of his career, and possibly later on, Jordan had a special "Love of the Game Clause '' written into his contract (unusual at the time) which allowed him to play basketball against anyone at any time, anywhere.
Jordan had a versatile offensive game. He was capable of aggressively driving to the basket, as well as drawing fouls from his opponents at a high rate; his 8,772 free throw attempts are the ninth - highest total of all time. As his career progressed, Jordan also developed the ability to post up his opponents and score with his trademark fadeaway jump shot, using his leaping ability to "fade away '' from block attempts. According to Hubie Brown, this move alone made him nearly unstoppable. Despite media criticism as a "selfish '' player early in his career, Jordan 's 5.3 assists per game also indicate his willingness to defer to his teammates. After shooting under 30 % from three - point range in his first five seasons in the NBA, including a career - low 13 % in the 1987 -- 88 season, Jordan improved to a career - high 50 % in the 1994 -- 95 season. The three - point shot became more of a focus of his game from 1994 -- 95 to 1996 -- 97, when the NBA shortened its three - point line to 22 ft (6.7 m) (from 23 ft 9 in (7.24 m)). His three - point field - goal percentages ranged from 35 % to 43 % in seasons in which he attempted at least 230 three - pointers between 1989 -- 90 and 1996 -- 97. For a guard, Jordan was also a good rebounder (6.2 per game).
In 1988, Jordan was honored with the NBA 's Defensive Player of the Year Award and became the first NBA player to win both the Defensive Player of the Year and MVP awards in a career (since equaled by Hakeem Olajuwon, David Robinson, and Kevin Garnett; Olajuwon is the only player other than Jordan to win both during the same season). In addition, he set both seasonal and career records for blocked shots by a guard, and combined this with his ball - thieving ability to become a standout defensive player. He ranks third in NBA history in total steals with 2,514, trailing John Stockton and Jason Kidd. Jerry West often stated that he was more impressed with Jordan 's defensive contributions than his offensive ones. He was also known to have strong eyesight; broadcaster Al Michaels said that he was able to read baseball box scores on a 27 - inch television clearly from about 50 feet away.
Jordan 's marked talent was clear from his rookie season. In his first game in Madison Square Garden against the New York Knicks, Jordan received a prolonged standing ovation, a rarity for an opposing player. After Jordan scored a playoff record 63 points against the Boston Celtics on April 20, 1986, Celtics star Larry Bird described him as "God disguised as Michael Jordan. ''
Jordan led the NBA in scoring in 10 seasons (NBA record) and tied Wilt Chamberlain 's record of seven consecutive scoring titles. He was also a fixture on the NBA All - Defensive First Team, making the roster nine times (NBA record shared with Gary Payton, Kevin Garnett and Kobe Bryant). Jordan also holds the top career regular season and playoff scoring averages of 30.1 and 33.4 points per game, respectively. By 1998, the season of his Finals - winning shot against the Jazz, he was well known throughout the league as a clutch performer. In the regular season, Jordan was the Bulls ' primary threat in the final seconds of a close game and in the playoffs, Jordan would always demand the ball at crunch time. Jordan 's total of 5,987 points in the playoffs is the second - highest in NBA history. He retired with 32,292 points in regular season play, placing him fourth on the NBA 's all - time scoring list behind Kareem Abdul - Jabbar, Karl Malone, and Kobe Bryant.
With five regular - season MVPs (tied for second place with Bill Russell -- only Kareem Abdul - Jabbar has won more, with six), six Finals MVPs (NBA record), and three All - Star MVPs, Jordan is the most decorated NBA player. Jordan finished among the top three in regular - season MVP voting a record 10 times, and was named one of the 50 Greatest Players in NBA History in 1996. He is one of only seven players in history to win an NCAA championship, an NBA championship, and an Olympic gold medal (doing so twice with the 1984 and 1992 U.S. men 's basketball teams). Since 1976, the year of the NBA 's merger with the American Basketball Association, Jordan and Pippen are the only two players to win six NBA Finals playing for one team. In the All - Star Game fan ballot, Jordan received the most votes nine times, more than any other player.
Many of Jordan 's contemporaries say that Jordan is the greatest basketball player of all time. In 1999, an ESPN survey of journalists, athletes and other sports figures ranked Jordan the greatest North American athlete of the 20th century, above such luminaries as Babe Ruth and Muhammad Ali. Jordan placed second to Babe Ruth in the Associated Press 's December 1999 list of 20th century athletes. In addition, the Associated Press voted him as the greatest basketball player of the 20th century. Jordan has also appeared on the front cover of Sports Illustrated a record 50 times. In the September 1996 issue of Sport, which was the publication 's 50th anniversary issue, Jordan was named the greatest athlete of the past 50 years.
Jordan 's athletic leaping ability, highlighted in his back - to - back slam dunk contest championships in 1987 and 1988, is credited by many with having influenced a generation of young players. Several current NBA All - Stars have stated that they considered Jordan their role model while growing up, including LeBron James and Dwyane Wade. In addition, commentators have dubbed a number of next - generation players "the next Michael Jordan '' upon their entry to the NBA, including Anfernee "Penny '' Hardaway, Grant Hill, Allen Iverson, Kobe Bryant, LeBron James, Vince Carter, and Dwyane Wade. Although Jordan was a well - rounded player, his "Air Jordan '' image is also often credited with inadvertently decreasing the jump shooting skills, defense, and fundamentals of young players, a fact Jordan himself has lamented.
I think it was the exposure of Michael Jordan; the marketing of Michael Jordan. Everything was marketed towards the things that people wanted to see, which was scoring and dunking. That Michael Jordan still played defense and an all - around game, but it was never really publicized.
Although Jordan has done much to increase the status of the game, some of his impact on the game 's popularity in America appears to be fleeting. Television ratings in particular increased only during his time in the league, and Finals ratings have not returned to the level reached during his last championship - winning season.
In August 2009, the Basketball Hall of Fame in Springfield, Massachusetts, opened a Michael Jordan exhibit that contained items from his college and NBA careers, as well as from the 1992 "Dream Team ''. The exhibit also has a batting glove to signify Jordan 's short career in minor league baseball. After Jordan received word of his acceptance into the Hall of Fame, he selected Class of 1996 member David Thompson to present him. As Jordan would later explain during his induction speech in September 2009, growing up in North Carolina, he was not a fan of the Tar Heels, and greatly admired Thompson, who played at rival North Carolina State. He was inducted into the Hall in September, with several former Bulls teammates in attendance, including Scottie Pippen, Dennis Rodman, Charles Oakley, Ron Harper, Steve Kerr, and Toni Kukoč. Two of Jordan 's former coaches, Dean Smith and Doug Collins, were also among those present. His emotional reaction during his speech -- when he began to cry -- was captured by Associated Press photographer Stephan Savoia and would later become widely shared on social media as the Crying Jordan Internet meme. In 2016, President Barack Obama honored Jordan with a Presidential Medal of Freedom.
Jordan married Juanita Vanoy in September 1989, and they had two sons, Jeffrey Michael and Marcus James, and a daughter, Jasmine. Jordan and Vanoy filed for divorce on January 4, 2002, citing irreconcilable differences, but reconciled shortly thereafter. They again filed for divorce and were granted a final decree of dissolution of marriage on December 29, 2006, commenting that the decision was made "mutually and amicably ''. It is reported that Juanita received a $168 million settlement (equivalent to $200 million in 2016), making it the largest celebrity divorce settlement on public record at the time.
In 1991, Jordan purchased a lot in Highland Park, Illinois, to build a 56,000 square foot mansion, which was completed four years later. Jordan listed his Highland Park mansion for sale in 2012. Both of his sons attended Loyola Academy, a private Roman Catholic high school located in Wilmette, Illinois. Jeffrey graduated as a member of the 2007 graduating class and played his first collegiate basketball game on November 11, 2007, for the University of Illinois. After two seasons, Jeffrey left the Illinois basketball team in 2009. He later rejoined the team for a third season, then received a release to transfer to the University of Central Florida, where Marcus was attending. Marcus transferred to Whitney Young High School after his sophomore year at Loyola Academy and graduated in 2009. He began attending UCF in the fall of 2009, and played three seasons of basketball for the school.
On July 21, 2006, a judge in Cook County, Illinois, determined that Jordan did not owe his alleged former lover Karla Knafel $5 million in a breach of contract claim. Jordan had allegedly paid Knafel $250,000 to keep their relationship a secret. Knafel claimed Jordan promised her $5 million for remaining silent and agreeing not to file a paternity suit after Knafel learned she was pregnant in 1991. A DNA test showed Jordan was not the father of the child.
He proposed to his longtime girlfriend, Cuban - American model Yvette Prieto, on Christmas 2011, and they were married on April 27, 2013, at Bethesda - by - the - Sea Episcopal Church. It was announced on November 30, 2013, that the two were expecting their first child together. On February 11, 2014, Prieto gave birth to identical twin daughters named Victoria and Ysabel.
Jordan is one of the most marketed sports figures in history. He has been a major spokesman for such brands as Nike, Coca - Cola, Chevrolet, Gatorade, McDonald 's, Ball Park Franks, Rayovac, Wheaties, Hanes, and MCI. Jordan has had a long relationship with Gatorade, appearing in over 20 commercials for the company since 1991, including the "Be Like Mike '' commercials in which a song was sung by children wishing to be like Jordan.
Nike created a signature shoe for him, called the Air Jordan. One of Jordan 's more popular commercials for the shoe involved Spike Lee playing the part of Mars Blackmon. In the commercials Lee, as Blackmon, attempted to find the source of Jordan 's abilities and became convinced that "it 's got ta be the shoes ''. The hype and demand for the shoes even brought on a spate of "shoe - jackings '' where people were robbed of their sneakers at gunpoint. Subsequently, Nike spun off the Jordan line into its own division named the "Jordan Brand ''. The company features an impressive list of athletes and celebrities as endorsers. The brand has also sponsored college sports programs such as those of North Carolina, Cal, Georgetown, and Marquette.
Jordan also has been associated with the Looney Tunes cartoon characters. A Nike commercial shown during 1992 's Super Bowl XXVI featured Jordan and Bugs Bunny playing basketball. The Super Bowl commercial inspired the 1996 live action / animated film Space Jam, which starred Jordan and Bugs in a fictional story set during the former 's first retirement from basketball. They have subsequently appeared together in several commercials for MCI. Jordan also made an appearance in the music video of Michael Jackson 's "Jam '' (1992).
Jordan 's yearly income from the endorsements is estimated to be over forty million dollars. In addition, when Jordan 's power at the ticket gates was at its highest point, the Bulls regularly sold out both their home and road games. Due to this, Jordan set records in player salary by signing annual contracts worth in excess of US $30 million per season. An academic study found that Jordan 's first NBA comeback resulted in an increase in the market capitalization of his client firms of more than $1 billion.
Most of Jordan 's endorsement deals, including his first deal with Nike, were engineered by his agent, David Falk. Jordan has described Falk as "the best at what he does '' and that "marketing-wise, he 's great. He 's the one who came up with the concept of ' Air Jordan. ' ''
In June 2010, Jordan was ranked by Forbes magazine as the 20th-most powerful celebrity in the world with $55 million earned between June 2009 and June 2010. According to the Forbes article, Jordan Brand generates $1 billion in sales for Nike. In June 2014, Jordan was named the first NBA player to become a billionaire, after he increased his stake in the Charlotte Hornets from 80 % to 89.5 %. On January 20, 2015, Jordan was honored with the Charlotte Business Journal 's Business Person of the Year for 2014. As of April 2017, his current net worth is estimated at $1.31 billion by Forbes. Jordan is the third - richest African - American as of 2017, behind Oprah Winfrey and Robert F. Smith.
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what military museum is located adjacent to eglin air force base in florida | Air Force Armament Museum - wikipedia
The Air Force Armament Museum, adjacent to Eglin Air Force Base, Florida, is the only facility in the U.S. dedicated to the display of Air Force armament. Founded in 1975, it was originally located in a converted gymnasium on the northeastern edge of the Eglin main base, adjacent to Valparaiso, Florida.
Visitors can view a variety of historical Air Force planes, from a World War II B - 17 bomber to an F - 4 Phantom II jet. A wide variety of bombs, missiles, and rockets are exhibited, including the newest air - to - air missile, the AMRAAM, and the GBU - 28 bunker - buster developed for use during Operation Desert Storm. Other missiles include the Paveway series, Falcons, the Tomahawk, Mace, Hound Dog, radar - controlled, laser - controlled and several guided by a TV camera in the nose. Also on display is the GBU - 43 MOAB, Massive Ordnance Air Blast bomb, or by its nickname, "Mother of All Bombs '', the world 's largest conventional explosive weapon. A predecessor, the T12 38,600 lb. demolition bomb, is displayed outside, while a Fat Man casing is indoors.
A gun vault displays a variety of weapons ranging from a 1903 Springfield rifle to the GAU - 8, which is capable of shooting 6,000 rounds per minute. Featured here is the Sikes Antique Pistol Collection, with over 180 handguns, including flintlocks, duelling pistols, Western six - shooters, Civil War pistols, and a wide variety of early military weaponry.
Discussion of the founding of a facility dedicated to the history of the development of armaments began at Eglin Air Force Base in 1972 with manpower considerations being circulated in early fall, with a plan approved in 1974. A former World War II - era gymnasium turned Enlisted Club near the old main gate to Valparaiso was adapted in 1975 -- 1976 for the initial collection. Exhibits included the CGM - 13 Mace missile, the F - 84F, the F - 101B, the B - 17 Flying Fortress, and the B - 25 Mitchell that had been displayed in Valparaiso - Niceville since 1960. Also popular was a Ryan Model 47 Firebee painted as a shark. A SPAD S. XIII, one of six survivors of the type, marked as ' 1 ' and flown by Captain Eddie Rickenbacker of the 94th Aero Squadron, on loan from Dolph Overton 's Wings and Wheels Museum, Santee, South Carolina, was displayed from 1976 until the original building was closed. The museum occupied these wooden quarters until the structure was condemned in 1981, and the museum was closed in October.
The AFAM Foundation, incorporated in 1976 as an IRS 501 (c) (3) philanthropic non-profit organization, began searching for a new site while raising funds for a new building. By mid-1985, $1.2 million in private and corporate donations had been raised, and construction of a new 28,000 - square - foot (2,600 m) museum was underway. In November of the same year, the new museum was deeded to the United States Air Force and opened to the public. The museum recorded more than one million visits by June 1995, director / curator Russ Sneddon reported. The foundation is currently trying to raise $1.5 million for a new educational annex.
The Air Force Armament Museum Foundation is a volunteer body that runs the fund generating programs of the Armament Museum and decides how funds donated to the museum are spent.
The most constant of these programs is the gift shop, which offers moderately priced souvenirs.
The Friends of the Museum is a membership program in which members ' dues help fund the museum. Members receive discounts in the gift shop and notice of special events.
The Foundation sponsors the education program Engineers for America, which involves a school classroom tour of the museum with basic engineering experiments led by teachers and volunteers. The goal of the program is to stimulate in young people a desire to pursue a career in engineering.
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where did the emergency number 911 come from | 9 - 1 - 1 - wikipedia
9 - 1 - 1, also written 911, is an emergency telephone number for the North American Numbering Plan (NANP), one of eight N11 codes. Like other emergency numbers around the world, this number is intended for use in emergency circumstances only, and using it for any other purpose (such as making false or prank calls) is a crime in certain jurisdictions.
In over 98 % of locations in the United States and Canada, dialing "9 - 1 - 1 '' from any telephone will link the caller to an emergency dispatch office -- called a public - safety answering point (PSAP) by the telecom industry -- which can send emergency responders to the caller 's location in an emergency. In approximately 96 percent of the U.S., the enhanced 9 - 1 - 1 system automatically pairs caller numbers with a physical address.
In the Philippines, the 9 - 1 - 1 emergency hotline has been available to the public since August 1, 2016, although it was first available in Davao City. It is the first of its kind in Asia - Pacific region. It replaces the previous emergency number 117 used outside Davao City.
As of 2017, a 9 - 1 - 1 system is in use in Mexico, where implementation in different states and municipalities is being conducted.
999 is used in Singapore, Malaysia, Hong Kong, the United Kingdom, and many British territories amongst other places. 112 is the equivalent emergency number used in the European Union and various other countries. In the US, some carriers, including AT&T, map the number 112 to the emergency number 9 - 1 - 1. 000 is used in Australia. 100 is the emergency number of India
In the earliest days of telephone technology, prior to the development of the rotary dial telephone, all telephone calls were operator - assisted. To place a call, the caller was required to pick up the telephone receiver, sometimes turn a magneto crank, and wait for the telephone operator to answer. The caller would then ask to be connected to the number they wished to call, and the operator would make the required connection manually, by means of a switchboard.
In an emergency, the caller might simply say "Get me the police '', "I want to report a fire '', or "I need an ambulance or doctor ''. Until dial service came into use, one could not place calls without proper operator assistance.
The first known use of a national emergency telephone number began in the United Kingdom in 1937, using the number 999, which continues to this day. In the United States, the push for the development of a nationwide American emergency telephone number came in 1957 when the National Association of Fire Chiefs recommended that a single number be used for reporting fires. The first city in North America to use a central emergency number was the Canadian city of Winnipeg, Manitoba in 1959, which instituted the change at the urging of Stephen Juba, mayor of Winnipeg at the time. Winnipeg initially used 999 as the emergency number, but switched numbers when 9 - 1 - 1 was proposed by the United States. In 1967, the President 's Commission on Law Enforcement and Administration of Justice recommended the creation of a single number that could be used nationwide for reporting emergencies. The Federal Communications Commission then met with AT&T in November 1967 in order to choose the number.
In 1968, the number was agreed upon. AT&T chose the number 9 - 1 - 1, which was simple, easy to remember, dialed easily, and worked well with the phone systems in place at the time. At the time, this announcement only affected the Bell System telephone companies; independent phone companies were not included in the emergency telephone plan. However, Bob Gallagher of the Alabama Telephone Company decided he wanted to implement it ahead of AT&T, and the company chose Haleyville, Alabama, as the location.
On February 16, 1968, Alabama Speaker of the House Rankin Fite placed the first - ever 9 - 1 - 1 call from Haleyville City Hall, to Congressman Tom Bevill, at the city 's police station. Bevill was accompanied by Gallagher and Alabama Public Service Commission director Eugene "Bull '' Connor. The phone used to answer the first 9 - 1 - 1 call, a bright red model, is now in a museum in Haleyville, while a duplicate phone is still in use at the police station.
AT&T made its first implementation in Huntington, Indiana, the hometown of J. Edward Roush, who sponsored the federal legislation to establish the nationwide system, on March 1, 1968. However, the spread of 9 - 1 - 1 implementation took many years. For example, although the City of Chicago, Illinois, had access to 9 - 1 - 1 service as early as 1976, the Illinois Commerce Commission did not authorize telephone service provider Illinois Bell to offer 9 - 1 - 1 to the Chicago suburbs until 1981. Implementation was not immediate even then; by 1984, only eight Chicago suburbs in Cook County had 9 - 1 - 1 service. As late as 1989, at least 28 Chicago suburbs still lacked 9 - 1 - 1 service; some of those towns had previously elected to decline 9 - 1 - 1 service due to costs and -- according to emergency response personnel -- failure to recognize the benefits of the 9 - 1 - 1 system. By 1979, 26 % of the U.S. population could dial the number. This increased to 50 % by 1987 and 93 % by 2000. As of December 2017, 98.9 % of the U.S. population has access.
Conversion to 9 - 1 - 1 in Canada began in 1972, and as of 2018 virtually all areas, except for some rural areas, such as the Northwest Territories and Nunavut, are using 9 - 1 - 1. As of 2008, each year Canadians make twelve million calls to 9 - 1 - 1.
On September 15, 2010, AT&T announced that the State of Tennessee had approved a service to support a text to 9 - 1 - 1 trial statewide, where AT&T would be able to allow its users to send text messages to 9 - 1 - 1 PSAPs.
Most British Overseas Territories in the Caribbean use the North American Numbering Plan; Anguilla, Bermuda, the British Virgin Islands, and the Cayman Islands use 9 - 1 - 1.
On October 3, 2016, sixteen states of Mexico switched their emergency phone number from 0 - 6 - 6 to 9 - 1 - 1, and the whole country converted in June 2017.
Enhanced 9 - 1 - 1 (E-911 or E911) automatically gives the dispatcher the caller 's location, if available. Enhanced 9 - 1 - 1 is available in most areas (approximately 96 percent of the U.S.).
In all North American jurisdictions, special privacy legislation permits emergency operators to obtain a 9 - 1 - 1 caller 's telephone number and location information. This information is gathered by mapping the calling phone number to an address in a database. This database function is known as Automatic Location Identification (ALI). The database is generally maintained by the local telephone company, under a contract with the PSAP. Each telephone company has its own standards for the formatting of the database. Most ALI databases have a companion database known as the MSAG, Master Street Address Guide. The MSAG describes address elements including the exact spellings of street names, and street number ranges.
In the case of mobile phones, the associated billing address is not necessarily the location to which emergency responders should be sent, since the device is portable. This means that locating the caller is more complicated, and there is a different set of legal and technical requirements. To locate a mobile telephone geographically, there are two general approaches: to use some form of radiolocation from the cellular network, or to use a Global Positioning System receiver built into the phone itself. Both approaches are described by the radio resource location services protocol (LCS protocol). Depending on the mobile phone hardware, one of two types of location information can be provided to the operator. The first is Wireless Phase One (WPH1), which is the tower location and the direction the call came from, and the second is Wireless Phase Two (WPH2), which provides an estimated GPS location.
As Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP) technology matured, service providers began to interconnect VoIP with the public switched telephone network and marketed the VoIP service as a cheap replacement phone service. However, E911 regulations and legal penalties have severely hampered the more widespread adoption of VoIP: VoIP is much more flexible than land line phone service, and there is no easy way to verify the physical location of a caller on a nomadic VoIP network at any given time (especially in the case of wireless networks), and so many providers offered services which specifically excluded 9 - 1 - 1 service so as to avoid the severe E-911 non-compliance penalties. VoIP services tried to improvise, such as routing 9 - 1 - 1 calls to the administrative phone number of the Public Safety Answering Point, adding on software to track phone locations, etc.
In response to the E911 challenges inherent to IP phone systems, specialized technology has been developed to locate callers in the event of an emergency. Some of these new technologies allow the caller to be located down to the specific office on a particular floor of a building. These solutions support a wide range of organizations with IP telephony networks. The solutions are available for service providers offering hosted IP PBX and residential VoIP services. This increasingly important segment in IP phone technology includes E911 call routing services and automated phone tracking appliances. Many of these solutions have been established according to FCC, CRTC, and NENA i2 standards, in order to help enterprises and service providers reduce liability concerns and meet E911 regulations.
9 - 1 - 1 dispatchers use computer - aided dispatch (CAD) to record a log of police, fire, and EMS services. It can either be used to send messages to the dispatchee via a mobile data terminal (MDT) and / or used to store and retrieve data (i.e. radio logs, field interviews, client information, schedules, etc.). A dispatcher may announce the call details to field units over a two - way radio. Some systems communicate using a two - way radio system 's selective calling features.
CAD systems may send text messages with call - for - service details to alphanumeric pagers or wireless telephony text services like SMS. The central idea is that persons in a dispatch center are able to easily view and understand the status of all units being dispatched. CAD provides displays and tools so that the dispatcher has an opportunity to handle calls - for - service as efficiently as possible.
In the United States, 9 - 1 - 1 and enhanced 9 - 1 - 1 are typically funded based on state laws that impose monthly fees on local and wireless telephone customers. In Canada, a similar fee for service structure is regulated by the federal Canadian Radio Television and Telecommunications Commission (CRTC).
Depending on the location, counties and cities may also levy a fee, which may be in addition to, or in lieu of, the federal fee. The fees are collected by local telephone and wireless carriers through monthly surcharges on customer telephone bills. The collected fees are remitted to 9 - 1 - 1 administrative bodies, which may be statewide 9 - 1 - 1 boards, state public utility commissions, state revenue departments, or local 9 - 1 - 1 agencies. These agencies disburse the funds to the Public Safety Answering Points for 9 - 1 - 1 purposes as specified in the various statutes.
Telephone companies in both the United States and Canada, including wireless carriers, may be entitled to apply for and receive reimbursements for costs of their compliance with federal and state laws requiring that their networks be compatible with 9 - 1 - 1 and enhanced 9 - 1 - 1.
Fees vary widely by locality. They may range from around $. 25 per month to $3.00 per month, per line. The average wireless 9 - 1 - 1 fee in the United States, based on the fees for each state as published by the National Emergency Number Association (NENA), is around $. 72.
Monthly fees usually do not vary based on the customer 's usage of the network, though some states do cap the number of lines subject to the fee for large multi-line businesses.
Reaching a 9 - 1 - 1 dispatcher does not guarantee that emergency services will actually be able to respond to the call, as they are funded and operated separately. One egregious example occurred during a budget crunch in Josephine County, Oregon in 2013, when no county police were on duty and no state police were available to respond to a female caller whose abusive ex-boyfriend was in the process of breaking into her apartment. After the caller spent ten minutes on the phone with the dispatcher, the ex-boyfriend succeeded in breaking in and raping her.
In 2013, the next - of - kin of Detroit murder victim Stacey Hightower sued the city for its 90 - minute 9 - 1 - 1 response time. For Robert Poff, a patient experiencing problems breathing, a twenty - minute delay in summoning emergency medical aid proved fatal. Police emergency response times in the bankrupt city in 2013 were typically fifty minutes to one hour, and ambulance response times at least twelve to twenty minutes.
In the U.S., some states have rules requiring that every landline telephone that can access the network be able to dial 9 - 1 - 1, regardless of any reason that normal service may have been disconnected (including non-payment). (This only applies to states with a Do Not Disconnect policy in place.) Telephone companies in those states must provide a "soft '' or "warm '' dial tone service; details can be found at FCC. On wired (land line) phones, this usually is accomplished by a "soft '' dial tone, which sounds normal but will allow only emergency calls. Often, an unused and unpublished phone number will be issued to the line so that it will work properly.
With regard to mobile phones, the rules require carriers to connect 9 - 1 - 1 calls from any mobile phone, regardless of whether that phone is currently active. Similar rules for inactive telephones apply in Canada.
When a cellular phone is deactivated, the phone number is often recycled to a new user, or to a new phone for the same user. The deactivated cell phone will still complete a 9 - 1 - 1 call (if it has battery power) but the 9 - 1 - 1 operator will see a specialized number indicating the cell phone has been deactivated. It is usually represented with an area code of (911) - xxx - xxxx. If the call is disconnected, the 9 - 1 - 1 operator will not be able to connect to the original caller. Also because the cell phone is no longer activated, the 9 - 1 - 1 operator is often unable to get Phase II information.
About 70 percent of 9 - 1 - 1 calls came from cell phones in 2014, and finding out where the calls came from required triangulation. A USA Today study showed that where information was compiled on the subject, many of the calls from cell phones did not include information allowing the caller to be located. Chances of getting as close as 100 feet were higher in areas with more towers. But if a call was made from a large building, even that would not be enough to precisely locate the caller. New federal rules, which service providers helped with, require location information for 40 percent of calls by 2017 and 80 percent by 2021.
As recently as April 21, 2016, an unidentified caller dialing 9 - 1 - 1 to report the death of the musical artist Prince still needed to provide the 9 - 1 - 1 dispatcher with the physical address of the building in which the musician had died because the dispatcher had no other means to determine the location of the caller 's cell phone. The caller was asked to locate a piece of mail with the building 's address so that emergency responders could be sent.
If 9 - 1 - 1 is dialed from a commercial Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP) service, depending on how the provider handles such calls, the call may not go anywhere at all, or it may go to a non-emergency number at the public safety answering point associated with the billing or service address of the caller. Because a VoIP adapter can be plugged into any broadband internet connection, a caller could actually be hundreds or even thousands of miles away from home, yet if the call goes to an answering point at all, it would be the one associated with the caller 's address and not the actual location of the call. It may never be possible to reliably and accurately identify the location of a VoIP user, even if a GPS receiver is installed in the VoIP adapter, since such phones are normally used indoors, and thus may be unable to get a signal.
In March 2005, commercial Internet telephony provider Vonage was sued by the Texas Attorney General, who alleged that their website and other sales and service documentation did not make clear enough that Vonage 's provision of 9 - 1 - 1 service was not done in the traditional manner. In May 2005, the FCC issued an order requiring VoIP providers to offer 9 - 1 - 1 service to all their subscribers within 120 days of the order being published. The order set off anxiety among many VoIP providers, who felt it will be too expensive and require them to adopt solutions that wo n't support future VoIP products. In Canada, the federal regulators have required Internet service providers (ISPs) to provide an equivalent service to the conventional PSAPs, but even these encounter problems with caller location, since their databases rely on company billing addresses.
In May 2010, most VoIP users who dial 9 - 1 - 1 are connected to a call center owned by their telephone company, or contracted by them. The operators are most often not trained emergency service providers, and are only there to do their best to connect the caller to the appropriate emergency service. If the call center is able to determine the location of the emergency they try to transfer the caller to the appropriate PSAP. Most often the caller ends up being directed to a PSAP in the general area of the emergency. A 9 - 1 - 1 operator at that PSAP must then determine the location of the emergency, and either send help directly, or transfer the caller to the appropriate emergency service.
VoIP services operating in Canada are required to provide 9 - 1 - 1 emergency service. In April 2008, an 18 - month - old boy in Calgary, Alberta died after a Toronto VoIP provider 's 9 - 1 - 1 operator had an ambulance dispatched to the address of the family 's previous abode in Mississauga, Ontario.
The U.S. Federal Bureau of Investigation has warned of an increase in deliberate false alarms in which a false origin is displayed on calls to emergency services to send SWAT teams or heavily armed police to unsuspecting citizens ' doorsteps. Voice over IP (VoIP) has contributed greatly to the problem by making call origin more difficult to determine quickly and reliably.
In California, state governor Jerry Brown signed legislation imposing liability for the full cost of these false alarms, which can reach $10,000 or more per incident.
When a caller dials 9 - 1 - 1, the call is routed to the local public safety answering point. However, if the caller is reporting an emergency in another jurisdiction, the dispatchers may or may not know how to contact the proper authorities. The publicly posted phone numbers for most police departments in the U.S. are non-emergency numbers that often specifically instruct callers to dial 9 - 1 - 1 in case of emergency, which does not resolve the issue for callers outside of the jurisdiction. In the age of both commercial and personal high speed Internet communications, this issue is becoming an increasing problem.
NENA has developed the North American 9 - 1 - 1 Resource Database which includes the National PSAP Registry. PSAPs can query this database to obtain emergency contact information of a PSAP in another county or state when it receives a call involving another jurisdiction. Online access to this database is provided at no charge for authorized local and state 9 - 1 - 1 authorities.
In the 919 area code, including Raleigh, North Carolina and surrounding communities, a second area code (984) was added using an overlay plan in 2011. Starting in March 2012, people making calls from the 919 area code had to dial the entire number including area code even for local calls, and many people started with 9 - 1 - 1, realized their mistake, and disconnected. Three months after the change, police in Wake County were responding to six times as many "hang - ups '', all of which required a response. This response could be a call - back from the dispatcher (slowing down the ability to respond to actual emergencies), or if that did not get a result, a visit from the police. A supervisor recommended that people remain on the line and explain the mistake. For all of 2012, the number of hang - ups in Wake County was nearly three times what it had been before the switch; over 30,000 police responses resulted. In 2014, hang - up calls remained high, at about four times the rate from before.
PBX systems requiring a "9 '' to reach an outside line and a "1 '' used to indicate an area code can be a problem. If the telephone buttons do n't take input correctly or the caller accidentally presses a button multiple times, the caller might misdial 9 - 9 - 1 - 1 (rather than 9 - 1). If so, the first 9 connects to the outside network, and then a 9 - 1 - 1 call is placed.
News programs and such shows as Rescue 911 have broadcast actual calls to 9 - 1 - 1 centers.
Ohio Senator Tom Patton introduced a bill in 2009 which would have banned the broadcasting of 9 - 1 - 1 calls, requiring the use of transcripts instead. Patton believed that people would be reluctant to make calls because of possible retaliation or threats against those who called. He intended to seek proof of this idea to satisfy those who did not believe him, or that broadcasting 9 - 1 - 1 calls hurt investigations. The Ohio Fraternal Order of Police supported the bill because broadcasts of 9 - 1 - 1 calls have been "sensationalized ''. Ohio Association of Broadcasters director Chris Merritt said the government should not have the right to decide how public records were used. Other opponents of such a ban point out that recordings hold dispatchers accountable and show when they are not doing their jobs properly, in a way transcripts can not.
A bill signed by Alabama governor Bob Riley on April 27, 2010, requires a court order before recordings can be made public. Alaska, Florida, Kentucky, and Wisconsin also had bills banning the broadcasts. Mississippi, Missouri, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, and Wyoming already banned the broadcasts.
In April 2011, the Tennessee Senate passed a bill banning broadcasts of calls unless the caller gave permission.
North Carolina law defines 9 - 1 - 1 recordings as public records, but an exception allows officials to release either transcripts or distorted voices.
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who sings everytime you go away you take a piece of me with you | Everytime You Go Away - wikipedia
"Everytime You Go Away '' is a song written and composed by Daryl Hall. It was first recorded in 1980 by the American duo Hall & Oates but was not released as a single. The song became an international hit, under slightly different spelling, when covered by English singer Paul Young in 1985. There have also been several other versions of this song.
The original version of "Everytime You Go Away '' appeared on Hall & Oates 's 1980 studio album, Voices, although it was not released as a single. Hall & Oates also recorded it for their 1985 concert album Live at the Apollo.
English singer Paul Young recorded a cover of "Every Time You Go Away '' for his studio album The Secret of Association in 1985. His cover features a combination of echoed piano, the distinctive fretless bass of Pino Palladino and an electric sitar, (Coral) and Ovation Spanish acoustic which were both played by John Turnbull.
Young 's version hit number one on the Billboard Hot 100 on July 27, 1985 and was one of two top 10 hits he had on the U.S. pop singles chart. It also topped the U.S. adult contemporary chart for two weeks. The song peaked at No. 4 in the UK, Young 's home country. The song won British Video of the Year at the 1986 Brit Awards. It was one of the songs he played at Live Aid.
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whose season of the bachelor was arie on | Arie Luyendyk Jr.. - Wikipedia
Arie Luyendyk Jr. (born 18 September 1981, ' s - Hertogenbosch, Netherlands) is an auto racing driver and son of two - time Indianapolis 500 winner Arie Luyendyk and resides in Scottsdale, Arizona. Despite his European birth, the most of his adult racing career has taken place in North America where his father lives and made his career. Luyendyk is best known for competing in the Indy Lights Series where he finished 2nd, 3rd and 4th in the Championship over a number of years. He was named a test - driver in A1 Grand Prix alongside Jeroen Bleekemolen for A1 Team The Netherlands starting the 2007 -- 08 season.
Luyendyk has competed in various sports - car series competing in the 12 Hours of Sebring and the 24 Hours of Daytona. More recently he was seen on ABC 's The Bachelorette season 8, where he placed first runner - up and is represented by BRANDed, and on Wipeout: Summer Episode 7: "Bachelors vs. Bachelorettes ''. He is currently set to star in the twenty - second season of The Bachelor.
Luyendyk began racing karts in 1992, and moved to Sports Car Club of America club Formula Ford competition six years later at the age of 16. He raced in a number of American junior formulae, notching wins in the Skip Barber Formula Dodge series and top five finishes the U.S. Formula Ford 2000 Championship. In 2001, Luyendyk finished third in the Formula Continental class at the SCCA National Championship Runoffs as well as winning the SCCA Southern Pacific divisional title on the strength of 4 wins in that same class.
He competed full - time in the first three seasons of the Indy Racing League 's Indy Pro Series (now known as Firestone Indy Lights), beginning in 2002. In his Firestone Indy Lights career, Luyendyk has 1 victory, four pole positions and 24 top - 5 finishes. He was voted IPS "Most Popular Driver '' four years in a row from 2003 -- 06. Luyendyk finished second in the Firestone Indy Lights Championship in 2002, third in 2004, and fourth in 2008.
In 2005, Luyendyk attempted to make his IndyCar Series debut by qualifying for the 2005 Indianapolis 500 in a car owned by Curb - Agajanian / Beck Motorsports. However, with limited track time and a car that never handled properly, Luyendyk 's qualifying speed of 215.039 mph (346.072 km / h) was close to 2 mph (3.2 km / h) slower than the next slowest qualifier at the time. A.J. Foyt hired driver Felipe Giaffone to qualify a third car for him, and Giaffone 's 217.645 mph (350.266 km / h) four - lap average bumped Luyendyk from the field.
Luyendyk did qualify for the 2006 Indianapolis 500 in a car owned by his father and backed by cheapcaribbean.com and Blue Star Jets. The team had limited practice time due to a second week engine program. However, his first race in the more powerful cars ended early due to handling issues, with Luyendyk scoring a 28th - place finish.
In the 2007 - 08 A1 Grand Prix season, Luyendyk drove for A1 Team Netherlands in the A1 Grand Prix World Cup of Motorsport as the team 's "rookie driver ''. His best result was a fifth place training time at Round 5 held in Taupo, New Zealand. He has returned to the Firestone Indy Lights Series to race for AGR - AFS Racing as the teammate to Raphael Matos. He captured his first series win in the final race of the 2008 season at Chicagoland Speedway by passing Matos on a late race restart. Luyendyk would finish the 2008 season fourth in the Championship recording 5 podium finishes.
In 2010 he returned part - time to Indy Lights and drove in the Freedom 100 for Andersen Racing and three other oval races for Alliance Motorsports. His best finish was seventh at Chicagoland.
In 2013 Luyendyk made the switch to off - road racing in the Stadium Super Trucks series, finishing seventh in points. In his partial season Luyendyk notched a heat win and three 4th - place finishes in 7 starts.
Luyendyk finished out the season driving in the Traxxas TORC Series with Aero Motorsports backed by Ethika and Cooper Tires. In Luyendyk 's TORC debut he finished fourth at Crandon International Off - Road Raceway driving in the Pro Light class. On 18 November 2013 Luyendyk completed a test with Dale Coyne Racing in the DW12 IndyCar. Luyendyk ran 138 laps and planned to compete in the IndyCar Series in 2014.
In 2009, Luyendyk became the driver analyst for Versus broadcasts of Indy Lights races. In 2012 Luyendyk returned to the booth, commentating the Indy Lights races for the NBC Sports Network. He appeared as himself in season nine of Hell 's Kitchen. The chefs visited the Long Beach Grand Prix in which Luyendyk was participating.
Luyendyk placed second on the eighth season of the reality show The Bachelorette in which he was trying to win the heart of bachelorette, Emily Maynard. Maynard sent Luyendyk home early during the season finale before accepting a proposal from one of Luyendyk 's friends, Jef Holm.
Luyendyk appeared in the first episode of the seventeenth season of The Bachelor when he visited "Bachelor Pad '' after having a talk with fellow Bachelorette competitor and friend Sean Lowe prior to meeting with that season 's contestants. Luyendyk also competed on Wipeout: Summer Episode 7: "Bachelors vs. Bachelorettes '', but was eliminated early.
(key) (Races in bold indicate pole position)
(key) (Races in bold indicate pole position) (Races in italics indicate fastest lap)
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how many games you have to win to be bowl eligible | Bowl eligibility - wikipedia
Bowl eligibility in college football at the NCAA Division I FBS level is the standard through which teams become available for selection to participate in postseason bowl games. When a team achieves this state, it is described as "bowl - eligible ''.
For nearly a century, bowl games were the purview of only the very best teams, but a steady proliferation of new bowl games required 70 participating teams by the 2010 -- 11 bowl season, then 80 participating teams by the 2015 -- 16 bowl season. As a result, the NCAA has steadily reduced the criteria for bowl eligibility, allowing teams with a non-winning (6 -- 6) record in 2010, further reducing to allow teams with outright losing records (5 - 7) to be invited by 2012. For the 2016 -- 17 bowl season, 25 % of the bowl participants (20 teams) did not have a winning record.
Current regulations have also lowered the criteria to allow a team to include one win against teams in the lower FCS Division.
Teams that are bowl eligible will usually either play in one of the bowl games that its conference is affiliated with based on conference tie - ins or the team will be chosen from the pool of remaining bowl eligible teams to fill one of the at - large positions. The various reductions in the bowl eligibility criteria are discussed below.
On April 26, 2006, the NCAA announced that they were relaxing the rules for eligibility starting with the 2006 season, particularly in light of the new twelve - game college football season. Now, teams with a minimum non-losing, or. 500, record can qualify for bowl games if their conference has a contract with a bowl game. Also, other teams with a minimum non-losing. 500 record (i.e. 6 -- 6) could earn bowl bids if all other FBS teams with winning records have been taken and postseason spots still remain vacant. In thirteen - game seasons (used because of conference championship games, or allowable for Hawai ʻi and any of its home opponents in a given season), a team must win seven games.
Occasionally there will be more bowl eligible teams than there are spots in the NCAA football bowl games in the season. In these cases, some bowl eligible teams will not be invited to play in any NCAA football bowl game. Typically, teams with seven or more wins will not be left out of bowl games, although many seasons, most recently 2012, see at least one such team uninvited. Before the 2010 -- 11 season, the Division I rulebook, specifically Bylaw 30.9. 2.1, had several provisions that attempted to ensure that teams with seven wins will receive preference for bowl bids:
In 2008, these rules affected bowls contracted to the Big 12 and Pac - 10, which each had at least one more bowl slot than eligible teams. The same applies to bowls contracted to the SEC. However, in that season, the WAC had a contingency agreement with one of the Pac - 10 's bowls, specifically the Poinsettia Bowl, providing that the bowl would select a WAC team (ultimately Boise State) if the Pac - 10 did not have enough teams to fulfill their bowl contracts. The same contingency agreement applied in that season to the Sun Belt Conference and the Papa John 's, Independence & St. Petersburg Bowls. Similarly, these rules affected bowls contracted to the ACC in 2009 because that conference has nine bowl tie - ins, but only had seven eligible teams that season.
Starting with the 2010 -- 11 bowl season, the rule that required the selection of seven - win teams before any 6 -- 6 teams was eliminated. The first season of the new rule saw Temple go uninvited despite going 8 -- 4, including a win over eventual Big East BCS representative Connecticut. In the 2011 - 12 bowl season, the UCLA Bruins were invited to a bowl game despite a losing record after playing a conference championship game (6 - 6 in regular season, played and lost in Pac - 12 Championship Game in extenuating circumstances), while 7 - 5 winning team Western Kentucky and 6 - 6 non-losing team Ball State did not receive invites.
Like NCAA sports where a tournament determines an automatic conference bid to the postseason tournament, a team can finish with a losing record (or a winning record but not eligible because of FCS wins) and still appear in a bowl game. In another change to bowl eligibility rules that took effect in 2010 -- 11, a team that wins its conference but has an overall losing record must receive an NCAA waiver to appear in a bowl game. Previously, the waiver required no NCAA action. The new rule is still largely consistent with the NCAA rules in all other team sports, where a team that has a losing record that wins their conference championship through the conference tournament earns the automatic bid to the NCAA tournament.
The NCAA typically awarded waivers in extenuating circumstances when a 6 - 6 team played in a conference championship game as a result of the division winning team being ineligible because of sanctions. This prevents the conference championship game from affecting bowl eligibility of team that advances to the conference championship in case of division - winning teams being sanctioned. The Pac - 12 and ACC have both used it for such division champions, UCLA in 2011 and Georgia Tech in 2012, both of which were 6 - 6 and advanced to the conference championship game as a result of sanctions to the division winning teams (USC in the 2011 Pac - 12 South, North Carolina and Miami in the 2012 ACC Coastal). Both lost in their conference championship games, but the NCAA awarded both waivers.
Starting with the 2013 season, this waiver is established by rule and all 6 - 6 teams participating in a conference championship game will be bowl eligible.
On August 2, 2012, the NCAA Division I Board of Directors approved a significant change to the process to determine bowl eligible teams, going so far as to potentially allow 5 - 7 teams to go to a bowl, in case there were not enough regular bowl - eligible teams to fill every game. If a bowl has one or more conferences / teams unable to meet their contractual commitments and there are no available bowl - eligible teams, the open spots can be filled -- by the particular bowl 's sponsoring agencies -- as follows:
The 2015 - 16 bowl season featured a record 40 bowl games, and 3 teams with losing records (5 - 7 San Jose State, 5 - 7 Minnesota, 5 - 7 Nebraska). Despite this, the Arizona Bowl was unable to fill teams for its Conference USA or alternate Sun Belt Conference tie - ins, leading to both teams being Mountain West Conference teams, and the first time since the 1979 Orange Bowl that a non-championship bowl game was played between members of the same conference.
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when did the civil war start in american | American Civil War - Wikipedia
Union victory:
Abraham Lincoln Ulysses S. Grant William T. Sherman David Farragut George B. McClellan Henry Halleck George Meade
Jefferson Davis Robert E. Lee J.E. Johnston G.T. Beauregard A.S. Johnston † Braxton Bragg
2,200,000:
750,000 -- 1,000,000:
110,000 + killed in action / died of wounds 230,000 + accident / disease deaths 25,000 -- 30,000 died in Confederate prisons
365,000 + total dead 282,000 + wounded 181,193 captured
94,000 + killed in action / died of wounds 26,000 -- 31,000 died in Union prisons
290,000 + total dead 137,000 + wounded 436,658 captured
The American Civil War (also known by other names) was a war fought in the United States (U.S.) from 1861 to 1865. The Civil War is the most studied and written about episode in U.S. history. Largely as a result of the long - standing controversy over the enslavement of black people, war broke out in April 1861, when secessionist forces attacked Fort Sumter in South Carolina, shortly after United States President Abraham Lincoln was inaugurated. The loyalists of the Union in the North proclaimed support for the Constitution. They faced secessionists of the Confederate States in the South, who advocated for states ' rights to uphold slavery.
Among the 34 U.S. states in February 1861, seven Southern slave states individually declared their secession from the country to form the Confederate States of America. The Confederacy grew to include eleven states, all of them slaveholding. The Confederacy was never diplomatically recognized by the United States government, nor was it recognized by any foreign country. The states that remained loyal to the U.S. were known as the Union. The Union and Confederacy quickly raised volunteer and conscription armies that fought mostly in the South over the course of four years. Intense combat left 620,000 to 750,000 people dead, more than the number of U.S. military deaths in all other wars combined.
The Union finally won the war when General Robert E. Lee surrendered to General Ulysses S. Grant at the Battle of Appomattox Court House, followed with a series of surrenders by Confederate generals throughout the southern states. Much of the South 's infrastructure was destroyed, especially the transportation systems. The Confederacy collapsed, slavery was abolished, and 4 million black slaves were freed. The Reconstruction Era (1863 -- 1877) overlapped and followed the war, with the process of restoring national unity, strengthening the national government, and granting civil rights to freed black slaves throughout the country.
In the 1860 presidential election, Republicans, led by Abraham Lincoln, supported banning slavery in all the U.S. territories. The Southern states viewed this as a violation of their constitutional rights and as the first step in a grander Republican plan to eventually abolish slavery. The three pro-Union candidates together received an overwhelming 82 % majority of the votes cast nationally: Republican Lincoln 's votes centered in the north, Democrat Stephen A. Douglas ' votes were distributed nationally and Constitutional Unionist John Bell 's votes centered in Tennessee, Kentucky, and Virginia. The Republican Party, dominant in the North, secured a plurality of the popular votes and a majority of the electoral votes nationally, thus Lincoln was constitutionally elected president. He was the first Republican Party candidate to win the presidency. However, before his inauguration, seven slave states with cotton - based economies declared secession and formed the Confederacy. The first six to declare secession had the highest proportions of slaves in their populations, a total of 49 percent. Of those states whose legislatures resolved for secession, the first seven voted with split majorities for unionist candidates Douglas and Bell (Georgia with 51 % and Louisiana with 55 %), or with sizable minorities for those unionists (Alabama with 46 %, Mississippi with 40 %, Florida with 38 %, Texas with 25 %, and South Carolina, which cast Electoral College votes without a popular vote for president. Of these, only Texas held a referendum on secession.
Eight remaining slave states continued to reject calls for secession. Outgoing Democratic President James Buchanan and the incoming Republicans rejected secession as illegal. Lincoln 's March 4, 1861, inaugural address declared that his administration would not initiate a civil war. Speaking directly to the "Southern States '', he attempted to calm their fears of any threats to slavery, reaffirming, "I have no purpose, directly or indirectly to interfere with the institution of slavery in the United States where it exists. I believe I have no lawful right to do so, and I have no inclination to do so. '' After Confederate forces seized numerous federal forts within territory claimed by the Confederacy, efforts at compromise failed and both sides prepared for war. The Confederates assumed that European countries were so dependent on "King Cotton '' that they would intervene, but none did, and none recognized the new Confederate States of America.
Hostilities began on April 12, 1861, when Confederate forces fired upon Fort Sumter. While in the Western Theater the Union made significant permanent gains, in the Eastern Theater, the battle was inconclusive from 1861 -- 1862. Later, in 1863, Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation, which made ending slavery a war goal. To the west, by summer 1862 the Union destroyed the Confederate river navy, then much of their western armies, and seized New Orleans. The 1863 Union Siege of Vicksburg split the Confederacy in two at the Mississippi River. In 1863, Robert E. Lee 's Confederate incursion north ended at the Battle of Gettysburg. Western successes led to Ulysses S. Grant 's command of all Union armies in 1864. Inflicting an ever - tightening naval blockade of Confederate ports, the Union marshaled the resources and manpower to attack the Confederacy from all directions, leading to the fall of Atlanta to William T. Sherman and his march to the sea. The last significant battles raged around the Siege of Petersburg. Lee 's escape attempt ended with his surrender at Appomattox Court House, on April 9, 1865. While the military war was coming to an end, the political reintegration of the nation was to take another 12 years, known as the Reconstruction Era.
The American Civil War was one of the earliest true industrial wars. Railroads, the telegraph, steamships and iron - clad ships, and mass - produced weapons were employed extensively. The mobilization of civilian factories, mines, shipyards, banks, transportation and food supplies all foreshadowed the impact of industrialization in World War I, World War II and subsequent conflicts. It remains the deadliest war in American history. From 1861 to 1865, it is estimated that 620,000 to 750,000 soldiers died, along with an undetermined number of civilians. By one estimate, the war claimed the lives of 10 percent of all Northern males 20 -- 45 years old, and 30 percent of all Southern white males aged 18 -- 40.
The causes of secession were complex and have been controversial since the war began, but most academic scholars identify slavery as a central cause of the war. James C. Bradford wrote that the issue has been further complicated by historical revisionists, who have tried to offer a variety of reasons for the war. Slavery was the central source of escalating political tension in the 1850s. The Republican Party was determined to prevent any spread of slavery, and many Southern leaders had threatened secession if the Republican candidate, Lincoln, won the 1860 election. After Lincoln won, many Southern leaders felt that disunion was their only option, fearing that the loss of representation would hamper their ability to promote pro-slavery acts and policies.
Slavery was a major cause of disunion. Although there were opposing views even in the Union States, most northern soldiers were largely indifferent on the subject of slavery, while Confederates fought the war largely to protect a southern society of which slavery was an integral part. From the anti-slavery perspective, the issue was primarily about whether the system of slavery was an anachronistic evil that was incompatible with republicanism. The strategy of the anti-slavery forces was containment -- to stop the expansion and thus put slavery on a path to gradual extinction. The slave - holding interests in the South denounced this strategy as infringing upon their Constitutional rights. Southern whites believed that the emancipation of slaves would destroy the South 's economy, due to the large amount of capital invested in slaves and fears of integrating the ex-slave black population. In particular, southerners feared a repeat of "the horrors of Santo Domingo '', in which nearly all white people -- including men, women, children, and even many sympathetic to abolition -- were killed after the successful slave revolt in Haiti. Historian Thomas Fleming points to the historical phrase "a disease in the public mind '' used by critics of this idea, and proposes it contributed to the segregation in the Jim Crow era following emancipation. These fears were exacerbated by the recent attempts of John Brown to instigate an armed slave rebellion in the South.
Slavery was illegal in much of the North, having been outlawed in the late 18th and early 19th centuries. It was also fading in the border states and in Southern cities, but it was expanding in the highly profitable cotton districts of the rural South and Southwest. Subsequent writers on the American Civil War looked to several factors explaining the geographic divide.
Between 1803 and 1854, the United States achieved a vast expansion of territory through purchase, negotiation, and conquest. At first, the new states carved out of these territories entering the union were apportioned equally between slave and free states. It was over territories west of the Mississippi that the proslavery and antislavery forces collided.
With the conquest of northern Mexico west to California in 1848, slaveholding interests looked forward to expanding into these lands and perhaps Cuba and Central America as well. Northern "free soil '' interests vigorously sought to curtail any further expansion of slave territory. The Compromise of 1850 over California balanced a free - soil state with stronger fugitive slave laws for a political settlement after four years of strife in the 1840s. But the states admitted following California were all free: Minnesota (1858), Oregon (1859) and Kansas (1861). In the southern states the question of the territorial expansion of slavery westward again became explosive. Both the South and the North drew the same conclusion: "The power to decide the question of slavery for the territories was the power to determine the future of slavery itself. ''
By 1860, four doctrines had emerged to answer the question of federal control in the territories, and they all claimed they were sanctioned by the Constitution, implicitly or explicitly. The first of these "conservative '' theories, represented by the Constitutional Union Party, argued that the Missouri Compromise apportionment of territory north for free soil and south for slavery should become a Constitutional mandate. The Crittenden Compromise of 1860 was an expression of this view.
The second doctrine of Congressional preeminence, championed by Abraham Lincoln and the Republican Party, insisted that the Constitution did not bind legislators to a policy of balance -- that slavery could be excluded in a territory as it was done in the Northwest Ordinance of 1787 at the discretion of Congress, thus Congress could restrict human bondage, but never establish it. The Wilmot Proviso announced this position in 1846.
Senator Stephen A. Douglas proclaimed the doctrine of territorial or "popular '' sovereignty -- which asserted that the settlers in a territory had the same rights as states in the Union to establish or disestablish slavery as a purely local matter. The Kansas -- Nebraska Act of 1854 legislated this doctrine. In Kansas Territory, years of pro and anti-slavery violence and political conflict erupted; the congressional House of Representatives voted to admit Kansas as a free state in early 1860, but its admission in the Senate was delayed until January 1861, after the 1860 elections when southern senators began to leave.
The fourth theory was advocated by Mississippi Senator Jefferson Davis, one of state sovereignty ("states ' rights ''), also known as the "Calhoun doctrine '', named after the South Carolinian political theorist and statesman John C. Calhoun. Rejecting the arguments for federal authority or self - government, state sovereignty would empower states to promote the expansion of slavery as part of the federal union under the U.S. Constitution. "States ' rights '' was an ideology formulated and applied as a means of advancing slave state interests through federal authority. As historian Thomas L. Krannawitter points out, the "Southern demand for federal slave protection represented a demand for an unprecedented expansion of federal power. '' These four doctrines comprised the major ideologies presented to the American public on the matters of slavery, the territories and the U.S. Constitution prior to the 1860 presidential election.
The South argued that each state had the right to secede -- leave the Union -- at any time, that the Constitution was a "compact '' or agreement among the states. Northerners (including President Buchanan) rejected that notion as opposed to the will of the Founding Fathers who said they were setting up a perpetual union. Historian James McPherson writes concerning states ' rights and other non-slavery explanations:
While one or more of these interpretations remain popular among the Sons of Confederate Veterans and other Southern heritage groups, few professional historians now subscribe to them. Of all these interpretations, the states ' - rights argument is perhaps the weakest. It fails to ask the question, states ' rights for what purpose? States ' rights, or sovereignty, was always more a means than an end, an instrument to achieve a certain goal more than a principle.
Sectionalism resulted from the different economies, social structure, customs and political values of the North and South. Regional tensions came to a head during the War of 1812, resulting in the Hartford Convention which manifested Northern dissastisfaction with a foreign trade embargo that affected the industrial North disproportionately, the Three - Fifths Compromise, dilution of Northern power by new states, and a succession of Southern Presidents. Sectionalism increased steadily between 1800 and 1860 as the North, which phased slavery out of existence, industrialized, urbanized, and built prosperous farms, while the deep South concentrated on plantation agriculture based on slave labor, together with subsistence farming for poor freedmen. In the 1840s and 50s, the issue of accepting slavery (in the guise of rejecting slave - owning bishops and missionaries) split the nation 's largest religious denominations (the Methodist, Baptist and Presbyterian churches) into separate Northern and Southern denominations.
Historians have debated whether economic differences between the industrial Northeast and the agricultural South helped cause the war. Most historians now disagree with the economic determinism of historian Charles A. Beard in the 1920s and emphasize that Northern and Southern economies were largely complementary. While socially different, the sections economically benefited each other.
Slave owners preferred low - cost manual labor with no mechanization. Northern manufacturing interests supported tariffs and protectionism while southern planters demanded free trade, The Democrats in Congress, controlled by Southerners, wrote the tariff laws in the 1830s, 1840s, and 1850s, and kept reducing rates so that the 1857 rates were the lowest since 1816. The Republicans called for an increase in tariffs in the 1860 election. The increases were only enacted in 1861 after Southerners resigned their seats in Congress. The tariff issue was a Northern grievance. However, neo-Confederate writers have claimed it as a Southern grievance. In 1860 -- 61 none of the groups that proposed compromises to head off secession raised the tariff issue. Pamphleteers North and South rarely mentioned the tariff.
Nationalism was a powerful force in the early 19th century, with famous spokesmen such as Andrew Jackson and Daniel Webster. While practically all Northerners supported the Union, Southerners were split between those loyal to the entire United States (called "unionists '') and those loyal primarily to the southern region and then the Confederacy. C. Vann Woodward said of the latter group,
A great slave society... had grown up and miraculously flourished in the heart of a thoroughly bourgeois and partly puritanical republic. It had renounced its bourgeois origins and elaborated and painfully rationalized its institutional, legal, metaphysical, and religious defenses... When the crisis came it chose to fight. It proved to be the death struggle of a society, which went down in ruins.
Perceived insults to Southern collective honor included the enormous popularity of Uncle Tom 's Cabin (1852) and the actions of abolitionist John Brown in trying to incite a slave rebellion in 1859.
While the South moved towards a Southern nationalism, leaders in the North were also becoming more nationally minded, and they rejected any notion of splitting the Union. The Republican national electoral platform of 1860 warned that Republicans regarded disunion as treason and would not tolerate it: "We denounce those threats of disunion... as denying the vital principles of a free government, and as an avowal of contemplated treason, which it is the imperative duty of an indignant people sternly to rebuke and forever silence. '' The South ignored the warnings: Southerners did not realize how ardently the North would fight to hold the Union together.
The election of Abraham Lincoln in November 1860 was the final trigger for secession. Efforts at compromise, including the "Corwin Amendment '' and the "Crittenden Compromise '', failed. Southern leaders feared that Lincoln would stop the expansion of slavery and put it on a course toward extinction. The slave states, which had already become a minority in the House of Representatives, were now facing a future as a perpetual minority in the Senate and Electoral College against an increasingly powerful North. Before Lincoln took office in March 1861, seven slave states had declared their secession and joined to form the Confederacy.
According to Lincoln, the people had shown that they can be successful in establishing and administering a republic, but a third challenge faced the nation, maintaining a republic based on the people 's vote against an attempt to overthrow it.
The election of Lincoln caused the legislature of South Carolina to call a state convention to consider secession. Prior to the war, South Carolina did more than any other Southern state to advance the notion that a state had the right to nullify federal laws, and even to secede from the United States. The convention summoned unanimously voted to secede on December 20, 1860, and adopted the "Declaration of the Immediate Causes Which Induce and Justify the Secession of South Carolina from the Federal Union ''. It argued for states ' rights for slave owners in the South, but contained a complaint about states ' rights in the North in the form of opposition to the Fugitive Slave Act, claiming that Northern states were not fulfilling their federal obligations under the Constitution. The "cotton states '' of Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, and Texas followed suit, seceding in January and February 1861.
Among the ordinances of secession passed by the individual states, those of three -- Texas, Alabama, and Virginia -- specifically mentioned the plight of the "slaveholding states '' at the hands of northern abolitionists. The rest make no mention of the slavery issue, and are often brief announcements of the dissolution of ties by the legislatures. However, at least four states -- South Carolina, Mississippi, Georgia, and Texas -- also passed lengthy and detailed explanations of their causes for secession, all of which laid the blame squarely on the movement to abolish slavery and that movement 's influence over the politics of the northern states. The southern states believed slaveholding was a constitutional right because of the Fugitive slave clause of the Constitution.
These states agreed to form a new federal government, the Confederate States of America, on February 4, 1861. They took control of federal forts and other properties within their boundaries with little resistance from outgoing President James Buchanan, whose term ended on March 4, 1861. Buchanan said that the Dred Scott decision was proof that the South had no reason for secession, and that the Union "was intended to be perpetual '', but that "The power by force of arms to compel a State to remain in the Union '' was not among the "enumerated powers granted to Congress ''. One quarter of the U.S. Army -- the entire garrison in Texas -- was surrendered in February 1861 to state forces by its commanding general, David E. Twiggs, who then joined the Confederacy.
As Southerners resigned their seats in the Senate and the House, Republicans were able to pass bills for projects that had been blocked by Southern Senators before the war, including the Morrill Tariff, land grant colleges (the Morrill Act), a Homestead Act, a transcontinental railroad (the Pacific Railway Acts), the National Banking Act and the authorization of United States Notes by the Legal Tender Act of 1862. The Revenue Act of 1861 introduced the income tax to help finance the war.
On December 18, 1860, the Crittenden Compromise was proposed to re-establish the Missouri Compromise line by constitutionally banning slavery in territories to the north of the line while guaranteeing it to the south. The adoption of this compromise likely would have prevented the secession of every southern state apart from South Carolina, but Lincoln and the Republicans rejected it. It was then proposed to hold a national referendum on the compromise. The Republicans again rejected the idea, although a majority of both Northerners and Southerners would have voted in favor of it. A pre-war February Peace Conference of 1861 met in Washington, proposing a solution similar to that of the Crittenden compromise, it was rejected by Congress. The Republicans proposed an alternative compromise to not interfere with slavery where it existed but the South regarded it as insufficient. Nonetheless, the remaining eight slave states rejected pleas to join the Confederacy following a two - to - one no - vote in Virginia 's First Secessionist Convention on April 4, 1861.
On March 4, 1861, Abraham Lincoln was sworn in as President. In his inaugural address, he argued that the Constitution was a more perfect union than the earlier Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union, that it was a binding contract, and called any secession "legally void ''. He had no intent to invade Southern states, nor did he intend to end slavery where it existed, but said that he would use force to maintain possession of Federal property. The government would make no move to recover post offices, and if resisted, mail delivery would end at state lines. Where popular conditions did not allow peaceful enforcement of Federal law, U.S. marshals and judges would be withdrawn. No mention was made of bullion lost from U.S. mints in Louisiana, Georgia, and North Carolina. He stated that it would be U.S. policy to only collect import duties at its ports; there could be no serious injury to the South to justify armed revolution during his administration. His speech closed with a plea for restoration of the bonds of union, famously calling on "the mystic chords of memory '' binding the two regions.
The South sent delegations to Washington and offered to pay for the federal properties and enter into a peace treaty with the United States. Lincoln rejected any negotiations with Confederate agents because he claimed the Confederacy was not a legitimate government, and that making any treaty with it would be tantamount to recognition of it as a sovereign government. Secretary of State William Seward, who at the time saw himself as the real governor or "prime minister '' behind the throne of the inexperienced Lincoln, engaged in unauthorized and indirect negotiations that failed. President Lincoln was determined to hold all remaining Union - occupied forts in the Confederacy, Fort Monroe in Virginia, in Florida, Fort Pickens, Fort Jefferson, Fort Taylor and Fort Sumter, located at the cockpit of secession in Charleston, South Carolina.
Fort Sumter was located in the middle of the harbor of Charleston, South Carolina. Its garrison recently moved there to avoid incidents with local militias in the streets of the city. Lincoln told Maj. Anderson to hold on until fired upon. Jefferson Davis ordered the surrender of the fort. Anderson gave a conditional reply that the Confederate government rejected, and Davis ordered General P.G.T. Beauregard to attack the fort before a relief expedition could arrive. He bombarded Fort Sumter on April 12 -- 13, forcing its capitulation.
The attack on Fort Sumter rallied the North to the defense of American nationalism. Historian Allan Nevins said:
Union leaders incorrectly assumed that only a minority of Southerners were in favor of secession and that there were large numbers of southern Unionists that could be counted on. Had Northerners realized that most Southerners really did favor secession, they might have hesitated at attempting the enormous task of conquering a united South.
Lincoln called on all the states to send forces to recapture the fort and other federal properties. With the scale of the rebellion apparently small so far, Lincoln called for only 75,000 volunteers for 90 days. The governor of Massachusetts had state regiments on trains headed south the next day. In western Missouri, local secessionists seized Liberty Arsenal. On May 3, 1861, Lincoln called for an additional 42,000 volunteers for a period of three years.
Four states in the middle and upper South had repeatedly rejected Confederate overtures, but now Virginia, Tennessee, Arkansas, and North Carolina refused to send forces against their neighbors, declared their secession, and joined the Confederacy. To reward Virginia, the Confederate capital was moved to Richmond.
Maryland, Delaware, Missouri, and Kentucky were slave states that were opposed to both secession and coercing the South. West Virginia then joined them as an additional border state after it separated from Virginia and became a state of the Union in 1863.
Maryland 's territory surrounded the United States ' capital of Washington, DC and could cut it off from the North. It had numerous anti-Lincoln officials who tolerated anti-army rioting in Baltimore and the burning of bridges, both aimed at hindering the passage of troops to the South. Maryland 's legislature voted overwhelmingly (53 -- 13) to stay in the Union, but also rejected hostilities with its southern neighbors, voting to close Maryland 's rail lines to prevent them from being used for war. Lincoln responded by establishing martial law and unilaterally suspending habeas corpus in Maryland, along with sending in militia units from the North. Lincoln rapidly took control of Maryland and the District of Columbia by seizing many prominent figures, including arresting 1 / 3 of the members of the Maryland General Assembly on the day it reconvened. All were held without trial, ignoring a ruling by the Chief Justice of the U.S. Supreme Court Roger Taney, a Maryland native, that only Congress (and not the president) could suspend habeas corpus (Ex parte Merryman). Indeed, federal troops imprisoned a prominent Baltimore newspaper editor, Frank Key Howard, Francis Scott Key 's grandson, after he criticized Lincoln in an editorial for ignoring the Supreme Court Chief Justice 's ruling.
In Missouri, an elected convention on secession voted decisively to remain within the Union. When pro-Confederate Governor Claiborne F. Jackson called out the state militia, it was attacked by federal forces under General Nathaniel Lyon, who chased the governor and the rest of the State Guard to the southwestern corner of the state (see also: Missouri secession). In the resulting vacuum, the convention on secession reconvened and took power as the Unionist provisional government of Missouri.
Kentucky did not secede; for a time, it declared itself neutral. When Confederate forces entered the state in September 1861, neutrality ended and the state reaffirmed its Union status, while trying to maintain slavery. During a brief invasion by Confederate forces, Confederate sympathizers organized a secession convention, inaugurated a governor, and gained recognition from the Confederacy. The rebel government soon went into exile and never controlled Kentucky.
After Virginia 's secession, a Unionist government in Wheeling asked 48 counties to vote on an ordinance to create a new state on October 24, 1861. A voter turnout of 34 percent approved the statehood bill (96 percent approving). The inclusion of 24 secessionist counties in the state and the ensuing guerrilla war engaged about 40,000 Federal troops for much of the war. Congress admitted West Virginia to the Union on June 20, 1863. West Virginia provided about 20,000 -- 22,000 soldiers to both the Confederacy and the Union.
A Unionist secession attempt occurred in East Tennessee, but was suppressed by the Confederacy, which arrested over 3,000 men suspected of being loyal to the Union. They were held without trial.
The Civil War was a contest marked by the ferocity and frequency of battle. Over four years, 237 named battles were fought, as were many more minor actions and skirmishes, which were often characterized by their bitter intensity and high casualties. In his book The American Civil War, John Keegan writes that "The American Civil War was to prove one of the most ferocious wars ever fought ''. Without geographic objectives, the only target for each side was the enemy 's soldier.
As the first seven states began organizing a Confederacy in Montgomery, the entire U.S. army numbered 16,000. However, Northern governors had begun to mobilize their militias. The Confederate Congress authorized the new nation up to 100,000 troops sent by governors as early as February. By May, Jefferson Davis was pushing for 100,000 men under arms for one year or the duration, and that was answered in kind by the U.S. Congress.
In the first year of the war, both sides had far more volunteers than they could effectively train and equip. After the initial enthusiasm faded, reliance on the cohort of young men who came of age every year and wanted to join was not enough. Both sides used a draft law -- conscription -- as a device to encourage or force volunteering; relatively few were actually drafted and served. The Confederacy passed a draft law in April 1862 for young men aged 18 to 35; overseers of slaves, government officials, and clergymen were exempt. The U.S. Congress followed in July, authorizing a militia draft within a state when it could not meet its quota with volunteers. European immigrants joined the Union Army in large numbers, including 177,000 born in Germany and 144,000 born in Ireland.
When the Emancipation Proclamation went into effect in January 1863, ex-slaves were energetically recruited by the states, and used to meet the state quotas. States and local communities offered higher and higher cash bonuses for white volunteers. Congress tightened the law in March 1863. Men selected in the draft could provide substitutes or, until mid-1864, pay commutation money. Many eligibles pooled their money to cover the cost of anyone drafted. Families used the substitute provision to select which man should go into the army and which should stay home. There was much evasion and overt resistance to the draft, especially in Catholic areas. The great draft riot in New York City in July 1863 involved Irish immigrants who had been signed up as citizens to swell the vote of the city 's Democratic political machine, not realizing it made them liable for the draft. Of the 168,649 men procured for the Union through the draft, 117,986 were substitutes, leaving only 50,663 who had their personal services conscripted.
In both the North and South, the draft laws were highly unpopular. In the North, some 120,000 men evaded conscription, many of them fleeing to Canada, and another 280,000 soldiers deserted during the war. At least 100,000 Southerners deserted, or about 10 percent. In the South, many men deserted temporarily to take care of their distressed families, then returned to their units. In the North, "bounty jumpers '' enlisted to get the generous bonus, deserted, then went back to a second recruiting station under a different name to sign up again for a second bonus; 141 were caught and executed.
From a tiny frontier force in 1860, the Union and Confederate armies had grown into the "largest and most efficient armies in the world '' within a few years. European observers at the time dismissed them as amateur and unprofessional, but British historian John Keegan 's assessment is that each outmatched the French, Prussian and Russian armies of the time, and but for the Atlantic, would have threatened any of them with defeat.
Perman and Taylor (2010) write that historians are of two minds on why millions of men seemed so eager to fight, suffer and die over four years:
Some historians emphasize that Civil War soldiers were driven by political ideology, holding firm beliefs about the importance of liberty, Union, or state rights, or about the need to protect or to destroy slavery. Others point to less overtly political reasons to fight, such as the defense of one 's home and family, or the honor and brotherhood to be preserved when fighting alongside other men. Most historians agree that no matter what a soldier thought about when he went into the war, the experience of combat affected him profoundly and sometimes altered his reasons for continuing the fight.
At the start of the civil war, a system of paroles operated. Captives agreed not to fight until they were officially exchanged. Meanwhile, they were held in camps run by their own army where they were paid but not allowed to perform any military duties. The system of exchanges collapsed in 1863 when the Confederacy refused to exchange black prisoners. After that, about 56,000 of the 409,000 POWs died in prisons during the war, accounting for nearly 10 percent of the conflict 's fatalities.
The small U.S. Navy of 1861 was rapidly enlarged to 6,000 officers and 45,000 men in 1865, with 671 vessels, having a tonnage of 510,396. Its mission was to blockade Confederate ports, take control of the river system, defend against Confederate raiders on the high seas, and be ready for a possible war with the British Royal Navy. Meanwhile, the main riverine war was fought in the West, where a series of major rivers gave access to the Confederate heartland. The U.S. Navy eventually gained control of the Red, Tennessee, Cumberland, Mississippi, and Ohio rivers. In the East, the Navy supplied and moved army forces about, and occasionally shelled Confederate installations.
The Civil War occurred during the early stages of the industrial revolution. Many naval innovations emerged during this time, most notably the advent of the ironclad warship. It began when the Confederacy, knowing they had to meet or match the Union 's naval superiority, responded to the Union blockade by building or converting more than 130 vessels, including twenty - six ironclads and floating batteries. Only half of these saw active service. Many were equipped with ram bows, creating "ram fever '' among Union squadrons wherever they threatened. But in the face of overwhelming Union superiority and the Union 's own ironclad warships, they were unsuccessful.
In addition to ocean - going warships coming up the Mississippi, the Union Navy used timberclads, tinclads, and armored gunboats. Shipyards at Cairo, Illinois, and St. Louis built new boats or modified steamboats for action.
The Confederacy experimented with the submarine CSS Hunley, which did not work well, and with building an ironclad ship, CSS Virginia, which was based on rebuilding a sunken Union ship, Merrimack. On its first foray on March 8, 1862, Virginia inflicted significant damage to the Union 's wooden fleet, but the next day the first Union ironclad, USS Monitor, arrived to challenge it in the Chesapeake Bay. The resulting three hour Battle of Hampton Roads was a draw, but it proved that ironclads were effective warships. Not long after the battle the Confederacy was forced to scuttle the Virginia to prevent its capture, while the Union built many copies of the Monitor. Lacking the technology and infrastructure to build effective warships, the Confederacy attempted to obtain warships from Britain.
By early 1861, General Winfield Scott had devised the Anaconda Plan to win the war with as little bloodshed as possible. Scott argued that a Union blockade of the main ports would weaken the Confederate economy. Lincoln adopted parts of the plan, but he overruled Scott 's caution about 90 - day volunteers. Public opinion, however, demanded an immediate attack by the army to capture Richmond.
In April 1861, Lincoln announced the Union blockade of all Southern ports; commercial ships could not get insurance and regular traffic ended. The South blundered in embargoing cotton exports in 1861 before the blockade was effective; by the time they realized the mistake, it was too late. "King Cotton '' was dead, as the South could export less than 10 percent of its cotton. The blockade shut down the ten Confederate seaports with railheads that moved almost all the cotton, especially New Orleans, Mobile, and Charleston. By June 1861, warships were stationed off the principal Southern ports, and a year later nearly 300 ships were in service.
British investors built small, fast, steam - driven blockade runners that traded arms and luxuries brought in from Britain through Bermuda, Cuba, and the Bahamas in return for high - priced cotton. Many of the ships were designed for speed and were so small that only a small amount of cotton went out. When the Union Navy seized a blockade runner, the ship and cargo were condemned as a Prize of war and sold, with the proceeds given to the Navy sailors; the captured crewmen were mostly British and they were simply released.
The Southern economy nearly collapsed during the war. There were multiple reasons for this: the severe deterioration of food supplies, especially in cities, the failure of Southern railroads, the loss of control of the main rivers, foraging by Northern armies, and the seizure of animals and crops by Confederate armies.
Most historians agree that the blockade was a major factor in ruining the Confederate economy; however, Wise argues that the blockade runners provided just enough of a lifeline to allow Lee to continue fighting for additional months, thanks to fresh supplies of 400,000 rifles, lead, blankets, and boots that the homefront economy could no longer supply.
Surdam argues that the blockade was a powerful weapon that eventually ruined the Southern economy, at the cost of few lives in combat. Practically, the entire Confederate cotton crop was useless (although it was sold to Union traders), costing the Confederacy its main source of income. Critical imports were scarce and the coastal trade was largely ended as well. The measure of the blockade 's success was not the few ships that slipped through, but the thousands that never tried it. Merchant ships owned in Europe could not get insurance and were too slow to evade the blockade; they simply stopped calling at Confederate ports.
To fight an offensive war, the Confederacy purchased ships from Britain, converted them to warships, and raided American merchant ships in the Atlantic and Pacific oceans. Insurance rates skyrocketed and the American flag virtually disappeared from international waters. However, the same ships were reflagged with European flags and continued unmolested. After the war, the U.S. demanded that Britain pay for the damage done, and Britain paid the U.S. $15 million in 1871.
Although the Confederacy hoped that Britain and France would join them against the Union, this was never likely, and so they instead tried to bring Britain and France in as mediators. The Union, under Lincoln and Secretary of State William H. Seward worked to block this, and threatened war if any country officially recognized the existence of the Confederate States of America. In 1861, Southerners voluntarily embargoed cotton shipments, hoping to start an economic depression in Europe that would force Britain to enter the war to get cotton, but this did not work. Worse, Europe developed other cotton suppliers, which they found superior, hindering the South 's recovery after the war.
Cotton diplomacy proved a failure as Europe had a surplus of cotton, while the 1860 -- 62 crop failures in Europe made the North 's grain exports of critical importance. It also helped to turn European opinion further away from the Confederacy. It was said that "King Corn was more powerful than King Cotton '', as U.S. grain went from a quarter of the British import trade to almost half. When Britain did face a cotton shortage, it was temporary, being replaced by increased cultivation in Egypt and India. Meanwhile, the war created employment for arms makers, ironworkers, and British ships to transport weapons.
Lincoln 's foreign policy was deficient in 1861 in terms of appealing to European public opinion. Diplomats had to explain that United States was not committed to the ending of slavery, but instead they repeated legalistic arguments about the unconstitutionality of secession. Confederate spokesmen, on the other hand, were much more successful by ignoring slavery and instead focusing on their struggle for liberty, their commitment to free trade, and the essential role of cotton in the European economy. In addition, the European aristocracy (the dominant factor in every major country) was "absolutely gleeful in pronouncing the American debacle as proof that the entire experiment in popular government had failed. European government leaders welcomed the fragmentation of the ascendant American Republic. ''
U.S. minister to Britain Charles Francis Adams proved particularly adept and convinced Britain not to boldly challenge the blockade. The Confederacy purchased several warships from commercial shipbuilders in Britain (CSS Alabama, CSS Shenandoah, CSS Tennessee, CSS Tallahassee, CSS Florida, and some others). The most famous, the CSS Alabama, did considerable damage and led to serious postwar disputes. However, public opinion against slavery created a political liability for politicians in Britain, where the antislavery movement was powerful.
War loomed in late 1861 between the U.S. and Britain over the Trent affair, involving the U.S. Navy 's boarding of the British ship Trent and seizure of two Confederate diplomats. However, London and Washington were able to smooth over the problem after Lincoln released the two. In 1862, the British considered mediation between North and South, though even such an offer would have risked war with the U.S. British Prime Minister Lord Palmerston reportedly read Uncle Tom 's Cabin three times when deciding on this.
The Union victory in the Battle of Antietam caused them to delay this decision. The Emancipation Proclamation over time would reinforce the political liability of supporting the Confederacy. Despite sympathy for the Confederacy, France 's own seizure of Mexico ultimately deterred them from war with the Union. Confederate offers late in the war to end slavery in return for diplomatic recognition were not seriously considered by London or Paris. After 1863, the Polish revolt against Russia further distracted the European powers, and ensured that they would remain neutral.
The Eastern theater refers to the military operations east of the Appalachian Mountains, including the states of Virginia, West Virginia, Maryland, and Pennsylvania, the District of Columbia, and the coastal fortifications and seaports of North Carolina.
Maj. Gen. George B. McClellan took command of the Union Army of the Potomac on July 26 (he was briefly general - in - chief of all the Union armies, but was subsequently relieved of that post in favor of Maj. Gen. Henry W. Halleck), and the war began in earnest in 1862. The 1862 Union strategy called for simultaneous advances along four axes:
The primary Confederate force in the Eastern theater was the Army of Northern Virginia. The Army originated as the (Confederate) Army of the Potomac, which was organized on June 20, 1861, from all operational forces in northern Virginia. On July 20 and July 21, the Army of the Shenandoah and forces from the District of Harpers Ferry were added. Units from the Army of the Northwest were merged into the Army of the Potomac between March 14 and May 17, 1862. The Army of the Potomac was renamed Army of Northern Virginia on March 14. The Army of the Peninsula was merged into it on April 12, 1862.
When Virginia declared its secession in April 1861, Robert E. Lee chose to follow his home state, despite his desire for the country to remain intact and an offer of a senior Union command.
Lee 's biographer, Douglas S. Freeman, asserts that the army received its final name from Lee when he issued orders assuming command on June 1, 1862. However, Freeman does admit that Lee corresponded with Brigadier General Joseph E. Johnston, his predecessor in army command, prior to that date and referred to Johnston 's command as the Army of Northern Virginia. Part of the confusion results from the fact that Johnston commanded the Department of Northern Virginia (as of October 22, 1861) and the name Army of Northern Virginia can be seen as an informal consequence of its parent department 's name. Jefferson Davis and Johnston did not adopt the name, but it is clear that the organization of units as of March 14 was the same organization that Lee received on June 1, and thus it is generally referred to today as the Army of Northern Virginia, even if that is correct only in retrospect. Jeb Stuart commanded the Army of Northern Virginia 's cavalry.
In one of the first highly visible battles, in July 1861, a march by Union troops under the command of Maj. Gen. Irvin McDowell on the Confederate forces led by Gen. P.G.T. Beauregard near Washington was repulsed at the First Battle of Bull Run.
The Union had the upper hand at first, but Confederate reinforcements under. Joseph E. Johnston arrived from the Shenandoah Valley by railroad, and the course of the battle quickly changed. A brigade of Virginians under the relatively unknown brigadier general from the Virginia Military Institute, Thomas J. Jackson, stood its ground, which resulted in Jackson receiving his famous nickname, "Stonewall ''.
At the Battle of Ball 's Bluff, McClellan suffered a defeat, and Lincoln 's close friend Edward Dickinson Baker was killed.
Upon the strong urging of President Lincoln to begin offensive operations, McClellan attacked Virginia in the spring of 1862 by way of the peninsula between the York River and James River, southeast of Richmond. McClellan 's army reached the gates of Richmond in the Peninsula Campaign,
Also in the spring of 1862, in the Shenandoah Valley, Stonewall Jackson led his Valley Campaign. Employing audacity and rapid, unpredictable movements on interior lines, Jackson 's 17,000 men marched 646 miles (1,040 km) in 48 days and won several minor battles as they successfully engaged three Union armies (52,000 men), including those of Nathaniel P. Banks and John C. Fremont, preventing them from reinforcing the Union offensive against Richmond. The swiftness of Jackson 's men earned them the nickname of "foot - cavalry ''.
Johnston halted McClellan 's advance at the Battle of Seven Pines, but he was wounded in the battle, and Robert E. Lee assumed his position of command. General Lee and top subordinates James Longstreet and Stonewall Jackson defeated McClellan in the Seven Days Battles and forced his retreat.
The Northern Virginia Campaign, which included the Second Battle of Bull Run, ended in yet another victory for the South. McClellan resisted General - in - Chief Halleck 's orders to send reinforcements to John Pope 's Union Army of Virginia, which made it easier for Lee 's Confederates to defeat twice the number of combined enemy troops.
Emboldened by Second Bull Run, the Confederacy made its first invasion of the North with the Maryland Campaign. General Lee led 45,000 men of the Army of Northern Virginia across the Potomac River into Maryland on September 5. Lincoln then restored Pope 's troops to McClellan. McClellan and Lee fought at the Battle of Antietam near Sharpsburg, Maryland, on September 17, 1862, the bloodiest single day in United States military history. Lee 's army, checked at last, returned to Virginia before McClellan could destroy it. Antietam is considered a Union victory because it halted Lee 's invasion of the North and provided an opportunity for Lincoln to announce his Emancipation Proclamation.
When the cautious McClellan failed to follow up on Antietam, he was replaced by Maj. Gen. Ambrose Burnside. Burnside was soon defeated at the Battle of Fredericksburg on December 13, 1862, when more than 12,000 Union soldiers were killed or wounded during repeated futile frontal assaults against Marye 's Heights. After the battle, Burnside was replaced by Maj. Gen. Joseph Hooker.
Hooker, too, proved unable to defeat Lee 's army; despite outnumbering the Confederates by more than two to one, his Chancellorsville Campaign proved ineffective and he was humiliated in the Battle of Chancellorsville in May 1863. Chancellorsville is known as Lee 's "perfect battle '' because his risky decision to divide his army in the presence of a much larger enemy force resulted in a significant Confederate victory. Gen. Stonewall Jackson was shot in the arm by accidental friendly fire during the battle and subsequently died of complications. Lee famously said "He has lost his left arm; but I have lost my right arm. ''
The fiercest fighting of the battle -- and the second bloodiest day of the Civil War -- occurred on May 3 as Lee launched multiple attacks against the Union position at Chancellorsville. That same day, John Sedgwick advanced across the Rappahannock River, defeated the small Confederate force at Marye 's Heights in the Second Battle of Fredericksburg, and then moved to the west. The Confederates fought a successful delaying action at the Battle of Salem Church
Gen. Hooker was replaced by Maj. Gen. George Meade during Lee 's second invasion of the North, in June. Meade defeated Lee at the Battle of Gettysburg (July 1 to 3, 1863). This was the bloodiest battle of the war, and has been called the war 's turning point. Pickett 's Charge on July 3 is often considered the high - water mark of the Confederacy because it signaled the collapse of serious Confederate threats of victory. Lee 's army suffered 28,000 casualties (versus Meade 's 23,000). However, Lincoln was angry that Meade failed to intercept Lee 's retreat.
The Western theater refers to military operations between the Appalachian Mountains and the Mississippi River, including the states of Alabama, Georgia, Florida, Mississippi, North Carolina, Kentucky, South Carolina and Tennessee, as well as parts of Louisiana.
The primary Union forces in the Western theater were the Army of the Tennessee and the Army of the Cumberland, named for the two rivers, the Tennessee River and Cumberland River. After Meade 's inconclusive fall campaign, Lincoln turned to the Western Theater for new leadership. At the same time, the Confederate stronghold of Vicksburg surrendered, giving the Union control of the Mississippi River, permanently isolating the western Confederacy, and producing the new leader Lincoln needed, Ulysses S. Grant.
The primary Confederate force in the Western theater was the Army of Tennessee. The army was formed on November 20, 1862, when General Braxton Bragg renamed the former Army of Mississippi. While the Confederate forces had numerous successes in the Eastern Theater, they were defeated many times in the West.
The Union 's key strategist and tactician in the West was Ulysses S. Grant, who won victories at Forts Henry (February 6, 1862) and Donelson (February 11 to 16, 1862), by which the Union seized control of the Tennessee and Cumberland Rivers. Nathan Bedford Forrest rallied nearly 4,000 troops and led them to escape across the Cumberland. Nashville and central Tennessee thus fell to the Union, leading to attrition of local food supplies and livestock and a breakdown in social organization.
Leonidas Polk 's invasion of Columbus ended Kentucky 's policy of neutrality and turned it against the Confederacy. Grant used river transport and Andrew Foote 's gunboats of the Western Flotilla to threaten the Confederacy 's "Gibraltar of the West '' at Columbus, Kentucky. Although rebuffed at Belmont, Grant cut off Columbus. The Confederates, lacking their own gunboats, were forced to retreat and the Union took control of western Kentucky and opened Tennessee in March 1862.
At the Battle of Shiloh (Pittsburg Landing), in Tennessee in April 1862, the Confederates made a surprise attack that pushed Union forces against the river as night fell. Overnight, the Navy landed additional reinforcements, and Grant counter-attacked. Grant and the Union won a decisive victory -- the first battle with the high casualty rates that would repeat over and over. The Confederates lost Albert Sidney Johnston, considered their finest general before the emergence of Lee.
One of the early Union objectives in the war was the capture of the Mississippi River, in order to cut the Confederacy in half. "The key to the river was New Orleans, the South 's largest port (and) greatest industrial center. '' The Mississippi was opened to Union traffic to the southern border of Tennessee with the taking of Island No. 10 and New Madrid, Missouri, and then Memphis, Tennessee.
In April 1862, the Union Navy captured New Orleans. U.S. Naval forces under Farragut ran past Confederate defenses south of New Orleans. Confederate forces abandoned the city, giving the Union a critical anchor in the deep South. which allowed Union forces to begin moving up the Mississippi. Memphis fell to Union forces on June 6, 1862, and became a key base for further advances south along the Mississippi River. Only the fortress city of Vicksburg, Mississippi, prevented Union control of the entire river.
Bragg 's second Confederate invasion of Kentucky included Kirby Smith 's triumph at the Battle of Richmond and ended with a meaningless victory over Maj. Gen. Don Carlos Buell at the Battle of Perryville. Bragg was forced to end his attempt at invading Kentucky and retreat due to lack of support for the Confederacy in that state.
Bragg was narrowly defeated by Maj. Gen. William Rosecrans at the Battle of Stones River in Tennessee, the culmination of the Stones River Campaign.
Naval forces assisted Grant in the long, complex Vicksburg Campaign that resulted in the Confederates surrendering at the Battle of Vicksburg in July 1863, which cemented Union control of the Mississippi River and is considered one of the turning points of the war.
The one clear Confederate victory in the West was the Battle of Chickamauga. After Rosecrans successful Tullahoma Campaign, Bragg, reinforced by Lt. Gen. James Longstreet 's corps (from Lee 's army in the east), defeated Rosecrans, despite the heroic defensive stand of Maj. Gen. George Henry Thomas.
Rosecrans retreated to Chattanooga, which Bragg then besieged in the Chattanooga Campaign. Grant marched to the relief of Rosecrans and defeated Bragg at the Third Battle of Chattanooga, eventually causing Longstreet to abandon his Knoxville Campaign and driving Confederate forces out of Tennessee and opening a route to Atlanta and the heart of the Confederacy.
The Trans - Mississippi theater refers to military operations west of the Mississippi River, not including the areas bordering the Pacific Ocean.
The first battle of the Trans - Mississippi theater was the Battle of Wilson 's Creek. The Confederates were driven from Missouri early in the war as a result of the Battle of Pea Ridge.
Extensive guerrilla warfare characterized the trans - Mississippi region, as the Confederacy lacked the troops and the logistics to support regular armies that could challenge Union control. Roving Confederate bands such as Quantrill 's Raiders terrorized the countryside, striking both military installations and civilian settlements. The "Sons of Liberty '' and "Order of the American Knights '' attacked pro-Union people, elected officeholders, and unarmed uniformed soldiers. These partisans could not be entirely driven out of the state of Missouri until an entire regular Union infantry division was engaged. By 1864, these violent activities harmed the nationwide anti-war movement organizing against the re-election of Lincoln. Missouri not only stayed in the Union, but Lincoln took 70 percent of the vote for re-election.
Numerous small - scale military actions south and west of Missouri sought to control Indian Territory and New Mexico Territory for the Union. The Battle of Glorieta Pass was the decisive battle of the New Mexico Campaign. The Union repulsed Confederate incursions into New Mexico in 1862, and the exiled Arizona government withdrew into Texas. In the Indian Territory, civil war broke out within tribes. About 12,000 Indian warriors fought for the Confederacy, and smaller numbers for the Union. The most prominent Cherokee was Brigadier General Stand Watie, the last Confederate general to surrender.
After the fall of Vicksburg in July 1863, General Kirby Smith in Texas was informed by Jefferson Davis that he could expect no further help from east of the Mississippi River. Although he lacked resources to beat Union armies, he built up a formidable arsenal at Tyler, along with his own Kirby Smithdom economy, a virtual "independent fiefdom '' in Texas, including railroad construction and international smuggling. The Union in turn did not directly engage him. Its 1864 Red River Campaign to take Shreveport, Louisiana was a failure and Texas remained in Confederate hands throughout the war.
The Lower Seaboard theater refers to military and naval operations that occurred near the coastal areas of the Southeast: in Alabama, Florida, Louisiana, Mississippi, South Carolina, and Texas) as well as southern part of the Mississippi River (Port Hudson and south). Union Naval activities were dictated by the Anaconda Plan.
One of the earliest battles of the war was fought at Port Royal Sound, south of Charleston. Much of the war along the South Carolina coast concentrated on capturing Charleston. In attempting to capture Charleston, the Union military tried two approaches, by land over James or Morris Islands or through the harbor. However, the Confederates were able to drive back each Union attack. One of the most famous of the land attacks was the Second Battle of Fort Wagner, in which the 54th Massachusetts Infantry took part. The Federals suffered a serious defeat in this battle, losing 1,500 men while the Confederates lost only 175.
Fort Pulaski on the Georgia coast was an early target for the Union navy. Following the capture of Port Royal, an expedition was organized with engineer troops under the command of Captain Quincy A. Gillmore, forcing a Confederate surrender. The Union army occupied the fort for the rest of the war after making repair.
In April 1862, a Union naval task force commanded by Commander David D. Porter attacked Forts Jackson and St. Philip, which guarded the river approach to New Orleans from the south. While part of the fleet bombarded the forts, other vessels forced a break in the obstructions in the river and enabled the rest of the fleet to steam upriver to the city. A Union army force commanded by Major General Benjamin Butler landed near the forts and forced their surrender. Butler 's controversial command of New Orleans earned him the nickname "Beast ''.
The following year, the Union Army of the Gulf commanded by Major General Nathaniel P. Banks laid siege to Port Hudson for nearly eight weeks, the longest siege in US military history. The Confederates attempted to defend with the Bayou Teche Campaign, but surrendered after Vicksburg. These two surrenders gave the Union control over the entire Mississippi.
Several small skirmishes were fought in Florida, but no major battles. The biggest was the Battle of Olustee in early 1864.
The Pacific Coast theater refers to military operations on the Pacific Ocean and in the states and Territories west of the Continental Divide.
At the beginning of 1864, Lincoln made Grant commander of all Union armies. Grant made his headquarters with the Army of the Potomac, and put Maj. Gen. William Tecumseh Sherman in command of most of the western armies. Grant understood the concept of total war and believed, along with Lincoln and Sherman, that only the utter defeat of Confederate forces and their economic base would end the war. This was total war not in killing civilians but rather in taking provisions and forage and destroying homes, farms, and railroads, that Grant said "would otherwise have gone to the support of secession and rebellion. This policy I believe exercised a material influence in hastening the end. '' Grant devised a coordinated strategy that would strike at the entire Confederacy from multiple directions. Generals George Meade and Benjamin Butler were ordered to move against Lee near Richmond, General Franz Sigel (and later Philip Sheridan) were to attack the Shenandoah Valley, General Sherman was to capture Atlanta and march to the sea (the Atlantic Ocean), Generals George Crook and William W. Averell were to operate against railroad supply lines in West Virginia, and Maj. Gen. Nathaniel P. Banks was to capture Mobile, Alabama.
Grant 's army set out on the Overland Campaign with the goal of drawing Lee into a defense of Richmond, where they would attempt to pin down and destroy the Confederate army. The Union army first attempted to maneuver past Lee and fought several battles, notably at the Wilderness, Spotsylvania, and Cold Harbor. These battles resulted in heavy losses on both sides, and forced Lee 's Confederates to fall back repeatedly. At the Battle of Yellow Tavern, the Confederates lost Jeb Stuart.
An attempt to outflank Lee from the south failed under Butler, who was trapped inside the Bermuda Hundred river bend. Each battle resulted in setbacks for the Union that mirrored what they had suffered under prior generals, though unlike those prior generals, Grant fought on rather than retreat. Grant was tenacious and kept pressing Lee 's Army of Northern Virginia back to Richmond. While Lee was preparing for an attack on Richmond, Grant unexpectedly turned south to cross the James River and began the protracted Siege of Petersburg, where the two armies engaged in trench warfare for over nine months.
Grant finally found a commander, General Philip Sheridan, aggressive enough to prevail in the Valley Campaigns of 1864. Sheridan was initially repelled at the Battle of New Market by former U.S. Vice President and Confederate Gen. John C. Breckinridge. The Battle of New Market was the Confederacy 's last major victory of the war, and included a charge by teenage VMI cadets. After redoubling his efforts, Sheridan defeated Maj. Gen. Jubal A. Early in a series of battles, including a final decisive defeat at the Battle of Cedar Creek. Sheridan then proceeded to destroy the agricultural base of the Shenandoah Valley, a strategy similar to the tactics Sherman later employed in Georgia.
Meanwhile, Sherman maneuvered from Chattanooga to Atlanta, defeating Confederate Generals Joseph E. Johnston and John Bell Hood along the way. The fall of Atlanta on September 2, 1864, guaranteed the reelection of Lincoln as president. Hood left the Atlanta area to swing around and menace Sherman 's supply lines and invade Tennessee in the Franklin -- Nashville Campaign. Union Maj. Gen. John Schofield defeated Hood at the Battle of Franklin, and George H. Thomas dealt Hood a massive defeat at the Battle of Nashville, effectively destroying Hood 's army.
Leaving Atlanta, and his base of supplies, Sherman 's army marched with an unknown destination, laying waste to about 20 percent of the farms in Georgia in his "March to the Sea ''. He reached the Atlantic Ocean at Savannah, Georgia in December 1864. Sherman 's army was followed by thousands of freed slaves; there were no major battles along the March. Sherman turned north through South Carolina and North Carolina to approach the Confederate Virginia lines from the south, increasing the pressure on Lee 's army.
Lee 's army, thinned by desertion and casualties, was now much smaller than Grant 's. One last Confederate attempt to break the Union hold on Petersburg failed at the decisive Battle of Five Forks (sometimes called "the Waterloo of the Confederacy '') on April 1. This meant that the Union now controlled the entire perimeter surrounding Richmond - Petersburg, completely cutting it off from the Confederacy. Realizing that the capital was now lost, Lee decided to evacuate his army. The Confederate capital fell to the Union XXV Corps, composed of black troops. The remaining Confederate units fled west after a defeat at Sayler 's Creek.
Initially, Lee did not intend to surrender, but planned to regroup at the village of Appomattox Court House, where supplies were to be waiting, and then continue the war. Grant chased Lee and got in front of him, so that when Lee 's army reached Appomattox Court House, they were surrounded. After an initial battle, Lee decided that the fight was now hopeless, and surrendered his Army of Northern Virginia on April 9, 1865, at the McLean House. In an untraditional gesture and as a sign of Grant 's respect and anticipation of peacefully restoring Confederate states to the Union, Lee was permitted to keep his sword and his horse, Traveller.
On April 14, 1865, President Lincoln was shot by John Wilkes Booth, a Southern sympathizer. Lincoln died early the next morning, and Andrew Johnson became the president. Meanwhile, Confederate forces across the South surrendered as news of Lee 's surrender reached them. On April 26, 1865, General Joseph E. Johnston surrendered nearly 90,000 men of the Army of Tennessee to Major General William T. Sherman at the Bennett Place near present - day Durham, North Carolina. It proved to be the largest surrender of Confederate forces, effectively bringing the war to an end. President Johnson officially declared a virtual end to the insurrection on May 9, 1865; President Jefferson Davis was captured the following day. On June 2, Kirby Smith officially surrendered his troops in the Trans - Mississippi Department. On June 23, Cherokee leader Stand Watie became the last Confederate general to surrender his forces.
The causes of the war, the reasons for its outcome, and even the name of the war itself are subjects of lingering contention today. The North and West grew rich while the once - rich South became poor for a century. The national political power of the slaveowners and rich southerners ended. Historians are less sure about the results of the postwar Reconstruction, especially regarding the second class citizenship of the Freedmen and their poverty.
Historians have debated whether the Confederacy could have won the war. Most scholars, including James McPherson, argue that Confederate victory was at least possible. McPherson argues that the North 's advantage in population and resources made Northern victory likely but not guaranteed. He also argues that if the Confederacy had fought using unconventional tactics, they would have more easily been able to hold out long enough to exhaust the Union.
Confederates did not need to invade and hold enemy territory to win, but only needed to fight a defensive war to convince the North that the cost of winning was too high. The North needed to conquer and hold vast stretches of enemy territory and defeat Confederate armies to win. Lincoln was not a military dictator, and could continue to fight the war only as long as the American public supported a continuation of the war. The Confederacy sought to win independence by out - lasting Lincoln; however, after Atlanta fell and Lincoln defeated McClellan in the election of 1864, all hope for a political victory for the South ended. At that point, Lincoln had secured the support of the Republicans, War Democrats, the border states, emancipated slaves, and the neutrality of Britain and France. By defeating the Democrats and McClellan, he also defeated the Copperheads and their peace platform.
Many scholars argue that the Union held an insurmountable long - term advantage over the Confederacy in industrial strength and population. Confederate actions, they argue, only delayed defeat. Civil War historian Shelby Foote expressed this view succinctly: "I think that the North fought that war with one hand behind its back... If there had been more Southern victories, and a lot more, the North simply would have brought that other hand out from behind its back. I do n't think the South ever had a chance to win that War. ''
A minority view among historians is that the Confederacy lost because, as E. Merton Coulter put it, "people did not will hard enough and long enough to win. '' Marxist historian Armstead Robinson agrees, pointing to a class conflict in the Confederate army between the slave owners and the larger number of non-owners. He argues that the non-owner soldiers grew embittered about fighting to preserve slavery, and fought less enthusiastically. He attributes the major Confederate defeats in 1863 at Vicksburg and Missionary Ridge to this class conflict. However, most historians reject the argument. James M. McPherson, after reading thousands of letters written by Confederate soldiers, found strong patriotism that continued to the end; they truly believed they were fighting for freedom and liberty. Even as the Confederacy was visibly collapsing in 1864 -- 65, he says most Confederate soldiers were fighting hard. Historian Gary Gallagher cites General Sherman who in early 1864 commented, "The devils seem to have a determination that can not but be admired. '' Despite their loss of slaves and wealth, with starvation looming, Sherman continued, "yet I see no sign of let up -- some few deserters -- plenty tired of war, but the masses determined to fight it out. ''
Also important were Lincoln 's eloquence in rationalizing the national purpose and his skill in keeping the border states committed to the Union cause. The Emancipation Proclamation was an effective use of the President 's war powers. The Confederate government failed in its attempt to get Europe involved in the war militarily, particularly Britain and France. Southern leaders needed to get European powers to help break up the blockade the Union had created around the Southern ports and cities. Lincoln 's naval blockade was 95 percent effective at stopping trade goods; as a result, imports and exports to the South declined significantly. The abundance of European cotton and Britain 's hostility to the institution of slavery, along with Lincoln 's Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico naval blockades, severely decreased any chance that either Britain or France would enter the war.
Historian Don Doyle has argued that the Union victory had a major impact on the course of world history. The Union victory energized popular democratic forces. A Confederate victory, on the other hand, would have meant a new birth of slavery, not freedom. Historian Fergus Bordewich, following Doyle, argues that:
The North 's victory decisively proved the durability of democratic government. Confederate independence, on the other hand, would have established an American model for reactionary politics and race - based repression that would likely have cast an international shadow into the twentieth century and perhaps beyond. ''
Scholars have debated what the effects of the war were on political and economic power in the South. The prevailing view is that the southern planter elite retained its powerful position in the South. However, a 2017 study challenges this, noting that while some Southern elites retained their economic status, the turmoil of the 1860s created greater opportunities for economic mobility in the South than in the North.
The war resulted in at least 1,030,000 casualties (3 percent of the population), including about 620,000 soldier deaths -- two - thirds by disease, and 50,000 civilians. Binghamton University historian J. David Hacker believes the number of soldier deaths was approximately 750,000, 20 percent higher than traditionally estimated, and possibly as high as 850,000. The war accounted for more American deaths than in all other U.S. wars combined.
Based on 1860 census figures, 8 percent of all white males aged 13 to 43 died in the war, including 6 percent in the North and 18 percent in the South. About 56,000 soldiers died in prison camps during the War. An estimated 60,000 men lost limbs in the war.
Union army dead, amounting to 15 percent of the over two million who served, was broken down as follows:
In addition there were 4,523 deaths in the Navy (2,112 in battle) and 460 in the Marines (148 in battle).
Black troops made up 10 percent of the Union death toll, they amounted to 15 percent of disease deaths but less than 3 percent of those killed in battle. Losses among African Americans were high, in the last year and a half and from all reported casualties, approximately 20 percent of all African Americans enrolled in the military lost their lives during the Civil War. Notably, their mortality rate was significantly higher than white soldiers:
(We) find, according to the revised official data, that of the slightly over two millions troops in the United States Volunteers, over 316,000 died (from all causes), or 15.2 percent. Of the 67,000 Regular Army (white) troops, 8.6 percent, or not quite 6,000, died. Of the approximately 180,000 United States Colored Troops, however, over 36,000 died, or 20.5 percent. In other words, the mortality "rate '' amongst the United States Colored Troops in the Civil War was thirty - five percent greater than that among other troops, notwithstanding the fact that the former were not enrolled until some eighteen months after the fighting began.
Confederate records compiled by historian William F. Fox list 74,524 killed and died of wounds and 59,292 died of disease. Including Confederate estimates of battle losses where no records exist would bring the Confederate death toll to 94,000 killed and died of wounds. Fox complained, however, that records were incomplete, especially during the last year of the war, and that battlefield reports likely under - counted deaths (many men counted as wounded in battlefield reports subsequently died of their wounds). Thomas L. Livermore, using Fox 's data, put the number of Confederate non-combat deaths at 166,000, using the official estimate of Union deaths from disease and accidents and a comparison of Union and Confederate enlistment records, for a total of 260,000 deaths. However, this excludes the 30,000 deaths of Confederate troops in prisons, which would raise the minimum number of deaths to 290,000.
The United States National Park Service uses the following figures in its official tally of war losses:
Union: 853,838
Confederate: 914,660
While the figures of 360,000 army deaths for the Union and 260,000 for the Confederacy remained commonly cited, they are incomplete. In addition to many Confederate records being missing, partly as a result of Confederate widows not reporting deaths due to being ineligible for benefits, both armies only counted troops who died during their service, and not the tens of thousands who died of wounds or diseases after being discharged. This often happened only a few days or weeks later. Francis Amasa Walker, Superintendent of the 1870 Census, used census and Surgeon General data to estimate a minimum of 500,000 Union military deaths and 350,000 Confederate military deaths, for a total death toll of 850,000 soldiers. While Walker 's estimates were originally dismissed because of the 1870 Census 's undercounting, it was later found that the census was only off by 6.5 %, and that the data Walker used would be roughly accurate.
Analyzing the number of dead by using census data to calculate the deviation of the death rate of men of fighting age from the norm suggests that at least 627,000 and at most 888,000, but most likely 761,000 soldiers, died in the war. This would break down to approximately 350,000 Confederate and 411,000 Union military deaths, going by the proportion of Union to Confederate battle losses.
Deaths among former slaves has proven much harder to estimate, due to the lack of reliable census data at the time, though they were known to be considerable, as former slaves were set free or escaped in massive numbers in an area where the Union army did not have sufficient shelter, doctors, or food for them. University of Connecticut Professor James Downs states that tens to hundreds of thousands of slaves died during the war from disease, starvation, exposure, or execution at the hands of the Confederates, and that if these deaths are counted in the war 's total, the death toll would exceed 1 million.
Losses were far higher than during the recent defeat of Mexico, which saw roughly thirteen thousand American deaths, including fewer than two thousand killed in battle, between 1846 and 1848. One reason for the high number of battle deaths during the war was the continued use of tactics similar to those of the Napoleonic Wars at the turn of the century, such as charging. With the advent of more accurate rifled barrels, Minié balls and (near the end of the war for the Union army) repeating firearms such as the Spencer Repeating Rifle and the Henry Repeating Rifle, soldiers were mowed down when standing in lines in the open. This led to the adoption of trench warfare, a style of fighting that defined much of World War I.
The wealth amassed in slaves and slavery for the Confederacy 's 3.5 million blacks effectively ended when Union armies arrived; they were nearly all freed by the Emancipation Proclamation. Slaves in the border states and those located in some former Confederate territory occupied before the Emancipation Proclamation were freed by state action or (on December 6, 1865) by the Thirteenth Amendment.
The war destroyed much of the wealth that had existed in the South. All accumulated investment Confederate bonds was forfeit; most banks and railroads were bankrupt. Income per person in the South dropped to less than 40 percent of that of the North, a condition that lasted until well into the 20th century. Southern influence in the U.S. federal government, previously considerable, was greatly diminished until the latter half of the 20th century. The full restoration of the Union was the work of a highly contentious postwar era known as Reconstruction.
While not all Southerners saw themselves as fighting to preserve slavery, most of the officers and over a third of the rank and file in Lee 's army had close family ties to slavery. To Northerners, in contrast, the motivation was primarily to preserve the Union, not to abolish slavery. Abraham Lincoln consistently made preserving the Union the central goal of the war, though he increasingly saw slavery as a crucial issue and made ending it an additional goal. Lincoln 's decision to issue the Emancipation Proclamation angered both Peace Democrats ("Copperheads '') and War Democrats, but energized most Republicans. By warning that free blacks would flood the North, Democrats made gains in the 1862 elections, but they did not gain control of Congress. The Republicans ' counterargument that slavery was the mainstay of the enemy steadily gained support, with the Democrats losing decisively in the 1863 elections in the northern state of Ohio when they tried to resurrect anti-black sentiment.
The Emancipation Proclamation enabled African - Americans, both free blacks and escaped slaves, to join the Union Army. About 190,000 volunteered, further enhancing the numerical advantage the Union armies enjoyed over the Confederates, who did not dare emulate the equivalent manpower source for fear of fundamentally undermining the legitimacy of slavery.
During the Civil War, sentiment concerning slaves, enslavement and emancipation in the United States was divided. In 1861, Lincoln worried that premature attempts at emancipation would mean the loss of the border states, and that "to lose Kentucky is nearly the same as to lose the whole game. '' Copperheads and some War Democrats opposed emancipation, although the latter eventually accepted it as part of total war needed to save the Union.
At first, Lincoln reversed attempts at emancipation by Secretary of War Simon Cameron and Generals John C. Frémont (in Missouri) and David Hunter (in South Carolina, Georgia and Florida) to keep the loyalty of the border states and the War Democrats. Lincoln warned the border states that a more radical type of emancipation would happen if his gradual plan based on compensated emancipation and voluntary colonization was rejected. But only the District of Columbia accepted Lincoln 's gradual plan, which was enacted by Congress. When Lincoln told his cabinet about his proposed emancipation proclamation, Seward advised Lincoln to wait for a victory before issuing it, as to do otherwise would seem like "our last shriek on the retreat ''. Lincoln laid the groundwork for public support in an open letter published in abolitionist Horace Greeley 's newspaper.
In September 1862, the Battle of Antietam provided this opportunity, and the subsequent War Governors ' Conference added support for the proclamation. Lincoln issued his preliminary Emancipation Proclamation on September 22, 1862, and his final Emancipation Proclamation on January 1, 1863. In his letter to Albert G. Hodges, Lincoln explained his belief that "If slavery is not wrong, nothing is wrong... And yet I have never understood that the Presidency conferred upon me an unrestricted right to act officially upon this judgment and feeling... I claim not to have controlled events, but confess plainly that events have controlled me. ''
Lincoln 's moderate approach succeeded in inducing border states, War Democrats and emancipated slaves to fight for the Union. The Union - controlled border states (Kentucky, Missouri, Maryland, Delaware and West Virginia) and Union - controlled regions around New Orleans, Norfolk and elsewhere, were not covered by the Emancipation Proclamation. All abolished slavery on their own, except Kentucky and Delaware.
Since the Emancipation Proclamation was based on the President 's war powers, it only included territory held by Confederates at the time. However, the Proclamation became a symbol of the Union 's growing commitment to add emancipation to the Union 's definition of liberty. The Emancipation Proclamation greatly reduced the Confederacy 's hope of getting aid from Britain or France. By late 1864, Lincoln was playing a leading role in getting Congress to vote for the Thirteenth Amendment, which made emancipation universal and permanent.
In Texas v. White, 74 U.S. 700 (1869) the United States Supreme Court ruled that Texas had remained a state ever since it first joined the Union, despite claims that it joined the Confederate States; the court further held that the Constitution did not permit states to unilaterally secede from the United States, and that the ordinances of secession, and all the acts of the legislatures within seceding states intended to give effect to such ordinances, were "absolutely null '', under the constitution.
Reconstruction began during the war, with the Emancipation Proclamation of January 1, 1863, and it continued until 1877. It comprised multiple complex methods to resolve the outstanding issues of the war 's aftermath, the most important of which were the three "Reconstruction Amendments '' to the Constitution, which remain in effect to the present time: the 13th (1865), the 14th (1868) and the 15th (1870). From the Union perspective, the goals of Reconstruction were to consolidate the Union victory on the battlefield by reuniting the Union; to guarantee a "republican form of government for the ex-Confederate states; and to permanently end slavery -- and prevent semi-slavery status.
President Johnson took a lenient approach and saw the achievement of the main war goals as realized in 1865, when each ex-rebel state repudiated secession and ratified the Thirteenth Amendment. Radical Republicans demanded proof that Confederate nationalism was dead and that the slaves were truly free. They came to the fore after the 1866 elections and undid much of Johnson 's work. In 1872 the "Liberal Republicans '' argued that the war goals had been achieved and that Reconstruction should end. They ran a presidential ticket in 1872 but were decisively defeated. In 1874, Democrats, primarily Southern, took control of Congress and opposed any more reconstruction. The Compromise of 1877 closed with a national consensus that the Civil War had finally ended. With the withdrawal of federal troops, however, whites retook control of every Southern legislature; the Jim Crow period of disenfranchisement and legal segregation was about to begin.
The Civil War is one of the central events in American collective memory. There are innumerable statues, commemorations, books and archival collections. The memory includes the home front, military affairs, the treatment of soldiers, both living and dead, in the war 's aftermath, depictions of the war in literature and art, evaluations of heroes and villains, and considerations of the moral and political lessons of the war. The last theme includes moral evaluations of racism and slavery, heroism in combat and heroism behind the lines, and the issues of democracy and minority rights, as well as the notion of an "Empire of Liberty '' influencing the world.
Professional historians have paid much more attention to the causes of the war, than to the war itself. Military history has largely developed outside academe, leading to a proliferation of solid studies by non-scholars who are thoroughly familiar with the primary sources, pay close attention to battles and campaigns, and write for the large public readership, rather than the small scholarly community. Bruce Catton and Shelby Foote are among the best - known writers. Practically every major figure in the war, both North and South, has had a serious biographical study. Deeply religious Southerners saw the hand of God in history, which demonstrated His wrath at their sinfulness, or His rewards for their suffering. Historian Wilson Fallin has examined the sermons of white and black Baptist preachers after the War. Southern white preachers said:
God had chastised them and given them a special mission -- to maintain orthodoxy, strict biblicism, personal piety, and traditional race relations. Slavery, they insisted, had not been sinful. Rather, emancipation was a historical tragedy and the end of Reconstruction was a clear sign of God 's favor.
In sharp contrast, Black preachers interpreted the Civil War as:
God 's gift of freedom. They appreciated opportunities to exercise their independence, to worship in their own way, to affirm their worth and dignity, and to proclaim the fatherhood of God and the brotherhood of man. Most of all, they could form their own churches, associations, and conventions. These institutions offered self - help and racial uplift, and provided places where the gospel of liberation could be proclaimed. As a result, black preachers continued to insist that God would protect and help him; God would be their rock in a stormy land.
Memory of the war in the white South crystallized in the myth of the "Lost Cause '', shaping regional identity and race relations for generations. Alan T. Nolan notes that the Lost Cause was expressly "a rationalization, a cover - up to vindicate the name and fame '' of those in rebellion. Some claims revolve around the insignificance of slavery; some appeals highlight cultural differences between North and South; the military conflict by Confederate actors is idealized; in any case, secession was said to be lawful. Nolan argues that the adoption of the Lost Cause perspective facilitated the reunification of the North and the South while excusing the "virulent racism '' of the 19th century, sacrificing African - American progress to a white man 's reunification. He also deems the Lost Cause "a caricature of the truth. This caricature wholly misrepresents and distorts the facts of the matter '' in every instance.
The economic and political - power determinism forcefully presented by Charles A. Beard and Mary R. Beard in The Rise of American Civilization (1927) was highly influential among historians and the general public until the civil rights movement of the 1950s and 1960s. The Beards downplayed slavery, abolitionism, and issues of morality. They ignored constitutional issues of states ' rights and even ignored American nationalism as the force that finally led to victory in the war. Indeed, the ferocious combat itself was passed over as merely an ephemeral event. Much more important was the calculus of class conflict. The Beards announced that the Civil War was really:
(A) social cataclysm in which the capitalists, laborers, and farmers of the North and West drove from power in the national government the planting aristocracy of the South.
The Beards themselves abandoned their interpretation by the 1940s and it became defunct among historians in the 1950s, when scholars shifted to an emphasis on slavery. However, Beardian themes still echo among Lost Cause writers.
The first efforts at Civil War battlefield preservation and memorialization came during the war itself with the establishment of National Cemeteries at Gettysburg, Mill Springs and Chattanooga. Soldiers began erecting markers on battlefields beginning with the First Battle of Bull Run in July 1861, but the oldest surviving monument is the Hazen monument, erected at Stones River near Murfreesboro, Tennessee, in the summer of 1863 by soldiers in Union Col. William B. Hazen 's brigade to mark the spot where they buried their dead in the Battle of Stones River. In the 1890s, the United States government established five Civil War battlefield parks under the jurisdiction of the War Department, beginning with the creation of the Chickamauga and Chattanooga National Military Park in Tennessee and the Antietam National Battlefield in Maryland in 1890. The Shiloh National Military Park was established in 1894, followed by the Gettysburg National Military Park in 1895 and Vicksburg National Military Park in 1899. In 1933, these five parks and other national monuments were transferred to the jurisdiction of the National Park Service.
The modern Civil War battlefield preservation movement began in 1987 with the founding of the Association for the Preservation of Civil War Sites (APCWS), a grassroots organization created by Civil War historians and others to preserve battlefield land by acquiring it. In 1991, the original Civil War Trust was created in the mold of the Statue of Liberty / Ellis Island Foundation, but failed to attract corporate donors and soon helped manage the disbursement of U.S. Mint Civil War commemorative coin revenues designated for battlefield preservation. Although the two non-profit organizations joined forces on a number of battlefield acquisitions, ongoing conflicts prompted the boards of both organizations to facilitate a merger, which happened in 1999 with the creation of the Civil War Preservation Trust. In 2011, the organization was renamed, again becoming the Civil War Trust. After expanding its mission in 2014 to include battlefields of the Revolutionary War and War of 1812, the non-profit became the American Battlefield Trust in May 2018, operating with two divisions, the Civil War Trust and the Revolutionary War Trust. From 1987 through May 2018, the Trust and its predecessor organizations, along with their partners, preserved 49,893 acres of battlefield land through acquisition of property or conservation easements at more than 130 battlefields in 24 states.
The American Civil War has been commemorated in many capacities ranging from the reenactment of battles, to statues and memorial halls erected, to films being produced, to stamps and coins with Civil War themes being issued, all of which helped to shape public memory. This varied advent occurred in greater proportions on the 100th and 150th anniversary. Hollywood 's take on the war has been especially influential in shaping public memory, as seen in such film classics as Birth of a Nation (1915), Gone with the Wind (1939), and more recently Lincoln (2012). Ken Burns produced a notable PBS series on television titled The Civil War (1990). It was digitally remastered and re-released in 2015.
There were numerous technological innovations during the Civil War that had a great impact on 19th - century science. The Civil War was one of the earliest examples of an "industrial war '', in which technological might is used to achieve military supremacy in a war. New inventions, such as the train and telegraph, delivered soldiers, supplies and messages at a time when horses were considered to be the fastest way to travel. It was also in this war when countries first used aerial warfare, in the form of reconnaissance balloons, to a significant effect. It saw the first action involving steam - powered ironclad warships in naval warfare history. Repeating firearms such as the Henry rifle, Spencer rifle, Colt revolving rifle, Triplett & Scott carbine and others, first appeared during the Civil War; they were a revolutionary invention that would soon replace muzzle - loading and single - shot firearms in warfare, as well as the first appearances of rapid - firing weapons and machine guns such as the Agar gun and the Gatling gun.
General reference
Union
Confederacy
Ethnic articles
Topical articles
National articles
State articles
Memorials
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a listing agreement does not authorize a listing broker to | Listing contract - wikipedia
A listing contract (or listing agreement) is a contract between a real estate broker and an owner of real property granting the broker the authority to act as the owner 's agent in the sale of the property.
If the broker is a member of the National Association of Realtors, the agreement must include all of the following terms:
In addition, other terms which may appear in the agreement can include:
Typically, separate listing agreements exist for the sale of residential property, for land, and for commercial or business property.
Upon listing the property, the real estate agency tries to obtain a buyer for the property and, in consideration of successfully finding a satisfactory buyer, the broker anticipates receiving a commission (fee) for the services the brokerage provided.
Although the terms of the contract could vary, usually the payment of a commission (or fee) to the brokerage is contingent upon:
If the seller refuses to sell the real estate when one of the above two conditions applies, it is typically considered that the real estate agent has done their job of finding a satisfactory buyer and the seller must still pay the commission, although the details are determined by the listing contract. Unless closing (or "settlement '' or "close of escrow '', as it is known in some parts of the country) is a condition of the listing agreement, the buyer 's failure to complete the transaction may not require the seller to pay a commission to the broker.
The commission is usually a percentage of the sales price of the property ranging from 2 or 3 % up to about 10 %, but usually in the range of about 3 - 7 % for houses. The commission could also be a flat fee or some combination of flat fee and percentage, based on the rate you negotiate. Commission rates and fees are negotiable and not regulated. The average days to sale in your market, advertising, labor costs, length ot term, and competition may influence the rate acceptable by the listing real estate broker before entering a listing agreement.
The commission is paid by the seller to the listing real estate broker, who will then compensate their listing agent and any co-operating brokers / agents from this commission by separate agreements with them.
The listing contract typically also includes a listing price for the property and a date of expiration by which the contract expires. However, if the property is sold at a lower or higher price, the seller pays a commission at a proportionally lower or higher amount. If the seller does not accept a price lower than the listing price, then the broker will have to wait until a satisfactory sale to earn the commission.
In the event of multiple offers being presented, the seller may accept whichever offer is most suitable to him / her, even if the price is not the highest. The percentage commission will be paid according to the accepted price. The seller, often in concurrence with the real estate agent, may choose to accept an offer that is lower than the highest offer for various reasons, such as terms or contingencies in the purchase contract offered or perceived differences in financial qualification of the competing buyers.
Typically, the real estate agent has the experience and data to determine a suitable listing price for the seller 's property and will recommend a listing price to the seller. The seller can accept, reject, or try to negotiate a different listing price for the contract. If the seller 's price is unrealistically high and the agent can not convince the seller otherwise, the agent can decline to list the property.
Listing a property commonly incurs certain expenses for the listing broker and takes some time and effort for the listing salesperson. To make it worthwhile, they want a certain minimum listing time period to have a good chance of selling the property. However, the listing contract must have an expiration date. A typical listing period is often three to six months. If the property is not sold or under a purchase contract by then, the seller may decide to re-list the property, perhaps with a different listing price, with the same or a different broker or agent, or not list it at all. The listing of the property can start at a date later than the date the listing contract is signed to allow the seller time to prepare the property for showing or sale.
There can be several types of listing contracts:
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where are all the march madness games played | 2018 NCAA Division I men 's basketball tournament - wikipedia
The 2018 NCAA Division I Men 's Basketball Tournament was a 68 - team single - elimination tournament to determine the men 's National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) Division I college basketball national champion for the 2017 -- 18 season. The 80th edition of the tournament began on March 13, 2018, and concluded with the championship game on April 2 at the Alamodome in San Antonio, Texas.
During the first round, UMBC became the first 16 - seed to defeat a 1 - seed in the men 's tournament by defeating Virginia 74 -- 54. For the first time in tournament history, none of the four top seeded teams in a single region (the South) advanced to the Sweet 16. Also, the tournament featured the first regional final matchup of a 9 - seed (Kansas State) and an 11 - seed (Loyola - Chicago).
Villanova, Michigan, Kansas, and Loyola - Chicago, the "Cinderella team '' of the tournament, reached the Final Four. Villanova defeated Michigan in the championship game, 79 -- 62.
A total of 68 teams entered the 2018 tournament. 32 automatic bids were awarded, one to each program that won their conference tournament. The remaining 36 bids were "at - large '', with selections extended by the NCAA Selection Committee.
Eight teams (the four lowest - seeded automatic qualifiers and the four lowest - seeded at - large teams) played in the First Four (the successor to what had been popularly known as "play - in games '' through the 2010 tournament). The winners of these games advanced to the main draw of the tournament.
The Selection Committee seeded the entire field from 1 to 68.
The following sites were selected to host each round of the 2018 tournament:
First Four
First and Second Rounds
Regional Semifinals and Finals (Sweet Sixteen and Elite Eight)
National Semifinals and Championship (Final Four and Championship)
For the fourth time, the Alamodome and city of San Antonio are hosting the Final Four. This is the first tournament since 1994 in which no games were played in an NFL stadium, as the Alamodome is a college football stadium, although the Alamodome hosted some home games for the New Orleans Saints during their 2005 season. The 2018 tournament featured three new arenas in previous host cities. Philips Arena, the home of the Atlanta Hawks and replacement for the previously used Omni Coliseum, hosted the South regional games, and the new Little Caesars Arena, home of the Detroit Pistons and Detroit Red Wings, hosted games. And for the first time since 1994, the tournament returned to Wichita and the state of Kansas where Intrust Bank Arena hosted first round games.
The state of North Carolina was threatened with a 2018 - 2022 championship venue boycott by the NCAA, due to the HB2 law passed in 2016. However, the law was repealed (but with provisos) days before the NCAA met to make decisions on venues in April 2017. At that time, the NCAA board of governors "reluctantly voted to allow consideration of championship bids in North Carolina by our committees that are presently meeting ''. Therefore, Charlotte was eligible and served as a first weekend venue for the 2018 tournament.
Four teams, out of 351 in Division I, were ineligible to participate in the 2018 tournament due to failing to meet APR requirements: Alabama A&M, Grambling State, Savannah State, and Southeast Missouri State. However, the NCAA granted the Savannah State Tigers a waiver which would have allowed the team to participate in the tournament, but the team failed to qualify.
The following 32 teams were automatic qualifiers for the 2018 NCAA field by virtue of winning their conference 's automatic bid.
The tournament seeds were determined through the NCAA basketball tournament selection process. The seeds and regions were determined as follows:
* See First Four
The 2018 tournament was the first time since the 1978 tournament that the six Division I college basketball - playing schools based in the Washington, DC metropolitan area -- American, Georgetown, George Mason, George Washington, Howard, and Maryland -- were collectively shut out of the NCAA Tournament.
All times are listed as Eastern Daylight Time (UTC − 4) * -- Denotes overtime period
During the Final Four round, regardless of the seeds of the participating teams, the champion of the top overall top seed 's region (Virginia 's South Region) plays against the champion of the fourth - ranked top seed 's region (Xavier 's West Region), and the champion of the second overall top seed 's region (Villanova 's East Region) plays against the champion of the third - ranked top seed 's region (Kansas 's Midwest Region).
The Pac - 12 lost all of its teams after the first day of the main tournament draw, marking the first time since the Big 12 began play in 1996 that one of the six major conferences -- defined as the ACC, Big Ten, Big 12, Pac - 12, SEC, and both versions of the Big East -- failed to have a team advance to the tournament 's round of 32.
CBS Sports and Turner Sports had U.S. television rights to the Tournament under the NCAA March Madness brand. As part of a cycle beginning in 2016, TBS held the rights to the Final Four and to the championship game. Additionally, TBS held the rights to the 2018 Selection Show, which returned to a two - hour format, was presented in front of a studio audience, and promoted that the entire field of the tournament would be unveiled within the first ten minutes of the broadcast. The broadcast was heavily criticized for its quality (including technical problems and an embedded product placement segment for Pizza Hut), as well as initially unveiling the 68 - team field in alphabetical order (beginning with automatic qualifiers, followed by the at - large teams) rather than unveiling the matchups region - by - region (which was criticized for having less suspense than the traditional format).
Westwood One had exclusive radio rights to the entire tournament.
Live video of games was available for streaming through the following means:
Live audio of games was available for streaming through the following means:
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who is the current coach of the dallas cowboys | Jason Garrett - wikipedia
Jason Calvin Garrett (born March 28, 1966) is the head coach of the Dallas Cowboys of the National Football League (NFL). He was the offensive coordinator and assistant head coach of the Cowboys before being promoted to interim head coach after the firing of Wade Phillips on November 8, 2010. Garrett was also a professional American football quarterback in the NFL for the Dallas Cowboys, New York Giants, Tampa Bay Buccaneers and Miami Dolphins. He played college football at Princeton University.
Garrett went to prep school at University School in Hunting Valley, Ohio, and was a letterman in football, basketball, and baseball. In football, as a senior, he won All - League honors as a quarterback and safety. He graduated from University School in 1984.
Garrett attended grade school at Holy Cross school in Rumson, New Jersey.
Garrett was accepted to Princeton, where he began as the starting quarterback of the freshman team, registering 64 completions on 116 attempts for 996 yards. He transferred to Columbia University when his father, Jim Garrett became the head coach in 1985. Following his father 's resignation after Columbia 's 0 -- 10 1985 season, he and his brothers (Judd and John) transferred to Princeton University, although none played varsity in 1986 for different reasons (Jason was an ineligible transfer).
He sat out the 1986 season because of the transfer rules, while focusing on running the scout team, which included his brothers. The next year, as a junior, he was named the starting quarterback. Although he piloted Princeton to a win against his former team Columbia (a loss that gave Columbia the Division I record for straight losses, at 35), he was also involved in a losing effort against them as a senior, snapping Columbia 's by then 44 - game losing streak. He received the Asa S. Bushnell Cup as the Ivy League Player of the Year. He earned a degree in history in 1989.
He finished his college career completing 366 of 550 passes (66.5 %) for 4,274 yards and 20 touchdowns. At the time he was ranked in the categories: lowest pass interception percentage (1.8 % -- school record), total yards of offense (4,555 -- second in school history), total yards of offense in a season (2,485 third in school history), most passing yards (4,274 -- second in school history), most passing yards in a season (2,217 -- - fourth in school history), most completions (366 -- second in school history), most completions in a season (204 -- third in school history), most touchdown passes (20 -- tied for fourth). He continues to hold the Ivy League career record for completion percentage with 66.5 % (366 -- 550) and his 1988 percentage of 68.2 % (204 -- 299) stood as the league record until 2000, when Gavin Hoffman posted a 70.5 % mark.
Garrett was signed as an undrafted free agent by the New Orleans Saints after the 1989 NFL Draft and was eventually signed to the practice squad. On September 3, 1990, he was waived by the Saints and spent most of the year working as a coaching assistant for Princeton.
In 1991, Garrett started at quarterback for the San Antonio Riders of the World League of American Football, but he suffered a separated right shoulder in the season opener. Garrett returned to start the sixth and seventh game but was passed on the depth chart by Mike Johnson.
On June 4, 1991, he was signed by the Ottawa Rough Riders of the Canadian Football League, but was released in August.
In 1992, with the support of his father, at the time a part of the Dallas Cowboys scouting department, Garrett was signed as a free agent. He was released on August 31 and later signed to the team 's practice squad. In 1993, his preseason performances allowed him to make the team as the third - string quarterback behind Troy Aikman and Hugh Millen. He eventually passed Millen on the depth chart. In the eighth game of the season, after Aikman injured his left hamstring against the New York Giants in the third quarter, Garrett finished the game, completing 5 of 6 passes for 34 yards and leading 2 touchdown drives. He was named the starter for the next game against the Phoenix Cardinals, where he completed 2 of 6 passes for 25 yards and helped the team score on a field goal, before being replaced on the third series in favor of Bernie Kosar, who had been signed 4 days earlier. Kosar became the backup quarterback for the rest of the season after the game.
The highlight of Garrett 's playing career occurred on the 1994 Thanksgiving Day game when he started in place of backup quarterback Rodney Peete, who was out with a sprained thumb he suffered in a win against the Washington Redskins. Garrett led the Cowboys over the Green Bay Packers by completing 15 of 26 passes for 311 yards and 2 touchdowns in the second half for a comeback win of 42 - 31, which earned him NFC Offensive Player of the Week honors. In 2008, that game was named the fourth - best moment in the history of Texas Stadium by ESPN.. In 1995 he was promoted to the backup position and in the second game against the Denver Broncos, after Aikman suffered a broken clavicle, Garrett came in to finish the 23 - 42 loss. He would start the next five games and contribute to a 3 - 2 mark for a team that would go on to win the NFC East conference by one game over the Arizona Cardinals. In 1999, he started two games for a 1 -- 1 record.
Garrett was a part of the 1993 and 1995 Super Bowl winning teams. In eight seasons with the Cowboys, he played in 39 games and completed 165 of 294 passes (56.1 %) for 2,042 yards, 11 touchdowns and five interceptions.
In 2000, Garrett was signed as a free agent by the New York Giants to backup Kerry Collins. On February 27, 2002, he was released for salary cap reasons and re-signed on July 24, although he would be declared inactive in 16 games, after being passed on the depth chart by Jesse Palmer who was named the backup quarterback. In 2003, he was declared inactive in 11 games as the third - string quarterback.
On March 15, 2004, Garrett signed with the Tampa Bay Buccaneers and was cut on August 31. On October 13, he was re-signed by the Tampa Bay Buccaneers. After being declared inactive in week 6 and week 7, he was released on November 6. On November 24, he was signed as a free agent by the Miami Dolphins and was declared inactive for the last 6 games of the season.
After retiring as a player, he became the quarterbacks coach for the Miami Dolphins in 2005 -- 2006 under head coach Nick Saban.
In January 2007, Garrett was hired by the Dallas Cowboys as offensive coordinator. He guided the Cowboys to the 2nd best offense in the NFL, which made him an attractive head coaching prospect. In January 2008, Garrett interviewed for the head coaching job of the Baltimore Ravens and the Atlanta Falcons receiving offers from both, but ultimately opted to remain in Dallas. His salary for the 2008 season was nearly $3 million; the highest salary for an assistant coach in the NFL at the time. On December 29, 2008, the Detroit Lions received permission to speak to Garrett regarding the team 's head coaching vacancy according to ESPN sources. In January 2009, the Denver Broncos also interviewed him as a possible replacement for fired coach Mike Shanahan. He was also a finalist for the St. Louis Rams head coaching position, to replace Jim Haslett, the interim head coach. Ultimately, he lost the job to Steve Spagnuolo.
On November 8, 2010, Garrett was named as interim head coach of the Cowboys after fourth - year head coach Wade Phillips was fired after a 1 -- 7 start for the 2010 season. On November 14, Garrett won his first game as a head coach, beating the favored New York Giants by a score of 33 -- 20 in the Meadowlands. The next week, he led the Cowboys to a 35 -- 19 victory over the Detroit Lions, their first home win all season. He finished with a 5 - 3 record down the stretch. On January 6, 2011, Garrett was officially named the 8th head coach in Cowboys history. He is the first born after the team was founded in 1960, and the first former Cowboys player to hold the post.
He had three straight 8 - 8 seasons, losing in the last game each season to NFC East division rivals New York Giants, Washington Redskins, and Philadelphia Eagles to miss the division championship and the playoffs each time. In 2014, Garrett achieved head - coaching success for the first time. The Cowboys, featuring several key draft picks maturing as the league 's best offensive line and the emergence of DeMarco Murray as a dominant running back, won the NFC East with a 12 - 4 record and were tied for the best record in the conference with the Green Bay Packers and the Seattle Seahawks. The Cowboys were undefeated on the road, including impressive wins over Seattle and the NFC East frontrunners (at the time), the Philadelphia Eagles. Garrett 's team lost the three - way tiebreaker to Green Bay and Seattle and therefore hosted the Detroit Lions in a Wildcard game. This game, won 24 - 20 by the Cowboys, featured a controversial "flag pick up '' after a penalty during a late Detroit drive, thereby allowing Dallas an improved chance to make a comeback and defeat the Lions. In the ensuing Divisional Playoff game, hyped as a rematch of the famous Ice Bowl NFL championship game from 1967, Dallas held a lead in the second half, but after losing the lead due to a late Aaron Rodgers touchdown pass, had a potentially game - winning catch by Dez Bryant overturned in official replay, therefore sealing a 26 - 21 defeat to Green Bay.
On January 13, 2015, Cowboys owner Jerry Jones and Garrett came to an agreement of a contract, keeping Garrett in Dallas for 5 more years and paying him $30 million. Garrett has now head - coached the Cowboys longer than any other coach except Tom Landry. The Cowboys entered the 2015 season with great expectations, but starting quarterback Tony Romo only played in 4 games after suffering two fractures in his left collarbone, and the team finished with a 4 - 12 mark. The Cowboys bounced back in 2016 with their best record under Garrett (13 - 3) with the emergence of rookie quarterback Dak Prescott and running back Ezekiel Elliott, earning the # 1 NFC spot in the playoffs and a first - round bye. However, they were upset by Aaron Rodgers and the Green Bay Packers by a last second field goal by Mason Crosby, losing the game 34 - 31. Garrett was named the NFL Coach of the Year for the 2016 season.
* -- Interim head coach
Jason 's brothers, John and Judd, also played in the World League of American Football, and Judd made second - team All - World League in 1991 after leading the league in catches. John is currently the head coach of the Lafayette College football team, and his younger brother, Judd, works in the Dallas Cowboys front office after being let go as tight ends coach for the St. Louis Rams. Since he played for the London Monarchs, Judd is the only one of the Garretts who played in the WLAF to have a World Bowl ring. Another brother, Jim Garrett III, is an English teacher and former football coach at University School in Hunting Valley, Ohio.
His father, Jim Garrett (1930 - 2018), was an assistant coach for the New York Giants (1970 -- 1973), New Orleans Saints (1976 -- 77), and Cleveland Browns (1978 -- 84) and head coach of the Houston Texans of the World Football League (1974) and at Columbia University (1985). From 1987 to 2004, he served as a scout for the Dallas Cowboys.
Garrett resides in Dallas with his wife, Brill.
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history of cirque du soleil shows in melbourne | Cirque du Soleil - wikipedia
Cirque du Soleil (pronounced (sɪʁk dzy sɔ. lɛj), "Circus of the Sun '' or "Sun Circus '') is a Canadian entertainment company. It is the largest theatrical producer in the world. Based in Montreal, Quebec, Canada, and located in the inner - city area of Saint - Michel, it was founded in Baie - Saint - Paul on 7 July 1984, by two former street performers, Guy Laliberté and Gilles Ste - Croix.
Initially named Les Échassiers ((lez ‿ e. ʃa. sje), "The Waders ''), they toured Quebec in 1980 as a performing troupe. Their initial financial hardship was relieved in 1983 by a government grant from the Canada Council for the Arts, as part of the 450th anniversary celebrations of Jacques Cartier 's voyage to Canada. Le Grand Tour du Cirque du Soleil was a success in 1984, and after securing a second year of funding, Laliberté hired Guy Caron from the National Circus School to re-create it as a "proper circus ''. Its theatrical, character - driven approach and the absence of performing animals helped define Cirque du Soleil as the contemporary circus ("nouveau cirque '') that it remains today.
Each show is a synthesis of circus styles from around the world, with its own central theme and storyline. Shows employ continuous live music, with performers rather than stagehands changing the props. After financial successes and failures in the late 1980s, Nouvelle Expérience was created -- with the direction of Franco Dragone -- which not only made Cirque du Soleil profitable by 1990, but allowed it to create new shows.
Cirque du Soleil expanded rapidly through the 1990s and 2000s, going from one show to 19 shows in over 271 cities on every continent except Antarctica. The shows employ approximately 4,000 people from over 40 countries and generate an estimated annual revenue exceeding US $810 million. The multiple permanent Las Vegas shows alone play to more than 9,000 people a night, 5 % of the city 's visitors, adding to the 90 million people who have experienced Cirque du Soleil 's shows worldwide.
In 2000, Laliberté bought out Gauthier, and with 95 % ownership, has continued to expand the brand. In 2008, Laliberté split 20 % of his share equally between two investment groups Istithmar World and Nakheel of Dubai, in order to further finance the company 's goals. In partnership with these two groups, Cirque du Soleil had planned to build a residency show in the United Arab Emirates in 2012 directed by Guy Caron (Dralion) and Michael Curry. But since Dubai 's financial problems in 2010 caused by the 2008 recession, it was stated by Laliberté that the project has been "put on ice '' for the time being and may be looking for another financial partner to bankroll the company 's future plans, even willing to give up another 10 % of his share. Several more shows are in development around the world, along with a television deal, women 's clothing line and the possible venture into other mediums such as spas, restaurants and nightclubs. Cirque du Soleil also produces a small number of private and corporate events each year (past clients have been the royal family of Dubai and the 2007 Super Bowl).
The company 's creations have received numerous prizes and distinctions, including a Bambi Award in 1997, a Rose d'Or in 1989, three Drama Desk Awards in 1991, 1998 and 2013, three Gemini Awards, four Primetime Emmy Awards, and a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame. In 2000, Cirque du Soleil was awarded the National Arts Centre Award, a companion award of the Governor General 's Performing Arts Awards. In 2002, Cirque du Soleil was inducted into Canada 's Walk of Fame.
In 2015, TPG Capital, Fosun Industrial Holdings and Caisse de depot et placement du Quebec purchased 90 % of Cirque du Soleil. The sale received regulatory approval from the Government of Canada on 30 June 2015.
At age 18, interested in pursuing some kind of performing career, Guy Laliberté quit college and left home. He toured Europe as a folk musician and busker. By the time he returned home to Canada in 1979, he had learned the art of fire breathing. Although he became "employed '' at a hydroelectric power plant in James Bay, his job ended after only three days due to a labour strike. He decided not to look for another job, instead supporting himself on his unemployment insurance. He helped organize a summer fair in Baie - Saint - Paul with the help of a pair of friends named Daniel Gauthier and Gilles Ste - Croix.
Gauthier and Ste - Croix were managing a youth hostel for performing artists named Le Balcon Vert at that time. By the summer of 1979, Ste - Croix had been developing the idea of turning the Balcon Vert and the talented performers who lived there into an organized performing troupe. As part of a publicity stunt to convince the Quebec government to help fund his production, Ste - Croix walked the 56 miles (90 km) from Baie - Saint - Paul to Quebec City on stilts. The ploy worked, giving the three men the money to create Les Échassiers de Baie - Saint - Paul. Employing many of the people who would later make up Cirque du Soleil, Les Échassiers toured Quebec during the summer of 1980.
Although well received by audiences and critics alike, Les Échassiers was a financial failure. Laliberté spent that winter in Hawaii plying his trade while Ste - Croix stayed in Quebec to set up a nonprofit holding company named "The High - Heeled Club '' to mitigate the losses of the previous summer. In 1981, they met with better results. By that fall, Les Échassiers de Baie - Saint - Paul had broken even. The success inspired Laliberté and Ste - Croix to organize a summer fair in their hometown of Baie - Saint - Paul.
This touring festival, called "La Fête Foraine '', first took place in July 1982. La Fête Foraine featured workshops to teach the circus arts to the public, after which those who participated could take part in a performance. Ironically, the festival was barred from its own hosting town after complaints from local citizens. Laliberté managed and produced the fair over the next couple of years, nurturing it into a moderate financial success. But it was in 1983 that the government of Quebec gave him a $1.5 million grant to host a production the following year as part of Quebec 's 450th anniversary celebration of the French explorer Jacques Cartier 's discovery of Canada. Laliberté named his creation "Le Grand Tour du Cirque du Soleil ''.
The duration of each touring show was traditionally split into two acts of an hour each separated by a 30 - minute interval; however, as of 2014, due to cost cutting issues, the shows have now been reduced to a shorter 50 - minute first act followed by a 55 - minute second act, still including a 25 - minute interval. Permanent shows are usually 90 minutes in length without any intermission. This excludes Joyà (the permanent show in Riviera Maya, Mexico), which is only 70 minutes in length. Typically touring shows as well as resident shows perform a standard 10 shows a week. Touring shows usually have one ' dark day ' (with no performances) while resident shows have two.
Originally intended to only be a one - year project, Cirque du Soleil was scheduled to perform in 11 towns in Quebec over the course of 13 weeks running concurrent with the third La Fête Foraine. The first shows were riddled with difficulty, starting with the collapse of the big top after the increased weight of rainwater caused the central mast to snap. Working with a borrowed tent, Laliberté then had to contend with difficulties with the European performers. They were so unhappy with the Quebec circus 's inexperience that they had, at one point, sent a letter to the media complaining about how they were being treated.
The problems were only transient, however, and by the time 1984 had come to a close, Le Grand Tour du Cirque du Soleil was a success. Having only $60,000 left in the bank, Laliberté went back to the Canadian government to secure funding for a second year. While the Canadian federal government was enthusiastic, the Quebec provincial government was resistant to the idea. It was not until Quebec 's premier, René Lévesque, intervened on their behalf that the provincial government relented. The original big top tent that was used during the 1984 Le Grand Tour du Cirque du Soleil tour can now be seen at Carnivàle Lune Bleue, a 1930s - style carnival that is home to the Cirque Maroc acrobats.
After securing funding from the Canadian government for a second year, Laliberté took steps to renovate Cirque du Soleil from a group of street performers into a "proper circus ''. To accomplish this he hired the head of the National Circus School, Guy Caron, as Cirque du Soleil 's artistic director. The influences that Laliberté and Caron had in reshaping their circus were extensive. They wanted strong emotional music that was played from beginning to end by musicians. They wanted to emulate the Moscow Circus ' method of having the acts tell a story. Performers, rather than a technical crew, move equipment and props on and off stage so that it did not disrupt the momentum of the "storyline ''. Most importantly, their vision was to create a circus with neither a ring nor animals. The rationale was that the lack of both of these things draws the audience more into the performance.
To help design the next major show, Laliberté and Caron hired Franco Dragone, another instructor from the National Circus School who had been working in Belgium. When he joined the troupe in 1985, he brought with him his experience in commedia dell'arte techniques, which he imparted to the performers. Although his experience would be limited in the next show due to budget restraints, he would go on to direct every show up to, but not including Dralion.
By 1986, the company was once again in serious financial trouble. During 1985 they had taken the show outside Quebec to a lukewarm response. In Toronto they performed in front of a 25 % capacity crowd after not having enough money to properly market the show. Gilles Ste - Croix, dressed in a monkey suit, walked through downtown Toronto as a desperate publicity stunt. A later stop in Niagara Falls turned out to be equally problematic.
Several factors prevented the company from going bankrupt that year. The Desjardins Group, which was Cirque du Soleil 's financial institution at the time, covered about $200,000 of bad checks. Also, a financier named Daniel Lamarre, who worked for one of the largest public relations firms in Quebec, represented the company for free, knowing that they did n't have the money to pay his fee. The Quebec government itself also came through again, granting Laliberté enough money to stay solvent for another year.
In 1987, after Laliberté re-privatized Cirque du Soleil, it was invited to perform at the Los Angeles Arts Festival. Although they continued to be plagued by financial difficulties, Normand Latourelle took the gamble and went to Los Angeles, despite only having enough money to make a one - way trip. Had the show been a failure, the company would not have had enough money to get their performers and equipment back to Montreal.
The festival turned out to be a huge success, both critically and financially. The show attracted the attention of entertainment executives, including Columbia Pictures, which met with Laliberté and Gauthier under the pretense of wanting to make a movie about Cirque du Soleil. Laliberté was unhappy with the deal, claiming that it gave too many rights to Columbia, which was attempting to secure all rights to the production. Laliberté pulled out of the deal before it could be concluded, and that experience stands out as a key reason why Cirque du Soleil remained independent and privately owned for 28 years, until Guy Laliberte announced in April 2015 that he was selling his majority stake to a group headed by a U.S. private equity firm, and its Chinese partners.
In 1988, Guy Caron left the company due to artistic differences over what to do with the money generated by Cirque du Soleil 's first financially successful tour. Laliberté wanted to use it to expand and start a second show while Caron wanted the money to be saved, with a portion going back to the National Circus School. An agreement was never met and Caron, along with a large number of artists loyal to him, departed. This stalled plans that year to start a new touring show.
Laliberté sought out Gilles Ste - Croix as replacement for the artistic director position. Ste - Croix, who had been away from the company since 1985, agreed to return. The company went through more internal troubles, including a failed attempt to add Normand Latourelle as a third man to the partnership. This triumvirate lasted only six months before internal disagreements prompted Gauthier and Laliberté to buy out Latourelle. By the end of 1989, Cirque du Soleil was once again in a deficit.
With Saltimbanco finished and touring in the United States and Canada, Cirque du Soleil toured Japan in the summer of 1992 at the behest of the Fuji Television Network. Taking acts from Nouvelle Expérience and Cirque Réinventé, they created a show for this tour, titled Fascination. Although Fascination was never seen outside Japan, it represented the first time that Cirque du Soleil had produced a show that took place in an arena rather than a big top. It was also the first that Cirque du Soleil performed outside of North America.
Also in 1992, Cirque du Soleil made its first collaboration with Switzerland 's Circus Knie in a production named Knie Presents Cirque du Soleil that toured for nine months from 20 March to 29 November 1992 through 60 cities in Switzerland, opening in Rapperswil and closing in Bellinzona. The production merged Circus Knie 's animal acts with Cirque du Soleil 's acrobatic acts. The stage resembled that of Cirque du Soleil 's previous shows La Magie Continue and Le Cirque Reinventé, but was modified to accommodate Circus Knie 's animals. The show also featured acts seen previously in Le Cirque Reinventé, including:
In April 2015, Cirque du Soleil 's Special Events division, which had been responsible for coordinating various public and private events, formed a separate company called 45 Degrees. Led by Yasmine Khalil, the new company has continued to produce special events for Cirque du Soleil while expanding to offer creative content outside Cirque du Soleil as well.
The main characters in this edition will be taken to the future, to a new dimension between reality and fiction. The brother and sister will be faced by their own separation in a totally unknown universe on a trip in which each one must overcome the challenges of their own reality for themselves. Only their instinct and their strong fraternal bond will be the key to their meeting again. ''
It will be directed by Mukhtar Omar Sharif, Mukhtar who is an ex-cirque artist turned choreographer who has worked on projects including the Beijing Olympic Game 's opening and closing ceremonies and Cirque 's ' One night for One Drop ' in 2013 and 2014.
As of October 2015, Cirque du Soleil renounced its intention to be involved in Las Vegas nightclubs and has since dissociated itself from all lounges and clubs listed below. These lounges are no longer affiliated with Cirque du Soleil.
Revolution is a 5,000 - square - foot (500 m) lounge concept designed for The Mirage resort in Las Vegas, in which cast members perform to the music of The Beatles. Cirque du Soleil drew inspiration from the Beatles ' lyrics to design some of the lounge 's features. For instance, the ceiling is decorated with 30,000 dichroic crystals, representing "Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds ''. The VIP tables use infrared technology that allows guests to create artwork, which is then projected onto amorphic columns.
Cirque du Soleil 's second lounge was the Gold Lounge, which is located in the Aria Resort and Casino in Las Vegas and is 3,756 square feet (349 m). The design is reminiscent of Elvis ' mansion, Graceland, and black and gold are utilized extensively throughout the décor. The bar has the same shape as the bar in the Elvis mansion as well. The music played here changes throughout the night, including upbeat classic rock, commercial house music, upbeat Elvis remixes, minimal hip hop, Top 40, and pop.
In May 2013 The Light Group opened the Light nightclub in collaboration with Cirque du Soleil at the Mandalay Bay Hotel and Casino in Las Vegas, costing $25 million. Light was the first time Cirque du Soleil worked as part of a nightclub. Among other features the club has a large wall of LED screens, and the room is illuminated with fog, lasers and strobes. DJs at the events include charting artists such as Kaskade and Tiesto, with prices ranging from $30 to $10,000 for certain table placements.
It was announced on 11 October 2014 that in partnership with Saban Brands, Cirque du Soleil Media would produce an animated children 's (pre-school aged) series called Luna Petunia and the showrunner was announced as children 's TV writer Bradley Zweig. The plot revolves around a little girl who plays in a dreamland where she learns how to make the impossible possible. It began airing on Netflix in September 2016.
In a collaboration with Universal Television and Sony Pictures Television, Cirque du Soleil co-produced the television broadcast of The Wiz Live! (based on the musical of the same name) which aired in December 2015 on NBC. Tony Award - winning director Kenny Leon directed the show along with Broadway writer / actor Harvey Fierstein, who contributed new material to the original Broadway script. Queen Latifah, Mary J. Blige, Stephanie Mills, Ne - Yo, David Alan Grier, Common, Elijah Kelley, Amber Riley, and Uzo Aduba and newcomer Shanice Williams are set to star. It was speculated that a live version of the show would play on Broadway during the 2016 - 2017 season, however this plan fell through.
Cirque du Soleil shows normally tour under a grand chapiteau (i.e. big top) for an extended period of time until they are modified, if necessary, for touring in arenas and other venues. The infrastructure that tours with each show could easily be called a mobile village; it includes the Grand Chapiteau, a large entrance tent, artistic tent, kitchen, school, and other items necessary to support the cast and crew.
The company 's tours have significant financial impacts on the cities they visit by renting lots for shows, parking spaces, selling and buying promotions, and contributing to the local economy with hotel stays, purchasing food, and hiring local help. For example, during its stay in Santa Monica, California, Koozå brought an estimated US $16,700,000 (equivalent to $19,049,449 in 2017) to the city government and local businesses.
Cirque du Soleil Images creates original products for television, video and DVD and distributes its productions worldwide.
Its creations have been awarded numerous prizes and distinctions, including two Gemini Awards and a Primetime Emmy Award for Cirque du Soleil: Fire Within (in 2003) and three Primetime Emmy Awards for Dralion (in 2001).
In November 2003, gymnast Matthew Cusick (represented by the Lambda Legal Defense and Education Fund) filed a discrimination complaint against Cirque du Soleil in the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission, alleging a violation of the Americans With Disabilities Act. Cusick (a trainee performer who was scheduled to begin working at Mystère) alleged that in April 2002, Cirque du Soleil fired him because he tested HIV - positive, even though company doctors had already cleared him as healthy enough to perform. Cirque du Soleil alleged that due to the nature of Cusick 's disease coupled with his job 's high risk of injury, there was a significant risk of his infecting other performers, crew or audience members. Cirque du Soleil said that they had several HIV - positive employees, but in the case of Cusick, the risk of him spreading his infection while performing was too high to take the risk. A boycott ensued and Just Out ran a story on it (with the headline "Flipping off the Cirque ''). Cirque du Soleil settled with Cusick in April 2004; under the settlement, the company began a company - wide anti-discrimination training program, changed its employment practices pertaining to HIV - positive applicants; paid Cusick $60,000 in lost wages, $200,000 in front pay, and $300,000 in compensatory damages; and paid $40,000 in attorney fees to Lambda Legal.
An additional complaint was filed on Cusick 's behalf by the San Francisco Human Rights Commission. Their complaint stemmed the City of San Francisco 's ban on city contracting with employers that discriminate based on HIV status; the circus leases property owned by the city - owned Port of San Francisco.
Cirque du Soleil opposed Neil Goldberg and his company Cirque Productions over its use of the word "Cirque '' in the late 1990s. Goldberg 's company was awarded a trademark on its name "Cirque Dreams '' in 2005.
In August 1999, Fremonster Theatrical filed an application for the trademark Cirque de Flambé. This application was opposed by the owners of the Cirque du Soleil trademark in August 2002, on the grounds that it would cause confusion and "(dilute) the distinctive quality '' of Cirque du Soleil 's trademarks. A judge dismissed the opposition and the Cirque de Flambé trademark application was approved in 2005.
In April 2016, Cirque du Soleil filed a copyright infringement lawsuit against Justin Timberlake, Timbaland, and Sony Music Entertainment in federal court in New York, alleging that Timberlake 's song "Do n't Hold the Wall '' (co-written with Timbaland) from the 2013 album 20 / 20 infringed the copyright of Cirque du Soleil 's song "Steel Dream '' from its 1997 album Quidam.
In 2016, Cirque du Soleil announced the cancellation of all its 2016 touring shows to North Carolina, citing the recent signing of the Public Facilities Privacy & Security Act by North Carolina governor Pat McCrory. This cancelations affected OVO in both Greensboro and Charlotte, and Toruk in Raleigh. The company announced in a press release that "Cirque du Soleil strongly believes in diversity and equality for every individual and is opposed to discrimination in any form. The new HB2 legislation passed in North Carolina is an important regression to ensuring human rights for all. '' Cirque has been criticized for this decision and accused of taking a double standard, for cancelling the shows in North Carolina while many times they have performed their shows in countries like the United Arab Emirates which violates a number of fundamental human rights.
In 2009, Oleksandr Zhurov, a 24 - year - old from Ukraine, fell off a Russian swing while training at the headquarter of the company in Montreal. He died from head injuries sustained in the accident.
The first death during a performance occurred on 29 June 2013. Acrobat Sarah Guyard - Guillot, from Paris, France, was killed after she fell 90 ft (27 m) into an open pit at the MGM Grand during the Kà show. After the fall, everyone on the stage looked "visually scared and frightened ''. Then the audience could hear her groans and screams from the floor.
On 29 November 2016, crew worker Olivier Rochette was struck and killed by a telescopic lift while setting up the stage for that evening 's production of Luzia in San Francisco. Rochette was the son of company co-founder Gilles Ste - Croix.
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what is the tree of life a symbol of | Tree of life - wikipedia
The tree of life is a widespread myth (mytheme) or archetype in the world 's mythologies, related to the concept of sacred tree more generally, and hence in religious and philosophical tradition.
The expression Tree of Life was used as a metaphor for the phylogenetic tree of common descent in the evolutionary sense in a famous passage by Charles Darwin (1872).
The tree of knowledge, connecting to heaven and the underworld, and the tree of life, connecting all forms of creation, are both forms of the world tree or cosmic tree, according to the Encyclopædia Britannica, and are portrayed in various religions and philosophies as the same tree.
Various trees of life are recounted in folklore, culture and fiction, often relating to immortality or fertility. They had their origin in religious symbolism.
The Eternal Banyan Tree (Akshaya Vata) is located on the bank of the Yamuna inside the courtyard of Allahabad Fort near the confluence of the Yamuna and Ganga Rivers in Allahabad. The eternal and divine nature of this tree has been documented at length in the scriptures.
During the cyclic destruction of creation when the whole earth was enveloped by waters, akshaya vata remained unaffected. It is on the leaves of this tree that Lord Krishna rested in the form of a baby when land was no longer visible. And it is here that the immortal sage, Markandeya, received the cosmic vision of the Lord. It is under this tree that Buddha meditates eternally. Legend also has it that the Bodi tree at Gaya is a manifestation of this tree.
In Persian mythology, the Gaokerena world tree is a large, sacred Haoma tree which bears all seeds. Ahriman (Ahreman, Angremainyu) created a frog to invade the tree and destroy it, aiming to prevent all trees from growing on the earth. As a reaction, God (Ahura Mazda) created two kar fish staring at the frog to guard the tree. The two fish are always staring at the frog and stay ready to react to it. Because Ahriman is responsible for all evil including death, while Ahura Mazda is responsible for all good (including life) the concept of world tree in Persian mythology is very closely related to the concept of Tree of Life.
The sacred plant haoma and the drink made from it. The preparation of the drink from the plant by pounding and the drinking of it are central features of Zoroastrian ritual. Haoma is also personified as a divinity. It bestows essential vital qualities -- health, fertility, husbands for maidens, even immortality. The source of the earthly haoma plant is a shining white tree that grows on a paradisiacal mountain. Sprigs of this white haoma were brought to earth by divine birds.
Haoma is the Avestan form of the Sanskrit soma. The near identity of the two in ritual significance is considered by scholars to point to a salient feature of an Indo - Iranian religion antedating Zoroastrianism.
Another related issue in ancient mythology of Iran is the myth of Mashyа and Mashyane, two trees who were the ancestors of all living beings. This myth can be considered as a prototype for the creation myth where living beings are created by Gods (who have a human form).
To the Ancient Egyptians, the Tree of Life represented the hierarchical chain of events that brought everything into existence. The spheres of the Tree of Life demonstrate the order, process, and method of creation.
In Egyptian mythology, in the Ennead system of Heliopolis, the first couple, apart from Shu and Tefnut (moisture and dryness) and Geb and Nut (earth and sky), are Isis and Osiris. They were said to have emerged from the acacia tree of Iusaaset, which the Egyptians considered the tree of life, referring to it as the "tree in which life and death are enclosed ''.
A much later myth relates how Set and 72 conspirators killed Osiris, putting him in a coffin, and throwing it into the Nile, the coffin becoming embedded in the base of a tamarisk tree.
The Egyptians ' Holy Sycamore also stood on the threshold of life and death, connecting the two worlds.
The Assyrian Tree of Life was represented by a series of nodes and criss - crossing lines. It was apparently an important religious symbol, often attended to in Assyrian palace reliefs by human or eagle - headed winged genies, or the King, and blessed or fertilized with bucket and cone. Assyriologists have not reached consensus as to the meaning of this symbol. The name "Tree of Life '' has been attributed to it by modern scholarship; it is not used in the Assyrian sources. In fact, no textual evidence pertaining to the symbol is known to exist.
The Epic of Gilgamesh is a similar quest for immortality. In Mesopotamian mythology, Etana searches for a ' plant of birth ' to provide him with a son. This has a solid provenance of antiquity, being found in cylinder seals from Akkad (2390 -- 2249 BCE).
In ancient Urartu, the Tree of Life was a religious symbol and was drawn on walls of fortresses and carved on the armor of warriors. The branches of the tree were equally divided on the right and left sides of the stem, with each branch having one leaf, and one leaf on the apex of the tree. Servants stood on each side of the tree with one of their hands up as if they are taking care of the tree.
Etz Chaim, Hebrew for "tree of life, '' is a common term used in Judaism. The expression, found in the Book of Proverbs, is figuratively applied to the Torah itself. Etz Chaim is also a common name for yeshivas and synagogues as well as for works of Rabbinic literature. It is also used to describe each of the wooden poles to which the parchment of a Sefer Torah is attached.
The tree of life is mentioned in the Book of Genesis; it is distinct from the tree of the knowledge of good and evil. After Adam and Eve disobeyed God by eating fruit from the tree of the knowledge of good and evil, they were driven out of the Garden of Eden. Remaining in the garden, however, was the tree of life. To prevent their access to this tree in the future, Cherubim with a flaming sword were placed at the east of the garden. (Genesis 3: 22 - 24)
In the Book of Proverbs, the tree of life is associated with wisdom: "(Wisdom) is a tree of life to them that lay hold upon her, and happy (is every one) that retaineth her. '' (Proverbs 3: 13 - 18) In 15: 4 the tree of life is associated with calmness: "A soothing tongue is a tree of life; but perverseness therein is a wound to the spirit. ''
The Book of Enoch, generally considered non-canonical, states that in the time of the great judgment God will give all those whose names are in the Book of Life fruit to eat from the Tree of Life.
The Bo tree, also called Bodhi tree, according to Buddhist tradition, is the pipal (Ficus religiosa) under which the Buddha sat when he attained Enlightenment (Bodhi) at Bodh Gaya (near Gaya, west - central Bihar state, India). A living pipal at Anuradhapura, Ceylon (now Sri Lanka), is said to have grown from a cutting from the Bo tree sent to that city by King Ashoka in the 3rd century BCE.
According to Tibetan tradition when Buddha went to the holy Lake Manasorovar along with 500 monks, he took with him the energy of Prayaga Raj. Upon his arrival, he installed the energy of Prayaga Raj near Lake Manasorovar, at a place now known as Prayang. Then he planted the seed of this eternal banyan tree next to Mt. Kailash on a mountain known as the "Palace of Medicine Buddha ''.
In Chinese mythology, a carving of a Tree of Life depicts a phoenix and a dragon; the dragon often represents immortality. A Taoist story tells of a tree that produces a peach of immortality every three thousand years, and anyone who eats the fruit receives immortality.
An archaeological discovery in the 1990s was of a sacrificial pit at Sanxingdui in Sichuan, China. Dating from about 1200 BCE, it contained three bronze trees, one of them 4 meters high. At the base was a dragon, and fruit hanging from the lower branches. At the top is a bird - like (phoenix) creature with claws. Also found in Sichuan, from the late Han dynasty (c 25 -- 220 CE), is another tree of life. The ceramic base is guarded by a horned beast with wings. The leaves of the tree represent coins and people. At the apex is a bird with coins and the Sun.
In Catholic Christianity, the Tree of Life represents the immaculate state of humanity free from corruption and Original Sin before the Fall. Pope Benedict XVI has said that "the Cross is the true tree of life. '' Saint Bonaventure taught that the medicinal fruit of the Tree of Life is Christ himself. Saint Albert the Great taught that the Eucharist, the Body and Blood of Christ, is the Fruit of the Tree of Life. Augustine of Hippo said that the tree of life is Christ: "All these things stood for something other than what they were, but all the same they were themselves bodily realities. And when the narrator mentioned them he was not employing figurative language, but giving an explicit account of things which had a forward reference that was figurative. So then the tree of life also was Christ... and indeed God did not wish the man to live in Paradise without the mysteries of spiritual things being presented to him in bodily form. So then in the other trees he was provided with nourishment, in this one with a sacrament... He is rightly called whatever came before him in order to signify him. ''
The tree first appeared in Genesis 2: 9 and 3: 22 - 24 as the source of eternal life in the Garden of Eden, from which access is revoked when man is driven from the garden. It then reappears in the last book of the Bible, the Book of Revelation, and most predominantly in the last chapter of that book (Chapter 22) as a part of the new garden of paradise. Access is then no longer forbidden, for those who "wash their robes '' (or as the textual variant in the King James Version has it, "they that do his commandments '') "have right to the tree of life '' (v. 14). A similar statement appears in Rev 2: 7, where the tree of life is promised as a reward to those who overcome. Revelation 22 begins with a reference to the "pure river of water of life '' which proceeds "out of the throne of God ''. The river seems to feed two trees of life, one "on either side of the river '' which "bear twelve manner of fruits '' "and the leaves of the tree were for healing of the nations '' (v. 1 - 2). Or this may indicate that the tree of life is a vine that grows on both sides of the river, as John 15: 1 would hint at.
In Eastern Christianity the tree of life is the love of God.
The "Tree of Immortality '' (Arabic: شجرة الخلود) is the tree of life motif as it appears in the Quran. It is also alluded to in hadiths and tafsir. Unlike the biblical account, the Quran mentions only one tree in Eden, also called the tree of immortality, which Allah specifically forbade to Adam and Eve. Satan, disguised as a serpent, repeatedly told Adam to eat from the tree, and eventually both Adam and Eve did so, thus disobeying Allah. The hadiths also speak about other trees in heaven.
According to the Indian Ahmadiyya movement founded in 1889, Quranic reference to the tree is symbolic; eating of the forbidden tree signifies that Adam disobeyed God.
The concept of the tree of life appears in the writings of the Baha'i Faith, where it can refer to the Manifestation of God, a great teacher who appears to humanity from age to age. An example of this can be found in the Hidden Words of Bahá'u'lláh:
"Have ye forgotten that true and radiant morn, when in those hallowed and blessed surroundings ye were all gathered in My presence beneath the shade of the tree of life, which is planted in the all - glorious paradise? Awestruck ye listened as I gave utterance to these three most holy words: O friends! Prefer not your will to Mine, never desire that which I have not desired for you, and approach Me not with lifeless hearts, defiled with worldly desires and cravings. Would ye but sanctify your souls, ye would at this present hour recall that place and those surroundings, and the truth of My utterance should be made evident unto all of you. ''
Also, in the Tablet of Ahmad (1), of Bahá'u'lláh:
"Verily He is the Tree of Life, that bringeth forth the fruits of God, the Exalted, the Powerful, the Great ''.
Bahá'u'lláh refers to his male descendents as branches (Aghsán) and calls women leaves.
A distinction has been made between the tree of life and the tree of the knowledge of good and evil. The latter represents the physical world with its opposites, such as good and evil and light and dark. In a different context from the one above, the tree of life represents the spiritual realm, where this duality does not exist.
The tree of life appears in the Book of Mormon in a revelation to Lehi (see 1 Nephi 8: 10). It is symbolic of the love of God (see 1 Nephi 11: 21 - 23). Its fruit is described as "most precious and most desirable above all other fruits, '' which "is the greatest of all the gifts of God '' (see 1 Nephi 15: 36). In another scriptural book, salvation is called "the greatest of all the gifts of God '' (see Doctrine and Covenants 6: 13). In the same book eternal life is also called the "greatest of all the gifts of God '' (see Doctrine and Covenants 14: 7). Because of these references, the tree of life and its fruit is sometimes understood to be symbolic of salvation and post-mortal existence in the presence of God and his love.
In Dictionnaire Mytho - Hermetique (Paris, 1737), Antoine - Joseph Pernety, a famous alchemist, identified the Tree of Life with the Elixir of Life and the Philosopher 's Stone.
In Eden in the East (1998), Stephen Oppenheimer suggests that a tree - worshipping culture arose in Indonesia and was diffused by the so - called "Younger Dryas '' event of c. 8000 BCE, when the sea level rose. This culture reached China (Szechuan), then India and the Middle East. Finally the Finno - Ugaritic strand of this diffusion spread through Russia to Finland where the Norse myth of Yggdrasil took root.
The Borjgali (Georgian: ბორჯღალი) is an ancient Georgian Tree of Life symbol.
In Germanic paganism, trees played (and, in the form of reconstructive Heathenry and Germanic Neopaganism, continue to play) a prominent role, appearing in various aspects of surviving texts and possibly in the name of gods.
The tree of life appears in Norse religion as Yggdrasil, the world tree, a massive tree (sometimes considered a yew or ash tree) with extensive lore surrounding it. Perhaps related to Yggdrasil, accounts have survived of Germanic Tribes ' honouring sacred trees within their societies. Examples include Thor 's Oak, sacred groves, the Sacred tree at Uppsala, and the wooden Irminsul pillar. In Norse Mythology, the apples from Iðunn 's ash box provide immortality for the gods.
Jewish mysticism depicts the Tree of Life in the form of ten interconnected nodes, as the central symbol of the Kabbalah. It comprises the ten Sephirot powers in the Divine realm. The panentheistic and anthropomorphic emphasis of this emanationist theology interpreted the Torah, Jewish observance, and the purpose of Creation as the symbolic esoteric drama of unification in the Sephirot, restoring harmony to Creation. From the time of the Renaissance onwards, Jewish Kabbalah became incorporated as an important tradition in non-Jewish Western culture, first through its adoption by Christian Cabala, and continuing in Western esotericism occult Hermetic Qabalah. These adapted the Judaic Kabbalah Tree of Life syncretically by associating it with other religious traditions, esoteric theologies, and magical practices.
The concept of world trees is a prevalent motif in pre-Columbian Mesoamerican cosmologies and iconography. World trees embodied the four cardinal directions, which represented also the fourfold nature of a central world tree, a symbolic axis mundi connecting the planes of the Underworld and the sky with that of the terrestrial world.
Depictions of world trees, both in their directional and central aspects, are found in the art and mythological traditions of cultures such as the Maya, Aztec, Izapan, Mixtec, Olmec, and others, dating to at least the Mid / Late Formative periods of Mesoamerican chronology. Among the Maya, the central world tree was conceived as or represented by a ceiba tree, and is known variously as a wacah chan or yax imix che, depending on the Mayan language. The trunk of the tree could also be represented by an upright caiman, whose skin evokes the tree 's spiny trunk.
Directional world trees are also associated with the four Yearbearers in Mesoamerican calendars, and the directional colors and deities. Mesoamerican codices which have this association outlined include the Dresden, Borgia and Fejérváry - Mayer codices. It is supposed that Mesoamerican sites and ceremonial centers frequently had actual trees planted at each of the four cardinal directions, representing the quadripartite concept.
World trees are frequently depicted with birds in their branches, and their roots extending into earth or water (sometimes atop a "water - monster, '' symbolic of the underworld). The central world tree has also been interpreted as a representation of the band of the Milky Way.
In a myth passed down among the Iroquois, The World on the Turtle 's Back, explains the origin of the land in which a tree of life is described. According to the myth, it is found in the heavens, where the first humans lived, until a pregnant woman fell and landed in an endless sea. Saved by a giant turtle from drowning, she formed the world on its back by planting bark taken from the tree.
The tree of life motif is present in the traditional Ojibway cosmology and traditions. It is sometimes described as Grandmother Cedar, or Nookomis Giizhig in Anishinaabemowin.
In the book Black Elk Speaks, Black Elk, an Oglala Lakota (Sioux) wičháša wakȟáŋ (medicine man and holy man), describes his vision in which after dancing around a dying tree that has never bloomed he is transported to the other world (spirit world) where he meets wise elders, 12 men and 12 women. The elders tell Black Elk that they will bring him to meet "Our Father, the two - legged chief '' and bring him to the center of a hoop where he sees the tree in full leaf and bloom and the "chief '' standing against the tree. Coming out of his trance he hopes to see that the earthly tree has bloomed, but it is dead.
In Serer religion, the tree of life as a religious concept forms the basis of Serer cosmogony. Trees were the first things created on Earth by the supreme being Roog (or Koox among the Cangin). In the competing versions of the Serer creation myth, the Somb (Prosopis africana) and the Saas tree (acacia albida) are both viewed as trees of life. However, the prevailing view is that, the Somb was the first tree on Earth and the progenitor of plant life. The Somb was also used in the Serer tumuli and burial chambers, many of which had survived for more than a thousand years. Thus, Somb is not only the Tree of Life in Serer society, but the symbol of immortality.
The World Tree or Tree of Life is a central symbol in Turkic mythology. It is a common motif in carpets.
In 2009 it was introduced as the main design of the common Turkish lira sub-unit 5 kuruş.
Austrian symbolist artist Gustav Klimt portrayed his version of the tree of life in his painting, The Tree of Life, Stoclet Frieze. This iconic painting later inspired the external facade of the "New Residence Hall '' (also called the "Tree House ''), a colorful 21 - story student residence hall at Massachusetts College of Art and Design in Boston, Massachusetts.
In George Herbert 's poem The Sacrifice (part of The Temple, 1633), the Tree of Life is the rood on which Jesus Christ was crucified. In C.S. Lewis ' Chronicles of Narnia, the Tree of Life plays a role, especially in the sixth published book (the first in the in - world chronology) The Magician 's Nephew.
Alex Proyas ' 2009 film Knowing ends with the two young protagonists directed towards the Tree of Life.
The Tree of Life is a Terrence Malick film released in May 2011, starring Brad Pitt, Sean Penn and Jessica Chastain.
The Marvel Cinematic Universe film franchise features a Tree of Life, in a more science - based version of the mythical tree. In the 2011 Marvel Studios superhero film Thor, the Asgardian warrior Thor explains that the Nine Realms of the Asgardian cosmos are linked by Yggdrasil, the Norse mythological Tree of Life, which is here interpreted as a nebula in space connecting the planets in an orbit.
In Fortnite Battle Royale there is a large tree on the map located somewhere between Flush Factory & Greasy Grove, commonly dubbed between players as ' the Tree of Life '.
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what does it mean when google drive is processing a video | Google Drive - wikipedia
Google Drive is a file storage and synchronization service developed by Google. Launched on April 24, 2012, Google Drive allows users to store files in the cloud, synchronize files across devices, and share files. In addition to a website, Google Drive offers apps with offline capabilities for Windows and macOS computers, and Android and iOS smartphones and tablets. Google Drive encompasses Google Docs, Sheets and Slides, an office suite that permits collaborative editing of documents, spreadsheets, presentations, drawings, forms, and more. Files created and edited through the office suite are saved in Google Drive.
Google Drive offers users 15 gigabytes of free storage, with 100 gigabytes, 1 terabyte, 2 terabytes, 10 terabytes, 20 terabytes, and 30 terabytes offered through optional paid plans. Files uploaded can be up to 5 terabytes in size. Users can change privacy settings for individual files and folders, including enabling sharing with other users or making content public. On the website, users can search for an image by describing its visuals, and use natural language to find specific files, such as "find my budget spreadsheet from last December ''. The website and Android app offer a Backups section to see what Android devices have data backed up to the service, and a completely overhauled computer app released in July 2017 allows for backing up specific folders on the user 's computer. A Quick Access feature can intelligently predict the files users need.
Google Drive is a key component of G Suite, Google 's monthly subscription offering for businesses and organizations. As part of select G Suite plans, Drive offers unlimited storage, advanced file audit reporting, enhanced administration controls, and greater collaboration tools for teams.
Following the launch of the service, Google Drive privacy policy was heavily criticized by some members of the media. Google has one set of Terms of Service and Privacy Policy agreements that cover all of its services, meaning that the language in the agreements grants the company broad rights to reproduce, use, and create derivative works from content stored on Google Drive. While the policies also confirm that users retain intellectual property rights, privacy advocates raised concerns that the licenses grant Google the rights to use the information and data to customize advertising and other services Google provides. In contrast, other members of the media noted that the agreements were no worse than those of competing cloud storage services, but that the competition uses "more artful language '' in the agreements, and also stated that Google needs the rights in order to "move files around on its servers, cache your data, or make image thumbnails ''.
As of March 2017, Google Drive has 800 million active users, and as of September 2015, it has over one million organizational paying users. As of May 2017, there are over two trillion files stored on the service.
Google Drive was introduced on April 24, 2012 with apps available for Windows, macOS, and Android, as well as a website interface, with an iOS app under development. The iOS app was released in June 2012.
Google Drive is available for PCs running Windows 7 or later, and Macs running OS X Lion or later.
Google indicated in April 2012 that work on Linux software was underway, but there was no news on this as of November 2013.
In April 2012, Google 's then - Senior Vice President Sundar Pichai said that Google Drive would be tightly integrated with Chrome OS version 20.
In October 2016, Google announced that, going forward, it will drop support for versions of the computer software older than 1 year.
In June 2017, Google announced that a new app called Backup and Sync would replace the existing separate Google Drive and Google Photos desktop apps, creating one unified app on desktop platforms. Originally intended for release on June 28, its release was delayed until July 12.
In September 2017, Google announced that it will discontinue the Google Drive desktop app in March 2018 and end support in December 2017.
Google Drive is available for Android smartphones and tablets running Android 4.1 "Jelly Bean '' or later, and iPhones and iPads running iOS 8 or later.
In August 2016, Google Drive ended support for Android devices running Android 4.0 "Ice Cream Sandwich '' or older versions, citing Google 's mobile app update policy, which states: "For Android devices, we provide updates for the current and 2 previous Android versions. '' According to the policy, the app will continue to work for devices running older Android versions, but any app updates are provided on a best - efforts basis. The policy also states a notice will be given for any planned end of service.
Google Drive has a website that allows users to see their files from any Internet - connected computer, without the need to download an app.
The website received a visual overhaul in 2014 that gave it a completely new look and improved performance. It also simplified some of the most common tasks, such as clicking only once on a file to see recent activity or share the file, and added drag - and - drop functionality, where users can simply drag selected files to folders, for improved organization.
A new update in August 2016 changed several visual elements of the website; the logo was updated, search box design was refreshed, and the primary color was changed from red to blue. It also improved the functionality to download files locally from the website; users can now compress and download large Drive items into multiple 2 GB. zip files with an improved naming structure, better Google Forms handling, and empty folders will now be included in the. zip, thereby preserving the user 's folder hierarchy.
Google gives every user 15 GB of free Drive storage space, which is shared across files in Google Drive, messages and attachments in Gmail, and pictures and videos in Google Photos. Google Docs, Sheets and Slides files do not count towards the storage limit. An unlimited number of photos at maximum 16 megapixels and videos at maximum 1080p resolutions are stored for free using the "High quality '' setting in Google Photos. Using the "Original quality '' setting uses Google Drive quota.
Users can purchase additional space through either a monthly or yearly payment. The option of yearly payments was introduced in December 2016, and is limited to the 100 GB or 1 TB storage plans. Furthermore, the yearly payments offer a discount.
As of 2017, these are the storage plans offered by Google:
Storage purchases renew automatically at the end of the subscription period. Users can upgrade their storage plan anytime, with the new storage tier taking effect immediately. If the auto - renewal fails, a 7 - day grace period is offered for users to update their payment information. When the storage subscription expires or is cancelled, storage limit is set back to the 15 GB free level at the end of the subscription period. Users can still access all their content, but will not be able to add anything beyond the storage limit, which means:
Varying levels of free additional storage are offered on the purchase of specific Android devices from Motorola and HTC, and for various devices from Kensington, Asus, LG, and Panasonic.
Google offers 30 GB of Drive storage for all G Suite Basic customers, and unlimited storage for those using G Suite Business or G Suite for Education, as long as there are at least 5 members. Associations with less than 5 members get 1 TB per user.
Before the introduction of Google Drive, Google Docs initially provided 15 GB of storage free of charge. On April 24, 2012, Google Drive was introduced with free storage of 5 GB. Storage plans were revised, with 25GB costing $2.49 / month, 100GB costing $4.99 / month and 1TB costing $49.99 / month.
Originally, Gmail, Google Docs and Picasa had separate allowances for free storage and a shared allowance for purchased storage. Between April 2012 and May 2013, Google Drive and Google+ Photos had a shared allowance for both free and purchased storage, whereas Gmail had a separate 10 GB storage limit, which increased to 25 GB on the purchase of any storage plan.
In September 2012, Google announced that a paid plan would now cover total storage, rather than the paid allocation being added to the free; e.g. a 100 GB plan allowed a total of 100 GB rather than 115 GB as previously.
In May 2013, Google announced the overall merge of storage across Gmail, Google Drive and Google+ Photos, allowing users 15 GB of unified free storage between the services.
In March 2014, the storage plans were revised again and prices were reduced by 80 % to $1.99 / month for 100 GB, $9.99 / month for 1TB, and $99.99 / month for 10 TB. This was much cheaper than competitors Dropbox and OneDrive offered at the time. The 25 GB and 200 GB plans were discontinued and the 2 TB, 4 TB, 8 TB and 16 TB plans were replaced with 10 TB, 20 TB and 30 TB. Users were automatically upgraded to the new pricing scheme.
In most cases during these changes, users could continue with their existing plans as long as they kept their accounts active and did not make any adjustments to the plan. However, if the account lapsed for any reason, users had to choose from current plans.
Google Drive incorporates a system of file sharing in which the creator of a file or folder is, by default, its owner. The owner can regulate the public visibility of the file or folder. Ownership is transferable. Files or folders can be shared privately with particular users having a Google account, using their @ gmail.com email addresses. Sharing files with users not having a Google account requires making them accessible to "anybody with the link ''. This generates a secret URL for the file, which may be shared via email or private messages. Files and folders can also be made "public on the web '', which means that they can be indexed by search engines and thus can be found and accessed by anyone. The owner may also set an access level for regulating permissions. The three access levels offered are "can edit '', "can comment '' and "can view ''. Users with editing access can invite others to edit.
A number of external web applications that work with Google Drive are available from the Chrome Web Store. To add an app, users are required to sign into the Chrome Web Store, but the apps are compatible with all supported web browsers. Some of these apps are first - party, such as Google Docs, Sheets and Slides. Drive apps operate on the online files, and can be used to view, edit and create files in various formats, edit images and videos, fax and sign documents, manage projects, create flowcharts, etc. Drive apps can also be made the default for handling file formats supported by them. Some of these apps also work offline on Google Chrome and Chrome OS.
All of the third - party apps are free to install. However, some have fees associated with continued usage or access to additional features. Saving data from a third - party app to Google Drive requires authorization the first time.
The Google Drive software development kit (SDK) works together with the Google Drive user interface and the Chrome Web Store to create an ecosystem of apps that can be installed into Google Drive. In February 2013, the "Create '' menu in Google Drive was revamped to include third - party apps, thus effectively granting them the same status as Google 's own apps.
In March 2013, Google released an API for Google Drive that enables third - party developers to build collaborative apps that support real - time editing.
The Google Drive viewer on the web allows the following file formats to be viewed:
Files in other formats can also be handled through third - party apps that work with Google Drive, available from the Chrome Web Store.
Files uploaded, but not converted to Google Docs, Sheets, or Slides formats, may be up to 5 TB in size. There are also limits, specific to file type, listed below:
Introduced in the Android app in September 2016, Quick Access uses machine learning to "intelligently predict the files you need before you 've even typed anything ''. The feature was announced to be expanded to iOS and the web in March 2017, though the website interface received the feature in May.
Search results can be narrowed by file type, ownership, visibility, and the open - with app. Users can search for images by describing or naming what is in them. For example, a search for "mountain '' returns all the photos of mountains, as well as any text documents about mountains. Text in images and PDFs can be extracted using optical character recognition. In September 2016, Google added "natural language processing '' for searching on the Google Drive website, enabling specific user search queries like "find my budget spreadsheet from last December ''. In February 2017, Google integrated Drive and the Google Search app on Android, letting users search for keywords, switch to an "In Apps '' tab, and see any relevant Drive files.
In December 2016, Google updated the Android app and website with a "Backups '' section, listing the Android device and app backups saved to Drive. The section lets users see what backups are stored, the backups ' sizes and details, and delete backups.
In June 2017, Google announced that a new app, "Backup and Sync '', would be able to synchronize any folder on the user 's computer to Google. The app was released on July 12, 2017.
A Description field is available for both files and folders that users can use to add relevant metadata. Content within the Description field is also indexed by Google Drive and searchable.
In June 2014, Google announced a number of updates to Google Drive, which included making the service more accessible to visually impaired users. This included improved keyboard accessibility, support for zooming and high contrast mode, and better compatibility with screen readers.
Google offers an extension for Google Chrome, Save to Google Drive, that allows users to save web content to Google Drive through a browser action or through the context menu. While documents and images can be saved directly, webpages can be saved in the form of a screenshot (as an image of the visible part of the page or the entire page), or as a raw HTML, MHTML, or Google Docs file. Users need to be signed into Chrome to use the extension.
The main Google Drive mobile app supported editing of documents and spreadsheets until April 2014, when the capability was moved to separate, standalone apps for Google Docs, Sheets, and Slides. The Google Drive app on Android allows users to take a photo of a document, sign, or other text and use optical character recognition to convert to text that can be edited. In October 2014, the Android app was updated with a Material Design user interface, improved search, the ability to add a custom message while sharing a file, and a new PDF viewer.
Before 2013, Google did not encrypt data stored on its servers. Following information that the United States ' National Security Agency had "direct access '' to servers owned by multiple technology companies, including Google, the company began testing encrypting data in July, and enabled encryption for data in transit between its data centers in November. However, as of 2015, Google Drive does not provide client - side encryption.
Google Drive for Work is a business version, a part of G Suite (formerly Google Apps for Work), announced at the Google I / O conference on June 25, 2014 and made available immediately. The service features unlimited storage, advanced file audit reporting and eDiscovery services, along with enhanced administration control and new APIs specifically useful to businesses. Users can upload files as large as 5 TB. A press release posted on Google 's Official Enterprise Blog assured businesses that Google will encrypt data stored on its servers, as well as information being transmitted to or from them. Google will deliver 24 / 7 phone support to business users and has guaranteed 99.9 % uptime for its servers.
In September 2015, Google announced that Google Drive for Work would be compliant with the new ISO / IEC 27018: 2014 security and privacy standard, which confirmed that Google would not use data in Drive for Work accounts for advertising, enabled additional tools for handling and exporting data, more transparency about data storage, and protection from third - party data requests.
In March 2017, Google introduced Drive File Stream, making it possible for G Suite customers on Windows and macOS computers to search their Drive folders and download specific files on - demand rather than downloading all files during installation, potentially preventing large amounts of data from "gobbling up your hard drive ''. Additionally, the feature will guess what files users need in the future and download those files as well.
Google Drive for Education was announced on September 30, 2014. It was made available for free to all Google Apps for Education users. It includes unlimited storage and support for individual files up to 5TB in size, in addition to full encryption.
In September 2016, Google announced Team Drives, a new way for teams to collaborate. Sharing and file ownership are managed for the entire team rather than one individual, and new users instantly get access to all files and information. In November, Google opened an Early Adopter Program, allowing G Suite Business and G Suite for Education customers to sign up, although Google noted that some functionality is n't yet supported by Team Drives.
Google Docs, Google Sheets and Google Slides constitute a free, web - based office suite offered by Google and integrated with Google Drive. It allows users to create and edit documents, spreadsheets, and presentations online while collaborating in real - time with other users. The three apps are available as web applications, as Chrome apps that work offline, and as mobile apps for Android and iOS. The apps are compatible with Microsoft Office file formats. The suite also consists of Google Forms, Google Drawings and Google Tables (beta). While Forms and Tables are only available as web applications, Drawings is also available as a Chrome app. The suite is tightly integrated with Google Drive, and all files created with the apps are by default saved to Google Drive.
In a review of Google Drive after its launch in April 2012, Dan Grabham of TechRadar wrote that the integration of Google Docs into Google Drive was "a bit confusing '', mainly due to the differences in the user interfaces (UI) between the two, where Drive offers a "My Drive '' section with a specific "Shared with me '' view for shared documents. He stated that "We think the user interface needs a lot more work. It 's like a retread of Google Docs at the moment and Google surely needs to do work here ''. He considered uploading files "fairly easy '', but noted that folder upload was only supported through the Google Chrome web browser. The lack of native editing of Microsoft Office documents was "annoying ''. Regarding Google Drive 's computer apps, he stated that the option in Settings to synchronize only specific folders was "powerful ''. He wrote that Drive was "a great addition to Google armoury of apps and everything does work seamlessly '', while again criticizing the interface for being "confusing '' and that the file view was "not quite intuitive enough '' without file icons. Grabham also reviewed the mobile Android app, writing that "it 's a pretty simple app that enables you to access your files on the move and save some for offline access should you wish '', and praised Google Docs creation and photo uploading for being "easy ''. He also praised that "everything is easily searchable ''.
A review by Michael Muchmore of PC Magazine in February 2016 praised the service as "truly impressive '' in creating and editing files, describing its features as "leading '' in office - suite collaboration. He added that "Compatibility is rarely an issue '', with importing and exporting options, and that the free storage of 15 gigabytes was "generous ''. However, he also criticized the user interface for being confusing to navigate, and wrote that "Offline editing is n't simple ''.
Immediately after its announcement in April 2012, Google faced criticism over Google Drive privacy. In particular, privacy advocates have noted that Google has one unified set of Terms of Service and Privacy Policy agreements for all its products and services. In a CNET report, Zack Whittaker noted that "the terms and service have come under heavy fire by the wider community for how it handles users ' copyright and intellectual property rights ''. In a comparison of Terms of Service agreements between Google Drive and competing cloud storage services Dropbox and OneDrive, he cited a paragraph stating that Google has broad rights to reproduce, use, and create derivative works from content stored on Google Drive, via a license from its users. Although the user retains intellectual property rights, the user licenses Google to extract and parse uploaded content to customize advertising and other services that Google provides to the user, and to promote the service. Summarized, he wrote that "According to its terms, Google does not own user - uploaded files to Google Drive, but the company can do whatever it likes with them ''. In a highly critical editorial of the service, Ed Bott of ZDNet wrote that language in the agreements contained "exact same words '' as Dropbox used in a July 2011 Privacy Policy update that sparked criticism and forced Dropbox to update its policy once again with clarifying language, adding that "It 's a perfect example of Google 's inability to pay even the slightest bit of attention to anything that happens outside the Googleplex ''. Matt Peckham of Time criticized the lack of unique service agreements for Drive, writing that "If any Google service warrants privacy firewalling, it 's Google Drive. This is n't YouTube or Calendar or even Gmail -- -- the potential for someone 's most sensitive data to be snooped, whether to glean info for marketing or otherwise, is too high. (...) Google ought to create a privacy exception that "narrows the scope '' of its service terms for Google Drive, one that minimally states the company will never circulate the information generated from searching within (sic) your G - Drive data in any way. ''
In contrast, a report by Nilay Patel of The Verge stated that "all web services should be subject to harsh scrutiny of their privacy policies -- but a close and careful reading reveals that Google 's terms are pretty much the same as anyone else 's, and slightly better in some cases '', pointing to the fact that Google "could n't move files around on its servers, cache your data, or make image thumbnails '' without proper rights. In comparing the policies with competing services, Patel wrote that "it 's clear that they need the exact same permissions -- they just use slightly more artful language to communicate them ''.
On November 12, 2013, Google announced that Google Drive had 120 million active users, a figure that the company was releasing for the first time.
On June 25, 2014 at the Google I / O developer conference, Sundar Pichai announced that Google Drive now had 190 million monthly active users, and that it was being used by 58 % of the Fortune 500 companies as well as by 72 of the top universities.
On October 1, 2014, at its Atmosphere Live event, it was announced that Google Drive had 240 million monthly active users. The Next Web noted that this meant an increase of 50 million users in just one quarter.
On September 21, 2015, it was announced that Google Drive had over one million organizational paying users.
In March 2017, Google announced that Google Drive had 800 million active users.
In May 2017, a Google executive stated at a company event that there were over two trillion files stored on Google Drive.
Although Google has a 99.9 % uptime guarantee for Google Drive for G Suite customers, Google Drive has suffered downtimes for both consumers and business users. During significant downtimes, Google 's App Status Dashboard gets updated with the current status of each service Google offers, along with details on restoration progress. Notable downtimes occurred in March 2013, October 2014, and January 2016.
When the January 2016 outage was resolved, a Google spokesperson told The Next Web:
At Google we recognize that failures are statistically inevitable, and we strive to insulate our users from the effects of failures. As that did not happen in this instance, we apologize to everyone who was inconvenienced by this event. Our engineers are conducting a post-mortem investigation to determine how to make our services more resilient to unplanned network failures, and we will do our utmost to continue to make Google service outages notable for their rarity.
In an outage that affected all of Google 's services for 5 minutes in August 2013, CNET reported that global Internet traffic dropped 40 %.
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who sang u are so beautiful to me | You Are So Beautiful - wikipedia
"You Are So Beautiful '' is a song written by Billy Preston and Bruce Fisher and produced by Jim Price. Dennis Wilson of the Beach Boys also contributed to the song 's genesis, but his official credit was omitted. It was first recorded by Preston and made popular by Joe Cocker.
Preston 's version first appeared on his album The Kids & Me (1974) and as the B - side on the 45 rpm pressing of his pop hit, "Struttin ' ''. Jim Price, Cocker 's producer, created a slowed - down version for Cocker which first appeared on Cocker 's fourth studio album, I Can Stand a Little Rain (released later in 1974). In 1975, Joe Cocker 's version was released as a single and helped the album become successful, peaking at number 5 on the US Billboard Hot 100 singles chart and at number 12 on the US Billboard Adult Contemporary chart.
Though not officially credited as the song 's writer, Dennis Wilson of the Beach Boys and Preston spontaneously collaborated on the words and music to the song at a party. Wilson never sought to reclaim his share of the song 's authorship. The song 's tone has been compared to the style of his solo material.
Without instrumental accompaniment, Wilson sang "You Are So Beautiful '' as an encore at Beach Boys shows intermittently from 1975 until his death in 1983. A live rendition, circa 1978, and an edited 1983 live rendition both appear in the film The Beach Boys: An American Band (1985). A live rendition was released on the group 's album Good Timin ': Live at Knebworth England 1980 in 2002.
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where are yu going where have you been | Where Are You Going, Where Have You Been? - Wikipedia
"Where Are You Going, Where Have You Been? '' is a frequently anthologized short story written by Joyce Carol Oates. The story first appeared in the Fall 1966 edition of Epoch magazine. It was inspired by three Tucson, Arizona murders committed by Charles Schmid, which were profiled in Life magazine in an article written by Don Moser on March 4, 1966. Oates said that she dedicated the story to Bob Dylan because she was inspired to write it after listening to his song "It 's All Over Now, Baby Blue ''. The story was originally named "Death and the Maiden ''.
The main character of Oates ' story is Connie, a beautiful, self - absorbed 15 - year - old girl, who is at odds with her mother -- once a beauty herself -- and with her dutiful, "steady '', and homely older sister. Without her parents ' knowledge, she spends most of her evenings picking up boys at a Big Boy restaurant, and one evening captures the attention of a stranger in a gold convertible covered with cryptic writing. While her parents are away at her aunt 's barbecue, two men pull up in front of Connie 's house and call her out. She recognizes the driver, Arnold Friend, as the man from the drive - in restaurant, and is initially charmed by the smooth - talking, charismatic stranger. He tells Connie he is 18 and has come to take her for a ride in his car with his sidekick Ellie. Connie slowly realizes that he is actually much older, and grows afraid. When she refuses to go with them, Friend becomes more forceful and threatening, saying that he will harm her family, while at the same time appealing to her vanity, saying that she is too good for them. Connie is compelled to leave with him and do what he demands of her.
Considerable academic analysis has been written about the story, with scholars divided on whether it is intended to be taken literally or as allegory. Several writers focus on the series of numbers written on Friend 's car, which he indicates are a code of some sort, but which is never explained:
"Now, these numbers are a secret code, honey, '' Arnold Friend explained. He read off the numbers 33, 19, 17 and raised his eyebrows at her to see what she thought of that, but she did n't think much of it.
Literary scholars have interpreted this series of numbers as different Biblical references, as an underlining of Friend 's sexual deviancy, or as a reference to the ages of Friend and his victims.
The narrative has also been viewed as an allegory for initiation into sexual adulthood, an encounter with the devil, a critique of modern youth 's obsession with sexual themes in popular music, or as a dream sequence.
The story was loosely adapted into the 1985 film Smooth Talk, starring Laura Dern and Treat Williams. Oates has written an essay named "Smooth Talk: Short Story into Film '' about the adaptation.
The short story is the inspiration and basis for The Blood Brothers ' song "The Salesman, Denver Max ''.
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what grade is joseph gordon levitt in 10 things i hate about you | 10 Things I Hate About You - wikipedia
10 Things I Hate About You is a 1999 American teen romantic comedy - drama film directed by Gil Junger and starring Julia Stiles, Heath Ledger, Joseph Gordon - Levitt, and Larisa Oleynik. The screenplay, written by Karen McCullah and Kirsten Smith, is a modernization of William Shakespeare 's late - 16th century comedy The Taming of the Shrew, retold in a late - 1990s American high school setting. In the story, new student Cameron (Gordon - Levitt) is smitten with Bianca (Oleynik) and, in order to get around her father 's strict rules on dating, attempts to get bad boy Patrick (Ledger) to date Bianca 's ill - tempered sister, Kat (Stiles). The film is titled after a poem written by Kat about her bittersweet romance with Patrick. Much of the filming took place in the Seattle metropolitan area, with many scenes shot at Stadium High School in Tacoma.
Released March 31, 1999, 10 Things I Hate About You was number two at the domestic box office during its opening weekend, behind only The Matrix, and was a moderate financial and critical success. It was a breakthrough role for Stiles, Ledger, and Gordon - Levitt, all of whom were nominated for various teen - oriented awards. Ten years later, the film was adapted into a television series of the same title, which ran for twenty episodes and featured Larry Miller reprising his role as Walter Stratford from the film.
Cameron James, a new student at Padua High School in the Seattle area, becomes instantly smitten with popular sophomore Bianca Stratford. Geeky Michael Eckman warns him that Bianca is vapid and conceited, and that her overprotective father does not allow Bianca or her older sister, the shrewish Kat, to date. Kat, a senior, is accepted to Sarah Lawrence College in New York, but her father, Walter, wants her to stay close to home. Bianca wishes to date affluent senior Joey Donner, but Walter, an obstetrician worrisome of teenage pregnancy, will not allow his daughters to date until they graduate. Frustrated by Bianca 's insistence and Kat 's rebelliousness, Walter declares that Bianca may date only when Kat does, knowing that Kat 's antisocial attitude makes this unlikely.
When Cameron asks Bianca out, she informs him of her father 's new rule and, as a pretense for allowing her to date Joey, suggests that Cameron find someone willing to date Kat. Cameron selects "bad boy '' Patrick Verona, but Patrick scares him off. Michael assists by convincing Joey to pay Patrick to take out Kat, under the pretense that this will allow Joey to date Bianca. Patrick agrees to the deal, but Kat rebuffs his first few advances. Michael and Cameron help him by prying Bianca for information on Kat 's likes and dislikes. Armed with this knowledge, Patrick begins to win Kat 's interest. She goes to a party with him, which enables Bianca to go as well, much to Walter 's dismay.
At the party, Kat becomes upset when she sees Bianca with Joey, and responds by getting drunk. Patrick attends to her, and Kat starts to open up, expressing her interest in starting a band. However, when she tries to kiss him, Patrick pulls away and Kat leaves, infuriated. Meanwhile, Bianca ignores Cameron in favor of Joey, leaving Cameron dejected. Bianca soon realizes, however, that Joey is shallow and self - absorbed, and asks Cameron for a ride home. Cameron admits his feelings for her and his frustration with how she has treated him. Bianca responds by kissing him.
Joey offers to pay Patrick to take Kat to the prom so he can take Bianca. Patrick initially refuses, but relents when Joey offers him more money. Kat is still angry with Patrick, but he wins her over by serenading her with the accompaniment of the marching band, and she helps him sneak out of detention. They go on a date which turns romantic, but Kat becomes suspicious and angry when Patrick insists that she go with him to the prom, an event she is adamantly against. Bianca is irritated that Cameron has not asked her to the prom, and so accepts Joey 's invitation, but Walter will not allow it unless Kat goes too. Kat confesses to Bianca that she dated Joey when they were freshmen and, succumbing to peer pressure, had sex with him. Afterward she regretted it and Joey dumped her, so she vowed to never again do anything just because everyone else was doing it. Bianca insists that she can make her own choices, so Kat agrees to go to the prom with Patrick, and Bianca decides to go with Cameron instead of Joey.
All is going well at the prom until Bianca learns that Joey planned to have sex with her that night. Angry that Bianca has spurned him for Cameron, Joey reveals his arrangement with Patrick, which causes Kat to leave heartbroken. Joey then punches Cameron, but is in turn beaten up by Bianca for having hurt her, Kat, and Cameron. Bianca and Cameron share another kiss.
The next day, Bianca reconciles with Kat and begins dating Cameron. Walter admits that Kat is capable of taking care of herself, and gives her permission to attend Sarah Lawrence College. For an assignment in which the students were required to write their own version of William Shakespeare 's Sonnet 141, Kat reads aloud a poem titled "10 Things I Hate About You '', revealing that she still loves Patrick. Patrick surprises her with a guitar bought with the money that Joey paid him, and confesses that he has fallen for her. Kat forgives him, and the two reconcile with a kiss.
Many of the scenes were filmed on location at Stadium High School and at a house in the Proctor District of Tacoma, Washington. The prom sequence was shot over three days in Seattle.
Costume designer Kim Tillman designed original dresses for Larisa Oleynik and Julia Stiles as well as the period outfits for Susan May Pratt and David Krumholtz. Gabrielle Union 's snakeskin prom dress is a Betsey Johnson design. Heath Ledger and Joseph Gordon - Levitt 's vintage tuxes came from Isadora 's in Seattle.
The primary tagline is an allusion to a poem written by Elizabeth Barrett Browning from her Sonnets from the Portuguese collection. ("How do I loathe thee? Let me count the ways. '') Another tagline is a spoof from Shakespeare 's Romeo and Juliet ("Romeo, Oh Romeo, Get Out Of My Face. '') and another is a line from The Taming of the Shrew that is spoken in the film by Cameron ("I burn, I pine, I perish! ''). The original script was finalized on November 12, 1997.
In its opening weekend, the film grossed US $8,330,681 in 2,271 theaters in the United States and Canada, averaging $3,668 per venue, and ranking number two at the box office (behind The Matrix). It grossed a total of $38,178,166 in the United States and Canada and $15,300,000 in other territories, about $53,500,000 worldwide. The film had an estimated budget of $16 million and is considered a moderate financial and critical success. On October 12, 1999, the Region 1 DVD was released. In the box office, the film is number ten in teen romance, 18th in high school comedies, and ranked 96th in comedies.
The film received generally positive feedback from critics. Geoff Andrew from Time Out praised the film 's leads, stating "Stiles grows into her character, and Ledger is effortlessly charming ''. Roger Ebert gave the film two and a half stars out of four, claiming, "I liked the movie 's spirit, the actors and some of the scenes. The music, much of it by the band Letters to Cleo, is subtle and inventive while still cheerful. '' Brad Laidman from Film Threat said the film was "pure of heart and perfectly executed. '' Ron Wells, another critic from Film Threat, expressed, "Of all the teen films released this year, this one is, by far, the best. ''
Entertainment Weekly listed the film at # 49 on its list of Best High School Movies.
On Rotten Tomatoes, the film got a 61 % from critics, based on 62 reviews, with a rating of 6.1 / 10. The critical consensus on the site was: "Julia Stiles and Heath Ledger add strong performances to an unexpectedly clever script, elevating 10 Things (slightly) above typical teen fare. ''
10 Things I Hate About You was a breakout success for stars Stiles, Ledger, and Gordon - Levitt. Gordon - Levitt, Stiles, and Oleynik each received Young Star Award nominations for Best Actor / Actress in a Comedy Film. The movie was nominated for seven Teen Choice Awards: Choice Movie: Breakout Star (Stiles), Choice Movie: Comedy, Choice Movie: Funniest Scene (featuring Krumholtz), Choice Movie: Love Scene (featuring Stiles and Ledger), Choice Movie: Hissy Fit (Gordon - Levitt), Choice Movie: Villain (Gordon - Levitt) and Choice Movie: Soundtrack. The film 's casting directors Marcia Ross and Donna Morong won "Best Casting for Feature Film, Comedy '' at the Casting Society of America in 1999. In 2000, Stiles won the CFCA Award for "Most Promising Actress '' for her role as Kat Stratford (tied with Émilie Dequenne in Rosetta) and an MTV Movie Award for Breakthrough Female Performance. The same year, Ledger was nominated for Best Musical Performance for the song "Ca n't Take My Eyes Off You. ''
The soundtrack album features popular modern rock anthems from 1970s up to the late 1990s, including various covers from Letters to Cleo, who created modernised renditions of songs such as "I Want You To Want Me '' by Cheap Trick and "Cruel to Be Kind '' by Nick Lowe. The albums peak position in the Billboard (magazine) charts was 52nd, which was just after its release and it managed to hold a place in the Billboard top 200 for a total of 27 weeks. Artists such as The Notorious B.I.G. and Joan Jett were also used in the films soundtrack, although were not featured on the soundtrack album. The album was described by AllMusic as "One of the best modern rock soundtracks of the spring 1999 season ''.
In June 1999, the Scholastic Corporation published a novelization of the story, adapted by David Levithan. The story is retold as it is in the film with each chapter written from the point of view of either Bianca, Cameron, Kat, Patrick, or Michael.
In October 2008, ABC Family ordered a pilot episode of 10 Things I Hate About You, a half - hour, single - camera comedy series based on the feature film of the same name. Larry Miller is the only actor from the film to reprise his role in the television series. The director of the film, Gil Junger, directed many of the episodes including the pilot while the film 's music composer, Richard Gibbs, also returned to do the show 's music. The series was adapted and produced by Carter Covington. The show premiered on July 7, 2009, and lasted 20 episodes.
The film is a retelling of William Shakespeare 's play The Taming of the Shrew in an American high school setting. Screenwriters Karen McCullah and Kirsten Smith also wrote the script for She 's the Man (2006), a retelling of Shakespeare 's play Twelfth Night set in an American college.
Kat and Bianca share the same names as the female leads in the original play. Their surname is Stratford, a nod to Shakespeare 's birthplace. Patrick 's surname Verona references the home of his relative character Petruchio. The characters attend Padua High School, named after where the play is set.
Cameron (Lucentio, who disguises himself as a tutor named Cambio) tutors Bianca in French and slips in a line from play while obsessing over her: "I burn, I pine, I perish ''. Patrick 's character reflects the outlandish behavior of Petruchio, and Michael coerces Patrick into the marching band incident with the words from Sonnet 56: "Sweet love, renew thy force ''. The physicality of Petruchio and Katherina is transformed into a playful paintball match; the prom substitutes for the Act V feast; Kat 's poem replaces Katherina 's famous Act V speech; and Joey Donner 's wager over Bianca 's virginity parallels the bet placed by Shakespeare 's husbands regarding their partners ' obedience.
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why was it important for the legal voting age to be lowered to 18 | Voting age - Wikipedia
A voting age is a minimum age established by law that a person must attain before they become eligible to vote in a public election. Today, the most common voting age is 18 years; however, voting ages as low as 15 and as high as 25 exist (see list below). Most countries have set a minimum voting age, often set in their constitution. In a number of countries voting is compulsory for those eligible to vote, while in most it is optional.
When the right to vote was being established in democracies, the voting age was generally set at 18 or higher. In the 1970s many countries reduced the voting age to 18. The debate is ongoing in a number of countries on proposals to reduce the voting age to or below 18.
Before the Second World War, the voting age in almost all countries was 21 years or higher. Czechoslovakia was the first to reduce the voting age to 20 years in 1946, and by 1968 a total of 17 countries had lowered their voting age. Many countries, particularly in Western Europe, reduced their voting ages to 18 years during the 1970s, starting with the United Kingdom (1969), with the United States (26th Amendment) (1971), Canada, West Germany (1972), Australia (1974), France (1974), and others following soon afterwards. By the end of the 20th century, 18 had become by far the most common voting age. However, a few countries maintain a voting age of 20 years or higher. It was argued that young men could be drafted to go to war at 18, and many people felt they should be able to vote at the age of 18.
In the late 20th and early 21st centuries voting ages were lowered to 16 in India, Switzerland, Austria, and Morocco. Japan was due to make the change to 18 in 2016. A dispute is continuing in the Maldives.
Around the year 2000, a number of countries began to consider whether the voting age ought to be reduced further, with arguments most often being made in favour of a reduction to 16. The earliest moves came during the 1990s, when the voting age for municipal elections in some States of Germany was lowered to 16. Lower Saxony was the first state to make such a reduction, in 1995, and four other states did likewise.
Arguments against lowering the voting age to sixteen include lack of political maturity. On the other hand, one of the major arguments for lowering the voting age to 16 is that at this age in most countries a person has reached the legal working age for most jobs and is liable to pay taxes and therefore should not have to pay taxes without the right to political representation.
During the 2000s several proposals for a reduced voting age were put forward in U.S. states, including California, Florida and Alaska, but none was successful. A national reduction was proposed in 2005 in Canada and in the Australian state of New South Wales, but these proposals were not adopted. In May 2009, Danish Member of Parliament Mogens Jensen presented an initiative to the Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe in Strasbourg to lower the voting age in Europe to 16.
A report suggesting that consideration be given to reducing the voting age to 16 in the Australian Capital Territory in Canberra, Australia was tabled in the territorial legislature on 26 September 2007 and defeated.
In 2015, federal Opposition Leader Bill Shorten said that the voting age should be lowered to 16.
In 2007, Austria became the first member of the European Union to adopt a voting age of 16 for most purposes. The voting age had been reduced in Austria from 19 to 18 at all levels in 1992. At that time a voting age of 16 was proposed by the Green Party, but was not adopted.
The voting age for municipal elections in some states was lowered to 16 shortly after 2000. Three states had made the reduction by 2003 (Burgenland, Carinthia and Styria), and in May 2003 Vienna became the fourth. Salzburg followed suit, and so by the start of 2005 the total had reached at least five states out of nine. As a consequence of state law, reduction of the municipal voting age in the states of Burgenland, Salzburg and Vienna resulted in the reduction of the regional voting age in those states as well.
After the 2006 election, the winning SPÖ - ÖVP coalition announced on 12 January 2007 that one of its policies would be the reduction of the voting age to 16 for elections in all states and at all levels in Austria. The policy was set in motion by a Government announcement on 14 March, and a bill proposing an amendment to the Constitution was presented to the legislature on 2 May. On 5 June the National Council approved the proposal following a recommendation from its Constitution Committee. During the passage of the bill through the chamber relatively little opposition was raised to the reduction, with four out of five parties explicitly supporting it; indeed, there was some dispute over which party had been the first to suggest the idea. Greater controversy surrounded the other provisions of the bill concerning the Briefwahl, or postal vote, and the extension of the legislative period for the National Council from four to five years. A further uncontroversial inclusion was a reduction in the candidacy age from 19 to 18. The Federal Council approved the Bill on 21 June, with no party voting against it. The voting age was reduced when the Bill 's provisions came into force on 1 July 2007. Austria thus became the first member of the European Union, and the first of the developed world democracies, to adopt a voting age of 16 for all purposes. Lowering the voting age encouraged political interest in young people in Austria. More sixteen - and seventeen - year - olds voted than eighteen - to - twenty - one - year - olds in Austria.
Brazil lowered the voting age from 18 to 16 in the 1988 constitution. The presidential election of 1989 was the first with the lower voting age. People between the ages 18 and 70 are required to vote.
Iran had been unique in awarding suffrage at 15, but raised the age to 18 in January 2007 despite the opposition of the Government. In May 2007 the Iranian Cabinet proposed a bill to reverse the increase.
Luxembourg has compulsory voting from the age of 18. A proposal by the government to introduce optional voting for those aged 16 and 17 was rejected by 81 % of voters in a June 2015 referendum.
On 20 November 2013, Malta lowered the voting age from 18 to 16 for local elections starting from 2015. The proposal had wide support from both the government and opposition, social scientists and youth organizations.
On Monday 29 January 2018, the Maltese Parliament debated to lower the voting age to 16 for general elections, European Parliament Elections and referenda.
On Monday, 5 March 2018, the Maltese Parliament unanimously voted in favour of amending the constitution, lowering the official voting age from 18 to 16, making Malta the second state in the EU to lower its voting age to 16.
The New Zealand Green Party MP Sue Bradford announced on 21 June 2007 that she intended to introduce her Civics Education and Voting Age Bill on the next occasion upon which a place became available for the consideration of Members ' Bills. When this happened on 25 July Bradford abandoned the idea, citing an adverse public reaction. The Bill would have sought to reduce the voting age to 16 in New Zealand and make civics education part of the compulsory curriculum in schools.
The Representation of the People Act 1969 lowered the voting age from 21 to 18, with effect from 1970 and remained in force until the Scottish Independence Referendum Act 2013 which allowed 16 year olds to vote for the first time, but only in Scotland and only in that particular referendum. The Scottish Parliament reduced the voting age to 16 for its own and Scottish local elections in 2015.
Men in military service who turned 19 during the first world war were entitled to vote in 1918 irrespective of their age as part of the Representation of the People Act 1918 which also allowed some women over the age of 30 to vote. The Representation of the People (Equal Franchise) Act 1928 brought the voting age for women down to 21.
The reduction of the voting age to 16 in the United Kingdom was first given serious consideration on 15 December 1999, when the House of Commons considered in Committee an amendment proposed by Simon Hughes to the Representation of the People Bill. This was the first time the reduction of a voting age below 18 had ever been put to a vote in the Commons. The Government opposed the amendment, and it was defeated by 434 votes to 36.
The Votes at 16 coalition, a group of political and charitable organisations supporting a reduction of the voting age to 16, was launched on 29 January 2003. At that time a Private Member 's Bill was also proposed in the House of Lords by Lord Lucas, and received a Second Reading on 9 January.
In 2004, the UK Electoral Commission conducted a major consultation on the subject of the voting and candidacy ages, and received a significant response. In its conclusions it recommended that the voting age remain at 18. On 29 November 2005 the House of Commons voted 136 - 128 (on a free vote) against a Private Member 's Bill for a reduction in the voting age to 16 proposed by Liberal Democrat MP Stephen Williams. Parliament chose not to include a provision reducing the voting age in the Electoral Administration Act during its passage in 2006.
On 27 February 2006, the report of the Power Inquiry called for a reduction of the voting age, and of the candidacy age for the House of Commons, to 16. On the same day the Chancellor of the Exchequer, Gordon Brown, indicated in an article in The Guardian that he favoured a reduction provided it was made concurrently with effective citizenship education.
The UK Ministry of Justice published on 3 July 2007 a Green Paper entitled The Governance of Britain, in which it proposed the establishment of a "Youth Citizenship Commission ''. The Commission would examine the case for lowering the voting age. On launching the Paper in the House of Commons, PM Gordon Brown said: "Although the voting age has been 18 since 1969, it is right, as part of that debate, to examine, and hear from young people themselves, whether lowering that age would increase participation. ''
During the Youth Parliament debates of 30 October 2009 in the House of Commons, Votes at 16 was debated and young people of that age group voted for it overwhelmingly as a campaign priority. Since that debate the issue has been raised in Prime Minister 's Questions and has also gained the widespread support of the major political parties.
In April 2015, Labour announced that it would support the policy if it won an overall majority in the 2015 general election, which it failed to do.
There was some criticism about not reducing the voting age to 16 years for the referendum on the membership in the European Union in 2016.
The Scottish National Party conference voted unanimously on 27 October 2007 for a policy of reducing the voting age to 16, as well as in favour of a campaign for the necessary power to be devolved to the Scottish Parliament.
In September 2011, it was announced that the voting age was likely to be reduced from 18 to 16 for the Scottish independence referendum. This was approved by the Scottish Parliament in June 2013.
In June 2015, the Scottish Parliament voted unanimously to reduce the voting age to 16 for elections for the Scottish Parliament and for Scottish local government elections.
Moves to lower the voting age to 16 were successful in each of the three British Crown dependencies from 2006 to 2008. The Isle of Man was the first to amend its law, when in July 2006 it reduced the voting age to 16 for its general elections, with the House of Keys approving the move by 19 votes to 4.
Jersey followed suit on 4 July 2007, when it approved in principle a reduction of the voting age to 16. The States of Jersey voted narrowly in favour, by 25 votes to 21, and the legislative amendments were adopted on 26 September. The law was sanctioned by Order in Council on 12 December, and was brought into force on 1 April, in time for the general elections in late 2008.
On 31 October 2007, a proposal for a reduction made by the House Committee of the States of Guernsey, and approved by the States ' Policy Committee, was adopted by the assembly by 30 votes to 15. An Order in Council sanctioning the law was made on 12 December, and it was registered at the Court of Guernsey on 19 December. It came into force immediately, and the voting age was accordingly reduced in time for the Guernsey general election, 2008.
Alderney and Sark, each part of the Bailiwick of Guernsey, have autonomy in deciding the question. Both have yet to favour a reduction to 16.
In the United States, the debate about lowering voting age from 21 to 18 began during World War II and intensified during the Vietnam War, when most of those subjected to the draft were too young to vote, and the image of young men being forced to risk their lives in the military without the privileges of voting successfully pressured legislators to lower the voting age nationally and in many states. By 1968, several states had lowered the voting age below 21 years: Alaska and Hawaii 's minimum age was 20, Kentucky 's was 19, and Georgia 's was 18. In 1970, the Supreme Court in Oregon v. Mitchell ruled that Congress had the right to regulate the minimum voting age in federal elections; however, not at local and state level.
The 26th Amendment (passed and ratified in 1971) prevents states from setting a voting age higher than 18. Except for the express limitations provided for in Amendments XIV, XV, XIX and XXVI, voter qualifications for House and Senate elections are largely delegated to the States under Article I, Section 2 and Amendment XVII of the United States Constitution, which respectively state that "The House of Representatives shall be composed of Members chosen every second Year by the People of the several States, and the Electors in each State shall have the Qualifications requisite for Electors of the most numerous Branch of the State Legislature. '' and "The Senate of the United States shall be composed of two Senators from each State, elected by the people thereof, for six years; and each Senator shall have one vote. The electors in each State shall have the qualifications requisite for electors of the most numerous branch of the State legislatures. ''
21 states permit 17 - year - olds to vote in primary elections and caucuses if they will be 18 by election day: Alaska, Connecticut, Hawaii, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kansas, Kentucky, Maine, Maryland, Mississippi, Nebraska, Nevada, New Mexico, North Dakota, North Carolina, Ohio, Oregon, Virginia, Vermont, and Washington. Alaska, Kansas, North Dakota and Washington allow 17 - year - olds to participate in Democrat caucuses, but not in the Republican caucus. Minnesota allows 17 - year - olds to participate in presidential caucuses, but may not vote in primary elections for other offices. New Hampshire allows anyone who will be 18 years old by the time of next election to register, meaning some 17 - year - olds can register to vote in this state.
Currently, the Maine Green Independent Party, the state branch of the Green Party of the United States, calls for the lowering of the voting age to 17. Youth suffrage appears to be gaining ground in Massachusetts; three of the four Democratic United States Senate candidates in 2010 supported lowering the voting age.
In 2013, the City of Takoma Park, Maryland became the first place in the United States to lower its voting age to 16, for local (but not general) elections and referendums. As of 2018, three additional cities have lowered the voting age to 16: Hyattsville and Greenbelt in Maryland, and Berkeley in California (for school board elections only). In 2018, a bill in the Council of the District of Columbia was proposed to lower the voting age to 16, which would make the federal district the first jurisdiction to lower the voting age for federal level elections.
A request to lower the voting age to 16 was made during consideration of revisions to the Constitution of Venezuela in 2007. Cilia Flores, president of the National Assembly, announced that the Mixed Committee for Constitutional Reform had found the idea acceptable. Following approval in the legislature the amendment formed part of the package of constitutional proposals, and was defeated in the 2007 referendum.
There are occasional calls for a maximum voting age, on the grounds that older people have less of a stake in the future of the country or jurisdiction and tend to vote on the basis of self - interest.
Eighteen is the most common voting age, with a small minority of countries differing from this rule. Those with a national minimum age of 17 include East Timor, Greece, Indonesia, North Korea, South Sudan and Sudan. The minimum age is 16 in Argentina, Austria, Brazil, Cuba, Ecuador, Nicaragua and the Isle of Man, Jersey and Guernsey (three self - governing British Crown Dependencies). People aged 16 -- 18 can vote in Bosnia, Serbia and Montenegro if employed. The highest minimum voting age is 21 in several nations. Some countries have variable provision for the minimum voting age, whereby a lower age is set for eligibility to vote in state, regional or municipal elections.
The only known maximum voting age is in the Holy See, where the franchise for electing a new Pope is restricted to Cardinals under the age of 80.
The following is an alphabetical list of voting ages in the various countries of the world.
The following is a chronological list of the dates upon which countries lowered the voting age to 18; unless otherwise indicated, the reduction was from 21. In some cases the age was lowered decrementally, and so the "staging points '' are also given. Some information is also included on the relevant legal instruments involved.
This is a further list, similar to the above but of the dates upon which countries or territories lowered the voting age to 16; unless otherwise indicated, the reduction was from 18.
The following are political parties and other campaigning organisations that have either endorsed a lower voting age or who favour its removal.
In 2013, the Constitutional Convention was asked to consider reducing the voting age to 17 and recommended lowering it to 16. The then government agreed to hold a referendum, but in 2015 postponed it indefinitely to give priority to other referendums.
No political party had decreed that its members should all follow the party line about lowering voting age policy, resulting in public differences of view. Most parties had splits in their members and supporters, taking different sides.
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what is the purpose of a lesson plan | Lesson plan - wikipedia
A lesson plan is a teacher 's detailed description of the course of instruction or "learning trajectory '' for a lesson. A daily lesson plan is developed by a teacher to guide class learning. Details will vary depending on the preference of the teacher, subject being covered, and the needs of the students. There may be requirements mandated by the school system regarding the plan. A lesson plan is the teacher 's guide for running a particular lesson, and it includes the goal (what the students are supposed to learn), how the goal will be reached (the method, procedure) and a way of measuring how well the goal was reached (test, worksheet, homework etc.).
While there are many formats for a lesson plan, most lesson plans contain some or all of these elements, typically in this order:
Lesson Plan Phases There are eight lesson plan phases that are design to provide many many opportunities for teachers to recognize and correct students ' misconceptions while extending understanding for future lessons. Phase 1: Introduction Phase 2: Foundation Phase 3: Brain Activation Phase 4: Body of New Information Phase 5: Clarification Phase 6: Practice and Review Phase 7: Independent Practice Phase 8: Closure
Herbartian Approach: John Fedrick Herbert (1776 - 1841)
1. Preparation / Instruction: It pertains to preparing and motivating children to the lesson content by linking it to the previous knowledge of the student, by arousing curiosity of the children and by making an appeal to their senses. This prepares the child 's mind to receive new knowledge. "To know where the pupils are and where they should try to be are the two essentials of good teaching. '' Lessons may be started in the following manner: a. Two or three interesting but relevant questions b. Showing a picture / s, a chart or a model c. A situation Statement of Aim: Announcement of the focus of the lesson in a clear, concise statement such as "Today, we shall study the... ''
2. Presentation / Development: The actual lesson commences here. This step should involve a good deal of activity on the part of the students. The teacher will take the aid of various devices, e.g., questions, illustrations, explanation, expositions, demonstration and sensory aids, etc. Information and knowledge can be given, explained, revealed or suggested. The following principles should be kept in mind. a. Principle of selection and division: This subject matter should be divided into different sections. The teacher should also decide as to how much he is to tell and how much the pupils are to find out for themselves. b. Principle of successive sequence: The teacher should ensure that the succeeding as well as preceding knowledge is clear to the students. c. Principle of absorption and integration: In the end separation of the parts must be followed by their combination to promote understanding of the whole.
3. Association comparison: It is always desirable that new ideas or knowledge be associated to daily life situations by citing suitable examples and by drawing comparisons with the related concepts. This step is important when we are establishing principles or generalizing definitions.
4. Generalizing: This concepts is concerned with the systematizing of the knowledge learned. Comparison and contrast lead to generalization. An effort should be made to ensure that students draw the conclusions themselves. It should result in student 's own thinking, reflection and experience.
5. Application: It requires a good deal of mental activity to think and apply the principles learn to new situations. Knowledge, when it is put to use and verified, becomes clear and a part of the student 's mental make - up.
6. Recapitulation: Last step of the lesson plan, the teacher tries to ascertain whether the students have understood or grasped the subject matter or not. This is used for assessing / evaluating the effectiveness of the lesson by asking students questions on the contents of the lesson or by giving short objectives to test the student 's level of understanding; for example, to label different parts on a diagram, etc.
A well - developed lesson plan reflects the interests and needs of students. It incorporates best practices for the educational field. The lesson plan correlates with the teacher 's philosophy of education, which is what the teacher feels is the purpose of educating the students.
Secondary English program lesson plans, for example, usually center around four topics. They are literary theme, elements of language and composition, literary history, and literary genre. A broad, thematic lesson plan is preferable, because it allows a teacher to create various research, writing, speaking, and reading assignments. It helps an instructor teach different literature genres and incorporate videotapes, films, and television programs. Also, it facilitates teaching literature and English together. Similarly, history lesson plans focus on content (historical accuracy and background information), analytic thinking, scaffolding, and the practicality of lesson structure and meeting of educational goals. School requirements and a teacher 's personal tastes, in that order, determine the exact requirements for a lesson plan.
Unit plans follow much the same format as a lesson plan, but cover an entire unit of work, which may span several days or weeks. Modern constructivist teaching styles may not require individual lesson plans. The unit plan may include specific objectives and timelines, but lesson plans can be more fluid as they adapt to student needs and learning styles.
Unit Planning is the proper selection of learning activities which presents a complete picture. Unit planning is a systematic arrangement of subject matter. Samford "A unit plan is one which involves a series of learning experiences that are linked to achieve the aims composed by methodology and contents ''. Dictionary of Education: "A unit is an organization of various activities, experiences and types of learning around a central problem or purpose developed cooperatively by a group of pupils under a teacher leadership involving planning, execution of plans and evaluation of results ''.
Criteria of a good Unit Plan
1. Needs, capabilities, interest of the learner should be considered. 2. Prepared on the sound psychological knowledge of the learner. 3. Provide a new learning experience; systematic but flexible. 4. Sustain the attention of the learner till the end. 5. Related to social and Physical environment of the learner. 6. Development of learner 's personality.
It is important to note that lesson planning is a thinking process, not the filling in of a lesson plan template. Lesson plan envisaged sa blue print, guide map for action, a comprehensive chart of classroom teaching - learning activities, an elastic but systematic approach for the teaching of concepts, skills and attitudes.
The first thing a teacher does is to create an objective, a statement of purpose for the whole lesson. An objective statement itself should answer what students will be able to do by the end of the lesson. Harry Wong states that, "Each (objective) must begin with a verb that states the action to be taken to show accomplishment. The most important word to use in an assignment is a verb, because verbs state how to demonstrate if accomplishment has taken place or not. '' The objective drives the whole lesson, it is the reason the lesson exists. Care is taken when creating the objective for each day 's lesson, as it will determine the activities the students engage in. The teacher also ensures that lesson plan goals are compatible with the developmental level of the students. The teacher ensures as well that their student achievement expectations are reasonable.
The instructor must decide whether class assignments are whole - class, small groups, workshops, independent work, peer learning, or contractual:
These assignment categories (e.g. peer learning, independent, small groups) can also be used to guide the instructor 's choice of assessment measures that can provide information about student and class comprehension of the material. As discussed by Biggs (1999), there are additional questions an instructor can consider when choosing which type of assignment would provide the most benefit to students. These include:
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greek gods and goddesses and what they are known for | List of Greek mythological figures - wikipedia
The following is a list of gods, goddesses and many other divine and semi-divine figures from Ancient Greek mythology and Ancient Greek religion. (The list does not include creatures; for these, see List of Greek mythological creatures.)
The Greeks created images of their deities for many purposes. A temple would house the statue of a god or goddess, or multiple deities, and might be decorated with relief scenes depicting myths. Divine images were common on coins. Drinking cups and other vessels were painted with scenes from Greek myths.
Goddess of beauty, love, desire, and pleasure. In Hesiod 's Theogony (188 -- 206), she was born from sea - foam and Uranus 's severed genitals; in Homer 's Illiad (5.370 -- 417), she is daughter of Zeus and Dione. She was married to Hephaestus, but bore him no children. She had many lovers, most notably Ares, to whom she bore Harmonia, Phobos, and Deimos. She was also a lover to Adonis and Anchises, to whom she bore Aeneas. She is usually depicted as a naked or semi-nude beautiful woman. Her symbols include myrtle, roses, and the scallop shell. Her sacred animals include doves and sparrows. Her Roman counterpart is Venus.
God of music, arts, knowledge, healing, plague, prophecy, poetry, manly beauty, and archery. He is the son of Zeus and Leto, and the twin brother of Artemis. Both Apollo and Artemis use a bow and arrow. Apollo is depicted as young, beardless, handsome and athletic. In myth, he can be cruel and destructive, and his love affairs are rarely happy. He is often accompanied by the Muses. His most famous temple is in Delphi, where he established his oracular shrine. His signs and symbols include the laurel wreath, bow and arrow, and lyre. His sacred animals include roe deer, swans, and pythons. Some late Roman and Greek poetry and mythography identifies him as a sun - god, equivalent to Roman Sol and Greek Helios.
God of war, bloodshed, and violence. The son of Zeus and Hera, he was depicted as a beardless youth, either nude with a helmet and spear or sword, or as an armed warrior. Homer portrays him as moody and unreliable, and as being the most unpopular god on earth and Olympus (Iliad 5.890 -- 1). He generally represents the chaos of war in contrast to Athena, a goddess of military strategy and skill. Ares is known for cuckolding his brother Hephaestus, conducting an affair with his wife Aphrodite. His sacred animals include vultures, venomous snakes, dogs, and boars. His Roman counterpart Mars by contrast was regarded as the dignified ancestor of the Roman people.
Virgin goddess of the hunt, wilderness, animals, young girls, childbirth, and plague. In later times, Artemis became associated with bows and arrows. She is the daughter of Zeus and Leto, and twin sister of Apollo. In art she is often depicted as a young woman dressed in a short knee - length chiton and equipped with a hunting bow and a quiver of arrows. Her attributes include hunting spears, animal pelts, deer and other wild animals. Her sacred animals include deer, bears, and wild boars. Her Roman counterpart is Diana.
Goddess of reason, wisdom, intelligence, skill, peace, warfare, battle strategy, and handicrafts. According to most traditions, she was born from Zeus 's forehead, fully formed and armored. She is depicted as being crowned with a crested helm, armed with shield and spear, and wearing the aegis over a long dress. Poets describe her as "grey - eyed '' or having especially bright, keen eyes. She is a special patron of heroes such as Odysseus. She is the patron of the city Athens (which was named after her) and is attributed to various inventions in arts and literature. Her symbol is the olive tree. She is commonly shown as being accompanied by her sacred animal, the owl. Her Roman counterpart is Minerva.
Goddess of grain, agriculture, harvest, growth, and nourishment. Demeter, whose Roman counterpart is Ceres, is a daughter of Cronus and Rhea, and was swallowed and then regurgitated by her father. She is a sister of Zeus, by whom she bore Persephone, who is also known as Kore, i.e. "the girl. '' One of the central myths associated with Demeter involves Hades ' abduction of Persephone and Demeter 's lengthy search for her. Demeter is one of the main deities of the Eleusinian Mysteries, in which the rites seemed to center around Demeter 's search for and reunion with her daughter, which symbolized both the rebirth of crops in spring and the rebirth of the initiates after death. She is depicted as a mature woman, often crowned and holding sheafs of wheat and a torch. Her symbols are the cornucopia, wheat - ears, the winged serpent, and the lotus staff. Her sacred animals include pigs and snakes.
God of wine, fruitfulness, parties, festivals, madness, chaos, drunkenness, vegetation, ecstasy, and the theater. He is the twice - born son of Zeus and Semele, in that Zeus snatched him from his mother 's womb and stitched Dionysius into his own thigh and carried him until he was ready to be born. In art he is depicted as either an older bearded god (particularly before 430 BC) or an effeminate, long - haired youth (particularly after 430 BC). His attributes include the thyrsus, a drinking cup, the grape vine, and a crown of ivy. He is often in the company of his thiasos, a group of attendants including satyrs, maenads, and his old tutor Silenus. The consort of Dionysus was Ariadne. It was once held that Dionysius was a later addition to the Greek pantheon, but the discovery of Linear B tablets confirm his status as a deity from an early period. Bacchus was another name for him in Greek, and came into common usage among the Romans. His sacred animals include dolphins, serpents, tigers, and donkeys.
King of the underworld and the dead. God of wealth. His consort is Persephone. His attributes are the drinking horn or cornucopia, key, sceptre, and the three - headed dog Cerberus. His sacred animals include the screech owl. He was one of three sons of Cronus and Rhea, and thus sovereign over one of the three realms of the universe, the underworld. As a chthonic god, however, his place among the Olympians is ambiguous. In the mystery religions and Athenian literature, Plouton ("the Rich one '') was his preferred name, because of the idea that all riches came from the earth. The term Hades was used in this literature to refer to the underworld itself. The Romans translated Plouton as Dis Pater ("the Rich Father '') or Pluto.
God of fire, metalworking, and crafts. Either the son of Zeus and Hera or Hera alone, he is the smith of the gods and the husband of the adulterous Aphrodite. He was usually depicted as a bearded, crippled man with hammer, tongs, and anvil, and sometimes riding a donkey. His sacred animals include the donkey, the guard dog, and the crane. Among his creations was the armor of Achilles. Hephaestus used the fire of the forge as a creative force, but his Roman counterpart Vulcan was feared for his destructive potential and associated with the volcanic power of the earth.
Queen of the gods, and goddess of marriage, women, childbirth, heirs, kings, and empires. She is the wife and sister of Zeus, and the daughter of Cronus and Rhea. She was usually depicted as a regal woman in the prime of her life, wearing a diadem and veil and holding a lotus - tipped staff. Although she is the goddess of marriage, Zeus 's many infidelities drive her to jealousy and vengefulness. Her sacred animals include the heifer, the peacock, and the cuckoo. Her Roman counterpart is Juno.
God of boundaries, travel, communication, trade, language, and writing. Hermes was also responsible for protecting livestock and presided over the spheres associated with fertility, music, luck, and deception. The son of Zeus and Maia, Hermes is the messenger of the gods, and a psychopomp who leads the souls of the dead into the afterlife. He was depicted either as a handsome and athletic beardless youth, or as an older bearded man. His attributes include the herald 's wand or caduceus, winged sandals, and a traveler 's cap. His sacred animals include the tortoise. His Roman counterpart is Mercury.
Virgin goddess of the hearth, home, and chastity. She is a daughter of Rhea and Cronus, and a sister of Zeus. Not often identifiable in Greek art, she appeared as a modestly veiled woman. Her symbols are the hearth and kettle. In some accounts, she gave up her seat as one of the Twelve Olympians in favor of Dionysus, and she plays little role in Greek myths. Her Roman counterpart Vesta, however, was a major deity of the Roman state.
God of the sea, rivers, floods, droughts, and earthquakes. He is a son of Cronus and Rhea, and the brother of Zeus and Hades. He rules one of the three realms of the universe, as king of the sea and the waters. In art he is depicted as a mature man of sturdy build, often with a luxuriant beard, and holding a trident. His sacred animals include the horse and the dolphin. His wedding with Amphitrite is often presented as a triumphal procession. In some stories he rapes Medusa, leading to her transformation into a hideous Gorgon and also to the birth of their two children, Pegasus and Chrysaor. His Roman counterpart is Neptune.
King of the gods, ruler of Mount Olympus, and god of the sky, weather, thunder, lightning, law, order, and justice. He is the youngest son of Cronus and Rhea. He overthrew Cronus and gained the sovereignty of heaven for himself. In art he is depicted as a regal, mature man with a sturdy figure and dark beard. His usual attributes are the royal scepter and the lightning bolt. His sacred animals include the eagle and the bull. His Roman counterpart is Jupiter, also known as Jove.
The Titans and Titanesses are depicted in Greek art less commonly than the Olympians.
Eos (Dawn) and the hero Memnon (490 -- 480 BC)
Helios in his four - horse chariot (3rd century BC)
Themis, from the Temple of Nemesis (ca. 300 BC)
Oceanus wearing crab - claw horns, with Tethys (Roman - era mosaic)
Athena watches Prometheus create humans (3rd century AD)
The Gigantes were the offspring of Gaia (Earth), born from the blood that fell when Uranus (Sky) was castrated by their Titan son Cronus, who fought the Gigantomachy, their war with the Olympian gods for supremecy of the cosmos, they include:
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what is hamlet's opinion of rosencrantz and guildenstern | Rosencrantz and Guildenstern - wikipedia
Rosencrantz and Guildenstern are characters in William Shakespeare 's tragedy Hamlet. They are childhood friends of Hamlet, summoned by King Claudius to distract the prince from his apparent madness and if possible to ascertain the cause of it. The characters were revived in W.S. Gilbert 's satire, Rosencrantz and Guildenstern, and as the alienated heroes of Tom Stoppard 's absurdist play, Rosencrantz and Guildenstern Are Dead, which was adapted into a film.
Rosencrantz ("rosary '') and Gyldenstjerne / Gyllenstierna ("golden star '') were names of Danish (and Norwegian, and Swedish) noble families of the 16th century; records of the Danish royal coronation of 1596 show that one tenth of the aristocrats participating bore one or the other name. James Voelkel suggests that the characters were named after Frederik Rosenkrantz and Knud Gyldenstierne, cousins of Tycho Brahe who had visited England in 1592.
The majority of characters in Hamlet have classical names, in contrast to the "particularly Danish '' ones of Rosencrantz and Guildenstern. The names were common in the court of Frederick II and Christian IV, and also at the University of Wittenberg, an institution where Hamlet is mentioned as having studied (he refers to them as "my two schoolfellows '').
In Hamlet, Rosencrantz and Guildenstern first appear in Act II, Scene 2, where they attempt to place themselves in the confidence of Prince Hamlet, their childhood friend. The smooth and courtly language they employ immediately establishes them as sycophants who are really serving as spies for the corrupt King Claudius, Hamlet 's uncle, who usurped the throne and constantly attempts to check his nephew. Hamlet welcomes them as "excellent good friends '', but, seeing through their guise, comments that they wo n't "deal justly '' with him about their mission. Realising that he lacks allies except for Horatio, Hamlet gives the speech "What a piece of work is a man '' to Rosencrantz and Guildenstern.
In Act III, Hamlet drops the pretense of friendship, coldly dismissing the two in Scene 2 by his only use of the royal "we '' in the play. To his mother, he comments in Scene 4 that "I will trust (them) as I will adders fang 'd ''.
When Hamlet kills Polonius, Claudius recruits Rosencrantz and Guildenstern to escort Hamlet to England, providing them with a letter for the King of England instructing him to have Hamlet killed. (They are apparently unaware of what is in the letter, though Shakespeare never explicitly says so.) Along the journey, the distrustful Hamlet finds and rewrites the letter, instructing the executioner to kill Rosencrantz and Guildenstern instead. When their ship is attacked by pirates, Hamlet returns to Denmark, leaving Rosencrantz and Guildenstern to die; he comments in Act V, Scene 2 that "They are not near my conscience; their defeat / Does by their own insinuation grow ''. Ambassadors returning later report that "Rosencrantz and Guildenstern are dead. ''
As agents of the corruption infecting the court, the two contribute to setting up the confrontation between Hamlet and Claudius. Shakespeare expects the audience to appreciate the poetic justice of their deaths: while they are very likely ignorant of the deadly contents of the letter they carry to England and are, to that extent, innocent victims of Hamlet 's retaliation, they are seen as having received their just deserts for their participation in Claudius 's intrigues. The courtiers always appear as a pair, except in editions following the First Folio text, where Guildenstern enters four lines after Rosencrantz in Act IV, Scene 3.
W.S. Gilbert 's play (1874) is a comedy in which Rosencrantz plots with his friend Guildenstern to get rid of Hamlet, so that Rosencrantz can marry Ophelia. They discover that Claudius has written a play. The king 's literary work is so embarrassingly bad that Claudius has decreed that anyone who mentions it must be executed. They obtain the manuscript and convince Hamlet to perform it. When he does, Claudius decrees that he must die, but is eventually persuaded to banish him to England. Rosencrantz and Ophelia can now be together.
As the protagonists of Tom Stoppard 's play and film, they are confused by the events of Hamlet and seem unaware of their role in the larger drama. The play is primarily a comedy, but they often stumble upon deep philosophical truths through their nonsensical ramblings. In the movie, Rosencrantz invents the sandwich, and discovers gravity and volume displacement, among other things. The characters depart from their epiphanies as quickly as they come to them.
At times, one appears more enlightened than the other -- but they trade this enlightenment back and forth throughout the drama. Stoppard also littered his play with jokes that refer to the common thespian tendency to swap Rosencrantz and Guildenstern in the midst of the play because the characters are basically identical. He does this by making Rosencrantz and Guildenstern unsure of who is who, as well as having the other players (Claudius, Hamlet, Gertrude) refer to them frequently by the wrong names. Because of the play 's similarity to Waiting for Godot, Rosencrantz is sometimes compared to Estragon (one of the tramps who wait for Godot), and who shares his dim perception of reality, while Guildenstern parallels Vladimir, who shares his analytical perception.
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nanci griffith other voices other rooms full album | Other Voices, Other Rooms (Nanci Griffith album) - wikipedia
Other Voices, Other Rooms is Nanci Griffith 's tenth album, released in 1993. It consists of songs written by other songwriters who have influenced her own career. Guest artists who appear in their own compositions include Frank Christian playing guitar on "Three Flights Up '', Bob Dylan playing harmonica on "Boots of Spanish Leather '', and John Prine lending harmony vocals on "Speed of the Sound of Loneliness ''. The album get its name from the Truman Capote novel of the same name.
The album rose into the # 54 position on the Billboard Pop Albums chart in 1993, although it had no charting singles. The album concept was inspired by the 1990 album True Voices which was also made up of cover songs including one that Nanci recorded on Other Voices, Other Rooms - Across The Great Divide, written by Kate Wolf. "Other Voices, Other Rooms '' was certified gold by the RIAA on January 30, 2005, signifying shipments of 500,000 units in the U.S.
Griffith won the 1994 Grammy Award for Best Contemporary Folk Album, and producer Jim Rooney won a Grammy Award for production.
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who plays agent stahl on shades of blue | Shades of Blue (TV series) - wikipedia
Shades of Blue is an American crime drama television series created by Adi Hasak that aired on NBC. The series premiered on January 7, 2016. The series is set in New York City and stars Jennifer Lopez as Harlee Santos, a single - mother NYPD detective who is forced to work for the FBI 's anti-corruption task force, while dealing with her own financial and family problems.
In March 2017, the series was renewed for a third season. NBC later announced in April 2018 that this would be the final season, and that it would consist of 10 episodes. The third and final season premiered on June 17, 2018, and the series finale aired on August 19, 2018.
In February 2014, NBC gave a 13 - episode straight - to - series order. A teaser trailer was made available on June 3, 2015, containing statements by Lopez, Ray Liotta, and Drea de Matteo. The series premiered on January 7, 2016. On February 5, 2016, NBC renewed Shades of Blue for a 13 - episode second season, which premiered on March 5, 2017. On March 17, 2017, the series was renewed for a third season. NBC later announced on April 4, 2018, that this would be the final season, and it would contain 10 episodes. The third season premiered on June 17, 2018.
Lopez was given the main role in 2014. On February 26, 2015, Liotta, de Matteo, Vincent Laresca and Warren Kole were cast as Lt. Matt Wozniak, Det. Shirley Nazario, Det. Tony Espada and Agent Robert Stahl, respectively. Dayo Okeniyi was given the role of Det. Michael Loman. On March 30, 2015, Hampton Fluker was cast in a recurring role as Det. Marcus Tufo. On April 8, Sarah Jeffery was cast as Santos ' daughter, Christina. On April 13, 2015, Gino Anthony Pesi was cast in a recurring role as Assistant District Attorney James Nava. On June 15, 2016, Anna Gunn joined Shades of Blue 's second season in a recurring role.
Filming for the first season began on June 5, 2015, in New York City. Filming for the second season began in July 2016 in New York City. Filming for the third season began in April 2017 in New York City.
The show has received mixed reviews despite praise for Lopez 's performance. On Metacritic, Shades of Blue has a Metascore of 58 / 100, based on 28 critics. On Rotten Tomatoes, the show is rated 56 % based on 35 reviews, with an average rating of 5.6 / 10. The site 's consensus reads "Solid performances by Jennifer Lopez and Ray Liotta fail to lift Shades of Blue above the ranks of the pedestrian network procedural ''.
Writing for USA Today, Robert Bianco gave the series two stars out of four, calling it "a thoroughly ordinary reworking of pretty much every crooked cop show and movie you 've ever seen ''. Slate reviewer Willa Paskin criticized the show as "moderately terrible '', though praised Lopez 's performance as "hugely appealing '' and called her "the show 's one reliable pleasure ''. In a more positive review, Yahoo! 's Ken Tucker called Lopez 's work "solid '' and felt the series was "perhaps the best dramatic work she 's done since her first - rate film, Out of Sight ''. Molly Eichel from The A.V. Club gave the series a C+ rating, saying that "While the plot starts out cut and dry, it becomes more twisty and turny in a way that will eventually bring the audience back to the opening scene of a makeup-less, de-glammed Santos confessing her sins into a camera ''. Matt Zoller Seitz of Vulture wrote that "Shades of Blue is n't a deep show, but it 's a sensationally effective one. It knows what it is (a compacted, melodramatic, commercial TV - friendly gloss on one of those ' 70s and ' 80s Sidney Lumet police - corruption thrillers) and it rarely steps wrong. ''
In India, Shades of Blue premiered on Colors Infinity on January 8, 2016, and aired shortly after its U.S. counterpart. In Canada, Shades aired on Global, at the same time as it aired on NBC. In the Netherlands, Shades was aired on Wednesdays on Fox. In Australia, it premiered on the Universal Channel on August 2, 2016. In the United Kingdom, Shades of Blue premiered on Sky Living on 13th July 2016 at 9pm weekly, for all three seasons. In Greece, the series premiered on September 3rd, 2018 on Makedonia TV.
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who sang iko iko in the 80's | Iko Iko - wikipedia
"Iko Iko '' (/ ˈaɪkoʊ ˈaɪkoʊ /) is a much - covered New Orleans song that tells of a parade collision between two tribes of Mardi Gras Indians and the traditional confrontation. The song, under the original title "Jock - A-Mo '', was written and released as a single in 1953 by Sugar Boy and his Cane Cutters that failed to make the charts. The song first became popular in 1965 by the girl group, The Dixie Cups, who scored an international hit with "Iko Iko ''. In 1967 as part of a lawsuit settlement between "Sugar Boy '' James Crawford and the Dixie Cups, the trio were given part songwriting credit to the song. In 1972, Dr. John had a minor hit with his version of "Iko Iko ''. The most successful charting version in the UK was recorded by Scottish singer Natasha England who took her 1982 version into the top 10. "Iko Iko '' became an international hit again twice more, the first being the Belle Stars in June 1982 and again with Captain Jack in 2001.
The song was originally recorded by and released as a single in November 1953 by James Crawford as "Sugar Boy and his Cane Cutters '', on Checker Records (Checker 787). The single features Dave Lastie on tenor saxophone. Crawford 's version of the song did not make the charts. The story tells of a "spy boy '' (i.e. a lookout for one band of Indians) encountering the "flag boy '' or guidon carrier for another "tribe ''. He threatens to "set the flag on fire ''. Crawford set phrases chanted by Mardi Gras Indians to music for the song. Crawford himself states that he has no idea what the words mean, and that he originally sang the phrase "Chock - a-mo '', but the title was misheard by Chess Records and Checker Records president Leonard Chess, who misspelled it as "Jock - a-mo '' for the record 's release.
James "Sugar Boy '' Crawford, gave a 2002 interview with OffBeat Magazine discussing the song 's meaning:
Interviewer: How did you construct ' Jock - A-Mo? '
Crawford: It came from two Indian chants that I put music to. "Iko Iko '' was like a victory chant that the Indians would shout. "Jock - A-Mo '' was a chant that was called when the Indians went into battle. I just put them together and made a song out of them. Really it was just like "Lawdy Miss Clawdy ''. That was a phrase everybody in New Orleans used. Lloyd Price just added music to it and it became a hit. I was just trying to write a catchy song...
Interviewer: Listeners wonder what ' Jock - A-Mo ' means. Some music scholars say it translates in Mardi Gras Indian lingo as ' Kiss my ass, ' and I 've read where some think ' Jock - A-Mo ' was a court jester. What does it mean?
Crawford: I really do n't know. (laughs)
The Dixie Cups version was the result of an unplanned jam in a New York City recording studio where they began an impromptu version of "Iko Iko '', accompanying themselves with drumsticks on an aluminum chair, a studio ashtray and a Coke bottle. After their producers cleaned up the track and added the backup vocals, bass and drums to the song, the single was then released in March 1965. The Dixie Cups scored an international hit single with "Iko Iko '' in May 1965 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart where their version peaked at number 20 and spent 10 weeks on the Top 100. The song also charted at number 23 on the UK Singles Chart and peaked at number 20 on the R&B Chart. In Canada "Iko Iko '' reached number 26 on the RPM Chart. It was the third single taken from their debut studio album Chapel of Love issued on Red Bird Records in August 1964.
The Dixie Cups had learned "Iko, Iko '' from hearing the Hawkins sisters ' grandmother sing it, but they knew little about the origin of the song and so the original authorship credit went to the members, Barbara Ann Hawkins, her sister Rosa Lee Hawkins, and their cousin Joan Marie Johnson.
The Dixie Cups ' version was later included on the soundtrack to the 1987 film The Big Easy. This same version was also used on the soundtrack of the 2005 movie The Skeleton Key. In 2009, a version based on The Dixie Cups ' was used in an ad for Lipton Rainforest Alliance Ice Tea.
After the Dixie Cups version of "Iko Iko '' was a hit in 1965, they and their record label, Red Bird Records, were sued by James Crawford, who claimed that "Iko Iko '' was the same as his composition "Jock - a-mo ''. Although The Dixie Cups denied that the two compositions were similar, the lawsuit resulted in a settlement in 1967 with Crawford making no claim to authorship or ownership of "Iko Iko '', but being credited 25 % for public performances, such as on radio, of "Iko Iko '' in the United States. Even though a back - to - back listening of the two recordings clearly demonstrates that "Iko Iko '' was practically the same song as Crawford 's "Jock - a-mo '', Crawford 's rationale for the settlement was motivated by years of legal battles with no royalties. In the end, he stated, "I do n't even know if I really am getting my just dues. I just figure 50 percent of something is better than 100 percent of nothing. ''
In the 1990s, the Dixie Cups became aware that another group of people were claiming authorship of "Iko Iko ''. Their ex-manager Joe Jones and his family filed a copyright registration in 1991, alleging that they wrote the song in 1963. Joe Jones successfully licensed "Iko Iko '' outside of North America. The Dixie Cups filed a lawsuit against Joe Jones. The trial took place in New Orleans and the Dixie Cups were represented by well - known music attorney Oren Warshavsky before Senior Federal Judge Peter Beer. The jury returned a unanimous verdict on March 6, 2002, affirming that the Dixie Cups were the only writers of "Iko Iko '' and granting them more money than they were seeking. The Fifth Circuit Court of Appeals upheld the jury verdict and sanctioned Joe Jones.
New Orleans singer and pianist Dr. John covered "Iko Iko '' in 1972 for his fifth studio album Dr. John 's Gumbo. Released as a single in March 1972 on Atco Records, his version of the song charted at number 71 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart. It was produced by Jerry Wexler and Harold Battiste. The following is the "Iko Iko '' story, as told by Dr. John in the liner notes to his 1972 album, Dr. John 's Gumbo, in which he covers New Orleans R&B classics:
The song was written and recorded back in the early 1950s by a New Orleans singer named James Crawford who worked under the name of Sugar Boy & the Cane Cutters. It was recorded in the 1960s by the Dixie Cups for Jerry Leiber & Mike Stoller 's Red Bird Records, but the format we 're following here is Sugar Boy 's original. Also in the group were Professor Longhair on piano, Jake Myles, Big Boy Myles, Irv Bannister on guitar, and Eugene ' Bones ' Jones on drums. The group was also known as the Chipaka Shaweez. The song was originally called ' Jockamo, ' and it has a lot of Creole patois in it. Jockamo means ' jester ' in the old myth. It is Mardi Gras music, and the Shaweez was one of many Mardi Gras groups who dressed up in far out Indian costumes and came on as Indian tribes. The tribes used to hang out on Claiborne Avenue and used to get juiced up there getting ready to perform and ' second line ' in their own special style during Mardi Gras. That 's dead and gone because there 's a freeway where those grounds used to be. The tribes were like social clubs who lived all year for Mardi Gras, getting their costumes together. Many of them were musicians, gamblers, hustlers and pimps.
The song was performed by Dr. John during halftime of the 2008 NBA All - Star Game in New Orleans and again in 2014.
The most successful charting version in the UK was recorded by the Scottish singer Natasha, whose version reached number 10 on the UK singles chart in 1982. The song also charted highly in Ireland and New Zealand. The single was produced by Tom Newman. A remix of the single was released in 2007, and Natasha 's version enjoyed a resurgence in 2014 when it was included on the soundtrack to the highest - grossing Italian film of 2014, A Boss in the Living Room (Un Boss in Salotto).
In 1989, the British girl group the Belle Stars had a US chart hit with their cover of "Iko Iko '' which reached number 14 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart in March, after it was included on the soundtrack of the film Rain Man, starring Tom Cruise and Dustin Hoffman. The single was issued on Capitol Records. Their song is in the opening scene of the 1988 film.
It was originally released several years earlier on Stiff Records in 1982 as a single in the UK where it peaked at a modest number 35 on the UK Singles Chart in June 1982. The track was produced by Brian Tench and was also featured on the band 's eponymous debut album, The Belle Stars which reached number 15 on the UK Albums Chart.
The Belle Stars version was also included in the 1997 film Knockin ' on Heaven 's Door, K - 9 and The Hangover in 2009. The Belle Stars ' version of "Iko Iko '' is used in a trailer for 20th Century Fox Family Features.
The German Eurodance act Captain Jack recorded a cover version of "Iko Iko '' for their fourth studio album, Top Secret in 2001. It was released on E-Park Records. The single was produced by Udo Niebergall and Eric Sneo. Captain Jack 's version was a hit in several countries, reaching number 22 in Germany, number 62 in Switzerland and peaking at number 16 in Austria.
Linguists and historians have proposed a variety of origins for the seemingly nonsensical chorus, suggesting that the words may come from a melange of cultures.
An interpretation in Louisiana Creole French is:
Ena! Ena! Akout, akout, an déyè Chaque amour fi nou wa na né
Translation:
Hey now! Hey now! Listen, listen at the back All our love made our king be born
Linguist Geoffrey D. Kimball derives the lyrics of the song in part from Mobilian Jargon, an extinct American Indian trade language consisting mostly of Choctaw and Chickasaw words and once used by Southeastern American Indians, Blacks, and European settlers and their descendants in the Gulf Coast Region. In Mobilian Jargon, čokəma fehna (interpreted as "jockomo feeno '') was a commonly used phrase, meaning "very good ''.
Another possible translation interprets the third and fourth lines as:
Chokma finha an dan déyè
Chickasaw words "chokma '' ("it 's good '') and "finha '' ("very ''), Creole "an dan déyè '' from French Creole "an dans déyè '' ("at the back ''), and the Creole "ane '' from the French "année '' ("year '').
Translation:
It 's very good at the rear
In a 2009 Offbeat article, the Ghanaian social linguist Dr. Evershed Amuzu said the chorus was "definitely West African '', reflecting the tonal patterns of the region. He notes that the phrase ayeko -- often doubled as ayeko, ayeko -- is a popular chant meaning "well done, or congratulations '' among the Akan and Ewe people in modern - day Togo, Ghana, and Benin. Both groups were frequently taken in the slave trade, often through Haiti to Louisiana. Ewes in particular are credited with bringing West African cultural influences like Vodun rites to Haiti and on to New Orleans.
Musicologist Ned Sublette has backed the idea that the chorus might have roots in Haitian slave culture, considering that the rhythms of Mardi Gras Indians are nearly indistinguishable from the Haitian Kata rhythm. Yaquimo, he has also noted, was a common name among the Taino inhabitants of Haiti in the early years of the slave trade. "Jakamo Fi Na Ye '' is also, whether coincidentally or not, the phrase "The black cat is here '' in Bambara, a West African Mandingo language.
In a 1991 lecture to the New Orleans Social Science History Association, Dr. Sybil Kein proposed the following translation from Yoruba and Creole:
Code language! God is watching Jacouman causes it; we will be emancipated
Voodoo practitioners would recognize many aspects of the song as being about spirit possession. The practitioner, the horse, waves a flag representing a certain god to call that god into himself or herself. Setting a flag on fire is a curse. The man in green, who either changes personality or whose appearance is deceiving, would be recognized in Voodoo as possessed by a peaceful Rada spirit, inclining to green clothes and love magic. The man in red, who is being sent to kill, would likely be possessed by a vengeful Petwo spirit. The relationship of the song to voodoo and Hoodoo (folk magic) is celebrated in the movie The Skeleton Key.
The Movie "The Big Easy '' (1987) featured the Dixie Cups version of the song.
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the start of conversion of adc is identified when | Integrating ADC - wikipedia
An integrating ADC is a type of analog - to - digital converter that converts an unknown input voltage into a digital representation through the use of an integrator. In its basic implementation, the dual - slope converter, the unknown input voltage is applied to the input of the integrator and allowed to ramp for a fixed time period (the run - up period). Then a known reference voltage of opposite polarity is applied to the integrator and is allowed to ramp until the integrator output returns to zero (the run - down period). The input voltage is computed as a function of the reference voltage, the constant run - up time period, and the measured run - down time period. The run - down time measurement is usually made in units of the converter 's clock, so longer integration times allow for higher resolutions. Likewise, the speed of the converter can be improved by sacrificing resolution.
Converters of this type can achieve high resolution, but often do so at the expense of speed. For this reason, these converters are not found in audio or signal processing applications. Their use is typically limited to digital voltmeters and other instruments requiring highly accurate measurements.
The basic integrating ADC circuit consists of an integrator, a switch to select between the voltage to be measured and the reference voltage, a timer that determines how long to integrate the unknown and measures how long the reference integration took, a comparator to detect zero crossing, and a controller. Depending on the implementation, a switch may also be present in parallel with the integrator capacitor to allow the integrator to be reset. Inputs to the controller include a clock (used to measure time) and the output of a comparator used to detect when the integrator 's output reaches zero.
The conversion takes place in two phases: the run - up phase, where the input to the integrator is the voltage to be measured, and the run - down phase, where the input to the integrator is a known reference voltage. During the run - up phase, the switch selects the measured voltage as the input to the integrator. The integrator is allowed to ramp for a fixed period of time to allow a charge to build on the integrator capacitor. During the run - down phase, the switch selects the reference voltage as the input to the integrator. The time that it takes for the integrator 's output to return to zero is measured during this phase.
In order for the reference voltage to ramp the integrator voltage down, the reference voltage needs to have a polarity opposite to that of the input voltage. In most cases, for positive input voltages, this means that the reference voltage will be negative. To handle both positive and negative input voltages, a positive and negative reference voltage is required. The selection of which reference to use during the run - down phase would be based on the polarity of the integrator output at the end of the run - up phase.
The basic equation for the output of the integrator (assuming a constant input) is:
Assuming that the initial integrator voltage at the start of each conversion is zero and that the integrator voltage at the end of the run down period will be zero, we have the following two equations that cover the integrator 's output during the two phases of the conversion:
The two equations can be combined and solved for V i n (\ displaystyle V_ (in)), the unknown input voltage:
From the equation, one of the benefits of the dual - slope integrating ADC becomes apparent: the measurement is independent of the values of the circuit elements (R and C). This does not mean, however, that the values of R and C are unimportant in the design of a dual - slope integrating ADC (as will be explained below).
Note that in the graph to the right, the voltage is shown as going up during the run - up phase and down during the run - down phase. In reality, because the integrator uses the op - amp in a negative feedback configuration, applying a positive V i n (\ displaystyle V_ (in)) will cause the output of the integrator to go down. The up and down more accurately refer to the process of adding charge to the integrator capacitor during the run - up phase and removing charge during the run - down phase.
The resolution of the dual - slope integrating ADC is determined primarily by the length of the run - down period and by the time measurement resolution (i.e., the frequency of the controller 's clock). The required resolution (in number of bits) dictates the minimum length of the run - down period for a full - scale input (V i n = − V r e f (\ displaystyle V_ (in) = - V_ (ref))):
During the measurement of a full - scale input, the slope of the integrator 's output will be the same during the run - up and run - down phases. This also implies that the time of the run - up period and run - down period will be equal (t u = t d (\ displaystyle t_ (u) = t_ (d))) and that the total measurement time will be 2 t d (\ displaystyle 2t_ (d)). Therefore, the total measurement time for a full - scale input will be based on the desired resolution and the frequency of the controller 's clock:
If a resolution of 16 bits is required with a controller clock of 10 MHz, the measurement time will be 13.1 milliseconds (or a sampling rate of just 76 samples per second). However, the sampling time can be improved by sacrificing resolution. If the resolution requirement is reduced to 10 bits, the measurement time is also reduced to only 0.2 milliseconds (almost 4900 samples per second).
There are limits to the maximum resolution of the dual - slope integrating ADC. It is not possible to increase the resolution of the basic dual - slope ADC to arbitrarily high values by using longer measurement times or faster clocks. Resolution is limited by:
The basic design of the dual - slope integrating ADC has a limitations in both conversion speed and resolution. A number of modifications to the basic design have been made to overcome both of these to some degree.
The run - up phase of the basic dual - slope design integrates the input voltage for a fixed period of time. That is, it allows an unknown amount of charge to build up on the integrator 's capacitor. The run - down phase is then used to measure this unknown charge to determine the unknown voltage. For a full - scale input, half of the measurement time is spent in the run - up phase. For smaller inputs, an even larger percentage of the total measurement time is spent in the run - up phase. Reducing the amount of time spent in the run - up phase can significantly reduce the total measurement time.
A simple way to reduce the run - up time is to increase the rate that charge accumulates on the integrator capacitor by reducing the size of the resistor used on the input, a method referred to as enhanced dual - slope. This still allows the same total amount of charge accumulation, but it does so over a smaller period of time. Using the same algorithm for the run - down phase results in the following equation for the calculation of the unknown input voltage (V i n (\ displaystyle V_ (in))):
Note that this equation, unlike the equation for the basic dual - slope converter, has a dependence on the values of the integrator resistors. Or, more importantly, it has a dependence on the ratio of the two resistance values. This modification does nothing to improve the resolution of the converter (since it does n't address either of the resolution limitations noted above).
One method to improve the resolution of the converter is to artificially increase the range of the integrating amplifier during the run - up phase. As mentioned above, the purpose of the run - up phase is to add an unknown amount of charge to the integrator to be later measured during the run - down phase. Having the ability to add larger quantities of charge allows for more higher - resolution measurements. For example, assume that we are capable of measuring the charge on the integrator during the run - down phase to a granularity of 1 coulomb. If our integrator amplifier limits us to being able to add only up to 16 coulombs of charge to the integrator during the run - up phase, our total measurement will be limited to 4 bits (16 possible values). If we can increase the range of the integrator to allow us to add up to 32 coulombs, our measurement resolution is increased to 5 bits.
One method to increase the integrator capacity is by periodically adding or subtracting known quantities of charge during the run - up phase in order to keep the integrator 's output within the range of the integrator amplifier. Then, the total amount of artificially - accumulated charge is the charge introduced by the unknown input voltage plus the sum of the known charges that were added or subtracted.
The circuit diagram shown to the right is an example of how multi-slope run - up could be implemented. The concept is that the unknown input voltage, V i n (\ displaystyle V_ (in)), is always applied to the integrator. Positive and negative reference voltages controlled by the two independent switches add and subtract charge as needed to keep the output of the integrator within its limits. The reference resistors, R p (\ displaystyle R_ (p)) and R n (\ displaystyle R_ (n)) are necessarily smaller than R i (\ displaystyle R_ (i)) to ensure that the references can overcome the charge introduced by the input. A comparator is connected to the output to compare the integrator 's voltage with a threshold voltage. The output of the comparator is used by the converter 's controller to decide which reference voltage should be applied. This can be a relatively simple algorithm: if the integrator 's output above the threshold, enable the positive reference (to cause the output to go down); if the integrator 's output is below the threshold, enable the negative reference (to cause the output to go up). The controller keeps track of how often each switch is turned on in order to estimate how much additional charge was placed onto (or removed from) the integrator capacitor as a result of the reference voltages.
To the right is a graph of sample output from the integrator during a multi-slope run - up. Each dashed vertical line represents a decision point by the controller where it samples the polarity of the output and chooses to apply either the positive or negative reference voltage to the input. Ideally, the output voltage of the integrator at the end of the run - up period can be represented by the following equation:
where t Δ (\ displaystyle t_ (\ Delta)) is the sampling period, N p (\ displaystyle N_ (p)) is the number of periods in which the positive reference is switched in, N n (\ displaystyle N_ (n)) is the number of periods in which the negative reference is switched in, and N (\ displaystyle N) is the total number of periods in the run - up phase.
The resolution obtained during the run - up period can be determined by making the assumption that the integrator output at the end of the run - up phase is zero. This allows us to relate the unknown input, V i n (\ displaystyle V_ (in)), to just the references and the N (\ displaystyle N) values:
The resolution can be expressed in terms of the difference between single steps of the converter 's output. In this case, if we solve the above equation for V i n (\ displaystyle V_ (in)) using N p = 0, N n = N (\ displaystyle N_ (p) = 0, N_ (n) = N) and N p = 1, N n = N − 1 (\ displaystyle N_ (p) = 1, N_ (n) = N - 1) (the sum of N p (\ displaystyle N_ (p)) and N n (\ displaystyle N_ (n)) must always equal N (\ displaystyle N)), the difference will equal the smallest resolvable quantity. This results in an equation for the resolution of the multi-slope run - up phase (in bits) of:
Using typical values of the reference resistors R p (\ displaystyle R_ (p)) and R n (\ displaystyle R_ (n)) of 10k ohms and an input resistor of 50k ohms, we can achieve a 16 bit resolution during the run - up phase with 655360 periods (65.5 milliseconds with a 10 MHz clock).
While it is possible to continue the multi-slope run - up indefinitely, it is not possible to increase the resolution of the converter to arbitrarily high levels just by using a longer run - up time. Error is introduced into the multi-slope run - up through the action of the switches controlling the references, cross-coupling between the switches, unintended switch charge injection, mismatches in the references, and timing errors.
Some of this error can be reduced by careful operation of the switches. In particular, during the run - up period, each switch should be activated a constant number of times. The algorithm explained above does not do this and just toggles switches as needed to keep the integrator output within the limits. Activating each switch a constant number of times makes the error related to switching approximately constant. Any output offset that is a result of the switching error can be measured and then subtracted from the result.
The simple, single - slope run - down is slow. Typically, the run down time is measured in clock ticks, so to get four digit resolution, the rundown time may take as long as 10,000 clock cycles. A multi-slope run - down can speed the measurement up without sacrificing accuracy. By using 4 slope rates that are each a power of ten more gradual than the previous, four digit resolution can be achieved in roughly 40 or fewer clock ticks -- a huge speed improvement.
The circuit shown to the right is an example of a multi-slope run - down circuit with four run - down slopes with each being ten times more gradual than the previous. The switches control which slope is selected. The switch containing R d / 1000 (\ displaystyle R_ (d) / 1000) selects the steepest slope (i.e., will cause the integrator output to move toward zero the fastest). At the start of the run - down interval, the unknown input is removed from the circuit by opening the switch connected to V i n (\ displaystyle V_ (in)) and closing the R d / 1000 (\ displaystyle R_ (d) / 1000) switch. Once the integrator 's output reaches zero (and the run - down time measured), the R d / 1000 (\ displaystyle R_ (d) / 1000) switch is opened and the next slope is selected by closing the R d / 100 (\ displaystyle R_ (d) / 100) switch. This repeats until the final slope of R d (\ displaystyle R_ (d)) has reached zero. The combination of the run - down times for each of the slopes determines the value of the unknown input. In essence, each slope adds one digit of resolution to the result.
In the example circuit, the slope resistors differ by a factor of 10. This value, known as the base (B (\ displaystyle B)), can be any value. As explained below, the choice of the base affects the speed of the converter and determines the number of slopes needed to achieve the desired resolution.
The basis of this design is the assumption that there will always be overshoot when trying to find the zero crossing at the end of a run - down interval. This will necessarily be true given any hysteresis in the output of the comparator measuring the zero crossing and due to the periodic sampling of the comparator based on the converter 's clock. If we assume that the converter switches from one slope to the next in a single clock cycle (which may or may not be possible), the maximum amount of overshoot for a given slope would be the largest integrator output change in one clock period:
To overcome this overshoot, the next slope would require no more than B (\ displaystyle B) clock cycles, which helps to place a bound on the total time of the run - down. The time for the first - run down (using the steepest slope) is dependent on the unknown input (i.e., the amount of charge placed on the integrator capacitor during the run - up phase). At most, this will be:
where T f i r s t (\ displaystyle T_ (first)) is the maximum number of clock periods for the first slope, V m a x (\ displaystyle V_ (max)) is the maximum integrator voltage at the start of the run - down phase, and R s 1 (\ displaystyle R_ (s1)) is the resistor used for the first slope.
The remainder of the slopes have a limited duration based on the selected base, so the remaining time of the conversion (in converter clock periods) is:
where N (\ displaystyle N) is the number of slopes.
Converting the measured time intervals during the multi-slope run - down into a measured voltage is similar to the charge - balancing method used in the multi-slope run - up enhancement. Each slope adds or subtracts known amounts of charge to / from the integrator capacitor. The run - up will have added some unknown amount of charge to the integrator. Then, during the run - down, the first slope subtracts a large amount of charge, the second slope adds a smaller amount of charge, etc. with each subsequent slope moving a smaller amount in the opposite direction of the previous slope with the goal of reaching closer and closer to zero. Each slope adds or subtracts a quantity of charge proportional to the slope 's resistor and the duration of the slope:
T c l o c k (\ displaystyle T_ (clock)) is necessarily an integer and will be less than or equal to B (\ displaystyle B) for the second and subsequent slopes. Using the circuit above as an example, the second slope, R d / 100 (\ displaystyle R_ (d) / 100), can contribute the following charge, C s l o p e 2 (\ displaystyle C_ (slope2)), to the integrator:
That is, B (\ displaystyle B) possible values with the largest equal to the first slope 's smallest step, or one (base 10) digit of resolution per slope. Generalizing this, we can represent the number of slopes, N (\ displaystyle N), in terms of the base and the required resolution, M (\ displaystyle M):
Substituting this back into the equation representing the run - down time required for the second and subsequent slopes gives us this:
Which, when evaluated, shows that the minimum run - down time can be achieved using a base of e. This base may be difficult to use both in terms of complexity in the calculation of the result and of finding an appropriate resistor network, so a base of 2 or 4 would be more common.
When using run - up enhancements like the multi-slope run - up, where a portion of the converter 's resolution is resolved during the run - up phase, it is possible to eliminate the run - down phase altogether by using a second type of analog - to - digital converter. At the end of the run - up phase of a multi-slope run - up conversion, there will still be an unknown amount of charge remaining on the integrator 's capacitor. Instead of using a traditional run - down phase to determine this unknown charge, the unknown voltage can be converted directly by a second converter and combined with the result from the run - up phase to determine the unknown input voltage.
Assuming that multi-slope run - up as described above is being used, the unknown input voltage can be related to the multi-slope run - up counters, N p (\ displaystyle N_ (p)) and N n (\ displaystyle N_ (n)), and the measured integrator output voltage, V o u t (\ displaystyle V_ (out)) using the following equation (derived from the multi-slope run - up output equation):
This equation represents the theoretical calculation of the input voltage assuming ideal components. Since the equation depends on nearly all of the circuit 's parameters, any variances in reference currents, the integrator capacitor, or other values will introduce errors in the result. A calibration factor is typically included in the C V o u t (\ displaystyle CV_ (out)) term to account for measured errors (or, as described in the referenced patent, to convert the residue ADC 's output into the units of the run - up counters).
Instead of being used to eliminate the run - down phase completely, the residue ADC can also be used to make the run - down phase more accurate than would otherwise be possible. With a traditional run - down phase, the run - down time measurement period ends with the integrator output crossing through zero volts. There is a certain amount of error involved in detecting the zero crossing using a comparator (one of the short - comings of the basic dual - slope design as explained above). By using the residue ADC to rapidly sample the integrator output (synchronized with the converter controller 's clock, for example), a voltage reading can be taken both immediately before and immediately after the zero crossing (as measured with a comparator). As the slope of the integrator voltage is constant during the run - down phase, the two voltage measurements can be used as inputs to an interpolation function that more accurately determines the time of the zero - crossing (i.e., with a much higher resolution than the controller 's clock alone would allow).
By combining some of these enhancements to the basic dual - slope design (namely multi-slope run - up and the residue ADC), it is possible to construct an integrating analog - to - digital converter that is capable of operating continuously without the need for a run - down interval. Conceptually, the multi-slope run - up algorithm is allowed to operate continuously. To start a conversion, two things happen simultaneously: the residue ADC is used to measure the approximate charge currently on the integrator capacitor and the counters monitoring the multi-slope run - up are reset. At the end of a conversion period, another residue ADC reading is taken and the values of the multi-slope run - up counters are noted.
The unknown input is calculated using a similar equation as used for the residue ADC, except that two output voltages are included (V o u t 1 (\ displaystyle V_ (out1)) representing the measured integrator voltage at the start of the conversion, and V o u t 2 (\ displaystyle V_ (out2)) representing the measured integrator voltage at the end of the conversion.
Such a continuously - integrating converter is very similar to a delta - sigma analog - to - digital converter.
In most variants of the dual - slope integrating converter, the converter 's performance is dependent on one or more of the circuit parameters. In the case of the basic design, the output of the converter is in terms of the reference voltage. In more advanced designs, there are also dependencies on one or more resistors used in the circuit or on the integrator capacitor being used. In all cases, even using expensive precision components there may be other effects that are not accounted for in the general dual - slope equations (dielectric effect on the capacitor or frequency or temperature dependencies on any of the components). Any of these variations result in error in the output of the converter. In the best case, this is simply gain and / or offset error. In the worst case, nonlinearity or nonmonotonicity could result.
Some calibration can be performed internal to the converter (i.e., not requiring any special external input). This type of calibration would be performed every time the converter is turned on, periodically while the converter is running, or only when a special calibration mode is entered. Another type of calibration requires external inputs of known quantities (e.g., voltage standards or precision resistance references) and would typically be performed infrequently (every year for equipment used in normal conditions, more often when being used in metrology applications).
Of these types of error, offset error is the simplest to correct (assuming that there is a constant offset over the entire range of the converter). This is often done internal to the converter itself by periodically taking measurements of the ground potential. Ideally, measuring the ground should always result in a zero output. Any non-zero output indicates the offset error in the converter. That is, if the measurement of ground resulted in an output of 0.001 volts, one can assume that all measurements will be offset by the same amount and can subtract 0.001 from all subsequent results.
Gain error can similarly be measured and corrected internally (again assuming that there is a constant gain error over the entire output range). The voltage reference (or some voltage derived directly from the reference) can be used as the input to the converter. If the assumption is made that the voltage reference is accurate (to within the tolerances of the converter) or that the voltage reference has been externally calibrated against a voltage standard, any error in the measurement would be a gain error in the converter. If, for example, the measurement of a converter 's 5 volt reference resulted in an output of 5.3 volts (after accounting for any offset error), a gain multiplier of 0.94 (5 / 5.3) can be applied to any subsequent measurement results.
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why isn't new york the capital of new york | Long Island - wikipedia
Coordinates: 40 ° 48 ′ N 73 ° 18 ′ W / 40.8 ° N 73.3 ° W / 40.8; - 73.3
Long Island is a densely populated island off the East Coast of the United States, beginning at New York Harbor just 0.35 miles (0.56 km) from Manhattan Island and extending eastward into the Atlantic Ocean. The island comprises four counties in the U.S. state of New York: Kings and Queens counties (which comprise the New York City boroughs of Brooklyn and Queens, respectively) in the west, and Nassau and Suffolk counties in the east. However, many people in the New York metropolitan area (even those living in Brooklyn and Queens) colloquially use the term "Long Island '' (or "The Island '') to refer exclusively to Nassau and Suffolk counties, which are mainly suburban in character. The majority of New York City residents now live on Long Island.
Broadly speaking, "Long Island '' may refer both to the main island and the surrounding outer barrier islands. North of the island is Long Island Sound, across which lie Westchester County, New York, and the state of Connecticut. Across the Block Island Sound to the northeast is the state of Rhode Island. To the west, Long Island is separated from the Bronx and the island of Manhattan by the East River. To the extreme southwest, it is separated from Staten Island and the state of New Jersey by Upper New York Bay, the Narrows, and Lower New York Bay. To the east lie Block Island and numerous smaller islands.
Both the longest and the largest island in the contiguous United States, Long Island extends 118 miles (190 km) eastward from New York Harbor to Montauk Point, with a maximum north - to - south distance of 23 miles (37 km) between Long Island Sound and the Atlantic coast. With a land area of 1,401 square miles (3,630 km), Long Island is the 11th - largest island in the United States and the 149th - largest island in the world -- larger than the 1,214 square miles (3,140 km) of the smallest U.S. state, Rhode Island.
With a Census - estimated population of 7,838,722 in 2015, constituting nearly 40 % of New York State 's population, Long Island is the most populated island in any U.S. state or territory, and the 18th-most populous island in the world (ahead of Ireland, Jamaica, and Hokkaidō). Its population density is 5,595.1 inhabitants per square mile (2,160.3 / km). If Long Island geographically constituted an independent metropolitan statistical area, it would rank fourth most populous in the United States; while if it were a U.S. state, Long Island would rank 13th in population and first in population density. Long Island is culturally and ethnically diverse, featuring some of the wealthiest and most expensive neighborhoods in the Western Hemisphere near the shorelines as well as working - class areas in all four counties.
As a hub of commercial aviation, Long Island contains two of the New York City metropolitan area 's three busiest airports, JFK International Airport and LaGuardia Airport, in addition to Islip MacArthur Airport; as well as two major air traffic control radar facilities, the New York TRACON and the New York ARTCC. Nine bridges and 13 tunnels (including railroad tunnels) connect Brooklyn and Queens to the three other boroughs of New York City. Ferries connect Suffolk County northward across Long Island Sound to the state of Connecticut. The Long Island Rail Road is the busiest commuter railroad in North America and operates 24 / 7. Biotechnology companies and scientific research play a significant role in Long Island 's economy, including research facilities at Brookhaven National Laboratory, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, Plum Island Animal Disease Center, State University of New York at Stony Brook, the New York University Tandon School of Engineering, the City University of New York, and Hofstra Northwell School of Medicine.
Prior to European contact, the Lenape people (named the Delaware by Europeans) inhabited the western end of Long Island, and spoke the Munsee dialect of Lenape, one of the Algonquian language family. Giovanni da Verrazzano was the first European to record an encounter with the Lenapes, after entering what is now New York Bay in 1524. The eastern portion of the island was inhabited by speakers of the Mohegan - Montauk - Narragansett language group of Algonquian languages; they were part of the Pequot and Narragansett peoples inhabiting the area that now includes Connecticut and Rhode Island.
In 1609, the English navigator Henry Hudson explored the harbor and purportedly landed at Coney Island. Adriaen Block followed in 1615 and is credited as the first European to determine that both Manhattan and Long Island are islands.
Native American land deeds recorded by the Dutch from 1636 state that the Indians referred to Long Island as Sewanhaka (Sewanhacky and Sewanhacking were other spellings in the transliteration of Lenape). Sewan was one of the terms for wampum (commemorative stringed shell beads, for a while also used as currency by colonists in trades with the Lenape), and is also translated as "loose '' or "scattered '', which may refer either to the wampum or to Long Island. The name "' t Lange Eylandt alias Matouwacs '' (later shortened to "Lange Eylandt '') appears in Dutch maps from the 1650s. Later, the English referred to the land as "Nassau Island '', after the Dutch Prince William of Nassau, Prince of Orange (who later also ruled as King William III of England). It is unclear when the name "Nassau Island '' was discontinued.
The very first settlements on Long Island were by settlers from England and its colonies in present - day New England. Lion Gardiner settled nearby Gardiners Island. The first settlement on the geographic Long Island itself was on October 21, 1640, when Southold was established by the Rev. John Youngs and settlers from New Haven, Connecticut. Peter Hallock, one of the settlers, drew the long straw and was granted the honor to step ashore first. He is considered the first New World settler on Long Island. Southampton was settled in the same year. Hempstead followed in 1644, East Hampton in 1648, Huntington in 1653, Brookhaven in 1655, and Smithtown in 1665.
While the eastern region of Long Island was first settled by the English, the western portion of Long Island was settled by the Dutch. Until 1664, the jurisdiction of Long Island was split, roughly at the present border between Nassau County and Suffolk County. The Dutch founded six towns in present - day Brooklyn beginning in 1645. These included: Brooklyn, Gravesend, Flatlands, Flatbush, New Utrecht, and Bushwick. The Dutch had granted an English settlement in Hempstead, New York (now in Nassau County) in 1644 but, after a boundary dispute, drove out English settlers from the Oyster Bay area. However, in 1664, the English returned to take over the Dutch colony of New Amsterdam, including Long Island.
The 1664 land patent granted to the Duke of York included all islands in Long Island Sound. The Duke of York held a grudge against Connecticut, as New Haven had hidden three of the judges who sentenced the Duke 's father, King Charles I, to death in 1649. Settlers throughout Suffolk County pressed to stay part of Connecticut, but Governor Sir Edmund Andros threatened to eliminate the settlers ' rights to land if they did not yield, which they did by 1676.
All of Long Island (as well as the islands between it and Connecticut) became part of the Province of New York within the Shire of York. Present - day Suffolk County was designated as the East Riding (of Yorkshire), present - day Brooklyn was part of the West Riding, and present - day Queens and Nassau were part of the larger North Riding. In 1683, Yorkshire was dissolved and the three original counties on Long Island were established: Kings, Queens, and Suffolk.
Early in the American Revolutionary War, the island was captured by the British from General George Washington in the Battle of Long Island, a decisive battle after which Washington narrowly evacuated his troops from Brooklyn Heights under a dense fog. After the British victory on Long Island, many Patriots fled, leaving mostly Loyalists behind. The island remained a British stronghold until the end of the war in 1783.
General Washington based his espionage activities on Long Island, due to the western part of the island 's proximity to the British military headquarters in New York City. The Culper Spy Ring included agents operating between Setauket and Manhattan. This ring alerted Washington to valuable British secrets, including the treason of Benedict Arnold and a plan to use counterfeiting to induce economic sabotage.
Long Island 's colonists served both Loyalist and Patriot causes, with many prominent families divided among both sides. During the occupation British troops used a number of civilian structures for defense and demanded to be quartered in the homes of civilians. A number of structures from this era remain. Among these are Raynham Hall, the Oyster Bay home of patriot spy Robert Townsend, and the Caroline Church in Setauket, which contains bullet holes from a skirmish known as the Battle of Setauket. Also in existence is a reconstruction of Brooklyn 's Old Stone House, on the site of the Maryland 400 's celebrated last stand during the Battle of Long Island.
In the 19th century, Long Island was still mainly rural and devoted to agriculture. The predecessor to the Long Island Rail Road (LIRR) began service in 1836 from the South Ferry in Brooklyn, through the remainder of Brooklyn, to Jamaica in Queens. The line was completed to the east end of Long Island in 1844 (as part of a plan for transportation to Boston). Competing railroads (soon absorbed by the LIRR) were built along the south shore to accommodate travellers from those more populated areas. For the century from 1830 until 1930, total population roughly doubled every twenty years, with more dense development in areas near Manhattan. Several cities were incorporated, such as the City of Brooklyn in Kings County, and Long Island City in Queens.
Until the 1883 completion of the Brooklyn Bridge, the only means of travel between Long Island and the rest of the United States was by boat or ship. As other bridges and tunnels were constructed, areas of the island began to be developed as residential suburbs, first around the railroads that offered commuting into the city. On January 1, 1898, Kings County and portions of Queens were consolidated into The City of Greater New York, abolishing all cities and towns within them. The easternmost 280 square miles (730 km) of Queens County, which were not part of the consolidation plan, separated from Queens in 1899 to form Nassau County.
At the close of the 19th century, wealthy industrialists who made vast fortunes during the Gilded Age began to construct large "baronial '' country estates in Nassau County communities along the North Shore of Long Island, favoring the many properties with water views. Proximity to Manhattan attracted such men as J.P. Morgan, William K. Vanderbilt, and Charles Pratt, whose estates led to this area being nicknamed the Gold Coast. This period and the area was immortalized in fiction, such as F. Scott Fitzgerald 's The Great Gatsby, which has also been adapted in films.
Charles Lindbergh lifted off from Roosevelt Field with his Spirit of Saint Louis for his historic 1927 solo flight to Europe, one of the events that helped to establish Long Island as an early center of aviation during the 20th Century. Other famous aviators such as Wiley Post originated notable flights from Floyd Bennett Field in Brooklyn, which became the first major airport serving New York City before it was superseded by the opening of La Guardia Airport in 1939. Long Island was also the site of Mitchel Air Force Base and was a major center of military aircraft production by companies such as Grumman and Fairchild Aircraft during World War II and for some decades afterward. Aircraft production on Long Island extended all the way into the Space Age -- Grumman was one of the major contractors that helped to build the early lunar flight and space shuttle vehicles. Although the aircraft companies eventually ended their Long Island operations and the early airports were all later closed -- Roosevelt Field, for instance, became the site of a major shopping mall -- the Cradle of Aviation Museum on the site of the former Mitchel Field documents the Island 's key role in the history of aviation.
From the 1920s to the 1940s, Long Island began the transformation from backwoods and farms as developers created numerous suburbs. Numerous branches of the LIRR already enabled commuting from the suburbs to Manhattan. Robert Moses engineered various automobile parkway projects to span the island, and developed beaches and state parks for the enjoyment of residents and visitors from the city. Gradually, development also followed these parkways, with various communities springing up along the more traveled routes.
After World War II, suburban development increased with incentives under the G.I. Bill, and Long Island 's population skyrocketed, mostly in Nassau County and western Suffolk County. Second and third - generation children of immigrants moved out to eastern Long Island to settle in new housing developments built during the post-war boom. Levittown became noted as a suburb, where housing construction was simplified to be produced on a large scale. These provided opportunities for World War II military veterans returning home to buy houses and start a family.
By the start of the 21st century, a number of Long Island communities had successfully converted their assets from industrial uses to post-industrial roles. Brooklyn reversed decades of population decline and factory closings to resurface as a globally renowned cultural and intellectual hotbed. Gentrification has affected much of Brooklyn and a portion of Queens, relocating a sizeable swath of New York City 's population. On eastern Long Island, such villages as Port Jefferson, Patchogue, and Riverhead have been changed from inactive shipbuilding and mill towns into tourist - centric commercial centers with cultural attractions.
The descendants of late 19th and early 20th - century immigrants from southern and eastern Europe, and black migrants from the South, have been followed by more recent immigrants from Asia and Latin America. Long Island has many ethnic Irish, Jews, and Italians, as well as an increasing numbers of Asians and Hispanics, reflecting later migrations.
The westernmost end of Long Island contains the New York City boroughs of Brooklyn (Kings County) and Queens (Queens County). The central and eastern portions contain the suburban Nassau and Suffolk counties. However, colloquial usage of the term "Long Island '' usually refers only to Nassau and Suffolk counties. For example, the Federal Reserve Bank of New York has a district named "Long Island (Nassau - Suffolk Metro Division). '' At least as late as 1911, locations in Queens were still commonly referred to as being on Long Island. Some institutions in the New York City section of the island use the island 's names, like Long Island University and Long Island Jewish Medical Center. In 1985, the United States Supreme Court ruled in United States v. Maine that Long Island, while geographically an island, was not an island for legal purposes, given that New York State 's boundaries contained its offshore soil and seabeds.
Nassau County is more densely developed than Suffolk County. While affluent overall, Nassau County has pockets of more pronounced wealth with estates covering greater acreage within the Gold Coast of the North Shore and the Five Towns area on the South Shore. South Shore communities are built along protected wetlands of the island and contain white sandy beaches of Outer Barrier Islands fronting on the Atlantic Ocean. Dutch and English settlers from the time before the American Revolutionary War, as well as communities of Native Americans, populated the island. The 19th century saw the infusion of the wealthiest Americans in the so - called Gold Coast of the North Shore, where wealthy Americans and Europeans in the Gilded Age built lavish country homes.
In its easternmost sections, Suffolk County remains semi-rural, as in Greenport on the North Fork and some of the periphery of the area prominently known as The Hamptons, although summer tourism swells the population in those areas. The North Fork peninsula of Suffolk County 's East End has developed a burgeoning Wine Country region. In addition, the South Fork peninsula is known for beach communities, including the Hamptons, and for the Montauk Point Lighthouse at the eastern tip of the island. The Pine Barrens is a preserved pine forest encompassing much of eastern Suffolk County.
A detailed geomorphological study of Long Island provides evidence of glacial history of the kame and terminal moraines of the island which were formed by the advance and retreat of two ice sheets.
Long Island, as part of the Outer Lands region, is formed largely of two spines of glacial moraine, with a large, sandy outwash plain beyond. These moraines consist of gravel and loose rock left behind during the two most recent pulses of Wisconsin glaciation during the Ice Ages some 21,000 years ago (19,000 BC). The northern moraine, which directly abuts the North Shore of Long Island at points, is known as the Harbor Hill moraine. The more southerly moraine, known as the Ronkonkoma moraine, forms the "backbone '' of Long Island; it runs primarily through the very center of Long Island, roughly coinciding with the length of the Long Island Expressway.
The land to the south of this moraine to the South Shore is the outwash plain of the last glacier. One part of the outwash plain was known as the Hempstead Plains, and this land contained one of the few natural prairies to exist east of the Appalachian Mountains.
The glaciers melted and receded to the north, resulting in the difference between the North Shore beaches and the South Shore beaches. The North Shore beaches are rocky from the remaining glacial debris, while the South Shore 's are crisp, clear, outwash sand. Jayne 's Hill, at 401 feet (122 m), within Suffolk County near its border with Nassau County, is the highest hill along either moraine; another well - known summit is Bald Hill in Brookhaven Town, not far from its geographical center at Middle Island. The glaciers also formed Lake Ronkonkoma in Suffolk County and Lake Success in Nassau County, each a deep kettle lake.
Long Island has a climate similar to that of other coastal areas of the Northeastern United States; it has warm, humid summers and chilly, snowy winters with variable precipitation. Under the Köppen climate classification, the east of Long Island lies in a transition zone between a humid subtropical climate (Cfa) and a humid continental climate (Dfa). The oceanic climate zone (Cfb) only exists on the North Fork, the eastern end of the South Fork, islands in Peconic Bay, and Fishers Island, and is rare in eastern North America. Parts of the Harbor Hill Moraine are affected by a subtropical highland climate. The Atlantic Ocean brings afternoon sea breezes that temper the heat in the warmer months and limit the frequency and severity of thunderstorms. Long Island has a moderately sunny climate, averaging between 2,400 and 2,800 hours of sunshine annually.
Due to its coastal location, Long Island winter temperatures are significantly milder than most of the state. The coldest month is January, when average temperatures range from 30 to 35 ° F (− 1 to 2 ° C), and the warmest month is July, when average temperatures range from 70 to 80 ° F (21 to 27 ° C). Temperatures seldom fall below 5 ° F (− 15 ° C) or rise above 95 ° F (35 ° C). Long Island temperatures vary from west to east, with the western part (Nassau County, Queens, and Brooklyn) generally warmer than the east (Suffolk County). This is due to several factors: the western part is closer to the mainland and more densely developed, causing the "urban heat island '' effect, and Long Island 's land mass veers northward as one travels east. Also, daytime high temperatures on the eastern part of Long Island are cooler on most occasions due to moderation of the Atlantic Ocean and Long Island Sound. On dry nights with no clouds or wind, the Pine Barrens forest of eastern Suffolk County can be almost 20 degrees Fahrenheit (11 degrees Celsius) cooler than the rest of the island due to radiational cooling. Average dew points, a measure of atmospheric moisture, typically lie in the 60 -- 70 ° F (16 -- 21 ° C) range during July and August.
Precipitation is distributed fairly uniformly throughout the year, with approximately 3 -- 4 inches (76 -- 102 mm) on average during each month. Average yearly snowfall totals range from approximately 20 to 35 inches (51 to 89 cm), with the north shore and western parts averaging more than the south shore and the east end. In any given winter, however, some parts of the island could see up to 75 inches (190 cm) of snow or more. There are also some very quiet winters, in which most parts of the island could see less than 10 inches (25 cm) of snow.
On 13 August 2014, flash flooding occurred in western - central Suffolk County after a record - setting rainfall deposited more than three months ' worth of precipitation on the area within a few hours.
Long Island is somewhat vulnerable to hurricanes. Its northern location (and the relatively cool waters around it) tend to weaken tropical cyclones before they reach its shores; nonetheless, several have stricken the Island as full hurricanes, including a devastating Category 3, the 1938 New England Hurricane (also known as the "Long Island Express ''), and another Category 3, Hurricane Carol in 1954. Other 20th - century storms that made landfall on Long Island at hurricane intensity include the Great Atlantic Hurricane of 1944, Hurricane Donna in 1960, Hurricane Belle in 1976, and Hurricane Gloria in 1985. Also, the eyewall of Hurricane Bob in 1991 brushed the eastern tip. In August 2011, portions of Long Island were evacuated in preparation for Hurricane Irene, a Category 1 hurricane which weakened to a tropical storm before it reached Long Island.
On October 29, 2012, Hurricane Sandy caused extensive damage to low - lying coastal areas of Brooklyn, Queens, Nassau and Suffolk counties, destroying or severely damaging thousands of area homes and other structures by ocean and bay storm surges. Hundreds of thousands of residents were left without electric power for periods of time ranging up to several weeks while the damage was being repaired. The slow - moving "Superstorm Sandy '' (so - nicknamed because its winds weakened below hurricane intensity as it made landfall) caused 90 % of Long Island households to lose power and an estimated $18 billion in damages in Nassau & Suffolk Counties alone. The storm also had a devastating impact on coastal communities in the Brooklyn and Queens portions of the island, including Coney Island in Brooklyn and the Rockaway Peninsula in Queens, although estimates of monetary damages there are usually calculated as part of the overall losses suffered in New York City as a whole. The extent of Sandy 's damages is second only to those caused by the 1938 Long Island Express, when adjusted for inflation. Although a lower central pressure was recorded in Sandy, the National Hurricane Center estimates that the 1938 hurricane had a lower pressure at landfall. Hurricane Sandy and its profound impacts have prompted the discussion of constructing seawalls and other coastal barriers around the shorelines of Long Island and New York City to minimize the risk of destructive consequences from another such event in the future.
Several smaller islands, though geographically distinct, are in proximity to Long Island and are often grouped with it. These islands include Fire Island, the largest of the outer barrier islands that parallels the southern shore of Long Island for approximately 31 miles (50 km); Plum Island, which is home to the Plum Island Animal Disease Center, a biological weapons research facility; as well as Robins Island, Gardiners Island, Fishers Island, Long Beach Barrier Island, Jones Beach Island, and Shelter Island.
Long Island is one of the most densely populated regions in the United States. As of the United States 2010 Census, the total population of all four counties of Long Island was 7,568,304, which was 39 percent of the population of the State of New York. As of 2015, the proportion of New York City residents living on Long Island had risen to 58 %, given the 4,896,398 residents living in Brooklyn or Queens. Furthermore, the proportion of New York State 's population residing on Long Island has also been increasing, with Long Island 's Census - estimated population increasing 3.1 % since 2010, to 7,838,722 in 2015, representing 39.6 % of New York State 's Census - estimated 2015 population of 19,795,791, and with a population density of 5,595.1 inhabitants per square mile (2,160.3 / km) on Long Island. Long Island 's population is greater than 37 of the 50 U.S. states.
As of the 2010 census, the combined population of Nassau and Suffolk counties was 2,832,882 people; Suffolk County 's share being 1,493,350 and Nassau County 's 1,339,532. Nassau County had a larger population for decades, but Suffolk County surpassed it in the 1990 census as growth and development continued to spread eastward. As Suffolk County has more than twice the land area of Nassau County, the latter still has a much higher population density. According to the U.S. Census Bureau 's 2008 American Community Survey, Nassau and Suffolk counties had the 10th and 26th highest median household incomes in the nation, respectively.
Population figures from the U.S. Census Bureau Census 2010 show that whites are the largest racial group in all four counties, and are in the majority in Nassau and Suffolk counties. In 2002, The New York Times cited a study by the non-profit group ERASE Racism, which determined that Nassau and Suffolk counties constitute the most racially segregated suburbs in the United States.
In contrast, Queens is the most ethnically diverse county in the United States and the most diverse urban area in the world.
According to a 2000 report on religion, which asked congregations to respond, Catholics are the largest religious group on Long Island, with non-affiliated in second place. Catholics make up 52 % of the population of Nassau and Suffolk, versus 22 % for the country as a whole, with Jews at 16 % and 7 %, respectively, versus 1.7 % nationwide. Only a small percentage of Protestants responded, 7 % and 8 % respectively, for Nassau and Suffolk counties. This is in contrast with 23 % for the entire country on the same survey, and 50 % on self - identification surveys.
A growing population of nearly half million Chinese Americans now live on Long Island. Rapidly expanding Chinatowns have developed in Brooklyn (布魯克 林) and Queens (皇后), with Chinese immigrants also moving into Nassau County, as did earlier European immigrants, such as the Irish and Italians. More recently, a Little India (लघु भारत) community has emerged in Hicksville, Nassau County, spreading eastward from the more established Little India enclaves in Queens.
Likewise, the Long Island Koreatown (롱 아일랜드 코리아 타운) originated in Flushing, Queens. It is expanding eastward along Northern Boulevard and into Nassau County.
Long Island is home to two Native American reservations, Poospatuck Reservation, and Shinnecock Reservation. Both reservations are in Suffolk County. Numerous island place names are Native American in origin.
A 2010 article in The New York Times stated that the expansion of the immigrant workforce on Long Island has not displaced any jobs from other Long Island residents. Half of the immigrants on Long Island hold white - collar positions.
The counties of Nassau and Suffolk have been long renowned for their affluence. Long Island is home to some of the wealthiest communities in the United States, including The Hamptons, on the East End of the South Shore of Suffolk County; the Gold Coast, in the vicinity of the island 's North Shore, along Long Island Sound; and increasingly, the western shoreline of Brooklyn, facing Manhattan. In 2016, according to Business Insider, the 11962 zip code encompassing Sagaponack, within Southampton, was listed as the most expensive in the U.S., with a median home sale price of $8.5 million.
Long Island has played a prominent role in scientific research and in engineering. It is the home of the Brookhaven National Laboratory in nuclear physics and Department of Energy research. Long Island is also home to the Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, which was directed for 35 years by James D. Watson (who, along with Francis Crick and Rosalind Franklin, discovered the double helix structure of DNA). Companies such as Sperry Rand, Computer Associates (headquartered in Islandia), Zebra Technologies (now occupying the former headquarters of Symbol Technologies, and a former Grumman plant in Holtsville), have made Long Island a center for the computer industry. Stony Brook University of the State University of New York and New York Institute of Technology conduct advanced medical and technological research.
Long Island is home to the East Coast 's largest industrial park, the Hauppauge Industrial Park. The park has over 1,300 companies employing more than 71,000 individuals. Companies in the park and abroad are represented by the Hauppauge Industrial Association. As many as 20 percent of Long Islanders commute to jobs in Manhattan. The eastern end of the island is still partly agricultural. Development of vineyards on the North Fork has spawned a major viticultural industry, replacing potato fields. Pumpkin farms have been added to traditional truck farming. Farms allow fresh fruit picking by Long Islanders for much of the year. Fishing continues to be an important industry, especially at Huntington, Northport, Montauk, and other coastal communities of the East End and South Shore.
From about 1930 to about 1990, Long Island was considered one of the aerospace manufacturing centers of the United States, with companies such as Grumman Aircraft, Republic, Fairchild, and Curtiss having had their headquarters and factories on Long Island. These operations have largely been phased out or significantly diminished.
Nassau County and Suffolk County each have their own governments, with a County Executive leading each. Each has a county legislature and countywide - elected officials, including district attorney, county clerk, and county comptroller. The towns in both counties have their own governments as well, with town supervisors and a town council. Nassau County is divided into three towns and two small incorporated cities (Glen Cove and Long Beach). Suffolk County is divided into ten towns.
Brooklyn and Queens, on the other hand, do not have county governments. As boroughs of New York City, both have borough presidents, which have been largely ceremonial offices since the shutdown of the New York City Board of Estimate. The respective Borough Presidents are responsible for appointing individuals to the Brooklyn Community Boards and Queens Community Boards, each of which serves an advisory function on local issues. Brooklyn 's sixteen members and Queens ' fourteen members represent the first and second largest borough contingents of the New York City Council.
Queens and Brooklyn are patrolled by the New York City Police Department. Nassau and Suffolk counties are served by the Nassau County Police Department and Suffolk County Police Department, respectively, although several dozen villages and the two cities in Nassau County have their own police departments. The Nassau County Sheriff 's Department and Suffolk County Sheriff 's Office handle civil procedure, evictions, warrant service and enforcement, prisoner transport and detention, and operation of the county jail. New York State Police patrol state parks and parkways.
The secession of Nassau and Suffolk counties on Long Island from New York was proposed as early as 1896, but talk was revived towards the latter part of the twentieth century. On March 28, 2008, Suffolk County Comptroller Joseph Sawicki proposed a plan that would make Nassau and Suffolk counties on Long Island the 51st state of the United States of America. Sawicki claimed that all of the Nassau and Suffolk taxpayers ' money would remain locally, rather than the funds being dispersed all over the entire state of New York, with these counties sending to Albany over three billion dollars more than they receive back. The state of Long Island would have included nearly 3 million people (a larger population than that of fifteen other states). Nassau County executive Ed Mangano came out in support of such a proposal in April 2010 and commissioned a study on it.
Every major form of transportation serves Long Island, including aviation from John F. Kennedy International Airport, LaGuardia Airport, and Long Island MacArthur Airport, and multiple smaller airports; rail transportation on the Long Island Rail Road and the New York City Subway; bus routes from MTA Regional Bus Operations, Nassau Inter-County Express, and Suffolk County Transit; ferry service from NYC Ferry and multiple smaller ferry companies; and several major highways. There are historic and modern bridges, and recreational and commuter trails, serving various parts of Long Island.
There are currently ten road crossings out of Long Island, all within New York City limits at the extreme western end of the island. Plans for a Long Island Crossing at various locations in Nassau and Suffolk Counties (a proposed bridge or tunnel that would link Long Island to the south with New York or Connecticut to the north across Long Island Sound) have been discussed for decades, but there are currently no firm plans to construct such a crossing.
The MTA implements mass transportation for the New York metropolitan area including all five boroughs of New York City, the suburban counties of Dutchess, Nassau, Orange, Putnam, Rockland, Suffolk and Westchester, all of which together are the "Metropolitan Commuter Transportation District (MCTD) ''.
The MTA is the largest public transportation provider in the Western Hemisphere. Its agencies serve 14.6 million people spread over 5,000 square miles (13,000 km2) from New York City through the southeastern section of the state (including Long Island and the lower Hudson Valley), and Connecticut. Combined the MTA agencies now move more than 2.6 billion rail and bus customers a year while employing some 70,000 workers.
The Long Island Rail Road (LIRR) is the busiest commuter railroad system in North America, carrying an average of 282,400 passengers each weekday on 728 daily trains. Chartered on April 24, 1834, and operating continuously since, it is also the oldest railroad in the U.S. that is still operating under its original charter and name. The Metropolitan Transportation Authority has operated the LIRR as one of its two commuter railroads since 1966, and the LIRR is one of the few railroads worldwide that provides service all the time, year round. In July 2017, the approval was granted by state legislators to the plan proposed by New York Governor Andrew Cuomo to add a third railroad track to the Long Island Rail Road corridor between the communities of Floral Park and Hicksville in Nassau County. The nearly US $2 billion transportation infrastructure enhancement project was expected to accommodate anticipated growth in rail ridership and to facilitate commutes between New York City and Nassau and Suffolk counties on Long Island.
Nassau Inter-County Express (NICE) provides bus service in Nassau County, while Suffolk County Transit, an agency of the Suffolk County government, provides bus service in Suffolk County. In 2012, NICE replaced the former Long Island Bus in transporting Long Islanders across Nassau County while still allowing them to use MTA MetroCards as payment.
The Long Island Expressway, Northern State Parkway, and Southern State Parkway, all products of the automobile - centered planning of Robert Moses, are the island 's primary east - west high - speed controlled - access highways.
Roads in boldface are limited access roads. Sunrise Highway is only limited - access from western Suffolk county eastwards.
Being such a large, populous island with several airports connecting the island to the rest of the world, there are several hundred transportation companies that service the Long Island / New York City area. Winston airport shuttle, the oldest of these companies in business since 1973, was the first to introduce door - to - door shared - ride service to and from the major airports, which almost all transportation companies now utilize.
Many public and private high schools on Long Island are ranked among the best in the United States. Nassau and Suffolk counties are the home of 125 public school districts containing a total of 656 public schools. It also hosts a number of private schools such as Friends Academy, Chaminade High School, Kellenberg Memorial High School, St. Anthony 's High School, and North Shore Hebrew Academy, as well as parochial schools, many of which are operated by the Catholic Diocese of Rockville Centre.
In contrast, all of Brooklyn and Queens are served by the New York City Department of Education, the largest school district in the United States. Three of the nine specialized high schools in New York City are located in the two Long Island boroughs, those being Brooklyn Latin School, Brooklyn Technical High School (one of the original three specialized schools), and Queens High School for the Sciences. Like Nassau and Suffolk Counties, they, too, are home to numerous private schools, such as Poly Prep Country Day School, Packer Collegiate Institute, and Saint Ann 's School, and Berkeley Carroll School, and parochial schools operated by the Catholic Diocese of Brooklyn.
Long Island is home to a range of higher - education institutions, both public and private. Brooklyn and Queens contain five of eleven senior colleges within CUNY, the public university system of New York City and one of the largest in the country. Among these are the notable institutions of Brooklyn College and Queens College. Brooklyn also contains private colleges such as Pratt Institute and the New York University Polytechnic School of Engineering, an engineering college that merged with New York University in 2014.
Several colleges and universities within the State University of New York system are located on Long Island, such as Stony Brook (which noted its health sciences research and medical center), as well as Nassau Community College and Suffolk County Community College that serve their respective counties. Private institutions include the New York Institute of Technology, Hofstra University and Adelphi University (both located in the Town of Hempstead), as well as Long Island University (with its C.W. Post campus, located on a former Gold Coast estate in Brookville, and a satellite campus in downtown Brooklyn). Long Island also contains the Webb Institute, a small naval architecture college in Glen Cove. In addition, the island is home to the United States Merchant Marine Academy, a Federal Service Academy located in Kings Point, on the North Shore.
Music on Long Island (Nassau and Suffolk) is strongly influenced by the proximity to New York City and by the youth culture of the suburbs. Psychedelic rock was widely popular in the 1960s as flocks of disaffected youth travelled to NYC to participate in protest and the culture of the time. R & B also has a history on Long Island, especially in areas close to New York City. In the late 1970s through the 1980s, the influence of radio station WLIR made Long Island one of the first places in the U.S. to hear and embrace European New Wave bands such as Depeche Mode, the Pet Shop Boys, and Culture Club. In the 1990s, hip - hop became very popular with rap pioneers Rakim, EPMD, and Public Enemy growing up on Long Island. More recently, newer bands have been making a name for themselves originating from Long Island, including Brand New, Austin Schoeffel, Jon Bellion, and Envy on the Coast.
Famous rock bands that originated on Long Island include The Rascals, The Ramones (from Queens), Dream Theater, Blue Öyster Cult, Twisted Sister and guitar virtuosos Donald (Buck Dharma) Roeser, John Petrucci, Steve Vai and Joe Satriani, as well as drummer Mike Portnoy. Rock and pop singer Billy Joel grew up on Long Island and his youthful life there is reflected in some of his music.
The Nassau Coliseum and Nikon at Jones Beach Theater are venues used by national touring acts as performance spaces for concerts. Nikon at Jones Beach Theater is an outdoor amphitheatre, located at Jones Beach State Park. It is a popular place to view summer concerts, with new as well as classic artists performing there during the summer months. It hosts a large Fourth of July fireworks show every year which fills the stands. People also park cars along the highway leading to the show, and others watch from the nearby beaches.
Long Island is also known for its school music programs. Many schools in Suffolk County have distinguished music programs, with high numbers of students who are accepted into the statewide All - State music groups, or even the National All - Eastern Coast music groups. Both the Suffolk County and Nassau County Music Educator 's Associations are recognized by The National Association for Music Education (((NAfME: The National Association for Music Education), and host numerous events, competitions, and other music - related activities.
Long Island has historically been a center for fishing and seafood. This legacy continues in the Blue Point oyster, a now ubiquitous variety that was originally harvested on the Great South Bay and was the favorite oyster of Queen Victoria. Clams are also a popular food and clam digging a popular recreational pursuit, with Manhattan clam chowder reputed to have Long Island origins.
Of land - based produce, Long Island duck has a history of national recognition since the 19th century, with four duck farms continuing to produce 2 million ducks a year as of 2013. Two symbols of Long Island 's duck farming heritage are the Long Island Ducks minor - league baseball team and the Big Duck, a 1931 duck - shaped building that is a historic landmark and tourist attraction. In addition to Long Island 's duck industry, Riverhead contains one of the largest buffalo farms on the East coast.
Long Island is well known for its production of alcoholic beverages. Eastern Long Island is a significant producer of wines. Vineyards are most heavily concentrated on Long Island 's North Fork, which contains 38 wineries. Most of these contain tasting rooms, which serve as popular tourist attractions for visitors from across the New York metropolitan area. Long Island has also become a producer of diverse craft beers, with 15 microbreweries existing across Nassau and Suffolk counties as of 2013. The largest of these is Blue Point Brewing Company, best known for its toasted lager. Long Island is also globally known for its signature cocktail, the Long Island Iced Tea, which purportedly was invented at the popular Babylon, Oak Beach Inn nightclub in the 1970s.
The eateries on Long Island are largely a product of the region 's local ethnic populations. Asian cuisines, Italian cuisine, Jewish cuisine, and Latin American cuisines were the most popular categories of ethnic cuisine on Long Island as of the second decade of the 2000s. Asian cuisines are predominantly represented by East Asian, South Asian, and Middle Eastern cuisines. Italian cuisine is found in ubiquitous pizzerias spread throughout the island, with the region hosting an annual competition, the Long Island Pizza Festival & Bake - Off. Jewish cuisine is likewise represented by delicatessens and bagel stores. Latin American cuisines span their geographical origins, ranging from Brazilian rodizios to Mexican taquerias.
The New York Mets baseball team plays at Citi Field in Flushing Meadows - Corona Park, Queens. Their former stadium, Shea Stadium was also home for the New York Jets football team from 1964 until 1983. The new stadium is designed with an exterior façade and main entry rotunda inspired by Brooklyn 's famous Ebbets Field (see below). The New York Mets had planned to move their Double - A farm team to Long Island, as part of the ambitious but now - defunct plan for Nassau County called The Lighthouse Project. The Brooklyn Cyclones are a minor league baseball team, affiliated with the New York Mets. The Cyclones play at MCU Park just off the boardwalk on Coney Island in Brooklyn. An artificial turf baseball complex named Baseball Heaven is located in Yaphank.
The Barclays Center, a sports arena, business, and residential complex built partly on a platform over the Atlantic Yards at Atlantic Avenue in Brooklyn, is the current home of the Brooklyn Nets basketball team and the New York Islanders hockey team. The move from New Jersey in the summer of 2012 marked the return to Long Island for the Nets franchise, which played at Nassau Veterans Memorial Coliseum in Uniondale from 1972 to 1977. The Islanders played at Nassau Coliseum from their 1972 inception through 2015.
Ebbets Field, which stood in Brooklyn from 1913 until its demolition in 1960, was the home of the Brooklyn Dodgers baseball team, who moved to California after the 1957 Major League Baseball season to become the Los Angeles Dodgers. The Dodgers won several National League pennants in the 1940s and 1950s, losing several times in the World Series -- often called Subway Series -- to their Bronx rivals, the New York Yankees. The Dodgers won their lone championship in Brooklyn in the 1955 World Series versus the Yankees.
Despite this success during the latter part of the team 's stay in Brooklyn, they were a second - division team with an unspectacular winning record for much of their history there -- but nonetheless became legendary for the almost - fanatical devotion of the Brooklynites who packed the relatively small ballpark to vigorously root for the team they affectionately called, "Dem Bums ''. Loss of the Dodgers to California was locally considered a civic tragedy that negatively affected the community far more than did the similar moves of other established teams to new cities in the 1950s, including the Dodgers ' long - time arch - rival New York Giants, who also left for California after 1957.
Long Island is also home to the Long Island Ducks minor league baseball team of the Atlantic League. Their stadium, Bethpage Ballpark, is located in Central Islip. The two main rugby union teams are the Long Island RFC in East Meadow and the Suffolk Bull Moose in Stony Brook.
The New York Dragons of the Arena Football League also played their home games at Nassau Coliseum.
Long Island has a professional soccer club, the New York Cosmos, who play in the Division 2 North American Soccer League at James M. Shuart Stadium in Hempstead.
Long Island has historically been a hotbed of lacrosse at the youth and college level, which made way for a Major League Lacrosse team in 2001, the Long Island Lizards. The Lizards play at Mitchel Athletic Complex in Uniondale.
Long Island has a wide variety of golf courses found all over the island. One of the most famous is the public Bethpage Black Course that has hosted multiple U.S. Open tournaments as well as The Barclays, most recently in 2012. Queens also hosts one of the four tennis grand slams, the US Open. Every August (September, in Olympic years) the best tennis players in the world travel to Long Island to play the championships, which is held in the USTA National Tennis Center, located adjacent to Citi Field in Flushing Meadows Park. The complex also contains the biggest tennis stadium in the world, the Arthur Ashe Stadium.
Long Island also has two horse racing tracks, Aqueduct Racetrack in Ozone Park, Queens and Belmont Park on the Queens / Nassau border in Elmont, home of the Belmont Stakes. The longest dirt thoroughbred racecourse in the world is also located at Belmont Park. Another category of sporting events popular in this region involves firematic racing events, involving many local volunteer fire departments.
Long Island is home to numerous famous athletes, including Hall of Famers Jim Brown, Julius Erving, John Mackey, Whitey Ford, Nick Drahos, and Carl Yastrzemski. Others include Gold Medalists Sue Bird, Sarah Hughes and Derrick Adkins, D'Brickashaw Ferguson, Billy Donovan, Larry Brown, Rick Pitino, John McEnroe, Jumbo Elliott, Mick Foley, Zack Ryder, Matt Serra, Boomer Esiason, Vinny Testaverde, Craig Biggio, Frank Catalanotto, Greg Sacks, Rob Burnett, Steve Park, Frank Viola, Chris Weidman, Marques Colston and Speedy Claxton.
Several current NHL players were born and / or raised on Long Island, such as Vancouver Canucks Christopher Higgins and Matt Gilroy, Nashville Predators Eric Nystrom, Toronto Maple Leaf Mike Komisarek, Pittsburgh Penguin Rob Scuderi, and New Jersey Devil Keith Kinkaid. Both Komisarek and Higgins played on the same Suffolk County Hockey League team at an early age, and later played on the Montreal Canadiens together. Nick Drahos was an All Scholastic and All Long Island honoree at Lawrence High School, Nassau Co. in 1936 and 1937, and a two - time Unanimous National College All - American in the years of 1939 and 1940 at Cornell University.
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what order do the batman films go in | Batman in film - wikipedia
The fictional superhero Batman, who appears in American comic books published by DC Comics, has appeared in various films since his inception. Created by Bob Kane and Bill Finger, the character first starred in two serial films in the 1940s, Batman and Batman and Robin. The character also appeared in the 1966 film Batman, which was a feature film adaptation of the 1960s Batman TV series starring Adam West and Burt Ward, who also starred in the film. Toward the end of the 1980s, the Warner Bros. studio began producing a series of feature films starring Batman, beginning with the 1989 film Batman, directed by Tim Burton and starring Michael Keaton. Burton and Keaton returned for the 1992 sequel Batman Returns, and in 1995, Joel Schumacher directed Batman Forever with Val Kilmer as Batman. Schumacher also directed the 1997 sequel Batman & Robin, which starred George Clooney. Batman & Robin was poorly received by both critics and fans, leading to the cancellation of Batman Unchained.
Over the course of seven years, Warner Bros. commissioned Darren Aronofsky for an adaptation of Batman: Year One and Wolfgang Petersen for Batman vs. Superman before deciding to reboot the film franchise in 2005 with Batman Begins, directed by Christopher Nolan and starring Christian Bale. Nolan returned to direct two further installments through the release of The Dark Knight in 2008 and The Dark Knight Rises in 2012, with Bale reprising his role in both films. Both sequels earned over $1 billion worldwide, making Batman the second film franchise to have two of its films earn more than $1 billion worldwide. Referred to as The Dark Knight Trilogy, the critical acclaim and commercial success of Nolan 's films have been credited with restoring widespread popularity to the superhero, with the second installment considered one of the best superhero movies of all - time. Ben Affleck became the newest actor to portray Batman in 2016 with Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice, which began a sequence of DC Comics adaptations that Warner Bros. refers to as the DC Extended Universe, including Justice League, a crossover film featuring other DC Comics characters, in 2017, and a stand - alone Batman film starring Affleck and directed by Matt Reeves that is set for release in 2019.
Batman has also appeared in multiple animated films, both as a starring character and as an ensemble character. While most animated films were released direct - to - video, the 1993 animated feature Batman: Mask of the Phantasm, based on the 1990s Batman: The Animated Series, was released theatrically. Having earned a total of U.S. $2,407,708,129 the Batman series is the fifth - highest - grossing film series in North America.
Batman was a 15 - chapter serial film released in 1943 by Columbia Pictures. The serial starred Lewis Wilson as Batman and Douglas Croft as Robin. J. Carrol Naish played the villain, an original character named Dr. Daka. Rounding out the cast were Shirley Patterson as Linda Page (Bruce Wayne 's love interest), and William Austin as Alfred. The plot is based on Batman, a US government agent, attempting to defeat the Japanese agent Dr. Daka, at the height of World War II.
The film is notable for being the first filmed appearance of Batman and for providing two core elements of the Batman mythos. The film introduced "The Bat 's Cave '' and the Grandfather clock entrance. The name was altered to the Batcave for the comic. William Austin, who played Alfred, had a trim physique and sported a thin mustache, while the contemporary comic book version of Alfred was overweight and clean - shaven prior to the serial 's release. The comics version of Alfred was altered to match that of Austin 's, and has stayed that way.
Batman and Robin was another 15 - chapter serial film released in 1949 by Columbia Pictures. Robert Lowery played Batman, while Johnny Duncan played Robin. Supporting players included Jane Adams as Vicki Vale and veteran character actor Lyle Talbot as Commissioner Gordon. The plot dealt with the Dynamic Duo facing off against the Wizard, a hooded villain whose identity remains a mystery throughout the serial until the end.
Batman (also known as Batman: The Movie) is a 1966 film adaptation of the popular Batman television series, and was the first full - length theatrical adaptation of the DC Comics character. The 20th Century Fox release starred Adam West as Batman and Burt Ward as Robin, as well as Cesar Romero as the Joker, Burgess Meredith as the Penguin, Lee Meriwether as Catwoman, and Frank Gorshin as the Riddler.
The film was directed by Leslie H. Martinson, who also directed a pair of Batman episodes: "The Penguin Goes Straight '' and "Not Yet, He Ai n't, '' both from season one.
In the late 1970s, Batman 's popularity was waning. CBS was interested in producing a Batman in Outer Space film. Producers Michael Uslan and Benjamin Melniker purchased the film rights of Batman from DC Comics on October 3, 1979. It was Uslan 's wish "to make the definitive, dark, serious version of Batman, the way Bob Kane and Bill Finger had envisioned him in 1939. A creature of the night; stalking criminals in the shadows. '' Richard Maibaum was approached to write a script with Guy Hamilton to direct, but the two turned down the offer. Uslan was unsuccessful with pitching Batman to various movie studios because they wanted the film to be similar to the campy 1960s TV series. Columbia Pictures and United Artists were among those to turn down the film.
A disappointed Uslan then wrote a script titled Return of the Batman to give the film industry a better idea of his vision for the film. Uslan later compared its dark tone to that of The Dark Knight Returns, which his script pre-dated by six years. In November 1979, producer Jon Peters and Casablanca FilmWorks, headed by Peter Guber, joined the project. The four producers felt it was best to pattern the film 's development after that of Superman (1978). Uslan, Melniker and Guber pitched Batman to Universal Pictures, but the studio turned it down. The project was publicly announced with a budget of $15 million in July 1980 at the Comic Art Convention in New York. Casablanca FilmWorks was absorbed into PolyGram Pictures in 1980. Guber and Peters left PolyGram Pictures in 1982 and took the Batman film rights with them, although PolyGram would retain at least 7.5 % of the profits of said rights due to a contractual agreement. Guber and Peters immediately set up shop at Warner Bros., which finally decided to accept Batman.
Tom Mankiewicz completed a script titled The Batman in June 1983, focusing on Batman and Dick Grayson 's origins, with the Joker and Rupert Thorne as villains, and Silver St. Cloud as the romantic interest. Mankiewicz took inspiration from the limited series Batman: Strange Apparitions (ISBN 1 - 56389 - 500 - 5), written by Steve Englehart. Comic book artist Marshall Rogers, who worked with Englehart on Strange Apparitions, was hired for concept art. The Batman was then announced in late 1983 for a mid-1985 release date on a budget of $20 million. Originally, Mankiewicz had wanted an unknown actor for Batman, William Holden for James Gordon, David Niven as Alfred Pennyworth and Peter O'Toole as the Penguin who Mankiewicz wanted to portray as a mobster with low body temperature. Holden died in 1981 and Niven in 1983, so this would never come to pass. A number of filmmakers were attached to Mankiewicz ' script, including Ivan Reitman and Joe Dante. Reitman wanted to cast Bill Murray as Batman. For the role of Robin, Eddie Murphy and Michael J. Fox were candidates. Nine rewrites were performed by nine separate writers. Most of them were based on Strange Apparitions. However, it was Mankiewicz 's script that was still being used to guide the project.
Tim Burton took over as director of the first Batman film in 1986. Steve Englehart and Julie Hickson wrote film treatments before Sam Hamm wrote the first screenplay. Numerous A-list actors were considered for the role of Batman before Michael Keaton was cast. Keaton was a controversial choice for the role since, by 1988, he had become typecast as a comedic actor and many observers doubted he could portray a serious role. Jack Nicholson accepted the role of the Joker under strict conditions that dictated a high salary, a portion of the box office profits and his shooting schedule. Nicholson 's final salary is reported to be as high as $50 million. Principal photography took place at Pinewood Studios from October 1988 to January 1989. The budget escalated from $30 million to $48 million, while the 1988 Writers Guild of America strike forced Hamm to drop out. Rewrites were performed by Warren Skaaren, Charles McKeown and Jonathan Gems. Batman received positive reviews, broke numerous box office records, and won the Academy Award for Best Art Direction. The film grossed over $400 million, and left a legacy over the modern perception of the superhero film genre.
Burton originally did not want to direct a sequel because of his mixed emotions over the previous film. Sam Hamm 's first script had the Penguin and Catwoman searching for hidden treasure. Daniel Waters delivered aa script that satisfied Burton, which convinced him to direct the film. Wesley Strick did an uncredited rewrite, deleting characterizations of Harvey Dent and Robin and rewriting the climax. Various A-list actresses lobbied hard for the role of Catwoman before Michelle Pfeiffer was cast, while Danny DeVito signed on to portray the Penguin. Filming started at Warner Bros. in Burbank, California in June 1991. Batman Returns was released with financial success, but Warner Bros. was disappointed with the film 's box office run because it earned less than its predecessor. However, Batman Returns was released to generally positive reviews, although a "parental backlash '' criticized the film for containing violence and sexual innuendos that were thought to be unsuitable for children. McDonald 's shut down its Happy Meal tie - in for Batman Returns.
Although Batman Returns was a financial success, Warner Bros. felt the film should have made more money. The studio decided to change the direction of the Batman film series to be more mainstream. Joel Schumacher replaced Tim Burton as director, while Burton decided to stay on as producer. However, Michael Keaton did not like the new direction the film series was heading in, and was replaced by Val Kilmer as Batman. Chris O'Donnell was introduced as Robin, Jim Carrey starred as The Riddler, while Tommy Lee Jones starred as Two - Face. Filming started in September 1994, and Schumacher encountered problems communicating with Kilmer and Jones. Batman Forever was released on June 16, 1995 with financial success, earning over $350 million worldwide and three Academy Award nominations, but the film was met with mixed reviews from critics.
After the release of Batman Forever, Warner Bros. started development on Batman & Robin, commissioning it on fast track for an adamant June 1997 release. Val Kilmer did not return, because of scheduling conflicts with The Saint, and was replaced by George Clooney. Arnold Schwarzenegger starred as Mr. Freeze, while Uma Thurman starred as Poison Ivy and Alicia Silverstone starred as Batgirl. Chris O'Donnell reprised his role as Robin. Principal photography began in September 1996 and finished in January 1997, two weeks ahead of the shooting schedule. Batman & Robin was released on June 20, 1997, and received primarily negative reviews. Observers criticized the film for its toyetic and campy approach, and for homosexual innuendos added by Schumacher. Still, the film was a financial success, but remains to be the least commercially successful live - action Batman film ever. Batman & Robin received numerous nominations at the Razzie Awards and ranks among the worst rated superhero films of all time.
During the filming of Batman & Robin, Warner Bros. was impressed with the dailies, prompting them to immediately hire Joel Schumacher to reprise his directing duties for a third film. Writer Akiva Goldsman, who worked on Batman Forever and Batman & Robin, turned down the chance to write the script. In late 1996, Warner Bros. and Schumacher hired Mark Protosevich to write the script for a fifth Batman film. A projected mid-1999 release date was announced. Titled Batman Unchained but often incorrectly referred to as Batman Triumphant, Protosevich 's script had the Scarecrow as the main villain and the Joker would return as a hallucination in Batman 's mind caused by the Scarecrow 's fear toxin. Harley Quinn appeared as a supporting character, written as the Joker 's daughter trying to kill Batman to avenge her father 's death. George Clooney, Chris O'Donnell and Alicia Silverstone were set to reprise the roles of Batman, Robin, and Batgirl. Schumacher had also approached Nicolas Cage for the role of Scarecrow. However, when Batman & Robin received negative reviews and failed to outgross any of its predecessors, Warner Bros. was unsure of their plans for Batman Unchained. The studio decided it was best to consider a live - action Batman Beyond film and an adaptation of Frank Miller 's Batman: Year One. Warner Bros. would then greenlight whichever idea suited them the most. Schumacher felt he "owe (d) the Batman culture a real Batman movie. I would go back to the basics and make a dark portrayal of the Dark Knight. '' He approached Warner Bros. to do Batman: Year One in mid-1998.
Despite Warner Bros. and Schumacher 's interest with Year One, Lee Shapiro, a comic book fan, and Stephen Wise pitched the studio with a script titled Batman: DarKnight in mid-1998. DarKnight had Bruce Wayne giving up his crime fighting career, and Dick Grayson attending Gotham University. Dr. Jonathan Crane uses his position as professor of psychology at Gotham University and as head psychiatrist at Arkham Asylum to conduct his experiments into fear (this element would later appear in Batman Begins). During a vengeful confrontation with a colleague, Dr. Kirk Langstrom, Crane unknowingly initiates Kirk 's transformation into the creature known as Man - Bat. Citizens of Gotham believe Man - Bat 's nightly activities to be Batman 's "bloodthirsty '' return. Bruce becomes Batman "to clear his name, '' and solve the mystery of Man - Bat. Kirk struggles with his "man - vs. - monster '' syndrome, as he longs to both reunite with his wife and get revenge on Crane, while Crane exacts revenge on those responsible for his dismissal from both Arkham and the university while encountering truths about his past. Warner Bros. decided not to move forward with the project, and passed on Batman: DarKnight in favor of Year One and Batman Beyond.
Chris O'Donnell revealed in a 2012 interview with Access Hollywood that a Robin spin - off was planned but was scrapped after Batman & Robin.
By September 2000 Warner Bros. was developing a live action screen adaptation of Batman Beyond, written by Paul Dini, Neal Stephenson and Boaz Yakin, with the possibility of Yakin directing, as well as an adaptation of Frank Miller 's 1987 comic book story arc Batman: Year One. Despite interest from Schumacher, Darren Aronofsky was hired to direct and co-write with Miller, whom he previously collaborated with on an unproduced script for Ronin. Yakin developed one draft of the Batman Beyond screenplay with the writers but soon lost interest, and Warner Bros. abandoned Batman Beyond almost instantly in favor of Batman: Year One. Aronofsky and Miller intended to reboot the Batman franchise, "it 's somewhat based on the comic book, '' Aronofsky said. "Toss out everything you can imagine about Batman! Everything! We 're starting completely anew. '' Regular Aronofsky collaborator, Matthew Libatique, was set as cinematographer, and Christian Bale had been approached for the role of Batman. Coincidentally, Bale would be cast in the role for Batman Begins. At the same time, Warner Bros. was moving forward on a Catwoman spin - off. Around 2001, Warner commissioned the rewriting of the film 's script to The Matrix directors The Wachowskis, but The Wachowskis ' script did n't convince Warner. Joss Whedon was later hired to rewrite the script, but like happened with The Wachowskis ' script, Warner did n't like his script - In June 2002, the studio decided to move forward on Batman vs. Superman and abandon Year One.
Warner Bros. abandoned J.J. Abrams ' script for Superman: Flyby, which had been greenlighted with McG to direct. When McG dropped out in favor of Charlie 's Angels: Full Throttle, Warner Bros. approached Wolfgang Petersen to direct Superman: Flyby, however, in August 2001, Andrew Kevin Walker pitched Warner Bros. an idea titled Batman vs Superman, attaching Petersen as director. Superman: Flyby was put on hold, and Akiva Goldsman was hired to rewrite Walker 's Batman vs. Superman.
Goldsman 's draft, dated June 21, 2002, had Bruce Wayne going through a mental breakdown after his five - year retirement from crime fighting. Dick Grayson, Alfred Pennyworth and Commissioner Gordon are all dead, but Bruce finds some solace in his fiancée, Elizabeth Miller. Meanwhile, Clark Kent is struggling because of a recent divorce from Lois Lane. Clark and Bruce are close friends, and Clark is Bruce 's best man. After the Joker kills Elizabeth on their honeymoon, Bruce swears revenge, while Clark tries to hold him back. Bruce blames Clark for her death, and the two go against one another. Ultimately, Lex Luthor is revealed to have masterminded the entire plot to get Batman and Superman to destroy each other. The two decide to team up and stop Luthor. Christian Bale, who would play the character in Christopher Nolan 's Batman film trilogy, was simultaneously approached to portray Batman for Darren Aronofsky 's Batman: Year One, while Josh Hartnett was offered the role of Superman.
Filming was to start in early 2003, with plans for a five - to six - month shoot. The release date was set for the summer of 2004. However, Warner Bros. canceled development to focus on individual Superman and Batman projects after Abrams submitted another draft for Superman: Flyby. According to Petersen "(Warner Bros. ' chief) Alan Horn was so torn, because it 's such a fascinating concept to do a Batman versus Superman film. '' In the opening scene of I Am Legend, a billboard displays the Superman symbol within the Batman symbol in Times Square. It is meant as an in - joke by the film 's writer, Akiva Goldsman, who also wrote the script for Batman vs. Superman.
The Batman OnStar commercials were a series of six television commercials featuring Batman, created by ad - agency Campbell - Ewald and aired from 2000 to the beginning of 2002.
The ads were based on the film series and was basically an amalgamation of both directors visuals. For example, The Batmobile was the one used in Batman and Batman Returns, while the Batsuit was a combination of what was worn by Val Kilmer in Batman Forever and George Clooney in Batman & Robin. The commercials also featured the Danny Elfman Batman theme from Tim Burton 's two films.
Actor Bruce Thomas portrayed Batman in these ads, while Michael Gough reprised his role of Alfred Pennyworth in one of the ads. Baywatch actress Brooke Burns played Vicki Vale in an ad as well. Actor Brian Stepanek played the Riddler in an ad and Curtis Armstrong played the Joker in another.
Following a rejected Batman origin story reboot Joss Whedon pitched in December 2002, Warner Bros. hired Christopher Nolan and David S. Goyer to script Batman Begins. The duo aimed for a darker and more realistic tone, with humanity and realism being the basis of the film. The film was primarily shot in the United Kingdom and Chicago, and relied on traditional stunts and scale models with minimal use of computer - generated imagery. Christian Bale starred as Batman, Liam Neeson starred as Ra 's al Ghul, and Cillian Murphy as The Scarecrow. Katie Holmes also starred in the movie as Bruce 's love interest, Rachel Dawes, a role created for the film. Alfred was played by Michael Caine and Jim Gordon was portrayed by Gary Oldman. A new Batmobile (called the Tumbler) and a more mobile Batsuit were both created specifically for the film. The film begins with the death of Bruce 's parents and then explores his decision to leave Gotham and his training under the League of Assassins with Ra 's al Ghul, before he rebels against the League and adopts the guise of Batman, recognising that he can not condone their use of lethal force. The League attempt to attack Gotham using Jonathan Crane 's weaponised fear toxin, but Batman is able to defeat their plan, with Ra 's being apparently killed when a train he is in crashes during a fight with Batman.
Batman Begins was both critically and commercially successful. The film opened on June 15, 2005, in the United States and Canada in 3,858 theaters. It grossed $48 million in its opening weekend, eventually grossing over $372 million worldwide. The film received an 85 % overall approval rating from Rotten Tomatoes. Critics noted that fear was a common motif throughout the film, and remarked that it had a darker tone compared with previous Batman films. The film was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Cinematography and for three BAFTA awards. It was also listed at No. 81 on Empire 's "500 Greatest Movies of All Time '' and has maintained a standing on IMDb.com 's "Top 250 ''.
Christopher Nolan reprised his duties as director, and brought his brother, Jonathan, to co-write the script for the second installment. The Dark Knight featured Christian Bale reprising his role as Batman / Bruce Wayne, Heath Ledger as The Joker, and Aaron Eckhart as Harvey Dent / Two - Face. Principal photography began in April 2007 in Chicago and concluded in November. Other locations included Pinewood Studios, Ministry of Sound in London and Hong Kong. On January 22, 2008, after he had completed filming The Dark Knight, Ledger died from a bad combination of prescription medication. Warner Bros. had created a viral marketing campaign for The Dark Knight, developing promotional websites and trailers highlighting screen shots of Ledger as the Joker, but after Ledger 's death, the studio refocused its promotional campaign. The film depicts Gotham attempting to rebuild after Batman 's actions have caused so much damage to its organised crime families, aided by the prosecution of charismatic District Attorney Harvey Dent, but the involvement of the anarchic Joker threatens everything, as his actions lead to the death of Rachel Dawes and Harvey being scarred and transformed into Two - Face. Although Batman is able to stop the Joker from forcing two ferries - one loaded with civilians and the other with prisoners - to destroy each other, he is forced to take the blame for the murders committed by Dent to ensure that the city retains its hope for the future.
The film received broad critical acclaim, and set numerous records during its theatrical run. With just over $1 billion in revenue worldwide, it is the 30th - highest - grossing film of all time, unadjusted for inflation. The film received eight Academy Award nominations; it won the award for Best Sound Editing and Ledger was posthumously awarded Best Supporting Actor.
Nolan wanted the story for the third and final installment to keep him emotionally invested. "On a more superficial level, I have to ask the question, '' he reasoned, "how many good third movies in a franchise can people name? '' He returned out of finding a necessary way to continue the story, but feared midway through filming he would find a sequel redundant. The Dark Knight Rises is intended to complete Nolan 's Batman trilogy. By December 2008, Nolan completed a rough story outline, before he committed himself to Inception. In February 2010, work on the screenplay was commencing with David S. Goyer and Jonathan Nolan. When Goyer left to work on the Superman reboot, Jonathan was writing the script based on the story by his brother and Goyer. Tom Hardy was cast as Bane and Anne Hathaway plays Selina Kyle. Joseph Gordon - Levitt was cast as John Blake, and Marion Cotillard was cast as Miranda Tate. Filming began in May 2011 and concluded in November. Nolan chose not to film in 3 - D but, by focusing on improving image quality and scale using the IMAX format, hoped to push technological boundaries while nevertheless making the style of the film consistent with the previous two. Nolan had several meetings with IMAX Vice-President David Keighley to work on the logistics of projecting films in digital IMAX venues. The Dark Knight Rises featured more scenes shot in IMAX than The Dark Knight. Cinematographer Wally Pfister expressed interest in shooting the film entirely in IMAX. During the film, set eight years after Dark Knight, the arrival of new foe Bane forces Bruce to return to his old role as Batman, only to find himself overpowered and captured by Bane as Gotham is cut off from the rest of the world with a stolen Wayne Enterprises fusion generator prototype set to go off in a few months. With the aid of thief Selina Kyle, Bruce is able to return to Gotham and defeat Bane while redeeming his image as Batman. The film concludes with Bruce having ' retired ' as Batman after faking his death to live with Selina Kyle, evidence suggesting that he has passed on the Batcave to new ally Detective John Blake (real first name Robin) while Gotham rebuilds in memory of the Dark Knight 's heroism.
Upon release, The Dark Knight Rises received a positive critical response and was successful at the box office, going on to outgross its predecessor and become the 18th - highest - grossing film of all time grossing over $1.08 billion. However, unlike its predecessors, the film was not nominated for any Oscars during its year of eligibility at the 85th Academy Awards, much to the surprise of film industry insiders.
In February 2007, during pre-production for The Dark Knight, Warner Bros. hired husband and wife screenwriting duo Michelle and Kieran Mulroney to script a Justice League film featuring a younger Batman in a separate franchise. George Miller was hired to direct the following September, with Armie Hammer cast as Batman a month later and Teresa Palmer as Talia al Ghul. Filming had nearly commenced at Fox Studios Australia in Sydney, but was pushed back over the Writer 's Guild of America strike, and once more when the Australian Film Commission denied Warner Bros. a 45 percent tax rebate over lack of Australian actors in the film. Production offices were moved to Vancouver Film Studios in Canada for an expected July 2008 start and a planned summer 2009 theatrical release date, but Warner Bros. ultimately canceled Justice League following the success of The Dark Knight. Hammer 's option on his contract lapsed and the studio was more willing to proceed with Christopher Nolan to finish his trilogy separately with The Dark Knight Rises.
On June 13, 2013, a source from Warner Bros. told The Wrap that they were discussing more Man of Steel films, as well as a Superman / Batman film, Wonder Woman, and Aquaman. Warner Bros. announced that Superman and Batman would unite in a new film, a follow - up to Man of Steel (2013), taking its inspiration from the comic The Dark Knight Returns and set for release in 2015. Goyer stated at the Superman 75th Anniversary Panel at Comic - Con, that Batman and Superman would face off, and titles under consideration were Superman vs Batman or Batman vs Superman.
On August 22, 2013, The Hollywood Reporter announced the casting of Ben Affleck as Bruce Wayne / Batman. On January 17, 2014, it was announced that the film had been delayed from its original July 17, 2015 release date to May 6, 2016, in order to give the filmmakers "time to realize fully their vision, given the complex visual nature of the story ''. The film 's release was moved again to March 25, 2016, "avoiding a high - profile showdown with Captain America: Civil War on May 6, 2016 ''. At some point prior to the events of the film, Wayne Manor was burnt down, with Bruce and Alfred relocating to a smaller glass house above the Batcave. During the film, Bruce is subtly manipulated by Lex Luthor into perceiving Superman as an alien being too removed from humanity to be fully trusted, with Luthor intending to provoke a conflict between the two that will either force Superman to kill or see Batman defeat ' God '. Bruce 's dark views are implied to be the result of the Joker killing Jason Todd in some past confrontation, with Batman showing a lack of concern about whether or not he kills his opponents in battle and branding certain criminals with the mark of the Bat. However, when he faces Superman with kryptonite weapons, he realises how far he has fallen when Superman asks him to ' save Martha ' (Luthor using Martha Kent as a hostage to provoke Superman into confronting Batman), the reminder of his own mother helping Batman realise what he has become and acknowledge that Superman is fundamentally human despite his powers. After Batman saves Martha Kent from Luthor 's minions, he fights alongside Superman and new hero Wonder Woman to contain the Kryptonian deformity Luthor created to kill Superman, a battle that results in Superman 's death when he stabs the deformity with the kryptonite spear and is impaled himself. Taking Luthor 's metahuman files, Bruce states that he intends to gather the metahumans to prepare for an implied future threat that Luthor made reference to.
In February 2009, Warner Bros. was developing a Suicide Squad film, with Dan Lin producing, and Justin Marks writing the script. In September 2014, David Ayer signed on to direct and write the screenplay for the film. Charles Roven is also set to produce the film. In November 2014 and March 2015, it was announced that Deadshot, Harley Quinn, Killer Croc and the Joker will appear in the film portrayed respectively by Will Smith, Margot Robbie, Adewale Akinnuoye - Agbaje and Jared Leto. Batman appears in brief flashbacks where he is involved in the capture of Deadshot and Harley Quinn, rescuing Harley from a submerged car after it crashed during a chase and she was abandoned by the Joker, and apprehending Deadshot after an anonymous tip led him to the assassin as Deadshot was Christmas - shopping with his daughter. Batman 's history with Killer Croc is also briefly referenced. At the film 's conclusion, Amanda Waller -- who appears to know that Bruce Wayne is Batman -- provides Bruce with files on various metahumans in exchange for his protection from future fallout from the Enchantress 's recent attack, Bruce informing Waller to shut down Task Force X as his friends will handle future problems.
Shortly after filming had finished for Man of Steel, Warner Bros hired Will Beall to script a new Justice League film in June 2012. With the release of Man of Steel in June 2013, Goyer was hired to write a new Justice League script, with the Beall draft being scrapped. In April 2014, it was announced that Zack Snyder would also be directing Goyer 's Justice League script. Warner Bros. was reportedly courting Chris Terrio to rewrite Justice League the following July, after having been impressed with his rewrite of Batman v Superman.
In March 2016, it was revealed that Affleck signed on a three - picture deal that carries him through 2019 's sequel, while also having a minor appearance in Suicide Squad.
By July 2015, Ben Affleck was in talks to star in, co-write with Geoff Johns, and possibly direct a standalone Batman film. In March 2016, Johns claimed that the appearance of Robin 's suit covered in graffiti from Dawn of Justice would be explored later and the identity of the deceased character was intentionally unspecified. Following the release of Dawn of Justice, William Morris Endeavor 's co-CEO Patrick Whitesell confirmed that Affleck had written a screenplay for a standalone Batman film that he hoped would be optioned by Warner Bros as well to direct. Warner Bros. CEO Kevin Tsujihara confirmed in April 2016 that the studio was moving ahead with Affleck 's stand - alone Batman film, which the actor would star in and direct. In May 2016, Jeremy Irons confirmed that he was "tied into The Batman '', while Affleck stated that his solo Batman film would borrow from the comics, but mainly be an "original story ''. In August 2016, Jared Leto expressed his hope that his version of the Joker would appear in Affleck 's Batman solo film. Later that month, Deathstroke was teased by Affleck through test footage, later confirmed by Johns that the character would be played by Joe Manganiello. In October 2016, Affleck stated the intended title for the film would be The Batman, but later clarified that the film could end up having a different title. Manganiello and Irons stated that filming would start in spring 2017.
In December 2016, Affleck confirmed that the film was on track to begin shooting in spring 2017. Later that month, Warner Bros. executive Greg Silverman stated that the film would be released in 2018. Around the same time, Affleck stated that the film had no script and that he may end up not directing it. Affleck planned to shoot the film in Los Angeles as doubling for Gotham City. He reaffirmed his commitment to direct the film in his appearance on Jimmy Kimmel Live!. In late January 2017, Affleck decided to step down as director, but would remain involved as producer and actor. By this point, writer Chris Terrio, who won an Academy Award for writing Affleck 's Argo and also helped script Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice, had turned in a rewrite of the script. On February 10, 2017, it was announced that Matt Reeves was in talks to replace Affleck as the director of the film, however on February 17 it was reported that talks had broken down. Two weeks later, Reeves had officially signed on to direct and co-produce the film. Production was delayed until 2018 as Reeves was tied up in post-production on War for the Planet of the Apes until June 2017, and The Batman is being re-written to allow Reeves more creative freedom as a director. Reeves in an interview stated that the film will feature "an almost - noir driven, detective version of Batman '' that will emphasize the heart and mind of the character and will take inspiration from Alfred Hitchcock.
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how many books did paul write in the bible | Pauline epistles - wikipedia
The Pauline epistles, Epistles of Paul, or Letters of Paul, are the 13 New Testament books which have the name Paul (Παῦλος) as the first word, hence claiming authorship by Paul the Apostle. Among these letters are some of the earliest extant Christian documents. They provide an insight into the beliefs and controversies of early Christianity and as part of the canon of the New Testament they are foundational texts for both Christian theology and ethics. The Epistle to the Hebrews, although it does not bear his name, was traditionally considered Pauline for a thousand years, but from the 16th century onwards opinion steadily moved against Pauline authorship and few scholars now ascribe it to Paul, mostly because it does not read like any of his other epistles in style and content. Most scholars agree that Paul really wrote seven of the Pauline epistles, but that four of the epistles in Paul 's name are pseudepigraphic; scholars are divided on the authenticity of two of the epistles.
The Pauline epistles are usually placed between the Acts of the Apostles and the general epistles in modern editions. Most Greek manuscripts, however, place the General epistles first, and a few minuscules (175, 325, 336, and 1424) place the Pauline epistles at the end of the New Testament.
In the order they appear in the New Testament, the Pauline epistles are:
This ordering is remarkably consistent in the manuscript tradition, with very few deviations. The evident principle of organization is descending length of the Greek text, but keeping the four Pastoral epistles addressed to individuals in a separate final section. The only anomaly is that Galatians precedes the slightly longer Ephesians.
In modern editions, the formally anonymous Epistle to the Hebrews is placed at the end of Paul 's letters and before the General epistles. This practice was popularized through the 4th century Vulgate by Jerome, who was aware of ancient doubts about its authorship, and is also followed in most medieval Byzantine manuscripts. With hardly any exceptions, though, the manuscripts do include Hebrews somewhere among Paul 's letters.
The placement of Hebrews among the Pauline epistles is less consistent in the manuscripts:
In all of these epistles besides Epistle to the Hebrews, Paul does claim to be the author and writer. However, the contested letters may have been forgeries, as that seems to have been a problem among the early church as a whole.
Seven letters (with consensus dates) considered genuine by most scholars:
The letters on which scholars are about evenly divided:
The letters thought to be pseudepigraphic by about 80 % of scholars:
Finally, Epistle to the Hebrews, though anonymous and not really in the form of a letter, has long been included among Paul 's collected letters, but most scholars regard it as not written by Paul.
Paul 's own writings are often thought to indicate several of his letters that have not been preserved:
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who is responsible for initiating a root cause analysis (rca) | Root cause analysis - wikipedia
Root cause analysis (RCA) is a method of problem solving used for identifying the root causes of faults or problems. A factor is considered a root cause if removal thereof from the problem - fault - sequence prevents the final undesirable outcome from recurring; whereas a causal factor is one that affects an event 's outcome, but is not a root cause. Though removing a causal factor can benefit an outcome, it does not prevent its recurrence with certainty.
Essentially it is based on four general principles, extended throughout this article:
RCA is particularly useful in the world of commercial aviation.
"Root cause '' may be described as the point in a causal chain where applying a corrective action or intervention would prevent the problem from occurring.
RCA is applied to methodically identify and correct the root causes of events, rather than to simply address the symptomatic result. Focusing correction on root causes has the goal of entirely preventing problem recurrence. Conversely, RCFA (Root Cause Failure Analysis) recognizes that complete prevention of recurrence by one corrective action is not always possible.
RCA is typically used as a reactive method of identifying event (s) causes, revealing problems and solving them. Analysis is done after an event has occurred. Insights in RCA make it potentially useful as a preemptive method. In that event, RCA can be used to forecast or predict probable events even before they occur. While one follows the other, RCA is a completely separate process to incident management.
For example, imagine a fictional segment of students who received poor testing scores. After initial investigation, it was verified that students taking tests in the final period of the school day got lower scores. Further investigation revealed that late in the day, the students lacked ability to focus. Even further investigation revealed that the reason for the lack of focus was hunger. So, the root cause of the poor testing scores was hunger, remedied by moving the testing time to soon after lunch.
As another example, imagine an investigation into a machine that stopped because it overloaded and the little fuse blew. Investigation shows that the machine overloaded because it had a bearing that was n't being sufficiently lubricated. The investigation proceeds further and finds that the automatic lubrication mechanism had a pump which was not pumping sufficiently, hence the lack of lubrication. Investigation of the pump shows that it has a worn shaft. Investigation of why the shaft was worn discovers that there is n't an adequate mechanism to prevent metal scrap getting into the pump. This enabled scrap to get into the pump, and damage it. The root cause of the problem is therefore that metal scrap can contaminate the lubrication system. Fixing this problem ought to prevent the whole sequence of events recurring. Compare this with an investigation that does not find the root cause: replacing the fuse, the bearing, or the lubrication pump will probably allow the machine to go back into operation for a while. But there is a risk that the problem will simply recur, until the root cause is dealt with.
Rather than one sharply defined methodology, RCA comprises many different tools, processes, and philosophies. However, several very - broadly defined approaches or "schools '' can be identified by their basic approach or field of origin: safety - based, production - based, assembly - based, process - based, failure - based, and systems - based.
Despite the different approaches among the various schools of root cause analysis, all share some common principles. Several general processes for performing RCA can also be defined.
RCA (in steps 3, 4 and 5) forms the most critical part of successful corrective action, directing the corrective action at the true root cause of the problem. Knowing the root cause is secondary to the goal of prevention, as it is not possible to determine an absolutely effective corrective action for the defined problem without knowing the root cause.
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who used to host to tell the truth | To Tell the Truth - wikipedia
To Tell the Truth is an American television panel game show in which four celebrity panelists are presented with three contestants (the "team of challengers '', each an individual or pair) and must identify which is the "central character '' whose unusual occupation or experience has been read out by the show 's moderator / host. When the panelists question the contestants, the two "impostors '' may lie whereas the "central character '' must tell the truth. The setup adds the "impostor '' element to the format of What 's My Line? and I 've Got a Secret.
The show was created by Bob Stewart and originally produced by Mark Goodson -- Bill Todman Productions. It aired, on networks and syndication, continuously from 1956 to 1978 and intermittently since then, reaching a total of 26 seasons in 2016. As of 14 June 2016, it is one of two game shows in the United States to have aired at least one new episode in at least seven consecutive decades, the other being The Price Is Right.
Although there have been some variations in the rules over the years (including the addition of a secondary game in some versions), certain basic aspects have remained consistent throughout all versions of To Tell the Truth. Three challengers are introduced, all claiming to be the central character. The announcer typically asks the challengers, who stand side by side, "What is your name, please? '' Each challenger then states, "My name is (central character 's name). '' The celebrity panelists then read along as the host reads aloud a signed affidavit about the central character.
The panelists are each given a period of time to question the challengers. Questions are directed to the challengers by number (Number One, Number Two and Number Three), with the central character sworn to give truthful answers, and the impostors permitted to lie and pretend to be the central character.
After questioning is complete, each member of the panel votes on which of the challengers they believe to be the central character, either by writing the number on a card or holding up a card with the number of their choice, without consulting the other panelists. Any panelist who knows one of the challengers or has another unfair advantage is required to recuse or disqualify himself or herself which, for scoring purposes, is counted as a "wrong vote. ''
Once the votes are in, the host asks, "Will the real (person 's name) please stand up? '' The central character then stands, often after some brief playful feinting and false starts among all three challengers. Occasionally, the central character would be asked to do something else related to their story instead of standing up. The two impostors then reveal their real names and their actual occupations. Prize money is awarded and divided among all three of the challengers, based on the number of "wrong '' votes the impostors draw.
To Tell the Truth was to have premiered on Tuesday, December 18, 1956, on CBS in prime time as Nothing But The Truth, but the program title was changed to To Tell the Truth the day before the show 's debut. (There was one pilot episode titled "Nothing But The Truth '', and the pilot / planned title, and the eventual title, both derive from the standard English court oath "to tell the truth, the whole truth, and nothing but the truth. '') The series was recorded in New York City; initially at CBS - TV Studio 52, moving to Studio 50 late in its run. The existence of an audience ticket for a taping indicates that the show originated in color at the CBS Broadcast Center in late 1966.
Bud Collyer was the show 's host (Mike Wallace hosted the pilot); recurring panelists by the 1960s included Tom Poston, Peggy Cass, Orson Bean, and Kitty Carlisle. (Cass and Carlisle stayed on as panelists for most subsequent editions.) Earlier regular panelists had included Johnny Carson, Polly Bergen, Jayne Meadows, Don Ameche, Hy Gardner, Dick Van Dyke, Faye Emerson, Hildy Parks, John Cameron Swayze, Betty White, and Ralph Bellamy. Bern Bennett, Collyer 's announcer on Beat the Clock, was the inaugural announcer of To Tell the Truth in the 1950s. Upon Bennett 's transfer to CBS 's Los Angeles studios, Johnny Olson, who in time became the best - known of all Goodson -- Todman Productions announcers, joined the show in 1960 and remained through the end of its CBS runs.
On the pilot and the prime - time run, three games were played per episode. For the pilot, a wrong vote from each of the four member panel and one wrong vote derived from the majority vote of the audience (a total of five votes) paid $300, the total prize money divided among the three challengers. The studio audience also voted with the majority vote counting equally with that of one of a celebrity panelist, thus the maximum of five incorrect votes resulted in $1,500 divided among the challengers. If there was a tie for the highest vote from the audience, and for each panelist who was disqualified, a wrong vote was counted. There was no consolation prize for no wrong votes.
For the prime - time run there was no audience vote, thus each wrong vote from the four member panel paid $250 divided among the three challengers, for a possible $1,000 for a complete stump of four wrong answers (raised to $1,250 in 1967 as a premium only awarded for four wrong votes). A consolation prize of $150 was awarded and divided among the three challengers if there were no wrong votes. For each panelist who was disqualified, a wrong vote was counted. A design element in the set for this series was a platform directly above and behind the emcee 's desk. The contestants stood on this platform during their introduction allowing the camera to pan directly down to the host. They then traveled down a curved staircase to the main stage level to play the game.
On Monday, June 18, 1962, a daytime five - day - per - week edition was introduced, running at 3 p.m. Eastern, and 2 p.m. Central. The daytime show, also hosted by Collyer, featured a separate panel for its first three years, with actress Phyllis Newman as the only regular. The evening panel took over the afternoon show in 1965; in early 1968, Bert Convy replaced Poston in the first chair.
The daytime show was reduced to two games to accommodate a five - minute news break towards the half - hour mark. On the CBS daytime run, each wrong vote paid the three challengers $100 for a possible total of $400 divided among the three challengers for a "complete stump '' of all four wrong votes. If all the votes were correct, the challengers split a consolation prize of $75. During the show 's final year and a half, for only the daytime version, the studio audience also voted, with the majority vote counting equally with that of one of the celebrity panelists, thus a maximum $500 divided among the challengers could be awarded for the maximum five incorrect votes. If there was a tie for the highest vote from the audience, and for each panelist who was disqualified, a wrong vote was counted.
One CBS daytime episode featuring Dorothy Kilgallen, best known as a regular panelist on What 's My Line?, was broadcast on the East Coast on Monday, November 8, 1965, as news of her sudden death was circulated by wire services. The breaking news story prompted CBS newscaster Douglas Edwards to announce her death immediately after To Tell the Truth ended. She had videotaped the program six days earlier, according to the New York Herald Tribune. The newspaper added that Kilgallen and Arlene Francis both pretended to be Joan Crawford while sitting next to the real Crawford in a celebrity segment that the daytime series featured regularly starting in 1965. The episode was one of the large majority of To Tell the Truth daytime episodes that were destroyed because of the common practice of wiping videotape prior to the invention of the videocassette. This was a different half - hour telecast from the 1962 prime - time episode on which Kilgallen can be seen and heard as one of the panelists. GSN repeated that episode decades later.
The prime - time show ended on May 22, 1967, with the daytime show ending on September 6, 1968. The show was replaced by the expansions of Search for Tomorrow and Guiding Light to 30 minutes, in a scheduling shuffle with The Edge of Night, The Secret Storm, and Art Linkletter 's House Party.
Metropole Orchestra leader Dolf van der Linden composed the show 's first theme, "Peter Pan, '' used from 1956 to 1961. From 1961 to 1967, the show switched to a Bob Cobert - penned theme with a beat similar to "Peter Pan '', and then to a Score Productions tune during its final CBS daytime season.
Most episodes of the original nighttime run of the series were preserved on black and white kinescope, along with a few color videotape episodes. Only a handful of shows remain from the CBS daytime series ' first three years because of a then - common practice of wiping videotapes and reusing them due to tight storage space and even tighter budgets. Many daytime episodes (including some in color) from 1966 to 1968 exist, including the color finale.
Reruns of the black and white kinescopes were running on the Buzzr channel as of late April 2016.
To Tell the Truth returned only a year later, in autumn of 1969, in first - run syndication. During the early years of its run, the syndicated Truth became a highly rated component of stations 's early - evening schedules after the Federal Communications Commission imposed the Prime Time Access Rule in 1971, opening up at least a half hour (a full hour, usually, on Eastern Time Zone stations) to fill with non-network fare between either the local or network evening newscast and the start of the network 's prime - time schedule for the evening. Other stations found success running the program in place of a daytime network game or soap opera, or in the afternoon "fringe '' time period between the end of network daytime programming at 4: 30 / 3: 30 Central and the evening newscasts. This edition of the show was again based at the New York CBS - TV Studio 50 until 1971, when it moved to NBC Studio 6 - A in Rockefeller Center.
Each wrong vote in this version was worth $50 to the challengers; "complete stumps '' of the entire panel won the challengers a total of $500. There were two "games '' (actually rounds) per episode, and there was often a live demonstration or video to illustrate the central character 's story after many of the games.
The show was first released to local stations on September 8, 1969. A total of 1,715 episodes of this version were produced, with the series ending on September 7, 1978. Some markets that added the series after its 1969 release opted to carry the show for another season or two in order to catch up on the episodes that had not aired in their viewing area.
To host the revival series, Goodson and Todman made a call to original host Bud Collyer. But they had mis - timed their request, as Collyer had been suffering from a series of health issues that caused his death shortly thereafter, and he told the producers, "I 'm just not up to it. '' (Ironically, Clayton died the very same day the new Truth was being distributed to stations.) The next call they made was to Garry Moore, the former host of I 've Got a Secret. Although he had retired from television a few years earlier following the cancellation of his eponymous TV show, Moore decided the time was right to return and he accepted the offer to host the new series. Regular panelists included Orson Bean during the first year, Peggy Cass, Kitty Carlisle and Bill Cullen, who was also the designated substitute host whenever necessary. Many regulars from the original run appeared, including Tom Poston and Bert Convy.
In late 1976, during the eighth season, Moore was diagnosed with throat cancer and left for the remainder of the season to deal with his illness. As he had done numerous times before, Bill Cullen became his replacement. As Cullen 's time as host continued on, Mark Goodson noted how Cullen 's serving as host, rather than as a panelist, hurt the chemistry he had shared with Cass and Carlisle. A decision was made to have Cullen return to being a permanent panelist and give semi-regular panelist Joe Garagiola the hosting position. Garagiola stated that he was "pinch - hitting '' for Moore, who returned to the series for a farewell performance on the ninth - season premiere in 1977. Moore explained why he had left the program, then after presiding over one last game announced his final retirement from television and handed the host position to Garagiola permanently. To Tell the Truth ended production at the end of the season.
Johnny Olson stayed with To Tell the Truth when it moved to syndication. He left in 1972, when he moved to Los Angeles to announce the Goodson - Todman revivals of The Price Is Right and I 've Got a Secret. NBC staff announcer Bill Wendell replaced Olson from 1972 -- 77, with Alan Kalter taking over during the final season. Don Pardo, also an NBC staff announcer, served as backup announcer to Wendell and Kalter.
To Tell the Truth used three distinctive sets throughout its nine - year syndicated run. The first, designed by Theodore Cooper and dubbed by some as the "psychedelic '' set, was used for the first two seasons and the first four weeks of the third; with one man on the door. The second set was a toned - down set, with two additional men added on the door, and it was used from the fifth week of the third season through the first 30 weeks of the fourth. The third -- and longest - lived -- set, which Cooper also designed, was a blue - hued, gold - accented, block - motif set. This set was used for the remainder of the run. The show was the only edition of Truth to feature a theme song with lyrics. The theme was written and composed by Score Productions chief Robert A. Israel and Truth producer Paul Alter, along with veteran theme composer Charles Fox. The bulk of this version is intact. However, the current status of the first season is unknown, and is presumed to be lost to wiping. GSN has never rerun the first season of the show, and had always begun with the second season. One episode from the first season exists in the UCLA Television and Film Archive.
On September 8, 1980, a new To Tell the Truth series premiered in syndication. The new series was recorded at the same studio at NBC 's Rockefeller Center complex that the previous series had, and Canadian TV personality Robin Ward served as the host, with Alan Kalter returning as announcer. A new theme and set were commissioned for this edition of Truth. Even though previous regulars Bill Cullen, Peggy Cass, and Kitty Carlisle made frequent appearances, there was no regular panel for this edition. The new Truth aired for one season in syndication, but it never recaptured the popularity of the original, and aired its final episode on September 11, 1981.
Two games were played, and each wrong vote paid the challengers $100; $500 was paid if the entire panel had been fooled. No consolation prize was given if the entire panel correctly identified the subject.
After the second game, a new game called "One on One '' was played with the four impostors from earlier. One fact had been purposely withheld from the panel about one of the impostors and it was up to the panelists to determine correctly to which of the impostors it applied. One at a time, each panelist would be given twenty seconds to question the impostor sitting directly across from them and would then say whether he / she believed the fact applied to that impostor. Wrong votes still paid $100 with $500 paid if the panel did not correctly determine to whom the fact pertained.
The 1980 edition of To Tell the Truth was a rarity in that it was still based in New York while nearly all television game show production had moved to California. Both To Tell the Truth and The $50,000 Pyramid (which debuted at the midpoint of the 1980 -- 81 season and taped at ABC 's Studio 15) were the last two broadcast (non-cable) television game shows to emanate from New York until Who Wants to Be a Millionaire? came to television for the first time in 1999 and taped at the ABC Television Center in Lincoln Square. Millionaire continued to tape in New York until 2013. New York tapings for game shows were then used in 2016 for two ABC primetime game show revivals, Match Game and The $100,000 Pyramid.
To Tell the Truth returned again, and returned to a major broadcast network, for a run that lasted just nine months from September 3, 1990 to May 31, 1991. After spending many years originating from New York, the show originated for the first time from California at NBC 's Burbank studio complex. The show 's theme music was an orchestral remix of the 1969 -- 78 theme (minus the lyrics), and the show utilized the block - letter logo from 1973 -- 78. All episodes of this series exist and have aired on GSN in reruns.
The show 's two pilot episodes were hosted by actor Richard Kline with Charlie O'Donnell as announcer, and one of these was accidentally aired on September 3, 1990 in the Eastern Time Zone markets. When the show first made it to air, A Current Affair reporter Gordon Elliott hosted it, with Burton Richardson announcing and O'Donnell serving as his substitute. After eight weeks, a dispute with Elliott 's former employers in Australia forced him off American television altogether temporarily, and he was replaced with then - frequent panelist Lynn Swann. Swann, in turn, left due to his own conflicts, as he was a reporter for ABC Sports at the time, and Alex Trebek was brought in to be the permanent host. Trebek missed two episodes due to his wife going into labor during a taping and Mark Goodson filled in for him. When Trebek took the position on To Tell the Truth, he was already hosting Classic Concentration on NBC and Jeopardy! in syndication. This made him only the second host, after Jim Perry, to host three nationally televised game shows simultaneously and the first to do it entirely in the United States; Perry hosted a pair of Canadian - based game shows, Definition and Headline Hunters, while hosting Card Sharks in the United States from 1978 to 1981.
The celebrity panelists for To Tell the Truth during this period included several of the ' 70s panel stalwarts, including Kitty Carlisle, who appeared on a majority of the shows, taking the fourth and most upstage seat. The first seat, furthest downstage, saw Ron Masak and Orson Bean alternate on the panel for 34 of the 39 weeks the series was on air. The chair next to that was occupied by rotating guests, although voice actress Dana Hill appeared in the seat most often. The third chair most often featured David Niven, Jr. as a panelist, although Masak and Bean would also sit there if both were to appear on the same program. Polly Bergen and Peggy Cass, who began appearing on the original series, would appear from time to time, and other frequent panelists included Vicki Lawrence, Cindy Adams, and Betty White. The panelists were introduced in twos, with the male panelists escorting the female panelists down the staircase, followed by the host. For one week, Monty Hall (who would later replace Bob Hilton as a permanent guest host on the 1990 version of Let 's Make a Deal), sat in the first seat.
Two games were played with two sets of impostors. Any incorrect votes up to two paid $1,000. If three of the panelists had voted incorrectly, the players split $1,500. On the pilot, each incorrect vote earned $500. If the panel was fooled entirely, the players split $3,000.
After the second game, a new version of the "One on One '' game from the 1980 series was played. A seventh civilian player was brought out with two stories, and a member of the studio audience was given an opportunity to win money by trying to figure out which of the two stories were true. Each panelist was given the opportunity to ask the contestant one question for each story, and after both stories had been presented the audience member chose which one he / she thought was the truth. After the choice was made, the contestant revealed the right answer and if the audience member came up with it, he / she won $500. If the contestant stumped the audience member, that player won $1,000.
Occasionally, celebrities whose faces were not well known would attempt to stump the audience during this part of the game. For example, Hank Ketcham, the creator of Dennis the Menace and a challenger on the original To Tell the Truth in May 1962, tried during one episode to convince an audience member that he was really the songwriter to "Rudolph the Red - Nosed Reindeer '' (Johnny Marks had actually done this), but was unsuccessful in doing so.
The show then had a two - year run in syndication, starting in 2000, with John O'Hurley hosting, and Burton Richardson returning as the announcer. The series was again produced at NBC Studios in Burbank, California. Gary Stockdale supplied the music for this edition. In most markets, it was paired up with Family Feud, which was then hosted by Louie Anderson; O'Hurley would eventually host Feud from 2006 to 2010.
Actor Meshach Taylor was the only regular to appear on every episode of this edition, while Paula Poundstone was a regular during the first season. Panelists appearing in at least 6 weeks of episodes included Brooke Burns, Dave Coulier, Brad Sherwood, Traci Bingham, Kim Coles, and Cindy Margolis. The show 's website touted Coles and Burns as regulars for season two in place of Poundstone, though neither panelist was featured in every show that year. Kitty Carlisle appeared as a panelist for one episode in the first season, making her the only panelist to have appeared on all incarnations of this show to that point. It was Carlisle 's final appearance in the franchise, due to her death in 2007.
This edition of To Tell the Truth brought back the audience vote that the original series had last used. Their vote was revealed after the panel had cast their votes, just before O'Hurley asked for the subject to identify themself. Each incorrect vote paid $1,000, with a maximum of $5,000 available if the challengers managed to completely fool both the panel and the audience. (A tie in the audience vote or panel disqualification counted as a wrong vote, as they had in previous versions.) In the first several weeks of shows, a game that resulted in five incorrect votes was worth $10,000 for the challengers.
According to Steve Beverly 's tvgameshows.net, this edition of Truth never received a rating higher than 1.8. It was cancelled on January 28, 2002, only 96 episodes into its second season. However, repeats continued to air through March 15, 2002. All episodes of this series exist and have aired on GSN in reruns.
ABC ordered six episodes of the show, hosted by Anthony Anderson, which taped in July 2015 and began airing on ABC on June 14, 2016. Anderson is the second African - American host of the franchise; the first was Lynn Swann in the short - lived NBC daytime version from 1990. The first season featured three regular panelists: Betty White, NeNe Leakes and Jalen Rose. White would then gain the distinction of appearing on all three broadcast network versions of the show. Guest panelists included Tracee Ellis Ross, Iliza Shlesinger, Mike Tyson, Brooks Wheelan, Yvette Nicole Brown, and Daymond John. The 2016 version also included a house band, Cheche and His Band of Liars, as well as Doris Day Bowman, Anderson 's mother, as the "scorekeeper. ''
The 2016 version of the show departed from prior versions in a number of ways: Episodes lasted 60 minutes rather than 30 minutes. Contestants did not always claim to have the same name; some introduced themselves solely by claiming the central character 's story. The questioning period was not split distinctly among the panelists, and Anderson and Bowman occasionally participated in the questioning. Once in each episode, the two impostors from a round participated in "Before You Go, '' a second round in which one was the central character and the other was again an impostor. Many episodes ended with a stunt performed by one of the central characters. The panelists received one point for correctly identifying central characters, except in the final round, for which two points were awarded. While no mention was made of financial compensation for the impostors or the central characters, the losing panelist (in the event of a tie, Bowman chooses the loser) was subjected to "Tweet a Lie, '' in which the host would post an embarrassing tweet to that panelist 's Twitter account, which they could not delete for the next 24 hours.
On August 4, 2016, ABC announced it had renewed the show for a second season. The second season debuted January 1, 2017. The house band and regular panelists was eliminated (although Rose still made occasional appearances); Bowman still appeared on each episode. The second season resumed, with new episodes, beginning June 21, 2017.
Starting with the September 11, 2017 episode, the scoring system changed from 1 / 2 points per round to 10 / 20, and the losing panelist became the subject of a "Fake News '' story read by Anderson (replacing "Tweet a Lie ''). Also starting with this episode, Anderson took over announcing duties and the set was given some updates.
ABC announced that the show would air on Sundays in its 2017 fall schedule, but later delayed the show until Spring 2018. Expected celebrity panelists include Octavia Spencer, Gabby Douglas, and Dermot Mulroney.
A board game was released by Lowell in 1957.
During the run of the 2000 version, a single - player on - line game was offered by the short - lived website Uproar.com, and promoted by John O'Hurley at the end of each episode.
A video slot machine game, based on the 1969 version, was released to American casinos nationwide by Bally Gaming Systems in 2002.
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which is the largest group of islands in the world | List of islands by area - wikipedia
This list of islands by area includes all islands in the world greater than 2,500 km (970 sq mi) and several other islands over 1,000 km (390 sq mi), sorted in descending order by area. For comparison, continents are also shown.
Although the continental landmasses listed below are not normally called islands (by definition a landmass can not be both an island and a continent), they are, in fact, land entirely surrounded by water. In effect, they are enormous islands and are shown here for that reason. The figures are approximations and are for the continental mainland only.
This section of the list might not be complete, but covers almost all of the islands in the world over 1,000 km (390 sq mi). The area of some Antarctic islands is uncertain.
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how many preseason games do nhl teams play | Season structure of the NHL - wikipedia
The season structure of the National Hockey League (NHL) is divided into the regular season and the Stanley Cup playoffs. In the regular season, which generally runs from early October through early April, teams play 82 games which determine their standings. The three highest - placed teams in each division and two wild card teams per conference enter the playoff elimination tournament to determine the Stanley Cup champion.
Since the 1995 -- 96 season, each team in the NHL plays 82 regular season games, 41 each of home and road. In all, 1,271 games are scheduled (480 of them inter-conference).
Since the 2017 -- 2018 season, the NHL regular season formula was adjusted to account for the new conference alignments. Each team plays either four or five games against the other teams in its division (a total of 26 or 29 games in the Western Conference, 28 games in the Eastern Conference) as well as playing all non-divisional teams in their own conference thrice (21 or 24 games in the west, 24 games in the east). The remaining games of the season are inter-conference play (32 in the west, 30 in the east), allowing every team in the league to play every other team twice. One Western Conference exception is that one team from each division plays one less game inside Division and one more game inside Conference but outside their Division. Teams rotate every season. The schedule is structured so that every NHL team plays in every arena at least once per season. The San Jose Sharks and Colorado Avalanche played each other 4 times in 2013 -- 14 and 2015 -- 16, but only twice in 2014 -- 15 and 2016 -- 17 in favour of 5 games against all their divisional opponents.
The NHL All - Star Game and its accompanying festivities occur near the midpoint of the season, during which no regular season games take place. Every four years, from 1998, in lieu of an All - Star break, there used to be a break for the Winter Olympic Games; this break will not happen in 2018.
The league also schedules a Christmas break, and no regular season games are played on either Christmas Eve and Christmas Day. The NHL also has a holiday roster freeze between December 18 and 27, in which in most cases, players can not be traded, waived, or sent to the minor leagues.
Two points are awarded for a win (including in overtime or shootout), one point for a loss in overtime or shootout, and no points for a loss in regulation time. If, however, a team pulls their goaltender for an extra attacker during overtime and gives up an empty net goal, the point normally awarded for losing in overtime is forfeited. Pulling a goaltender in overtime was occasionally attempted in certain situations prior to the 2004 -- 05 NHL lockout near the end of a season if earning a single point in overtime would have been worthless for playoff qualification purposes, but with the introduction of the shootout it has not been attempted since.
At the end of the regular season, 16 teams qualify for the Stanley Cup playoffs, an elimination tournament consisting of three rounds of best - of - seven series to determine which team from each conference will advance to the final round, dubbed the Stanley Cup Final. The top three teams in each division earn automatic berths (6 teams per conference) and the next two teams in the conference earn wild - card spots. The First Round pits the top ranked team in the conference against the lower ranked wild - card and the other division winner against the higher ranked wild - card. The second and third place teams in each division play each other. The top ranked team in a division, along with its wild card opponent and the second and third ranked teams of the same division comprise a group or bracket during the First Round, and the two winners will meet in the Second Round. The Western Conference (Pacific vs. Central divisional bracket champions) and Eastern Conference (Atlantic vs. Metropolitan divisional bracket champions) Finals will determine who faces off in the Stanley Cup Finals.
Any ties in the standings are broken using the following protocols:
For example, on Saturday December 2, during the 2017 - 2018 season, the Chicago Blackhawks earned a point and the Minnesota Wild gained two in their respective games that evening, and thus became tied at 29 points with the Calgary Flames. None of these at the time were in the top three ranks of their divisions, so although the Flames were from the Pacific division and the others from the Central, they were ranked together among the other wild card teams in the Western Conference, occupying the third through fifth seeds for the wild card spots. These three, apart from having equal points, had at the time played the same number of games, 26, and had the same number of ROWs, 12. The Blackhawks had played twice thus far in the season against the Wild, the first being a home game loss in regulation time, and the other being a road game win also in regulation time, but no games against the Flames. The Wild, however, had played once in Calgary against the Flames, not long after their first win against the Blackhawks on the road. Since that was the Flames ' one and only game with the Wild, which therefore was a surplus of home games for the Flames in games against the Wild at the time, it was not included in the available points percentage used to determine their ranking at the time, and because they had not yet played the Blackhawks, they were therefore considered to have 0 % of points available against the clubs in the tie. The points earned and available in that game by the Wild against the Flames were also not considered for their available points percentage either, but because they had played an even number of home and road games against the Blackhawks, points from both of those games were considered, and having obtained 2 out of the 4 available, they were therefore reckoned to have 50 % of available points against teams in the draw. The Blackhawks likewise, having no games against the Flames were considered to have the same 50 % point percentage of available points in games between the clubs in that tie. As a result, the Flames were ranked the lowest among those three clubs, and given the fifth rank among the wild card teams, while the other two, still being tied at points percentage, were compared by their goal differentials, the Blackhawks having + 11 and the Wild + 1, thus the Chicago club was ranked third and the Wild fourth.
For the first two rounds, the higher - seeded team has home - ice advantage (regardless of point record). Thereafter, it goes to whoever has the better regular season record (no matter the seeding). The team with home - ice advantage hosts Games 1, 2, 5 and 7, while the opponent hosts Games 3, 4 and 6 (Games 5 -- 7 are played "if necessary '').
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when does the hobbit an unexpected journey end | The Hobbit: An Unexpected Journey - wikipedia
The Hobbit: An Unexpected Journey is a 2012 New Zealand - American epic high fantasy adventure film directed by Peter Jackson. It is the first installment in a three - part film adaptation based on the 1937 novel The Hobbit by J.R.R. Tolkien. It is followed by The Desolation of Smaug (2013) and The Battle of the Five Armies (2014), and together they act as a prequel to Jackson 's The Lord of the Rings film trilogy. The film 's screenplay was written by Peter Jackson, his longtime collaborators Fran Walsh and Philippa Boyens, and Guillermo del Toro, who was originally chosen to direct the film before leaving the project in 2010.
The story is set in Middle - earth sixty years before the events of The Lord of the Rings, and portions of the film are adapted from the appendices to Tolkien 's The Return of the King. An Unexpected Journey tells the tale of Bilbo Baggins (Martin Freeman), who is convinced by the wizard Gandalf (Ian McKellen) to accompany thirteen Dwarves, led by Thorin Oakenshield (Richard Armitage), on a quest to reclaim the Lonely Mountain from the dragon Smaug. The ensemble cast also includes James Nesbitt, Ken Stott, Cate Blanchett, Ian Holm, Christopher Lee, Hugo Weaving, Elijah Wood and Andy Serkis, and features Sylvester McCoy, Barry Humphries and Manu Bennett.
An Unexpected Journey premiered on 28 November 2012 in New Zealand and was released internationally on 12 December 2012. The film has grossed over $1 billion at the box office, surpassing both The Fellowship of the Ring and The Two Towers nominally, becoming the fourth highest - grossing film of 2012 and the 26th highest - grossing film of all time. Receiving mixed to positive reviews from critics, the film was nominated for three Academy Awards for Best Visual Effects, Best Production Design, and Best Makeup and Hairstyling. It was also nominated for three British Academy Film Awards.
Approaching his 111th birthday, the hobbit Bilbo Baggins begins writing down the full story of his adventure 60 years earlier for the benefit of his nephew Frodo. Long before Bilbo 's involvement, the Dwarf king Thrór brings an era of prosperity for his kin under the Lonely Mountain until the arrival of the dragon Smaug. Destroying the nearby town of Dale, Smaug drives the Dwarves out of their mountain and takes their hoard of gold. Thrór 's grandson, Thorin, sees King Thranduil and his Wood - elves on a nearby hillside, and is dismayed when they leave rather than aid his people, resulting in Thorin 's everlasting hatred of Elves.
In the Shire, 50 - year - old Bilbo is tricked by the wizard Gandalf the Grey into hosting a party for Thorin and his company of dwarves: Balin, Dwalin, Fíli, Kíli, Dori, Nori, Ori, Óin, Glóin, Bifur, Bofur, and Bombur. Gandalf 's aim is to recruit Bilbo as the company 's "burglar '' to aid them in their quest to enter the Lonely Mountain. Bilbo is unwilling to accept at first, but has a change of heart after the company leaves without him the next day. Travelling onward, the company is captured by three trolls after their ponies are captured. Bilbo stalls the trolls from eating them until dawn. Gandalf exposes the trolls to sunlight, turning them to stone. They search the trolls ' cave and find treasure and Elven blades. Thorin and Gandalf each take an Elf - made blade -- Orcrist and Glamdring, respectively. Gandalf also finds an elven shortsword ("Sting ''), which he gives to Bilbo.
The wizard Radagast the Brown finds Gandalf and the company, and recounts an encounter at Dol Guldur with the Necromancer, a sorcerer who has been corrupting Greenwood with dark magic. Gandalf leads the company through a stone passage to Rivendell. There, Lord Elrond discloses a hidden indication of a secret door on the company 's map of the Lonely Mountain, which will be visible only on Durin 's Day. Gandalf later approaches the White Council -- consisting of Elrond, Galadriel and Saruman the White -- and presents a Morgul blade Radagast obtained from Dol Guldur as a sign that the Necromancer is linked to the Witch - king of Angmar. When Saruman presses concern to the more present matter of the dwarves and Smaug, requesting that Gandalf put an end to the quest, Gandalf secretly reveals to Galadriel he had anticipated this and had the dwarves move forward without him.
The company journeys into the Misty Mountains where they find themselves amid a colossal battle between stone giants. They take refuge in a cave and are captured by Goblins, who take them to their leader, the Great Goblin. Bilbo becomes separated from the dwarves and falls into a crevice where he encounters Gollum, who unknowingly drops a golden ring. Pocketing the ring, Bilbo finds himself confronted by Gollum. They play a riddle game, wagering that Bilbo will be shown the way out if he wins or eaten by Gollum if he loses. Bilbo eventually wins by asking Gollum what he has in his pocket. Noticing his ring is lost, Gollum realizes that Bilbo possesses it and chases him. Bilbo discovers that the ring grants him invisibility, but when he has a chance to kill Gollum, Bilbo spares his life out of pity and escapes while Gollum shouts his hatred towards the hobbit Baggins.
Meanwhile, the Great Goblin reveals to the dwarves that Azog, an Orc war - chief who beheaded Thrór and lost his forearm to Thorin in battle outside the Dwarven kingdom of Moria, has placed a bounty on Thorin 's head. Gandalf arrives and leads the dwarves in an escape, killing the Great Goblin. Bilbo exits the mountain and rejoins the company, keeping secret his newly obtained ring. The company is ambushed by Azog and his hunting party, and takes refuge in trees. Thorin charges at Azog, who overpowers and severely injures him with his Warg. Bilbo saves Thorin from the orcs just as the company is rescued by eagles. They escape to the safety of the Carrock where Gandalf revives Thorin, who renounces his previous disdain for Bilbo after being saved by him. They see the Lonely Mountain in the distance, where a thrush knocks an acorn against a stone, waking Smaug.
The characters of Galadriel, Saruman, Radagast the Brown, and Frodo Baggins appear in the novel The Lord of the Rings, but not in the novel The Hobbit. (Radagast was also dropped from the film version of Lord of the Rings, merely being mentioned in passing). Gandalf, Gollum, Bilbo Baggins and the Necromancer appear in both novels, although the latter is referred to in Lord of the Rings as Sauron. Only Bilbo is portrayed by a different actor in the two sets of films, as the age difference affects his character moreso. The older Bilbo (Ian Holm) appears in the prologue section of this film.
Cameos in the film include director Peter Jackson and editor Jabez Olssen as Erebor Dwarf refugees running from the dragon Smaug in the opening prologue; picture double Hayden J. Weal as a dwarf carrying gems during Thranduil 's visit in Erebor; James Nesbitt 's then - wife Sonia Forbes - Adam as Belladonna Took, Bilbo 's mother; Nesbitt 's daughters Peggy and Mary as children of Dale; Luke Evans as Girion; and production designer Dan Hennah as the Old Took, Belladonna 's father. Peter Jackson 's daughter, Philippa Boyens 's second son, and Andy Serkis ' children made cameos in the Old Took 's party; and Jabez Olssen 's wife and children, Weta Workshop founder Richard Taylor 's children, and set decorator Ra Vincent 's children all cameo in the market scene. Writer for Ain'tItCoolNews.com, Eric Vespe, portrays Fredegar Chubb, the fish seller at the market. The cameos in the Old Took 's party and the market scene are shown only in the extended edition.
A film adaptation of J.R.R. Tolkien 's novel The Hobbit (1937) was in development for several years after the critical and financial success of The Lord of the Rings film trilogy (2001 -- 2003), co-written, co-produced, and directed by Peter Jackson. Jackson was initially going to produce a two - film adaptation of The Hobbit, which was to be directed by Guillermo del Toro. Del Toro left the project in May 2010, after about two years of working with Jackson and his production team, due to delays caused in part by financial problems at Metro - Goldwyn - Mayer. Jackson was announced as director that October.
The Hobbit films were produced back to back, like The Lord of the Rings films. Principal photography for The Hobbit films began on 21 March 2011 in New Zealand and ended on 6 July 2012, after 266 days of filming. Pick - ups for An Unexpected Journey were filmed in July 2012 as well. Work on the film was expected to be completed on 26 November, just two days prior to the film 's Wellington premiere. Peter Jackson would later comment that Del Toro 's sudden exit created problems as he felt he had inadequate preparation time which led to him shooting the films with unfinished scripts and without storyboards
The Hobbit: An Unexpected Journey used a shooting and projection frame rate of 48 frames per second, becoming the first feature film with a wide release to do so. The new projection rate was advertised as "High Frame Rate '' to the general public. However, the majority of cinemas projected the film at the industry standard 24 fps after the film was converted.
The musical score for An Unexpected Journey was composed, orchestrated, conducted and produced by Howard Shore. It was performed by the London Philharmonic Orchestra, London Voices and Tiffin ' Boys Choir and featured several vocal soloists. The score reprised many themes from the Lord of the Rings trilogy but also introduced numerous new themes, including Shore 's orchestral setting of the diegetic "Misty Mountains '' song.
The original song "Song of the Lonely Mountain '', sung by Neil Finn, served as the end title theme. The album received nominations for various awards and peaked in the top ten charts in Korea and the United States.
According to news reports, up to 27 animals died during the production of The Hobbit: An Unexpected Journey.
The first trailer for An Unexpected Journey was first screened before the Jackson - produced The Adventures of Tintin in the US on 21 December 2011, and released on the Internet on the same day. Geoff Boucher of the Los Angeles Times said, "While it was all too fleeting there was enough in it to stir the heart of fans. '' Jen Chaney of The Washington Post stated, "Visually and tonally, this preview for (An Unexpected Journey) looks like a perfect match for the Frodo Baggins tales that released in 2001, 2002 and 2003. (...) But plot is n't the main matter at hand in the trailer... This clip is all about reacquainting us with Middle - earth. ''
Jackson, Freeman, McKellen, Armitage, Serkis, Wood, and co-screenwriter Philippa Boyens appeared at the 2012 San Diego Comic - Con International promoting the film and screening 12 minutes of footage.
On 8 October 2012, Wellington Mayor Celia Wade - Brown announced that for the week of the premiere of The Hobbit: An Unexpected Journey, the capital of New Zealand would be renamed the "Middle of Middle - earth ''.
Three video games were released in December for different platforms to coincide with the theatrical release of the film featuring tie - in materials. Those were:
The world premiere of The Hobbit: An Unexpected Journey took place on 28 November 2012 at the Embassy Theatre in Wellington, New Zealand, with a full theatrical release in New Zealand on 12 December. The film was released 13 December 2012 in Europe, 14 December 2012 in India, Canada and United States, and 26 December 2012 (Boxing Day) in Australia. It was also screened at the 65th Royal Film Performance in London on 12 December 2012.
Around 100,000 people lined the red carpet on Courtenay Place for the film 's premiere, and the entire event was broadcast live on TV in New Zealand, as well as streaming over the internet.
An extended edition of the film had a limited re-release on 5 October 2015, accompanied by a special greeting from Peter Jackson.
The Hobbit: An Unexpected Journey was released on DVD, Blu - ray and Blu - ray 3D on 19 March 2013, with an extended edition, with 13 minutes of additional footage and three bonus discs containing approximately nine hours of special features, released on 5 November 2013. In the United Kingdom, the film was released on 8 April 2013.
The Hobbit: An Unexpected Journey grossed $303 million in the United States and Canada and $718.1 million elsewhere for a worldwide total of $1.021 billion, becoming the 15th film in history to reach $1 billion. It is the fourth highest - grossing film of 2012 and the 26th highest - grossing film of all time. It scored a worldwide opening weekend of $222.6 million, including $15.1 million from 452 IMAX theaters around the world, which was an IMAX opening - weekend record for December.
An Unexpected Journey earned $13.0 million during its midnight run, setting a December midnight record (previously held by Avatar). It then topped the box office on its opening day (Friday, 14 December 2012) earning $37.1 million from 4,045 theaters (midnight earnings included), setting a December opening - day record (previously held by The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King). By the end of its first weekend it grossed $84.62 million, finishing in first place and setting a then December opening - weekend record (previously held by I Am Legend). 3D showings accounted for 49 % of weekend ticket sales while IMAX showings generated $10.1 million (12 % of the weekend gross). The film held onto the top spot for a second weekend, despite declining 57 % to $36.7 million. An Unexpected Journey remained at the top of the box office during its third weekend, dropping only 11 % to $32.9 million.
An Unexpected Journey earned $11.2 million on its opening day (Wednesday, 12 December 2012) from 16 markets. Through its first Sunday, it managed a five - day opening - weekend gross of just under $138.0 million. It topped the box office outside North America on two consecutive weekends. In Sweden, it scored the second - largest five - day opening with $6.20 million (behind Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows -- Part 2). Its three largest openings occurred in the UK, Ireland, and Malta ($18.8 million); Russia and the CIS ($17.8 million), and Germany ($17.1 million).
After the New Zealand premiere, Television New Zealand noted that critical responses were "largely positive '' but with "mixed responses to the film 's technological advances ''. After the film 's international release, Forbes called reviews "unenthusiastic '' and the Los Angeles Times said the critical consensus is that the film "stumbles ''. The film holds a 64 % rating on Rotten Tomatoes based on 270 reviews, with an average score of 6.6 / 10. The site 's consensus reads "Peter Jackson 's return to Middle - earth is an earnest, visually resplendent trip, but the film 's deliberate pace robs the material of some of its majesty. '' On Metacritic, the film has a score of 58 out of 100 based on collected reviews from 40 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews ''. The main contention of debate was regarding the film 's length, its controversial High Frame Rate, and whether or not the film matched the level of expectation built from The Lord of the Rings film trilogy, while the film 's visual style, special effects, music score, and cast were praised, especially the performances of Martin Freeman, Ian McKellen, Richard Armitage, and Andy Serkis. According to CinemaScore polls, the film received an "A '' grade from audiences.
Peter Travers of Rolling Stone criticised the film 's use of "48 frames per second... Couple that with 3D and the movie looks so hyper - real that you see everything that 's fake about it... The 169 minutes of screen time hurts, since the first 45 minutes of the film traps us in the hobbit home of the young Bilbo Baggins, '' but continued with "Once Bilbo and the dwarves set on their journey... things perk up considerably. Trolls, orcs, wolves and mountainous monsters made of remarkably pliable stone bring out the best in Jackson and his Rings co-screenwriters Fran Walsh and Philippa Boyens. '' Robbie Collin of The Daily Telegraph gave the film two stars out of five and said "Thank heavens for Andy Serkis, whose riddling return as Gollum steals the entire film. It is the only time the digital effects and smoother visuals underline, rather than undermine, the mythical drama of Bilbo 's adventure. As a lover of cinema, Jackson 's film bored me rigid; as a lover of Tolkien, it broke my heart. '' He thought the film was "so stuffed with extraneous faff and flummery that it often barely feels like Tolkien at all -- more a dire, fan - written internet tribute. '' Time Out magazine 's Keith Uhlich praised the film as "a mesmerizing study in excess, Peter Jackson and company 's long - awaited prequel to the Lord of the Rings saga is bursting with surplus characters, wall - to - wall special effects, unapologetically drawn - out story tangents and double the frame rate (48 over 24) of the average movie. '' The Guardian magazine 's Peter Bradshaw commented on use of high frame rate technology and length of the film, writing "After 170 minutes, I felt that I had had enough of a pretty good thing. The trilogy will test the stamina of the non-believers, and many might feel... that the traditional filmic look of Lord of the Rings was better. '' Richard Lawson from The Atlantic Wire commented on the film 's "video game '' - like visual effects, saying "this is a dismally unattractive movie, featuring too many shots that I 'm sure were lovely at some point but are now ruined and chintzified by the terrible technology monster. ''
Matthew Leyland of Total Film gave the film a five - star rating and said that it is "Charming, spectacular, technically audacious... in short, everything you expect from a Peter Jackson movie. A feeling of familiarity does take hold in places, but this is an epically entertaining first course. '' Ed Gonzalez of Slant Magazine awarded the film three stars out of four and called it "The first of an arguably gratuitous three - part cine - extravaganza. '' Todd McCarthy of The Hollywood Reporter said that "Jackson and his colleagues have created a purist 's delight... (And leads to) an undeniably exciting, action - packed climax. '' McCarthy did however think that "Though there are elements in this new film that are as spectacular as much of the Rings trilogy was... there is much that is flat - footed and tedious as well, especially in the early going. '' Kate Muir of The Times gave the film four out of five stars, saying Martin Freeman "perks up '' the film as Bilbo Baggins and that Jackson 's use of 48 frames per second 3D technology gives the film "lurid clarity ''. Dan Jolin of Empire gave the film four out of five stars and thought "The Hobbit plays younger and lighter than Fellowship and its follow - ups, but does right by the faithful and has a strength in Martin Freeman 's Bilbo that may yet see this trilogy measure up to the last one '' and he stated that "There is treasure here ''.
The film received three Academy Award nominations for Best Visual Effects, Best Production Design, and Best Makeup and Hairstyling as well as praise from critics organization Broadcast Film Critics Association and from critics groups, such as the Houston Film Critics Society, Phoenix Film Critics Society and Washington D.C. Area Film Critics Association. The film 's team won an Academy Scientific and Technical Award -- the Scientific and Engineering Award for inventing a technique which has made huge advances in bringing to life computer - generated characters such as Gollum in the film to the screen. In January 2013, it was announced The Hobbit: An Unexpected Journey was nominated in the Best Live Action Motion Picture category at the Cinema Audio Society Awards, awarded on 16 February.
An Unexpected Journey led the nominations at the 39th Saturn Awards with nine, more than The Lord of the Rings: The Fellowship of the Ring which earned eight nominations at the time of its release. These nominations included Best Director (Peter Jackson 's eleventh Saturn Award nomination), Best Actor for Martin Freeman, Best Supporting Actor for Ian McKellen (his third nomination for playing Gandalf) and Best Music for Howard Shore. It won Best Production Design for Dan Hennah, Ra Vincent and Simon Bright.
An Unexpected Journey also earned five nominations at the 18th Empire Awards, winning in two categories, Best Actor for Martin Freeman and Best Science Fiction / Fantasy Film. It also earned two nominations at the 2013 MTV Movie Awards in the categories Best Scared - as - S * * t Performance and Best Hero for Martin Freeman. Freeman won the latter award for his performance. It has gathered 6 nominations at the 2013 SFX Awards, including Best Film, Best Director for Peter Jackson and four acting nominations.
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which of the following is not part of the appendicular skeleton | Appendicular skeleton - wikipedia
The appendicular skeleton is the portion of the skeleton of vertebrates consisting of the bones that support the appendages. Appendages appeared as fins in early fish, and subsequently evolved into the limbs of tetrapods. The appendicular skeleton includes the skeletal elements within the limbs, as well as supporting pectoral and pelvic girdles in the case of tetrapods (these are lacking in fish). The word appendicular is the adjective of the noun appendage, which itself means a part that is joined to something larger.
Of the 206 bones in the human skeleton, the appendicular skeleton comprises 126. Functionally it is involved in locomotion (lower limbs) of the axial skeleton and manipulation of objects in the environment (upper limbs).
The appendicular skeleton forms during development from cartilage, by the process of endochondral ossification.
The appendicular skeleton is divided into six major regions:
It is important to realize that through anatomical variation it is common for the skeleton to have many accessory bones (sutural bones in the skull, cervical ribs, lumbar ribs and even extra lumbar vertebrae).
The appendicular skeleton of 126 bones and the axial skeleton of 80 bones together form the complete skeleton of 206 bones in the human body. Unlike the axial skeleton, the appendicular skeleton is unfused. This allows for a much greater range of motion.
Appendicular skeleton (shown in red).
Illustration depicting anterior and posterior view of appendicular skeleton
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when did the hpv vaccine come out in usa | HPV vaccines - wikipedia
Human papilloma virus (HPV) vaccines are vaccines that prevent infection by certain types of human papillomavirus. Available vaccines protect against either two, four, or nine types of HPV. All vaccines protect against at least HPV type 16 and 18 that cause the greatest risk of cervical cancer. It is estimated that they may prevent 70 % of cervical cancer, 80 % of anal cancer, 60 % of vaginal cancer, 40 % of vulvar cancer, and possibly some mouth cancer. They additionally prevent some genital warts with the vaccines against 4 and 9 HPV types providing greater protection.
The World Health Organization (WHO) recommends HPV vaccines as part of routine vaccinations in all countries, along with other prevention measures. The vaccines require two or three doses depending on a person 's age and immune status. Vaccinating girls around the ages of nine to thirteen is typically recommended. The vaccines provide protection for at least 5 to 10 years. Cervical cancer screening is still required following vaccination. Vaccinating a large portion of the population may also benefit the unvaccinated. In those already infected the vaccines are not effective.
HPV vaccines are very safe. Pain at the site of injection occurs in about 80 % of people. Redness and swelling at the site and fever may also occur. No link to Guillain -- Barré syndrome has been found.
The first HPV vaccine became available in 2006. As of 2017, 71 countries include it in their routine vaccinations, at least for girls. They are on the World Health Organization 's List of Essential Medicines, the most effective and safe medicines needed in a health system. The wholesale cost in the developing world is about US $ 47 a dose as of 2014. In the United States it costs more than US $200. Vaccination may be cost effective in the developing world.
HPV vaccines are used to prevent HPV infection and therefore cervical cancer. They are recommended for women who are 9 to 25 years old who have not been exposed to HPV. However, since it is unlikely that a woman will have already contracted all nine viruses, and because HPV is primarily sexually transmitted, the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention has recommended vaccination for women up to 26 years of age.
Since the vaccine only covers some high - risk types of HPV, cervical cancer screening is recommended even after vaccination. In the US, the recommendation is for women to receive routine Pap smears beginning at age 21. Additional vaccine candidate research is occurring for next generation products to extend protection against additional HPV types.
HPV vaccines are approved for males in several countries, including Canada, Australia, South Korea, Hong Kong (SAR of China), the United Kingdom, New Zealand and the United States.
Gardasil has been shown to also be effective in preventing genital warts in males. On 9 September 2009, an advisory panel recommended that the FDA license Gardasil in the United States for boys and men ages 9 -- 26 for the prevention of genital warts. Soon after that, the vaccine was approved by the FDA for use in males aged 9 to 26 for prevention of genital warts and anal cancer. While Gardasil and Gardasil - 9 vaccines have been approved for males, the third HPV vaccine, Cervarix, is not administered to males. Unlike the Gardasil - based vaccines, Cervarix does not protect against genital warts.
On October 25, 2011, an advisory panel for the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) voted to recommend that the vaccine should be given to boys ages 11 -- 12. The panel 's recommendation is intended to prevent genital warts and anal cancers in males, and possibly prevent head and neck cancer (though the vaccine 's effectiveness against head and neck cancers has not yet been proven). The Committee also made the vaccination recommendation for males 13 to 21 years who have not been vaccinated previously or who have not completed the three - dose series.
In males, Gardasil may reduce their risk of genital warts and precancerous lesions caused by HPV. This reduction in precancerous lesions might be predicted to reduce the rates of penile and anal cancer in men. Since penile and anal cancers are much less common than cervical cancer, HPV vaccination of young men is likely to be much less cost - effective than for young women.
From a public health point of view, vaccinating men as well as women decreases the virus pool within the population, but is only cost - effective if the uptake in the female population is extremely low. In the United States, the cost per quality - adjusted life year is greater than $100,000 for vaccinating the male population, compared to the less than $50,000 for vaccinating the female population. This assumes a 75 % vaccination rate. In early 2013 the two companies who sell the most common vaccines announced a price cut to less than $5 per dose to poor countries, as opposed to $130 per dose in the US.
As with females, the vaccine should be administered before infection with the HPV types covered by the vaccine occurs. Vaccination before adolescence, therefore, makes it more likely that the recipient has not been exposed to HPV.
Gardasil is in particular demand among men who have sex with men, who are at higher risk for genital warts, penile cancer, and anal cancer.
Harald zur Hausen 's support for vaccinating boys (so that they will be protected, and thereby so will women) was joined by professors Harald Moi and Ole - Erik Iversen in 2011.
When Gardasil was first introduced, it was recommended as a prevention for cervical cancer for women that were 25 years old or younger. New evidence suggests that all HPV vaccines are effective in preventing cervical cancer for women up to 45 years of age.
In November 2007, Merck presented new data on Gardasil. In an investigational study, Gardasil reduced the incidence of HPV types 6, 11, 16 and 18 - related persistent infection and disease in women through age 45. The study evaluated women who had not contracted at least one of the HPV types targeted by the vaccine by the end of the three - dose vaccination series. Merck planned to submit this data before the end of 2007 to the FDA, and to seek an indication for Gardasil for women through age 45.
HPV vaccines have been shown to prevent cervical dysplasia from the high - risk HPV types 16 and 18 and provide some protection against a few closely related high - risk HPV types. However, there are other high - risk HPV types that are not affected by the vaccines. The protection against HPV 16 and 18 has lasted at least 8 years after vaccination for Gardasil and more than 9 years for Cervarix. It is thought that booster vaccines will not be necessary.
Gardasil also protects against low - risk HPV types 6 and 11, which are much less likely to cause cancer, but do cause genital warts.
A recent analysis of data from a clinical trial of Cervarix found that this vaccine is just as effective at protecting women against persistent HPV 16 and 18 infection in the anus as it is at protecting them from these infections in the cervix. Overall, about 30 percent of cervical cancers will not be prevented by these vaccines. Also, in the case of Gardasil, 10 percent of genital warts will not be prevented by the vaccine. Neither vaccine prevents other sexually transmitted diseases, nor do they treat existing HPV infection or cervical cancer.
HPV types 16, 18 and 45 contribute to 94 % of cervical adenocarcinoma (cancers originating in the glandular cells of the cervix). While most cervical cancer arises in the squamous cells, adenocarcinomas make up a sizable minority of cancers. Further, Pap smears are not as effective at detecting adenocarcinomas, so where Pap screening programs are in place, a larger proportion of the remaining cancers are adenocarcinomas. Trials suggest that HPV vaccines may also reduce the incidence of adenocarcinoma.
Two doses of the vaccine may work as well as three doses. The CDC recommends two doses in those less than 15 and three doses in those over 15.
A study with 9vHPV, a 9 - valent HPV vaccine that protects against HPV types 6, 11, 16, 18, 31, 33, 45, 52, and 58, came to the result that the rate of high - grade cervical, vulvar, or vaginal disease was the same as when using a quadrivalent HPV vaccine. A lack of a difference may have been caused by the study design of including women 16 to 26 years of age, who may largely already have been infected with the five additional HPV types that are additionally covered by the 9 - valent vaccine.
The National Cancer Institute states "Widespread vaccination has the potential to reduce cervical cancer deaths around the world by as much as two - thirds if all women were to take the vaccine and if protection turns out to be long - term. In addition, the vaccines can reduce the need for medical care, biopsies, and invasive procedures associated with the follow - up from abnormal Pap tests, thus helping to reduce health care costs and anxieties related to abnormal Pap tests and follow - up procedures. ''
Current preventive vaccines protect against the two HPV types (16 and 18) that cause about 70 % of cervical cancers worldwide. Because of the distribution of HPV types associated with cervical cancer, the vaccines are likely to be most effective in Asia, Europe, and North America. Some other high - risk types cause a larger percentage of cancers in other parts of the world. Vaccines that protect against more of the types common in cancers would prevent more cancers, and be less subject to regional variation. For instance, a vaccine against the seven types most common in cervical cancers (16, 18, 45, 31, 33, 52, 58) would prevent an estimated 87 % of cervical cancers worldwide.
Only 41 % of women with cervical cancer in the developing world get medical treatment. Therefore, prevention of HPV by vaccination may be a more effective way of lowering the disease burden in developing countries than cervical screening. The European Society of Gynecological Oncology sees the developing world as most likely to benefit from HPV vaccination. However, individuals in many resource - limited nations, Kenya for example, are unable to afford the vaccine.
In more developed countries, populations that do not receive adequate medical care, such as poor or minorities in the United States or parts of Europe also have less access to cervical screening and appropriate treatment, and are similarly more likely to benefit. Comments made by Dr. Diane Harper, a researcher for the HPV vaccines, were interpreted as indicating that in countries where Pap smear screening is common, it will take vaccination of a large proportion of women in order to further reduce cervical cancer rates. She has also encouraged women to continue pap screening after they are vaccinated and to be aware of potential adverse effects.
According to the CDC, as of 2012, use of the HPV vaccine had cut rates of infection with HPV - 6, - 11, - 16 and - 18 in half in American teenagers (from 11.5 % to 4.3 %) and by one third in American women in their early twenties (from 18.5 % to 12.1 %).
While the use of HPV vaccines can help reduce cervical cancer deaths by two thirds around the world, not everyone is eligible for vaccination. There are some factors that exclude people from receiving HPV vaccines. These factors include:
In the Gardasil clinical trials, 1,115 pregnant women received the HPV vaccine. Overall, the proportions of pregnancies with an adverse outcome were comparable in subjects who received Gardasil and subjects who received placebo. However, the clinical trials had a relatively small sample size. Currently, the vaccine is not recommended for pregnant women. The long - term effects of the vaccine on fertility are not known, but no effects are anticipated.
The FDA has classified the HPV vaccine as a pregnancy Category B, meaning there is no apparent harm to the fetus in animal studies. HPV vaccines have not been causally related with adverse pregnancy outcomes or adverse effects on the fetus. However, data on vaccination during pregnancy is very limited and vaccination during the pregnancy term should be delayed until more information is available. If a woman is found to be pregnant during the three - dose series of vaccination, the series will be postponed until pregnancy has been completed. While there is no indication for intervention for vaccine dosages administered during pregnancy, patients and health - care providers are encouraged to report exposure to vaccines to the appropriate HPV vaccine pregnancy registry.
The HPV vaccine prevents is generally safe with no increased risk of serious adverse effects. HPV vaccines are approved for use in over 100 countries, with more than 100 million doses distributed worldwide. Extensive clinical trial and post-marketing safety surveillance data indicate that both Gardasil and Cervarix are well tolerated and safe. When comparing the HPV vaccine to a placebo (control) vaccine taken by women, there is no difference in the risk of severe adverse events.
Gardasil is a 3 - dose (injection) vaccine. As of 8 September 2013 there have been more than 57 million doses distributed in the United States, though it is unknown how many have been administered. There have been 22,000 Vaccine Adverse Event Reporting System (VAERS) reports following the vaccination. Ninety - two percent were reports of events considered to be non-serious (e.g., fainting, pain and swelling at the injection site (arm), headache, nausea and fever), and 9 percent were considered to be serious (death, permanent disability, life - threatening illness and hospitalization). There is no proven causal link between the vaccine and serious adverse effects; VAERS reports include any effects whether coincidental or causal. The CDC states: "When evaluating data from VAERS, it is important to note that for any reported event, no cause - and - effect relationship has been established. VAERS receives reports on all potential associations between vaccines and adverse events. ''
As of 1 September 2009, there have been 44 U.S. reports of death in females after receiving the vaccine. None of the 27 confirmed deaths of women and girls who had taken the vaccine were linked to the vaccine. There is no evidence suggesting that Gardasil causes or raises the risk of Guillain -- Barré syndrome. Additionally, there have been rare reports of blood clots forming in the heart, lungs, and legs. A 2015 review conducted by the European Medicines Agency 's Pharmacovigilance Risk Assessment Committee concluded that evidence does not support the idea that HPV vaccination causes complex regional pain syndrome or postural orthostatic tachycardia syndrome.
As of 8 September 2013 the CDC continues to recommend Gardasil vaccination for the prevention of four types of HPV. Merck, the manufacturer of Gardasil, has committed to ongoing research assessing the vaccine 's safety.
According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) and the FDA, the rate of adverse side effects related to Gardasil immunization in the safety review was consistent with what has been seen in the safety studies carried out before the vaccine was approved and were similar to those seen with other vaccines. However, a higher proportion of syncope (fainting) was seen with Gardasil than is usually seen with other vaccines. The FDA and CDC have reminded health care providers that, to prevent falls and injuries, all vaccine recipients should remain seated or lying down and be closely observed for 15 minutes after vaccination. The HPV vaccination does not appear to reduce the willingness of women to undergo pap tests.
The HPV vaccines are based on hollow virus - like particles (VLPs) assembled from recombinant HPV coat proteins. The virus possesses circular double stranded DNA and a viral shell that is composed of 72 capsomeres. Every subunit of the virus is composed of two proteins molecules, L1 and L2. The reason why this virus has the capability to affect the skin and the mucous layers is due to its structure. The primary structures expressed in these areas are E1 and E2, these proteins are responsible for the replication of the virus. E1 is a highly conserved protein in the virus, E1 is in charge of the production of viral copies is also involved in every step of replication process. The second component of this process is E2 ensures that non-specific interaction occurs while interacting with E1. As a result of these proteins working together it assures that numerous copies are made within the host cell. The structure of the virus is critical because this influences the infection affinity of the virus. Knowing the structure of the virus allowed for the development of an efficient vaccine, such as Gardasil and Cervarix. The vaccines target the two high - risk HPVs, types 16 and 18 that cause the most cervical cancers. Gardasil 's proteins are synthesized by the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Its protein makeup allows it to target four types of HPV. Gardasil contains inactive L1 proteins from four different HPV strains: 6, 11, 16, and 18. Each vaccine dose contains 225 μg of aluminum, 9.56 mg of sodium chloride, 0.78 mg of L - histidine, 50 μg of polysorbate 80, 35 μg of sodium borate, and water. The combination of ingredients totals 0.5 mL. Together, these two HPV types currently cause about 70 percent of all cervical cancer. Gardasil also targets HPV types 6 and 11, which together currently cause about 90 percent of all cases of genital warts.
Gardasil and Cervarix are designed to elicit virus - neutralizing antibody responses that prevent initial infection with the HPV types represented in the vaccine. The vaccines have been shown to offer 100 percent protection against the development of cervical pre-cancers and genital warts caused by the HPV types in the vaccine, with few or no side effects. The protective effects of the vaccine are expected to last a minimum of 4.5 years after the initial vaccination.
While the study period was not long enough for cervical cancer to develop, the prevention of these cervical precancerous lesions (or dysplasias) is believed highly likely to result in the prevention of those cancers.
The vaccine was first developed by the University of Queensland in Australia and the final form was made by researchers at the University of Queensland, Georgetown University Medical Center, University of Rochester, and the U.S. National Cancer Institute. Researchers Ian Frazer and Jian Zhou at the University of Queensland have been accorded priority under U.S. patent law for the invention of the HPV vaccine 's basis, the VLPs. In 2006, the FDA approved the first preventive HPV vaccine, marketed by Merck & Co. under the trade name Gardasil. According to a Merck press release, in the second quarter of 2007, it had been approved in 80 countries, many under fast - track or expedited review. Early in 2007, GlaxoSmithKline filed for approval in the United States for a similar preventive HPV vaccine, known as Cervarix. In June 2007 this vaccine was licensed in Australia, and it was approved in the European Union in September 2007. Cervarix was approved for use in the U.S. in October 2009.
Harald zur Hausen, a German researcher who initially suspected and later helped to prove that genital HPV infection can lead to cervical cancer, was awarded half of the $1.4 million Nobel Prize in Medicine for his work. Verification that cervical cancer is caused by an infectious agent led several other groups (see above) to develop vaccines against HPV strains that cause most cases of cervical cancer. The other half of the award went to Françoise Barré - Sinoussi and Luc Montagnier, two French virologists, for their part in the discovery of HIV.
zur Hausen went against current dogma and postulated that oncogenic human papilloma virus (HPV) caused cervical cancer. He realized that HPV - DNA could exist in a non-productive state in the tumours, and should be detectable by specific searches for viral DNA. He and others, notably workers at the Pasteur Institute, found HPV to be a heterogeneous family of viruses. Only some HPV types cause cancer.
Harald zur Hausen pursued his idea of HPV for over 10 years by searching for different HPV types. (3) This research was difficult due to the fact that only parts of the viral DNA were integrated into the host genome. He found novel HPV - DNA in cervix cancer biopsies, and thus discovered the new, tumourigenic HPV16 type in 1983. In 1984, he cloned HPV16 and 18 from patients with cervical cancer. The HPV types 16 and 18 were consistently found in about 70 % of cervical cancer biopsies throughout the world.
His observation of HPV oncogenic potential in human malignancy provided impetus within the research community to characterize the natural history of HPV infection, and to develop a better understanding of mechanisms of HPV - induced carcinogenesis.
In December 2014, the United States ' Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved a vaccine called Gardasil 9 to protect females between the ages of 9 and 26 and males between the ages of 9 and 15 against nine strains of HPV. Gardasil 9 protects against infection with the strains covered by the first generation of Gardasil (HPV - 6, HPV - 11, HPV - 16, and HPV - 18) and protects against five other HPV strains responsible for 20 % of cervical cancers (HPV - 31, HPV - 33, HPV - 45, HPV - 52, and HPV - 58).
In developed countries, the widespread use of cervical "Pap smear '' screening programs has reduced the incidence of invasive cervical cancer by 50 % or more. Current preventive vaccines reduce but do not eliminate the chance of getting cervical cancer. Therefore, experts recommend that women combine the benefits of both programs by seeking regular Pap smear screening, even after vaccination. The European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control (ECDC) has recommended all European teenage girls to be vaccinated; however Bulgaria, Cyprus, Czech Republic, Estonia, Lithuania, Poland, Slovakia, and Turkey currently do not have a vaccination program in place.
With support from the GAVI Alliance, a number of low - income African countries have begun rollout of the HPV vaccine, with others to follow. In 2013 Ghana, Kenya, Madagascar, Malawi, Niger, Sierra Leone, and the United Republic of Tanzania begin implementation of the vaccine. In 2014, Rwanda will begin nationwide rollout, and demonstration programs will take place in Mozambique and Zimbabwe.
In April 2007, Australia became the first country to introduce a government - funded National Human Papillomavirus (HPV) Vaccination Program to protect young women against HPV infections that can lead to cancers and disease. The National HPV Vaccination Program is listed on the National Immunisation Program (NIP) Schedule and funded under the Immunise Australia Program. The Immunise Australia Program is a joint Australian, State, and Territory Government initiative to increase immunisation rates for vaccine preventable diseases.
The National HPV Vaccination Program for females was made up of two components: an ongoing school - based program for 12 - and 13 - year - old girls; and a time - limited catch - up program (females aged 14 -- 26 years) delivered through schools, general practices, and community immunization services, which ceased on 31 December 2009.
During 2007 -- 2009, an estimated 83 % of females aged 12 -- 17 years received at least one dose of HPV vaccine and 70 % completed the 3 - dose HPV vaccination course. Latest HPV coverage data on the Immunise Australia website show that by 15 years of age, over 70 % of Australian females have received all three doses. This has remained steady since 2009.
Since the National HPV Vaccination Program commenced in 2007, there has been a reduction in HPV - related infections in young women. A study published in The Journal of Infectious Disease in October 2012 found the prevalence of vaccine - preventable HPV types (6, 11, 16 and 18) in Papanicolaou test results of women aged 18 -- 24 years has significantly decreased from 28.7 % to 6.7 % four years after the introduction of the National HPV Vaccination Program. A 2011 report published found the diagnosis of genital warts (caused by HPV types 6 and 11) had also decreased in young women and men.
In October 2010, the Australian regulatory agency, the Therapeutic Goods Administration, extended the registration of the quadrivalent vaccine (Gardasil) to include use in males aged 9 through 26 years of age, for the prevention of external genital lesions and infection with HPV types 6, 11, 16 and 18.
In November 2011, the Pharmaceutical Benefits Advisory Committee (PBAC) recommended the extension of the National HPV Vaccination Program to include males. The PBAC made its recommendation on the preventative health benefits that can be achieved, such as a reduction in the incidence of anal and penile cancers and other HPV - related diseases. In addition to the direct benefit to males, it was estimated that routine HPV vaccination of adolescent males would contribute to the reduction of vaccine HPV - type infection and associated disease in women through herd immunity.
On 12 July 2012, the Australian Government announced funding to extend the National HPV Vaccination Program to include males, with implementation commencing in all states and territories in February 2013.
Updated results were reported in 2014.
From February 2013, free HPV vaccine is being provided through school - based programs for:
Further information is available on the HPV Vaccination Program website at www.australia.gov.au/hpv
In July 2006, human papillomavirus vaccine against 4 types of HPV was authorized in Canada for females 9 to 26 years. In February 2010, use in males 9 to 26 years of age for prevention of genital warts was authorized.
Currently, all Canadian provinces and territories fund HPV school - based immunization programs for females. Three provinces have implemented HPV immunization programs for males: Prince Edward Island, Alberta, and Saskatchewan.
Canada has approved use of Gardasil. Initiating and funding free vaccination programs has been left to individual Province / Territory Governments. In the provinces of Ontario, Prince Edward Island, Newfoundland and Labrador, and Nova Scotia, free vaccinations to protect women against HPV were slated to begin in September 2007 and will be offered to girls ages 11 -- 14. Similar vaccination programs are being planned in British Columbia and Quebec.
GSK China announced on July 18, 2016, that Cervarix (HPV vaccine 16 and 18) had been approved by China Food and Drug Administration (CFDA), therefore became the first approved HPV vaccine in China. Cervarix is registered in China for girls aged 9 to 25, adopting 3 - dose program within 6 months. Cervarix is expected to be marketed in China in early 2017.
On the same day, China Food and Drug Administration (CFDA) also announced that the import registration application of Human Papillomavirus Absorbed Vaccine (Cervarix), the preventive biological product manufactured by GlaxoSmithKline, had been approved on July 12, 2016. The approval of this vaccine will provide a brand - new effective method to prevent cervical cancers.
The vaccine was introduced in 2012, approved for 9 aged girls. The HPV vaccine begins to delivered to girls aged 9 and older and are attending fourth grade of school. Since 2013 the age of coverage was extended to girls in school from grade four who have reached the age of 9 to grade 11th independent of age; and no schooling from age 9 -- 17 years 11 months and 29 days old.
Introduced in 2012. Target age group 13 -- 14. Fully financed by national health authorities only for this age group. For the year 2013 -- 2014, girls in the eighth grade may get the vaccine free of charge only in school, and not in Ministry of Health offices or clinics. Girls in the ninth grade may receive the vaccine free of charge only at Ministry of Health offices, and not in schools or clinics. Religious and conservative groups are expected to refuse the vaccination.
Introduced in 2010, widely available only since April 2013. Fully financed by national health authorities. In June 2013, however, Japan 's Vaccine Adverse Reactions Review Committee (VARRC) suspended recommendation of the vaccine due to fears of adverse events. This directive has been criticized by researchers at the University of Tokyo as a failure of governance since the decision was taken without presentation of adequate scientific evidence.
Both Cervarix and Gardasil are approved for use within Kenya by the Pharmacy and Poisons Board. However, at a cost of 20,000 Kenyan shillings, which is more than the average annual income for a family, the director of health promotion in the Ministry of Health, Nicholas Muraguri, states that many Kenyans are unable to afford the vaccine.
In 2013 Laos began implementation of the HPV vaccine, with the assistance of the Gavi Alliance.
The vaccine was introduced in 2008 to 5 % of the population. This percentage of the population had the lowest development index which correlates with the highest incidence of cervical cancer. The HPV vaccine is delivered to girls 12 -- 16 years old following the 0 - 2 - 6 dosing schedule. By 2009 Mexico had expanded the vaccine use to girls, 9 -- 12 years of age, the dosing schedule in this group was different, the time elapsed between the first and second dose was six months and the third dose 60 months later. In 2011 Mexico approved a nationwide use of HPV vaccination program to include vaccination of all 9 - year - old girls.
Immunization as of 2017 is free for male and females age 9 through to 26 years.
The public funding began on 1 September 2008. Initially just for girls, usually through a school - based program in Year 8 (approximately age 12), but also through general practices and some family planning clinics. Over 200,000 New Zealand girls and young women have received HPV immunization as at November 2015, around 60 % of eligible girls.
The vaccine was added to the national immunization program in 2008, to target girls in the population aged 10. The vaccine is being administer by clinics and schools.
Cervical cancer represents the most common cause of cancer - related deaths -- more than 3,000 deaths per year -- among women in South Africa because of high HIV prevalence, making introduction of the vaccine highly desirable. A Papanicolaou test program was established in 2000 to help screen for cervical cancer, but since this program has not been implemented widely, vaccination would offer more efficient form of prevention. In May 2013 the Minister of Health of South Africa, Aaron Motsoaledi, announced the government would provide free HPV vaccines for girls aged 9 and 10 in the poorest 80 % of schools starting in February 2014 and the fifth quintile later on. South Africa will be the first African country with an immunisation schedule that includes vaccines to protect people from HPV infection, but because the effectiveness of the vaccines in women who later become infected with HIV is not yet fully understood, it is difficult to assess how cost - effective the vaccine will be. Negotiations are currently underway for more affordable HPV vaccines since they are up to 10 times more expensive than others already included in the immunization schedule.
On July 27, 2007, South Korean government approved Gardasil for use in girls and women aged 9 to 26 and boys aged 9 to 15. Approval for use in boys was based on safety and immunogenicity but not efficacy.
Since 2016, HPV vaccination has been part of the National Immunization Program, offered free of charge to all children under 12 in South Korea, with costs fully covered by the Korean government.
For 2016 only, Korean girls born between 1 January 2003 to 31 December 2004 are also eligible to receive the free shots as a limited time offer. From 2017, the free shots will be available to those under 12 only.
Introduced in 2013. Target Group 9 -- 26. Fully financed by national health authorities. Administration in schools currently suspended owing to objections and concerns raised by the Catholic Board, but fully available in local health centers.
In the UK the vaccine is licensed for girls aged 9 to 15, for women aged 16 to 26, and for boys aged 9 -- 15.
HPV vaccination with Cervarix was introduced into the national immunization program in September 2008, for girls aged 12 -- 13 across the UK. A two - year catch - up campaign started in Autumn 2009 to vaccinate all girls up to 18 years of age. Catch up vaccination will be offered to:
By the end of the catch - up campaign, all girls under 18 will have been offered the HPV vaccine.
In September 2012, Gardasil replaced Cervarix as the HPV vaccination of choice due to its added protection against genital warts.
It will be many years before the vaccination program has an effect on cervical cancer incidence so women are advised to continue accepting their invitations for cervical screening.
Boots UK made its private HPV vaccination service to boys and men aged 12 -- 44 years in April 2017 at a cost of £ 150 per vaccination. Children aged 12 -- 14 years require two vaccinations, while those aged 15 -- 44 years require a course of three.
As of late 2007, about one quarter of US females age 13 -- 17 years had received at least one of the three HPV shots. By 2014, the proportion of such females receiving a vaccination had risen to 38 %. The government began recommending vaccination for boys in 2011; by 2014, the vaccination rate among boys (at least one dose) had reached 35 %.
According to the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), getting as many girls vaccinated as early and as quickly as possible will reduce the cases of cervical cancer among middle - aged women in 30 to 40 years and reduce the transmission of this highly communicable infection. Barriers include the limited understanding by many people that HPV causes cervical cancer, the difficulty of getting pre-teens and teens into the doctor 's office to get a shot, and the high cost of the vaccine ($120 / dose, $360 total for the three required doses, plus the cost of doctor visits). Community - based interventions can increase the uptake of HPV vaccination among adolescents.
A survey was conducted in 2009 to gather information about knowledge and adoption of the HPV vaccine. Thirty percent of 13 - to 17 - year - olds and 9 % of 18 - to 26 - year - olds out of the total 1,011 young women surveyed reported receipt of at least one HPV injection. Knowledge about HPV varied; however, 5 % or fewer subjects believed that the HPV vaccine precluded the need for regular cervical cancer screening or safe - sex practices. Few girls and young women overestimate the protection provided by the vaccine. Despite moderate uptake, many females at risk of acquiring HPV have not yet received the vaccine. For example, young black women are less likely to receive HPV vaccines compared to young white women. Additionally, young women of all races and ethnicities without health insurance are less likely to initiate vaccine uptake.
Since the approval of Gardasil in 2006 and despite low vaccine uptake, prevalence of HPV among teenagers aged 14 -- 19 has been cut in half with an 88 % reduction among vaccinated women. No decline in prevalence was observed in other age groups, indicating the vaccine to have been responsible for the sharp decline in cases. The drop in number of infections is expected to in turn lead to a decline in cervical and other HPV - related cancers in the future.
Shortly after the first HPV vaccine was approved, bills to make the vaccine mandatory for school attendance were introduced in many states. Only two such bills passed (in Virginia and Washington DC) during the first four years after vaccine introduction. Mandates have been effective at increasing uptake of other vaccines, such as mumps, measles, rubella, and hepatitis B (which is also sexually transmitted). However most such efforts developed for five or more years after vaccine release, while financing and supply were arranged, further safety data was gathered, and education efforts increased understanding, before mandates were considered. Most public policies including school mandates have not been effective in promoting HPV vaccination while receiving a recommendation from a physician increased the probability of vaccination.
The National Conference of State Legislatures periodically issues summaries of HPV vaccine related legislation.
Almost all pieces of legislation currently pending in the states that would make the vaccine mandatory for school entrance have an "opt - out '' policy.
In July, 2015, Rhode Island added an HPV vaccine requirement for admittance into public school. This mandate requires all students entering the 7th grade to receive one dose of the HPV vaccine starting in September, 2015. No legislative action is required for the Rhode Island Department of Health to add new vaccine mandates. Rhode Island is the only state that requires the vaccine for both male and female 7th graders.
Other states are also preparing bills regarding the HPV Vaccine.
A 2185 Would require insurers and State health care coverage programs to cover cost of HPV vaccine.
AB 699 Would require immunization against HPV for children born after Jan. 1, 1996. (Sent to Assembly Committee on Health 1 / 5 / 11) AB 1946 Would require insurance companies to provide coverage for the vaccine against human papilloma virus. (Sent to committee 1 / 12 / 11) AB 2360 Would encourage voluntary, informed vaccination against human papillomavirus (HPV) for school - aged children and their parents or guardians. (Sent to committee 1 / 18 / 11) SB 4708 Would require insurance companies to cover HPV vaccine.
HB 65 Would repeal the requirement for children to receive the HPV vaccination for school attendance. (Left in committee 2 / 14 / 12) HB 824 Would require that the Commonwealth shall assume liability for any injury resulting from administration of the human papillomavirus vaccine. HB 1112 Would eliminate the requirement for vaccination against human papillomavirus for female children.
Source: National Conference of State Legislatures
Between July 2008 and December 2009, proof of the first of three doses of HPV Gardasil vaccine was required for women ages 11 -- 26 intending to legally enter the United States. This requirement stirred controversy because of the cost of the vaccine, and because all the other vaccines so required prevent diseases which are spread by respiratory route and considered highly contagious. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention repealed all HPV vaccination directives for immigrants effective December 14, 2009.
Measures have been considered including requiring insurers to cover HPV vaccination, and funding HPV vaccines for those without insurance. The cost of the HPV vaccines for females under 18 who are uninsured is covered under the federal Vaccines for Children Program. As of 23 September 2010, vaccines are required to be covered by insurers under the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act. HPV vaccines specifically are to be covered at no charge for women, including those who are pregnant or nursing.
Medicaid covers HPV vaccination in accordance with the ACIP recommendations, and immunizations are a mandatory service under Medicaid for eligible individuals under age 21. (1) In addition, Medicaid includes the Vaccines for Children Program. (1) This program provides immunization services for children 18 and under who are Medicaid eligible, uninsured, underinsured, receiving immunizations through a Federally Qualified Health Center or Rural Health Clinic, or are Native American or Alaska Native. (1)
The vaccine manufacturers also offer help for people who can not afford HPV vaccination. GlaxoSmithKline 's Vaccines Access Program provides Cervarix free of charge 1 - 877 - VACC - 911 to low income women, ages 19 to 25, who do not have insurance. Merck 's Vaccine Patient Assistance Program 1 - 800 - 293 - 3881 provides Gardasil free to low income women and men, ages 19 to 26, who do not have insurance, including immigrants who are legal residents.
There has been significant opposition from health insurance companies to covering the cost of the vaccine ($360).
Opposition due to the safety of the vaccine has been addressed through studies, leaving opposition focused on the sexual implications of the vaccine to remain. Conservative groups in the U.S. have opposed the concept of making HPV vaccination mandatory for pre-adolescent girls, asserting that making the vaccine mandatory is a violation of parental rights. They also say that it will lead to early sexual activity, giving a false sense of immunity to sexually transmitted disease. (See Peltzman effect) Both the Family Research Council and the group Focus on the Family support widespread (universal) availability of HPV vaccines but oppose mandatory HPV vaccinations for entry to public school. Parents also express confusion over recent mandates for entry to public school pointing out that HPV is transmitted through sexual contact, not through attending school with other children.
Conservative groups are concerned children will see the vaccine as a safeguard against STDs and will have sex sooner than they would without the vaccine while failing to use contraceptives. However; Many organizations such as the American Academy of Pediatrics disagree with the argument that the vaccine increases sexual activity among teens. Dr. Christine Peterson, director of the University of Virginia 's Gynecology Clinic, said "The presence of seat belts in cars does n't cause people to drive less safely. The presence of a vaccine in a person 's body does n't cause them to engage in risk - taking behavior they would not otherwise engage in. ''
Many parents opposed to providing the HPV vaccine to their pre-teens agree the vaccine is safe and effective, but find talking to their children about sex uncomfortable. Dr. Elizabeth Lange, of Waterman Pediatrics in Providence, RI, addresses this concern by emphasizing what the vaccine is doing for the child. Dr. Lange suggests parents should focus on the cancer prevention aspect without being distracted by words like ' sexually transmitted '. Everyone wants cancer prevention, yet here parents are denying their children a form of protection due to the nature of the cancer -- Lagne suggests that this much controversy would not surround a breast cancer or colon cancer vaccine. The HPV vaccine is suggested for 11 - year - olds because it should be administered before possible exposure to HPV, yes, but also because the immune system has the highest response for creating antibodies around this age. Dr. Lange also emphasized the studies showing that the HPV vaccine does not cause children to be more promiscuous than they would be without the vaccine.
Controversy over the HPV vaccine remains present in the media. Parents in Rhode Island have created a Facebook group called "Rhode Islanders Against Mandated HPV Vaccinations '' in response to Rhode Island 's mandate that males and females entering the 7th grade, as of September 2015, be vaccinated for HPV before attending public school.
The effectiveness of a physician 's recommendation for the HPV vaccine also contributes to low vaccination rates and controversy surrounding the vaccine. A 2015 study of national physician communication and support for the HPV vaccine found physicians routinely recommend HPV vaccines less strongly than they recommend Tdap or meningitis vaccines, find the discussion about HPV to be long and burdensome, and discuss the HPV vaccine last, after all other vaccines. Researchers suggest these factors discourage patients and parents from setting up timely HPV vaccines. In order to increase vaccination rates, this issue must be addressed and physicians should be better trained to handle discussing the importance of the HPV vaccine with patients and their families.
There are high - risk HPV types, that are not affected by available vaccines. Ongoing research is focused on the development of HPV vaccines that will offer protection against a broader range of HPV types. One such method is a vaccine based on the minor capsid protein L2, which is highly conserved across HPV genotypes. Efforts for this have included boosting the immunogenicity of L2 by linking together short amino acid sequences of L2 from different oncogenic HPV types or by displaying L2 peptides on a more immunogenic carrier. There is also substantial research interest in the development of therapeutic vaccines, which seek to elicit immune responses against established HPV infections and HPV - induced cancers.
In addition to preventive vaccines, such as Gardasil and Cervarix, laboratory research and several human clinical trials are focused on the development of therapeutic HPV vaccines. In general, these vaccines focus on the main HPV oncogenes, E6 and E7. Since expression of E6 and E7 is required for promoting the growth of cervical cancer cells (and cells within warts), it is hoped that immune responses against the two oncogenes might eradicate established tumors.
There is a working therapeutic HPV vaccine. It has gone through 3 clinical trials. The vaccine is officially called the MEL - 1 vaccine but also known as the MVA - E2 vaccine. In a study it has been suggested that an immunogenic peptide pool containing epitopes that can be effective against all the high - risk HPV strains circulating globally and 14 conserved immunogenic peptide fragments from 4 early proteins (E1, E2, E6 and E7) of 16 high - risk HPV types providing CD8+ responses.
Therapeutic DNA vaccine VGX - 3100, which consists of plasmids pGX3001 and pGX3002, has been granted a waiver by the European Medicines Agency for pediatric treatment of squamous intraepithelial lesions of the cervix caused by HPV types 16 and 18. According to an article published 16 Sep 2015 in The Lancet, which reviewed the safety, efficacy, and immunogenicity of VGX - 3100 in a double - blind, randomized controlled trial (phase 2b) targeting HPV - 16 and HPV - 18 E6 and E7 proteins for cervical intraepithelial neoplasia 2 / 3, it is the first therapeutic vaccine to show efficacy against CIN 2 / 3 associated with HPV - 16 and HPV - 18. In June, 2017, VGX - 3100 entered a phase 3 clinical trial called REVEAL - 1 for the treatment of HPV - induced high - grade squamous intraepithelial lesions. The estimated completion time for collecting primary clinical endpoint data is August, 2019.
In 2009 as part of the Q150 celebrations, the cervical cancer vaccine was announced as one of the Q150 Icons of Queensland for its role in "innovation and invention ''.
In 2017, National Cancer Institute scientists Douglas R. Lowy and John T. Schiller received the Lasker - DeBakey Clinical Medical Research Award for their contributions leading to the development of HPV vaccines.
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where is super bowl 52 going to be held | Super Bowl LII - wikipedia
Super Bowl LII was an American football game played to determine the champion of the National Football League (NFL) for the 2017 season. The National Football Conference (NFC) champion Philadelphia Eagles defeated the American Football Conference (AFC) and defending Super Bowl LI champion New England Patriots, 41 -- 33, to win their first Super Bowl and their first NFL title since 1960. The game was played on February 4, 2018, at U.S. Bank Stadium in Minneapolis, Minnesota. This was the second time that a Super Bowl was played in Minneapolis, the northernmost city to ever host the event, after Super Bowl XXVI at the Metrodome during the 1991 season, and the sixth Super Bowl held in a cold - weather city.
New England finished the regular season with an AFC - best 13 -- 3 record, then extended their record Super Bowl appearances to ten, their third in four years, and their eighth under the leadership of head coach Bill Belichick and quarterback Tom Brady. Philadelphia also finished the regular season with an NFC - best 13 -- 3 record, a year after Dallas did it in 2016, but became underdogs entering the playoffs after starting quarterback Carson Wentz suffered a season - ending injury late in the regular season and was replaced by journeyman backup Nick Foles. Still, the Eagles advanced to their third Super Bowl appearance, having previously lost to the Oakland Raiders in Super Bowl XV and to the Patriots in Super Bowl XXXIX.
Several records were set during Super Bowl LII, including most yards gained in an NFL game by both teams combined (1,151), the fewest punts from both teams in a Super Bowl (one), and the most points scored by a Super Bowl losing team (33). The game was settled after the Eagles converted a fumble recovery deep within Patriots territory to a field goal with 1: 05 remaining to extend their lead to eight points, and Brady 's Hail Mary pass fell incomplete as time expired. Foles, who completed 28 of 43 pass attempts for 373 yards and three touchdowns with one interception, and caught a one - yard touchdown pass, was named Super Bowl MVP. Foles ' touchdown catch later became known as The Philly Special and joined NFL lore.
The broadcast of the game on NBC had the smallest Super Bowl audience in nine years, with an average of 103.4 million viewers. Average TV viewership for the halftime show, headlined by Justin Timberlake, was 106.6 million American television viewers, 9 percent less than the previous year.
On October 8, 2013, the league announced that three venues would vie to host Super Bowl LII:
On May 20, 2014, the league 's owners picked Minneapolis at their meeting in Atlanta, Georgia.
The NFC was represented by the number - one playoff seed Philadelphia Eagles, while the AFC was represented by the number - one playoff seed New England Patriots, marking the fourth time in the previous five years that the Super Bowl had featured the top team from each conference.
The Eagles finished the regular season with a record of 13 -- 3, the same as New England, Minnesota, and Pittsburgh, but the various tie - breaking provisions gave them the NFC 's top seed in the 2017 -- 18 NFL playoffs. It was a substantial improvement for the team under second - year head coach Doug Pederson; the Eagles finished the two previous seasons with 7 -- 9 records. In the 2017 season, the team scored 457 points (third in the NFL), while giving up just 295 (fourth) points.
The offense was led by Pro Bowl quarterback Carson Wentz. In just his second season, he recorded a passer rating of 101.9, throwing for 3,296 yards and 33 touchdowns, with only seven interceptions. His top target was Pro Bowl tight end Zach Ertz, who caught 74 passes for 824 yards and eight touchdowns. Other contributors were two receivers acquired from off - season free agency: Alshon Jeffery, who caught 57 passes for 789 yards and nine scores; and Torrey Smith, who had 36 receptions for 430 yards. Meanwhile, third - year receiver Nelson Agholor had the best season of his career, hauling in 62 passes for 768 yards and eight touchdowns, a higher total in each category than in his previous two seasons combined. The Eagles rushing attack also benefited from two recently acquired players, LeGarrette Blount and Jay Ajayi. Blount, an off - season signing who won a Super Bowl with the Patriots, gained 776 rushing yards and two touchdowns, while Ajayi, picked up by a mid-season trade with the Miami Dolphins, rushed for 873 yards and caught 24 passes for 154 yards combined with the two teams. Philadelphia also had a superb offensive line, lead by two Pro Bowl selections: Tackle Lane Johnson and Guard Brandon Brooks.
The Eagles defense allowed the fourth - fewest yards in the league (4,904). Defensive tackle Fletcher Cox made the Pro Bowl for the third time in his career, recording 5 ⁄ sacks and two fumble recoveries, and he had plenty of help around him, such as former Patriots defensive end Chris Long, who had five sacks and forced four fumbles, and defensive end Brandon Graham, who led the team with 9 ⁄ sacks. Middle linebacker Nigel Bradham led the team in combined tackles with 88. The Eagles secondary featured Pro Bowl safety Malcolm Jenkins, who had 76 combined tackles and two interceptions, along with cornerback Patrick Robinson, who led the team with four interceptions.
Philadelphia had stormed to the top of the NFC by winning 10 of their first 12 games, but suffered a major setback on December 10, when Wentz went down with a season - ending ACL tear and was replaced by journeyman backup quarterback Nick Foles, who was playing for his third team in as many years and his second stint with the Eagles. Still, Foles was able to lead the team to victory in that game, as well as the next two. The Eagles lost a meaningless week 17 matchup with the Cowboys led by third - string quarterback Nate Sudfeld. Then in their two playoff games, Foles threw for a combined total of 598 yards, three touchdowns and no interceptions.
The Patriots entered the 2017 NFL season as defending Super Bowl champions. For the 16th time in their 18 seasons under 65 - year old coach Bill Belichick, they recorded a double - digit win season, finishing the regular season with a record of 13 -- 3, one of four teams (along with Philadelphia, Minnesota, and Pittsburgh) with that record. By virtue of the tie - breaking procedures, they were granted the AFC 's number one overall seed in the 2017 -- 18 NFL playoffs. The previous season 's top wide receiver Julian Edelman went down in the preseason with a season - ending injury. Early season defensive struggles left the team with a 2 -- 2 record after four weeks, and the worst overall defense in the league at that point. The defense came together as a unit, and tighten up over the rest of the season however, with the Patriots going 11 -- 1 after week 4. Their sole loss in the latter part of the season came in Week 14 to the Miami Dolphins, a division rival, though they were without star tight end Rob Gronkowski due to a one - game suspension for an unnecessary roughness call the prior week. The Patriots ' defense was improved by several late - season free - agent signings, including Eric Lee, a defensive end, previously from the Buffalo Bills, whom the Patriots signed in Week 12, and James Harrison, a perennial All - Pro for the Pittsburgh Steelers, whom the Patriots picked up off waivers after Christmas. In just six games for New England, Lee recorded 3 ⁄ sacks, a safety, and an interception. In his only regular season game with the Patriots, Harrison recorded two sacks.
During the regular season, New England 's offense led the league in yards gained (6,307) and ranked second in points scored (458). The 40 - year - old Brady finished his 18th season with a league - leading 4,577 passing yards, 32 touchdowns and just eight interceptions, earning him his 13th selection to the Pro Bowl and his third league MVP award. One change that helped make up for the loss of Edelman was the acquisition of receiver Brandin Cooks, who caught 65 passes for 1,082 yards and seven touchdowns. Brady was also aided by the healthy return of Gronkowski, who had played just eight games in the previous season, finishing this year with 69 catches for 1,084 yards and eight scores. Receiver Danny Amendola added 61 receptions for 659 yards, as well as another 240 yards returning punts. With the loss of their previous season 's rushing leader LeGarrette Blount to free agency, Dion Lewis stepped up to take the lead, rushing for 896 yards and six touchdowns despite starting only eight games. He also caught 32 passes for 214 yards and two touchdowns and added 570 yards and another touchdown returning kickoffs. Rex Burkhead chipped in 518 all - purpose yards, 30 receptions, and eight touchdowns. In passing situations, the team relied heavily on running back James White, who caught 56 passes for 429 yards and rushed for 171 on the ground. These backs were aided by the blocking of fullback James Develin, who earned his first Pro Bowl selection. On special teams, kicker Stephen Gostkowski ranked second in the NFL with 156 points and fourth in field goals made with 37, while veteran special team ace Matthew Slater earned his seventh consecutive Pro Bowl selection.
The Patriots ' defense ranked only 29th in yards allowed (5,856), but ranked fifth in fewest points, giving up only 296. Defensive end Trey Flowers led the team with 6 ⁄ sacks while also forcing two fumbles. Linebacker Kyle Van Noy had 73 tackles and 5 ⁄ sacks. The Patriots also had a superb secondary, led by cornerbacks Malcolm Butler (two interceptions, three forced fumbles) and Stephon Gilmore (two interceptions, 47 solo tackles), as well as safeties Devin McCourty (97 combined tackles, one interception, one fumble recovery), Patrick Chung (84 tackles, one interception, two fumble recoveries) and Duron Harmon (four interceptions).
In the playoffs, the Patriots earned a first - round bye and home - field advantage due to their status as the AFC 's first overall seed. In the divisional round, they defeated the Tennessee Titans 35 -- 14, as Brady passed for 337 yards and three touchdowns. In that game, the defense amassed eight quarterback sacks of Marcus Mariota and held the Titans ' running game to 65 yards rushing. They then defeated the Jacksonville Jaguars 24 -- 20 in the AFC Championship Game, rallying from behind to win the game after the Jaguars jumped out to an early 14 -- 3 lead and whose league - best defense stymied Brady and the rest of the offense for most of the first half. Down 20 -- 10 in the fourth quarter, the Patriots comeback was sealed by two Brady - led drives, both resulting in touchdown passes to Danny Amendola, as well as a key defensive stop by Stephon Gilmore, whose acrobatic block of a Blake Bortles pass ended Jacksonville 's last chance to score. Rob Gronkowski was injured in the game with a concussion, leaving his status for the Super Bowl in doubt. Amendola was the breakout star for the Patriots during their two playoff wins, leading the team with 196 receiving yards, and serving as Brady 's primary target.
Meanwhile, Philadelphia started off the divisional round by narrowly defeating the Atlanta Falcons 15 -- 10, by stopping the Falcons on four consecutive plays after they had a first - down - and - goal situation on the Eagles 9 - yard line during their final drive. They then soundly defeated the Minnesota Vikings 38 -- 7 in the NFC Championship Game. Despite the Vikings scoring on their opening drive, the Eagles defense held them to three punts, two turnovers on downs, two interceptions, and one lost fumble in their remaining drives of the game. Meanwhile, Foles had a great game, in which he completed 26 of 33 passes for 353 yards and three touchdowns.
This game was a rematch of Super Bowl XXXIX. Only one player, Patriots starting quarterback Tom Brady, remained on either roster from that contest. Bill Belichick, the Patriots ' head coach in that contest, also remained in that position. Two Eagles, running back LeGarrette Blount and defensive lineman Chris Long, had been Patriots in 2017 's Super Bowl LI.
The Patriots were the designated home team for Super Bowl LII, because the AFC team is the designated home team in even - numbered years and the NFC team in odd - numbered years. As the designated home team, the Patriots chose to wear their road white jerseys with navy blue pants, becoming the sixth team to wear their white jerseys as the home team and the third team to wear white in back - to - back Super Bowls, following the Dallas Cowboys in Super Bowls XII and XIII and again in Super Bowls XXVII and XXVIII. The Eagles therefore wore their standard home uniform of midnight green jerseys with white pants. Twelve of the previous 13 Super Bowls had been won by teams wearing white jerseys. The last team to win a Super Bowl while wearing their home uniforms was the Green Bay Packers in Super Bowl XLV (who, coincidentally, had also worn green jerseys).
To coordinate the game and 10 days of events, the National Football League temporarily operated an events office within the Minnesota Vikings office building next to U.S. Bank Stadium. More than 150,000 visitors were expected to attend events associated with the Super Bowl over ten days. Among them were some 5,000 - plus media members; media day events and press conferences were held at The Mall of America in Bloomington, Minnesota.
No sales tax was collected on admission tickets to the game and related events, including parking.
To increase security around U.S. Bank Stadium, the stadium 's light rail station was shut down for 48 hours before the game, and a nearby homeless shelter was temporarily moved beyond the security perimeter. The Blue Line of the light rail system was only open to ticketholders and passengers with a Gameday Pass, while the Green Line only ran to Stadium Village station on the University of Minnesota campus before continuing on with restricted access. Metro Transit ran shuttle buses between light rail stations, as well as regular bus service was moved for several weeks due to street closures. Thirty activist groups organized a rally and protest against police brutality, corporate greed, and racist practices. 17 people blocked the Green Line train for 90 minutes before the game, and 200 protesters blocked an entrance to the stadium 's security perimeter.
Under a 1998 agreement, the Patriots and Eagles owners split the tickets, and the league controlled the game presentation and entertainment in the stadium. The Patriots practiced at the Minnesota Vikings facilities in Eden Prairie while the Eagles used the University of Minnesota. The Eagles got the Vikings ' locker room and sideline. The Vikings had advanced to the NFC Championship Game before losing to the Eagles; until that point, the possibility of the Vikings advancing to the Super Bowl and thus becoming the first team to play the game in its home stadium was plausible. Had that happened, the Vikings would have used their own locker rooms and training facilities, while the AFC champion would have used the University of Minnesota.
The Minnesota Super Bowl Host Committee presented Super Bowl Live on Nicollet Mall in downtown Minneapolis. This ten - day free festival and concert series featured Sheila E., the Revolution, Morris Day and the Time, and the New Power Generation, musicians from Minnesota who collaborated with Prince, a Minneapolis native. Produced by Jimmy Jam and Terry Lewis, Super Bowl Live also included performances by Idina Menzel, Soul Asylum, the Suburbs, Bob Mould, Sounds of Blackness, Dessa, VocalEssence, Mint Condition, and the Jets. In addition to the concert series, Super Bowl Live featured a 200 - foot (61 m) American Birkebeiner International Bridge on Nicollet Mall to showcase cross-country skiing, skijoring, fat - tire bicycle racing, and snow tubing demonstrations. There was also a snowmobile stunt show on February 3.
The NFL presented the Super Bowl Experience at the Minneapolis Convention Center from January 27 to February 3 with an entrance fee. Kelly Clarkson performed at the Minneapolis Armory and a U.S. Bank Stadium lounge on the day of the Super Bowl.
The Minneapolis Armory also hosted Jennifer Lopez, Imagine Dragons, and Pink concerts close to U.S. Bank Stadium. Pink also performed the national anthem before the Super Bowl. Halftime performer Justin Timberlake held a ticketed "listening session '' of his newest album at Prince 's Paisley Park. Dave Matthews Band will perform at Xcel Energy Center in Saint Paul. The Shakopee Mdewakanton Sioux Community 's Mystic Lake Casino hosted Gwen Stefani, the Chainsmokers, Florida Georgia Line, and Kygo. Planners originally scheduled a 64,000 - square - foot (5,900 m) traveling nightclub for 9500 people, but cancelled, moving its concerts into the main casino. Ellie Goulding 's appearance with Kygo was cancelled at the same time. The Mystic Lake Casino in Prior Lake, Minnesota, has the second - largest hotel in the Twin Cities metropolitan area, and Prior Lake hosted Super Bowl - week events including winter activities, a hotdish competition, and fundraisers.
Other events were held at the Mall of America (including Radio Row as a home for national shows), Saint Paul 's RiverCentre and Xcel Energy Center, the Minnesota Vikings ' Winter Park location in Eden Prairie, and the University of Minnesota. "Taste of the NFL '' is a fundraiser for food banks and was held in Saint Paul. Minneapolis also offered a temporary zip - line across the Mississippi River near downtown. The Luminary Loppet around Lake of the Isles in Minneapolis featured fire dancing, an ice pyramid, and luminary candles at night.
The 2018 Saint Paul Winter Carnival took place leading up to, during and after the Super Bowl. Carnival organizers built a large ice palace to coincide with the Super Bowl festivities, as with Super Bowl XXVI in 1992. The ice palace was planned, cancelled for lack of funds, then re-announced with sponsors. Events in Saint Paul will also include an extreme sports demonstration, a "giant slide '', and a block party. Officials in the capital city hoped to attract Minneapolis Super Bowl visitors. The Minneapolis Institute of Art had a free 20 - by - 40 - foot (6.1 m × 12.2 m), 6 - foot - tall (1.8 m) ice maze.
The Great Northern was a winter festival in the Twin Cities from January 25 to February 4 that included the U.S. Pond Hockey Championships, an ice bar, and an "urban ski competition ''.
ESPN broadcast its studio programming from the IDS Center in downtown Minneapolis, while Golf Channel (a sister network of Super Bowl LII broadcaster NBC) aired two live episodes of David Feherty 's eponymous series from the State Theatre.
Native American communities of Minnesota performed nightly drum ceremonies. Various drumlines from around the state performed at different locations throughout the day.
NBC broadcast Super Bowl LII, as part of an annual cycle between the three main broadcast television partners of the NFL. NBC 's lead NFL team of play - by - play man Al Michaels and color analyst Cris Collinsworth called the game. Sister cable network Universo carried a full Spanish language broadcast produced by Telemundo Deportes, with Edgar Lopez and Rene Giraldo. The Universo Spanish audio was also available on NBC through the SAP channel, where available. NBC employed 73 cameras within the stadium, and introduced "volumetric - AR '' graphics featuring 3D body scanning of players.
This was the last game in Westwood One 's current national radio contract with the NFL. Each participating team 's flagship station (the Patriots Radio Network 's WBZ - FM / Boston, and the Eagles Radio Network 's WIP - FM / Philadelphia, along with WEMG / Camden, New Jersey for Spanish play - by - play) carried the game with local announcers. (For the second consecutive year, none of the local flagships are clear - channel stations, and thus the local commentators were only audible for free within each respective team 's immediate metropolitan area; listeners who live outside the flagship stations ' broadcast ranges were required to subscribe to Sirius XM Radio or TuneIn Premium to access the local broadcasts.) Under the terms of the Westwood One contract, any radio station that is not a local flagship, if it is to carry the game, is required to utilize the Westwood One feed. It was the first title win called by Eagles play - by - play announcer Merrill Reese, who has been the primary radio voice of the team since 1977.
Online streams of the game were provided by NBC. It was available on NBCSports.com, the NBC Sports app for mobile devices, tablets, connected - TV devices, and NBC.com without any required login. The Spanish - language broadcast was available on the Telemundo Deportes En Vivo app and TelemundoDeportes.com for desktop devices, connected TV devices, and tablets but not mobile devices. Under new digital rights deals that began with the 2017 -- 18 playoffs, Verizon still offers mobile streaming of games, but no longer holds exclusive rights to stream NFL games on smartphones or make them exclusive to Verizon Wireless subscribers. Instead, Verizon elected to use the deal to bolster its recent acquisition of Yahoo!; on January 9, 2018, Verizon announced that it would host streams of playoff games through the Yahoo! Sports and go90 app, including Super Bowl LII. As a result of the deal, the online stream was available to viewers on all Internet devices for the first time, regardless of network (because of Verizon 's previous exclusive rights deal, non-Verizon phones had previously been blocked from receiving any NFL telecasts, regardless of source). The game was also available through the NFL Mobile app with the aforementioned change to viewing through the app now being allowed on all mobile carriers.
Dan Patrick and Liam McHugh served as the lead hosts for NBC 's pre-game coverage. Mike Tirico, who replaced the retiring Bob Costas in 2017 as NBC 's lead studio host for both the NFL and the Olympic Games, did not participate in coverage of Super Bowl LII due to his commitments to prepare for the 2018 Winter Olympics in Pyeongchang, South Korea (which opened on the Friday following the game).
As NBC Sports Regional Networks operates regional sports networks in the markets of both teams which participated, the NBC Sports Boston and NBC Sports Philadelphia channels were used to provide additional coverage of the game from a local perspective. Both networks aired coverage from Minneapolis, including pre-game specials focusing on their respective team, followed by a joint broadcast immediately prior to the game.
Nielsen reported a 47.4 / 70 % overnight rating in metered markets, peaking at 52.2 / 74 during the fourth quarter. These numbers are about 3 % lower than early numbers from Super Bowl LI, and the lowest since Super Bowl XLIV in 2010.
Dan Lovinger, NBC Sports Group executive vice president of ad sales, stated to Variety in July 2017 that the network was seeking a price "north of $5 million '' (the price set for the previous two Super Bowls) for a 30 - second commercial during Super Bowl LII. As they began five days after the Super Bowl, NBC offered advertising packages that covered both Super Bowl LII and the 2018 Winter Olympics (which marked the first time since 1992 that a single broadcast network had aired both the Super Bowl and Winter Olympics in the same year); the network estimated that it would bring in at least $1 billion in advertising revenue from the two events. During the second quarter, an equipment failure caused NBC 's broadcast to experience dead air for 30 seconds during a commercial break. No actual commercial time was lost.
Anheuser - Busch has, as it has done in previous Super Bowls, purchased multiple commercials in the game, advertising Bud Light, Stella Artois and Michelob Ultra. For the first time since Super Bowl VIII, the company reduced the appearances of the Budweiser Clydesdales in a Super Bowl commercial. However, a Clydesdale was featured in a commercial for Tide detergent and the Budweiser Clydesdales only appeared in a 5 - second Budweiser commercial to remind viewers of the "ClydesdaleCam '' livestreaming event. Other signed advertisers included The Coca - Cola Company and Avocados from Mexico. Cellphone carrier T - Mobile aired a minute long ad with actress Kerry Washington narrating, featuring babies of various ethnic backgrounds. The commercial also features Nirvana 's song "All Apologies '' played as a lullaby. In the ad, Washington talks about the babies being born with natural instincts of love and not racism calling them "unstoppable '' and that they will demand fair and equal pay. T - Mobile CEO John Legere posted to his Twitter account afterwards saying, "This year, we wanted to use our # SuperBowl airtime to share that @ TMobile believes we all started in the same place. We are more alike than different. And we are unstoppable. ''
Fiat Chrysler subsidiary Ram Trucks was met with swift and harsh criticism for its use of Rev. Dr. Martin Luther King Jr 's sermon "The Drum Major Instinct ''. Major news outlets and social media erupted in the controversy. Particularly disturbing to many viewers was the selective exploitation of King 's anti-consumerist, anti-advertising speech in an attempt to sell trucks.
NBC 's lead - out program was an episode of This Is Us, titled "Super Bowl Sunday '', alongside a special episode of The Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon from Minneapolis ' Orpheum Theatre, with halftime performer Justin Timberlake, Dwayne Johnson, Chris Stapleton and the cast of This Is Us as guests.
In a surprise move, Netflix used its advertising time to announce it had acquired the rights to The Cloverfield Paradox, the third film in the Cloverfield series, and would make it available immediately after the game, potentially undercutting viewership of the lucrative post-game slot on NBC.
On RDS, the announcer was David Arsenault with Pierre Vercheval as analyst and Didier Orméjuste on the sidelines.
Pink performed "The Star - Spangled Banner '', while Leslie Odom Jr. sang "America the Beautiful ''. Pink spit out a throat lozenge shortly before singing the anthem, later verified after many commentators thought she had spit out a piece of gum. She reported being ill with flu symptoms during her performance. No players were observed kneeling during the national anthem, in contrast to the protests that happened earlier in the 2016 and 2017 seasons.
Fifteen Medal of Honor recipients participated in the coin toss ceremony. World War II hero Hershel W. Williams was the honorary captain and had the honors of flipping the coin.
Justin Timberlake headlined the Super Bowl LII halftime show, along with his band "The Tennessee Kids '' and featuring the University of Minnesota Marching Band. Timberlake performed in two previous Super Bowls: Super Bowl XXXV in 2001 as a member of NSYNC, and Super Bowl XXXVIII in 2004 with Janet Jackson.
Timberlake 's performance drew criticism for not being "spectacular '', looking to be safe and avoid incidents such as the infamous "wardrobe malfunction '' encountered during his performance with Jackson, and for incorporating a video of Prince, who opposed performances combining the dead and the living.
The New England Patriots won the opening coin toss and elected to defer to the second half. The Patriots kicked off to the Eagles, who opened the game with a 14 - play, 67 - yard drive that took 7: 05 off the clock and resulted in a 25 - yard Jake Elliott field goal, giving the Eagles a 3 -- 0 lead. The drive was controlled by the arm of Eagles quarterback Nick Foles, who completed 6 of 9 passes to five different receivers for 61 yards, with a few short runs by LeGarrette Blount and Jay Ajayi mixed in. Foles also made two critical completions on third down plays, hitting Alshon Jeffery for a 17 - yard gain on third - and - 4, and later found Torrey Smith for a 15 - yard completion on third - and - 12. The Patriots responded with a drive of their own, almost with the exact same results; quarterback Tom Brady completed 6 of 8 passes for 60 yards to four different receivers, the longest a 28 - yard strike to Chris Hogan. The drive stalled out on the Eagles 8 - yard line, where they had to settle for Stephen Gostkowski 's 26 - yard field goal, which tied the game at 3 -- 3. The game 's first touchdown was scored by the Eagles on the next drive, taking only three plays: a short pass from Foles to Nelson Agholor, a 36 - yard run up the middle by Blount, and a 34 - yard touchdown pass from Foles to Jeffery to the left side of the field. The ensuing extra point attempt from Elliott was missed wide right, which made the score 9 -- 3 in favor of the Eagles. The Patriots responded by advancing the ball to the Philadelphia 11 - yard line on their next drive, which was set up by a 50 - yard completion from Brady to Danny Amendola, where the quarter ended.
With the second quarter under way, the Patriots came away empty - handed on the drive, as Gostkowski missed a 26 - yard field goal attempt after holder Ryan Allen mishandled the snap. New England 's defense forced the game 's only punt on the next drive. On the following drive, Brady completed a 23 - yard pass to Brandin Cooks, but a hard hit by defender Malcolm Jenkins knocked the receiver out of the game with a concussion. On third down from near mid-field, the Patriots attempted a trick play that involved two handoffs and a pass downfield to Tom Brady. Brady was open, but dropped the throw from Amendola. They went for it on fourth down, and a pass intended for tight end Rob Gronkowski fell incomplete, giving the Eagles the ball on their own 35 - yard line on a turnover - on - downs. The Eagles capitalized on a drive featuring two key completions, a 19 - yard catch by Zach Ertz on third - and - 7, and a 22 - yard reception by Jeffery on the Patriots 21 - yard line. On the next play, a 21 - yard rumble by Blount gave the Eagles another touchdown. They attempted a two - point conversion, which failed and brought the score to 15 -- 3. The Patriots quickly struck back, as Brady completed a 46 - yard pass to Rex Burkhead on the first play after the kickoff. But the team could only gain two more yards, resulting in Gostkowski 's 45 - yard field goal that got the score to 15 -- 6. The Eagles got the ball back with 7: 24 on the clock and looked poised to score another touchdown, when a 26 - yard run by Ajayi gave them a first down on the Patriots 43 - yard line. But on the next play, Foles threw a pass that bounced off Jeffery as he tried to make a one - handed catch, and went into the hands of Patriots safety Duron Harmon for an interception, which he returned eight yards to the 10 - yard line. The Patriots took advantage of the turnover with a seven - play, 90 - yard drive, featuring a 43 - yard completion from Brady to Hogan. On the next play, James White scored with a 26 - yard touchdown run. Gostkowski missed the ensuing extra point, but the score was now 15 -- 12. Eagles running back Kenjon Barner returned the ensuing kickoff 27 yards to his own 30 - yard line as time ran down to the two - minute warning. Two plays later, on third down - and - 3, Foles completed a short pass to running back Corey Clement, who took off for a 55 - yard gain to the New England 8 - yard line. Clement then ran the ball six yards to the two - yard line on the next play. Two plays later, Philadelphia faced fourth - and - goal on the 1 - yard line with 38 seconds left on the clock. Deciding to go for the touchdown, they attempted a similar trick play to the one that had failed for the Patriots earlier. As Foles stepped up to the running back position, Clement took a direct snap and pitched the ball to tight end Trey Burton, who then threw the ball perfectly to Foles, who was wide open in the right side of the end zone. Foles caught the football, making him the first quarterback ever to catch a touchdown pass in a Super Bowl, and the ensuing extra point was good, giving the Eagles a 22 -- 12 lead, which was taken into the locker room following a short drive by the Patriots.
The first half resulted in numerous Super Bowl records from both teams, including most total yards combined (673). This was also the first time two quarterbacks had thrown for over 200 yards in the first half of a Super Bowl, with Brady throwing for 276 yards and Foles throwing for 215 yards.
The Patriots received the second - half kickoff and Brady led New England 75 yards in eight plays. Gronkowski, who only caught one pass for nine yards in the first half, caught five passes for 68 yards on the drive, the last a 5 - yard touchdown reception to make the score 22 -- 19. The Eagles responded by moving the ball 85 yards in 11 plays on a drive that consumed less than five minutes and featured three critical third down conversions by Foles. The first was a 17 - yard pass to Agholor on third - and - 6 from the Eagles 19 - yard line. Later in the drive, he threw a 14 - yard completion to Ertz on third - and - 1 from the New England 40 - yard line. Finally, he finished the possession with a 22 - yard touchdown pass to Clement on third - and - 6. The touchdown was held up by a replay review, but replay officials confirmed that Clement kept both feet inbounds and controlled the ball. An Elliott extra point brought the score to 29 -- 19 in favor of the Eagles. Brady responded with a 10 - play, 75 - yard drive, completing all three of his passes for 61 yards, the last one a 26 - yard touchdown pass to Hogan that brought the score to 29 -- 26. The Eagles followed with an 8 - play, 51 - yard drive featuring a 24 - yard completion from Foles to Agholor on the first play. By the end of the third quarter, the team had made it to the New England 16 - yard line.
The Eagles opened the fourth quarter scoring with a Jake Elliott field goal to bring the score to 32 -- 26. However, Brady came back with another 75 - yard drive featuring a 30 - yard reception by Amendola and ending with a four - yard pass to Gronkowski, his second touchdown of the game, giving the Patriots their first lead of the game with the score at 33 -- 32. On their next drive, the Eagles faced third - and - 6 after two plays, but were able to keep the ball with a 7 - yard catch by Ertz. Eventually, they faced a fourth - and - 1 on their own 45 - yard line with 5: 39 left in the game. Deciding to go for the conversion rather than punt, Foles completed a 2 - yard pass to Ertz that kept the drive alive. Then after a 1 - yard Blount run, he picked up three consecutive first downs with three passes to Agholor for gains of 10, 18, and 10 yards, respectively, moving the ball to the New England 14 - yard line. Following a 3 - yard run by Ajayi, Foles threw a 9 - yard touchdown pass to Ertz with 2: 21 remaining in the game. The play was held up on review, as Ertz lost the ball after touching the ground in the end zone; it was however determined that he established himself as a runner and also maintained control of the ball as he broke the plane of the goal line. However, a failed two - point conversion left the Eagles with a 38 -- 33 lead. On the Patriots ' next drive, Eagles defensive end Brandon Graham stripped the ball from Brady on the drive 's second play for the only sack of the game for either team. Defensive end Derek Barnett of the Eagles recovered the ball, allowing the Eagles to run the clock down to 1: 05 and forcing New England to use up all their remaining timeouts. Elliott then kicked a 46 - yard field goal, putting Philadelphia ahead by eight points, with the score at 41 -- 33, and New England needing a touchdown and a two - point conversion to tie the game and send it into overtime. After nine plays (one of them a 13 - yard catch by Amendola on fourth - and - 10), Brady reached the 49 - yard line, and with only nine seconds remaining, he threw a Hail Mary pass to the end zone, to no avail as time expired. The Eagles had won their first Vince Lombardi Trophy in franchise history, and their first league championship since 1960, ending what was the third - longest championship drought in the NFL at 57 years.
The combined 74 points scored by both teams was one point shy of the Super Bowl record of 75, set in Super Bowl XXIX in 1995; it and this game marked only the second time in the game 's history where the two teams combined for 70 + points. The game also set a record for most yardage by both teams (combined) with 1,151 yards, the most for any single game, regular season or postseason. The game had many other Super Bowl records set as well, including fewest punts from both teams (one), most yards gained by a team (613 for New England) and most points scored by a losing team (33).
Foles completed 28 - of - 43 passes for 373 yards and three touchdowns, with one interception, and caught a touchdown pass. Clement, who caught only 10 passes for 123 yards and two touchdowns during the season, was the Eagles leading receiver with four receptions for 100 yards and a touchdown, while also rushing for eight yards. Agholor had nine receptions for 84 yards. Blount was the game 's top rusher with 90 yards and a touchdown. Brady completed 28 - of - 48 passes for 505 yards and three touchdowns, breaking the record for most passing yards in a Super Bowl that he had set in the previous season. Amendola was his top target with eight receptions for 152 yards, while Hogan had six for 128 yards and a touchdown and Gronkowski caught nine passes for 116 yards and two scores.
at U.S. Bank Stadium, Minneapolis, Minnesota
Completions / attempts Carries Long gain Receptions
Source:
Super Bowl LII had eight officials. The numbers in parentheses below indicate their uniform numbers.
This was Steratore 's first Super Bowl as a referee, though he had been previously selected as an alternate for Super Bowl XLIV.
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game of throne season 7 episode 5 run time | Game of Thrones (season 7) - Wikipedia
The seventh season of the fantasy drama television series Game of Thrones premiered on HBO on July 16, 2017, and concluded on August 27, 2017. Unlike previous seasons that consisted of ten episodes each, the seventh season consisted of only seven. Like the previous season, it largely consisted of original content not found in George R.R. Martin 's A Song of Ice and Fire series, while also incorporating material Martin revealed to showrunners about the upcoming novels in the series. The series was adapted for television by David Benioff and D.B. Weiss.
The penultimate season focuses primarily on the convergence of the show 's main plotlines, featuring major events such as Daenerys Targaryen arriving in Westeros with her army and three dragons and waging war against the Lannisters, Jon Snow forging an alliance with Daenerys in an attempt to unite their forces against the White Walker army, Arya and Bran returning to Winterfell and reuniting with their sister Sansa, and the army of the dead breaching the Wall (with the help of a reanimated wight dragon) and entering the Seven Kingdoms.
HBO ordered the seventh season on April 21, 2016, three days before the premiere of the show 's sixth season, and began filming on August 31, 2016. The season was filmed primarily in Northern Ireland, Spain, Croatia and Iceland.
Game of Thrones features a large ensemble cast, including Peter Dinklage, Nikolaj Coster - Waldau, Lena Headey, Emilia Clarke, and Kit Harington. The season introduces several new cast members, including Jim Broadbent and Tom Hopper.
The recurring actors listed here are those who appeared in season 7. They are listed by the region in which they first appear.
Series creators and executive producers David Benioff and D.B. Weiss serve as showrunners for the seventh season. The directors for the seventh season are Jeremy Podeswa (episodes 1 and 7), Mark Mylod (episodes 2 and 3), Matt Shakman (episodes 4 and 5) and Alan Taylor (episode 6). This marks Taylor 's return to the series after an absence since the second season. Shakman is a first - time Game of Thrones director, with the rest each having directed multiple episodes in previous seasons. Michele Clapton returned to the show as costume designer, after spending some time away from the show in the sixth season. She previously worked on the show for the first five seasons, as well as the end of the sixth season.
Depending upon the release of George R.R. Martin 's forthcoming The Winds of Winter, the seventh season may comprise original material not found in the A Song of Ice and Fire series. According to previous reports, some of the show 's sixth season had consisted of material revealed to the writers of the television series during discussions with Martin.
Filming began on August 31, 2016, at Titanic Studios in Belfast, and ended in February 2017. In an interview with the showrunners, it was announced that the filming of the seventh season would be delayed until later in the year due to necessary weather conditions for filming. The showrunners stated "We 're starting a bit later because, you know, at the end of this season, winter is here, and that means that sunny weather does n't really serve our purposes any more. We kind of pushed everything down the line so we could get some grim, gray weather even in the sunnier places that we shoot. ''
Girona, Spain did not return as one of the filming locations. Girona stood in for Braavos and parts of King 's Landing. It was later announced that the seventh season would film in Northern Ireland, Spain and Iceland, with filming in Northern Ireland beginning in August 2016. The series filmed in the Spanish cities Seville, Cáceres, Almodóvar del Río, Santiponce, Zumaia and Bermeo. Spanish sources announced that the series would be filming the seventh season on Muriola Beach in Barrika, Las Atarazanas, the Royal Dockyards of Seville and at the shores of San Juan de Gaztelugatxe, an islet belonging to the city of Bermeo. The series returned to film at The Dark Hedges in Stranocum, which was previously used as the Kingsroad in the second season. Some scenes were filmed in Iceland. Filming also occurred in Dubrovnik, Croatia, which is used for location of King 's Landing. The scene where Arya was reunited with Nymeria was filmed in Alberta, Canada.
Deadline reported on June 21, 2016, that the five main cast members, Peter Dinklage, Nikolaj Coster - Waldau, Lena Headey, Emilia Clarke, and Kit Harington had been in contract negotiations for the final two seasons. It was reported that the cast members have increased their salary to $500,000 per episode for the seventh and eighth season. It was later reported that the actors had gone through a renegotiation, for which they had increased their salary to $1.1 million per episode for the last two seasons.
On August 31, 2016, Entertainment Weekly reported that Jim Broadbent had been cast for the seventh season in a "significant '' role. It was announced that the role of Dickon Tarly has been recast, with Tom Hopper replacing Freddie Stroma, who had previously played the role in "Blood of My Blood ''. The seventh season sees the return of Mark Gatiss as Tycho Nestoris, who did not appear in the sixth season, Ben Hawkey as Hot Pie, who last appeared in the fourth season, and Joe Dempsie as Gendry, who last appeared in the third season and maintains his status as starring cast member. Members of the British indie pop band Bastille were reported to have filmed cameo appearances. British singer - songwriter Ed Sheeran also makes a cameo appearance in the season. Guitarist / vocalist of American heavy metal band Mastodon, Brent Hinds, has also revealed he would have a cameo appearance. This is Hinds ' second cameo in the series, following his appearance (along with bandmates Brann Dailor and Bill Kelliher) in the fifth season.
On April 21, 2016, HBO officially ordered the seventh season of Game of Thrones, just three days prior to the premiere of the show 's sixth season. According to an interview with co-creators David Benioff and D.B. Weiss, the seventh season would likely consist of fewer episodes, stating at the time of the interview that they were "down to our final 13 episodes after this season. We 're heading into the final lap. '' Director Jack Bender, who worked on the show 's sixth season, said that the seventh season would consist of seven episodes. Benioff and Weiss stated that they were unable to produce 10 episodes in the show 's usual 12 to 14 month time frame, as Weiss said "It 's crossing out of a television schedule into more of a mid-range movie schedule. '' HBO confirmed on July 18, 2016, that the seventh season would consist of seven episodes, and would premiere later than usual in mid-2017 because of the later filming schedule. Later it was confirmed that the season would debut on July 16. According to a report by Entertainment Weekly, the seventh season of the series includes its longest episode, with the finale running for 81 minutes. The penultimate episode also runs for 71 minutes -- around 16 minutes longer than an average Game of Thrones episode. The first five episodes mostly run longer than average (55 minutes), at 59, 59, 63, 50, and 59 minutes respectively. The previous longest episode in the series was the sixth - season finale, "The Winds of Winter '', which ran 69 minutes.
On July 23, 2016, a teaser production trailer was released by HBO at the 2016 San Diego Comic - Con. The trailer mostly consisted of voice overs, and shots of crew members creating sets and props. The first footage from the season was revealed in a new promotional video released by HBO highlighting its new and returning original shows for the coming year on November 28, 2016, showcasing Jon Snow, Sansa Stark and Arya Stark.
On March 1, 2017, HBO and Game of Thrones teamed up with Major League Baseball (MLB) for a cross-promotional partnership. At least 19 individual teams participate with this promotion. On March 8, 2017, HBO released the first promotional poster for the season ahead of the SXSW Festival in Austin, Texas, which teases the battle of "ice vs. fire ''. Showrunners Benioff and Weiss also spoke at the event, along with fellow cast members Sophie Turner and Maisie Williams.
On March 9, 2017, HBO hosted a live stream on the Game of Thrones Facebook page that revealed the premiere date for the seventh season as being July 16, 2017. It was accompanied by a teaser trailer. On March 30, 2017, the first official promo for the show was released, highlighting the thrones of Daenerys Targaryen, Jon Snow, and Cersei Lannister. On April 20, 2017, HBO released 15 official photos shot during the season. On May 22, 2017, HBO released several new photos from the new season. On May 23, 2017, HBO released the official posters featuring the Night King. The first official trailer for season 7 was released on May 24, 2017. The trailer set a world record for being the most viewed show trailer ever, being viewed 61 million times across digital platforms, in the first 24 hours. The second official trailer was released on June 21, 2017. The season premiere was screened at the Walt Disney Concert Hall in Los Angeles on July 12, 2017.
Ramin Djawadi returned as the composer of the show for the seventh season.
On Metacritic, the season (based on the first episode) has a score of 77 out of 100 based on 12 reviews, indicating "generally favorable reviews ''. On Rotten Tomatoes, the seventh season has a 96 percent approval rating from 37 critics with an average rating of 8.2 out of 10, and a 93 % average episode score, with the site 's consensus reading "After a year - long wait, Game of Thrones roars back with powerful storytelling and a focused interest in its central characters -- particularly the female ones. ''
The series premiere surpassed 30 million viewers across all of the network 's domestic platforms weeks after its release. The show 's numbers continued to climb in other countries as well. In the UK, the premiere got up to 4.7 million viewers after seven days, setting a new record for Sky Atlantic. Compared to the previous season, HBO Asia saw an increases of between 24 percent to 50 percent. HBO Latin America saw a record viewership in the region, with a 29 percent climb. In Germany, the show went up 210 percent, in Russia it climbed 40 percent and in Italy it saw a 61 percent increase. In the United States, the finale was watched by 12.1 million viewers on its first airing on television, and 16.5 million when viewings on HBO Now and HBO Go apps are included. Over the season, the viewer numbers averaged at over 30 million per episode across all platform.
^ 1 Live + 7 ratings were not available, so Live + 3 ratings have been used instead.
The season was simulcast around the world by HBO and its broadcast partners in 186 countries. While in some countries, it aired the day after its first release.
The season will be released on Blu - ray and DVD in region 1 on December 12, 2017.
The season premiere was pirated 90 million times in the first three days after it aired. On August 4, 2017, it was reported that, two days before its original broadcast, the fourth episode of the season was leaked online from Star India, one of HBO 's international network partners. The leaked copy has the "for internal viewing only '' watermark. On July 31, 2017, due to a security breach, HBO was the victim of 1.5 terabytes of stolen data. However, "this was not related to this episode leak '', according to The Verge. On August 16, 2017, four days before its intended release, it was reported that HBO Spain and HBO Nordic accidentally allowed the sixth episode of the series on - demand viewing for one hour before being removed.
Data from by piracy monitoring firm MUSO indicates that season seven was pirated more than one billion times mostly by unauthorized streaming, with torrent and direct downloads accounting for about 15 percent of this piracy. On average, each episode is estimated to have been pirated 140 million times.
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the best of bob dylan's theme time radio hour | The Best of Bob Dylan 's Theme Time Radio Hour - wikipedia
The Best of Bob Dylan 's Theme Time Radio Hour is a series of four compilation albums featuring songs Bob Dylan played on his shows as a deejay on the XM Satellite Radio and Sirius XM Satellite Radio program, Theme Time Radio Hour, from May 2006 through April 2009. Each album in the series includes 52 songs on two CDs. The tracks cover the range of genres Dylan highlighted on the program, including blues, R&B, rockabilly, doo - wop, soul, jazz, rock - and - roll and country.
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the roettgen pieta belongs to what category of objects | Pietà - wikipedia
The Pietà (Italian pronunciation: (pjeˈta)) is a subject in Christian art depicting the Virgin Mary cradling the dead body of Jesus, most often found in sculpture. As such, it is a particular form of the Lamentation of Christ, a scene from the Passion of Christ found in cycles of the Life of Christ. When Christ and the Virgin are surrounded by other figures from the New Testament, the subject is strictly called a Lamentation in English, although Pietà is often used for this as well, and is the normal term in Italian.
Pietà is one of the three common artistic representations of a sorrowful Virgin Mary, the other two being Mater Dolorosa (Mother of Sorrows) and Stabat Mater (here stands the mother). The other two representations are most commonly found in paintings, rather than sculpture, although combined forms exist.
The Pietà developed in Germany (where it is called the "Vesperbild '') about 1300, reached Italy about 1400, and was especially popular in Central European Andachtsbilder. Many German and Polish 15th - century examples in wood greatly emphasise Christ 's wounds. The Deposition of Christ and the Lamentation or Pietà form the 13th of the Stations of the Cross, as well as one of the Seven Sorrows of the Virgin.
Although the Pietà most often shows the Virgin Mary holding Jesus, there are other compositions, including those where God the Father participates in holding Jesus (see gallery below). In Spain the Virgin often holds up one or both hands, sometimes with Christ 's body slumped to the floor.
A famous example by Michelangelo was carved from a block of marble and is located in St. Peter 's Basilica in the Vatican City. The body of Christ is different from most earlier Pietà statues, which were usually smaller and in wood. The Virgin is also unusually youthful, and in repose, rather than the older, sorrowing Mary of most Pietàs. She is shown as youthful for two reasons; God is the source of all beauty and she is one of the closest to God, also the exterior is thought as the revelation of the interior (the virgin is morally beautiful). The Pietà with the Virgin Mary is also unique among Michelangelo 's sculptures, because it was the only one he ever signed, upon hearing that visitors thought it had been sculpted by Cristoforo Solari, a competitor. His signature is carved as "MICHAELA (N) GELUS BONAROTUS FLORENTIN (US) FACIEBA (T) ''
In a lesser known Michelangelo Pietà, The Deposition, it is not the Virgin Mary who is holding Jesus ' body, but rather Nicodemus (or possibly Joseph of Arimathea), Mary Magdalene and the Virgin Mary. There is some indication that the man in the hood is based on a self - portrait of the artist. The sculpture is housed in the Museo dell'Opera del Duomo in Florence and is also known as the Florentine Pietà.
A generation later, the Spanish painter Luis de Morales painted a number of highly emotional Pietàs, with examples in the Louvre and Museo del Prado.
Austrian Pietà, c. 1420
15th - century German wood Pietà from Cologne
Swabian painted wood Pietà of c. 1500
Pietà by Michelangelo, Museo dell'Opera del Duomo, Florence
Pietà by Gregorio Fernández, National Sculpture Museum,
18th - century Bavarian example with Rococo setting
The Palestrina Pietà originally attributed to Michelangelo but probably by another sculptor
Pietà in frescoes found in the Church of St. Panteleimon, Gorno Nerezi, 1164
The Avignon Pietà, Enguerrand Charonton, 15th century
Kraków, c. 1450
Rogier van der Weyden, Museo del Prado, Madrid, with Saint John and a donor
Pietro Perugino, Uffizi
Deposition of Christ, Bronzino, 1540 - 1545, Musée de Besançon
El Greco, Pietà, 1571 - 1576, Philadelphia Museum of Art
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which organisms represent the common ancestor of all | Evidence of common descent - wikipedia
Evidence of common descent of living organisms has been discovered by scientists researching in a variety of disciplines over many decades, demonstrating the common descent of all life on Earth developing from a last universal common ancestor. This evidence constructs the theoretical framework on which evolutionary theory rests, demonstrates that evolution does occur, and is able to show the natural processes that led to the emergence of Earth 's biodiversity. Additionally, this evidence supports the modern evolutionary synthesis -- the current scientific theory that explains how and why life changes over time. Evolutionary biologists document evidence of common descent by developing testable predictions, testing hypotheses, and constructing theories that illustrate and describe its causes.
Comparison of the DNA genetic sequences of organisms has revealed that organisms that are phylogenetically close have a higher degree of DNA sequence similarity than organisms that are phylogenetically distant. Genetic fragments such as pseudogenes, regions of DNA that are orthologous to a gene in a related organism, but are no longer active and appear to be undergoing a steady process of degeneration from cumulative mutations support common descent alongside the universal biochemical organization and molecular variance patterns found in all organisms. Additional genetic information conclusively supports the relatedness of life and has allowed scientists (since the discovery of DNA) to develop phylogenetic trees: a construction of organisms evolutionary relatedness. It has also led to the development of molecular clock techniques to date taxon divergence times and to calibrate these with the fossil record.
Fossils are important for estimating when various lineages developed in geologic time. As fossilization is an uncommon occurrence, usually requiring hard body parts and death near a site where sediments are being deposited, the fossil record only provides sparse and intermittent information about the evolution of life. Evidence of organisms prior to the development of hard body parts such as shells, bones and teeth is especially scarce, but exists in the form of ancient microfossils, as well as impressions of various soft - bodied organisms. The comparative study of the anatomy of groups of animals shows structural features that are fundamentally similar (homologous), demonstrating phylogenetic and ancestral relationships with other organisms, most especially when compared with fossils of ancient extinct organisms. Vestigial structures and comparisons in embryonic development are largely a contributing factor in anatomical resemblance in concordance with common descent. Since metabolic processes do not leave fossils, research into the evolution of the basic cellular processes is done largely by comparison of existing organisms ' physiology and biochemistry. Many lineages diverged at different stages of development, so it is possible to determine when certain metabolic processes appeared by comparing the traits of the descendants of a common ancestor.
Evidence from animal coloration was gathered by some of Darwin 's contemporaries; camouflage, mimicry, and warning coloration are all readily explained by natural selection. Special cases like the seasonal changes in the plumage of the ptarmigan, camouflaging it against snow in winter and against brown moorland in summer provide compelling evidence that selection is at work. Further evidence comes from the field of biogeography because evolution with common descent provides the best and most thorough explanation for a variety of facts concerning the geographical distribution of plants and animals across the world. This is especially obvious in the field of insular biogeography. Combined with the well - established geological theory of plate tectonics, common descent provides a way to combine facts about the current distribution of species with evidence from the fossil record to provide a logically consistent explanation of how the distribution of living organisms has changed over time.
The development and spread of antibiotic resistant bacteria provides evidence that evolution due to natural selection is an ongoing process in the natural world. Natural selection is ubiquitous in all research pertaining to evolution, taking note of the fact that all of the following examples in each section of the article document the process. Alongside this are observed instances of the separation of populations of species into sets of new species (speciation). Speciation has been observed directly and indirectly in the lab and in nature. Multiple forms of such have been described and documented as examples for individual modes of speciation. Furthermore, evidence of common descent extends from direct laboratory experimentation with the selective breeding of organisms -- historically and currently -- and other controlled experiments involving many of the topics in the article. This article summarizes the varying disciplines that provide the evidence for evolution and the common descent of all life on Earth, accompanied by numerous and specialized examples, indicating a compelling concordance of evidence.
One of the strongest evidences for common descent comes from the study of gene sequences. Comparative sequence analysis examines the relationship between the DNA sequences of different species, producing several lines of evidence that confirm Darwin 's original hypothesis of common descent. If the hypothesis of common descent is true, then species that share a common ancestor inherited that ancestor 's DNA sequence, as well as mutations unique to that ancestor. More closely related species have a greater fraction of identical sequence and shared substitutions compared to more distantly related species.
The simplest and most powerful evidence is provided by phylogenetic reconstruction. Such reconstructions, especially when done using slowly evolving protein sequences, are often quite robust and can be used to reconstruct a great deal of the evolutionary history of modern organisms (and even in some instances of the evolutionary history of extinct organisms, such as the recovered gene sequences of mammoths or Neanderthals). These reconstructed phylogenies recapitulate the relationships established through morphological and biochemical studies. The most detailed reconstructions have been performed on the basis of the mitochondrial genomes shared by all eukaryotic organisms, which are short and easy to sequence; the broadest reconstructions have been performed either using the sequences of a few very ancient proteins or by using ribosomal RNA sequence.
Phylogenetic relationships also extend to a wide variety of nonfunctional sequence elements, including repeats, transposons, pseudogenes, and mutations in protein - coding sequences that do not result in changes in amino - acid sequence. While a minority of these elements might later be found to harbor function, in aggregate they demonstrate that identity must be the product of common descent rather than common function.
All known extant (surviving) organisms are based on the same biochemical processes: genetic information encoded as nucleic acid (DNA, or RNA for many viruses), transcribed into RNA, then translated into proteins (that is, polymers of amino acids) by highly conserved ribosomes. Perhaps most tellingly, the Genetic Code (the "translation table '' between DNA and amino acids) is the same for almost every organism, meaning that a piece of DNA in a bacterium codes for the same amino acid as in a human cell. ATP is used as energy currency by all extant life. A deeper understanding of developmental biology shows that common morphology is, in fact, the product of shared genetic elements. For example, although camera - like eyes are believed to have evolved independently on many separate occasions, they share a common set of light - sensing proteins (opsins), suggesting a common point of origin for all sighted creatures. Another noteworthy example is the familiar vertebrate body plan, whose structure is controlled by the homeobox (Hox) family of genes.
Comparison of the DNA sequences allows organisms to be grouped by sequence similarity, and the resulting phylogenetic trees are typically congruent with traditional taxonomy, and are often used to strengthen or correct taxonomic classifications. Sequence comparison is considered a measure robust enough to correct erroneous assumptions in the phylogenetic tree in instances where other evidence is scarce. For example, neutral human DNA sequences are approximately 1.2 % divergent (based on substitutions) from those of their nearest genetic relative, the chimpanzee, 1.6 % from gorillas, and 6.6 % from baboons. Genetic sequence evidence thus allows inference and quantification of genetic relatedness between humans and other apes. The sequence of the 16S ribosomal RNA gene, a vital gene encoding a part of the ribosome, was used to find the broad phylogenetic relationships between all extant life. The analysis, originally done by Carl Woese, resulted in the three - domain system, arguing for two major splits in the early evolution of life. The first split led to modern Bacteria and the subsequent split led to modern Archaea and Eukaryotes.
Some DNA sequences are shared by very different organisms. It has been predicted by the theory of evolution that the differences in such DNA sequences between two organisms should roughly resemble both the biological difference between them according to their anatomy and the time that had passed since these two organisms have separated in the course of evolution, as seen in fossil evidence. The rate of accumulating such changes should be low for some sequences, namely those that code for critical RNA or proteins, and high for others that code for less critical RNA or proteins; but for every specific sequence, the rate of change should be roughly constant over time. These results have been experimentally confirmed. Two examples are DNA sequences coding for rRNA, which is highly conserved, and DNA sequences coding for fibrinopeptides (amino acid chains that are discarded during the formation of fibrin), which are highly non-conserved.
The proteomic evidence also supports the universal ancestry of life. Vital proteins, such as the ribosome, DNA polymerase, and RNA polymerase, are found in everything from the most primitive bacteria to the most complex mammals. The core part of the protein is conserved across all lineages of life, serving similar functions. Higher organisms have evolved additional protein subunits, largely affecting the regulation and protein - protein interaction of the core. Other overarching similarities between all lineages of extant organisms, such as DNA, RNA, amino acids, and the lipid bilayer, give support to the theory of common descent. Phylogenetic analyses of protein sequences from various organisms produce similar trees of relationship between all organisms. The chirality of DNA, RNA, and amino acids is conserved across all known life. As there is no functional advantage to right - or left - handed molecular chirality, the simplest hypothesis is that the choice was made randomly by early organisms and passed on to all extant life through common descent. Further evidence for reconstructing ancestral lineages comes from junk DNA such as pseudogenes, "dead '' genes that steadily accumulate mutations.
Pseudogenes, also known as noncoding DNA, are extra DNA in a genome that do not get transcribed into RNA to synthesize proteins. Some of this noncoding DNA has known functions, but much of it has no known function and is called "Junk DNA ''. This is an example of a vestige since replicating these genes uses energy, making it a waste in many cases. A pseudogene can be produced when a coding gene accumulates mutations that prevent it from being transcribed, making it non-functional. But since it is not transcribed, it may disappear without affecting fitness, unless it has provided some beneficial function as non-coding DNA. Non-functional pseudogenes may be passed on to later species, thereby labeling the later species as descended from the earlier species.
There is also a large body of molecular evidence for a number of different mechanisms for large evolutionary changes, among them: genome and gene duplication, which facilitates rapid evolution by providing substantial quantities of genetic material under weak or no selective constraints; horizontal gene transfer, the process of transferring genetic material to another cell that is not an organism 's offspring, allowing for species to acquire beneficial genes from each other; and recombination, capable of reassorting large numbers of different alleles and of establishing reproductive isolation. The endosymbiotic theory explains the origin of mitochondria and plastids (e.g. chloroplasts), which are organelles of eukaryotic cells, as the incorporation of an ancient prokaryotic cell into ancient eukaryotic cell. Rather than evolving eukaryotic organelles slowly, this theory offers a mechanism for a sudden evolutionary leap by incorporating the genetic material and biochemical composition of a separate species. Evidence supporting this mechanism has been found in the protist Hatena: as a predator it engulfs a green algae cell, which subsequently behaves as an endosymbiont, nourishing Hatena, which in turn loses its feeding apparatus and behaves as an autotroph.
Since metabolic processes do not leave fossils, research into the evolution of the basic cellular processes is done largely by comparison of existing organisms. Many lineages diverged when new metabolic processes appeared, and it is theoretically possible to determine when certain metabolic processes appeared by comparing the traits of the descendants of a common ancestor or by detecting their physical manifestations. As an example, the appearance of oxygen in the earth 's atmosphere is linked to the evolution of photosynthesis.
Evidence for the evolution of Homo sapiens from a common ancestor with chimpanzees is found in the number of chromosomes in humans as compared to all other members of Hominidae. All hominidae have 24 pairs of chromosomes, except humans, who have only 23 pairs. Human chromosome 2 is a result of an end - to - end fusion of two ancestral chromosomes.
The evidence for this includes:
Chromosome 2 thus presents very strong evidence in favour of the common descent of humans and other apes. According to J.W. IJdo, "We conclude that the locus cloned in cosmids c8. 1 and c29B is the relic of an ancient telomere - telomere fusion and marks the point at which two ancestral ape chromosomes fused to give rise to human chromosome 2. ''
A classic example of biochemical evidence for evolution is the variance of the ubiquitous (i.e. all living organisms have it, because it performs very basic life functions) protein Cytochrome c in living cells. The variance of cytochrome c of different organisms is measured in the number of differing amino acids, each differing amino acid being a result of a base pair substitution, a mutation. If each differing amino acid is assumed the result of one base pair substitution, it can be calculated how long ago the two species diverged by multiplying the number of base pair substitutions by the estimated time it takes for a substituted base pair of the cytochrome c gene to be successfully passed on. For example, if the average time it takes for a base pair of the cytochrome c gene to mutate is N years, the number of amino acids making up the cytochrome c protein in monkeys differ by one from that of humans, this leads to the conclusion that the two species diverged N years ago.
The primary structure of cytochrome c consists of a chain of about 100 amino acids. Many higher order organisms possess a chain of 104 amino acids.
The cytochrome c molecule has been extensively studied for the glimpse it gives into evolutionary biology. Both chicken and turkeys have identical sequence homology (amino acid for amino acid), as do pigs, cows and sheep. Both humans and chimpanzees share the identical molecule, while rhesus monkeys share all but one of the amino acids: the 66th amino acid is isoleucine in the former and threonine in the latter.
What makes these homologous similarities particularly suggestive of common ancestry in the case of cytochrome c, in addition to the fact that the phylogenies derived from them match other phylogenies very well, is the high degree of functional redundancy of the cytochrome c molecule. The different existing configurations of amino acids do not significantly affect the functionality of the protein, which indicates that the base pair substitutions are not part of a directed design, but the result of random mutations that are n't subject to selection.
In addition, Cytochrome b is commonly used as a region of mitochondrial DNA to determine phylogenetic relationships between organisms due to its sequence variability. It is considered most useful in determining relationships within families and genera. Comparative studies involving cytochrome b have resulted in new classification schemes and have been used to assign newly described species to a genus, as well as deepen the understanding of evolutionary relationships.
Endogenous retroviruses (or ERVs) are remnant sequences in the genome left from ancient viral infections in an organism. The retroviruses (or virogenes) are always passed on to the next generation of that organism that received the infection. This leaves the virogene left in the genome. Because this event is rare and random, finding identical chromosomal positions of a virogene in two different species suggests common ancestry. Cats (Felidae) present a notable instance of virogene sequences demonstrating common descent. The standard phylogenetic tree for Felidae have smaller cats (Felis chaus, Felis silvestris, Felis nigripes, and Felis catus) diverging from larger cats such as the subfamily Pantherinae and other carnivores. The fact that small cats have an ERV where the larger cats do not suggests that the gene was inserted into the ancestor of the small cats after the larger cats had diverged. Another example of this is with humans and chimps. Humans contain numerous ERVs that comprise a considerable percentage of the genome. Sources vary, but 1 % to 8 % has been proposed. Humans and chimps share seven different occurrences of virogenes, while all primates share similar retroviruses congruent with phylogeny.
Mathematical models of evolution, pioneered by the likes of Sewall Wright, Ronald Fisher and J.B.S. Haldane and extended via diffusion theory by Motoo Kimura, allow predictions about the genetic structure of evolving populations. Direct examination of the genetic structure of modern populations via DNA sequencing has allowed verification of many of these predictions. For example, the Out of Africa theory of human origins, which states that modern humans developed in Africa and a small sub-population migrated out (undergoing a population bottleneck), implies that modern populations should show the signatures of this migration pattern. Specifically, post-bottleneck populations (Europeans and Asians) should show lower overall genetic diversity and a more uniform distribution of allele frequencies compared to the African population. Both of these predictions are borne out by actual data from a number of studies.
Comparative study of the anatomy of groups of animals or plants reveals that certain structural features are basically similar. For example, the basic structure of all flowers consists of sepals, petals, stigma, style and ovary; yet the size, colour, number of parts and specific structure are different for each individual species. The neural anatomy of fossilized remains may also be compared using advanced imaging techniques.
Once thought of as a refutation to evolutionary theory, atavisms are "now seen as potent evidence of how much genetic potential is retained... after a particular structure has disappeared from a species ''. "Atavisms are the reappearance of a lost character typical of remote ancestors and not seen in the parents or recent ancestors... '' and are an "(indication) of the developmental plasticity that exists within embryos... '' Atavisms occur because genes for previously existing phenotypical features are often preserved in DNA, even though the genes are not expressed in some or most of the organisms possessing them. Numerous examples have documented the occurrence of atavisms alongside experimental research triggering their formation. Due to the complexity and interrelatedness of the factors involved in the development of atavisms, both biologists and medical professionals find it "difficult, if not impossible, to distinguish (them) from malformations. ''
Some examples of atavisms found in the scientific literature include:
Evolutionary developmental biology is the biological field that compares the developmental process of different organisms to determine ancestral relationships between species. A large variety of organism 's genomes contain a small fraction of genes that control the organisms development. Hox genes are an example of these types of nearly universal genes in organisms pointing to an origin of common ancestry. Embryological evidence comes from the development of organisms at the embryological level with the comparison of different organisms embryos similarity. Remains of ancestral traits often appear and disappear in different stages of the embryological development process. Examples include such as hair growth and loss (lanugo) during human development; development and degeneration of a yolk sac; terrestrial frogs and salamanders passing through the larval stage within the egg -- with features of typically aquatic larvae -- but hatch ready for life on land; and the appearance of gill - like structures (pharyngeal arch) in vertebrate embryo development. Note that in fish, the arches continue to develop as branchial arches while in humans, for example, they give rise to a variety of structures within the head and neck.
If widely separated groups of organisms are originated from a common ancestry, they are expected to have certain basic features in common. The degree of resemblance between two organisms should indicate how closely related they are in evolution:
When a group of organisms share a homologous structure that is specialized to perform a variety of functions to adapt different environmental conditions and modes of life, it is called adaptive radiation. The gradual spreading of organisms with adaptive radiation is known as divergent evolution.
Taxonomy is based on the fact that all organisms are related to each other in nested hierarchies based on shared characteristics. Most existing species can be organized rather easily in a nested hierarchical classification. This is evident from the Linnaean classification scheme. Based on shared derived characters, closely related organisms can be placed in one group (such as a genus), several genera can be grouped together into one family, several families can be grouped together into an order, etc. The existence of these nested hierarchies was recognized by many biologists before Darwin, but he showed that his theory of evolution with its branching pattern of common descent could explain them. Darwin described how common descent could provide a logical basis for classification:
An evolutionary tree (of Amniota, for example, the last common ancestor of mammals and reptiles, and all its descendants) illustrates the initial conditions causing evolutionary patterns of similarity (e.g., all Amniotes produce an egg that possesses the amnios) and the patterns of divergence amongst lineages (e.g., mammals and reptiles branching from the common ancestry in Amniota). Evolutionary trees provide conceptual models of evolving systems once thought limited in the domain of making predictions out of the theory. However, the method of phylogenetic bracketing is used to infer predictions with far greater probability than raw speculation. For example, paleontologists use this technique to make predictions about nonpreservable traits in fossil organisms, such as feathered dinosaurs, and molecular biologists use the technique to posit predictions about RNA metabolism and protein functions. Thus evolutionary trees are evolutionary hypotheses that refer to specific facts, such as the characteristics of organisms (e.g., scales, feathers, fur), providing evidence for the patterns of descent, and a causal explanation for modification (i.e., natural selection or neutral drift) in any given lineage (e.g., Amniota). Evolutionary biologists test evolutionary theory using phylogenetic systematic methods that measure how much the hypothesis (a particular branching pattern in an evolutionary tree) increases the likelihood of the evidence (the distribution of characters among lineages). The severity of tests for a theory increases if the predictions "are the least probable of being observed if the causal event did not occur. '' "Testability is a measure of how much the hypothesis increases the likelihood of the evidence. ''
Evidence for common descent comes from the existence of vestigial structures. These rudimentary structures are often homologous to structures that correspond in related or ancestral species. A wide range of structures exist such as mutated and non-functioning genes, parts of a flower, muscles, organs, and even behaviors. This variety can be found across many different groups of species. In many cases they are degenerated or underdeveloped. The existence of vestigial organs can be explained in terms of changes in the environment or modes of life of the species. Those organs are typically functional in the ancestral species but are now either semi-functional, nonfunctional, or re-purposed.
Scientific literature concerning vestigial structures abounds. One study complied 64 examples of vestigial structures found in the literature across a wide range of disciplines within the 21st century. The following non-exhaustive list summarizes Senter et al. alongside various other examples:
Many different species of insects have mouthparts derived from the same embryonic structures, indicating that the mouthparts are modifications of a common ancestor 's original features. These include a labrum (upper lip), a pair of mandibles, a hypopharynx (floor of mouth), a pair of maxillae, and a labium. (Fig. 2c) Evolution has caused enlargement and modification of these structures in some species, while it has caused the reduction and loss of them in other species. The modifications enable the insects to exploit a variety of food materials.
Insect mouthparts and antennae are considered homologues of insect legs. Parallel developments are seen in some arachnids: The anterior pair of legs may be modified as analogues of antennae, particularly in whip scorpions, which walk on six legs. These developments provide support for the theory that complex modifications often arise by duplication of components, with the duplicates modified in different directions.
Similar to the pentadactyl limb in mammals, the earliest dinosaurs split into two distinct orders -- the saurischia and ornithischia. They are classified as one or the other in accordance with what the fossils demonstrate. Figure 2d, shows that early saurischians resembled early ornithischians. The pattern of the pelvis in all species of dinosaurs is an example of homologous structures. Each order of dinosaur has slightly differing pelvis bones providing evidence of common descent. Additionally, modern birds show a similarity to ancient saurischian pelvic structures indicating the evolution of birds from dinosaurs. This can also be seen in Figure 5c as the Aves branch off the Theropoda suborder.
The pattern of limb bones called pentadactyl limb is an example of homologous structures (Fig. 2e). It is found in all classes of tetrapods (i.e. from amphibians to mammals). It can even be traced back to the fins of certain fossil fishes from which the first amphibians evolved such as tiktaalik. The limb has a single proximal bone (humerus), two distal bones (radius and ulna), a series of carpals (wrist bones), followed by five series of metacarpals (palm bones) and phalanges (digits). Throughout the tetrapods, the fundamental structures of pentadactyl limbs are the same, indicating that they originated from a common ancestor. But in the course of evolution, these fundamental structures have been modified. They have become superficially different and unrelated structures to serve different functions in adaptation to different environments and modes of life. This phenomenon is shown in the forelimbs of mammals. For example:
The recurrent laryngeal nerve is a fourth branch of the vagus nerve, which is a cranial nerve. In mammals, its path is unusually long. As a part of the vagus nerve, it comes from the brain, passes through the neck down to heart, rounds the dorsal aorta and returns up to the larynx, again through the neck. (Fig. 2f)
This path is suboptimal even for humans, but for giraffes it becomes even more suboptimal. Due to the lengths of their necks, the recurrent laryngeal nerve may be up to 4 m (13 ft) long, despite its optimal route being a distance of just several inches.
The indirect route of this nerve is the result of evolution of mammals from fish, which had no neck and had a relatively short nerve that innervated one gill slit and passed near the gill arch. Since then, the gill it innervated has become the larynx and the gill arch has become the dorsal aorta in mammals.
Similar to the laryngeal nerve in giraffes, the vas deferens is part of the male anatomy of many vertebrates; it transports sperm from the epididymis in anticipation of ejaculation. In humans, the vas deferens routes up from the testicle, looping over the ureter, and back down to the urethra and penis. It has been suggested that this is due to the descent of the testicles during the course of human evolution -- likely associated with temperature. As the testicles descended, the vas deferens lengthened to accommodate the accidental "hook '' over the ureter.
When organisms die, they often decompose rapidly or are consumed by scavengers, leaving no permanent evidences of their existence. However, occasionally, some organisms are preserved. The remains or traces of organisms from a past geologic age embedded in rocks by natural processes are called fossils. They are extremely important for understanding the evolutionary history of life on Earth, as they provide direct evidence of evolution and detailed information on the ancestry of organisms. Paleontology is the study of past life based on fossil records and their relations to different geologic time periods.
For fossilization to take place, the traces and remains of organisms must be quickly buried so that weathering and decomposition do not occur. Skeletal structures or other hard parts of the organisms are the most commonly occurring form of fossilized remains. There are also some trace "fossils '' showing moulds, cast or imprints of some previous organisms.
As an animal dies, the organic materials gradually decay, such that the bones become porous. If the animal is subsequently buried in mud, mineral salts infiltrate into the bones and gradually fill up the pores. The bones harden into stones and are preserved as fossils. This process is known as petrification. If dead animals are covered by wind - blown sand, and if the sand is subsequently turned into mud by heavy rain or floods, the same process of mineral infiltration may occur. Apart from petrification, the dead bodies of organisms may be well preserved in ice, in hardened resin of coniferous trees (figure 3a), in tar, or in anaerobic, acidic peat. Fossilization can sometimes be a trace, an impression of a form. Examples include leaves and footprints, the fossils of which are made in layers that then harden.
It is possible to decipher how a particular group of organisms evolved by arranging its fossil record in a chronological sequence. Such a sequence can be determined because fossils are mainly found in sedimentary rock. Sedimentary rock is formed by layers of silt or mud on top of each other; thus, the resulting rock contains a series of horizontal layers, or strata. Each layer contains fossils typical for a specific time period when they formed. The lowest strata contain the oldest rock and the earliest fossils, while the highest strata contain the youngest rock and more recent fossils.
A succession of animals and plants can also be seen from fossil discoveries. By studying the number and complexity of different fossils at different stratigraphic levels, it has been shown that older fossil - bearing rocks contain fewer types of fossilized organisms, and they all have a simpler structure, whereas younger rocks contain a greater variety of fossils, often with increasingly complex structures.
For many years, geologists could only roughly estimate the ages of various strata and the fossils found. They did so, for instance, by estimating the time for the formation of sedimentary rock layer by layer. Today, by measuring the proportions of radioactive and stable elements in a given rock, the ages of fossils can be more precisely dated by scientists. This technique is known as radiometric dating.
Throughout the fossil record, many species that appear at an early stratigraphic level disappear at a later level. This is interpreted in evolutionary terms as indicating the times when species originated and became extinct. Geographical regions and climatic conditions have varied throughout Earth 's history. Since organisms are adapted to particular environments, the constantly changing conditions favoured species that adapted to new environments through the mechanism of natural selection.
Despite the relative rarity of suitable conditions for fossilization, an estimated 250,000 fossil species have been named. The number of individual fossils this represents varies greatly from species to species, but many millions of fossils have been recovered: for instance, more than three million fossils from the last ice age have been recovered from the La Brea Tar Pits in Los Angeles. Many more fossils are still in the ground, in various geological formations known to contain a high fossil density, allowing estimates of the total fossil content of the formation to be made. An example of this occurs in South Africa 's Beaufort Formation (part of the Karoo Supergroup, which covers most of South Africa), which is rich in vertebrate fossils, including therapsids (reptile - mammal transitional forms). It has been estimated that this formation contains 800 billion vertebrate fossils. Palentologists have documented numerous transitional forms and have constructed "an astonishingly comprehensive record of the key transitions in animal evolution ''. Conducting a survey of the paleontological literature, one would find that there is "abundant evidence for how all the major groups of animals are related, much of it in the form of excellent transitional fossils ''.
The fossil record is an important source for scientists when tracing the evolutionary history of organisms. However, because of limitations inherent in the record, there are not fine scales of intermediate forms between related groups of species. This lack of continuous fossils in the record is a major limitation in tracing the descent of biological groups. When transitional fossils are found that show intermediate forms in what had previously been a gap in knowledge, they are often popularly referred to as "missing links ''.
There is a gap of about 100 million years between the beginning of the Cambrian period and the end of the Ordovician period. The early Cambrian period was the period from which numerous fossils of sponges, cnidarians (e.g., jellyfish), echinoderms (e.g., eocrinoids), molluscs (e.g., snails) and arthropods (e.g., trilobites) are found. The first animal that possessed the typical features of vertebrates, the Arandaspis, was dated to have existed in the later Ordovician period. Thus few, if any, fossils of an intermediate type between invertebrates and vertebrates have been found, although likely candidates include the Burgess Shale animal, Pikaia gracilens, and its Maotianshan shales relatives, Myllokunmingia, Yunnanozoon, Haikouella lanceolata, and Haikouichthys.
Some of the reasons for the incompleteness of fossil records are:
Due to an almost - complete fossil record found in North American sedimentary deposits from the early Eocene to the present, the horse provides one of the best examples of evolutionary history (phylogeny).
This evolutionary sequence starts with a small animal called Hyracotherium (commonly referred to as Eohippus), which lived in North America about 54 million years ago then spread across to Europe and Asia. Fossil remains of Hyracotherium show it to have differed from the modern horse in three important respects: it was a small animal (the size of a fox), lightly built and adapted for running; the limbs were short and slender, and the feet elongated so that the digits were almost vertical, with four digits in the forelimbs and three digits in the hindlimbs; and the incisors were small, the molars having low crowns with rounded cusps covered in enamel.
The probable course of development of horses from Hyracotherium to Equus (the modern horse) involved at least 12 genera and several hundred species. The major trends seen in the development of the horse to changing environmental conditions may be summarized as follows:
Fossilized plants found in different strata show that the marshy, wooded country in which Hyracotherium lived became gradually drier. Survival now depended on the head being in an elevated position for gaining a good view of the surrounding countryside, and on a high turn of speed for escape from predators, hence the increase in size and the replacement of the splayed - out foot by the hoofed foot. The drier, harder ground would make the original splayed - out foot unnecessary for support. The changes in the teeth can be explained by assuming that the diet changed from soft vegetation to grass. A dominant genus from each geological period has been selected (see figure 3e) to show the slow alteration of the horse lineage from its ancestral to its modern form.
Prior to 2004, paleontologists had found fossils of amphibians with necks, ears, and four legs, in rock no older than 365 million years old. In rocks more than 385 million years old they could only find fish, without these amphibian characteristics. Evolutionary theory predicted that since amphibians evolved from fish, an intermediate form should be found in rock dated between 365 and 385 million years ago. Such an intermediate form should have many fish - like characteristics, conserved from 385 million years ago or more, but also have many amphibian characteristics as well. In 2004, an expedition to islands in the Canadian arctic searching specifically for this fossil form in rocks that were 375 million years old discovered fossils of Tiktaalik. Some years later, however, scientists in Poland found evidence of fossilised tetrapod tracks predating Tiktaalik.
Data about the presence or absence of species on various continents and islands (biogeography) can provide evidence of common descent and shed light on patterns of speciation.
All organisms are adapted to their environment to a greater or lesser extent. If the abiotic and biotic factors within a habitat are capable of supporting a particular species in one geographic area, then one might assume that the same species would be found in a similar habitat in a similar geographic area, e.g. in Africa and South America. This is not the case. Plant and animal species are discontinuously distributed throughout the world:
Even greater differences can be found if Australia is taken into consideration, though it occupies the same latitude as much of South America and Africa. Marsupials like kangaroos, bandicoots, and quolls make up about half of Australia 's indigenous mammal species. By contrast, marsupials are today totally absent from Africa and form a smaller portion of the mammalian fauna of South America, where opossums, shrew opossums, and the monito del monte occur. The only living representatives of primitive egg - laying mammals (monotremes) are the echidnas and the platypus. The short - beaked echidna (Tachyglossus aculeatus) and its subspecies populate Australia, Tasmania, New Guinea, and Kangaroo Island while the long - beaked echidna (Zaglossus bruijni) lives only in New Guinea. The platypus lives in the waters of eastern Australia. They have been introduced to Tasmania, King Island, and Kangaroo Island. These Monotremes are totally absent in the rest of the world. On the other hand, Australia is missing many groups of placental mammals that are common on other continents (carnivorans, artiodactyls, shrews, squirrels, lagomorphs), although it does have indigenous bats and murine rodents; many other placentals, such as rabbits and foxes, have been introduced there by humans.
Other animal distribution examples include bears, located on all continents excluding Africa, Australia and Antarctica, and the polar bear solely in the Arctic Circle and adjacent land masses. Penguins are found only around the South Pole despite similar weather conditions at the North Pole. Families of sirenians are distributed around the earth 's waters, where manatees are located in western Africa waters, northern South American waters, and West Indian waters only while the related family, the dugongs, are located only in Oceanic waters north of Australia, and the coasts surrounding the Indian Ocean. The now extinct Steller 's sea cow resided in the Bering Sea.
The same kinds of fossils are found from areas known to be adjacent to one another in the past but that, through the process of continental drift, are now in widely divergent geographic locations. For example, fossils of the same types of ancient amphibians, arthropods and ferns are found in South America, Africa, India, Australia and Antarctica, which can be dated to the Paleozoic Era, when these regions were united as a single landmass called Gondwana. Sometimes the descendants of these organisms can be identified and show unmistakable similarity to each other, even though they now inhabit very different regions and climates.
Evidence from island biogeography has played an important and historic role in the development of evolutionary biology. For purposes of biogeography, islands are divided into two classes. Continental islands are islands like Great Britain, and Japan that have at one time or another been part of a continent. Oceanic islands, like the Hawaiian islands, the Galápagos Islands and St. Helena, on the other hand are islands that have formed in the ocean and never been part of any continent. Oceanic islands have distributions of native plants and animals that are unbalanced in ways that make them distinct from the biotas found on continents or continental islands. Oceanic islands do not have native terrestrial mammals (they do sometimes have bats and seals), amphibians, or fresh water fish. In some cases they have terrestrial reptiles (such as the iguanas and giant tortoises of the Galápagos Islands) but often (for example Hawaii) they do not. This despite the fact that when species such as rats, goats, pigs, cats, mice, and cane toads, are introduced to such islands by humans they often thrive. Starting with Charles Darwin, many scientists have conducted experiments and made observations that have shown that the types of animals and plants found, and not found, on such islands are consistent with the theory that these islands were colonized accidentally by plants and animals that were able to reach them. Such accidental colonization could occur by air, such as plant seeds carried by migratory birds, or bats and insects being blown out over the sea by the wind, or by floating from a continent or other island by sea, as for example by some kinds of plant seeds like coconuts that can survive immersion in salt water, and reptiles that can survive for extended periods on rafts of vegetation carried to sea by storms.
Many of the species found on remote islands are endemic to a particular island or group of islands, meaning they are found nowhere else on earth. Examples of species endemic to islands include many flightless birds of New Zealand, lemurs of Madagascar, the Komodo dragon of Komodo, the dragon 's blood tree of Socotra, Tuatara of New Zealand, and others. However, many such endemic species are related to species found on other nearby islands or continents; the relationship of the animals found on the Galápagos Islands to those found in South America is a well - known example. All of these facts, the types of plants and animals found on oceanic islands, the large number of endemic species found on oceanic islands, and the relationship of such species to those living on the nearest continents, are most easily explained if the islands were colonized by species from nearby continents that evolved into the endemic species now found there.
Other types of endemism do not have to include, in the strict sense, islands. Islands can mean isolated lakes or remote and isolated areas. Examples of these would include the highlands of Ethiopia, Lake Baikal, fynbos of South Africa, forests of New Caledonia, and others. Examples of endemic organisms living in isolated areas include the kagu of New Caledonia, cloud rats of the Luzon tropical pine forests of the Philippines, the boojum tree (Fouquieria columnaris) of the Baja California peninsula, the Baikal seal and the omul of Lake Baikal.
Oceanic islands are frequently inhabited by clusters of closely related species that fill a variety of ecological niches, often niches that are filled by very different species on continents. Such clusters, like the finches of the Galápagos, Hawaiian honeycreepers, members of the sunflower family on the Juan Fernandez Archipelago and wood weevils on St. Helena are called adaptive radiations because they are best explained by a single species colonizing an island (or group of islands) and then diversifying to fill available ecological niches. Such radiations can be spectacular; 800 species of the fruit fly family Drosophila, nearly half the world 's total, are endemic to the Hawaiian islands. Another illustrative example from Hawaii is the silversword alliance, which is a group of thirty species found only on those islands. Members range from the silverswords that flower spectacularly on high volcanic slopes to trees, shrubs, vines and mats that occur at various elevations from mountain top to sea level, and in Hawaiian habitats that vary from deserts to rainforests. Their closest relatives outside Hawaii, based on molecular studies, are tarweeds found on the west coast of North America. These tarweeds have sticky seeds that facilitate distribution by migrant birds. Additionally, nearly all of the species on the island can be crossed and the hybrids are often fertile, and they have been hybridized experimentally with two of the west coast tarweed species as well. Continental islands have less distinct biota, but those that have been long separated from any continent also have endemic species and adaptive radiations, such as the 75 lemur species of Madagascar, and the eleven extinct moa species of New Zealand.
The biologist Ernst Mayer championed the concept of ring species, claiming that it unequivocally demonstrated the process of speciation. A ring species is an alternative model to allopatric speciation, "illustrating how new species can arise through ' circular overlap ', without interruption of gene flow through intervening populations... ''
Ring species often attract the interests of evolutionary biologists, systematists, and researchers of speciation leading to both thought provoking ideas and confusion concerning their definition. Contemporary scholars recognize that examples in nature have proved rare due to various factors such as limitations in taxonomic delineation or, "taxonomic zeal '' -- explained by the fact that taxonomists classify organisms into "species '', while ring species often can not fit this definition. Other reasons such as gene flow interruption from "vicariate divergence '' and fragmented populations due to climate instability have also been cited.
A great deal of research has been conducted on the topic, and examples have been found and documented in nature. Debate exists concerning much of the research, with some authors citing evidence against their existence entirely. The following examples provide evidence that -- despite the limited number of concrete, idealized examples in nature -- continuums of species do exist and can be found in biological systems. This is often characterized by the existence of various sub-species level classifications (i.e. clines, ecotypes, groups, varieties, etc.). Caveats do exist considering that many of the examples have been disputed by researchers conducting subsequent studies and that, "many of the (proposed) cases have received very little attention from researchers, making it difficult to assess whether they display the characteristics of ideal ring species. ''
Examples of species that have been described as exhibiting a ring - like, geographic distribution pattern:
The combination of continental drift and evolution can sometimes be used to predict what will be found in the fossil record. Glossopteris is an extinct species of seed fern plants from the Permian. Glossopteris appears in the fossil record around the beginning of the Permian on the ancient continent of Gondwana. Continental drift explains the current biogeography of the tree. Present day Glossopteris fossils are found in Permian strata in southeast South America, southeast Africa, all of Madagascar, northern India, all of Australia, all of New Zealand, and scattered on the southern and northern edges of Antarctica. During the Permian, these continents were connected as Gondwana (see figure 4c) in agreement with magnetic striping, other fossil distributions, and glacial scratches pointing away from the temperate climate of the South Pole during the Permian.
The history of metatherians (the clade containing marsupials and their extinct, primitive ancestors) provides an example of how evolutionary theory and the movement of continents can be combined to make predictions concerning fossil stratigraphy and distribution. The oldest metatherian fossils are found in present - day China. Metatherians spread westward into modern North America (still attached to Eurasia) and then to South America, which was connected to North America until around 65 mya. Marsupials reached Australia via Antarctica about 50 mya, shortly after Australia had split off suggesting a single dispersion event of just one species. Evolutionary theory suggests that the Australian marsupials descended from the older ones found in the Americas. Geologic evidence suggests that between 30 and 40 million years ago South America and Australia were still part of the Southern Hemisphere super continent of Gondwana and that they were connected by land that is now part of Antarctica. Therefore, when combining the models, scientists could predict that marsupials migrated from what is now South America, through Antarctica, and then to present - day Australia between 40 and 30 million years ago. A first marsupial fossil of the extinct family Polydolopidae was found on Seymour Island on the Antarctic Peninsula in 1982. Further fossils have subsequently been found, including members of the marsupial orders Didelphimorphia (opossum) and Microbiotheria, as well as ungulates and a member of the enigmatic extinct order Gondwanatheria, possibly Sudamerica ameghinoi.
The history of the camel provides an example of how fossil evidence can be used to reconstruct migration and subsequent evolution. The fossil record indicates that the evolution of camelids started in North America (see figure 4e), from which, six million years ago, they migrated across the Bering Strait into Asia and then to Africa, and 3.5 million years ago through the Isthmus of Panama into South America. Once isolated, they evolved along their own lines, giving rise to the Bactrian camel and dromedary in Asia and Africa and the llama and its relatives in South America. Camelids then became extinct in North America at the end of the last ice age.
Examples for the evidence for evolution often stem from direct observation of natural selection in the field and the laboratory. This section is unique in that it provides a narrower context concerning the process of selection. All of the examples provided prior to this have described the evidence that evolution has occurred, but has not provided the major underlying mechanism: natural selection. This section explicitly provides evidence that natural selection occurs, has been replicated artificially, and can be replicated in laboratory experiments.
Scientists have observed and documented a multitude of events where natural selection is in action. The most well known examples are antibiotic resistance in the medical field along with better - known laboratory experiments documenting evolution 's occurrence. Natural selection is tantamount to common descent in that long - term occurrence and selection pressures can lead to the diversity of life on earth as found today. All adaptations -- documented and undocumented changes concerned -- are caused by natural selection (and a few other minor processes). It is well established that, "... natural selection is a ubiquitous part of speciation... '', and is the primary driver of speciation; therefore, the following examples of natural selection and speciation will often interdepend or correspond with one another. The examples below are only a small fraction of the actual experiments and observations.
Artificial selection demonstrates the diversity that can exist among organisms that share a relatively recent common ancestor. In artificial selection, one species is bred selectively at each generation, allowing only those organisms that exhibit desired characteristics to reproduce. These characteristics become increasingly well developed in successive generations. Artificial selection was successful long before science discovered the genetic basis. Examples of artificial selection include dog breeding, genetically modified food, flower breeding, and the cultivation of foods such as wild cabbage, and others.
Experimental evolution uses controlled experiments to test hypotheses and theories of evolution. In one early example, William Dallinger set up an experiment shortly before 1880, subjecting microbes to heat with the aim of forcing adaptive changes. His experiment ran for around seven years, and his published results were acclaimed, but he did not resume the experiment after the apparatus failed.
A large - scale example of experimental evolution is Richard Lenski 's multi-generation experiment with Escherichia coli. Lenski observed that some strains of E. coli evolved a complex new ability, the ability to metabolize citrate, after tens of thousands of generations. The evolutionary biologist Jerry Coyne commented as a critique of creationism, saying, "the thing I like most is it says you can get these complex traits evolving by a combination of unlikely events. That 's just what creationists say ca n't happen. '' In addition to the metabolic changes, the different bacterial populations were found to have diverged in respect to both morphology (the overall size of the cell) and fitness (of which was measured in competition with the ancestors). The E. coli long - term evolution experiment that began in 1988 is still in progress, and has shown adaptations including the evolution of a strain of E. coli that was able to grow on citric acid in the growth media -- a trait absent in all other known forms of E. coli, including the initial strain.
Another study involved species of Daphnia and the enormous increase in lead pollution that occurred during the 20th century. Lead toxicity reached an all - time high in lakes in the 1970s, and due to leads toxicity to both vertebrates and invertebrates, it could be predicted that an increase in lead pollution would lead to strong selection pressures towards lead tolerance. In this study, researchers were able to use a method of "resurrection ecology '' whereby they could hatch decades - old Daphnia eggs from the time in which lakes were heavily polluted with lead. The hatchlings in the study were compared to current - day Daphnia, and demonstrated "dramatic fitness differences between old and modern phenotypes when confronted with a widespread historical environmental stressor ''. Essentially, the modern - day Daphnia were unable to resist or tolerate high levels of lead (this is due to the huge reduction of lead pollution in 21st century lakes). The old hatchlings, however, were able to tolerate high lead pollution. The authors concluded that "by employing the techniques of resurrection ecology, we were able to show clear phenotypic change over decades... ''.
A classic example was the phenotypic change, light - to - dark color adaptation, in the peppered moth, due to pollution from the Industrial Revolution in England.
The development and spread of antibiotic - resistant bacteria is evidence for the process of evolution of species. Thus the appearance of vancomycin - resistant Staphylococcus aureus, and the danger it poses to hospital patients, is a direct result of evolution through natural selection. The rise of Shigella strains resistant to the synthetic antibiotic class of sulfonamides also demonstrates the generation of new information as an evolutionary process. Similarly, the appearance of DDT resistance in various forms of Anopheles mosquitoes, and the appearance of myxomatosis resistance in breeding rabbit populations in Australia, are both evidence of the existence of evolution in situations of evolutionary selection pressure in species in which generations occur rapidly.
All classes of microbes develop resistance: including fungi (antifungal resistance), viruses (antiviral resistance), protozoa (antiprotozoal resistance), and bacteria (antibiotic resistance). This is to be expected when considering that all life exhibits universal genetic code and is therefore subject to the process of evolution through its various mechanisms.
Another example of organisms adapting to human - caused conditions are Nylon - eating bacteria: a strain of Flavobacterium that are capable of digesting certain byproducts of nylon 6 manufacturing. There is scientific consensus that the capacity to synthesize nylonase most probably developed as a single - step mutation that survived because it improved the fitness of the bacteria possessing the mutation. This is seen as a good example of evolution through mutation and natural selection that has been observed as it occurs and could not have come about until the production of nylon by humans.
Both subspecies Mimulus aurantiacus puniceus (red - flowered) and Mimulus aurantiacus australis (yellow - flowered) of monkeyflowers are isolated due to the preferences of their hummingbird and hawkmoth pollinators. The radiation of M. aurantiacus subspecies are mostly yellow colored; however, both M. a. ssp. puniceus and M. a. ssp. flemingii are red. Phylogenetic analysis suggests two independent origins of red - colored flowers that arose due to cis - regulatory mutations in the gene MaMyb2 that is present in all M. aurantiacus subspecies. Further research suggested that two independent mutations did not take place, but one MaMyb2 allele was transferred via introgressive hybridization. This study presents an example of the overlap of research in various disciplines. Gene isolation and cis - regulatory functions; phylogenetic analysis; geographic location and pollinator preference; and species hybridization and speciation are just some of the areas in which data can be obtained to document the occurrence of evolution.
Like the codfish, human - caused pollution can come in different forms. Radiotrophic fungi is a perfect example of natural selection taking place after a chemical accident. Radiotrophic fungi appears to use the pigment melanin to convert gamma radiation into chemical energy for growth and were first discovered in 2007 as black molds growing inside and around the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant. Research at the Albert Einstein College of Medicine showed that three melanin - containing fungi, Cladosporium sphaerospermum, Wangiella dermatitidis, and Cryptococcus neoformans, increased in biomass and accumulated acetate faster in an environment in which the radiation level was 500 times higher than in the normal environment.
While studying guppies (Poecilia reticulata) in Trinidad, biologist John Endler detected selection at work on the fish populations. To rule out alternative possibilities, Endler set up a highly controlled experiment to mimic the natural habitat by constructing ten ponds within a laboratory greenhouse at Princeton University. Each pond contained gravel to exactly match that of the natural ponds. After capturing a random sample of guppies from ponds in Trinidad, he raised and mixed them to create similar genetically diverse populations and measured each fish (spot length, spot height, spot area, relative spot length, relative spot height, total patch area, and standard body lengths). For the experiment he added Crenicichla alta (P. reticulata 's main predator) in four of the ponds, Rivulus hartii (a non-predator fish) in four of the ponds, and left the remaining two ponds empty with only the guppies. After 10 generations, comparisons were made between each pond 's guppy populations and measurements were taken again. Endler found that the populations had evolved dramatically different color patterns in the control and non-predator pools and drab color patterns in the predator pool. Predation pressure had caused a selection against standing out from background gravel.
In parallel, during this experiment, Endler conducted a field experiment in Trinidad where he caught guppies from ponds where they had predators and relocated them to ponds upstream where the predators did not live. After 15 generations, Endler found that the relocated guppies had evolved dramatic and colorful patterns. Essentially, both experiments showed convergence due to similar selection pressures (i.e. predator selection against contrasting color patterns and sexual selection for contrasting color patterns).
In a later study by David Reznick, the field population was examined 11 years later after Endler relocated the guppies to high streams. The study found that the populations has evolved in a number of different ways: bright color patterns, late maturation, larger sizes, smaller litter sizes, and larger offspring within litters. Further studies of P. reticulata and their predators in the streams of Trinidad have indicated that varying modes of selection through predation have not only changed the guppies color patterns, sizes, and behaviors, but their life histories and life history patterns.
Natural selection is observed in contemporary human populations, with recent findings demonstrating that the population at risk of the severe debilitating disease kuru has significant over-representation of an immune variant of the prion protein gene G127V versus non-immune alleles. Scientists postulate one of the reasons for the rapid selection of this genetic variant is the lethality of the disease in non-immune persons. Other reported evolutionary trends in other populations include a lengthening of the reproductive period, reduction in cholesterol levels, blood glucose and blood pressure.
A well known example of selection occurring in human populations is lactose tolerance. Lactose intolerance is the inability to metabolize lactose, because of a lack of the required enzyme lactase in the digestive system. The normal mammalian condition is for the young of a species to experience reduced lactase production at the end of the weaning period (a species - specific length of time). In humans, in non-dairy consuming societies, lactase production usually drops about 90 % during the first four years of life, although the exact drop over time varies widely. Lactase activity persistence in adults is associated with two polymorphisms: C / T 13910 and G / A 22018 located in the MCM6 gene. This gene difference eliminates the shutdown in lactase production, making it possible for members of these populations to continue consumption of raw milk and other fresh and fermented dairy products throughout their lives without difficulty. This appears to be an evolutionarily recent (around 10,000 years ago (and 7,500 years ago in Europe)) adaptation to dairy consumption, and has occurred independently in both northern Europe and east Africa in populations with a historically pastoral lifestyle.
In 1971, ten adult specimens of Podarcis sicula (the Italian wall lizard) were transported from the Croatian island of Pod Kopište to the island Pod Mrčaru (about 3.5 km to the east). Both islands lie in the Adriatic Sea near Lastovo, where the lizards founded a new bottlenecked population. The two islands have similar size, elevation, microclimate, and a general absence of terrestrial predators and the P. sicula expanded for decades without human interference, even out - competing the (now locally extinct) Podarcis melisellensis population.
In the 1990s, scientists returned to Pod Mrčaru and found that the lizards currently occupying Mrčaru differ greatly from those on Kopište. While mitochondrial DNA analyses have verified that P. sicula currently on Mrčaru are genetically very similar to the Kopište source population, the new Mrčaru population of P. sicula was described as having a larger average size, shorter hind limbs, lower maximal sprint speed and altered response to simulated predatory attacks compared to the original Kopište population. These population changes in morphology and behavior were attributed to "relaxed predation intensity '' and greater protection from vegetation on Mrčaru.
In 2008, further analysis revealed that the Mrčaru population of P. sicula have significantly different head morphology (longer, wider, and taller heads) and increased bite force compared to the original Kopište population. This change in head shape corresponded with a shift in diet: Kopište P. sicula are primarily insectivorous, but those on Mrčaru eat substantially more plant matter. The changes in foraging style may have contributed to a greater population density and decreased territorial behavior of the Mrčaru population.
Another difference found between the two populations was the discovery, in the Mrčaru lizards, of cecal valves, which slow down food passage and provide fermenting chambers, allowing commensal microorganisms to convert cellulose to nutrients digestible by the lizards. Additionally, the researchers discovered that nematodes were common in the guts of Mrčaru lizards, but absent from Kopište P. sicula, which do not have cecal valves. The cecal valves, which occur in less than 1 percent of all known species of scaled reptiles, have been described as an "adaptive novelty, a brand new feature not present in the ancestral population and newly evolved in these lizards ''.
A similar study was also done regarding the polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) that pollute the waters of the Elizabeth River in Portsmouth, Virginia. This chemical is a product of creosote, a type of tar. The Atlantic killifish (Fundulus heteroclitus) has evolved a resistance to PAHs involving the AHR gene (the same gene involved in the tomcods). This particular study focused on the resistance to "acute toxicity and cardiac teratogenesis '' caused by PAHs. that mutated within the tomcods in the Hudson River.
An example involving the direct observation of gene modification due to selection pressures is the resistance to PCBs in codfish. After General Electric dumped polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) in the Hudson River from 1947 through 1976, tomcods (Microgadus tomcod) living in the river were found to have evolved an increased resistance to the compound 's toxic effects. The tolerance to the toxins is due to a change in the coding section of specific gene. Genetic samples were taken from the cods from 8 different rivers in the New England region: the St. Lawrence River, Miramichi River, Margaree River, Squamscott River, Niantic River, the Shinnecock Basic, the Hudson River, and the Hackensack River. Genetic analysis found that in the population of tomcods in the four southernmost rivers, the gene AHR2 (aryl hydrocarbon receptor 2) was present as an allele with a difference of two amino acid deletions. This deletion conferred a resistance to PCB in the fish species and was found in 99 % of Hudson River tomcods, 92 % in the Hackensack River, 6 % in the Niantic River, and 5 % in Shinnecock Bay. This pattern along the sampled bodies of waters infers a direct correlation of selective pressures leading to the evolution of PCB resistance in Atlantic tomcod fish.
Urban wildlife is a broad and easily observable case of human - caused selection pressure on wildlife. With the growth in human habitats, different animals have adapted to survive within these urban environments. These types of environments can exert selection pressures on organisms, often leading to new adaptations. For example, the weed Crepis sancta, found in France, has two types of seed, heavy and fluffy. The heavy ones land nearby to the parent plant, whereas fluffy seeds float further away on the wind. In urban environments, seeds that float far often land on infertile concrete. Within about 5 -- 12 generations, the weed evolves to produce significantly heavier seeds than its rural relatives. Other examples of urban wildlife are rock pigeons and species of crows adapting to city environments around the world; African penguins in Simon 's Town; baboons in South Africa; and a variety of insects living in human habitations. Studies have been conducted and have found striking changes to animals ' (more specifically mammals ') behavior and physical brain size due to their interactions with human - created environments.
Animals that exhibit ecotonal variations allow for research concerning the mechanisms that maintain population differentiation. A wealth of information about natural selection, genotypic, and phenotypic variation; adaptation and ecomorphology; and social signaling has been acquired from the studies of three species of lizards located in the White Sands desert of New Mexico. Holbrookia maculata, Aspidoscelis inornata, and Sceloporus undulatus exhibit ecotonal populations that match both the dark soils and the white sands in the region. Research conducted on these species has found significant phenotypic and genotypic differences between the dark and light populations due to strong selection pressures. For example, H. maculata exhibits the strongest phenotypic difference (matches best with the substrate) of the light colored population coinciding with the least amount of gene flow between the populations and the highest genetic differences when compared to the other two lizard species.
New Mexico 's White Sands are a recent geologic formation (approximately 6000 years old to possibly 2000 years old). This recent origin of the sands suggests that species exhibiting lighter - colored variations have evolved in a relatively short time frame. The three lizard species previously mentioned have been found to display variable social signal coloration in coexistence with their ecotonal variants. Not only have the three species convergently evolved their lighter variants due to the selection pressures from the environment, they 've also evolved ecomorphological differences: morphology, behavior (in is case, escape behavior), and performance (in this case, sprint speed) collectively. Roches ' work found surprising results in the escape behavior of H. maculata and S. undulatus. When dark morphs were placed on white sands, their startle response was significantly diminished. This result could be due to varying factors relating to sand temperature or visual acuity; however, regardless of the cause, "... failure of mismatched lizards to sprint could be maladaptive when faced with a predator ''.
Speciation is the evolutionary process by which new biological species arise. Biologists research species using different theoretical frameworks for what constitutes a species (see species problem and species complex) and there exists debate with regard to delineation. Nevertheless, much of the current research suggests that, "... speciation is a process of emerging genealogical distinctness, rather than a discontinuity affecting all genes simultaneously '' and, in allopatry (the most common form of speciation), "reproductive isolation is a byproduct of evolutionary change in isolated populations, and thus can be considered an evolutionary accident ''. Speciation occurs as the result of the latter (allopatry); however, a variety of differing agents have been documented and are often defined and classified in various forms (e.g. peripatric, parapatric, sympatric, polyploidization, hybridization, etc.). Instances of speciation have been observed in both nature and the laboratory. A. - B Florin and A. Ödeen note that, "strong laboratory evidence for allopatric speciation is lacking... ''; however, contrary to laboratory studies (focused specifically on models of allopatric speciation), "speciation most definitely occurs; (and) the vast amount of evidence from nature makes it unreasonable to argue otherwise ''. Coyne and Orr compiled a list of 19 laboratory experiments on Drosophila presenting examples of allopatric speciation by divergent selection concluding that, "reproductive isolation in allopatry can evolve as a byproduct of divergent selection ''.
Research documenting speciation is abundant. Biologists have documented numerous examples of speciation in nature -- with evolution having produced far more species than any observer would consider necessary. For example, there are well over 350,000 described species of beetles. Great examples of speciation come from the observations of island biogeography and the process of adaptive radiation, both explained previously. Evidence of common descent can also be found through paleontological studies of speciation within geologic strata. The examples described below represent different modes of speciation and provide strong evidence for common descent. It is important to acknowledge that not all speciation research directly observes divergence from "start - to - finish ''. This is by virtue of research delimitation and definition ambiguity, and occasionally leads research towards historical reconstructions. In light of this, examples abound, and the following are by no means exhaustive -- comprising only a small fraction of the instances observed. Once again, take note of the established fact that, "... natural selection is a ubiquitous part of speciation... '', and is the primary driver of speciation, so; hereinafter, examples of speciation will often interdepend and correspond with selection.
Limitations exist within the fossil record when considering the concept of what constitutes a species. Paleontologists largely rely on a different framework: the morphological species concept. Due to the absence of information such as reproductive behavior or genetic material in fossils, paleontologists distinguish species by their phenotypic differences. Extensive investigation of the fossil record has led to numerous theories concerning speciation (in the context of paleontology) with many of the studies suggesting that stasis, punctuation, and lineage branching are common. In 1995, D.H. Erwin, et al. published a major work -- New Approaches to Speciation in the Fossil Record -- which compiled 58 studies of fossil speciation (between 1972 and 1995) finding most of the examples suggesting stasis (involving anagenesis or punctuation) and 16 studies suggesting speciation. Despite stasis appearing to be the predominate conclusion at first glance, this particular meta - study investigated deeper, concluding that, "... no single pattern appears dominate... '' with "... the preponderance of studies illustrating both stasis and gradualism in the history of a single lineage ''. Many of the studies conducted utilize seafloor sediments that can provide a significant amount of data concerning planktonic microfossils. The succession of fossils in stratigraphy can be used to determine evolutionary trends among fossil organisms. In addition, incidences of speciation can be interpreted from the data and numerous studies have been conducted documenting both morphological evolution and speciation.
Extensive research on the planktonic foraminifer Globorotalia truncatulinoides has provided insight into paleobiogeographical and paleoenvironmental studies alongside the relationship between the environment and evolution. In an extensive study of the paleobiogeography of G. truncatulinoides, researchers found evidence that suggested the formation of a new species (via the sympatric speciation framework). Cores taken of the sediment containing the three species G. crassaformis, G. tosaensis, and G. truncatulinoides found that before 2.7 Ma, only G. crassaformis and G. tosaensis existed. A speciation event occurred at that time, whereby intermediate forms existed for quite some time. Eventually G. tosaensis disappears from the record (suggesting extinction) but exists as an intermediate between the extant G. crassaformis and G. truncatulinoides. This record of the fossils also matched the already existing phylogeny constructed by morphological characters of the three species. See figure 6a.
In a large study of five species of radiolarians (Calocycletta caepa, Pterocanium prismatium, Pseudoculous vema, Eucyrtidium calvertense, and Eucyrtidium matuyamai), the researchers documented considerable evolutionary change in each lineage. Alongside this, trends with the closely related species E. calvertense and E. matuyamai showed that about 1.9 Mya E. calvertense invaded a new region of the Pacific, becoming isolated from the main population. The stratigraphy of this species clearly shows that this isolated population evolved into E. Matuyamai. It then reinvaded the region of the still - existing and static E. calvertense population whereby a sudden decrease in body size occurred. Eventually the invader E. matuyamai disappeared from the stratum (presumably due to extinction) coinciding with a desistance of size reduction of the E. calvertense population. From that point on, the change in size leveled to a constant. The authors suggest competition - induced character displacement.
Researchers conducted measurements on 5,000 Rhizosolenia (a planktonic diatom) specimens from eight sedimentary cores in the Pacific Ocean. The core samples spanned two million years and were chronologized using sedimentary magnetic field reversal measurements. All the core samples yielded a similar pattern of divergence: with a single lineage (R. bergonii) occurring before 3.1 Mya and two morphologically distinct lineages (daughter species: R. praebergonii) appearing after. The parameters used to measure the samples were consistent throughout each core. An additional study of the daughter species R. praebergonii found that, after the divergence, it invaded the Indian Ocean.
A recent study was conducted involving the planktonic foraminifer Turborotalia. The authors extracted "51 stratigraphically ordered samples from a site within the oceanographically stable tropical North Pacific gyre ''. Two hundred individual species were examined using ten specific morphological traits (size, compression index, chamber aspect ratio, chamber inflation, aperture aspect ratio, test height, test expansion, umbilical angle, coiling direction, and the number of chambers in the final whorl). Utilizing multivariate statistical clustering methods, the study found that the species continued to evolve non-directionally within the Eocene from 45 Ma to about 36 Ma. However, from 36 Ma to approximately 34 Ma, the stratigraphic layers showed two distinct clusters with significantly defining characteristics distinguishing one another from a single species. The authors concluded that speciation must have occurred and that the two new species were ancestral to the prior species. Just as in most of evolutionary biology, this example represents the interdisciplinary nature of the field and the necessary collection of data from various fields (e.g. oceanography, paleontology) and the integration of mathematical analysis (e.g. biometry).
There exists evidence for vertebrate speciation despite limitations imposed by the fossil record. Studies have been conducted documenting similar patterns seen in marine invertebrates. For example, extensive research documenting rates of morphological change, evolutionary trends, and speciation patterns in small mammals has significantly contributed to the scientific literature; once more, demonstrating that evolution (and speciation) occurred in the past and lends support common ancestry.
A study of four mammalian genera: Hyopsodus, Pelycodus, Haplomylus (three from the Eocene), and Plesiadapis (from the Paleocene) found that -- through a large number of stratigraphic layers and specimen sampling -- each group exhibited, "gradual phyletic evolution, overall size increase, iterative evolution of small species, and character divergence following the origin of each new lineage ''. The authors of this study concluded that speciation was discernible. In another study concerning morphological trends and rates of evolution found that the European arvicolid rodent radiated into 52 distinct lineages over a time frame of 5 million years while documenting examples of phyletic gradualism, punctuation, and stasis.
William R. Rice and George W. Salt found experimental evidence of sympatric speciation in the common fruit fly. They collected a population of Drosophila melanogaster from Davis, California and placed the pupae into a habitat maze. Newborn flies had to investigate the maze to find food. The flies had three choices to take in finding food. Light and dark (phototaxis), up and down (geotaxis), and the scent of acetaldehyde and the scent of ethanol (chemotaxis) were the three options. This eventually divided the flies into 42 spatio - temporal habitats.
They then cultured two strains that chose opposite habitats. One of the strains emerged early, immediately flying upward in the dark attracted to the acetaldehyde. The other strain emerged late and immediately flew downward, attracted to light and ethanol. Pupae from the two strains were then placed together in the maze and allowed to mate at the food site. They then were collected. A selective penalty was imposed on the female flies that switched habitats. This entailed that none of their gametes would pass on to the next generation. After 25 generations of this mating test, it showed reproductive isolation between the two strains. They repeated the experiment again without creating the penalty against habitat switching and the result was the same; reproductive isolation was produced.
A study of the gall - forming wasp species Belonocnema treatae found that populations inhabiting different host plants (Quercus geminata and Q. Virginiana) exhibited different body size and gall morphology alongside a strong expression of sexual isolation. The study hypothesized that B. treatae populations inhabiting different host plants would show evidence of divergent selection promoting speciation. The researchers sampled gall wasp species and oak tree localities, measured body size (right hand tibia of each wasp), and counted gall chamber numbers. In addition to measurements, they conducted mating assays and statistical analyses. Genetic analysis was also conducted on two mtDNA sites (416 base pairs from cytochrome C and 593 base pairs from cytochrome oxidase) to "control for the confounding effects of time since divergence among allopatric populations ''.
In an additional study, the researchers studied two gall wasp species B. treatae and Disholcaspis quercusvirens and found strong morphological and behavioral variation among host - associated populations. This study further confounded prerequisites to speciation.
One example of evolution at work is the case of the hawthorn fly, Rhagoletis pomonella, also known as the apple maggot fly, which appears to be undergoing sympatric speciation. Different populations of hawthorn fly feed on different fruits. A distinct population emerged in North America in the 19th century some time after apples, a non-native species, were introduced. This apple - feeding population normally feeds only on apples and not on the historically preferred fruit of hawthorns. The current hawthorn feeding population does not normally feed on apples. Some evidence, such as the fact that six out of thirteen allozyme loci are different, that hawthorn flies mature later in the season and take longer to mature than apple flies; and that there is little evidence of interbreeding (researchers have documented a 4 -- 6 % hybridization rate) suggests that speciation is occurring.
The London Underground mosquito is a species of mosquito in the genus Culex found in the London Underground. It evolved from the overground species Culex pipiens. This mosquito, although first discovered in the London Underground system, has been found in underground systems around the world. It is suggested that it may have adapted to human - made underground systems since the last century from local above - ground Culex pipiens, although more recent evidence suggests that it is a southern mosquito variety related to Culex pipiens that has adapted to the warm underground spaces of northern cities.
The two species have very different behaviours, are extremely difficult to mate, and with different allele frequency, consistent with genetic drift during a founder event. More specifically, this mosquito, Culex pipiens molestus, breeds all - year round, is cold intolerant, and bites rats, mice, and humans, in contrast to the above ground species Culex pipiens that is cold tolerant, hibernates in the winter, and bites only birds. When the two varieties were cross-bred the eggs were infertile suggesting reproductive isolation.
The genetic data indicates that the molestus form in the London Underground mosquito appears to have a common ancestry, rather than the population at each station being related to the nearest aboveground population (i.e. the pipiens form). Byrne and Nichols ' working hypothesis was that adaptation to the underground environment had occurred locally in London only once. These widely separated populations are distinguished by very minor genetic differences, which suggest that the molestus form developed: a single mtDNA difference shared among the underground populations of ten Russian cities; a single fixed microsatellite difference in populations spanning Europe, Japan, Australia, the middle East and Atlantic islands.
Debate exists determining when the isthmus of Panama closed. Much of the evidence supports a closure approximately 2.7 to 3.5 mya using "... multiple lines of evidence and independent surveys ''. However, a recent study suggests an earlier, transient bridge existed 13 to 15 mya. Regardless of the timing of the isthmus closer, biologists can study the species on the Pacific and Caribbean sides in, what has been called, "one of the greatest natural experiments in evolution. '' Studies of snapping shrimp in the genus Alpheus have provided direct evidence of allopatric speciation events, and contributed to the literature concerning rates of molecular evolution. Phylogenetic reconstructions using "multilocus datasets and coalescent - based analytical methods '' support the relationships of the species in the group and molecular clock techniques support the separation of 15 pairs of Alpheus species between 3 and 15 million years ago.
The botanist Verne Grant pioneered the field of plant speciation with his research and major publications on the topic. As stated before, many biologists rely on the biological species concept, with some modern researchers utilizing the phylogenetic species concept. Debate exists in the field concerning which framework should be applied in the research. Regardless, reproductive isolation is the primary role in the process of speciation and has been studied extensively by biologists in their respective disciplines.
Both hybridization and polyploidy have also been found to be major contributors to plant speciation. With the advent of molecular markers, "hybridization (is) considerably more frequent than previously believed ''. In addition to these two modes leading to speciation, pollinator preference and isolation, chromosomal rearrangements, and divergent natural selection have become critical to the speciation of plants. Furthermore, recent research suggests that sexual selection, epigenetic drivers, and the creation of incompatible allele combinations caused by balancing selection also contribute to the formation of new species. Instances of these modes have been researched in both the laboratory and in nature. Studies have also suggested that, due to "the sessile nature of plants... (it increases) the relative importance of ecological speciation... ''
Hybridization between two different species sometimes leads to a distinct phenotype. This phenotype can also be fitter than the parental lineage and as such, natural selection may then favor these individuals. Eventually, if reproductive isolation is achieved, it may lead to a separate species. However, reproductive isolation between hybrids and their parents is particularly difficult to achieve and thus hybrid speciation is considered a rare event. However, hybridization resulting in reproductive isolation is considered an important means of speciation in plants, since polyploidy (having more than two copies of each chromosome) is tolerated in plants more readily than in animals.
Polyploidy is important in hybrids as it allows reproduction, with the two different sets of chromosomes each being able to pair with an identical partner during meiosis. Polyploids also have more genetic diversity, which allows them to avoid inbreeding depression in small populations. Hybridization without change in chromosome number is called homoploid hybrid speciation. It is considered very rare but has been shown in Heliconius butterflies and sunflowers. Polyploid speciation, which involves changes in chromosome number, is a more common phenomenon, especially in plant species.
Polyploidy is a mechanism that has caused many rapid speciation events in sympatry because offspring of, for example, tetraploid x diploid matings often result in triploid sterile progeny. Not all polyploids are reproductively isolated from their parental plants, and gene flow may still occur for example through triploid hybrid x diploid matings that produce tetraploids, or matings between meiotically unreduced gametes from diploids and gametes from tetraploids. It has been suggested that many of the existing plant and most animal species have undergone an event of polyploidization in their evolutionary history. Reproduction of successful polyploid species is sometimes asexual, by parthenogenesis or apomixis, as for unknown reasons many asexual organisms are polyploid. Rare instances of polyploid mammals are known, but most often result in prenatal death.
Researchers consider reproductive isolation as key to speciation. A major aspect of speciation research is to determine the nature of the barriers that inhibit reproduction. Botanists often consider the zoological classifications of prezygotic and postzygotic barriers as inadequate. The examples provided below give insight into the process of speciation.
The creation of a new allopolyploid species (Mimulus peregrinus) was observed on the banks of the Shortcleuch Water -- a river in Leadhills, South Lanarkshire, Scotland. Parented from the cross of the two species Mimulus guttatus (containing 14 pairs of chromosomes) and Mimulus luteus (containing 30 - 31 pairs from a chromosome duplication), M. peregrinus has six copies of its chromosomes (caused by the duplication of the sterile hybrid triploid). Due to the nature of these species, they have the ability to self - fertilize. Because of its number of chromosomes it is not able to pair with M. guttatus, M. luteus, or their sterile triploid offspring. M. peregrinus will either die, producing no offspring, or reproduce with itself effectively leading to a new species.
Raphanobrassica includes all intergeneric hybrids between the genera Raphanus (radish) and Brassica (cabbages, etc.). The Raphanobrassica is an allopolyploid cross between the radish (Raphanus sativus) and cabbage (Brassica oleracea). Plants of this parentage are now known as radicole. Two other fertile forms of Raphanobrassica are known. Raparadish, an allopolyploid hybrid between Raphanus sativus and Brassica rapa is grown as a fodder crop. "Raphanofortii '' is the allopolyploid hybrid between Brassica tournefortii and Raphanus caudatus. The Raphanobrassica is a fascinating plant, because (in spite of its hybrid nature), it is not sterile. This has led some botanists to propose that the accidental hybridization of a flower by pollen of another species in nature could be a mechanism of speciation common in higher plants.
The Welsh groundsel is an allopolyploid, a plant that contains sets of chromosomes originating from two different species. Its ancestor was Senecio × baxteri, an infertile hybrid that can arise spontaneously when the closely related groundsel (Senecio vulgaris) and Oxford ragwort (Senecio squalidus) grow alongside each other. Sometime in the early 20th century, an accidental doubling of the number of chromosomes in an S. × baxteri plant led to the formation of a new fertile species.
The York groundsel (Senecio eboracensis) is a hybrid species of the self - incompatible Senecio squalidus (also known as Oxford ragwort) and the self - compatible Senecio vulgaris (also known as common groundsel). Like S. vulgaris, S. eboracensis is self - compatible; however, it shows little or no natural crossing with its parent species, and is therefore reproductively isolated, indicating that strong breed barriers exist between this new hybrid and its parents. It resulted from a backcrossing of the F1 hybrid of its parents to S. vulgaris. S. vulgaris is native to Britain, while S. squalidus was introduced from Sicily in the early 18th century; therefore, S. eboracensis has speciated from those two species within the last 300 years.
Other hybrids descended from the same two parents are known. Some are infertile, such as S. x baxteri. Other fertile hybrids are also known, including S. vulgaris var. hibernicus, now common in Britain, and the allohexaploid S. cambrensis, which according to molecular evidence probably originated independently at least three times in different locations. Morphological and genetic evidence support the status of S. eboracensis as separate from other known hybrids.
Kirsten Bomblies et al. from the Max Planck Institute for Developmental Biology discovered that two genes passed down by each parent of the thale cress plant, Arabidopsis thaliana. When the genes are passed down, it ignites a reaction in the hybrid plant that turns its own immune system against it. In the parents, the genes were not detrimental, but they evolved separately to react defectively when combined. To test this, Bomblies crossed 280 genetically different strains of Arabidopsis in 861 distinct ways and found that 2 percent of the resulting hybrids were necrotic. Along with allocating the same indicators, the 20 plants also shared a comparable collection of genetic activity in a group of 1,080 genes. In almost all of the cases, Bomblies discovered that only two genes were required to cause the autoimmune response. Bomblies looked at one hybrid in detail and found that one of the two genes belonged to the NB - LRR class, a common group of disease resistance genes involved in recognizing new infections. When Bomblies removed the problematic gene, the hybrids developed normally. Over successive generations, these incompatibilities could create divisions between different plant strains, reducing their chances of successful mating and turning distinct strains into separate species.
Tragopogon is one example where hybrid speciation has been observed. In the early 20th century, humans introduced three species of salsify into North America. These species, the western salsify (Tragopogon dubius), the meadow salsify (Tragopogon pratensis), and the oyster plant (Tragopogon porrifolius), are now common weeds in urban wastelands. In the 1950s, botanists found two new species in the regions of Idaho and Washington, where the three already known species overlapped. One new species, Tragopogon miscellus, is a tetraploid hybrid of T. dubius and T. pratensis. The other new species, Tragopogon mirus, is also an allopolyploid, but its ancestors were T. dubius and T. porrifolius. These new species are usually referred to as "the Ownbey hybrids '' after the botanist who first described them. The T. mirus population grows mainly by reproduction of its own members, but additional episodes of hybridization continue to add to the T. mirus population.
T. dubius and T. pratensis mated in Europe but were never able to hybridize. A study published in March 2011 found that when these two plants were introduced to North America in the 1920s, they mated and doubled the number of chromosomes in there hybrid Tragopogon miscellus allowing for a "reset '' of its genes, which in turn, allows for greater genetic variation. Professor Doug Soltis of the University of Florida said, "We caught evolution in the act... New and diverse patterns of gene expression may allow the new species to rapidly adapt in new environments ''. This observable event of speciation through hybridization further advances the evidence for the common descent of organisms and the time frame in which the new species arose in its new environment. The hybridizations have been reproduced artificially in laboratories from 2004 to present day.
The bird species, Sylvia atricapilla, commonly referred to as blackcaps, lives in Germany and flies southwest to Spain while a smaller group flies northwest to Great Britain during the winter. Gregor Rolshausen from the University of Freiburg found that the genetic separation of the two populations is already in progress. The differences found have arisen in about 30 generations. With DNA sequencing, the individuals can be assigned to a correct group with an 85 % accuracy. Stuart Bearhop from the University of Exeter reported that birds wintering in England tend to mate only among themselves, and not usually with those wintering in the Mediterranean. It is still inference to say that the populations will become two different species, but researchers expect it due to the continued genetic and geographic separation.
The shortfin molly (Poecilia mexicana) is a small fish that lives in the Sulfur Caves of Mexico. Years of study on the species have found that two distinct populations of mollies -- the dark interior fish and the bright surface water fish -- are becoming more genetically divergent. The populations have no obvious barrier separating the two; however, it was found that the mollies are hunted by a large water bug (Belostoma spp). Tobler collected the bug and both types of mollies, placed them in large plastic bottles, and put them back in the cave. After a day, it was found that, in the light, the cave - adapted fish endured the most damage, with four out of every five stab - wounds from the water bugs sharp mouthparts. In the dark, the situation was the opposite. The mollies ' senses can detect a predator 's threat in their own habitats, but not in the other ones. Moving from one habitat to the other significantly increases the risk of dying. Tobler plans on further experiments, but believes that it is a good example of the rise of a new species.
A remarkable example of natural selection, geographic isolation, and speciation in progress is the relationship between the polar bear (Ursus maritimus) and the brown bear (Ursus arctos). Considered separate species throughout their ranges; however, it has been documented that they possess the capability to interbreed and produce fertile offspring. This introgressive hybridization has occurred both in the wild and in captivity and has been documented and verified with DNA testing. The oldest known fossil evidence of polar bears dates around 130,000 to 110,000 years ago; however, molecular data has revealed varying estimates of divergence time. Mitochondrial DNA analysis has given an estimate of 150,000 years ago while nuclear genome analysis has shown an approximate divergence of 603,000 years ago. Recent research using the complete genomes (rather than mtDNA or partial nuclear genomes) establishes the divergence of polar and brown bears between 479 - 343 thousand years ago. Despite the differences in divergence rates, molecular research suggests the sister species have undergone a highly complex process of speciation and admixture between the two.
Polar bears have acquired significant anatomical and physiological differences from the brown bear that allow it to comfortably survive in conditions that the brown bear likely could not. Notable examples include the ability to swim sixty miles or more at a time in freezing waters, fur that blends with the snow, and to stay warm in the arctic environment, an elongated neck that makes it easier to keep their heads above water while swimming, and oversized and heavy - matted webbed feet that act as paddles when swimming. It has also evolved small papillae and vacuole - like suction cups on the soles to make them less likely to slip on the ice, alongside smaller ears for a reduction of heat loss, eyelids that act like sunglasses, accommodations for their all - meat diet, a large stomach capacity to enable opportunistic feeding, and the ability to fast for up to nine months while recycling their urea. This example presents a macro-evolutionary change involving an amalgamation of several fields of evolutionary biology, e.g. adaptation through natural selection, geographic isolation, speciation, and hybridization.
Animal coloration provided important early evidence for evolution by natural selection, at a time when little direct evidence was available. Three major functions of coloration were discovered in the second half of the 19th century, and subsequently used as evidence of selection: camouflage (protective coloration); mimicry, both Batesian and Müllerian; and aposematism. After the circumstantial evidence provided by Darwin in On the Origin of Species, and given the absence of mechanisms for genetic variation or heredity at that time, naturalists including Darwin 's contemporaries, Henry Walter Bates and Fritz Müller sought evidence from what they could observe in the field. They described forms of mimicry that now carry their names, based on their observations of tropical butterflies. These highly specific patterns of coloration are readily explained by natural selection, since predators such as birds which hunt by sight will more often catch and kill insects that are less good mimics of distasteful models than those that are better mimics; but the patterns are otherwise hard to explain. Darwinists such as Alfred Russel Wallace and Edward Bagnall Poulton, and in the 20th century Hugh Cott and Bernard Kettlewell, sought evidence that natural selection was taking place. In 1889, Wallace noted that snow camouflage, especially plumage and pelage that changed with the seasons, suggested an obvious explanation as an adaptation for concealment. Poulton 's 1890 book, The Colours of Animals, written during Darwinism 's lowest ebb, used all the forms of coloration to argue the case for natural selection. Cott described many kinds of camouflage, mimicry and warning coloration in his 1940 book Adaptive Coloration in Animals, and in particular his drawings of coincident disruptive coloration in frogs convinced other biologists that these deceptive markings were products of natural selection. Kettlewell experimented on peppered moth evolution, showing that the species had adapted as pollution changed the environment; this provided compelling evidence of Darwinian evolution.
Computer science allows the iteration of self - changing complex systems to be studied, allowing a mathematical understanding of the nature of the processes behind evolution; providing evidence for the hidden causes of known evolutionary events. The evolution of specific cellular mechanisms like spliceosomes that can turn the cell 's genome into a vast workshop of billions of interchangeable parts that can create tools that create tools that create tools that create us can be studied for the first time in an exact way.
"It has taken more than five decades, but the electronic computer is now powerful enough to simulate evolution, '' assisting bioinformatics in its attempt to solve biological problems.
Computational evolutionary biology has enabled researchers to trace the evolution of a large number of organisms by measuring changes in their DNA, rather than through physical taxonomy or physiological observations alone. It has compared entire genomes permitting the study of more complex evolutionary events, such as gene duplication, horizontal gene transfer, and the prediction of factors important in speciation. It has also helped build complex computational models of populations to predict the outcome of the system over time and track and share information on an increasingly large number of species and organisms.
Future endeavors are to reconstruct a now more complex tree of life.
Christoph Adami, a professor at the Keck Graduate Institute made this point in Evolution of biological complexity:
David J. Earl and Michael W. Deem -- professors at Rice University made this point in Evolvability is a selectable trait:
"Computer simulations of the evolution of linear sequences have demonstrated the importance of recombination of blocks of sequence rather than point mutagenesis alone. Repeated cycles of point mutagenesis, recombination, and selection should allow in vitro molecular evolution of complex sequences, such as proteins. '' Evolutionary molecular engineering, also called directed evolution or in vitro molecular evolution involves the iterated cycle of mutation, multiplication with recombination, and selection of the fittest of individual molecules (proteins, DNA, and RNA). Natural evolution can be relived showing us possible paths from catalytic cycles based on proteins to based on RNA to based on DNA.
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who starred in the movie bonnie and clyde | Bonnie and Clyde (film) - wikipedia
Bonnie and Clyde is a 1967 American biographical crime film directed by Arthur Penn and starring Warren Beatty and Faye Dunaway as the title characters Clyde Barrow and Bonnie Parker. The film features Michael J. Pollard, Gene Hackman, and Estelle Parsons, with Denver Pyle, Dub Taylor, Gene Wilder, Evans Evans, and Mabel Cavitt in supporting roles. The screenplay was written by David Newman and Robert Benton. Robert Towne and Beatty provided uncredited contributions to the script; Beatty also produced the film. The soundtrack was composed by Charles Strouse.
Bonnie and Clyde is considered a landmark film, and is regarded as one of the first films of the New Hollywood era, since it broke many cinematic taboos and was popular with the younger generation. For some members of the counterculture, the film was considered to be a "rallying cry. '' Its success prompted other filmmakers to be more open in presenting sex and violence in their films. The film 's ending also became iconic as "one of the bloodiest death scenes in cinematic history. ''
The film received Academy Awards for Best Supporting Actress (Estelle Parsons) and Best Cinematography (Burnett Guffey). It was among the first 100 films selected for preservation in the United States National Film Registry.
In the middle of the Great Depression, Clyde Barrow (Warren Beatty) and Bonnie Parker (Faye Dunaway) meet when Clyde tries to steal Bonnie 's mother 's car. Bonnie, who is bored by her job as a waitress, is intrigued by Clyde, and decides to take up with him and become his partner in crime. They pull off some holdups, but their amateur efforts, while exciting, are not very lucrative.
The duo 's crime spree shifts into high gear once they hook up with a dim - witted gas station attendant, C.W. Moss (Michael J. Pollard), then with Clyde 's older brother Buck (Gene Hackman) and his wife, Blanche (Estelle Parsons), a preacher 's daughter. The women dislike each other on first sight, and their feud only escalates from there: shrill Blanche has nothing but disdain for Bonnie, Clyde and C.W., while gun - moll Bonnie sees Blanche 's flighty presence as a constant danger to the gang 's well - being.
Bonnie and Clyde turn from pulling small - time heists to robbing banks. Their exploits also become more violent. When C.W. botches a bank robbery by parallel parking the getaway car, Clyde shoots the bank manager in the face after he jumps onto the slow - moving car 's running board. The gang is pursued by law enforcement, including Texas Ranger Frank Hamer (Denver Pyle), whom they capture and humiliate before setting him free. A raid later catches the outlaws off guard, mortally wounding Buck with a gruesome shot to his head and injuring Blanche. Bonnie, Clyde and C.W. barely escape with their lives. With Blanche sightless and in police custody, Hamer tricks her into revealing C.W. 's name, who was up until now still only an "unidentified suspect. ''
Hamer locates Bonnie, Clyde and C.W. hiding at the house of C.W. 's father Ivan Moss (Dub Taylor), who thinks the couple -- and an ornate tattoo -- have corrupted his son. The elder Moss strikes a bargain with Hamer: in exchange for leniency for the boy, he helps set a trap for the outlaws. When Bonnie and Clyde stop on the side of the road to help Mr. Moss fix a flat tire, the police in the bushes open fire and riddle them with bullets. Hamer and his posse then come out of hiding, looking pensively at the couple 's bodies.
Actor Gene Wilder portrayed Eugene Grizzard, one of Bonnie and Clyde 's hostages. His girlfriend Velma Davis was played by Evans Evans, who was the wife of film director John Frankenheimer.
The family gathering scene was filmed in Red Oak, Texas. Several local residents gathered to watch the film being shot. When the filmmakers noticed Mabel Cavitt, a local school teacher, among the people gathered, she was cast as Bonnie Parker 's mother.
The film was intended as a romantic and comic version of the violent gangster films of the 1930s, updated with modern filmmaking techniques. Arthur Penn portrayed some of the violent scenes with a comic tone, sometimes reminiscent of Keystone Kops - style slapstick films, then shifted disconcertingly into horrific and graphic violence. The film was strongly influenced by the French New Wave directors, both in its rapid shifts of tone, and in its choppy editing, which is particularly noticeable in the film 's closing sequence.
The first handling of the script was in the early 1960s. Very influenced by the French New Wave writers and in a state not yet completed, it was first sent by its writers David Newman and Robert Benton to Arthur Penn. He was already engaged in the first decisions of production for the 1966 film The Chase and could not further involve himself at that point. The writers then sent to François Truffaut, renowned director of the New Wave movement, who made contributions to the script. He passed on the project and went on to make Fahrenheit 451. At Truffaut 's suggestion, the writers, much excited (the film 's then - producers less so), approached Jean - Luc Godard. Some sources claim Godard did n't trust Hollywood and refused; Robert Benton claimed that Godard wanted to shoot the film in New Jersey in January during the winter and took offense when would - be producer Norah Wright objected that that was unreasonable considering the story took place in Texas with its year - round warm environment. Her partner Elinor Jones claimed they did not believe Godard was right for the project in the first place. Godard 's retort: "Je vous parle de cinéma, vous me parlez de météo. Au revoir. '' ("I 'm talking cinema and you 're talking weather. Goodbye. '') After the 1968 Academy Awards, Godard sent Benton and Newman a cable that read, "Now, let 's make it all over again! ''
Soon after the failed negotiations for production, Warren Beatty was visiting Paris and learned through Truffaut of the project and its perambulations. On returning to Hollywood, Beatty requested the script and bought the rights. A meeting with Godard was not productive. Beatty then changed compass and convinced the writers that while the script at first reading was very much of the French New Wave style, an American director was necessary for the subject.
Beatty offered the position to George Stevens, William Wyler, Karel Reisz, John Schlesinger, Brian G. Hutton, and Sydney Pollack, all of whom turned down the opportunity. Arthur Penn actually turned down the director 's position again further times before Beatty finally convinced him to helm the film.
When Warren Beatty was on board as producer only, his sister Shirley MacLaine was a strong possibility to play Bonnie, but when Beatty decided to play Clyde, obviously a different actress was needed. Those considered for the role were Jane Fonda, Tuesday Weld, Ann - Margret, Leslie Caron, Carol Lynley and Sue Lyon. Cher auditioned for the part, while Warren Beatty begged Natalie Wood to play the role. Wood declined the role to concentrate more on her therapy at the time, and acknowledged that working with Beatty before was "difficult. '' Faye Dunaway stated that she won the part "by the skin of her teeth! ''
The film is forthright in its handling of sexuality, but that theme was toned down from its conception. Originally, Benton and Newman wrote Clyde as bisexual and he and Bonnie were to have a three - way sexual relationship with their male getaway driver. However, Arthur Penn persuaded the writers that since the relationship 's emotional complexity was underwritten, it dissipated the passion of the title characters and it would harm the audience 's sympathy for the characters who would write them off as sexual deviants because they were criminals. Others claimed that Beatty was not willing to have his character display that kind of sexuality and that the Production Code would never have allowed such content in the first place. Instead, Clyde is portrayed as unambiguously heterosexual, if impotent. When Clyde brandishes his gun to display his manhood, Bonnie suggestively strokes the phallic symbol. Like the 1950 film Gun Crazy, Bonnie and Clyde portrays crime as alluring and intertwined with sex. Because Clyde is impotent, his attempts to physically woo Bonnie are frustrating and anti-climactic.
Bonnie and Clyde was one of the first films to feature extensive use of squibs -- small explosive charges, often mounted with bags of stage blood, that are detonated inside an actor 's clothes to simulate bullet hits. Released in an era where shootings were generally depicted as bloodless and painless, the Bonnie and Clyde death scene was one of the first in mainstream American cinema to be depicted with graphic realism.
Beatty had originally wanted the film to be shot in black and white, but Warner Bros. rejected this idea. As it stood, much of the senior management of the studio was hostile to this film project, especially Jack L. Warner who considered the subject - matter an unwanted throwback to Warner Bros. ' early period when gangster films were common product. In addition, Warner was already annoyed at Beatty who refused to star in the film, PT 109 at his behest and was insolent enough to defy his favorite gesture of authority of showing the studio water tower with the WB logo on it by responding "Well, it 's got your name, but it 's got my initials. '' In addition, Warner complained about the film 's extensive location shooting in Texas which exceeded its production schedule and budget, until he ordered the crew back to the studio backlot, where it was planned to be anyway for final process shots.
At first, Warner Bros. did not promote Bonnie and Clyde for general release, but instead mounted only limited regional releases that seemed to confirm its misgivings about the film 's lack of commercial appeal, despite the fact the film was doing excellent sustained business in select urban theatres. In fact, while Jack Warner was selling the studio to Seven Arts Productions, he would have had the film dumped but for the fact that Israel, of which Warner was a major supporter, had scored a triumphant victory in the Six Day War, and he was in too defiant a mood to sell any of his studio 's films. Meanwhile, Warren Beatty, Bonnie and Clyde 's producer and star, complained to Warner Bros. that if the company was willing to go to so much trouble for Reflections in a Golden Eye (they had changed the coloration scheme at considerable expense), their neglect of his film, which was getting excellent press, suggested a conflict of interest; he threatened to sue the company. Warner Bros. gave Beatty 's film a general release. Much to Warner Bros. ' management surprise, the film eventually became a major box office success.
The instrumental banjo piece "Foggy Mountain Breakdown '' by Flatt and Scruggs was introduced to a worldwide audience as a result of its frequent use in the movie. Its use is strictly anachronistic as the bluegrass - style of music dates from the mid-1940s rather than the 1930s, but the functionally similar Old - time music genre was long established and widely recorded at the period in which the film is set. Long out of print in vinyl and cassette formats, the film soundtrack album was finally released on CD in 2009.
The film considerably simplifies the lives of Bonnie and Clyde, which included other gang members, repeated jailings, other murders and a horrific auto accident that left Parker burned and a near - invalid.
The Gene Wilder -- Evans Evans sequence is based on the kidnappings of the undertaker H.D. Darby and his acquaintance Sophia Stone, near Ruston, Louisiana on the late afternoon of April 27, 1933 by the Barrow gang, who had stolen their car.
The film strays furthest from fact in its portrayal of the Texas Ranger Frank Hamer as a vengeful bungler who had been captured, humiliated, and released by Bonnie and Clyde. In real life, Hamer was already a legendary and decorated Texas Ranger when he was coaxed out of semi-retirement to hunt down the duo; indeed he had never seen them until the moment he and his posse ambushed them near Gibsland, Louisiana on May 23, 1934. In 1968, Hamer 's widow and son sued the movie producers for defamation of character over his portrayal and were awarded an out - of - court settlement in 1971.
The couple 's notoriety in 1933 came from photos found by police as undeveloped film in a hastily abandoned hideout in Joplin, Missouri. In one, Bonnie holds a gun in her hand and a cigar between her teeth. Its publication nationwide typed her as a dramatic gun moll. The film portrays the taking of this playful photo. It implies the gang sent photos -- and poetry -- to the press, but this is untrue. The police found most of the gang 's items in the Joplin cache. Bonnie 's final poem, read aloud by her in the movie, was publicized only posthumously by her mother.
The only two members of the Barrow Gang who were alive at the time of the film 's release were Blanche Barrow and W.D. Jones. While Blanche Barrow approved the depiction of her in the original version of the script, she objected to the later re-writes. At the film 's release, she complained loudly about Estelle Parsons 's portrayal of her, saying, "That film made me look like a screaming horse 's ass! ''
The film was controversial on its original release for its supposed glorification of murderers, and for its level of graphic violence, which was unprecedented at the time. Bosley Crowther of The New York Times was so appalled that he began to campaign against the increasing brutality of American films. Dave Kaufman of Variety criticized the film for uneven direction and for portraying Bonnie and Clyde as bumbling fools. Joe Morgenstern for Newsweek initially panned the film as a "squalid shoot - ' em - up for the moron trade. '' After seeing the film a second time and noticing the enthusiastic audience, he wrote a second article saying he had misjudged it and praised the film. Warner Bros. took advantage of this, marketing the film as having made a major critic change his mind about its virtues.
Roger Ebert gave Bonnie and Clyde a largely positive review, giving it four stars out of four. He called the film "a milestone in the history of American movies, a work of truth and brilliance. '' More than 30 years later, he added the film to his The Great Movies list. Film critics Dave Kehr and James Berardinelli have also praised the film in the years since.
The fierce debate about the film is discussed at length in For the Love of Movies: The Story of American Film Criticism. This 2009 documentary film chronicles what occurred as a result: The New York Times fired Bosley Crowther because his negative review seemed so out of touch with the public, and Pauline Kael, who wrote a lengthy freelance essay in The New Yorker in praise of the film, became the magazine 's new staff - critic.
It performed well at the box office, and by year 's end had grossed $23,000,000 in US theatrical rentals, becoming the studio 's second highest - grossing film of all time, right behind My Fair Lady. Listal lists it as one of the top five grossing films of 1967 with $50,700,000 in US sales, and $70,000,000 worldwide.
Although many believe the film 's groundbreaking portrayal of violence adds to the film 's artistic merit, Bonnie and Clyde is still sometimes criticized for opening the floodgates for violence in cinema. It currently holds a 90 % "Certified Fresh '' rating on Rotten Tomatoes, with 45 / 50 reviews positive.
In the 40th Academy Awards, Estelle Parsons won Best Supporting Actress award for her portrayal of Blanche Barrow, and Burnett Guffey won for Best Cinematography. The film was also nominated for:
In 1992, Bonnie and Clyde was selected for preservation in the United States National Film Registry by the Library of Congress as being "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant. ''
The film is also honored by the American Film Institute:
In 2012, the Motion Picture Editors Guild listed the film as the fifth best edited film of all time based on a survey of its membership.
Forty years after its premiere, Bonnie and Clyde has been cited as a major influence for such disparate films as The Wild Bunch, The Godfather, The Departed, and Natural Born Killers.
The "Storage Jars '' skit of episode 33 of Monty Python 's Flying Circus features a brief still shot of Warren Beatty as Clyde Barrow firing a Thompson submachine gun as he escapes from the Red Crown Tourist Court.
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when did the united states get off the gold standard | Gold standard - Wikipedia
A gold standard is a monetary system in which the standard economic unit of account is based on a fixed quantity of gold. Three types can be distinguished: specie, bullion, and exchange.
Most nations abandoned the gold standard as the basis of their monetary systems at some point in the 20th century, although many hold substantial gold reserves. A survey of leading American economists showed that they unanimously reject that a return to the gold standard would benefit the average American.
The gold specie standard arose from the widespread acceptance of gold as currency. Various commodities have been used as money; typically, the one that loses the least value over time becomes the accepted form. Chemically, gold is of all major metals the one most resistant to corrosion.
The use of gold as money began thousands of years ago in Asia Minor.
During the early and high Middle Ages, the Byzantine gold solidus, commonly known as the bezant, was used widely throughout Europe and the Mediterranean. However, as the Byzantine Empire 's economic influence declined, so too did the use of the bezant. In its place, European territories chose silver as their currency over gold, leading to the development of silver standards.
Silver pennies based on the Roman denarius became the staple coin of Mercia in Great Britain around the time of King Offa, circa 757 -- 796 CE. Similar coins, including Italian denari, French deniers, and Spanish dineros, circulated in Europe. Spanish explorers discovered silver deposits in Mexico in 1522 and at Potosí in Bolivia in 1545. International trade came to depend on coins such as the Spanish dollar, the Maria Theresa thaler, and, later, the United States trade dollar.
In modern times, the British West Indies was one of the first regions to adopt a gold specie standard. Following Queen Anne 's proclamation of 1704, the British West Indies gold standard was a de facto gold standard based on the Spanish gold doubloon. In 1717, Sir Isaac Newton, the master of the Royal Mint, established a new mint ratio between silver and gold that had the effect of driving silver out of circulation and putting Britain on a gold standard.
A formal gold specie standard was first established in 1821, when Britain adopted it following the introduction of the gold sovereign by the new Royal Mint at Tower Hill in 1816. The United Province of Canada in 1854, Newfoundland in 1865, and the United States and Germany (de jure) in 1873 adopted gold. The United States used the eagle as its unit, Germany introduced the new gold mark, while Canada adopted a dual system based on both the American gold eagle and the British gold sovereign.
Australia and New Zealand adopted the British gold standard, as did the British West Indies, while Newfoundland was the only British Empire territory to introduce its own gold coin. Royal Mint branches were established in Sydney, Melbourne, and Perth for the purpose of minting gold sovereigns from Australia 's rich gold deposits.
The gold specie standard came to an end in the United Kingdom and the rest of the British Empire with the outbreak of World War I.
From 1750 to 1870, wars within Europe as well as an ongoing trade deficit with China (which sold to Europe but had little use for European goods) drained silver from the economies of Western Europe and the United States. Coins were struck in smaller and smaller numbers, and there was a proliferation of bank and stock notes used as money.
In the 1790s, the United Kingdom suffered a silver shortage. It ceased to mint larger silver coins and instead issued "token '' silver coins and overstruck foreign coins. With the end of the Napoleonic Wars, the Bank of England began the massive recoinage programme that created standard gold sovereigns, circulating crowns, half - crowns and eventually copper farthings in 1821. The recoinage of silver after a long drought produced a burst of coins. The United Kingdom struck nearly 40 million shillings between 1816 and 1820, 17 million half crowns and 1.3 million silver crowns.
The 1819 Act for the Resumption of Cash Payments set 1823 as the date for resumption of convertibility, which was reached by 1821. Throughout the 1820s, small notes were issued by regional banks. This was restricted in 1826, while the Bank of England was allowed to set up regional branches. In 1833 however, Bank of England notes were made legal tender and redemption by other banks was discouraged. In 1844, the Bank Charter Act established that Bank of England notes were fully backed by gold and they became the legal standard. According to the strict interpretation of the gold standard, this 1844 act marked the establishment of a full gold standard for British money.
In the 1780s, Thomas Jefferson, Robert Morris and Alexander Hamilton recommended to Congress the value of a decimal system. This system would also apply to monies in the United States. The question was what type of standard: gold, silver or both. The United States adopted a silver standard based on the Spanish milled dollar in 1785.
From 1860 to 1871 various attempts to resurrect bi-metallic standards were made, including one based on the gold and silver franc; however, with the rapid influx of silver from new deposits, the expectation of scarce silver ended.
The interaction between central banking and currency basis formed the primary source of monetary instability during this period. The combination of a restricted supply of notes, a government monopoly on note issuance and indirectly, a central bank and a single unit of value produced economic stability. Deviation from these conditions produced monetary crises.
Devalued notes or leaving silver as a store of value caused economic problems. Governments, demanding specie as payment, could drain the money out of the economy. Economic development expanded need for credit. The need for a solid basis in monetary affairs produced a rapid acceptance of the gold standard in the period that followed.
Following Germany 's decision after the 1870 -- 1871 Franco - Prussian War to extract reparations to facilitate a move to the gold standard, Japan gained the needed reserves after the Sino - Japanese War of 1894 -- 1895. For Japan, moving to gold was considered vital for gaining access to Western capital markets.
In 1792, Congress passed the Mint and Coinage Act. It authorized the federal government 's use of the Bank of the United States to hold its reserves, as well as establish a fixed ratio of gold to the U.S. dollar. Gold and silver coins were legal tender, as was the Spanish real. In 1792 the market price of gold was about 15 times that of silver. Silver coins left circulation, exported to pay for the debts taken on to finance the American Revolutionary War. In 1806 President Jefferson suspended the minting of silver coins. This resulted in a derivative silver standard, since the Bank of the United States was not required to fully back its currency with reserves. This began a long series of attempts by the United States to create a bi-metallic standard.
The intention was to use gold for large denominations, and silver for smaller denominations. A problem with bimetallic standards was that the metals ' absolute and relative market prices changed. The mint ratio (the rate at which the mint was obligated to pay / receive for gold relative to silver) remained fixed at 15 ounces of silver to 1 ounce of gold, whereas the market rate fluctuated from 15.5 to 1 to 16 to 1. With the Coinage Act of 1834, Congress passed an act that changed the mint ratio to approximately 16 to 1. Gold discoveries in California in 1848 and later in Australia lowered the gold price relative to silver; this drove silver money from circulation because it was worth more in the market than as money. Passage of the Independent Treasury Act of 1848 placed the U.S. on a strict hard - money standard. Doing business with the American government required gold or silver coins.
Government accounts were legally separated from the banking system. However, the mint ratio (the fixed exchange rate between gold and silver at the mint) continued to overvalue gold. In 1853, the US reduced the silver weight of coins to keep them in circulation and in 1857 removed legal tender status from foreign coinage. In 1857 the final crisis of the free banking era began as American banks suspended payment in silver, with ripples through the developing international financial system. Due to the inflationary finance measures undertaken to help pay for the US Civil War, the government found it difficult to pay its obligations in gold or silver and suspended payments of obligations not legally specified in specie (gold bonds); this led banks to suspend the conversion of bank liabilities (bank notes and deposits) into specie. In 1862 paper money was made legal tender. It was a fiat money (not convertible on demand at a fixed rate into specie). These notes came to be called "greenbacks ''.
After the Civil War, Congress wanted to reestablish the metallic standard at pre-war rates. The market price of gold in greenbacks was above the pre-War fixed price ($20.67 per ounce of gold) requiring deflation to achieve the pre-War price. This was accomplished by growing the stock of money less rapidly than real output. By 1879 the market price matched the mint price of gold. The coinage act of 1873 (also known as the Crime of ' 73) demonetized silver. This act removed the 412.5 grain silver dollar from circulation. Subsequently silver was only used in coins worth less than $1 (fractional currency). With the resumption of convertibility on June 30, 1879 the government again paid its debts in gold, accepted greenbacks for customs and redeemed greenbacks on demand in gold. Greenbacks were therefore perfect substitutes for gold coins. During the latter part of the nineteenth century the use of silver and a return to the bimetallic standard were recurrent political issues, raised especially by William Jennings Bryan, the People 's Party and the Free Silver movement. In 1900 the gold dollar was declared the standard unit of account and a gold reserve for government issued paper notes was established. Greenbacks, silver certificates, and silver dollars continued to be legal tender, all redeemable in gold.
The US had a gold stock of 1.9 million ounces (59 t) in 1862. Stocks rose to 2.6 million ounces (81 t) in 1866, declined in 1875 to 1.6 million ounces (50 t) and rose to 2.5 million ounces (78 t) in 1878. Net exports did not mirror that pattern. In the decade before the Civil War net exports were roughly constant; postwar they varied erratically around pre-war levels, but fell significantly in 1877 and became negative in 1878 and 1879. The net import of gold meant that the foreign demand for American currency to purchase goods, services, and investments exceeded the corresponding American demands for foreign currencies. In the final years of the greenback period (1862 -- 1879), gold production increased while gold exports decreased. The decrease in gold exports was considered by some to be a result of changing monetary conditions. The demands for gold during this period were as a speculative vehicle, and for its primary use in the foreign exchange markets financing international trade. The major effect of the increase in gold demand by the public and Treasury was to reduce exports of gold and increase the Greenback price of gold relative to purchasing power.
Towards the end of the 19th century, some silver standard countries began to peg their silver coin units to the gold standards of the United Kingdom or the United States. In 1898, British India pegged the silver rupee to the pound sterling at a fixed rate of 1s 4d, while in 1906, the Straits Settlements adopted a gold exchange standard against sterling, fixing the silver Straits dollar at 2s 4d.
Around the start of the 20th century, the Philippines pegged the silver peso / dollar to the U.S. dollar at 50 cents. This move was assisted by the passage of the Philippines Coinage Act by the United States Congress on March 3, 1903. Around the same time Mexico and Japan pegged their currencies to the dollar. When Siam adopted a gold exchange standard in 1908, only China and Hong Kong remained on the silver standard.
When adopting the gold standard, many European nations changed the name of their currency, for instance from Daler (Sweden and Denmark) or Gulden (Austria - Hungary) to Crown, since the former names were traditionally associated with silver coins and the latter with gold coins.
Governments with insufficient tax revenue suspended convertibility repeatedly in the 19th century. The real test, however, came in the form of World War I, a test which "it failed utterly '' according to economist Richard Lipsey.
By the end of 1913, the classical gold standard was at its peak but World War I caused many countries to suspend or abandon it. According to Lawrence Officer the main cause of the gold standard 's failure to resume its previous position after World War I was "the Bank of England 's precarious liquidity position and the gold - exchange standard. '' A run on sterling caused Britain to impose exchange controls that fatally weakened the standard; convertibility was not legally suspended, but gold prices no longer played the role that they did before. In financing the war and abandoning gold, many of the belligerents suffered drastic inflations. Price levels doubled in the US and Britain, tripled in France and quadrupled in Italy. Exchange rates changed less, even though European inflations were more severe than America 's. This meant that the costs of American goods decreased relative to those in Europe. Between August 1914 and spring of 1915, the dollar value of US exports tripled and its trade surplus exceeded $1 billion for the first time.
Ultimately, the system could not deal quickly enough with the large balance of payments deficits and surpluses; this was previously attributed to downward wage rigidity brought about by the advent of unionized labor, but is now considered as an inherent fault of the system that arose under the pressures of war and rapid technological change. In any case, prices had not reached equilibrium by the time of the Great Depression, which served to kill off the system completely.
For example, Germany had gone off the gold standard in 1914, and could not effectively return to it because War reparations had cost it much of its gold reserves. During the Occupation of the Ruhr the German central bank (Reichsbank) issued enormous sums of non-convertible marks to support workers who were on strike against the French occupation and to buy foreign currency for reparations; this led to the German hyperinflation of the early 1920s and the decimation of the German middle class.
The US did not suspend the gold standard during the war. The newly created Federal Reserve intervened in currency markets and sold bonds to "sterilize '' some of the gold imports that would have otherwise increased the stock of money. By 1927 many countries had returned to the gold standard. As a result of World War I the United States, which had been a net debtor country, had become a net creditor by 1919.
The gold specie standard ended in the United Kingdom and the rest of the British Empire at the outbreak of World War I, when Treasury notes replaced the circulation of gold sovereigns and gold half sovereigns. Legally, the gold specie standard was not repealed. The end of the gold standard was successfully effected by the Bank of England through appeals to patriotism urging citizens not to redeem paper money for gold specie. It was only in 1925, when Britain returned to the gold standard in conjunction with Australia and South Africa that the gold specie standard was officially ended.
The British Gold Standard Act 1925 both introduced the gold bullion standard and simultaneously repealed the gold specie standard. The new standard ended the circulation of gold specie coins. Instead, the law compelled the authorities to sell gold bullion on demand at a fixed price, but "only in the form of bars containing approximately four hundred ounces troy (12 kg) of fine gold ''. John Maynard Keynes, citing deflationary dangers, argued against resumption of the gold standard. By fixing the price at the pre-war rate of $4.86, Churchill is argued to have made an error that led to depression, unemployment and the 1926 general strike. The decision was described by Andrew Turnbull as a "historic mistake ''.
Many other countries followed Britain in returning to the gold standard, this was followed by a period of relative stability but also deflation. This state of affairs lasted until the Great Depression (1929 -- 1939) forced countries off the gold standard. In September 19, 1931, speculative attacks on the pound forced Britain to abandon the gold standard. Loans from American and French Central Banks of £ 50,000,000 were insufficient and exhausted in a matter of weeks, due to large gold outflows across the Atlantic. The British benefited from this departure. They could now use monetary policy to stimulate the economy. Australia and New Zealand had already left the standard and Canada quickly followed suit.
The interwar partially backed gold standard was inherently unstable, because of the conflict between the expansion of liabilities to foreign central banks and the resulting deterioration in the Bank of England 's reserve ratio. France was then attempting to make Paris a world class financial center, and it received large gold flows as well.
In May 1931 a run on Austria 's largest commercial bank caused it to fail. The run spread to Germany, where the central bank also collapsed. International financial assistance was too late and in July 1931 Germany adopted exchange controls, followed by Austria in October. The Austrian and German experiences, as well as British budgetary and political difficulties, were among the factors that destroyed confidence in sterling, which occurred in mid-July 1931. Runs ensued and the Bank of England lost much of its reserves.
Some economic historians, such as Barry Eichengreen, blame the gold standard of the 1920s for prolonging the economic depression which started in 1929 and lasted for about a decade. In the United States, adherence to the gold standard prevented the Federal Reserve from expanding the money supply to stimulate the economy, fund insolvent banks and fund government deficits that could "prime the pump '' for an expansion. Once off the gold standard, it became free to engage in such money creation. The gold standard limited the flexibility of the central banks ' monetary policy by limiting their ability to expand the money supply. In the US, the central bank was required by the Federal Reserve Act (1913) to have gold backing 40 % of its demand notes. Others including former Federal Reserve Chairman Ben Bernanke and Nobel Prize - winner Milton Friedman place the blame for the severity and length of the Great Depression at the feet of the Federal Reserve, mostly due to the deliberate tightening of monetary policy even after the gold standard. They blamed the US major economic contraction in 1937 on tightening of monetary policy resulting in higher cost of capital, weaker securities markets, reduced net government contribution to income, the undistributed profits tax and higher labor costs. The money supply peaked in March 1937, with a trough in May 1938.
Higher interest rates intensified the deflationary pressure on the dollar and reduced investment in U.S. banks. Commercial banks converted Federal Reserve Notes to gold in 1931, reducing its gold reserves and forcing a corresponding reduction in the amount of currency in circulation. This speculative attack created a panic in the U.S. banking system. Fearing imminent devaluation many depositors withdrew funds from U.S. banks. As bank runs grew, a reverse multiplier effect caused a contraction in the money supply. Additionally the New York Fed had loaned over $150 million in gold (over 240 tons) to European Central Banks. This transfer contracted the US money supply. The foreign loans became questionable once Britain, Germany, Austria and other European countries went off the gold standard in 1931 and weakened confidence in the dollar.
The forced contraction of the money supply resulted in deflation. Even as nominal interest rates dropped, inflation - adjusted real interest rates remained high, rewarding those who held onto money instead of spending it, further slowing the economy. Recovery in the United States was slower than in Britain, in part due to Congressional reluctance to abandon the gold standard and float the U.S. currency as Britain had done.
In the early 1930s, the Federal Reserve defended the dollar by raising interest rates, trying to increase the demand for dollars. This helped attract international investors who bought foreign assets with gold.
Congress passed the Gold Reserve Act on 30 January 1934; the measure nationalized all gold by ordering Federal Reserve banks to turn over their supply to the U.S. Treasury. In return the banks received gold certificates to be used as reserves against deposits and Federal Reserve notes. The act also authorized the president to devalue the gold dollar. Under this authority the president, on 31 January 1934, changed the value of the dollar from $20.67 to the troy ounce to $35 to the troy ounce, a devaluation of over 40 %.
Other factors in the prolongation of the Great Depression include trade wars and the reduction in international trade caused by barriers such as Smoot -- Hawley Tariff in the US and the Imperial Preference policies of Great Britain, the failure of central banks to act responsibly, government policies designed to prevent wages from falling, such as the Davis -- Bacon Act of 1931, during the deflationary period resulting in production costs dropping slower than sales prices, thereby injuring business profits and increases in taxes to reduce budget deficits and to support new programs such as Social Security. The US top marginal income tax rate went from 25 % to 63 % in 1932 and to 79 % in 1936, while the bottom rate increased over tenfold, from. 375 % in 1929 to 4 % in 1932. The concurrent massive drought resulted in the US Dust Bowl.
The Austrian School asserted that the Great Depression was the result of a credit bust. Alan Greenspan wrote that the bank failures of the 1930s were sparked by Great Britain dropping the gold standard in 1931. This act "tore asunder '' any remaining confidence in the banking system. Financial historian Niall Ferguson wrote that what made the Great Depression truly ' great ' was the European banking crisis of 1931. According to Fed Chairman Marriner Eccles, the root cause was the concentration of wealth resulting in a stagnating or decreasing standard of living for the poor and middle class. These classes went into debt, producing the credit explosion of the 1920s. Eventually the debt load grew too heavy, resulting in the massive defaults and financial panics of the 1930s.
Under the Bretton Woods international monetary agreement of 1944, the gold standard was kept without domestic convertibility. The role of gold was severely constrained, as other countries ' currencies were fixed in terms of the dollar. Many countries kept reserves in gold and settled accounts in gold. Still they preferred to settle balances with other currencies, with the American dollar becoming the favorite. The International Monetary Fund was established to help with the exchange process and assist nations in maintaining fixed rates. Within Bretton Woods adjustment was cushioned through credits that helped countries avoid deflation. Under the old standard, a country with an overvalued currency would lose gold and experience deflation until the currency was again valued correctly. Most countries defined their currencies in terms of dollars, but some countries imposed trading restrictions to protect reserves and exchange rates. Therefore, most countries ' currencies were still basically inconvertible. In the late 1950s, the exchange restrictions were dropped and gold became an important element in international financial settlements.
After the Second World War, a system similar to a gold standard and sometimes described as a "gold exchange standard '' was established by the Bretton Woods Agreements. Under this system, many countries fixed their exchange rates relative to the U.S. dollar and central banks could exchange dollar holdings into gold at the official exchange rate of $35 per ounce; this option was not available to firms or individuals. All currencies pegged to the dollar thereby had a fixed value in terms of gold.
Starting in the 1959 -- 1969 administration of President Charles de Gaulle and continuing until 1970, France reduced its dollar reserves, exchanging them for gold at the official exchange rate, reducing US economic influence. This, along with the fiscal strain of federal expenditures for the Vietnam War and persistent balance of payments deficits, led U.S. President Richard Nixon to end international convertibility of the U.S. dollar to gold on August 15, 1971 (the "Nixon Shock '').
This was meant to be a temporary measure, with the gold price of the dollar and the official rate of exchanges remaining constant. Revaluing currencies was the main purpose of this plan. No official revaluation or redemption occurred. The dollar subsequently floated. In December 1971, the "Smithsonian Agreement '' was reached. In this agreement, the dollar was devalued from $35 per troy ounce of gold to $38. Other countries ' currencies appreciated. However, gold convertibility did not resume. In October 1973, the price was raised to $42.22. Once again, the devaluation was insufficient. Within two weeks of the second devaluation the dollar was left to float. The $42.22 par value was made official in September 1973, long after it had been abandoned in practice. In October 1976, the government officially changed the definition of the dollar; references to gold were removed from statutes. From this point, the international monetary system was made of pure fiat money.
An estimated total of 174,100 tonnes of gold have been mined in human history, according to GFMS as of 2012. This is roughly equivalent to 5.6 billion troy ounces or, in terms of volume, about 9,261 cubic metres (327,000 cu ft), or a cube 21 metres (69 ft) on a side. There are varying estimates of the total volume of gold mined. One reason for the variance is that gold has been mined for thousands of years. Another reason is that some nations are not particularly open about how much gold is being mined. In addition, it is difficult to account for the gold output in illegal mining activities.
World production for 2011 was circa 2,700 tonnes. Since the 1950s, annual gold output growth has approximately kept pace with world population growth (i.e. a doubling in this period) although it has lagged behind world economic growth (approximately 8-fold increase since the 1950s, and 4x since 1980).
Commodity money is inconvenient to store and transport in large amounts. Furthermore, it does not allow a government to manipulate the flow of commerce with the same ease that a fiat currency does. As such, commodity money gave way to representative money and gold and other specie were retained as its backing.
Gold was a preferred form of money due to its rarity, durability, divisibility, fungibility and ease of identification, often in conjunction with silver. Silver was typically the main circulating medium, with gold as the monetary reserve. Commodity money was anonymous, as identifying marks can be removed. Commodity money retains its value despite what may happen to the monetary authority. After the fall of South Vietnam, many refugees carried their wealth to the West in gold after the national currency became worthless.
Under commodity standards currency itself has no intrinsic value, but is accepted by traders because it can be redeemed any time for the equivalent specie. A US silver certificate, for example, could be redeemed for an actual piece of silver.
Representative money and the gold standard protect citizens from hyperinflation and other abuses of monetary policy, as were seen in some countries during the Great Depression. Commodity money conversely led to deflation and bank runs.
Countries that left the gold standard earlier than other countries recovered from the Great Depression sooner. For example, Great Britain and the Scandinavian countries, which left the gold standard in 1931, recovered much earlier than France and Belgium, which remained on gold much longer. Countries such as China, which had a silver standard, almost entirely avoided the depression (due to the fact it was then barely integrated into the global economy). The connection between leaving the gold standard and the severity and duration of the depression was consistent for dozens of countries, including developing countries. This may explain why the experience and length of the depression differed between national economies.
A full or 100 % - reserve gold standard exists when the monetary authority holds sufficient gold to convert all the circulating representative money into gold at the promised exchange rate. It is sometimes referred to as the gold specie standard to more easily distinguish it. Opponents of a full standard consider it difficult to implement, saying that the quantity of gold in the world is too small to sustain worldwide economic activity at or near current gold prices; implementation would entail a many-fold increase in the price of gold. Gold standard proponents have said, "Once a money is established, any stock of money becomes compatible with any amount of employment and real income. '' While prices would necessarily adjust to the supply of gold, the process may involve considerable economic disruption, as was experienced during earlier attempts to maintain gold standards.
In an international gold - standard system (which is necessarily based on an internal gold standard in the countries concerned), gold or a currency that is convertible into gold at a fixed price is used to make international payments. Under such a system, when exchange rates rise above or fall below the fixed mint rate by more than the cost of shipping gold, inflows or outflows occur until rates return to the official level. International gold standards often limit which entities have the right to redeem currency for gold.
A return to the gold standard was considered by the US Gold Commission back in 1982, but found only minority support. In 2001 Malaysian Prime Minister Mahathir bin Mohamad proposed a new currency that would be used initially for international trade among Muslim nations, using the Islamic gold dinar, defined as 4.25 grams of pure (24 - carat) gold. Mahathir claimed it would be a stable unit of account and a political symbol of unity between Islamic nations. This would purportedly reduce dependence on the US dollar and establish a non-debt - backed currency in accord with Sharia law that prohibited the charging of interest. As of 2013 the global monetary system continued to rely on the US dollar as the main reserve currency.
Former U.S. Federal Reserve Chairman, Alan Greenspan acknowledged he was one of "a small minority '' within the central bank that had some positive view on the gold standard. In a 1966 essay he contributed to a book by Ayn Rand, titled "Gold and Economic Freedom '', Greenspan argued the case for returning to a ' pure ' gold standard; in that essay he described supporters of fiat currencies as "welfare statists '' intending to use monetary policy to finance deficit spending. More recently he claimed that by focusing on targeting inflation "central bankers have behaved as though we were on the gold standard '', rendering a return to the standard unnecessary.
Similarly, economists like Robert Barro argued that whilst some form of "monetary constitution '' is essential for stable, depoliticized monetary policy, the form this constitution takes -- for example, a gold standard, some other commodity - based standard, or a fiat currency with fixed rules for determining the quantity of money -- is considerably less important.
The gold standard is supported by many followers of the Austrian School of Economics, free - market libertarians and some supply - siders.
In the United States, strict constitutionalists object to the government issuing fiat currency through central banks. Some gold - standard advocates also call for a mandated end to fractional - reserve banking. Many similar alternatives have been suggested, including energy - based currencies, collections of currencies or commodities, with gold as one component.
Former congressman Ron Paul is a long - term, high - profile advocate of a gold standard, but has also expressed support for using a standard based on a basket of commodities that better reflects the state of the economy.
In 2011 the Utah legislature passed a bill to accept federally issued gold and silver coins as legal tender to pay taxes. As federally issued currency, the coins were already legal tender for taxes, although the market price of their metal content currently exceeds their monetary value. Similar legislation is under consideration in other US states. The bill was initiated by newly elected Republican Party legislators associated with the Tea Party movement and was driven by anxiety over the policies of President Barack Obama.
In 2013, the Arizona Legislature passed SB 1439, which would have made gold and silver coin a legal tender in payment of debt, but the bill was vetoed by the Governor.
In 2015, some candidates for the 2016 presidential election advocated for a gold standard, based on concern that the Federal Reserve 's attempts to increase economic growth may create inflation. Economic historians did not agree with candidate 's assertions that the gold standard would benefit the US economy.
In 2012 a poll of 40 U.S. economists in the IGM Economic Experts Panel found that none of them agreed with a claim that a return to the gold standard would result in "price - stability and employment outcomes (that) would be better for the average American. '' The panel of polled economists included past Nobel Prize winners, former economic advisers to both Republican and Democratic presidents, and senior faculty from Harvard, Chicago, Stanford, MIT, and other well - known research universities. (The specific question posed to the economists was: "If the US replaced its discretionary monetary policy regime with a gold standard, defining a ' dollar ' as a specific number of ounces of gold, the price - stability and employment outcomes would be better for the average American. '')
The economist Allan H. Meltzer of Carnegie Mellon University presented arguments against Ron Paul 's advocacy of the gold standard since the 1970s. He sometimes summarizes his opposition by stating simply, "(W) e do n't have the gold standard. It 's not because we do n't know about the gold standard, it 's because we do. ''
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what are the names of buddy's sisters on cake boss | Cake Boss - wikipedia
Cake Boss is an American reality television series, airing on the cable television network TLC. The show follows the operations of Carlo 's Bake Shop, an Italian - American family - owned business in Hoboken, New Jersey owned and operated by siblings Buddy Valastro (to whom the series ' title refers), Lisa Valastro, Maddalena Castano, Grace Faugno and Mary Sciarrone. The show focuses on how they make their edible art cakes, and the interpersonal relationships among the various family members and other employees who work at the shop.
The show premiered on April 19, 2009, and four additional seasons followed, premiering October 26, 2009, May 31, 2010 (returning in October), January 31, 2011 (returning in September), and May 28, 2012, respectively. The show 's sixth season debuted on Monday May 27, 2013 at 9PM ET; the second part of the sixth season began airing on December 30, 2013. The seventh season premiered live on September 8, 2015.
On January 26, 2015 Cake Boss was renewed for two additional seasons. TLC has announced new episodes will begin airing September 8, 2015.
Season ten premiered on September 30, 2017.
The popularity of the show has resulted in increased business for Carlo 's Bake Shop, and increased tourism to the Hoboken area. Due to the series 's popularity, Carlo 's Bake Shop has become a tourist attraction, with lines to enter the bakery often extending down the block and around the corner. In 2010, Hoboken renamed the corner of Washington Street and Newark Street to "Carlo 's Bakery Way '' in honor of the bakery 's centennial.
Season one averaged 2.3 million viewers while season two averaged 1.8 million viewers. In 2016, a New York Times study of the 50 TV shows with the most Facebook Likes found that Cake Boss 's "audience is generally not urban; in fact, one hot spot is Appalachia ''.
On November 2, 2010, Buddy Valastro 's book, Cake Boss: Stories and Recipes from Mia Famiglia, which is based on the series, was released. Published by Atria Books (a division of Simon & Schuster) in celebration of the 100th anniversary of Carlo 's Bake Shop, the book features the history and stories of Valastro 's family and the bake shop, along with recipes.
Valastro 's second book, Baking with the Cake Boss: 100 of Buddy 's Best Recipes and Decorating Secrets, is a cookbook, also published by Atria Books, released November 1, 2011 and featuring Valastro 's cake, pastry and decorating recipes.
The success of Cake Boss has led to a spin - off competition series hosted by Valastro, Next Great Baker, in which people compete to win a top cash prize, other valuable prizes, and an apprenticeship at Carlo 's Bakery. The program 's first season was seen on TLC December 6, 2010 through January 24, 2011, with a second season televised November 28, 2011 to January 30, 2012. The competition 's third season premiered on Monday, November 26, 2012.
Another spinoff series, Kitchen Boss, debuted January 25, 2011. This series, which is seen weekdays, features Valastro presenting his family 's recipes, as well as special guests, including members of his own family.
A backdoor pilot special, Bakery Boss, debuted on May 27, 2013. The special features Valastro traveling to a struggling bakery, Friendly 's Bake Shop in Frankfort, New York, and helping them reverse their fortunes, using a format similar to Kitchen Nightmares. The program returned to TLC as a series on December 2, 2013, and was later renamed Buddy 's Bakery Rescue. Buddy 's intern, Ashley Holt, served as Culinary Producer for the series. Cake Boss also has a product line that features baking pans and decorating accessories.
As of September 8, 2015, a total of 152 episodes with seven seasons and 5 stand - alone specials have been broadcast. The first five seasons have been released on DVD in Region 1. Up until halfway into the fifth season, each episode title employed alliteration.
As of April 3, 2015, seasons 5 and 6 are available for streaming on Hulu Plus, using a re-edited intro sequence from the early seasons (with a few episodes showing the updated family pic from the dancing intro of seasons 5 and 6). As of 2015, Cake Boss has been renewed for an eighth season which expected to be released sometime in 2016.
In July 2010, Masters Software, Inc., of Cedar Park, Texas, obtained a preliminary injunction forbidding TLC from calling its show "Cake Boss ''. Since 2006, the company has operated the domain name cakeboss.com, and since 2007, it has sold a bakery management program called CakeBoss. The suit claims that Discovery Communications infringes on its trademark by causing confusion among customers and vendors. In October 2010, Masters Software and Discovery Communications reached a settlement, the details of which are not public.
On June 11, 2012, transgender celebrity Carmen Carrera appeared in a Cake Boss episode, "Bar Mitzvah, Beads & Oh Baby! '', in which she unknowingly participated in a prank involving Cousin Anthony, who was set up with a date with Carrera. The punchline of the prank had Buddy tell Anthony that Carrera is transgender. Carrera agreed to participate in the prank on the program in part to promote equality for the transgender community saying, "I 'm totally cool with a prank like this, I, you know as long as it 's in good fun. '' Following the airing of the program, Carrera was upset by an interview portion of the program where Buddy said, "And I tell him... that 's a man, baby! '' Carrera made a statement saying, "I made it VERY clear to the producers on how to use the correct wording before agreeing to filming this but instead they chose to poke fun and be disrespectful. That 's not what I 'm about!... I may not have been born a woman, but I 'm NOT a man... After taking this journey it 's not fair at all to be lied to by the producers. '' Buddy Valastro apologized for the incident, saying, "I owe an apology to the entire LGBT community. It was absolutely not my intention to upset or offend her, or anyone within the community, and I was wrong to use the words I did. I am a supporter of gay rights and equality, and while I regret this situation and my choice of words, I am thankful to have received this feedback and the opportunity to learn from this mistake. I hope that Carmen accepts my sincere regrets. '' The following day, on June 12, 2012, TLC announced that "Bar Mitzvah, Beads & Oh Baby! '' had been pulled from rotation indefinitely, with plans to re-edit the episode. The episode has since re-aired on July 23, 2012, but with the offending scene re-edited.
Comedian Paul F. Tompkins plays a parody of Cake Boss host Buddy Valastro on the Comedy Bang Bang podcast and IFC TV show.
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who sang the country version of black velvet | Black Velvet (song) - wikipedia
"Black Velvet '' is a song written by Canadian songwriters Christopher Ward and David Tyson, recorded by Canadian singer songwriter Alannah Myles. It was released in December 1989 as one of four singles from Myles ' 1989 eponymous album from Atlantic Records. It became a number - one hit for two weeks on the Billboard Hot 100 charts in 1990 and reached number one on the Album Rock Tracks chart, as well as number ten in her native Canada and number two on the UK Singles Chart. It contains blues verses with a rock chorus.
Myles won the 1991 Grammy for Best Female Rock Vocal Performance for the song and the 1990 Juno Award for Single of the Year. Since its release, the power ballad has received substantial airplay, receiving a "Millionaire Award '' from ASCAP in 2005 for more than four million radio plays.
The song is a paean to Elvis Presley. Co-writer Christopher Ward, who was Myles ' then - boyfriend, was inspired on a bus full of Elvis fans riding to Memphis attending the 10th anniversary vigil at Graceland, in 1987. Upon his return to Canada, he brought his idea to Alannah and producer David Tyson, who wrote the chords for the bridge. The song was one of three in a demo Myles presented to Atlantic Records which eventually got her signed to the label.
Atlantic Records, much to the disappointment of Myles, for whom the song had been written, gave the song for country artist Robin Lee to record. In the USA, Myles ' version was released in December 1989, while Lee 's version was released two months later, in February 1990. This led to Myles being promoted by Atlantic on the pop and rock radio stations, and Lee on the country radio stations. Lee even filmed a videoclip to the song very similar to Myles ' video.
Myles released a new version of the song on a digitally released Elvis tribute EP to commemorate the 30 years since his death in August 2007. It was later included on her 2008 Black Velvet CD.
The song is performed in the key of D ♯ minor with a swinging tempo of 91 beats per minute in common time. Myles ' vocals span from C ♯ to D ♯ in the song.
The music video, directed by Doug Freel, was partially shot in Myles ' family ranch in Buckhorn, Ontario. Myles is seen singing at a cabin porch with her guitarist, intercut with scenes from Myles in concert with her band.
Released as the second single of Myles ' debut album, it was first released in her native Canada in July 1989, peaking at # 10 in September of that year, becoming the first of four top 10 hits for Myles in her homeland. Worldwide, it was released as Myles ' debut single. It was released in the USA in December 1989, and worldwide in early 1990, becoming a top 10 hit in most countries where it was released, and peaking at # 1 in four countries: The USA, Norway, Sweden and Switzerland, and receiving Gold and Platinum discs in several countries.
shipments figures based on certification alone
Country music artist Robin Lee, also signed to Atlantic at the time, covered "Black Velvet '' in 1990 on her third studio album, also titled Black Velvet. Lee 's version peaked at No. 12 on the U.S. Billboard Hot Country Singles & Tracks (now Hot Country Songs) chart.
Idols South Africa winner Anke Pietrangeli covered the song on her album Tribute to the Great Female Vocalists in 2009.
"Black Velvet '' has also been recorded by Valentina Gautier (as "Hey tu ''), Gee Gee & Soluna featuring Soluna Samay, Bert Heerink (as "Rocksterren ''), Vicky Rosti (as "Yön helmaan ''), Jackie Thomas, and Sandi Thom.
"Black Velvet '' was also roughed up and recorded by Canadian Rock artist Kami and released on her single "Death Toll Rising '' on January 2013. And also by the group The Lost Fingers "Lost in the 80s '' 2008.
In 2015, Canadian heavy metal band Kobra and the Lotus recorded the song for their first EP entitled Words of the Prophets.
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who plays the clown in american horror story season 4 | John Carroll Lynch - wikipedia
John Carroll Lynch (born August 1, 1963) is an American actor and director. He first gained notice for his role as Norm Gunderson in Fargo. He is also known for his television work on the ABC sitcom The Drew Carey Show as the title character 's cross-dressing brother, Steve Carey, as well as on American Horror Story: Freak Show and American Horror Story: Cult as Twisty the Clown. His films include Face / Off, Gran Torino, Shutter Island, Ted 2, The Invitation, and Zodiac. Most recently, he portrayed McDonald 's co-founder Maurice McDonald in The Founder. He made his directorial debut with the 2017 film Lucky.
Lynch was born August 1, 1963, in Boulder, Colorado. He attended Regis Jesuit High School in Denver. He studied theater at The Catholic University of America, graduating with a Bachelor of Fine Arts degree in 1986.
Lynch was a member of the Guthrie Theater company. He starred in several productions, toured with the company and worked there for over eight seasons.
Lynch made his feature film debut in Grumpy Old Men (1993). He gained notice starring as Norm Gunderson in the Coen brothers ' film Fargo (1996). His other notable films are Face / Off (1997), Bubble Boy (2001), Gothika (2003), Things We Lost in the Fire (2007), Gran Torino (2008), Shutter Island (2010), Paul (2011) and Crazy, Stupid, Love. (2011). He portrayed Arthur Leigh Allen in Zodiac (2007) and the first establisher of McDonald 's, Mac McDonald, in The Founder (2016).
Lynch has an extensive career in television. He appeared in ABC sitcom The Drew Carey Show as the title character 's cross-dressing brother, Steve Carey. He has also been a regular cast member on series such as Close to Home, Carnivàle, Body of Proof and Seasons 4, 5 and 7 of American Horror Story.
Lynch has been married to actress Brenda Wehle since 1997.
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dale evans's horse on the roy rogers show | Buttermilk (Horse) - wikipedia
Buttermilk (1941 -- 1972) was a buckskin Quarter Horse. He appeared in numerous Western films with his owner / rider, cowgirl star Dale Evans.
Buttermilk was ridden by Evans in the 1950s television series The Roy Rogers Show with her husband Roy Rogers who rode his Palomino, Trigger. Both horses were extremely popular and became a marketing success with cast iron and plastic replicas, lamps, and dozens of other products purchased by adults and children.
After Buttermilk died in 1972, his hide was stretched over a plaster likeness and put on display at the Roy Rogers and Dale Evans Museum in Victorville, California (the museum has since been relocated to Branson, Missouri).
In 2010 the Branson museum was closed and all artifacts were sold including the Trigger and Buttermilk horses.
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who first used the term evolution in 1852 | Evolution (term) - wikipedia
The English noun evolution (from Latin ēvolūtiō "unfolding, unrolling '') refers to any kind of accumulation of change, or gradual directional change. It is the 3,117 th most commonly used word in English.
While the term primarily refers to biological evolution, there are various types of chemical evolution and it is also found in economics, historical linguistics, and many other technical fields where systems develop or change gradually over time, e.g. stellar evolution, cultural evolution, the evolution of an idea, metaphysical evolution, spiritual evolution, etc.
The English term prior to the late 19th century was confined to referring to goal - directed, pre-programmed processes such as embryological development. A pre-programmed task, as in a military maneuver, using this definition, may be termed an "evolution. ''
The term evolution (from its literal meaning of "unfolding '' of something into its true or explicit form) carries a connotation of gradual improvement or directionality from a beginning to an end point. This contrasts with the more general development, which can indicate change in any direction, or revolution, which implies recurring, periodic change. The term biological devolution is coined as an antonym to evolution, indicating such degeneration or decrease in quality or complexity.
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shakespeare quotes we few we happy few we band of brothers | St. Crispin 's day speech - wikipedia
The St. Crispin 's Day speech is a speech from William Shakespeare 's play, Henry V, in Act IV Scene iii 18 -- 67.
On the morning of 25 October 1415 (feast of Saints Crispin and Crispinian), shortly before the Battle of Agincourt, Henry V made a brief speech to the English army under his command, emphasising the justness of his claim to the French throne and harking back to the memory of previous defeats the English kings had inflicted on the French. According to Burgundian sources, he concluded the speech by telling the English longbowmen that the French had boasted that they would cut off two fingers from the right hand of every archer, so they could never draw a string again.
In Shakespeare 's account, King Henry begins his speech in response to Westmorland 's expressions of dismay at the English army 's lack of troop strength. Henry rouses his men by expressing his confidence that they would triumph, and that the "band of brothers '' fighting that day would be able to boast each year on St. Crispin 's Day of their glorious battle against the French. Shakespeare 's inclusion of Westmoreland, however, is fictional as he was not present during Henry 's 1415 French campaign.
WESTMORLAND. O that we now had here But one ten thousand of those men in England That do no work to - day! KING. What 's he that wishes so? My cousin, Westmorland? No, my fair cousin; If we are mark 'd to die, we are enow To do our country loss; and if to live, The fewer men, the greater share of honour. God 's will! I pray thee, wish not one man more. By Jove, I am not covetous for gold, Nor care I who doth feed upon my cost; It yearns me not if men my garments wear; Such outward things dwell not in my desires. But if it be a sin to covet honour, I am the most offending soul alive. No, faith, my coz, wish not a man from England. God 's peace! I would not lose so great an honour As one man more methinks would share from me For the best hope I have. O, do not wish one more! Rather proclaim it, Westmorland, through my host, That he which hath no stomach to this fight, Let him depart; his passport shall be made, And crowns for convoy put into his purse; We would not die in that man 's company That fears his fellowship to die with us. This day is call 'd the feast of Crispian. He that outlives this day, and comes safe home, Will stand a tip - toe when this day is nam 'd, And rouse him at the name of Crispian. He that shall live this day, and see old age, Will yearly on the vigil feast his neighbours, And say "To - morrow is Saint Crispian. '' Then will he strip his sleeve and show his scars, And say "These wounds I had on Crispin 's day. '' Old men forget; yet all shall be forgot, But he 'll remember, with advantages, What feats he did that day. Then shall our names, Familiar in his mouth as household words -- Harry the King, Bedford and Exeter, Warwick and Talbot, Salisbury and Gloucester -- Be in their flowing cups freshly rememb'red. This story shall the good man teach his son; And Crispin Crispian shall ne'er go by, From this day to the ending of the world, But we in it shall be rememberèd - We few, we happy few, we band of brothers; For he to - day that sheds his blood with me Shall be my brother; be he ne'er so vile, This day shall gentle his condition; And gentlemen in England now a-bed Shall think themselves accurs 'd they were not here, And hold their manhoods cheap whiles any speaks That fought with us upon Saint Crispin 's day.
"He that outlives this day, and comes safe home, Will stand a tip - toe when this day is nam 'd, And rouse him at the name of E-Space. ''
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st nicholas greek orthodox church tarpon springs fl 34689 | St. Nicholas Greek Orthodox cathedral (Tarpon Springs, Florida) - wikipedia
St. Nicholas Greek Orthodox Cathedral is a Greek Orthodox parish and center for Greek - American life in Tarpon Springs, Florida. Its noted Neo-Byzantine church is located at 36 North Pinellas Avenue.
St. Nicholas hosts an annual Epiphany celebration on January 6, in which Greek Orthodox boys aged 16 to 18 dive into Spring Bayou to retrieve a white wooden cross, said to bring the finder good luck for the year. It is the largest such event in the Western Hemisphere, with thousands in attendance. A statue of an epiphany diver is located in front of the church. < / ref >
The domed main church building, designed by the Eugene Brothers of Chicago, was completed in 1943. Modeled in part after the Hagia Sophia in what is now Istanbul, it melds Byzantine and Gothic Revival styles. It is a local landmark which has been featured on postcards.
Noted features include 23 stained glass windows surrounding the dome depicting episodes in the life of Jesus and the saints, hand - painted by Joseph V. Llorens of Atlanta, and the sixty ton altar, made of Pentelic marble. Within the dome are three large chandeliers imported from Czechoslovakia. The altar was originally part of the Greek exhibit at the 1939 New York World 's Fair. It, along with the cathedra, choir stalls, and other components were obtained with help from George Frantzis. A new altar of Carrara marble was installed in 1965.
The interior is richly recorated with icons, many by Greek iconographer George Saklaridis. Forty - one icons, sponsored by various members of the parish, were delivered in 1952, with more added in subsequent years. On December 4, 1969, the icon of Saint Nicholas was observed to have drops of moisture, and some consider it a Weeping Icon.
The community traces its history to John Cocoris, a native of Leonidio in Arcadia, Greece, who settled in the area in 1896 and became a prosperous sponge diver and trader. The trade attracted Greek immigrants as well as Greeks from other parts of the U.S. By 1907, the population was large enough to support a Greek Orthodox church, a project put under the supervision of Nicholas Peppas, a native of Aegina. The first church, completed that year at a cost of $300 for the land and $3,500 for construction, was a wood frame structure painted white. Rev. Stamatis Koutouzis was appointed the first parish priest. The parish added a school in 1925.
By 1935, the parish had outgrown the first church and began raising funds toward current structure. Construction began in 1941 and was completed in 1943, when it was consecrated by Archbishop Athenagoras (later Patriarch) at Epiphany. St. Nicholas was by then a significant center of community life as well, with major festivals surrounding Epiphany, Greek Independence Day, and Orthodox Easter. Honoring this, in 1975, the Tarpon Springs Board of Commissioners passed a resolution designating the city the "Epiphany City '' of the United States.
St. Nicholas was elevated to cathedral status for West Florida on On January 6, 1976.
Coordinates: 28 ° 08 ′ 50 '' N 82 ° 45 ′ 24 '' W / 28.1472 ° N 82.7567 ° W / 28.1472; - 82.7567
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does frank underwood become president in season 5 | House of Cards (season 5) - wikipedia
The fifth season of the American web television drama series House of Cards was announced by Netflix on January 28, 2016, and released on May 30, 2017.
Casting began for the season on June 17, 2016. Filming had begun by July 20, 2016, and finished by February 14, 2017.
On January 28, 2016, Netflix renewed House of Cards for a fifth season. It was also announced that series creator Beau Willimon would step down as showrunner following the fourth season. It was announced in February 2016 that Melissa James Gibson and Frank Pugliese, who both joined the show in the third season, would serve as co-showrunners for the fifth season, which was released on May 30, 2017. In October 2016, it was announced that Patricia Clarkson and Campbell Scott had been cast for the fifth season. The first trailer for the season was released on May 1, 2017.
On Rotten Tomatoes, the season has an approval rating of 72 % based on 36 reviews, with an average rating of 7.46 / 10. The consensus reads, "House of Cards enjoys a confident return to form this season, though its outlandish edge is tempered slightly by the current political climate. '' On Metacritic, the season has a weighted average score of 60 out of 100, based on 11 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews ''.
House of Cards received four major nominations for the 69th Primetime Emmy Awards, including Outstanding Drama Series, Kevin Spacey for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Drama Series, Robin Wright for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Drama Series, and Michael Kelly for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Drama Series.
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the central processing unit cpu is a type of | Central processing unit - wikipedia
A central processing unit (CPU) is the electronic circuitry within a computer that carries out the instructions of a computer program by performing the basic arithmetic, logical, control and input / output (I / O) operations specified by the instructions. The computer industry has used the term "central processing unit '' at least since the early 1960s. Traditionally, the term "CPU '' refers to a processor, more specifically to its processing unit and control unit (CU), distinguishing these core elements of a computer from external components such as main memory and I / O circuitry.
The form, design, and implementation of CPUs have changed over the course of their history, but their fundamental operation remains almost unchanged. Principal components of a CPU include the arithmetic logic unit (ALU) that performs arithmetic and logic operations, processor registers that supply operands to the ALU and store the results of ALU operations and a control unit that orchestrates the fetching (from memory) and execution of instructions by directing the coordinated operations of the ALU, registers and other components.
Most modern CPUs are microprocessors, meaning they are contained on a single integrated circuit (IC) chip. An IC that contains a CPU may also contain memory, peripheral interfaces, and other components of a computer; such integrated devices are variously called microcontrollers or systems on a chip (SoC). Some computers employ a multi-core processor, which is a single chip containing two or more CPUs called "cores ''; in that context, one can speak of such single chips as "sockets ''.
Array processors or vector processors have multiple processors that operate in parallel, with no unit considered central. There also exists the concept of virtual CPUs which are an abstraction of dynamical aggregated computational resources.
Early computers such as the ENIAC had to be physically rewired to perform different tasks, which caused these machines to be called "fixed - program computers ''. Since the term "CPU '' is generally defined as a device for software (computer program) execution, the earliest devices that could rightly be called CPUs came with the advent of the stored - program computer.
The idea of a stored - program computer had been already present in the design of J. Presper Eckert and John William Mauchly 's ENIAC, but was initially omitted so that it could be finished sooner. On June 30, 1945, before ENIAC was made, mathematician John von Neumann distributed the paper entitled First Draft of a Report on the EDVAC. It was the outline of a stored - program computer that would eventually be completed in August 1949. EDVAC was designed to perform a certain number of instructions (or operations) of various types. Significantly, the programs written for EDVAC were to be stored in high - speed computer memory rather than specified by the physical wiring of the computer. This overcame a severe limitation of ENIAC, which was the considerable time and effort required to reconfigure the computer to perform a new task. With von Neumann 's design, the program that EDVAC ran could be changed simply by changing the contents of the memory. EDVAC, however, was not the first stored - program computer; the Manchester Baby, a small - scale experimental stored - program computer, ran its first program on 21 June 1948 and the Manchester Mark 1 ran its first program during the night of 16 -- 17 June 1949.
Early CPUs were custom designs used as part of a larger and sometimes distinctive computer. However, this method of designing custom CPUs for a particular application has largely given way to the development of multi-purpose processors produced in large quantities. This standardization began in the era of discrete transistor mainframes and minicomputers and has rapidly accelerated with the popularization of the integrated circuit (IC). The IC has allowed increasingly complex CPUs to be designed and manufactured to tolerances on the order of nanometers. Both the miniaturization and standardization of CPUs have increased the presence of digital devices in modern life far beyond the limited application of dedicated computing machines. Modern microprocessors appear in electronic devices ranging from automobiles to cellphones, and sometimes even in toys.
While von Neumann is most often credited with the design of the stored - program computer because of his design of EDVAC, and the design became known as the von Neumann architecture, others before him, such as Konrad Zuse, had suggested and implemented similar ideas. The so - called Harvard architecture of the Harvard Mark I, which was completed before EDVAC, also utilized a stored - program design using punched paper tape rather than electronic memory. The key difference between the von Neumann and Harvard architectures is that the latter separates the storage and treatment of CPU instructions and data, while the former uses the same memory space for both. Most modern CPUs are primarily von Neumann in design, but CPUs with the Harvard architecture are seen as well, especially in embedded applications; for instance, the Atmel AVR microcontrollers are Harvard architecture processors.
Relays and vacuum tubes (thermionic tubes) were commonly used as switching elements; a useful computer requires thousands or tens of thousands of switching devices. The overall speed of a system is dependent on the speed of the switches. Tube computers like EDVAC tended to average eight hours between failures, whereas relay computers like the (slower, but earlier) Harvard Mark I failed very rarely. In the end, tube - based CPUs became dominant because the significant speed advantages afforded generally outweighed the reliability problems. Most of these early synchronous CPUs ran at low clock rates compared to modern microelectronic designs. Clock signal frequencies ranging from 100 kHz to 4 MHz were very common at this time, limited largely by the speed of the switching devices they were built with.
The design complexity of CPUs increased as various technologies facilitated building smaller and more reliable electronic devices. The first such improvement came with the advent of the transistor. Transistorized CPUs during the 1950s and 1960s no longer had to be built out of bulky, unreliable and fragile switching elements like vacuum tubes and relays. With this improvement more complex and reliable CPUs were built onto one or several printed circuit boards containing discrete (individual) components.
In 1964, IBM introduced its IBM System / 360 computer architecture that was used in a series of computers capable of running the same programs with different speed and performance. This was significant at a time when most electronic computers were incompatible with one another, even those made by the same manufacturer. To facilitate this improvement, IBM utilized the concept of a microprogram (often called "microcode ''), which still sees widespread usage in modern CPUs. The System / 360 architecture was so popular that it dominated the mainframe computer market for decades and left a legacy that is still continued by similar modern computers like the IBM zSeries. In 1965, Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC) introduced another influential computer aimed at the scientific and research markets, the PDP - 8.
Transistor - based computers had several distinct advantages over their predecessors. Aside from facilitating increased reliability and lower power consumption, transistors also allowed CPUs to operate at much higher speeds because of the short switching time of a transistor in comparison to a tube or relay. The increased reliability and dramatically increased speed of the switching elements (which were almost exclusively transistors by this time), CPU clock rates in the tens of megahertz were easily obtained during this period. Additionally while discrete transistor and IC CPUs were in heavy usage, new high - performance designs like SIMD (Single Instruction Multiple Data) vector processors began to appear. These early experimental designs later gave rise to the era of specialized supercomputers like those made by Cray Inc and Fujitsu Ltd.
During this period, a method of manufacturing many interconnected transistors in a compact space was developed. The integrated circuit (IC) allowed a large number of transistors to be manufactured on a single semiconductor - based die, or "chip ''. At first, only very basic non-specialized digital circuits such as NOR gates were miniaturized into ICs. CPUs based on these "building block '' ICs are generally referred to as "small - scale integration '' (SSI) devices. SSI ICs, such as the ones used in the Apollo Guidance Computer, usually contained up to a few dozen transistors. To build an entire CPU out of SSI ICs required thousands of individual chips, but still consumed much less space and power than earlier discrete transistor designs.
IBM 's System / 370, follow - on to the System / 360, used SSI ICs rather than Solid Logic Technology discrete - transistor modules. DEC 's PDP - 8 / I and KI10 PDP - 10 also switched from the individual transistors used by the PDP - 8 and PDP - 10 to SSI ICs, and their extremely popular PDP - 11 line was originally built with SSI ICs but was eventually implemented with LSI components once these became practical.
Lee Boysel published influential articles, including a 1967 "manifesto '', which described how to build the equivalent of a 32 - bit mainframe computer from a relatively small number of large - scale integration circuits (LSI). At the time, the only way to build LSI chips, which are chips with a hundred or more gates, was to build them using a MOS process (i.e., PMOS logic, NMOS logic, or CMOS logic). However, some companies continued to build processors out of bipolar chips because bipolar junction transistors were so much faster than MOS chips; for example, Datapoint built processors out of transistor -- transistor logic (TTL) chips until the early 1980s. At the time, MOS ICs were so slow that they were considered useful only in a few niche applications that required low power.
As the microelectronic technology advanced, an increasing number of transistors were placed on ICs, decreasing the number of individual ICs needed for a complete CPU. MSI and LSI ICs increased transistor counts to hundreds, and then thousands. By 1968, the number of ICs required to build a complete CPU had been reduced to 24 ICs of eight different types, with each IC containing roughly 1000 MOSFETs. In stark contrast with its SSI and MSI predecessors, the first LSI implementation of the PDP - 11 contained a CPU composed of only four LSI integrated circuits.
Since the introduction of the first commercially available microprocessor, the Intel 4004 in 1970, and the first widely used microprocessor, the Intel 8080 in 1974, this class of CPUs has almost completely overtaken all other central processing unit implementation methods. Mainframe and minicomputer manufacturers of the time launched proprietary IC development programs to upgrade their older computer architectures, and eventually produced instruction set compatible microprocessors that were backward - compatible with their older hardware and software. Combined with the advent and eventual success of the ubiquitous personal computer, the term CPU is now applied almost exclusively to microprocessors. Several CPUs (denoted cores) can be combined in a single processing chip.
Previous generations of CPUs were implemented as discrete components and numerous small integrated circuits (ICs) on one or more circuit boards. Microprocessors, on the other hand, are CPUs manufactured on a very small number of ICs; usually just one. The overall smaller CPU size, as a result of being implemented on a single die, means faster switching time because of physical factors like decreased gate parasitic capacitance. This has allowed synchronous microprocessors to have clock rates ranging from tens of megahertz to several gigahertz. Additionally, the ability to construct exceedingly small transistors on an IC has increased the complexity and number of transistors in a single CPU many fold. This widely observed trend is described by Moore 's law, which has proven to be a fairly accurate predictor of the growth of CPU (and other IC) complexity.
While the complexity, size, construction and general form of CPUs have changed enormously since 1950, the basic design and function has not changed much at all. Almost all common CPUs today can be very accurately described as von Neumann stored - program machines. As the aforementioned Moore 's law continues to hold true, concerns have arisen about the limits of integrated circuit transistor technology. Extreme miniaturization of electronic gates is causing the effects of phenomena like electromigration and subthreshold leakage to become much more significant. These newer concerns are among the many factors causing researchers to investigate new methods of computing such as the quantum computer, as well as to expand the usage of parallelism and other methods that extend the usefulness of the classical von Neumann model.
The fundamental operation of most CPUs, regardless of the physical form they take, is to execute a sequence of stored instructions that is called a program. The instructions to be executed are kept in some kind of computer memory. Nearly all CPUs follow the fetch, decode and execute steps in their operation, which are collectively known as the instruction cycle.
After the execution of an instruction, the entire process repeats, with the next instruction cycle normally fetching the next - in - sequence instruction because of the incremented value in the program counter. If a jump instruction was executed, the program counter will be modified to contain the address of the instruction that was jumped to and program execution continues normally. In more complex CPUs, multiple instructions can be fetched, decoded and executed simultaneously. This section describes what is generally referred to as the "classic RISC pipeline '', which is quite common among the simple CPUs used in many electronic devices (often called microcontroller). It largely ignores the important role of CPU cache, and therefore the access stage of the pipeline.
Some instructions manipulate the program counter rather than producing result data directly; such instructions are generally called "jumps '' and facilitate program behavior like loops, conditional program execution (through the use of a conditional jump), and existence of functions. In some processors, some other instructions change the state of bits in a "flags '' register. These flags can be used to influence how a program behaves, since they often indicate the outcome of various operations. For example, in such processors a "compare '' instruction evaluates two values and sets or clears bits in the flags register to indicate which one is greater or whether they are equal; one of these flags could then be used by a later jump instruction to determine program flow.
The first step, fetch, involves retrieving an instruction (which is represented by a number or sequence of numbers) from program memory. The instruction 's location (address) in program memory is determined by a program counter (PC), which stores a number that identifies the address of the next instruction to be fetched. After an instruction is fetched, the PC is incremented by the length of the instruction so that it will contain the address of the next instruction in the sequence. Often, the instruction to be fetched must be retrieved from relatively slow memory, causing the CPU to stall while waiting for the instruction to be returned. This issue is largely addressed in modern processors by caches and pipeline architectures (see below).
The instruction that the CPU fetches from memory determines what the CPU will do. In the decode step, performed by the circuitry known as the instruction decoder, the instruction is converted into signals that control other parts of the CPU.
The way in which the instruction is interpreted is defined by the CPU 's instruction set architecture (ISA). Often, one group of bits (that is, a "field '') within the instruction, called the opcode, indicates which operation is to be performed, while the remaining fields usually provide supplemental information required for the operation, such as the operands. Those operands may be specified as a constant value (called an immediate value), or as the location of a value that may be a processor register or a memory address, as determined by some addressing mode.
In some CPU designs the instruction decoder is implemented as a hardwired, unchangeable circuit. In others, a microprogram is used to translate instructions into sets of CPU configuration signals that are applied sequentially over multiple clock pulses. In some cases the memory that stores the microprogram is rewritable, making it possible to change the way in which the CPU decodes instructions.
After the fetch and decode steps, the execute step is performed. Depending on the CPU architecture, this may consist of a single action or a sequence of actions. During each action, various parts of the CPU are electrically connected so they can perform all or part of the desired operation and then the action is completed, typically in response to a clock pulse. Very often the results are written to an internal CPU register for quick access by subsequent instructions. In other cases results may be written to slower, but less expensive and higher capacity main memory.
For example, if an addition instruction is to be executed, the arithmetic logic unit (ALU) inputs are connected to a pair of operand sources (numbers to be summed), the ALU is configured to perform an addition operation so that the sum of its operand inputs will appear at its output, and the ALU output is connected to storage (e.g., a register or memory) that will receive the sum. When the clock pulse occurs, the sum will be transferred to storage and, if the resulting sum is too large (i.e., it is larger than the ALU 's output word size), an arithmetic overflow flag will be set.
Hardwired into a CPU 's circuitry is a set of basic operations it can perform, called an instruction set. Such operations may involve, for example, adding or subtracting two numbers, comparing two numbers, or jumping to a different part of a program. Each basic operation is represented by a particular combination of bits, known as the machine language opcode; while executing instructions in a machine language program, the CPU decides which operation to perform by "decoding '' the opcode. A complete machine language instruction consists of an opcode and, in many cases, additional bits that specify arguments for the operation (for example, the numbers to be summed in the case of an addition operation). Going up the complexity scale, a machine language program is a collection of machine language instructions that the CPU executes.
The actual mathematical operation for each instruction is performed by a combinational logic circuit within the CPU 's processor known as the arithmetic logic unit or ALU. In general, a CPU executes an instruction by fetching it from memory, using its ALU to perform an operation, and then storing the result to memory. Beside the instructions for integer mathematics and logic operations, various other machine instructions exist, such as those for loading data from memory and storing it back, branching operations, and mathematical operations on floating - point numbers performed by the CPU 's floating - point unit (FPU).
The control unit of the CPU contains circuitry that uses electrical signals to direct the entire computer system to carry out stored program instructions. The control unit does not execute program instructions; rather, it directs other parts of the system to do so. The control unit communicates with both the ALU and memory.
The arithmetic logic unit (ALU) is a digital circuit within the processor that performs integer arithmetic and bitwise logic operations. The inputs to the ALU are the data words to be operated on (called operands), status information from previous operations, and a code from the control unit indicating which operation to perform. Depending on the instruction being executed, the operands may come from internal CPU registers or external memory, or they may be constants generated by the ALU itself.
When all input signals have settled and propagated through the ALU circuitry, the result of the performed operation appears at the ALU 's outputs. The result consists of both a data word, which may be stored in a register or memory, and status information that is typically stored in a special, internal CPU register reserved for this purpose.
Most high - end microprocessors (in desktop, laptop, server computers) have a memory management unit, translating logical addresses into physical RAM addresses, providing memory protection and paging abilities, useful for virtual memory. Simpler processors, especially microcontrollers, usually do n't include an MMU.
Most CPUs are synchronous circuits, which means they employ a clock signal to pace their sequential operations. The clock signal is produced by an external oscillator circuit that generates a consistent number of pulses each second in the form of a periodic square wave. The frequency of the clock pulses determines the rate at which a CPU executes instructions and, consequently, the faster the clock, the more instructions the CPU will execute each second.
To ensure proper operation of the CPU, the clock period is longer than the maximum time needed for all signals to propagate (move) through the CPU. In setting the clock period to a value well above the worst - case propagation delay, it is possible to design the entire CPU and the way it moves data around the "edges '' of the rising and falling clock signal. This has the advantage of simplifying the CPU significantly, both from a design perspective and a component - count perspective. However, it also carries the disadvantage that the entire CPU must wait on its slowest elements, even though some portions of it are much faster. This limitation has largely been compensated for by various methods of increasing CPU parallelism (see below).
However, architectural improvements alone do not solve all of the drawbacks of globally synchronous CPUs. For example, a clock signal is subject to the delays of any other electrical signal. Higher clock rates in increasingly complex CPUs make it more difficult to keep the clock signal in phase (synchronized) throughout the entire unit. This has led many modern CPUs to require multiple identical clock signals to be provided to avoid delaying a single signal significantly enough to cause the CPU to malfunction. Another major issue, as clock rates increase dramatically, is the amount of heat that is dissipated by the CPU. The constantly changing clock causes many components to switch regardless of whether they are being used at that time. In general, a component that is switching uses more energy than an element in a static state. Therefore, as clock rate increases, so does energy consumption, causing the CPU to require more heat dissipation in the form of CPU cooling solutions.
One method of dealing with the switching of unneeded components is called clock gating, which involves turning off the clock signal to unneeded components (effectively disabling them). However, this is often regarded as difficult to implement and therefore does not see common usage outside of very low - power designs. One notable recent CPU design that uses extensive clock gating is the IBM PowerPC - based Xenon used in the Xbox 360; that way, power requirements of the Xbox 360 are greatly reduced. Another method of addressing some of the problems with a global clock signal is the removal of the clock signal altogether. While removing the global clock signal makes the design process considerably more complex in many ways, asynchronous (or clockless) designs carry marked advantages in power consumption and heat dissipation in comparison with similar synchronous designs. While somewhat uncommon, entire asynchronous CPUs have been built without utilizing a global clock signal. Two notable examples of this are the ARM compliant AMULET and the MIPS R3000 compatible MiniMIPS.
Rather than totally removing the clock signal, some CPU designs allow certain portions of the device to be asynchronous, such as using asynchronous ALUs in conjunction with superscalar pipelining to achieve some arithmetic performance gains. While it is not altogether clear whether totally asynchronous designs can perform at a comparable or better level than their synchronous counterparts, it is evident that they do at least excel in simpler math operations. This, combined with their excellent power consumption and heat dissipation properties, makes them very suitable for embedded computers.
Every CPU represents numerical values in a specific way. For example, some early digital computers represented numbers as familiar decimal (base 10) numeral system values, and others have employed more unusual representations such as ternary (base three). Nearly all modern CPUs represent numbers in binary form, with each digit being represented by some two - valued physical quantity such as a "high '' or "low '' voltage.
Related to numeric representation is the size and precision of integer numbers that a CPU can represent. In the case of a binary CPU, this is measured by the number of bits (significant digits of a binary encoded integer) that the CPU can process in one operation, which is commonly called word size, bit width, data path width, integer precision, or integer size. A CPU 's integer size determines the range of integer values it can directly operate on. For example, an 8 - bit CPU can directly manipulate integers represented by eight bits, which have a range of 256 (2) discrete integer values.
Integer range can also affect the number of memory locations the CPU can directly address (an address is an integer value representing a specific memory location). For example, if a binary CPU uses 32 bits to represent a memory address then it can directly address 2 memory locations. To circumvent this limitation and for various other reasons, some CPUs use mechanisms (such as bank switching) that allow additional memory to be addressed.
CPUs with larger word sizes require more circuitry and consequently are physically larger, cost more and consume more power (and therefore generate more heat). As a result, smaller 4 - or 8 - bit microcontrollers are commonly used in modern applications even though CPUs with much larger word sizes (such as 16, 32, 64, even 128 - bit) are available. When higher performance is required, however, the benefits of a larger word size (larger data ranges and address spaces) may outweigh the disadvantages. A CPU can have internal data paths shorter than the word size to reduce size and cost. For example, even though the IBM System / 360 instruction set was a 32 - bit instruction set, the System / 360 Model 30 and Model 40 had 8 - bit data paths in the arithmetic logical unit, so that a 32 - bit add required four cycles, one for each 8 bits of the operands, and, even though the Motorola 68000 series instruction set was a 32 - bit instruction set, the Motorola 68000 and Motorola 68010 had 16 - bit data paths in the arithmetic logical unit, so that a 32 - bit add required two cycles.
To gain some of the advantages afforded by both lower and higher bit lengths, many instruction sets have different bit widths for integer and floating - point data, allowing CPUs implementing that instruction set to have different bit widths for different portions of the device. For example, the IBM System / 360 instruction set was primarily 32 bit, but supported 64 - bit floating point values to facilitate greater accuracy and range in floating point numbers. The System / 360 Model 65 had an 8 - bit adder for decimal and fixed - point binary arithmetic and a 60 - bit adder for floating - point arithmetic. Many later CPU designs use similar mixed bit width, especially when the processor is meant for general - purpose usage where a reasonable balance of integer and floating point capability is required.
The description of the basic operation of a CPU offered in the previous section describes the simplest form that a CPU can take. This type of CPU, usually referred to as subscalar, operates on and executes one instruction on one or two pieces of data at a time, that is less than one instruction per clock cycle (IPC < 1).
This process gives rise to an inherent inefficiency in subscalar CPUs. Since only one instruction is executed at a time, the entire CPU must wait for that instruction to complete before proceeding to the next instruction. As a result, the subscalar CPU gets "hung up '' on instructions which take more than one clock cycle to complete execution. Even adding a second execution unit (see below) does not improve performance much; rather than one pathway being hung up, now two pathways are hung up and the number of unused transistors is increased. This design, wherein the CPU 's execution resources can operate on only one instruction at a time, can only possibly reach scalar performance (one instruction per clock cycle, IPC = 1). However, the performance is nearly always subscalar (less than one instruction per clock cycle, IPC < 1).
Attempts to achieve scalar and better performance have resulted in a variety of design methodologies that cause the CPU to behave less linearly and more in parallel. When referring to parallelism in CPUs, two terms are generally used to classify these design techniques:
Each methodology differs both in the ways in which they are implemented, as well as the relative effectiveness they afford in increasing the CPU 's performance for an application.
One of the simplest methods used to accomplish increased parallelism is to begin the first steps of instruction fetching and decoding before the prior instruction finishes executing. This is the simplest form of a technique known as instruction pipelining, and is utilized in almost all modern general - purpose CPUs. Pipelining allows more than one instruction to be executed at any given time by breaking down the execution pathway into discrete stages. This separation can be compared to an assembly line, in which an instruction is made more complete at each stage until it exits the execution pipeline and is retired.
Pipelining does, however, introduce the possibility for a situation where the result of the previous operation is needed to complete the next operation; a condition often termed data dependency conflict. To cope with this, additional care must be taken to check for these sorts of conditions and delay a portion of the instruction pipeline if this occurs. Naturally, accomplishing this requires additional circuitry, so pipelined processors are more complex than subscalar ones (though not very significantly so). A pipelined processor can become very nearly scalar, inhibited only by pipeline stalls (an instruction spending more than one clock cycle in a stage).
Further improvement upon the idea of instruction pipelining led to the development of a method that decreases the idle time of CPU components even further. Designs that are said to be superscalar include a long instruction pipeline and multiple identical execution units, such as load - store units, arithmetic - logic units, floating - point units and address generation units. In a superscalar pipeline, multiple instructions are read and passed to a dispatcher, which decides whether or not the instructions can be executed in parallel (simultaneously). If so they are dispatched to available execution units, resulting in the ability for several instructions to be executed simultaneously. In general, the more instructions a superscalar CPU is able to dispatch simultaneously to waiting execution units, the more instructions will be completed in a given cycle.
Most of the difficulty in the design of a superscalar CPU architecture lies in creating an effective dispatcher. The dispatcher needs to be able to quickly and correctly determine whether instructions can be executed in parallel, as well as dispatch them in such a way as to keep as many execution units busy as possible. This requires that the instruction pipeline is filled as often as possible and gives rise to the need in superscalar architectures for significant amounts of CPU cache. It also makes hazard - avoiding techniques like branch prediction, speculative execution, register renaming, out - of - order execution and transactional memory crucial to maintaining high levels of performance. By attempting to predict which branch (or path) a conditional instruction will take, the CPU can minimize the number of times that the entire pipeline must wait until a conditional instruction is completed. Speculative execution often provides modest performance increases by executing portions of code that may not be needed after a conditional operation completes. Out - of - order execution somewhat rearranges the order in which instructions are executed to reduce delays due to data dependencies. Also in case of single instruction stream, multiple data stream -- a case when a lot of data from the same type has to be processed --, modern processors can disable parts of the pipeline so that when a single instruction is executed many times, the CPU skips the fetch and decode phases and thus greatly increases performance on certain occasions, especially in highly monotonous program engines such as video creation software and photo processing.
In the case where a portion of the CPU is superscalar and part is not, the part which is not suffers a performance penalty due to scheduling stalls. The Intel P5 Pentium had two superscalar ALUs which could accept one instruction per clock cycle each, but its FPU could not accept one instruction per clock cycle. Thus the P5 was integer superscalar but not floating point superscalar. Intel 's successor to the P5 architecture, P6, added superscalar capabilities to its floating point features, and therefore afforded a significant increase in floating point instruction performance.
Both simple pipelining and superscalar design increase a CPU 's ILP by allowing a single processor to complete execution of instructions at rates surpassing one instruction per clock cycle. Most modern CPU designs are at least somewhat superscalar, and nearly all general purpose CPUs designed in the last decade are superscalar. In later years some of the emphasis in designing high - ILP computers has been moved out of the CPU 's hardware and into its software interface, or ISA. The strategy of the very long instruction word (VLIW) causes some ILP to become implied directly by the software, reducing the amount of work the CPU must perform to boost ILP and thereby reducing the design 's complexity.
Another strategy of achieving performance is to execute multiple threads or processes in parallel. This area of research is known as parallel computing. In Flynn 's taxonomy, this strategy is known as multiple instruction stream, multiple data stream (MIMD).
One technology used for this purpose was multiprocessing (MP). The initial flavor of this technology is known as symmetric multiprocessing (SMP), where a small number of CPUs share a coherent view of their memory system. In this scheme, each CPU has additional hardware to maintain a constantly up - to - date view of memory. By avoiding stale views of memory, the CPUs can cooperate on the same program and programs can migrate from one CPU to another. To increase the number of cooperating CPUs beyond a handful, schemes such as non-uniform memory access (NUMA) and directory - based coherence protocols were introduced in the 1990s. SMP systems are limited to a small number of CPUs while NUMA systems have been built with thousands of processors. Initially, multiprocessing was built using multiple discrete CPUs and boards to implement the interconnect between the processors. When the processors and their interconnect are all implemented on a single chip, the technology is known as chip - level multiprocessing (CMP) and the single chip as a multi-core processor.
It was later recognized that finer - grain parallelism existed with a single program. A single program might have several threads (or functions) that could be executed separately or in parallel. Some of the earliest examples of this technology implemented input / output processing such as direct memory access as a separate thread from the computation thread. A more general approach to this technology was introduced in the 1970s when systems were designed to run multiple computation threads in parallel. This technology is known as multi-threading (MT). This approach is considered more cost - effective than multiprocessing, as only a small number of components within a CPU is replicated to support MT as opposed to the entire CPU in the case of MP. In MT, the execution units and the memory system including the caches are shared among multiple threads. The downside of MT is that the hardware support for multithreading is more visible to software than that of MP and thus supervisor software like operating systems have to undergo larger changes to support MT. One type of MT that was implemented is known as temporal multithreading, where one thread is executed until it is stalled waiting for data to return from external memory. In this scheme, the CPU would then quickly context switch to another thread which is ready to run, the switch often done in one CPU clock cycle, such as the UltraSPARC T1. Another type of MT is simultaneous multithreading, where instructions from multiple threads are executed in parallel within one CPU clock cycle.
For several decades from the 1970s to early 2000s, the focus in designing high performance general purpose CPUs was largely on achieving high ILP through technologies such as pipelining, caches, superscalar execution, out - of - order execution, etc. This trend culminated in large, power - hungry CPUs such as the Intel Pentium 4. By the early 2000s, CPU designers were thwarted from achieving higher performance from ILP techniques due to the growing disparity between CPU operating frequencies and main memory operating frequencies as well as escalating CPU power dissipation owing to more esoteric ILP techniques.
CPU designers then borrowed ideas from commercial computing markets such as transaction processing, where the aggregate performance of multiple programs, also known as throughput computing, was more important than the performance of a single thread or process.
This reversal of emphasis is evidenced by the proliferation of dual and more core processor designs and notably, Intel 's newer designs resembling its less superscalar P6 architecture. Late designs in several processor families exhibit CMP, including the x86 - 64 Opteron and Athlon 64 X2, the SPARC UltraSPARC T1, IBM POWER4 and POWER5, as well as several video game console CPUs like the Xbox 360 's triple - core PowerPC design, and the PlayStation 3 's 7 - core Cell microprocessor.
A less common but increasingly important paradigm of processors (and indeed, computing in general) deals with data parallelism. The processors discussed earlier are all referred to as some type of scalar device. As the name implies, vector processors deal with multiple pieces of data in the context of one instruction. This contrasts with scalar processors, which deal with one piece of data for every instruction. Using Flynn 's taxonomy, these two schemes of dealing with data are generally referred to as single instruction stream, multiple data stream (SIMD) and single instruction stream, single data stream (SISD), respectively. The great utility in creating processors that deal with vectors of data lies in optimizing tasks that tend to require the same operation (for example, a sum or a dot product) to be performed on a large set of data. Some classic examples of these types of tasks include multimedia applications (images, video and sound), as well as many types of scientific and engineering tasks. Whereas a scalar processor must complete the entire process of fetching, decoding and executing each instruction and value in a set of data, a vector processor can perform a single operation on a comparatively large set of data with one instruction. This is only possible when the application tends to require many steps which apply one operation to a large set of data.
Most early vector processors, such as the Cray - 1, were associated almost exclusively with scientific research and cryptography applications. However, as multimedia has largely shifted to digital media, the need for some form of SIMD in general - purpose processors has become significant. Shortly after inclusion of floating - point units started to become commonplace in general - purpose processors, specifications for and implementations of SIMD execution units also began to appear for general - purpose processors. Some of these early SIMD specifications - like HP 's Multimedia Acceleration eXtensions (MAX) and Intel 's MMX - were integer - only. This proved to be a significant impediment for some software developers, since many of the applications that benefit from SIMD primarily deal with floating - point numbers. Progressively, developers refined and remade these early designs into some of the common modern SIMD specifications, which are usually associated with one ISA. Some notable modern examples include Intel 's SSE and the PowerPC - related AltiVec (also known as VMX).
Cloud computing can involve subdividing CPU operation into virtual central processing units (vCPUs).
A host is the virtual equivalent of a physical machine, on which a virtual system is operating. When there are several physical machines operating in tandem and managed as a whole, the grouped computing and memory resources form a cluster. In some systems, it is possible to dynamically add and remove from a cluster. Resources available at a host and cluster level can be partitioned out into resources pools with fine granularity.
The performance or speed of a processor depends on, among many other factors, the clock rate (generally given in multiples of hertz) and the instructions per clock (IPC), which together are the factors for the instructions per second (IPS) that the CPU can perform. Many reported IPS values have represented "peak '' execution rates on artificial instruction sequences with few branches, whereas realistic workloads consist of a mix of instructions and applications, some of which take longer to execute than others. The performance of the memory hierarchy also greatly affects processor performance, an issue barely considered in MIPS calculations. Because of these problems, various standardized tests, often called "benchmarks '' for this purpose -- such as SPECint -- have been developed to attempt to measure the real effective performance in commonly used applications.
Processing performance of computers is increased by using multi-core processors, which essentially is plugging two or more individual processors (called cores in this sense) into one integrated circuit. Ideally, a dual core processor would be nearly twice as powerful as a single core processor. In practice, the performance gain is far smaller, only about 50 %, due to imperfect software algorithms and implementation. Increasing the number of cores in a processor (i.e. dual - core, quad - core, etc.) increases the workload that can be handled. This means that the processor can now handle numerous asynchronous events, interrupts, etc. which can take a toll on the CPU when overwhelmed. These cores can be thought of as different floors in a processing plant, with each floor handling a different task. Sometimes, these cores will handle the same tasks as cores adjacent to them if a single core is not enough to handle the information.
Due to specific capabilities of modern CPUs, such as hyper - threading and uncore, which involve sharing of actual CPU resources while aiming at increased utilization, monitoring performance levels and hardware utilization gradually became a more complex task. As a response, some CPUs implement additional hardware logic that monitors actual utilization of various parts of a CPU and provides various counters accessible to software; an example is Intel 's Performance Counter Monitor technology.
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who wrote i know why and so do you | I Know Why (and So Do you) - wikipedia
"I Know Why (And So Do You) '' is a 1941 song by Glenn Miller and His Orchestra. The song appeared in the 20th Century Fox movie Sun Valley Serenade. The song was also released as an RCA Bluebird 78 single.
The song was written by Mack Gordon, lyrics, and Harry Warren, music. The song is lip - synched by Lynn Bari in the movie Sun Valley Serenade. Pat Friday sang the vocals with John Payne and The Modernaires. The single, RCA Bluebird B - 11230 - A, reached no. 18 on the Billboard pop singles chart in a one - week chart run. The single release featured vocals by Paula Kelly and The Four Modernaires. The B side of the single was "Chattanooga Choo Choo '', which de facto, was treated as the A side.
The Manhattan Transfer, Mel Torme, Richard Himber And His Orchestra with Johnny Johnston and the Joseph Lilley Ensemble on vocals, Ray Anthony, Anne Shelton with Ambrose & his Orchestra, June Christy, Frankie Sardo on 20th Fox Records, Lionel Hampton, Jean Peters, Joan Regan, Michael Feinstein and George Shearing, Babik Reinhardt, Dick Smothers, the Red Garland Trio, Orchestra Coco, the Michael Rose Orchestra, Teddy Petersen, Falconaires, US Air Force Band of the Rockies, Max Greger, Syd Lawrence, the Dino Olivieri Orchestra with refrain by Bruno Pallesi, David Pell, Diana Panton with Red Schwager on the album Red, and Robert Clary have also recorded the song.
The 1941 Glenn Miller recording was featured in the 1990 Warner Bros. movie Memphis Belle and the 2017 film The Shape of Water which was nominated for 13 Academy Awards.
The personnel on the 1941 recording by Glenn Miller and his Orchestra released as a 78 single were: Paula Kelly, The Modernaires (vo), Billy May, John Best, Ray Anthony, R.D. McMickle (tp), Glenn Miller, Jim Priddy, Paul Tanner, Frank D'Annolfo (tb), Hal McIntyre, Wilbur Schwartz (cl, as), Tex Beneke, Al Klink (ts), Ernie Caceres (bar), J.C. McGregor (p), Jack Lathrop (g), Trigger Alpert (sb), and Maurice Purtill (dm).
The song appears on the following albums:
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when does episode 2 of walking dead game come out | The Walking Dead: the Final Season - wikipedia
The Walking Dead: The Final Season (also known as The Walking Dead: Season Four) is an episodic adventure game developed by Telltale Games, and the fourth main game in their The Walking Dead video game series, based on Robert Kirkman 's comic book series of the same name.
The game represents the first major release by Telltale after a major restructuring; it was aimed to return to themes and elements from the first season, The game was expected to be the concluding story involving Clementine, taking place a few years after the events of The Walking Dead: A New Frontier. The game was anticipated to be released over four episodes, with the first episode released on August 14, 2018 for Microsoft Windows, PlayStation 4, Xbox One and Nintendo Switch. However, due to the sudden near - closure of Telltale Games on September 21, 2018, the last two episodes will be overseen by Skybound Entertainment, Kirkman 's production company.
As with other games in The Walking Dead series, The Final Season is a graphic adventure game, where the player controls the protagonist Clementine as she struggles to survive in the wake of a zombie apocalypse. The player can move Clementine around the environment to examine items, initiate conversation trees with non-player characters, and progress in the game. Decisions made by the player can affect future episodes, and The Final Season can use previous saved games from The Walking Dead to bring a player 's choices from these games into The Final Season. Players that have not played previous seasons, or who may want to adjust choices made affecting Clementine 's character, will be able to use a web - based Story Builder tool to create a cloud - based save game that can be used to feed into the game. This also addresses issues with various save game limitations due to platform transitions over the course of the series (for example, previous saves from the Xbox 360 or PlayStation 3 from the first two seasons are not compatible with The Final Season).
In portions of the game, the player will be required to react to quick time events in action - driven scenes, such as escaping from a "walker '' (the name for zombies in the series). Failure to complete the events typically results in the death of Clementine or another key character, requiring the player to retry the event. The Final Season introduces more open - ended action sequences that give the player more control during the sequence.
Some years after the events of A New Frontier, Clementine has continued to raise AJ, recalling Lee 's own lessons he taught her. They drive along and stop at a train station to scavenge for food. Inside, they find a cellar with a well - stocked supply of food, but the door is rigged with a grenade, and the noise from the blast draws a walker horde. Whilst driving to escape, Clementine crashes the car, and as she blacks out, she sees someone grabbing AJ. Clementine awakens within the ruins of a schoolhouse. She meets Marlon, the leader of a group of teenagers from the school, and finds they have also been taking care of AJ while she recovered. Clementine and AJ meet the other kids, learning that they have been alone for some time after being abandoned by the school staff but have found ways to survive by hunting and fishing from nearby woods and using traps to ward off walkers outside the school grounds. As she gets to know the others and helps AJ learn appropriate social skills, Clementine learns about the loss of a set of twin sisters about a year prior that still troubles the children, particularly Tenn, the younger brother of the siblings.
Marlon warns Clementine they are running low on food, the safe area around the school becoming smaller over time, and has her help the next day with hunting and fishing. Neither effort secures enough food, and Clementine suggests returning to the train station to see what food supplies survived the grenade blast, despite the station being outside of the designated safe zone. Clementine and AJ enter the station to secure the food but are confronted by a man named Abel, who demands a ration of the food at gunpoint. After either complying with or subduing Abel, Clementine and the rest of the group make it back to the school, reporting on their encounter. That evening, through the pipe system in the school, Clementine hears two voices arguing, and finds Marlon and Brody, another resident, having a heated discussion in the cellar. Brody reveals to Clementine that Abel is part of a raider group that Marlon had traded the twins to in exchange for safety. Furious at the reveal, Marlon hits her with a flashlight giving her a deep head gash. Before she dies of brain trauma, Brody reveals to Clementine that Marlon also intends to trade her and AJ should the raiders return. In a state of panic, Marlon leaves Brody to turn and locks Clementine in the cellar. Clementine dispatches the re-animated Brody and escapes the cellar to find Marlon being held at gunpoint by AJ, drawing the attention of the rest of the group. Marlon takes the gun from AJ and tries to frame Clementine for Brody 's death in an attempt to get the group to turn on her. Clementine is able to convince the other children of Marlon 's wrongdoings, and eventually, Marlon surrenders. As the others discuss what to do with Marlon, he is shot and killed by AJ.
Despite Clementine and AJ 's attempts to make amends, the other children vote to have the pair evicted from the school. Outside, they run into Abel and another member of the raiders, who Clementine is shocked to find is Lilly, a woman who Lee and Kenny had forced out of their group after leaving Macon, Georgia. Despite her attempts to negotiate with Clementine to convince the other kids to give themselves over to her group, she refuses and they start to hunt her and AJ down, during which AJ is shot in the stomach. The pair are saved by James, a former member of the Whisperers, who reveals to them the raiders are forcibly recruiting people to fight in their war against a rival community. James tends to AJ 's wounds and accompanies them back to the school the next morning, before departing on his own. Despite some of the children 's resentment towards Clementine and AJ, they allow them back in so that AJ can have his wounds treated. Clementine warns them about Lilly and the raiders, and they make plans to prepare the school grounds for an attack.
Two weeks go by without the raiders ' incoming attack, putting everyone on edge. After playing a game of truth or dare to ease tensions, the children go to check on final preparations. The player can choose to have Clementine accompany Louis or Violet, and in either case, express romantic feelings for these characters. Soon after, the raiders arrive at the school, looking to capture more children. In the midst of the battle, Lilly inadvertently kills one of the kids, Mitch. Clementine gets into a fight with Abel that ends with them falling off a balcony, breaking Abel 's leg. After Clementine saves either Violet or Louis from being kidnapped, Lilly and the raiders escape, and the remaining children count their losses, which include Omar, Aasim, and whichever person Clementine did not save. They vow to get them back and as Abel is now their prisoner, they intend to interrogate him for the location of the raider camp.
The game is separated into four episodes, released every six weeks.
Announced during the July 2017 San Diego Comic Con, The Walking Dead: The Final Season, is scheduled to launch as a four - episode series on August 14, 2018 for Windows, PlayStation 4, and Xbox One, with a Nintendo Switch version to launch later that year. Clementine will return as the lead character, voiced by Melissa Hutchinson, as Telltale found that fans of the series were not pleased with how little interactivity there was with Clementine in A New Frontier. Telltale wanted to have the final season call back to what fans had praised about the first season, and knew they needed to make Clementine the focus. With this direction, Telltale decided to make this the final season for The Walking Dead series so that they can create a satisfactory conclusion to Clementine 's story arc. For this purpose, Telltale brought back Gary Whitta, the writer for the first season and "400 Days '' content, to help close out Clementine 's story.
The story will follow from A New Frontier with Clementine having rescued AJ from the McCarroll Ranch, with a timeskip a few years ahead, where AJ is now a young boy. With diminishing resources amid the apocalypse, Clementine and AJ find the importance of staying with communities of vital importance, meeting other characters who have little memory of the time before the downfall of society. Clementine starts to teach AJ the essentials of survival as Lee had taught her during The Walking Dead: The First Season, as a way of paying Lee 's lessons forward. Telltale had initially considered writing a version of Clementine that had become more jaded, but found this was far too different from the established version of the character, and reworked her to be more sympathetic.
The final season will use the updated version of the Telltale Tool first introduced in Batman: The Telltale Series, along with improvements in the visual style to approach the style used in The Walking Dead comic. This included improved dynamic lightning, and a new rendering style Telltale called "Graphic Black '' to enforce the comic book rendering style. Some scenes will feature "unscripted '' zombies who may attack Clementine if the player is not careful, creating new freeform combat sequences, while other parts of the game will continue to use quick - time events as from previous games.
Due to course - corrections made at Telltale in 2017, The Walking Dead: The Final Season was primarily the only game the company released that year, cutting down from twenty episodes across multiple games in 2017 to only this season 's four in 2018. The game 's executive producer Brodie Andersen said that "We know we ran a little hot in previous years and were n't able to fully deliver the experiences we may have wanted to, so that was important to focus in on a polished quality experience players love. '' Because of the reduced product schedule, Telltale was able to establish firm release dates for all four episodes in the season, a first for any of Telltale 's episodic series. Andersen said that they were able to achieve this by starting from where they wanted The Final Season to end, and then building the narrative backwards from that, establishing four clear episodes for the series to work towards.
A free demo of the game, offering approximately the first twenty minutes of the first episode, meant to show off the new gameplay features added in this season, was released for PlayStation 4 and Xbox One on July 31, 2018. Physical releases of The Final Season for PlayStation 4 and Xbox One are expected to be released on November 6, 2018; they will contain the first two episodes and a season pass code to download the final two episodes when they are normally released.
Despite the title The Final Season, Telltale originally did not rule out a possible future for The Walking Dead games; Creative Director Kent Mudle said that The Final Season title represented the end of Clementine 's journey from Telltale 's view, but could revisit the franchise through other characters.
On September 21, 2018, Telltale announced they were undergoing a "majority studio closure '', laying off nearly all staff and leaving only 25 to complete the studio 's remaining obligations. The state of The Final Season is unknown, though other planned studio projects were cancelled. The second episode was still released on September 25, 2018, but the fate of the remaining episodes is unknown. Telltale stated on September 24, 2018, that the studio has been approached by "multiple potential partners '' that want to help bring these two episodes to completion in some manner. Until they are able to figure out how the last two episodes will be played out, Telltale asked retailers and digital storefronts to pull sales of the game and the season pass.
During the 2018 New York Comic Con, Robert Kirkman announced that his production company, Skybound Entertainment, will help to bring the last two episodes to release. According to Skybound, they have acquired the rights of the game from Telltale, and will be working with former Telltale Games employees who worked on the series to finish off the episodes. Ian Howe, the CEO of Skybound Games, noted that there were logistical difficulties in this. Some of the Telltale team had already moved on to other jobs prior to the Skybound deal, and for those still looking for work, they are not expecting them to relocate from San Francisco (where Telltale was located) to Los Angeles (where Skybound is located), but do need to find them space that makes the completion of development possible. They further needed to account for the time that those seeking jobs would need. Howe stated that he fully expected that the third episode would be released before the end of 2018.
The Walking Dead: The Final Season received generally positive reviews, earning praise for its characterization, visuals, and upgraded gameplay mechanics, and is considered by many critics and fans to be a return to form for the series.
Aggregating review website Metacritic gave the Microsoft Windows version 76 / 100 based on 26 reviews, the PlayStation 4 version 75 / 100 based on 14 reviews, the Xbox One version 70 / 100 based on 9 reviews, and the Nintendo Switch version 76 / 100 based on 5 reviews.
The second episode received mixed reviews. On Metacritic, PC version of the episode has a rating of 69 / 100, and PS4 version has a rating of 70 / 100.
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where do you find oil fields in canada | Oil reserves in Canada - wikipedia
Oil reserves in Canada were estimated at 172 billion barrels (27 × 10 ^ m) as of the start of 2015. This figure includes the oil sands reserves that are estimated by government regulators to be economically producible at current prices using current technology. According to this figure, Canada 's reserves are third only to Venezuela and Saudi Arabia. Over 95 % of these reserves are in the oil sands deposits in the province of Alberta. Alberta contains nearly all of Canada 's oil sands and much of its conventional oil reserves. The balance is concentrated in several other provinces and territories. Saskatchewan and offshore areas of Newfoundland in particular have substantial oil production and reserves. Alberta has 39 % of Canada 's remaining conventional oil reserves, offshore Newfoundland 28 % and Saskatchewan 27 %, but if oil sands are included, Alberta 's share is over 98 %.
Canada has a highly sophisticated energy industry and is both an importer and exporter of oil and refined products. In 2006, in addition to producing 1.2 billion barrels (190 × 10 ^ m), Canada imported 440 million barrels (70 × 10 ^ m), consumed 800 million barrels (130 × 10 ^ m) itself, and exported 840 million barrels (134 × 10 ^ m) to the U.S. The excess of exports over imports was 400 million barrels (64 × 10 ^ m). Over 99 % of Canadian oil exports are sent to the United States, and Canada is the United States ' largest supplier of oil.
The decision of accounting 174 billion barrels (28 × 10 ^ m) of the Alberta oil sands deposits as proven reserves was made by the Alberta Energy and Utilities Board (AEUB), now known as the Energy Resources Conservation Board (ERCB). Although now widely accepted, this addition was controversial at the time because oil sands contain an extremely heavy form of crude oil known as bitumen which will not flow toward a well under reservoir conditions. Instead, it must be mined, heated, or diluted with solvents to allow it to be produced, and must be upgraded to lighter oil to be usable by refineries. Historically known as bituminous sands or sometimes as "tar sands '', the deposits were exposed as major rivers cut through the oil - bearing formations to reveal the bitumen in the river banks. In recent years technological breakthroughs have overcome the economical and technical difficulties of producing the oil sands, and by 2007 64 % of Alberta 's petroleum production of 1.86 million barrels per day (296,000 m / d) was from oil sands rather than conventional oil fields. The ERCB estimates that by 2017 oil sands production will make up 88 % of Alberta 's predicted oil production of 3.4 million barrels per day (540,000 m / d).
Analysts estimate that a price of $30 to $40 per barrel is required to make new oil sands production profitable. In recent years prices have greatly exceeded those levels and the Alberta government expects $116 billion worth of new oil sands projects to be undertaken between 2008 and 2017. However the biggest constraint on oil sands development is a serious labor and housing shortage in Alberta as a whole and the oil sands centre of Fort McMurray in particular. According to Statistics Canada, by September, 2006 unemployment rates in Alberta had fallen to record low levels and per - capita incomes had risen to double the Canadian average. Another hurdle has been Canada 's capacity to rapidly increase its export pipelines. The National Energy Board indicated that exporters faced pipeline apportionment in 2007. However, surging crude oil prices sparked a jump in applications for oil pipelines in 2007, and new pipelines were planned to carry Canadian oil as far south as U.S. refineries on the Gulf of Mexico.
Up until 2010 Canada was the only major oil producer in the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) to have an increase in oil production in recent years. Production in the other major OECD producers (the United States, United Kingdom, Norway and Mexico) at that time have been declining, as was conventional oil production in Canada. Total crude oil production in Canada was projected to increase by an average of 8.6 percent per year from 2008 to 2011 as a result of new non-conventional oil projects.
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is lambeth within the sound of bow bells | Cockney - wikipedia
The term cockney has had several distinct geographical, social, and linguistic associations. Originally a pejorative term applied to all city - dwellers, it was gradually restricted to Londoners and particularly to "Bow - bell Cockneys '': those born within earshot of Bow Bells, the bells of St Mary - le - Bow in the Cheapside district of the City of London. It eventually came to be used to refer to those in London 's East End, or to all working - class Londoners generally.
Linguistically, cockney English refers to the accent or dialect of English traditionally spoken by working - class Londoners. By the 1980s and 1990s, many aspects of cockney English had become part of general South East English speech, producing a variant known as Estuary English.
The earliest recorded use of the term is 1362 in passus VI of William Langland 's Piers Plowman, where it is used to mean "a small, misshapen egg '', from Middle English coken + ey ("a cock 's egg ''). Concurrently, the mythical land of luxury Cockaigne (attested from 1305) appeared under a variety of spellings -- including Cockayne, Cocknay, and Cockney -- and became humorously associated with the English capital London.
The present meaning of cockney comes from its use among rural Englishmen (attested in 1520) as a pejorative term for effeminate town - dwellers, from an earlier general sense (encountered in "the Reeve 's Tale '' of Geoffrey Chaucer 's Canterbury Tales c. 1386) of a "cokenay '' as "a child tenderly brought up '' and, by extension, "an effeminate fellow '' or "a milksop ''. This may have developed from the sources above or separately, alongside such terms as "cock '' and "cocker '' which both have the sense of "to make a nestle - cock... or darling of '', "to indulge or pamper ''. By 1600, this meaning of cockney was being particularly associated with the Bow Bells area. In 1617, the travel writer Fynes Moryson stated in his Itinerary that "Londoners, and all within the sound of Bow Bells, are in reproach called Cockneys. '' The same year, John Minsheu included the term in this newly restricted sense in his dictionary Ductor in Linguas. The use of the term to describe all Londoners generally, however, survived into the 19th century before becoming restricted to the working class and their particular accent. The term is now used loosely to describe all East Londoners, although some distinguish the areas (such as Canning Town) that were added to London in 1964.
The region in which cockneys are thought to reside is not clearly defined. A common view is that in order to be a cockney, one must have been born within earshot of Bow Bells, the bells of St Mary - le - Bow. However, the church of St Mary - le - Bow was destroyed in 1666 by the Great Fire of London and rebuilt by Sir Christopher Wren. Although the bells were destroyed again in 1941 in the Blitz, they had fallen silent on 13 June 1940 as part of the British anti-invasion preparations of World War II. Before they were replaced in 1961, there was a period when, by the "within earshot '' definition, no "Bow Bell '' cockneys could be born. The use of such a literal definition produces other problems, since the area around the church is no longer residential and the noise of the area makes it unlikely that many people would now be born within earshot of the bells, although the Royal London Hospital, Guy 's Hospit, Lying In Hospitall and St Thomas ' Hospital are within the defined area covered by the sound of the Bow Bells. The closest maternity units would be the City of London Maternity Hospital, Finsbury Square, but this hospital was bombed out during the World War II Blitz, and St Bartholomew 's Hospital (or Barts), whose maternity department closed in the late 1980s. The East London Maternity Hospital in Stepney, which was 2.5 miles from St Mary - le - Bow, was in use from 1884 to 1968. There is a maternity unit still in use at the Royal London Hospital in Whitechapel. Home births were very common until the late 1960s.
A study was carried out by the City in 2000 to see how far away Bow Bells could be heard, and it was estimated that the bells would have been heard up to six miles to the east, five miles to the north, three miles to the south, and four miles to the west. According to the legend of Dick Whittington the bells could once be heard from as far away as the Highgate Archway (4.5 miles north). The association of cockneys with the East End in the public imagination may be due to many people assuming that Bow Bells are to be found in the district of Bow, rather than the lesser known St Mary - le - Bow church in Cheapside in the City of London. Thus while all East Enders are cockneys, not all cockneys are East Enders.
The traditional core districts of the East End are Bethnal Green, Whitechapel, Spitalfields, Stepney, Wapping, Limehouse, Poplar, Clerkenwell, Aldgate, Shoreditch, Millwall, Cubitt Town, Hackney, Hoxton, Bow and Mile End. "The Borough '' to the south of Waterloo, London and Tower Bridge were also considered cockney before redevelopment all but extinguished the local working - class areas, and now Bermondsey is the only cockney area south of the River Thames, although Pearly Kings and Queens can be found as far out as Peckham and Penge. The area north of the Thames gradually expanded to include East Ham, Stratford, West Ham and Plaistow as more land was built upon. The Becontree estate near Dagenham in Essex was built by the Corporation of London to house poor residents of London 's East End on what was previously a rural area of Essex, and Peter Wright wrote that most of the residents identified as cockneys rather than as Essex folk.
Writing in 1981, the dialectologist Peter Wright gave some examples of then - contemporary Cockney speakers:
A dialectological study of Leytonstone in 1964 (then in Essex) found that the area 's dialect was very similar to that recorded in Bethnal Green by Eva Sivertsen but there were still some features that distinguished Leytonstone speech from cockney.
Linguistic research conducted in the early 2010s suggests that today, certain elements of cockney English are declining in usage within the East End of London and the accent has migrated to Outer London and the Home Counties. In London 's East End, some traditional features of cockney have been displaced by a Jamaican Creole - influenced variety popular among young Londoners (sometimes referred to as "Jafaican ''), particularly, though far from exclusively, those of Afro - Caribbean descent. Nevertheless, the glottal stop, double negatives, and the vocalisation of the dark L (and other features of cockney speech), along with some rhyming slang terms are still in common usage.
An influential July 2010 report by Paul Kerswill, Professor of Sociolinguistics at Lancaster University, Multicultural London English: the emergence, acquisition and diffusion of a new variety, predicted that the cockney accent will disappear from London 's streets within 30 years. The study, funded by the Economic and Social Research Council, said that the accent, which has been around for more than 500 years, is being replaced in London by a new hybrid language. "Cockney in the East End is now transforming itself into Multicultural London English, a new, melting - pot mixture of all those people living here who learnt English as a second language '', Prof Kerswill said.
Conversely, migration of cockney speakers has led to migration of the dialect. In Essex, planned towns that grew from post-war migration out of London (e.g. Basildon and Harlow) often have a strong cockney influence on local speech. However, this is, except where least mixed, difficult to discern because of common features: linguistic historian and researcher of early dialects Alexander John Ellis in 1890 stated that cockney developed owing to the influence of Essex dialect on London speech.
The dialect eventually moved out of inner - city London towards the outskirts of suburban London and into the Home Counties. Today cockney - speaking areas include parts of Dagenham, Barking, Billericay, Brentwood, Romford, Chigwell, Cheshunt, Brimsdown, Loughton, Harlow, Basildon, Thurrock.
Cockney speakers have a distinctive accent and dialect, and occasionally use rhyming slang. The Survey of English Dialects took a recording from a long - time resident of Hackney, and the BBC made another recording in 1999 which showed how the accent had changed.
John Camden Hotten, in his Slang Dictionary of 1859, makes reference to "their use of a peculiar slang language '' when describing the costermongers of London 's East End. In terms of other slang, there are also several borrowings from Yiddish, including kosher (originally Hebrew, via Yiddish, meaning legitimate) and stumm (/ ʃtʊm / originally German, via Yiddish, meaning quiet), as well as Romany, for example wonga (meaning money, from the Romany "wanga '' meaning coal), and cushty (Kushty) (from the Romany kushtipen, meaning good). A fake cockney accent is sometimes called mockney.
By the 1980s and 1990s, most of the features mentioned above had partly spread into more general south - eastern speech, giving the accent called Estuary English; an Estuary speaker will use some but not all of the cockney sounds.
The cockney accent has long been looked down upon and thought of as inferior by many. For example, in 1909 the Conference on the Teaching of English in London Elementary Schools issued by the London County Council, stating that "the Cockney mode of speech, with its unpleasant twang, is a modern corruption without legitimate credentials, and is unworthy of being the speech of any person in the capital city of the Empire ''. Others defended the language variety: "The London dialect is really, especially on the South side of the Thames, a perfectly legitimate and responsible child of the old kentish tongue (...) the dialect of London North of the Thames has been shown to be one of the many varieties of the Midland or Mercian dialect, flavoured by the East Anglian variety of the same speech ''. Since then, the cockney accent has been more accepted as an alternative form of the English language rather than an inferior one. In the 1950s, the only accent to be heard on the BBC (except in entertainment programmes such as The Sooty Show) was RP, whereas nowadays many different accents, including cockney or accents heavily influenced by it, can be heard on the BBC. In a survey of 2,000 people conducted by Coolbrands in the autumn of 2008, cockney was voted equal fourth coolest accent in Britain with 7 % of the votes, while The Queen 's English was considered the coolest, with 20 % of the votes. Brummie was voted least popular, receiving just 2 %.
Studies have indicated that the heavy use of South East England accents on television and radio may be the cause of the spread of cockney English since the 1960s. Cockney is more and more influential and some claim that in the future many features of the accent may become standard.
Studies have indicated that working - class adolescents in areas such as Glasgow have begun to use certain aspects of cockney and other Anglicisms in their speech. infiltrating the traditional Glasgow patter. For example, TH - fronting is commonly found, and typical Scottish features such as the postvocalic / r / are reduced. Research suggests the use of English speech characteristics is likely to be a result of the influence of London and South East England accents featuring heavily on television. For example, the popularity of the BBC One soap opera, Eastenders. However, such claims have been criticised.
Certain features of cockney -- Th - fronting, L - vocalisation, T - glottalisation, and the fronting of the GOAT and GOOSE vowels -- have spread across the south - east of England and, to a lesser extent, to other areas of Britain. However, Clive Upton has noted that these features have occurred independently in some other dialects, such as TH - fronting in Yorkshire and L - vocalisation in parts of Scotland.
The term Estuary English has been used to describe London pronunciations that are slightly closer to RP than cockney. The variety first came to public prominence in an article by David Rosewarne in the Times Educational Supplement in October 1984. Rosewarne argued that it may eventually replace Received Pronunciation in the south - east. The phonetician John C. Wells collected media references to Estuary English on a website. Writing in April 2013, Wells argued that research by Joanna Przedlacka "demolished the claim that EE was a single entity sweeping the southeast. Rather, we have various sound changes emanating from working - class London speech, each spreading independently ''.
A citizen of London, being in the country, and hearing a horse neigh, exclaimed, Lord! how that horse laughs! A by - stander telling him that noise was called Neighing, the next morning, when the cock crowed, the citizen to shew he had not forgot what was told him, cried out, Do you hear how the Cock Neighs?
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an arrangement of megalithic stones in a circle is called | Megalith - wikipedia
A megalith is a large stone that has been used to construct a structure or monument, either alone or together with other stones. The word "megalithic '' describes structures made of such large stones without the use of mortar or concrete, representing periods of prehistory characterised by such constructions. For later periods, the term monolith, with an overlapping meaning, is more likely to be used.
The word "megalith '' comes from the Ancient Greek "μέγας '' (transl. megas meaning "great '') and "λίθος '' (transl. lithos meaning "stone ''). Megalith also denotes an item consisting of rock (s) hewn in definite shapes for special purposes. It has been used to describe buildings built by people from many parts of the world living in many different periods. A variety of large stones are seen as megaliths, with the most widely known megaliths not being sepulchral. The construction of these structures took place mainly in the Neolithic (though earlier Mesolithic examples are known) and continued into the Chalcolithic and Bronze Age.
At a number of sites in eastern Turkey, large ceremonial complexes from the 9th millennium BC have been discovered. They belong to the incipient phases of agriculture and animal husbandry. Large circular structures involving carved megalithic orthostats are a typical feature; e.g. at Nevalı Çori and Göbekli Tepe. Although these structures are the most ancient megalithic structures known so far, it is not clear that any of the European Megalithic traditions (see below) are actually derived from them. At Göbekli Tepe, four stone circles have been excavated from an estimated 20. Some measure up to 30 metres across. As well as human figures, the stones carry a variety of carved reliefs depicting boars, foxes, lions, birds, snakes and scorpions.
Dolmens and standing stones have been found in large areas of the Middle East starting at the Turkish border in the north of Syria close to Aleppo, southwards down to Yemen. They can be encountered in Lebanon, Syria, Iran, Israel, Jordan, and Saudi Arabia. The largest concentration can be found in southern Syria and along the Jordan Rift Valley, however they are being threatened with destruction. They date from the late Chalcolithic / Early Bronze Age. Megaliths have also been found on Kharg Island and pirazmian in Iran, at Barda Balka in Iraq.
A semicircular arrangement of megaliths was found in Israel at Atlit Yam, a site that is now under the sea. It is a very early example, dating from the 7th millennium BC.
The most concentrated occurrence of dolmens in particular is in a large area on both sides of the Jordan Rift Valley, with greater predominance on the eastern side. They occur first and foremost on the Golan Heights, the Hauran, and in Jordan, which probably has the largest concentration of dolmen in the Middle East. In Saudi Arabia, only very few dolmen have been identified so far in the Hejaz. They seem, however, to re-emerge in Yemen in small numbers, and thus could indicate a continuous tradition related to those of Somalia and Ethiopia.
The standing stone has a very ancient tradition in the Middle East, dating back from Mesopotamian times. Although not always ' megalithic ' in the true sense, they occur throughout the Orient, and can reach 5 metres or more in some cases (such as Ader in Jordan). This phenomenon can also be traced through many passages from the Old Testament, such as those related to Jacob, the grandson of Abraham, who poured oil over a stone that he erected after his famous dream in which angels climbed to heaven (Genesis 28: 10 - 22). Jacob is also described as putting up stones at other occasions, whereas Moses erected twelve pillars symbolizing the tribes of Israel. The tradition of venerating (standing) stones continued in Nabatean times and is reflected in, e.g., the Islamic rituals surrounding the Kaaba and nearby pillars. Related phenomena, such as cupholes, rock - cut tombs and circles also occur in the Middle East.
The most common type of megalithic construction in Europe is the portal tomb -- a chamber consisting of upright stones (orthostats) with one or more large flat capstones forming a roof. Many of these, though by no means all, contain human remains, but it is debatable whether use as burial sites was their primary function. The megalithic structures of Malta are believed to be the oldest in Europe, in particular Skorba Temple. Though generally known as dolmens, the correct term accepted by archaeologists is portal tomb. However many local names exist, such as anta in Galicia and Portugal, stazzone in Sardinia, hunebed in the Netherlands, Hünengrab in Germany, dysse in Denmark, and cromlech in Wales. It is assumed that most portal tombs were originally covered by earthen mounds.
The second-most - common tomb type is the passage grave. It normally consists of a square, circular, or cruciform chamber with a slabbed or corbelled roof, accessed by a long, straight passageway, with the whole structure covered by a circular mound of earth. Sometimes it is also surrounded by an external stone kerb. Prominent examples include the sites of Brú na Bóinne and Carrowmore in Ireland, Maes Howe in Orkney, and Gavrinis in France.
The third tomb type is a diverse group known as gallery graves. These are axially arranged chambers placed under elongated mounds. The Irish court tombs, British long barrows, and German Steinkisten belong to this group.
Another type of megalithic monument, the single standing stone, or menhir as it is known in France, is very common throughout Europe, where some 50,000 examples have been noted. Some of these are thought to have an astronomical function as a marker or foresight. In some areas, long and complex alignments of such stones exist, the largest known example being located at Carnac in Brittany, France.
In parts of Britain and Ireland a relatively common type of megalithic construction is the stone circle, of which examples include Stonehenge, Avebury, Ring of Brodgar and Beltany. These, too, display evidence of astronomical alignments, both solar and lunar. Stonehenge, for example, is famous for its solstice alignment. Examples of stone circles are also found in the rest of Europe. The circle at Lough Gur, near Limerick in Ireland has been dated to the Beaker period, approximately contemporaneous with Stonehenge. The stone circles are assumed to be of later date than the tombs, straddling the Neolithic and the Bronze Ages.
Megalithic tombs are aboveground burial chambers, built of large stone slabs (megaliths) laid on edge and covered with earth or other, smaller stones. They are a type of chamber tomb, and the term is used to describe the structures built across Atlantic Europe, the Mediterranean, and neighbouring regions, mostly during the Neolithic period, by Neolithic farming communities. They differ from the contemporary long barrows through their structural use of stone.
There is a huge variety of megalithic tombs. The free - standing single chamber dolmens and portal dolmens found in Brittany, Denmark, Germany, Ireland, Netherlands, Sweden, Wales, and elsewhere consist of a large flat stone supported by three, four, or more standing stones. They were covered by a stone cairn or earth barrow.
In Italy, dolmens can be found especially in Sardinia. There are more than 100 dolmen dating to the Neolithic (3500 - 2700 BC) and the most famous is called Dolmen di Sa Coveccada (near Mores). During the Bronze Age, the Nuragic civilization built c. 800 Giants ' grave, a type of megalithic gallery grave that can be found throughout Sardinia with different structures. The earliest megalithic tombs in Sardinia are the circular graves of the so - called Arzachena culture, also found in Corsica, southern France and eastern Spain.
Dolmen are also in Apulia and in Sicily. In this latter region, they are small structures located in Mura Pregne (Palermo), Sciacca (Agrigento), Monte Bubbonia (Caltanissetta), Butera (Caltanissetta), Cava Lazzaro (Siracusa), Cava dei Servi (Ragusa), Avola (Siracusa), Argimusco in Montalbano Elicona (Messina). Dating to the early Bronze Age (2200 - 1800 BC), the prehistoric Sicilian buildings were covered by a circular mound of earth. In the dolmen of Cava dei Servi, the archaeologists found numerous human bone fragments and some splinters of Castelluccian ceramics (Early Bronze Age) which confirmed the burial purpose of the artefact.
Examples with outer areas, not used for burial, are also known. The Court Cairns of southwest Scotland and northern Ireland, the Severn - Cotswold tombs of southwest England and the Transepted gallery graves of the Loire region in France share many internal features, although the links between them are not yet fully understood. That they often have antechambers or forecourts is thought to imply a desire on the part of the builders to emphasize a special ritual or physical separation of the dead from the living.
The Passage graves of Orkney, Ireland 's Boyne Valley, and north Wales are even more complex and impressive, with cross-shaped arrangements of chambers and passages. The workmanship on the stone blocks at Maeshowe for example is unknown elsewhere in northwest Europe at the time.
Megalithic tombs appear to have been used by communities for the long - term deposition of the remains of their dead, and some seem to have undergone alteration and enlargement. The organization and effort required to erect these large stones suggest that the societies concerned placed great emphasis on the proper treatment of their dead. The ritual significance of the tombs is supported by the presence of megalithic art carved into the stones at some sites. Hearths and deposits of pottery and animal bone found by archaeologists around some tombs also implies that some form of burial feast or sacrificial rites took place there.
Further examples of megalithic tombs include the stalled cairn at Midhowe in Orkney and the passage grave at Bryn Celli Ddu on Anglesey. There are also extensive grave sites with up to 60 megaliths at Louisenlund and Gryet on the Danish island of Bornholm. Despite its name, the Stone Tomb in Ukraine was not a tomb but rather a sanctuary.
In association with the megalithic constructions across Europe, there are often large earthworks of various designs -- ditches and banks (like the Dorset Cursus), broad terraces, circular enclosures known as henges, and frequently artificial mounds such as Silbury Hill in England and Monte d'Accoddi in Sardinia (the prehistoric step pyramid). A lot of spirals are found through of Sardinia: the best known is Perda Pinta of Mamoiada.
It seems that spirals were an important motif for the megalith builders (see Megalithic Temples of Malta). They have been found carved into megalithic structures all over Europe, along with other symbols such as lozenges, eye - patterns, zigzags in various configurations, and cup and ring marks. While not a written script in the modern sense of the term, these symbols are considered to have conveyed meaning to their creators, and are remarkably consistent across the whole of Europe.
In Europe megaliths are, in general, constructions erected during the Neolithic or late stone age and Chalcolithic or Copper Age (4500 - 1500 BC). The megalithic structures of Malta are believed to be the oldest in Europe. Perhaps the most famous megalithic structure is Stonehenge in England. In Sardinia, in addition to dolmens, menhirs and circular graves there are also more than 8000 megalithic structure made by a Nuragic civilisation, called Nuraghe: buildings similar to towers (sometimes with really complex structures) made using only rocks. They are often near giant 's grave or the other megalithic monuments.
The French Comte de Caylus was the first to describe the Carnac stones. Pierre Jean - Baptiste Legrand d'Aussy introduced the terms menhir and dolmen, both taken from the Breton language, into antiquarian terminology. He mistakenly interpreted megaliths as gallic tombs. In Britain, the antiquarians Aubrey and Stukeley conducted early research into megaliths. In 1805, Jacques Cambry published a book called Monuments celtiques, ou recherches sur le culte des Pierres, précédées d'une notice sur les Celtes et sur les Druides, et suivies d'Etymologie celtiques, where he proposed a Celtic stone cult. This completely unfounded connection between druids and megaliths has haunted the public imagination ever since. In Belgium, there are the Wéris megaliths at Wéris, a little town situated in the Ardennes. In the Netherlands, megalithic structures can be found in the northeast of the country, mostly in the province of Drenthe. Knowth is a passage grave of the Brú na Bóinne neolithic complex in Ireland, dating from c. 3500 - 3000 BC. It contains more than a third of the total number of examples of megalithic art in all Europe, with over 200 decorated stones found during excavations.
Nabta Playa at the southwest corner of the western Egyptian desert was once a large lake in the Nubian Desert, located 500 miles south of modern - day Cairo. By the 5th millennium BC, the peoples in Nabta Playa had fashioned an astronomical device that accurately marks the summer solstice. Findings indicate that the region was occupied only seasonally, likely only in the summer when the local lake filled with water for grazing cattle. There are other megalithic stone circles in the southwestern desert.
Namoratunga, a group of megaliths dated 300 BCE, was used by Cushitic - speaking people as an alignment with star systems tuned to a lunar calendar of 354 days. This discovery was made by B.N. Lynch and L.H. Robins of Michigan State University.
Additionally, Tiya in central Ethiopia has a number old megaliths. Some of these ancient structures feature engravings, and the area is a World Heritage Site. Megaliths are also found within the Valley of Marvels in the East Hararghe area.
Megalithic burials are found in Northeast and Southeast Asia. They are found mainly in the Korean Peninsula. They are also found in the Liaoning, Shandong, and Zhejiang in China, the East Coast of Taiwan, Kyūshū and Shikoku in Japan, Đồng Nai Province in Vietnam and South Asia. Some living megalithic traditions are found on the island of Sumba and Nias in Indonesia. The greatest concentration of megalithic burials is in Korea. Archaeologists estimate that there are 15,000 to 100,000 southern megaliths in the Korean Peninsula. Typical estimates hover around the 30,000 mark for the entire peninsula, which in itself constitutes some 40 % of all dolmens worldwide (see Dolmen).
Northeast Asian megalithic traditions originated in northeast China, in particular the Liao River basin. The practice of erecting megalithic burials spread quickly from the Liao River Basin and into the Korean Peninsula, where the structure of megaliths is geographically and chronologically distinct. The earliest megalithic burials are called "northern '' or "table - style '' because they feature an above - ground burial chamber formed by heavy stone slabs that form a rectangular cist. An oversized capstone is placed over the stone slab burial chamber, giving the appearance of a table - top. These megalithic burials date to the early part of the Mumun pottery period (c. 1500 -- 850 BC) and are distributed, with a few exceptions, north of the Han River. Few northern - style megaliths in northeast China contain grave goods such as Liaoning bronze daggers, prompting some archaeologists to interpret the burials as the graves of chiefs or preeminent individuals. However, whether a result of grave - robbery or intentional mortuary behaviour, most northern megaliths contain no grave goods.
Southern - style megalithic burials are distributed in the southern Korean Peninsula. It is thought that most of them date to the latter part of the Early Mumun or to the Middle Mumun Period. Southern - style megaliths are typically smaller in scale than northern megaliths. The interment area of southern megaliths has an underground burial chamber made of earth or lined with thin stone slabs. A massive capstone is placed over the interment area and is supported by smaller propping stones. Most of the megalithic burials on the Korean Peninsula are of the southern type.
As with northern megaliths, southern examples contain few, if any, artifacts. However, a small number of megalithic burials contain fine red - burnished pottery, bronze daggers, polished groundstone daggers, and greenstone ornaments. Southern megalithic burials are often found in groups, spread out in lines that are parallel with the direction of streams. Megalithic cemeteries contain burials that are linked together by low stone platforms made from large river cobbles. Broken red - burnished pottery and charred wood found on these platforms has led archaeologists to hypothesize that these platform were sometimes used for ceremonies and rituals. The capstones of many southern megaliths have ' cup - marks ' carvings. A small number of capstones have human and dagger representations.
These megaliths are distinguished from other types by the presence of a burial shaft, sometimes up to 4 m in depth, which is lined with large cobbles. A large capstone is placed over the burial shaft without propping stones. Capstone - style megaliths are the most monumental type in the Korean Peninsula, and they are primarily distributed near or on the south coast of Korea. It seems that most of these burials date to the latter part of the Middle Mumun (c. 700 -- 550 BC), and they may have been built into the early part of the Late Mumun. An example is found near modern Changwon at Deokcheon - ni, where a small cemetery contained a capstone burial (No. 1) with a massive, rectangularly shaped, stone and earthen platform. Archaeologists were not able to recover the entire feature, but the low platform was at least 56 × 18 m in size.
The Indonesian archipelago is the host of Austronesian megalith cultures both past and present. Living megalith cultures can be found on Nias, an isolated island off the western coast of North Sumatra, the Batak people in the interior of North Sumatra, on Sumba island in East Nusa Tenggara and also Toraja people from the interior of South Sulawesi. These megalith cultures remained preserved, isolated and undisturbed well into the late 19th century.
Several megalith sites and structures are also found across Indonesia. Menhirs, dolmens, stone tables, ancestral stone statues, and step pyramid structure called Punden Berundak were discovered in various sites in Java, Sumatra, Sulawesi, and the Lesser Sunda Islands.
The Punden step pyramid and menhir can be found in Pagguyangan near Cisolok. The Cipari megalith site also in West Java displays monoliths, stone terraces, and sarcophagi. The basic design of later Hindu - Buddhist temples structure in Java after the adoption of Hinduism and Buddhism by the native population has the punden step pyramid concept underlying. The 8th century Borobudur and 15th - century Candi Sukuh, for example, featured the step - pyramid structure.
Lore Lindu National Park in Central Sulawesi houses ancient megalith relics such as ancestral stone statues, mostly located in the Bada, Besoa and Napu valleys.
Megaliths in South Asia is dated before 3000 BC, with recent findings dated back to 5000 BC in southern India. Megaliths are found in almost all parts of the South Asia and there is also a broad time evolution with the megaliths in central India and upper Indus valley where oldest Megaliths are also found, while those in the east are of much later date. A large fraction of these are assumed to be associated with burial or post burial rituals including memorials for those whose remains may or may not be available. The case - example is that of Brahmagiri, which was excavated by Wheeler (1975) and helped establish the culturesequence in south Indian prehistory. However, there is another distinct class of megaliths that do not seem to be associated with burials.
In South Asia, megaliths of all kinds are noted, these vary from Menhirs, Rock - cut burial, chamber tomb, dolmens, stone alignment, stone circles and anthropomorphic figures. These are broadly classified into (potentially overlapping) of two classes (after Moorti, 1994, 2008): Sepulchral (containing remains of the dead) in which memorial stones where mortal remains along with funerary objects are placed and Non-sepulchral including large patterned placement of stones over a wide area, ' non-spepulchral ' type is associated with astronomy and cosmology in South Asia and in other parts of the world (Menon and Vahia, 2010).
In context of prehistoric anthropomorphic figures in India, (Rao 1988 / 1999, Upinder Singh 2008) note that it is unclear what these giant anthromorphs symbolize, they usually occur in association with megalithic monument and are located in a megalithic burial grounds, they may have been connected with ancestor worship.
Megaliths occur in many parts of Melanesia, mainly in Milne Bay Province, Fiji and Vanuatu. Few excavations has been made and little is known about the structures. The megalith tomb Otuyam at Kiriwina has been dated to be approximately 2000 years old which indicates that megaliths are an old custom in Melanesia. However very few megaliths have been dated. The constructions have been used for different rituals. For example, tombs, sacrifices and rituals of fecundity. Dance sites exist next to some megaliths. In some places in Melanesia rituals are continued to be held at the sacred megalith sites. The fact that the beliefs are alive is a reason that most excavations have been stopped at the sites.
Megalithic structures in Micronesia reach their most developed form on the islands of Pohnpei and Kosrae in the Eastern Caroline Islands. On these two islands there was extensive use of prismatic basalt columns to build upland building complexes such as those at Salapwuk on Pohnpei and Menka on Kosrae. These building sites, remote from the ocean, appear to have been abandoned early. Megalithic building then shifted to constructing networks of artificial islands on the coast that supported a multitude of common, royal and religious structures. Dating of the structures is difficult but the complex at Nan Madol on Pohpei was probably inhabited as early as 800 c.a. probably as an artificial islands with the more elaborate buildings and religious structures added to the site from 1000 - 1400 c.e. Nan Madol almost certainly served as the economic, government and religious site for a centralized monarchy which is historically named the ' Saudeleurs '. By legend the Saudeleurs were from elsewhere, possibly in the south or west but no specific origin has ever been established. Nan Madol lost prominence and was later abandoned after the overthrow of the Saudeleur dynasty. The oral history suggests this overthrow was by a group of warriors from Kosrae. The megalithic site at Lelu on the island of Kosrae, based on dating studies and oral history, rose to prominence about 1400 c.e. corresponding roughly with the fall of Nan Madol and endured for the next three hundred years or so. It was largely abandoned by the time of European contact. The architecture at these Micronesian sites is characteristic and has little in common with other megalithic sites. Prismatic basalt columns were brought from a great distance to the artificial islands and the rock was stacked in a layers of stretchers and runners filled in the center with coral debris. This structure allowed creation of walls up to 10 meters in height with great durability. The presence of step pyramids in the south western corner of Nan Madol as well as in Lelu suggests some Melanesian influence but other structures such as the royal residence, the religious structures and common areas as well as the elaborate interconnecting system of canals has no parallel elsewhere in the Pacific region.
Megaliths were used for a variety of purposes ranging from serving as boundary markers of territory, to a reminder of past events, and to being part of the society 's religion. Common motifs including crooks and axes seem to be symbols of political power, much as the crook was a symbol of Egyptian pharaohs. Amongst the indigenous peoples of India, Malaysia, Polynesia, North Africa, North America, and South America, the worship of these stones, or the use of these stones to symbolize a spirit or deity, is a possibility. In the early 20th century, some scholars believed that all megaliths belonged to one global "Megalithic culture '' (hyperdiffusionism, e.g. ' the Manchester school ', by Grafton Elliot Smith and William James Perry), but this has long been disproved by modern dating methods. Nor is it believed any longer that there was a pan-European megalithic culture, although regional cultures existed, even within such a small areas as the British Isles. The archaeologist Euan Mackie wrote "Likewise it can not be doubted that important regional cultures existed in the Neolithic period and can be defined by different kinds of stone circles and local pottery styles (Ruggles & Barclay 2000: figure 1). No - one has ever been rash enough to claim a nationwide unity of all aspects of Neolithic archaeology! ''
The types of megalithic structure can be divided into two categories, the "Polylithic type '' and the "Monolithic type. '' Different megalithic structures include:
Easter Island 's Moai at Rano Raraku
Inside the burial chamber at Mane Braz, Brittany, France
Menhirs at the Almendres Cromlech, Évora, Portugal
Megalithic tomb in Khakasiya, Russian Federation
Capstones of southern - style megalithic burials in Guam - ri, Jeollabuk - do, Korea
Ale 's Stones at Kåseberga, around ten kilometres south east of Ystad, Sweden
Bryn Celli Ddu in Wales
Talaiot in Majorca
Tomb of Es Tudons, Menorca
menhir in Sardinia
Giant 's grave near Arzachena in Sardinia
Giant 's grave near Dorgali in Sardinia
Megalithic temple of Monte d'Accoddi in Sardinia
Nuraghe near Arzachena in Sardinia
Nuraghe in Sardinia
Dolmen of Sa Coveccada, Sardinia
Menhir of Goni in Sardinia
Deer stone near Mörön in Mongolia
the Great Menhir of Er Grah, the largest known single stone erected by Neolithic man, later toppled
Menhir in the "Cham des Bondons '' site, Lozère, France
Taula in Talati de Dalt, Menorca
Megaliths with engraved figures in Tiya, southern Ethiopia
Dolmen of Avola (Sicily)
Dolmen at the Kuejiyeh dolmen field close to Madaba, Jordan
Standing stone at Ader, Southern Jordan
Dolmen of Menga in Antequera, Spain
The Amazon Stonehenge, in Amapá state, Brazil
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who are the finalists on the voice usa | The Voice (Us season 14) - wikipedia
The fourteenth season of the American reality The Voice premiered on February 26, 2018, on NBC. New coach Kelly Clarkson and returning coach Alicia Keys
On May 22, 2018, Brynn Cartelli was crowned the winner of The Voice. With her win, the fifteen - year - old became the youngest winner in the show 's history. Sawyer Fredericks at sixteen was the youngest previously. With her victory, Kelly Clarkson became the first new coach to win on her first season, and overall, the third female winning coach, behind Alicia Keys and Christina Aguilera. Additionally, runner - up Britton Buchanan became the highest - placing artist who advanced via an Instant Save, following Joshua Davis of season eight and Chris Jamison of season seven, who both placed third.
The coaching lineup changed once again for the fourteenth season. Adam Levine and Blake Shelton returned as coaches, making them the only members of the coaching panel to be part of all fourteen seasons. Miley Cyrus and Jennifer Hudson were replaced by returning coach Alicia Keys, who returned after a one season absence and was participating in her third season, and Kelly Clarkson, who served as an advisor for Team Blake during the Battle rounds in the second season and key advisor for all the teams during the Knockout Rounds in the thirteenth season. Carson Daly returned for his fourteenth season as host
This season a new feature, the Block, was added during the Blind Auditions. This allows the coaches to block one coach from getting an artist the coach turned around for.
Also, Season 14 introduced a Save button that allowed a coach to save an artist they just eliminated during the Knockouts Round. However, if another coach also pressed his or her Steal button, the contestant could then decide whether they wanted to go to a new team or return to their former coach.
This season 's advisors for the Battle Rounds weree Julia Michaels for Team Adam, Shawn Mendes for Team Alicia, Hailee Steinfeld for Team Kelly, and Trace Adkins for Team Blake.
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A new feature within the Blind Auditions this season is the Block, which each coach can use once to prevent one of the other coaches from getting a contestant.
The Battle Rounds started on March 19. Season fourteen 's advisors include: Julia Michaels for Team Adam, Shawn Mendes for Team Alicia, Hailee Steinfeld for Team Kelly, and Trace Adkins for Team Blake. The coaches can steal two losing artists from other coaches. Contestants who win their battle or are stolen by another coach will advance to the Knockout rounds.
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The Knockouts round started on April 2. The coaches can each steal one losing artist from another team and save one artist who lost their Knockout on their own team. The top 24 contestants then moved on to the Live Playoffs.
For the first time in Voice history, past winners of the show returned as Key Advisors -- Jordan Smith for Team Adam, Chris Blue for Team Alicia, Cassadee Pope for Team Kelly, and Chloe Kohanski for Team Blake.
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For the first time, the Live Playoffs were split into two rounds and introduced immunity to the highest vote - getters to advance to the Top 12 in Round 1.
During the first round of the Live Playoffs, all of the Top 24 performed for the votes of the public. The artist with the highest number of votes on each team directly advanced to the Top 12, receiving immunity from the Round 2 eliminations, and left the remaining five artists from each team to perform again in Round 2.
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On Nights 2 and 3, the twenty remaining artists performed a second time for the votes of the public (this vote was separate from the Round 1 vote). The highest vote - getter and a coach 's choice from each team joined the other four artists from Round 1 in the Top 12.
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This week 's theme was "Story Behind The Song ''. The two artists with the fewest votes competed for an Instant Save, with one or two leaving the competition each week until the semifinals.
None of the artists reached the top 10 on iTunes, so no bonuses were awarded.
The theme for this week was "Fan Night '', meaning that the artists performed songs chosen by the fans.
iTunes bonuses were awarded to Pryor Baird (# 4) and Britton Buchanan (# 6).
The theme for this week was "Overcoming Struggles ''. Different from previous weeks, the bottom three vote - getters competed in the Instant Save, with two artists being eliminated.
iTunes bonuses were awarded to Kyla Jade (# 5), Brynn Cartelli (# 8), Britton Buchanan (# 9) and Pryor Baird (# 10).
The Top 8 performed on Monday, May 14, 2018, with the results following on Tuesday, May 15, 2018. In the semifinals, three artists automatically moved on to next week 's finale, the two artists with the fewest votes were immediately eliminated and the middle three contended for the remaining spot in next week 's finale via the Instant Save. iTunes bonuses were awarded to Kyla Jade (# 2), Britton Buchanan (# 3), Brynn Cartelli (# 4), Kaleb Lee (# 5), Pryor Baird (# 7) and Spensha Baker (# 10). In addition to their individual songs, each artist performed a duet with another artist in the competition, though these duets were not available for purchase on iTunes.
With the elimination of Rayshun LaMarr, Adam Levine no longer had any artists remaining on his team. This is the first time since the fourth season that he had lost his entire team prior to the finale. In addition, with the advancement of Brynn Cartelli to the finale, Kelly Clarkson became the third new coach to successfully get an artist on her team to the finale on her first attempt as a coach, the second being Alicia Keys, who coached Wé McDonald all the way to the finale of the eleventh season, and the first being Usher, who coached Michelle Chamuel all the way to the finale of the fourth season. This also marked the first time ever that two female coaches were represented in the finale.
The Final 4 performed on Monday, May 21, 2018, with the final results following on Tuesday, May 22, 2018. This week, the four finalists performed a solo cover song, a duet with their coach, and an original song. iTunes bonuses were awarded to Britton Buchanan (# 1 and # 10), Brynn Cartelli (# 3 and # 6), Spensha Baker (# 4) and Kyla Jade (# 9). Buchanan 's "Where You Come From '' and Cartelli 's "Walk My Way '' are the only songs that charted # 1 on iTunes.
This is the first time that an artist who won the Instant Save in the semifinals did not finish in the last two spots in the finals, with Britton Buchanan finishing 2nd. With Britton Buchanan and Brynn Cartelli making it to the Top 2, this marked the first time in which the final results came down to two artists who have neither represented Blake Shelton nor Adam Levine. This is also the first time that the final results came down to two artists coached by two female coaches, with Buchanan representing Alicia Keys, and Cartelli representing Kelly Clarkson.
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when does the new new jersey governor get sworn in | Governor of New Jersey - Wikipedia
The Governor of the State of New Jersey is head of the executive branch of New Jersey 's state government. The office of governor is an elected position, for which elected officials serve four - year terms. Governors can not be elected to more than two consecutive terms, but there is no limit on the total number of terms they may serve. The official residence for the governor is Drumthwacket, a mansion located in Princeton, New Jersey; the office of the governor is at the New Jersey State House in Trenton.
The first Governor of New Jersey was William Livingston, who served from August 31, 1776, to July 25, 1790. The current governor is Phil Murphy, who assumed office on January 16, 2018. His term ends in January 2022.
The governor is directly elected by the voters to become the political and ceremonial head of the state. The governor performs the executive functions of the state, and is not directly subordinate to the federal authorities. The governor assumes additional roles, such as being the Commander - in - Chief of the New Jersey National Guard forces (when they are not federalized).
Unlike many other states that have elections for some cabinet - level positions, under the New Jersey Constitution the governor and lieutenant governor are the only officials elected on a statewide basis. Much like the President of the United States, the governor appoints the entire cabinet, subject to confirmation by the New Jersey Senate. More importantly, under the New Jersey constitution, the governor appoints all superior court judges and county prosecutors, although this is done with strong consideration of the preferences of the individual state senators who represent the district where vacancies arise.
The governor is also responsible for appointing two constitutionally created officers, the New Jersey Attorney General and the Secretary of State of New Jersey, with the approval of the senate.
As amended in January 2002, state law allows for a maximum salary of $175,000. Phil Murphy has stated that he will accept the full salary. Jon Corzine accepted a token salary of $1 per year as governor. Previous governor Jim McGreevey received an annual salary of $157,000, a reduction of 10 % of the maximum allowed, while Chris Christie, Murphy 's immediate predecessor, accepted the full gubernatorial salary.
The governor has a full time protective security detail from the Executive Protection Unit of the New Jersey State Police while in office. A former governor is entitled to a 1 person security detail from the New Jersey State Police, for up to 6 months after leaving office.
On Election Day, November 8, 2005, the voters passed an amendment to the New Jersey State Constitution that created the position of Lieutenant Governor of New Jersey, effective with the 2009 elections. Before this amendment was passed, the president of the New Jersey Senate would have become governor or acting governor in the event that office of governor became vacant. This dual position was more powerful than that of an elected governor, as the individual would have had a major role in legislative and executive processes. As a result of the constitutional amendment passed in 2005, Governor Richard Codey was the final person to wield such power.
Former assemblywoman Sheila Oliver was sworn in as New Jersey 's second lieutenant governor, on January 16, 2018, under Governor Murphy.
The Center on the American Governor, at Rutgers ' Eagleton Institute of Politics, was established in 2006 to study the governors of New Jersey and, to a lesser degree, the governors of other states. Currently, the program features extensive archives of documents and pictures from the Byrne and Kean administrations, video interviews with many members of the respective administrations, some information on other American governors, and news updates on current governors (of all 50 states). The project is in the process of creating new archives, similar to the Byrne and Kean archives, for later administrations.
"I, A.B., elected governor of the State of New Jersey, do solemnly promise and swear, that I will support the Constitution of the United States and the Constitution of the State of New Jersey, and that I will bear true faith and allegiance to the same, and to the governments established in the United States and in this state under the authority of the people, and that I will diligently, faithfully, impartially, justly, and to the best of my knowledge and ability, execute the said office in conformity with the powers delegated to me, and that I will to the utmost of my skill and ability, promote the peace and prosperity and maintain the lawful rights of the said state, so help me God. ''
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who pays for the restoration of the cars on overhaulin | Overhaulin ' - wikipedia
Overhaulin ' is an American automotive reality television series that ran for five seasons between 2004 and 2008 on TLC. After a four - year hiatus, sixth season premiered on October 2, 2012 on Velocity and Discovery (Cablevision).
The show 's hosts were automobile designer Chip Foose and co-host Chris Jacobs; the creator and producer was Bud Brutsman. Courtney Hansen was the co-host of the show until 2005, when she left the show to pursue other interests. She was replaced by Executive Producer Brutsman 's wife Adrienne Janic ("AJ ''). From Season 6 on, Jessi Combs, one of the early A-Team mechanics, returned and co-hosted as well as participated in the overhauls. Recently, Arianny Celeste had replaced Combs as Combs had moved on to another Velocity show, All Girls Garage. For two episodes of the eighth season, Adrienne "AJ '' Janic rejoined the show to cohost. Season 9 had only 4 episodes and the show ended in November 2015.
The show 's premise was that an unknowing "victim '' -- the mark, in the show 's language -- is nominated to be "Overhauled '' by his or her family or friends, the insiders. The mark 's car, usually an old and tired antique car, was obtained through some ruse. Some common examples included the car being "stolen '' by Chris and Chip, a car being misplaced or lost at a mechanic 's shop, or the car being towed away by "police. ''
An integral part of the show was when the two co-hosts play tricks on the unsuspecting mark, sometimes acting in roles of insurance adjusters or law enforcement agents, other times helping the insider, while Chip Foose and a team of mechanics -- dubbed "The A-Team '' -- have a week to remake the car into a custom masterpiece. Each show ended with the surprise reuniting of owner and newly made - over car.
Each episode would take a significant amount of planning, starting with the producers reviewing the thousands of submissions from those wanting to have a friend 's or family member 's vehicle overhauled, selecting a deserving person, and setting everything in motion. Most builds would take place in Southern California, and true to the show 's premise, the team would have only eight days to complete the build. Up to sixty people could be involved at any one time with the show. According to Associate Producer Jim Holloway, the show would assemble a team of seven or eight "A-Team '' volunteer builders about four to five days before taping would start. The builders, who were usually masters of their craft, "work (ed) together... (with) a sense of camaraderie amongst them. '' Sometimes builders would leave the build, causing Chip Foose to request help from a friend or cohort to help the team finish. Holloway noted that "we could n't do the show without the builders or our sponsors. '' The set would have the names and logos of various sponsors, many of whom often helped with the build.
Once the project was chosen and scheduled, the show 's major sponsors would ship parts to the build facility in advance of the show, while other sponsors would maintain a small on - site inventory. This would allow such items as air - filter housings, tire sizes, and so on to be test fit without having to wait for shipments.
According to Holloway, each completed vehicle is worth around $150,000, but "in reality, they 're priceless... Chip 's so busy that it 's almost impossible to get a car from the Foose shop, no matter how much money you 've got. '' In an interview, Foose said that "for me, seeing the look on the owner 's face is the most rewarding part of the show. It 's almost overwhelming to see their response, and it 's the whole reason I do it. We worked hard to make their dream come true. ''
In 2006, the show remodeled a 1993 Hummer H1 that CNN used to cover the war in Iraq. Over a one - week period, the Overhaulin ' crew replaced the engine, raised the vehicle 's body and air brushed images of correspondents and troops onto the Hummer. They also added a DVD player, four televisions and a state - of - the - art sound system. TLC unveiled the revamped Hummer, named "Warrior One, '' in front of a swarm of fans, media and CNN employees. According to co-host Chris Jacobs, "we wanted to commemorate the journalists who risked their lives, and in some cases, gave their lives to tell the story of the war. ''
The vehicle was unveiled in CNN Center in Atlanta, and was sold in 2007 Barrett - Jackson Scottsdale auction for $1,000,000.00 in a Fisher House Foundation charity lot.
Velocity by Discovery has renewed the show to help fill its programming schedule. Season 6 premiered on October 2, 2012 and concluded June 2, 2013. The revived show is produced by WATV Productions, who also produced two other Chip Foose - hosted series for Velocity, American Icon: The Hot Rod and American Icon: The Muscle Car. On October 12, 2015, a series finale was announced that a ninth season would be its last, consisting of four episodes.
In this episode (Season 6, Episode 5), Chip Foose and his "A '' Team customized a 2012 Chrysler 300 S with 5.7 L HEMI V8 engine into Foose Velocity 300 in front of live 2012 SEMA Show audience. After the build, the project vehicle was given away in a lottery held during the event. An additional 300S replica was produced and given away at a later date.
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when do i have to show the police my id | Stop and identify statutes - wikipedia
"Stop and identify '' statutes are statutory laws in the United States that authorize police to legally obtain the identification of someone whom they reasonably suspect of having committed a crime. If there is no reasonable suspicion that a crime has been committed, is being committed, or is about to be committed, an individual is not required to provide identification, even in "Stop and ID '' states. In the case of Utah v. Strieff (2016), the U.S. Supreme Court ruled that an officer 's stop of Edward Strieff and his demand for identification from Strieff was unlawful under Utah state law, but that the evidence collected pursuant to the stop was admissible due to the determination that Strieff was subject to a pre-existing arrest warrant. Therefore, the pre-existing warrant "attenuated '' the unlawful stop - and - identify.
The Fourth Amendment to the United States Constitution prohibits unreasonable searches and seizures and requires any warrant to be judicially sanctioned and supported by probable cause. Terry v. Ohio, 392 U.S. 1 (1968) established that it is constitutionally permissible for police to temporarily detain a person based on an articulable reasonable suspicion that a crime has been committed, and to conduct a search for weapons based on a reasonable belief that the person is armed. The question whether it is constitutionally permissible for the police to demand that a detainee provide his or her name was considered by the U.S. Supreme Court in Hiibel v. Sixth Judicial District Court of Nevada, 542 U.S. 177 (2004), which held that the name disclosure did not violate the Fourth Amendment prohibition on unreasonable searches and seizures. The Hiibel Court also held that, because Hiibel had no reasonable belief that his name would be used to incriminate him, the name disclosure did not violate the Fifth Amendment right against self - incrimination; however, the Court left open the possibility that Fifth Amendment right might apply in situations where there was a reasonable belief that giving a name could be incriminating. The Court accepted the Nevada supreme court interpretation of the Nevada statute that a detained person could satisfy the Nevada law by simply stating his name. The Court did not rule on whether particular identification cards could be required, though it did mention one state law requiring "credible and reliable '' identification had been struck down for vagueness.
In the United States, interactions between police and citizens fall into three general categories: consensual ("contact '' or "conversation ''), detention (often called a Terry stop, after Terry v. Ohio, 392 U.S. 1 (1968)), or arrest. "Stop and identify '' laws pertain to detentions.
Different obligations apply to drivers of motor vehicles, who generally are required by state vehicle codes to present a driver 's license to police upon request.
At any time, police may approach a person and ask questions. The objective may simply be a friendly conversation; however, the police also may suspect involvement in a crime, but lack "specific and articulable facts '' that would justify a detention or arrest, and hope to obtain these facts from the questioning. The person approached is not required to identify himself or answer any other questions, and may leave at any time. Police are not usually required to tell a person that he is free to decline to answer questions and go about his business; however, a person can usually determine whether the interaction is consensual by asking, "Am I free to go? ''
A person is detained when circumstances are such that a reasonable person would believe he is not free to leave.
Police may briefly detain a person if they have reasonable suspicion that the person has committed, is committing, or is about to commit a crime. Many state laws explicitly grant this authority. In Terry v. Ohio, the U.S. Supreme Court established that police may conduct a limited search for weapons (known as a "frisk '') if they reasonably suspect that the person to be detained may be armed and dangerous.
Police may question a person detained in a Terry stop, but in general, the detainee is not required to answer. However, many states have "stop and identify '' laws that explicitly require a person detained under the conditions of Terry to identify himself to police, and in some cases, provide additional information.
Before Hiibel, it was unresolved whether a detainee could be arrested and prosecuted for refusing to disclose his name. Authority on this issue was split among the federal circuit courts of appeal, and the U.S. Supreme Court twice expressly refused to address the question. In Hiibel, the Court held, in a 5 -- 4 decision, that a Nevada "stop and identify '' law did not violate the United States Constitution. The Court opinion implied that a detainee was not required to produce written identification, but could satisfy the requirement merely by stating his name. Some "stop and identify '' laws do not require that a detainee identify himself, but allow refusal to do so to be considered along with other factors in determining whether there is probable cause to arrest. In some states, providing a false name is an offense.
As of February 2011, the Supreme Court has not addressed the validity of requirements that a detainee provide information other than his name, however some states such as Arizona have specifically codified that a detained person is not required to provide any information aside from their full name.
A detention requires only that police have reasonable suspicion that a person is involved in criminal activity. However, to make an arrest, an officer must have probable cause to believe that the person has committed a crime. Some states require police to inform the person of the intent to make the arrest and the cause for the arrest. But it is not always obvious when a detention becomes an arrest. After making an arrest, police may search a person, his or her belongings, and his or her immediate surroundings.
Whether an arrested person must identify himself may depend on the jurisdiction in which the arrest occurs. If a person is under arrest and police wish to question him, they are required to inform the person of his Fifth - Amendment right to remain silent by giving a Miranda warning. However, Miranda does not apply to biographical data necessary to complete booking. It is not clear whether a "stop and identify '' law could compel giving one 's name after being arrested, although some states have laws that specifically require an arrested person to give his name and other biographical information, and some state courts have held that refusal to give one 's name constitutes obstructing a public officer. As a practical matter, an arrested person who refused to give his name would have little chance of obtaining a prompt release.
States not listed do not have a requirement to show Identification to law enforcement officers. Some states listed have "Stop and ID '' laws which may or may not require someone to identify themselves during an investigative detention.
While Wisconsin statutes allow law enforcement officers to "demand '' ID, there is no statutory requirement to provide them ID nor is there a penalty for refusing to, hence Wisconsin is not a must ID state. Henes v. Morrissey, 194 Wis. 2d 338, 353 - 54 (1995). Annotations for Wisconsin § 968.24, however, state "The principles of Terry permit a state to require a suspect to disclose his or her name in the course of a Terry stop and allow imposing criminal penalties for failing to do so '', citing Hiibel as authority. Hiibel held that statutes requiring suspects to disclose their names during police investigations did not violate the Fourth Amendment if the statute first required reasonable and articulable suspicion of criminal involvement. The Wisconsin Supreme Court held in Henes v. Morrissey that "A crime is made up of two parts: proscribed conduct and a prescribed penalty. "The former without the latter is no crime... In this case no statute penalizes a refusal to identify oneself to a law enforcement officer, and no penalty is set forth in the statute for refusing to identify oneself. This statute is part of Chapter 968 entitled "Commencement of Criminal Proceedings. By its very terms sec. 968.24 empowers a law enforcement officer to stop and question "in the vicinity where the person was stopped. '' The statute does not authorize a law enforcement officer to make an arrest. '' Additionally Henes v. Morrissey held that a detained person not providing their name is n't on its own a violation of 946.41 Resisting or obstructing officer as the act of not identifying ones self is n't a false statement with intent to mislead the officer in the performance of his or her duty.
Neither is Illinois, since the Illinois Second District Appellate Court Decision in People v. Fernandez, 2011 IL App (2d) 100473, which specifically states that section 107 - 14 is found in the Code of Criminal Procedure of 1963, not the Criminal Code of 1961, and governs the conduct of police officers. The fact remains that there is no corresponding duty in the Criminal Code of 1961 for a suspect to identify himself or herself.
By contrast, in Hiibel v. Sixth Judicial District Court of Nevada, 542 U.S. 177, 181 (2004), a Nevada statute (Nev. Rev. Stat. § 171.123 (2003)) specifically required that a person subjected to a Terry stop "shall identify himself. '' The Supreme Court held that the statute was constitutional.
As of February 2011, there is no U.S. federal law requiring that an individual identify himself during a Terry stop, but Hiibel held that states may enact such laws, provided the law requires the officer to have reasonable and articulable suspicion of criminal involvement, and 24 states have done so. The opinion in Hiibel implied that persons detained by police in jurisdictions with constitutional "stop and identify '' laws listed are obligated to identify themselves, and that persons detained in other jurisdictions are not. The issue may not be that simple, however, for several reasons:
As of February 2011, the validity of a law requiring that a person detained provide anything more than stating his or her name has not come before the U.S. Supreme Court.
In states whose "stop and identify laws '' do not directly impose penalties, a lawful arrest must be for violation of some other law, such as one to the effect of "resisting, obstructing, or delaying a peace officer ''. For example, the Nevada "stop and identify '' law challenged in Hiibel did not impose a penalty on a person who refused to comply, but the Justice Court of Union Township, Nevada, determined that Hiibels refusal to identify himself constituted a violation of Nevada "obstructing '' law. A similar conclusion regarding the interaction between Utah "stop and identify '' and "obstructing '' laws was reached in Oliver v. Woods (10th Cir. 2000).
"Stop and identify '' laws in different states that appear to be nearly identical may be different in effect because of interpretations by state courts. For example, California "stop and identify '' law, Penal Code § 647 (e) had wording similar to the Nevada law upheld in Hiibel, but a California appellate court, in People v. Solomon (1973), 33 Cal. App. 3d 429 construed the law to require "credible and reliable '' identification that carries a "reasonable assurance '' of its authenticity. Using this construction, the U.S. Supreme Court held the law to be void for vagueness in Kolender v. Lawson, 461 U.S. 352 (1983).
Some courts have recognized a distinction authorizing police to demand identifying information and specifically imposing an obligation of a suspect to respond. Other courts have apparently interpreted demand to impose an obligation on the detainee to comply.
Wording and interpretation by state courts of "obstructing '' laws also varies; for example, New York "obstructing '' law apparently requires physical rather than simply verbal obstruction; likewise, a violation of the Colorado "obstructing '' law appears to require use or threat of use of physical force. However, the Colorado Supreme Court held in Dempsey v. People, No. 04SC362 (2005) (PDF) that refusing to provide identification was an element in the "totality of the circumstances '' that could constitute obstructing an officer, even when actual physical interference was not employed. Utah "obstructing '' law does not require a physical act, but merely a failure to follow a "lawful order... necessary to effect the... detention ''; a divided court in Oliver v. Woods concluded that failure to present identification constituted a violation of that law.
It is not universally agreed that, absent a "stop and identify law '', there is no obligation for a detainee to identify himself. For example, as the U.S. Supreme Court noted in Hiibel, California "stop and identify '' statute was voided in Kolender v. Lawson. But in People v. Long, decided four years after Kolender, a California appellate court found no constitutional impropriety in a police officer 's demand for written identification from a detainee. The issue before the Long court was a request for suppression of evidence uncovered in a search of the defendant 's wallet, so the issue of refusal to present identification was not directly addressed; however, the author of the Long opinion had apparently concluded in a 1980 case that failure to identify oneself did not provide a basis for arrest. Nonetheless, some cite Long in maintaining that refusal to present written identification constitutes obstructing an officer. Others disagree, and maintain that persons detained by police in California can not be compelled to identify themselves.
Some courts, e.g., State v. Flynn (Wis. 1979) and People v. Loudermilk (Calif. 1987) have held that police may perform a search for written identification if a suspect refuses to provide it; a later California decision, People v. Garcia (2006) strongly disagreed.
Some legal organizations, such as the National Lawyers Guild and the ACLU of Northern California, recommend to either remain silent or to identify oneself whether or not a jurisdiction has a "stop and identify '' law:
In a more recent pamphlet, the ACLU of Northern California elaborated on this further, recommending that a person detained by police should:
Many countries allow police to demand identification and arrest people who do not carry any. Normally these countries provide all residents with national identity cards, which have the identity information the police would want to know, including citizenship. Foreign visitors need to have their passport available to show at all times. In some cases national identity cards from certain other countries are accepted.
For example, in Portugal it is compulsory to carry the state ID card at all times. This card named Cartão de Cidadão - Citizen Card is an electronic card which includes biometric information, id number, social security number, fiscal information, place of birth, etc. Police can only ask for the ID card in public or a place open to public and only if there is a reasonable suspicion the person committed a crime. A certified copy of the ID card can be presented in such situations. If a citizen does not carry the ID card or its certified copy, the police will escort the person to the police department to remain detained until clear identification can be obtained.
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what is a pipeline in a computer systems | Pipeline (computing) - wikipedia
In computing, a pipeline is a set of data processing elements connected in series, where the output of one element is the input of the next one. The elements of a pipeline are often executed in parallel or in time - sliced fashion; in that case, some amount of buffer storage is often inserted between elements.
Computer - related pipelines include:
A linear pipeline processor is a series of processing stages and memory access.
A non-linear pipelining (also called dynamic pipeline) can be configured to perform various functions at different times. In a dynamic pipeline, there is also feed - forward or feed - back connection. A non-linear pipeline also allows very long instruction words.
As the assembly - line example shows, pipelining does n't decrease the time for processing a single datum; it only increases the throughput of the system when processing a stream of data.
A deeper pipeline increases latency with every additional stage. Latency is the time required for a signal to propagate through the stages of the pipeline from start to finish.
A pipelined system typically requires more resources (circuit elements, processing units, computer memory, etc.) than one that executes one batch at a time, because its stages can not reuse the resources of a previous stage. Moreover, pipelining may increase the time it takes for an instruction to finish.
A variety of situations can cause a pipeline stall, including jumps (conditional and unconditional branches) and data cache misses. Some processors have a instruction set architecture with certain features designed to reduce the impact of pipeline stalls -- delay slot, conditional instructions such as FCMOV and branch prediction, etc. Some processors spend a lot of energy and transistors in the microarchitecture on features designed to reduce the impact of pipeline stalls -- branch prediction and speculative execution, out - of - order execution, etc. Some optimizing compilers try to reduce the impact of pipeline stalls by replacing some jumps with branch - free code, often at the cost of increasing the binary file size.
One key aspect of pipeline design is balancing pipeline stages. Using the assembly line example, we could have greater time savings if both the engine and wheels took only 15 minutes. Although the system latency would still be 35 minutes, we would be able to output a new car every 15 minutes. In other words, a pipelined process outputs finished items at a rate determined by its slowest part. (Note that if the time taken to add the engine could not be reduced below 20 minutes, it would not make any difference to the stable output rate if all other components increased their production time to 20 minutes.)
Another design consideration is the provision of adequate buffering between the pipeline stages -- especially when the processing times are irregular, or when data items may be created or destroyed along the pipeline.
To observe the scheduling of a pipeline (be it static or dynamic), reservation tables are used.
A reservation table for a linear or a static pipeline can be generated easily because data flow follows a linear stream as static pipeline performs a specific operation. But in case of dynamic pipeline or non-linear pipeline a non-linear pattern is followed so multiple reservation tables can be generated for different functions.
The reservation table mainly displays the time space flow of data through the pipeline for a function. Different functions in a reservation table follow different paths.
The number of columns in a reservation table specifies the evaluation time of a given function.
Conventional microprocessors are synchronous circuits that use buffered, synchronous pipelines. In these pipelines, "pipeline registers '' are inserted in - between pipeline stages, and are clocked synchronously. The time between each clock signal is set to be greater than the longest delay between pipeline stages, so that when the registers are clocked, the data that is written to them is the final result of the previous stage.
Asynchronous pipelines are used in asynchronous circuits, and have their pipeline registers clocked asynchronously. Generally speaking, they use a request / acknowledge system, wherein each stage can detect when it 's "finished ''. When the stage, Si, is ready to transmit, it sends a ready signal to stage Si + 1. After stage Si + 1, receives the incoming data, it returns an acknowledgement signal to Si.
The AMULET microprocessor is an example of a microprocessor that uses buffered, asynchronous pipelines.
Unbuffered pipelines, called "wave pipelines '', do not have registers in - between pipeline stages. Instead, the delays in the pipeline are "balanced '' so that, for each stage, the difference between the first stabilized output data and the last is minimized. Thus, data flows in "waves '' through the pipeline, and each wave is kept as short (synchronous) as possible.
The maximum rate that data can be fed into a wave pipeline is determined by the maximum difference in delay between the first piece of data coming out of the pipe and the last piece of data, for any given wave. If data is fed in faster than this, it is possible for waves of data to interfere with each other.
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who led the nba in steals last year | List of National Basketball Association annual Steals Leaders - wikipedia
In basketball, a steal is a "defensive action '' that causes the opponent to turn the ball over. The National Basketball Association 's (NBA) steal title is awarded to the player with the highest steals per game average in a given season. The steal title was first recognized in the 1973 -- 74 season when statistics on steals were first compiled. To qualify for the steal title, the player must appear in at least 70 games (out of 82) or have at least 125 steals. This has been the entry criteria since the 1974 -- 75 season.
Alvin Robertson holds the all - time records for total steals (301) and steals per game (3.67) in a season; achieved in the 1985 -- 86 season. Among active players, Chris Paul had the highest season steal total (217) in the 2007 -- 08 season and the highest season steal average (2.77) in the 2008 -- 09 season.
Paul has won the most steal titles, with six. Micheal Ray Richardson, Robertson, Michael Jordan and Allen Iverson all follow with three. Magic Johnson, Mookie Blaylock, Baron Davis and John Stockton are the only other players to win more than one steal title, with two. Paul has won the most consecutive steal titles, with four. Three players have won both the steal title and the NBA championship in the same season: Rick Barry in 1975 with the Golden State Warriors, Magic Johnson in 1982 with the Los Angeles Lakers and Michael Jordan in 1993 with the Chicago Bulls.
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iss pyaar ko kya naam doon web series story | Iss Pyaar Ko Kya Naam Doon? - Wikipedia
Iss Pyaar Ko Kya Naam Doon? (English: What Name Shall I Give This Love?) is an Indian daily soap opera that aired weekdays on Star Plus from 6 June 2011 to 30 November 2012. It is the second installment in the 4 Lions Films series. The show starred Barun Sobti and Sanaya Irani. The show was first titled as Vaidehi but later changed its title. It replaced Rajan Shahi 's Chand Chupa Badal Mein. ' Iss Pyaar Ko Kya Naam Doon? was one of the top popular shows with high TRP ratings throughout its run in 2011 - 2012 and till date the series is available in multiple languages. The series is translated into Panamericana as "Duele Amar '' and it began airing from 19 March 2018 onwards. Currently Iss Pyaar Ko Kya Naam Doon is rerunning on Star Utsav as Rabba Ve and Telugu version on Star Maa. IPKKND will be rerunning in Thai language as แผน รัก ลวง ใจ from 27 June 2018 onwards on Thai channel 8 and broadcast on Hnow tv, a Pakistani channel from 3rd July 2018..
The series inspired several multilingual reruns including, but not limited to, adaptations in English and Urdu as Iss Pyaar Ko Kya Naam Doon, Tamil as Idhu Kadhala, Telugu as Chuppulu Kalisina Shubhavela, remakes in Bengali as Bojhena Se Bojhena (TV series), and Kannada as Arangini, Kazakh as Kak Nazvat Bul Lyubov?, Arabic as Men Nazra Thanya, Vietnamese as Mối Tình Kì Lạ, French as La Promesse, Malayalam as Mounam Sammatham, Turkish as Bir Garip Ask, Bahasa as Khushi ", Spanish as Duele Amar, Bulgarian as Diema Family, Georgian as Mojadoebulebi Lithuanian as Neklausk Meiles Vardo, Russian as How Do I Call This Love, and Armenian as Inchpes Kochel Ays Sere and aired in Jamaica as Unforeseen Love and Namibia as Strange Love.
A sequel series titled Iss Pyaar Ko Kya Naam Doon?... Ek Baar Phir (English: "What Shall This Love Be Named?: Once Again '') premiered on 26 August 2013 and starred Avinash Sachdev and Shrenu Parikh. which is not success as compared to seasson 1.
On 24 November 2015, Hotstar launched a finite titled Iss Pyaar Ko Kya Naam Doon - Ek Jashn web series of eight extended episodes to extend the Iss Pyaar Ko Kya Naam Doon? story line. Barun Sobti and Sanaya Irani reprised their respective roles as Arnav and Khushi which was again a hit and broke the records of hotstar. Ek Jashn gives a proper closure on Arnav and Khushi 's married life after 3 years as the show was ended abruptly with Barun 's exit in 2012.
A third season of the show Iss Pyaar Ko Kya Naam Doon 3, starred Barun Sobti and Shivani Tomar, aired from 3 July 2017 to 6 October 2017, completing 70 episodes on Star Plus.
The story follows the lives of Khushi Kumari Gupta, middle - class girl from Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, and Arnav Singh Raizada, a wealthy business tycoon rendered cold and ruthless after losing his mother and father to suicide. They first meet at a botched fashion show of the latter 's, where he mistakenly thinks Khushi as having been sent to sabotage his event. Inclined to ruin her reputation, he creates rumors of a false affair brewing between them, putting the Guptas (Khushi 's adoptive family) in a situation where they are left with no choice but to move away to Delhi to live with the girl 's aunt, Bua ji.
After a series of misunderstandings, Khushi finds herself hired by Arnav 's sister Anjali as an ethics instructor for his then live - in girlfriend, Lavanya Kashyap. In the process, and much to his chagrin, Khushi bravely challenges Arnav 's stubborn ideologies on god, love, death and marriage.
With much of her time being spent in proximity with the Raizada family, hatred soon begins to turn into attraction between the two. Trying to ignore their feelings for one another, Arnav announces his engagement to Lavanya and Khushi 's family gets her engaged to a paying guest living with them. It turns out that the paying guest is actually Shyam Jha, Arnav 's brother - in - law, who is already married and has been lying to Khushi and her family.
Khushi is asked to organize Lavanya & Arnav 's engagement party. A series of events lead Lavanya to realise that Arnav is in love with Khushi & she breaks off her engagement. Khushi 's sister, Payal, gets engaged to Arnav 's brother, Akash. The Guptas soon learn that Shyam is the son - in - law of the Raizada family & kick him out of their house. They keep this from the Raizadas as they do n't want Payal 's wedding to stop. Shyam 's true intentions are revealed as he repeatedly tries to kill his wife Anjali so he can be with Khushi. Khushi makes friends with NK (short for Nanda Kishore), Arnav 's cousin brother from Australia. Khushi and Arnav keep challenging each other during the rituals of the marriage. The both of them slowly start realising their feelings for each other. Nani, and Arnav 's sister, Anjali, see that something is going on in between them and try to play matchmaker for Khushi & Arnav.
When finally Arnav realizes his feelings, a misconception leads Arnav to believe that Shyam & Khushi have been having an affair and Khushi is the one trapping Shyam. At Akash & Payal 's wedding, Arnav blackmails Khushi to marry him for six months to make Shyam think that she moved on and keep him from divorcing his sister. At the end of the wedding celebration, both their families find out that they got married without their consent & Khushi 's family disowns her.
Khushi has a terrible start to her married life: everyone is angry with her & Arnav tells her to sleep outside the room. She is later forgiven at the Holi festival by the family and Arnav all but confesses his feelings under influence of bhang to an unconscious Khushi. He has also started feeling that she was n't really involved with Shyam and there 's more he does n't know. Shyam is furious and arranges Arnav 's abduction but Khushi rescues him. After coming home they reveal Shyam 's true face but Anjali refuses to believe them. Shyam is thrown out of the house but Anjali continues meeting him secretly.
Arnav 's paternal grandmother enters the scene. She is instantly disapproving of Khushi. Arnav is totally in love with Khushi and wants to take their relationship to the next level. The family discovers that no rituals were performed when Arnav and Khushi eloped and they refuse to recognise them as married. Khushi returns to her parents ' home and their wedding preparations begin. It is revealed that Arnav 's father committed suicide because his affair with Khushi 's adoptive mother was discovered by his wife. Arnav 's grandmother tries to convince him to break off his relationship with Khushi but Arnav anyway marries her forgetting his past and moving on. Arnav and Khushi start making plans to make Anjali realise that Shyam was the one who initiated her miscarriage. They find proof on his computer and enact a play to bring out the reality. After know the truth, Anjali slaps Shyam and the police arrest him and take him away.
Then a boy named Aarav enters the Raizadas ' home followed by Arnav 's old friend Sheetal. Khushi observes similarities between him and Arnav, and Sheetal tells her he is Arnav 's son. After a series of events, Arnav and Khushi find that Aarav was an orphan being used by Sheetal to get Arnav and his property. The couple happily adopt Aarav as their son.
After a few days leap, Khushi expresses her wish to be independently successful and decides to participate in the Mrs. India beauty pageant. She ends up winning the competition despite several odds and the family is shown happily together.
This is a web series that was created by Hotstar, and is a sequel to the original story. It is set 3 years after the events of IPKKND, and shows how every character from the original show is in the future. The show ends with an anniversary party hosted by Arnav to show his love for Khushi.
The show has been produced and directed by Gul Khan under the banner of 4 Lions Films. Barun Sobti was cast as Arnav Singh Raizada after the original choice, Karan Singh Grover, opted out of the role to focus on his film career; and Sanaya Irani replaced Shraddha Arya who had originally been cast as the female lead. Daljeet Kaur Bhanot, Deepali Pansare & Akshay Dogra got finalised to play supporting roles to the main leads. Other supporting cast include Jayshree T., Tuhina Vohra, Abha Parmar, Utkarsha Naik, Sanjay Batra and many other actors. Abhaas Mehta and Sana Makbul entered the show as antagonists of the show. Sana later quit the show in December 2011.
The series premiered on 6 June 2011 on Star Plus airing a 20 - minute episode Mondays to Fridays. After completing approximately 398 episodes, the series went off air on 30 November 2012. The series was part of the channels worldwide broadcast and aired in more than 50 countries under the transmission of Star India.It has been dubbed and adapted into multiple languages.
The series inspired several international remakes, which include Bojhena Se Bojhena (TV series in Bengali and as Arangini in Kannada on Suvarna channel. The series were rerunned including, but not limited to in English and Urdu as Iss Pyaar Ko Kya Naam Doon in Pakistan on Urdu 1 and another free to air channel, Tamil as Idhu Kadhala on Star Vijay, Telugu as Chuppulu Kalisina Shubhavela on Star Maa, Malayalam as Mounam Sammatham on Asianet, Asianet plus, Kazakh as Kak Nazvat Bul Lyubov?, Arabic as ' "Men Nazra Thanya,, Vietnamese as Mối Tình Kì Lạon HTV3,, French as La Promesse on Reunion 1ere.. Turkish as Bir Garip Ask,, Indonesian as Khushi on Indosiar, Bulgarian as Diema Family, Georgian as Mojadoebulebi, Lithuanian as Neklausk Meiles Vardo, Russian as How Do I Call This Love, and Armenian as Inchpes Kochel Ays Sere, aired in Jamaica as Unforeseen Love on one of the two free - to - air channels in the country which is CVM Television and airs in Namibia into NBC3 as Strange Love... On 19 March 2018, the series dubbed in Spanish as Duele Amar and telecasted on Panamericana Televisión. IPKKND will be rerunning in Thai as Phaen Rak Lwng Ci on Thai channel 8 from 27 June 2018.
In 2013, there was a spin - off Iss Pyaar Ko Kya Naam Doon?... Ek Baar Phir (English: What Do I Call This Love?... Once Again) with a brand new plot, starring Avinash Sachdev (Shlok Agnihotri) and Shrenu Parikh (Aastha Shlok Agnihotri).
In 2015, Hotstar launched Season 12 as a finite web series of eight episodes titled Iss Pyaar Ko Kya Naam Doon? - Ek Jashn with the original cast and the characters. The story revolves around Arnav and Khushi 's married life after three years.
Fans of the series started referring to characters Arnav and Khushi by the portmanteau "ArShi ''. The character of Arnav Singh Raizada was very popular and gave a huge fan following to Barun Sobti such that when Sobti announced his break from the show due to health problems, his fans made it sure that the show was shut down on a happy note rather than any replacement. The onscreen chemistry between Sobti and Sanaya Irani resulted in several awards for best on - screen couple. The show also had very high TRPS.
In September 2012, show 's lead actor Barun Sobti had made news after he decided to quit the show. Due to this, fans of the show had said that they will not watch the show after his exit. This lead on to the channel and makers to decide to shut down the show. It aired its last on 30 November 2012.
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who played the cowboy in indian in the cupboard | The Indian in the cupboard (film) - wikipedia
The Indian in the Cupboard is a 1995 American family fantasy drama film directed by Frank Oz and written by Melissa Mathison, based on the children 's book of the same name by Lynne Reid Banks. The story is about a boy who receives a cupboard as a gift on his ninth birthday. He later discovers that putting toy figures in the cupboard, after locking and unlocking it, brings the toys to life.
The film starred Hal Scardino as Omri, Litefoot as Little Bear, Lindsay Crouse, Richard Jenkins, Rishi Bhat as Omri 's friend Patrick, Steve Coogan as Tommy Atkins, and David Keith as Boone the Cowboy. It was distributed by Columbia Pictures (Non-US theatre release, TV broadcast rights and US video release) and Paramount Pictures (US theatre and Non-US video release).
On his ninth birthday, Omri receives an old cupboard from his brother Gillon (Vincent Kartheiser) and a little Native American "Indian '' figure made of plastic from his best friend Patrick (Rishi Bhat). That night, Omri goes through his mom 's box of old keys and finds that a gold - colored key with a red ribbon tied to it (given to his mother by her grandmother) actually fits the keyhole of his cupboard. He then looks for an object to lock in the cupboard and settles for the Indian figurine.
The next morning, he hears a small tapping noise coming from the cupboard. Omri opens the cupboard and finds a small living person hiding in the corner. It is actually the Indian figure who has magically come to life in human form. Frightened by his large acquaintance, the Indian pulls out a dagger and points it at Omri. Shortly afterward, Omri 's father comes in the room to help Omri get ready for school, forcing Omri to lock the cupboard and keep the Indian a secret.
When Omri arrives home from school, he is upset to discover that the Indian has returned to its original toy form. When he goes to bed, Omri once more hears the tapping noise he heard that morning. He opens the cupboard to find the Indian alive once more. The Indian is again initially frightened of Omri but warms up to him, thinking Omri is a great spirit in a child 's form, as the two begin talking, slowly forming a friendship. The Indian reveals himself as an English - speaking, 18th - century Iroquois Indian named Little Bear (Litefoot) who was fighting in the French and Indian War on the side of the British. During Little Bear 's stay with Omri, Omri learns a lot about the Iroquois. Omri also learns that Little Bear has a deceased wife. Then Omri takes Little Bear outside, but Little Bear gets hurt by a pigeon, forcing Omri to bring to life his brother 's First World War British Army medic named Tommy Atkins (Steve Coogan) to treat Little Bear 's wound.
After giving Little Bear tools, sticks and some paper, Little Bear crafts a longhouse and eagerly talks of hunting and sharing stories with Omri over a fire, as he does with his own people. Omri decides to surprise Little Bear with another Indian figure (resembling a Chieftain), saying Little Bear can have the Chieftain 's longbow. Little Bear watches in excitement as Omri brings the figure to life. However, before Omri can send the Chieftain back, he suffers a heart attack out of fear, which frightens Omri since he has never seen someone die. Little Bear is confused as to why a spirit would be frightened by a dead man, coming to the realization that Omri really is a child. Little Bear tells Omri to send the man back, but Omri is reluctant, worried that no one will find his body if he was alone when Omri summoned him. Little Bear yells at Omri, saying that he, Little Bear, had been guiding his nephew through the woods to teach him how to be a man when Omri had taken him away and that Omri should n't tamper with magic he does n't even understand, upsetting Omri. Omri then locks the dead Chieftain in the cupboard, making him plastic once more, before leaving the angry Little Bear to answer his dad calling him downstairs.
Omri 's dad is upset when, after asking Omri where his saw blades went, Omri tells him that he buried them and ca n't remember where (Omri lied to protect Little Bear 's existence). Omri 's dad forgives him, saying he can just buy another set, when Omri, out of guilt, volunteers to go buy the new set of blades for him, by himself. While Omri goes to the store, Little Bear is preparing the Chieftain 's body, presumably still in its plastic form, for burial. As Omri leaves the hardware store, another slightly older kid knocks him into a wall and roughs him up, stealing the change Omri had left. Visibly shaken from the incident, Omri suddenly runs into Patrick, who has a plastic cowboy on a horse to go with the Indian. Patrick 's mother is there as well, and they take him home (we assume he told them about being mugged off - screen since the next scene shows them entering Omri 's house as Patrick 's mother goes to inform his father what happened).
Eventually, Omri reveals his secret to Patrick. However, after finding Little Bear, who had been hiding from Omri 's older brothers, Little Bear begs Omri to send him home. Ignoring Omri 's protests, Patrick brings to life a cowboy from 1879 called "Boohoo '' Boone (David Keith). Boone and Little Bear are initially unfriendly toward one another but are forced to behave themselves when Omri reluctantly agrees with Patrick to bring them to school. Their cover is nearly blown when Patrick almost shows Boone and Little Bear (now friends) to some classmates, and he and Omri began arguing in the hallway.
Back home, Omri shows a female Indian figure to Little Bear, which he intends to bring to life to give Little Bear a new wife. Just as he is about to lock the figure in the cupboard, he and Patrick (who is spending the night) are puzzled to find the cupboard is missing. Omri 's brother confesses he hid the cupboard in the downstairs crawlspace as means of getting back at Omri for hiding the ball his brother keeps his pet rat in. When Omri retrieves the cupboard, he discovers that the key is gone.
That night, Omri and Patrick, along with Little Bear and Boone, watch a program on TV that shows a relentless slaughter of Indians by cowboys. Boone is enthusiastic at the sight of his "boys '' killing the helpless Indians while Little Bear watches in horror at the sight of his "people '' being massacred. Out of confusion upon hearing Boone fire his revolver into the air with cheers and applause, Little Bear fires an arrow into Boone 's chest. Making matters worse, Omri 's mother warns that Omri 's brother 's pet rat has escaped and is hidden somewhere under the wooden floors.
Later that night, Omri and Patrick find the key jammed between two floor boards and accidentally push it down out of sight while trying to retrieve it. Little Bear goes under the floor and manages to return the key to Omri just before he is nearly killed by the pet rat. With the key back, Omri brings back to life Tommy Atkins to treat Boone 's wounds. While the still unconscious cowboy is being examined, Omri realizes it is time to return Little Bear and Boone to their respective time periods where they belong. Shortly after Omri locks Tommy Atkins back in the cupboard, Boone awakes and forgives Little Bear. Later that night, as Patrick sleeps, Omri goes to bring the female Indian to life, but Little Bear, seeing what Omri is doing, tells him to stop. Omri says he does n't want Little Bear to be alone when he goes back, but Little Bear says that the Indian woman probably has people of her own, maybe even her own family, and forcing her to be with Little Bear would sadden her and in turn, sadden him. Omri agrees not to bring her to life. (This is a major difference between the film and the book, as Omri does bring the female Indian to life in the novel.)
The next morning, Omri and Patrick say their goodbyes to their little friends before locking them back in the cupboard. Just before saying goodbye, Omri has a vision of a life - sized Little Bear telling him that when he returns to his real time, he will take Omri on as his nephew. The film ends with Omri at school reading a journal entry where he assures everyone that although he will never know where or how Little Bear may be, he does not care about him anymore.
Special effects created the illusion of three - inch tall characters such as Little Bear, Boone, and Tommy the Medic. One scene had Boone being thrown from his horse and Boone falls to the floor but is captured in Omri 's hands. Another has a teacher asking Patrick to show what he and Omri were quarreling about; Boone and Little Bear pose as inanimate toys on Patrick 's hand so as not to give themselves away.
A mock up of a giant sneaker was used during a fight scene involving Little Bear and Boone. One early scene shows Little Bear cautiously walking onto Omri 's hand and stand in (Christopher James), and the boy marvels at how "real '' the Indian looks. The Chief was played by 75 - year - old Ojibwe actor George Randall.
The pet rat that is owned by Omri 's brother was created by Jim Henson 's Creature Shop and operated by Julianne Buescher.
According to Frank Oz, his frequently collaborative composer Miles Goodman completed and recorded a full score for the film. However, it was rejected because the writer and producers of the film disapproved of it and instead replaced it with Randy Edelman 's score.
Rotten Tomatoes gives the film a score of 70 % based on reviews from 20 critics.
Additionally, both Rishi Bhat and Hal Scardino received nominations in 1996 at the 17th Youth in Film Awards.
The movie debuted at number six at the North American box office. The film made only $35 million against a production budget of $45 million, making it a box office bomb; however, the film was in competition with high - profile successes like Apollo 13, Nine Months, Pocahontas, and Batman Forever. As a result, plans to adapt the next three books in the series into films were dropped.
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what episode do peyton and lucas sleep together | One Tree Hill (season 4) - wikipedia
The fourth season of One Tree Hill began airing on September 27, 2006. The season concluded on June 13, 2007, after 21 episodes. This is the first season to air on the newly formed The CW television network.
In this season, most episodes were named after rock albums rather than after songs. Season four rose in ratings, averaging 2.9 million viewers weekly, becoming # 136 in the Nielsen ratings system.
This season focuses on the final half of senior year at Tree Hill High School. Nathan and Haley find out that they are going to have a baby. Lucas starts writing a novel, while also questioning what really happened on the day of the school shooting. Nathan gets involved with some shady characters after he and Haley start having money problems. Peyton finds out she has a brother, but he may not be who he says he is. Brooke becomes friends with Rachel and starts a relationship with newcomer Chase. Dan tries to get close to Karen and help her with Keith 's baby.
The residents of Tree Hill must deal with the aftermath of the shocking accident. Nathan and Rachel are okay while Cooper still remains in a coma. In the midst of all the chaos, Dan extends his help to Karen now that she is pregnant. Lucas and Peyton 's friendship continues to grow stronger. Previously rivals, Brooke and Rachel move past their differences and manage to become good friends. Brooke has a difficult decision to make about her relationship with Lucas. Skills decides to try out for the Ravens.
It 's her eighteenth birthday, but Brooke soon realizes that she has no one but Rachel to celebrate it with. Meanwhile, Nathan continues to struggle with memories of the accident. Dan continues to be haunted by remorse over his actions against Keith.
Peyton spends more time getting to know her newfound brother, Derek. Lucas gives up on his love for Brooke. Rachel tries to start a romance with Nathan.
Peyton introduces hip - hop sensation Lupe Fiasco at Tric, while rumors that Brooke is pregnant run rampant. Still dealing with their car accident, Nathan buys a motorcycle despite Haley 's reservations, and Rachel poses for Maxim magazine. Meanwhile, Lucas clashes with Derek, and Deb double - crosses Karen.
Nathan gets two surprises in a row, and everyone is eager to share their advice. Brooke decides to celebrate. Peyton 's stalker attacks her and her real brother saves her with Lucas ' help.
Nathan struggles with money problems and reluctantly asks Dan for help. Brooke learns the new man in her life is also her new English teacher. Peyton gets help from an unexpected source. Lucas returns to the Ravens just in time to help the team advance in the playoffs for the state championship.
Peyton tries to go back to school, but she breaks down. Brooke 's fashions are a hit at the local show. Nathan is cornered into a no - win situation by Daunte. Deb takes drastic action to support her addiction.
Derek tells Peyton to give Lucas a chance just as Brooke tries to make up with him. Nathan continues to have trouble with Daunte. Rachel asks Haley to tutor her when she discovers she is failing a class.
As the Ravens prepare for the championship, Lucas learns Nathan intends to throw the game and decides on a risky plan to even the odds. Karen insists Deb show up for her son 's final game and tries to help her get there. Dan makes a last plea with Daunte.
After a heart attack, Lucas has a dream in which the spirit of Keith visits and shows him how much one life can affect the lives of others, in a nod to "It 's a Wonderful Life ''. Haley is the victim of an accident and Dan helps out Nathan.
The aftermath of the events in Tree Hill begins. Lucas returns to his everyday life and tries to rekindle his relationship with Peyton. However, things are rougher for Haley when she discovers that Nathan was more involved in her accident than she could have ever imagined.
Haley is frustrated over her injuries. Skills and Mouth help Nathan earn some extra money as an amateur stripper. Brooke betrays Rachel to get with a new guy. Lucas and Peyton finally find happiness in their relationship.
A class assignment pairs the students at Tree Hill High to get to know each other a little better. Nathan wrestles with Deb 's suicide attempt. Chase learns that Brooke cheated on her calculus exam...
Haley confronts Brooke regarding the stolen calculus test. Lucas and Peyton consider taking their relationship to the next level. Peyton and Brooke grow closer. In Deb 's absence, Nathan throws a senior party at the Scott House where a sex tape from Nathan 's past surfaces.
It 's Prom day, and emotions are running high at Tree Hill. An emotional Haley confronts Nathan about the sex tape and asks for a list of all his past sexual encounters. An angry Peyton asks Lucas to skip the dance altogether, but he refuses to take no for an answer. Brooke and Peyton let out all their frustrations in a confrontation that could tear them apart forever.
It 's Prom night, but things start to go awry. Lucas remembers that someone was in the hallway when Keith was killed. Psycho Derek holds Peyton and Brooke hostage in Peyton 's own house. Haley and Nathan vow to be romantic with each other throughout the night. Dan continues to win over Karen 's affections. Within Reason guest star to perform during the Prom.
When Mouth and Rachel 's road trip goes wrong, the other teens drive to their rescue. On the trip, Nathan and Haley get a second chance to enjoy their Prom. Peyton and Lucas decide to take their relationship to the next level. Brooke reveals the truth about the stolen calculus exam to Haley.
Brooke and Peyton finally rekindle their friendship. Nathan 's past mistakes continue to haunt him and Haley. Lucas hears a shocking confession from the witness to Keith 's murder.
As the end of the school year approaches, Peyton considers accepting a music internship in Los Angeles. Brooke tries to reconnect with Chase through yearbook signatures. Haley struggles to write her valedictorian speech. Dan suggests that Lucas get professional help when Karen continues to worry about his obsession with theories about Keith 's murder.
As graduation approaches, Haley prepares for the recital of her valedictorian speech and motherhood. Nathan must adjust to life without basketball. Brooke makes a confession that may have great consequences. Lucas confronts Dan after Karen 's life is threatened. The song "Times Like These '' from the Foo Fighters is heard during the graduation scene.
Dan must face the harsh consequences of his decision to murder Keith as Karen and Haley go into labour. Rachel returns and hosts a graduation party where the gang celebrate their high school journey and prepare for the next chapter of their lives.
The season premiere was seen by 3.64 million U.S. viewers and achieved a 1.7 Adults 18 - 49 rating, up 19 % in viewers and 55 % in demo from the season 3 finale. Episode 2 hit a season high in the Adults 18 - 49 demo with a 2.0 rating, while episode 10 hit season highs in viewers with 4.24 million. The season finale was seen by 2.5 million viewers.
The DVD release of season four was released after the season has completed broadcast on television. It has been released in Region 1. As well as every episode from the season, the DVD release features bonus material such as, audio commentaries on some episodes from the creator and cast, deleted scenes, gag reels and behind - the - scenes featurettes.
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when does the last episode of power come on | List of Power episodes - wikipedia
Power is an American television drama broadcast on Starz created by Courtney Kemp Agboh. The series follows James St. Patrick (played by Omari Hardwick), nicknamed "Ghost '', owner of a popular New York City nightclub, and a major player in one of the city 's biggest illegal drug networks. He struggles to balance these two lives, and the balance topples when he realizes he wants to leave the drug ring in order to support his legitimate business, and commit to his mistress. The series premiered on June 7, 2014.
As of September 3, 2017, 38 episodes of Power have aired, concluding the fourth season.
June - 2018.
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what was the economy of fort worth based on | Fort Worth, Texas - wikipedia
Fort Worth is the 16th - largest city in the United States and the fifth - largest city in the state of Texas. The city is located in North Central Texas. It is the county seat of Tarrant County, covering nearly 350 square miles (910 km) into three other counties; Denton, Parker and Wise. According to the 2016 census estimates, Fort Worth 's population is 854,113. The city is the second - largest in the Dallas -- Fort Worth -- Arlington metropolitan area (the "DFW Metroplex '').
The city was established in 1849 as an Army outpost on a bluff overlooking the Trinity River. Today, Fort Worth still embraces its Western heritage and traditional architecture and design. USS Fort Worth (LCS - 3) is the first ship of the United States Navy named after the city.
Fort Worth is home to the Van Cliburn International Piano Competition and several world - class museums designed by internationally known contemporary architects. The Kimbell Art Museum, considered to have one of the best collections in Texas, is housed in what is widely regarded as one of the state 's foremost works of modern architecture, designed by Louis Kahn with an addition by Renzo Piano. Also of note is the Modern Art Museum of Fort Worth, designed by Tadao Ando. The Amon Carter Museum of American Art, designed by Philip Johnson, houses one of the world 's most extensive collections of American art. The Sid Richardson Museum, redesigned by David M. Schwarz, has one of the most focused collections of Western Art in the U.S., emphasizing Frederic Remington and Charles Russell.
The city is stimulated by several university communities: Texas Christian University, Texas Wesleyan, University of North Texas Health Science Center, and Texas A&M University School of Law, and many multinational corporations, including Bell Helicopter, Lockheed Martin, American Airlines, BNSF Railway, Pier 1 Imports, XTO Energy and Radio Shack.
The Treaty of Bird 's Fort between the Republic of Texas and several Native American tribes was signed in 1843 at Bird 's Fort in present - day Arlington, Texas. Article XI of the treaty provided that no one may "pass the line of trading houses '' (at the border of the Indians ' territory) without permission of the President of Texas, and may not reside or remain in the Indians ' territory. These "trading houses '' were later established at the junction of the Clear Fork and West Fork of the Trinity River in present - day Fort Worth. At this river junction, the U.S. War Department established Fort Worth in 1849 as the northernmost of a system of 10 forts for protecting the American Frontier following the end of the Mexican -- American War. The City of Fort Worth continues to be known as "where the West begins. ''
A line of seven army posts were established in 1848 -- 49 after the Mexican War to protect the settlers of Texas along the western American Frontier and included Fort Worth, Fort Graham, Fort Gates, Fort Croghan, Fort Martin Scott, Fort Lincoln, and Fort Duncan. Originally 10 forts had been proposed by Major General William Jenkins Worth (1794 -- 1849), who commanded the Department of Texas in 1849. In January 1849, Worth proposed a line of 10 forts to mark the western Texas frontier from Eagle Pass to the confluence of the West Fork and Clear Fork of the Trinity River. One month later, Worth died from cholera in South Texas.
General William S. Harney assumed command of the Department of Texas and ordered Major Ripley A. Arnold (Company F, Second United States Dragoons) to find a new fort site near the West Fork and Clear Fork. On June 6, 1849, Arnold, advised by Middleton Tate Johnson, established a camp on the bank of the Trinity River and named the post Camp Worth in honor of the late General Worth. In August 1849, Arnold moved the camp to the north - facing bluff, which overlooked the mouth of the Clear Fork of the Trinity River. The United States War Department officially named the post Fort Worth on November 14, 1849.
Native American attacks were still a threat in the area, as this was their traditional territory and they resented encroachment by European - American settlers, but people from the United States set up homesteads near the fort. E.S. Terrell (1812 -- 1905) from Tennessee claimed to be the first resident of Fort Worth. The fort was flooded the first year and moved to the top of the bluff; the current courthouse was built on this site. The fort was abandoned September 17, 1853. No trace of it remains.
As a stop on the legendary Chisholm Trail, Fort Worth was stimulated by the business of the cattle drives and became a brawling, bustling town. Millions of head of cattle were driven north to market along this trail. Fort Worth became the center of the cattle drives, and later, the ranching industry. It was given the nickname of "Cowtown ''.
During Civil War, Fort Worth suffered from shortages of money, food, and supplies. the population dropped as low as 175, but began to recover during Reconstruction. By 1872, Jacob Samuels, William Jesse Boaz, and William Henry Davis had opened general stores. The next year, Khleber M. Van Zandt established Tidball, Van Zandt, and Company, which became Fort Worth National Bank in 1884.
In 1875, the Dallas Herald published an article by a former Fort Worth lawyer, Robert E. Cowart, who wrote that the decimation of Fort Worth 's population, caused by the economic disaster and hard winter of 1873, had dealt a severe blow to the cattle industry. Added to the slowdown due to the railroad 's stopping the laying of track 30 miles (48 km) outside of Fort Worth, Cowart said that Fort Worth was so slow that he saw a panther asleep in the street by the courthouse. Although an intended insult, the name Panther City was enthusiastically embraced when in 1876 Fort Worth recovered economically. Many businesses and organizations continue to use Panther in their name. A panther is set at the top of the police department badges.
The "Panther City '' tradition is also preserved in the names and design of some of the city 's geographical / architectural features, such as Panther Island (in the Trinity River), the Flat Iron Building, the Intermodal Transportation Center, and in two or three "Sleeping Panther '' statues. In 1876, the Texas and Pacific Railway finally was completed to Fort Worth, stimulating a boom and transforming the Fort Worth Stockyards into a premier center for the cattle wholesale trade. Migrants from the devastated war - torn South continued to swell the population, and small, community factories and mills yielded to larger businesses. Newly dubbed the "Queen City of the Prairies '', Fort Worth supplied a regional market via the growing transportation network.
Fort Worth became the westernmost railhead and a transit point for cattle shipment. With the city 's main focus on cattle and the railroads, local businessman, Louville Niles, formed the Fort Worth Stockyards Company in 1893. Shortly thereafter, the two biggest cattle - slaughtering firms at the time, Armour and Swift, both established operations in the new stockyards.
With the boom times came a variety of entertainments and related problems. Fort Worth had a knack for separating cattlemen from their money. Cowboys took full advantage of their last brush with civilization before the long drive on the Chisholm Trail from Fort Worth up north to Kansas. They stocked up on provisions from local merchants, visited the colorful saloons for a bit of gambling and carousing, then galloped northward with their cattle only to whoop it up again on their way back. The town soon became home to "Hell 's Half - Acre '', the biggest collection of saloons, dance halls, and bawdy houses south of Dodge City (the northern terminus of the Chisholm Trail), giving Fort Worth the nickname of "The Paris of the Plains ''.
Certain sections of town were off - limits for proper citizens. Shootings, knifings, muggings, and brawls became a nightly occurrence. Cowboys were joined by a motley assortment of buffalo hunters, gunmen, adventurers, and crooks. Hell 's Half Acre (the Acre) expanded as more people were drawn to the town. Occasionally, the Acre was referred to as "the bloody Third Ward '' after it was designated one of the city 's three political wards in 1876. By 1900, the Acre covered four of the city 's main north - south thoroughfares. Local citizens became alarmed about the activities, electing Timothy Isaiah "Longhair Jim '' Courtright in 1876 as city marshal with a mandate to tame it.
Courtright sometimes collected and jailed 30 people on a Saturday night, but allowed the gamblers to operate, as they attracted money to the city. After learning that train and stagecoach robbers, such as the Sam Bass gang, were using the area as a hideout, he intensified law enforcement, but certain businessmen advertised against too many restriction in the area as having bad effects on the legitimate businesses. Gradually, the cowboys began to avoid the area; as businesses suffered, the city moderated its opposition. Courtright lost his office in 1879.
Despite crusading mayors such as H.S. Broiles and newspaper editors such as B.B. Paddock, the Acre survived because it generated income for the city (all of it illegal) and excitement for visitors. Longtime Fort Worth residents claimed the place was never as wild as its reputation, but during the 1880s, Fort Worth was a regular stop on the "gambler 's circuit '' by such gambler / gunmen as Bat Masterson, Doc Holliday, and the Earp brothers (Wyatt, Morgan, and Virgil). James Earp, the eldest of his brothers, lived with his wife in Fort Worth during this period; their house was at the edge of Hell 's Half Acre, at 9th and Calhoun. He often tended bar at the Cattlemen 's Exchange saloon in the "uptown '' part of the city.
Reforming citizens objected to the dance halls, where men and women mingled; by contrast, the saloons or gambling parlors had primarily male customers.
In the late 1880s, Mayor Broiles and County Attorney R.L. Carlock initiated a reform campaign. In a public shootout on February 8, 1887, Jim Courtright was killed on Main Street by Short, who claimed he was "King of Fort Worth Gamblers. '' As Courtright had been popular, when Short was jailed for his murder, rumors floated of lynching him. Short 's good friend Bat Masterson came armed and spent the night in his cell to protect him.
The first prohibition campaign in Texas was mounted in Fort Worth in 1889, helping to shut down the Acre 's worst excesses. Other business development began in the area, as well as residential.
Another change was the influx of black residents. Excluded by state segregation from the business end of town and the more costly residential areas, the city 's black citizens, who numbered some 7,000 of a total population of 50,000 around 1900, settled into the southern portion of the city. Though some joined in the profitable vice trade (to run, for instance, the Black Elephant Saloon), many others found legitimate work and bought homes.
The popularity and profitability of the Acre declined and more derelicts and the homeless were seen on the streets. By 1900, most of the dance halls and gamblers were gone. Cheap variety shows and prostitution became the chief forms of entertainment. Some politicians sought reforms under the Progressive Era.
In 1911, the Reverend J. Frank Norris launched an offensive against racetrack gambling in the Baptist Standard and used the pulpit of the First Baptist Church of Fort Worth to attack vice and prostitution. Norris used the Acre to scourge the leadership of Fort Worth. When he began to link certain Fort Worth businessmen with property in the Acre and announce their names from his pulpit, the battle heated up. On February 4, 1912, Norris 's church was burned to the ground; that evening, his enemies tossed a bundle of burning oiled rags onto his porch, but the fire was extinguished and caused minimal damage. A month later, the arsonists succeeded in burning down the parsonage.
In a sensational trial lasting a month, Norris was charged with perjury and arson in connection with the two fires. He was acquitted, but his continued attacks on the Acre accomplished little until 1917. A new city administration and the federal government, which was eyeing Fort Worth as a potential site for a major military training camp, joined forces with the Baptist preacher to bring down the final curtain on the Acre.
The police department compiled statistics showing that 50 % of the violent crime in Fort Worth occurred in the Acre, which confirmed respectable citizens ' opinion of the area. After Camp Bowie (a World War I Army training installation) was located on the outskirts of Fort Worth in 1917, the military used martial law to regulate prostitutes and barkeepers of the Acre. Fines and stiff jail sentences curtailed their activities. By the time Norris held a mock funeral parade to "bury John Barleycorn '' in 1919, the Acre had become a part of Fort Worth history. The name continues to be associated with the southern end of Fort Worth.
On March 28, 2000, at 6: 15 pm, an F3 (some estimates claim an F4) tornado smashed through downtown, tearing many buildings into shreds and scrap metal. One of the hardest - hit structures was the Bank One Tower, which was one of the dominant features of the Fort Worth skyline and which had Reata, a popular restaurant, on its top floor. It has since been converted to upscale condominiums and officially renamed "The Tower ''. This was the first major tornado to strike Fort Worth proper since the early 1940s.
When oil began to gush in West Texas in the early 20th century, and again in the late 1970s, Fort Worth was at the center of the wheeling and dealing. In July 2007, advances in horizontal drilling technology made vast natural gas reserves in the Barnett Shale available directly under the city, helping many residents receive royalty checks for their mineral rights. Today, the city of Fort Worth and many residents are dealing with the benefits and issues associated with the natural gas reserves under ground.
Fort Worth was the fastest - growing large city in the United States from 2000 to 2006 and was voted one of "America 's Most Livable Communities. ''
Fort Worth is located in North Texas, and has a generally humid subtropical climate. It is part of the Cross Timbers region; this region is a boundary between the more heavily forested eastern parts and the rolling hills and prairies of the central part. Specifically, the city is part of the Grand Prairie ecoregion within the Cross Timbers.
The Dallas -- Fort Worth metroplex is the hub of the North Texas region. According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 298.9 square miles (774 km), of which 292.5 square miles (758 km) is land and 6.3 square miles (16 km) (2.12 %) is covered by water.
A large storage dam was completed in 1914 on the West Fork of the Trinity River, 7 miles (11 km) from the city, with a storage capacity of 33,495 acre feet of water. The lake formed by this dam is known as Lake Worth.
The city is not entirely contiguous and has several enclaves, practical enclaves, semi-enclaves and cities that are otherwise completely or nearly surrounded by it, including: Westworth Village, River Oaks, Saginaw, Blue Mound, Benbrook, Everman, Forest Hill, Edgecliff Village, Westover Hills, White Settlement, Sansom Park, Lake Worth, Lakeside, and Haslet.
Downtown is mainly known for its Art Deco - style buildings. The Tarrant County Courthouse was created in the American Beaux Arts design, which was modeled after the Texas State Capitol building. Most of the structures around Sundance Square have preserved their early 20th - century façades. Downtown has a unique rustic architecture.
The city of Fort Worth contains over 1000 natural gas wells (December 2009 count) tapping the Barnett Shale. Each well site is a bare patch of gravel 2 -- 5 acres (8,100 -- 20,200 m) in size. As city ordinances permit them in all zoning categories, including residential, well sites can be found in a variety of locations. Some wells are surrounded by masonry fences, but most are secured by chain link.
Fort Worth has a humid subtropical climate according to the Köppen climate classification system and is within USDA hardiness zone 8a. The hottest month of the year is July, when the average high temperature is 95 ° F (35.0 ° C), and overnight low temperatures average 72 ° F (22.2 ° C), giving an average temperature of 84 ° F (28.9 ° C). The coldest month of the year is January, when the average high temperature is 55 ° F (12.8 ° C) and low temperatures average 31 ° F (− 0.6 ° C). The average temperature in January is 43 ° F (6 ° C). The highest temperature ever recorded in Fort Worth is 113 ° F (45.0 ° C), on June 26, 1980, during the Great 1980 Heat Wave, and June 27, 1980. The coldest temperature ever recorded in Fort Worth was − 8 ° F (− 22.2 ° C) on February 12, 1899. Because of its position in North Texas, Fort Worth is very susceptible to supercell thunderstorms, which produce large hail and can produce tornados.
The average annual precipitation for Fort Worth is 34.01 inches (863.9 mm). The wettest month of the year is May, when an average of 4.58 inches (116.3 mm) of precipitation falls. The driest month of the year is January, when only 1.70 inches (43.2 mm) of precipitation falls. The driest calendar year since records began has been 1921 with 17.91 inches (454.9 mm) and the wettest 2015 with 62.61 inches (1,590.3 mm). The wettest calendar month has been April 1922 with 17.64 inches (448.1 mm), including 8.56 inches (217.4 mm) on April 25.
The average annual snowfall in Fort Worth is 2.6 inches (0.07 m). The most snowfall in one month has been 13.5 inches (0.34 m) in February 1978, and the most in a season 17.6 inches (0.45 m) in 1977 / 1978.
The National Weather Service office which serves the Dallas - Fort Worth Metroplex is based in the northeastern part of Fort Worth.
According to the 2010 census, the racial composition of Fort Worth was:
As of the census of 2000, 534,694 people, 195,078 households, and 127,581 families resided in the city. The July 2004 census estimates have placed Fort Worth in the top 20 most populous cities (# 19) in the U.S. with the population at 604,538. Fort Worth is also in the top five cities with the largest numerical increase from July 1, 2003 to July 1, 2004, with 17,872 more people or a 3.1 % increase. The population density was 1,827.8 people per square mile (705.7 / km2). There were 211,035 housing units at an average density of 721.4 per square mile (278.5 / km2). The racial makeup of the city was 59.69 % White, 20.26 % Black or African American, 0.59 % Native American, 2.64 % Asian, 0.06 % Pacific Islander, 14.05 % from other races, and 2.72 % from two or more races. About 29.81 % of the population were Hispanics or Latinos of any race.
In 1970, the Census Bureau reported Fort Worth 's population as 72 % non-Hispanic White, 19.9 % Black, and 7.9 % Hispanic.
Of the 195,078 households, 34.7 % had children under the age of 18 living with them, 45.8 % were married couples living together, 14.7 % had a female householder with no husband present, and 34.6 % were not families; 9,599 were unmarried partner households: 8,202 heterosexual, 676 same - sex male, and 721 same - sex female households. About 28.6 % of all households were made up of individuals and 7.7 % had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.67 and the average family size was 3.33.
In the city, the population was distributed as 28.3 % under the age of 18, 11.3 % from 18 to 24, 32.7 % from 25 to 44, 18.2 % from 45 to 64, and 9.6 % who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 31 years. For every 100 females, there were 97.3 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 94.5 males.
The median income for a household in the city was $37,074, and for a family was $42,939. Males had a median income of $31,663 versus $25,917 for females. The per capita income for the city was $18,800. About 12.7 % of families and 15.9 % of the population were below the poverty line, including 21.4 % of those under age 18 and 11.7 % of those age 65 or over.
Major companies based in Fort Worth include American Airlines Group (and subsidiaries American Airlines and Envoy Air), D.R. Horton, the John Peter Smith Hospital, Pier 1 Imports, RadioShack, and the BNSF Railway.
In 2013, Fort Worth - Arlington ranked 15th on Forbes ' list of the Best Places for Business and Careers.
In 2018 GE Transportation is relocating locomotive production from Erie, Pennsylvania to Fort Worth.
According to the city 's 2011 Comprehensive Annual Financial Report, the top employers in the Fort Worth area are:
Building on its frontier western heritage and a history of strong local arts patronage, Fort Worth promotes itself as the "City of Cowboys and Culture ''. Fort Worth has the world 's first and largest indoor rodeo, world class museums, a calendar of festivals and a robust local arts scene.
Bass Performance Hall, Casa Mañana, Stage West Theatre, Kids Who Care Inc., Jubilee Theater, Circle Theatre, Amphibian Stage Productions
Kimbell Art Museum, Amon Carter Museum of American Art, Modern Art Museum of Fort Worth, Sid Richardson Museum, Fort Worth Museum of Science and History, National Cowgirl Museum and Hall of Fame, Military Museum of Fort Worth, Texas Civil War Museum, Texas Cowboy Hall of Fame, Fort Worth Stockyards Museum, Al and Ann Stohlman Museum, Lenora Rolla Heritage Center Museum, National Multicultural Western Heritage Museum, CR Smith Museum.
Fort Worth Symphony Orchestra, Billy Bob 's, Texas Ballet Theater, Van Cliburn International Piano Competition, Fort Worth Opera, Live Eclectic Music (Ridglea Theater)
The Academy of Western Artists, based in Gene Autry, Oklahoma presents its annual awards in Fort Worth in fields related to the American cowboy, including music, literature, and even chuckwagon cooking.
The Fort Worth Zoo is home to over 5000 animals and has been named as a top zoo in the nation by Family Life magazine, the Los Angeles Times, and USA Today and one of the top zoos in the South by Southern Living Reader 's Choice Awards; it has been ranked in the top 10 zoos in the United States.
The Fort Worth Botanic Garden and the Botanical Research Institute of Texas are also in the city. For those interested in hiking, birding, or canoeing, the Fort Worth Nature Center and Refuge in northwest Fort Worth is a 3621 - acre preserved natural area designated by the Department of the Interior as a National Natural Landmark Site in 1980. Established in 1964 as the Greer Island Nature Center and Refuge, it celebrated its 50th anniversary in 2014. The Nature Center has small, genetically pure bison herd, a resident prairie dog town, and the prairie upon which they live. It is one of the largest urban parks of its type in the U.S.
Parks
Fort Worth has a total of 263 parks with 179 of those being neighborhood parks. The total acres of park land is 11,700.72 acres with the average being about 12.13 acres per park.
There are two dog parks located in the city including ZBonz Dog Park and Fort Woof. These are both off - leash dog parks. Fort Woof was recognized by Dog Fancy Magazine as the No. 1 Dog Park in the Nation in 2006, and as City Voter 's the Best Dog Park in the Metroplex in 2009. The park includes an agility course, water fountains, shaded shelters and waste stations.
While much of Fort Worth 's sports attention is focused on the Metroplex 's professional sports teams, the city has its own athletic identity. The TCU Horned Frogs compete in NCAA Division I athletics, including the football team, consistently ranked in the top 25, and the baseball team, which has competed in the last six NCAA tournaments and 3 straight CWS, coming within a win of making the College World Series finals in 2009 and 2016. The women 's basketball team has competed in the last seven NCAA tournaments. Texas Wesleyan University competes in the NAIA, and won the 2006 NAIA Div. I Men 's Basketball championship and three - time National Collegiate Table Tennis Association (NCTTA) team championships (2004 -- 2006). Fort Worth is also home to the NCAA football Bell Helicopter Armed Forces Bowl, as well as four minor - league professional sports teams. One of these minor league teams, the Fort Worth Cats baseball team, was reborn in 2001. The original Cats were a very popular minor league team in Fort Worth from the 19th century (when they were called the Panthers) until 1960, when the team was merged into the Dallas Rangers.
The presence of Texas Christian University less than 5 miles (8 km) from downtown and national competitiveness in football, baseball, and men 's and women 's basketball have sustained TCU as an important part of Fort Worth 's sports scene.
The Horned Frog football team produced two national championships in the 1930s and remained a strong competitor in the Southwest Conference into the 1960s before beginning a long period of underperformance. The revival of the TCU football program began under Coach Dennis Franchione with the success of running back LaDainian Tomlinson. Under Head Coach Gary Patterson, the Horned Frogs have developed into a perennial top - 10 contender, and a Rose Bowl winner in 2011. Notable players include Sammy Baugh, Davey O'Brien, Bob Lilly, LaDainian Tomlinson, Jerry Hughes, and Andy Dalton. The Horned Frogs, along with their rivals and fellow non-AQ leaders the Boise State Broncos and University of Utah Utes, were deemed the quintessential "BCS Busters '', having appeared in both the Fiesta and Rose Bowls. Their "BCS Buster '' role ended in 2012 when they joined the Big 12 athletic conference in all sports. The Horned Frog football teams have one of the best winning percentages of any school in the Football Bowl Subdivision in recent years.
Fort Worth hosts an important professional men 's golf tournament every May at the Colonial Country Club. The Colonial Invitational Golf Tournament, now officially known as the Dean & DeLuca Invitational, is one of the more prestigious and historical events of the tour calendar. The Colonial Country Club was the home course of golfing legend Ben Hogan, who was from Fort Worth.
The Fort Worth Cats were a professional baseball team that played in the city and was founded in 2001, as part of the All - American Association. Their home venue was LaGrave Field. The team was disbanded when the league they played in, United League Baseball, formally ceased operation due to low attendance.
Fort Worth Vaqueros FC are a minor league soccer team which began play in the summer of 2014. They are part of the National Premier Soccer League and play their home games at Martin Field.
Fort Worth is home to Texas Motor Speedway, also known as "The Great American Speedway ''. Texas Motor Speedway is a 1.5 - mile quad - oval track located in the far northern part of the city in Denton County. The speedway opened in 1997, and currently hosts an IndyCar event and six NASCAR events among three major race weekends a year.
Amateur sports - car racing in the greater Fort Worth area occurs mostly at two purpose - built tracks: Motorsport Ranch and Eagles Canyon Raceway. Sanctioning bodies include the Porsche Club of America, the National Auto Sports Association, and the Sports Car Club of America.
The annual Cowtown Marathon has been held every last weekend in February since 1978. The two - day activities include two 5Ks, a 10K, the half marathon, marathon, and ultra marathon. With just under 27,000 participants in 2013, the Cowtown is the largest multiple - distance event in Texas.
Fort Worth has a council - manager government, with elections held every two years for a mayor, elected at large, and eight council members, elected by district. The mayor is a voting member of the council and represents the city on ceremonial occasions. The council has the power to adopt municipal ordinances and resolutions, make proclamations, set the city tax rate, approve the city budget, and appoint the city secretary, city attorney, city auditor, municipal court judges, and members of city boards and commissions. The day - to - day operations of city government are overseen by the city manager, who is also appointed by the council.
The Texas Department of Transportation operates the Fort Worth District Office in Fort Worth.
The North Texas Intermediate Sanction Facility, a privately operated prison facility housing short - term parole violators, was in Fort Worth. It was operated on behalf of the Texas Department of Criminal Justice. In 2011, the state of Texas decided not to renew its contract with the facility.
State Senator Konni Burton (R) represents Fort Worth (district 10).
Fort Worth is split between Texas 's 6th congressional district, represented by Republican Joe Barton; Texas 's 12th congressional district, represented by Republican Kay Granger; Texas 's 24th congressional district, represented by Republican Kenny Marchant; Texas 's 26th congressional district, represented by Republican Michael Burgess; and Texas 's 33rd congressional district, represented by Democrat Marc Veasey.
Fort Worth is home to one of the two locations of the Bureau of Engraving and Printing. In 1987, construction on this second facility began. In addition to meeting increased production requirements, a western location was seen to serve as a contingency operation in case of emergencies in the Washington, DC, metropolitan area; as well, costs for transporting currency to Federal Reserve banks in San Francisco, Dallas, and Kansas City would be reduced. Currency production began in December 1990 at the Fort Worth facility, the official dedication took place April 26, 1991.
The Eldon B. Mahon United States Courthouse building contains three oil - on - canvas panels on the fourth floor by artist Frank Mechau (commissioned under the Public Works Administration 's art program). Mechau 's paintings, The Taking of Sam Bass, Two Texas Rangers, and Flags Over Texas were installed in 1940, becoming the only New Deal art commission sponsored in Fort Worth. The courthouse, built in 1933, serves the United States District Court for the Northern District of Texas and was listed in the National Register of Historic Places in 2001.
Federal Medical Center, Carswell, a federal prison and health facility for women, is located in the Naval Air Station Joint Reserve Base Fort Worth. Carswell houses the federal death row for female inmates.
The Federal Aviation Administration, National Archives and Records Administration, and Federal Bureau of Investigation have offices in Fort Worth.
Fort Worth Library is the public library system.
Most of Fort Worth is served by the Fort Worth Independent School District.
Other school districts that serve portions of Fort Worth include:
The portion of Fort Worth within the Arlington Independent School District contains a wastewater plant. No residential areas are in the portion.
Pinnacle Academy of the Arts (K - 12) is a state charter school, as is Crosstimbers Academy.
Private schools in Fort Worth include both secular and parochial.
Other institutions:
Fort Worth is shared by Dallas 's media market.
The city 's magazine is Fort Worth, Texas Magazine, which publishes information about Fort Worth events, social activity, fashion, dining, and culture.
Many radio stations are in and around Fort Worth, with many different formats.
On the AM dial, like in all other markets, political talk radio is prevalent, with WBAP 820, KLIF 570, KEXB 620, KSKY 660, KRLD 1080 the conservative talk stations serving Fort Worth and KMNY 1360 the sole progressive talk station serving the city. KFXR 1190 is a news / talk / classic country station. Sports talk can be found on KTCK 1310 ("The Ticket ''). WBAP, a 50,000 - watt clear - channel station which can be heard over much of the country at night, was a long - successful country music station before converting to its current talk format.
Several religious stations are also on AM in the Dallas / Fort Worth area; KHVN 970 and KGGR 1040 are the local urban gospel stations and KKGM 1630 has a Southern gospel format.
Fort Worth 's Spanish - speaking population is served by many stations on AM:
A few mixed Asian language stations serve Fort Worth:
Other formats found on the Fort Worth AM dial are urban KKDA 730, business talk KJSA 1120, country station KCLE 1460.
KLNO is a commercial radio station licensed to Fort Worth. Long - time Fort Worth resident Marcos A. Rodriguez operated Dallas Fort Worth radio stations KLTY and KESS on 94.1 FM.
Noncommercial stations serve the city fairly well. Three college stations can be heard - KTCU 88.7, KCBI 90.9, and KNTU 88.1, with a variety of programming. Also, the local NPR station is KERA 90.1, along with community radio station KNON 89.3. Downtown Fort Worth also hosts the Texas Country radio station KFWR 95.9 The Ranch.
A wide variety of commercial formats, mostly music, are on the FM dial in Fort Worth.
When local radio station KOAI 107.5 FM, now KMVK, dropped its smooth jazz format, fans set up smoothjazz1075.com, an internet radio station, to broadcast smooth jazz for disgruntled fans.
A couple of internet radio shows are in the Fort Worth area, DFDubbIsHot and The Broadband Brothers.
Fort Worth shares a television market with nearby Dallas. Owned - and - operated stations of their affiliated networks are highlighted in bold.
Fort Worth has one newspaper published daily, the Fort Worth Star - Telegram. The Star - Telegram is the 45-most widely circulated newspaper in the United States, with a daily circulation of 210,990 and a Sunday circulation of 304,200.
The Fort Worth Weekly is an alternative weekly newspaper that serves the Dallas / Fort Worth Metroplex. The newspaper had an approximate circulation of 47,000 in 2015. The Fort Worth Weekly publishes every Wednesday and features, among many things, news reporting, cultural event guides, movie reviews, and editorials.
Fort Worth Business Press is a weekly publication that chronicles news in the Fort Worth business community. Fort Worth, Texas Magazine is a monthly publication that highlights the social and cultural life of the city.
The Fort Worth Press was a daily newspaper, published weekday afternoons and on Sundays from 1921 until 1975. It was owned by the E.W. Scripps Company and published under the then - prominent Scripps - Howard Lighthouse logo. The paper reportedly last made money in the early 1950s. Scripps Howard stayed with the paper until mid-1975. Circulation had dwindled to fewer than 30,000 daily, just more than 10 % of that of the Fort Worth Star Telegram. The name Fort Worth Press was resurrected briefly in a new Fort Worth Press paper operated by then - former publisher Bill McAda and briefer still by William Dean Singleton, then - owner of the weekly Azle (Texas) News, now owner of the Media Central news group. The Fort Worth Press operated from offices and presses at 500 Jones Street in downtown Fort Worth.
Like most cities that grew quickly after World War II, Fort Worth 's main mode of transportation is the automobile, but bus transportation via The T is available, as well as an interurban train service to Dallas via the Trinity Railway Express.
The first streetcar company in Fort Worth was the Fort Worth Street Railway Company. Its first line began operating in December 1876, and traveled from the courthouse down Main Street to the T&P Depot. By 1890, more than 20 private companies were operating streetcar lines in Fort Worth. The Fort Worth Street Railway Company bought out many of its competitors, and was eventually itself bought out by the Bishop & Sherwin Syndicate in 1901. The new ownership changed the company 's name to the Northern Texas Traction Company, which operated 84 miles of streetcar railways in 1925, and their lines connected downtown Fort Worth to TCU, the Near Southside, Arlington Heights, Lake Como, and the Stockyards.
At its peak, the electric interurban industry in Texas consisted of almost 500 miles of track, making Texas the second in interurban mileage in all states west of the Mississippi River. Electric interurban railways were prominent in the early 1900s, peaking in the 1910s and fading until all electric interurban railways were abandoned by 1948. Close to three - fourths of the mileage was in the Dallas - Fort Worth area, running between Fort Worth and Dallas and to other area cities including Cleburne, Denison, Corsicana, and Waco. The line depicted in the associated image was the second to be constructed in Texas and ran 35 miles between Fort Worth and Dallas. Northern Texas Traction Company built the railway, which was operational from 1902 to 1934.
In 2009, 806 % of Fort Worth (city) commuters drive to work alone. The 2009 mode share for Fort Worth (city) commuters are 11.7 % for carpooling, 1.5 % for transit, 1.2 % for walking, and. 1 % for cycling. In 2015, the American Community Survey estimated modal shares for Fort Worth (city) commuters of 82 % for driving alone, 12 % for carpooling,. 8 % for riding transit, 1.8 % for walking, and. 3 % for cycling.
Fort Worth is served by four interstates and three U.S. highways. It also contains a number of arterial streets in a grid formation.
Interstate highways 30, 20, 35W, and 820 all pass through the city limits.
Interstate 820 is a loop of Interstate 20 and serves as a beltway for the city. Interstate 30 and Interstate 20 connect Fort Worth to Arlington, Grand Prairie, and Dallas. Interstate 35W connects Fort Worth with Hillsboro to the south and the cities of Denton and Gainesville to the north.
U.S. Route 287 runs southeast through the city connecting Wichita Falls to the north and Mansfield to the south. U.S. Route 377 runs south through the northern suburbs of Haltom City and Keller through the central business district. U.S. Route 81 shares a concurrency with highway 287 on the portion northwest of I - 35W.
Notable state highways:
(List of Dallas - Fort Worth area freeways)
The Fort Worth Transportation Authority, better known as The T, serves Fort Worth with dozens of different bus routes throughout the city, including a downtown bus circulator known as Molly the Trolley. The T operates buses in the suburbs of Richland Hills (route 41) and Arlington (MAX).
In 2010, Fort Worth won a $25 million Federal Urban Circulator grant to build a streetcar system. In December 2010, though, the city council forfeited the grant by voting to end the streetcar study.
Prior to the construction of DFW, the city was served by Greater Southwest International Airport, which was located just to the south of the new airport. Originally named Amon Carter Field after one of the city 's influential mayors, Greater Southwest opened in 1953 and operated as the primary airport for Fort Worth until 1974. It was then abandoned until the terminal was torn down in 1980. The site of the former airport is now a mixed - use development straddled by Texas State Highway 183 and 360. One small section of runway remains north of Highway 183, and serves as the only reminder that a major commercial airport once occupied the site.
Fort Worth is home to these four airports within city limits:
A 2011 study by Walk Score ranked Fort Worth 47th-most walkable of 50 largest U.S. cities.
Biking
The Fort Worth Bike Sharing is a nonprofit organization that controls Fort Worth B - Cycle, a bike - sharing program introduced to the area on April 22, 2013. There are 45 stations across the city with 350 bikes available for rent all day, every day of the year. These areas include Downtown, the Cultural District, the Trinity Trails, the Stockyards, Near Southside and on TCU 's campus. Their mission is to "enhance our community by providing an affordable, efficient, environmentally - friendly bike share program that complements our existing public transportation system and provides both residents and visitors a healthy, convenient way to move around our city ''.
Fort Worth is a part of the Sister Cities International program and maintains cultural and economic exchange programs with its eight sister cities.
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how to change the group of a file in unix | Chgrp - wikipedia
The chgrp (from change group) command may be used by unprivileged users on Unix - like systems to change the group associated with a file system object (such as a file, directory, or link) to one of which they are a member. A file system object has 3 sets of access permissions, one set for the owner, one set for the group and one set for others. Changing the group of an object could be used to change which users can write to a file.
chgrp (options) group FSO
- R recurse through subdirectories
- v verbosely output names of objects changed. Most useful when "FSO '' is a list.
- f force or forge ahead with other objects even if an error is encountered.
The above command changes the group associated with file prog. conf ' from wheel to staff (provided the executing user is a member of that group). This could be used to allow members of staff to modify the configuration for programs prog and prox.
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when does a new season of stranger things start | Stranger Things - wikipedia
Stranger Things is an American science fiction - horror web television series created, written, directed and co-executive produced by The Duffer Brothers, as well as co-executive produced by Shawn Levy and Dan Cohen. The first season, released in July 2016, stars Winona Ryder, David Harbour, Finn Wolfhard, Millie Bobby Brown, Gaten Matarazzo, Caleb McLaughlin, Natalia Dyer, Charlie Heaton, Cara Buono and Matthew Modine, with Noah Schnapp and Joe Keery in recurring roles. For the second season, Schnapp and Keery were promoted to series regulars, along with the additions of Sadie Sink, Dacre Montgomery, Sean Astin and Paul Reiser.
Set in the fictional town of Hawkins, Indiana, in the 1980s, the first season focuses on the investigation into the disappearance of a young boy amid supernatural events occurring around the town, including the appearance of a girl with psychokinetic abilities who helps the missing boy 's friends in their own search. The second season, titled Stranger Things 2, is set a year after the first, and deals with attempts of the characters to return to normal and consequences that linger from the first season.
The Duffer Brothers developed the series as a mix of investigative drama alongside supernatural elements with childlike sensibilities, establishing its time frame in the 1980s and creating a homage to pop culture of that decade. Several themes and directorial aspects were inspired and aesthetically informed by the works of Steven Spielberg, John Carpenter, and Stephen King, among others, including several films, anime and video games.
The first season was released on Netflix on July 15, 2016. It received critical acclaim for its characterization, pacing, atmosphere, acting, soundtrack, directing, writing, and homages to 1980s genre films. The series has received several industry nominations and awards, including winning the Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Drama Series in 2016, and receiving eighteen nominations for the 69th Primetime Emmy Awards, including Outstanding Drama Series. On August 31, 2016, Netflix renewed the series for a second season of nine episodes, which was released on October 27, 2017. In December 2017, Netflix ordered a third season, which will consist of eight episodes. The Duffer Brothers have said that Stranger Things is likely to end after its fourth or fifth season.
Stranger Things is set in the fictional rural town of Hawkins, Indiana, during the early 1980s. The nearby Hawkins National Laboratory ostensibly performs scientific research for the United States Department of Energy, but secretly does experiments into the paranormal and supernatural, including those that involve human test subjects. Inadvertently, they have created a portal to an alternate dimension called "the Upside Down ''. The influence of the Upside Down starts to affect the unknowing residents of Hawkins in calamitous ways.
The first season begins in November 1983, when Will Byers is abducted by a creature from the Upside Down. His mother, Joyce, and the town 's police chief, Jim Hopper, search for Will. At the same time, a young psychokinetic girl called Eleven escapes from the laboratory and assists Will 's friends, Mike, Dustin, and Lucas, in their own efforts to find Will.
The second season is set a year later, starting in October 1984. Will has been rescued, but few know of the details of the events. When it is discovered that Will is still being influenced by entities from the Upside Down, his friends and family learn there is a larger threat to their universe from the Upside Down.
Executive producer Shawn Levy cameos as a morgue worker.
Stranger Things was created by Matt and Ross Duffer, known professionally as The Duffer Brothers. The two had completed writing and producing their 2015 film Hidden, which they had tried to emulate the style of M. Night Shyamalan, however, due to changes at Warner Bros., its distributor, the film did not see a wide release and the Duffers were unsure of their future. To their surprise, television producer Donald De Line approached them, impressed with Hidden 's script, and offered them the opportunity to work on episodes of Wayward Pines alongside Shyamalan. The brothers were mentored by Shyamalan during the episode 's production, so that when they finished, they felt they were ready to produce their own television series.
The Duffer Brothers prepared a script that would essentially be similar to the series ' actual pilot episode, along with a 20 - page pitch book to help shop the series around for a network. They pitched the story to a number of cable networks, all of which rejected the script on the basis that they felt a plot centered around children as leading characters would not work, asking them to make it a children 's show or to drop the children and focus on Hopper 's investigation in the paranormal. In early 2015, Dan Cohen, the VP of 21 Laps Entertainment, brought the script to his colleague Shawn Levy. They subsequently invited The Duffer Brothers to their office and purchased the rights for the series, giving full authorship of it to the brothers. After reading the pilot, the streaming service Netflix purchased the whole season for an undisclosed amount; the show was subsequently announced for a planned 2016 release by Netflix in early April 2015. The Duffer Brothers stated that at the time they had pitched to Netflix, the service had already gotten recognized for its original programming, such as House of Cards and Orange Is the New Black, with well - recognized producers behind them, and were ready to start giving upcoming producers like them a chance. The brothers started to write out the series and brought Levy and Cohen in as executive producers to start casting and filming.
The series was originally known as Montauk, as the setting of the script was in Montauk, New York and nearby Long Island locations. The brothers had chosen Montauk as it had further Spielberg ties with the film Jaws, where Montauk was used for the fictional setting of Amity Island. After deciding to change the narrative of the series to take place in the fictional town of Hawkins instead, the brothers felt they could now do things to the town, such as placing it under quarantine, that they really could not envision with a real location. With the change in location, they had to come up with a new title for the series under direction from Netflix 's Ted Sarandos so that they could start marketing it to the public. The brothers started by using a copy of Stephen King 's Firestarter novel to consider the title 's font and appearance, and came up with a long list of potential alternatives. Stranger Things came about as it sounded similar to another King novel, Needful Things, though Matt noted they still had a "lot of heated arguments '' over this final title.
To pitch the series, The Duffers showcased images, footage and music from 1980s films such as E.T. the Extra Terrestrial, Close Encounters of the Third Kind, Poltergeist, Hellraiser, Stand by Me, Firestarter, A Nightmare on Elm Street and Jaws, in order to establish the tone of the series.
With the critical success of the first season after its release in July 2016, speculation on a possible second season was raised. The Duffer Brothers initially intended for Stranger Things to either be a standalone miniseries or an anthology series. They also considered the possibility of setting a potential second season (which they refereed to as a ' sequel ') in the early 1990s and featuring an older version of the characters, along with all new characters, who are drawn back to Hawkins after supernatural events begin occurring again.. However, following the release of the first season, they realized that the likability of the characters - especially the children - was key to the series ' success, and they decided to set the second season in 1984 and focus on the same characters. By the end of July, The Duffer Brothers had outlined a plan for such a season if it was green - lit, and Netflix 's CEO Reed Hastings said in early August that the company "would be dumb not to '' renew Stranger Things for a second season. On August 31, 2016, Netflix announced it had renewed Stranger Things for a second season of nine episodes, to be released in 2017. The Duffer Brothers revealed that the series had been renewed for a second season before the first premiered. Regarding the decision to wait more than a month after the first season premiered to announce the renewal, Matt Duffer said, "it actually ended up working because it had built up to this fever pitch. I guess that 's what (Netflix) were intending to do all the time. ''
The Duffers wrote the second season to make the combined first and second season feel like a complete work, but setting elements in place to go forward with additional seasons if they are green - lit. While most of the story for the second season had been decided before the first season aired, the Duffers took in the audience reactions from the first season to adjust some of the details within the second season. They knew they would not have the same element of audience surprise as when the show aired anew, and were aware fans wanted to see certain elements, but Ross said "... the point is not to give everyone what they think they want. Because I do n't think they really know what they want. '' The Duffers felt that the second season should be treated more as a sequel rather than a continuation, and thus have opted to call the second Stranger Things 2. This approach had some trepidation from Netflix, since the company felt movie sequels typically have a bad reputation, but the Duffers pointed out that there had been many successful sequels that surpassed the original film, and felt confident with this name. Despite revealing episode titles for the season in the announcement teaser in order "to provide some hint of where we were going in season two without giving anything away, '' Matt Duffer stated that some of the titles would change, since there were some things "we did n't want to put on there because we felt like it would give too much away, '' and because "people are smart on the fucking internet '' with fan - created "videos analyzing the chapter titles... right on a lot '' of how the titles related to the plot of the season. In early October 2017, the Duffers revealed the final titles for the first six episodes of the season.
Levy noted in November 2016 that he and The Duffer Brothers had already begun planning a potential third season, saying, "We are not gon na be caught off guard and we do n't wan na be making stuff up like the day before we have to write it and make it, so we are definitely optimistic and we have started thinking ahead. '' The Duffers anticipate having about four to five seasons to work with, but do want to "have a really finite ending '' while the show is still at a height of success, according to Matt, rather than letting it draw out indefinitely. In August 2017, the Duffers confirmed there would be a third season, with the likelihood of one more season following that, with Ross saying, "We 're thinking it will be a four - season thing and then out ''. However, executive producer Shawn Levy later suggested that either four or five total seasons were possibilities, claiming that "the truth is we 're definitely going four seasons and there 's very much the possibility of a fifth. Beyond that, it becomes I think very unlikely. '' Matt Duffer later commented that no official decision has been made, claiming that "It 's hard, like four seems short, five seems long. So I do n't know what to do. '' In December 2017, Netflix officially confirmed that they have greenlit the third season.
The idea of Stranger Things started with how the brothers felt they could take the concept of the 2013 film Prisoners, detailing the moral struggles a father goes through when his daughter is kidnapped, and expand it out over eight or so hours in a serialized television approach. As they focused on the missing child aspect of the story, they wanted to introduce the idea of "childlike sensibilities '' they could offer, and toyed around with the idea of a monster that could consume humans. The brothers thought the combination of these things "was the best thing ever ''. To introduce this monster into the narrative, they considered "bizarre experiments we had read about taking place in the Cold War '' such as Project MKUltra, which gave a way to ground the monster 's existence in science rather than something spiritual. This also helped them to decide on using 1983 as the time period, as it was a year before the film Red Dawn came out, which focused on Cold War paranoia. Subsequently, they were able to use all their own personal inspirations from the 1980s, the decade they were born, as elements of the series, crafting it in the realm of science fiction and horror. The Duffer Brothers have cited as influence for the show (among others): Stephen King novels; films produced by Steven Spielberg, John Carpenter, Wes Craven, Robert Zemeckis, George Lucas and Guillermo del Toro; films such as Alien and Stand by Me; Japanese anime such as Akira and Elfen Lied; and video games such as Silent Hill, The Last of Us, and Dark Souls. The Duffers also believe that they may have brought influences from other works unintentionally, including Beyond the Black Rainbow and D.A.R.Y.L., discovered by reviewing fan feedback on the show.
With Netflix as the platform, The Duffer Brothers were not limited to a typical 22 - episode format, opting for the eight - episode approach. They had been concerned that a 22 - episode season on broadcast television would be difficult to "tell a cinematic story '' with that many episodes. Eight episodes allowed them to give time to characterization in addition to narrative development; if they had less time available, they would have had to remain committed to telling a horror film as soon as the monster was introduced and abandon the characterization. Within the eight episodes, the brothers aimed to make the first season "feel like a big movie '' with all the major plot lines completed so that "the audience feels satisfied '', but left enough unresolved to indicate "there 's a bigger mythology, and there 's a lot of dangling threads at the end '', something that could be explored in further seasons if Netflix opted to create more.
Regarding writing for the children characters of the series, The Duffer Brothers considered themselves as outcasts from other students while in high school and thus found it easy to write for Mike and his friends, and particularly for Barb. Joyce was fashioned after Richard Dreyfuss ' character Roy Neary in Close Encounters of the Third Kind, as she appears "absolutely bonkers '' to everyone else as she tries to find Will. Other characters, such as Billy in the second season, have more villainous attributes that are not necessarily obvious from the onset; Matt explained that they took further inspiration from Stephen King for these characters, as King "always has really great human villains '' that may be more malicious than the supernatural evil.
According to David Harbour, writing for the third season was still occurring in December 2017. Levy said the season would be less about Will, saying, "We 're not going to put Will through hell for a third season in a row. He 'll be dealing with stuff, but he wo n't be at rock bottom... We 're (going to be) dealing with forces of evil that are new. ''
In June 2015, it was announced that Winona Ryder and David Harbour had joined the series as Joyce and as the unnamed chief of police, respectively. The brothers ' casting director Carmen Cuba had suggested Ryder for the role of Joyce, which the two were immediately drawn to because of her predominance in the films of the 1980s. Levy believed Ryder could "wretch up the emotional urgency and yet find layers and nuance and different sides of (Joyce) ''. Ryder praised that the show 's multiple storylines required her to act for Joyce as "she 's out of her mind, but she 's actually kind of onto something '', and that the producers had faith she could pull off the difficult role. The Duffer Brothers had been interested in Harbour before, who until Stranger Things primarily had smaller roles as villainous characters, and they felt that he had been "waiting too long for this opportunity '' to play a lead, while Harbour himself was thrilled by the script and the chance to play "a broken, flawed, anti-hero character ''.
Additional casting followed two months later with Finn Wolfhard as Mike, Millie Bobby Brown in an undisclosed role, Gaten Matarazzo as Dustin, Caleb McLaughlin as Lucas, Natalia Dyer as Nancy, and Charlie Heaton as Jonathan. In September 2015, Cara Buono joined the cast as Karen, followed by Matthew Modine as Martin Brenner a month later. Additional cast who recur for the first season include Noah Schnapp as Will, Shannon Purser as Barbara "Barb '' Holland, Joe Keery as Steve Harrington, and Ross Partridge as Lonnie, among others.
Actors auditioning for the children roles read lines from Stand By Me. The Duffer Brothers estimated they went through about a thousand different child actors for the roles. They noted that Wolfhard was already "a movie buff '' of the films from the 1980s period and easily filled the role, while they found Matarazzo 's audition to be much more authentic than most of the other audition tapes, and selected him after a single viewing of his audition tape. As casting was started immediately after Netflix greenlit the show, and prior to the scripts being fully completed, this allowed some of the actor 's takes on the roles to reflect into the script. The casting of the young actors for Will and his friends had been done just after the first script was completed, and subsequent scripts incorporated aspects from these actors. The brothers said Modine provided significant input on the character of Dr. Brenner, whom they had not really fleshed out before as they considered him the hardest character to write for given his limited appearances within the narrative.
In October 2016, it was announced that Schnapp and Keery had been promoted to the main cast for the second season, after each recurring in the first season, and that Sadie Sink and Dacre Montgomery would join the main cast as Max and Billy, respectively. Ryder, Harbour, Wolfhard, Brown, Matarazzo, McLaughlin, Dyer and Heaton also return for the season. Sean Astin as Bob Newby and Paul Reiser as Sam Owens are also part of the main cast in the season. For Owens, The Duffer Brothers had referred to the character in their pitch to Netflix for the season as "Paul Reiser '', and specifically alluded to Reiser 's character Burke in Aliens, with Ross referencing James Cameron 's casting choice for that film, saying, "(Cameron) thought people would inherently trust (Reiser) and it would be a twist ''. Reiser 's son was a fan of Stranger Things, and gave his father an early appreciation of the series, so that by when the production called his agent about the role, Reiser was excited for the part. Joining them in recurring roles are Linnea Berthelsen as Kali / Eight and Brett Gelman as Murray Bauman.
The third season sees Ryder, Harbour, Wolfhard, Brown, Matarazzo, McLaughlin, Dyer, Heaton, Buono, Schnapp, Sink, Kerry and Montgomery return.
The brothers had desired to film the series around the Long Island area to match the initial Montauk concept. However, with filming scheduled to take place in November 2015, it was difficult to shoot in Long Island in the cold weather, and the production started scouting locations in and around the Atlanta, Georgia area. The brothers, who grew up in North Carolina, found many places that reminded them of their own childhoods in that area, and felt the area would work well with the narrative shift to the fictional town of Hawkins, Indiana.
The filming of the first season began in November 2015 and was extensively done in Atlanta, Georgia, with The Duffer Brothers and Levy handling the direction of individual episodes. Jackson served as the basis of the fictional town of Hawkins, Indiana. Other shooting locations included the Georgia Mental Health Institute as the Hawkins National Laboratory site, Bellwood Quarry, Patrick Henry High School in Stockbridge, Georgia, for the middle and high school scenes, Emory University 's Continuing Education Department, the former city hall in Douglasville, Georgia, Georgia International Horse Park, the probate court in Butts County, Georgia, Old East Point Library and East Point First Baptist Church in East Point, Georgia, Fayetteville, Georgia, Stone Mountain Park, Palmetto, Georgia, and Winston, Georgia. Set work was done at Screen Gem Studios in Atlanta. The series was filmed with a Red Dragon digital camera. Filming for the first season concluded in early 2016.
While filming, the brothers tried to capture shots that could be seen as homages to many of the 1980s references they recalled. Their goal was not necessarily to fill the work with these references, but instead make the series seem to the viewer as a 1980s film. They spent little time reviewing those works and instead went by memory. Matt further recognized that some of their filming homages were not purposely done but were found to be very comparable, as highlighted by a fan - made video comparing the show to several 1980s works side - by - side. Matt commented on the video that "Some were deliberate and some were subconscious. '' The brothers recognized that many of the iconic scenes from these 1980s films, such as with Poltergeist, was about "taking a very ordinary object that people deal with every day, their television set, and imbuing it with something otherworldly '', leading to the idea of using the Christmas light strings for Will to communicate with Joyce.
The brothers attributed much of the 1980s feel to set and costume designers and the soundtrack composers that helped to recreate the era for them. Lynda Reiss, the head of props, had about a $220,000 budget, similar to most films, to acquire artifacts of the 1980s, using eBay and searching through flea markets and estate sales around the Atlanta area. The bulk of the props were original items from the 1980s with only a few pieces, such as the Dungeons & Dragons books made as replicas. Costume designer Kimberly Adams - Galligan for the first season aimed for capturing authenticity of the clothes choices by the characters, such as reflecting that the Byers would likely use hand - me - down clothes compared to the other families; in this case, while the costume department did distress the outfits for all the characters, they spent more time for Will 's clothes compared to Mike 's. Frequently, they needed to create outfits for the kids themselves since many were still growing during the time of filming, and could not readily acquire period fashion across a range of sizes. Director of photography Tim Ives shot the first season with Leica lens and the 6K Red Scarlet Dragon to "make sure that our images had the soft and round tones that are in ' 80s films ''; this is achieved through digital image processing. Ives said that these cameras allow them to create an adaptable quality to the recorded film that is adaptable to a wide range of viewing experiences, including support for newer and future television technologies such as high dynamic range video that was just becoming adopted at the time of filming.
Filming for the second season began on November 7, 2016, once again in and around the Atlanta Metro area. While parts of Season 2 were set in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, these were actually filmed in downtown Atlanta, with skylines of Pittsburgh added in post-production. Andrew Stanton, director of Pixar 's Finding Nemo and WALL - E, directed the fifth and sixth episodes of the second season. Levy stated that Stanton was a big fan of the show and called up Levy, offering his directorial abilities for the show. Rebecca Thomas directed the seventh episode of the season. Unlike the first season, which they were able to film without any real security issues, the heightened awareness of the show required the producers to take significant steps to keep the show 's production in secret while filming the second season. They spoke to the production team of HBO 's Game of Thrones for tips and advice for securing filming sites, and have adopted code names for the series and various parts to allow the actors to speak to others without revealing details of the show 's plot. Kim Wilcox took over for costumes in the second season, finding many of the same problems with designing for the child actors that were aging. Furthermore, she wanted to create the 80 's aestetic but as reflected in a small rural town, with the trends of period slowly filtering into it rather that immediately jump on elements like neon colors. The second season concluded filming on June 2, 2017. Ives once again used Leica lens to film the season, while upgrading to the Red Weapon 8K S35 camera.
Filming for the third season is expected to begin in mid-April 2018.
To create the aged effect for the series, a film grain was added over the footage, which was captured by scanning in film stock from the 1980s. The Duffers wanted to scare the audience, but not to necessarily make the show violent or gory, following in line with how the 1980s Amblin Entertainment films drove the creation of the PG - 13 movie rating. It was "much more about mood and atmosphere and suspense and dread than they are about gore '', though they were not afraid to push into more scary elements, particularly towards the end of the first season. The brothers had wanted to avoid any computer - generated effects for the monster and other parts of the series and stay with practical effects. However, the six - month filming time left them little time to plan out and test practical effects rigs for some of the shots. They went with a middle ground of using constructed props including one for the monster whenever they could, but for other shots, such as when the monster bursts through a wall, they opted to use digital effects. Post-production on the first season was completed the week before it was released to Netflix.
The title sequence uses closeups of the letters in the Stranger Things title with a red tint against a black background as they slide into place within the title. The sequence was created by the studio Imaginary Forces, formerly part of R / GA, led by creative director Michelle Doughtey. Levy introduced the studio to The Duffer Brothers, who explained their vision of the 1980s - inspired show, which helped the studio to fix the concept the producers wanted. Later, but prior to filming, the producers sent Imaginary Forces the pilot script, the synth - heavy background music for the titles, as well as the various book covers from King and other authors that they had used to establish the title and imagery, and were looking for a similar approach for the show 's titles, primarily using a typographical sequence. They took inspiration from several title sequences of works from the 1980s that were previously designed by Richard Greenberg under R / GA, such as Altered States and The Dead Zone. They also got input from Dan Perri, who worked on the title credits of several 1980s films. Various iterations included having letters vanish, to reflect the "missing '' theme of the show, and having letters cast shadows on others, alluding to the mysteries, before settling into the sliding letters. The studio began working on the title sequence before filming, and took about a month off during the filming process to let the producers get immersed in the show and come back with more input. Initially they had been working with various fonts for the title and used close - ups of the best features of these fonts, but near the end the producers wanted to work with ITC Benguiat, requiring them to rework those shots. The final sequence is fully computer generated, but they took inspiration from testing some practical effects, such as using Kodalith masks as would have been done in the 1980s, to develop the appropriate filters for the rendering software. The individual episode title cards used a "fly through '' approach, similar to the film Bullitt, which the producers had suggested to the studio.
The Stranger Things original soundtrack was composed by Michael Stein and Kyle Dixon of the electronic band Survive. It makes extensive use of synthesizers in homage to 1980s artists and film composers including Jean - Michel Jarre, Tangerine Dream, Vangelis, Goblin, John Carpenter, Giorgio Moroder, and Fabio Frizzi.
According to Stein and Dixon, The Duffer Brothers had been fans of Survive 's music, and used their song "Dirge '' for the mock trailer that was used to sell the show to Netflix. Once the show was green - lit, the Duffers contacted Survive around July 2015 to ask if they were still doing music; the two provided the production team with dozens of songs from their band 's past to gain their interest, helping to land them the role. Once aboard, the two worked with producers to select some of their older music to rework for the show, while developing new music, principally with character motifs. The two had been hired before the casting process, so their motif demos were used and played over the actors ' audition tapes, aiding in the casting selection. The show 's theme is based on an unused work Stein composed much earlier that ended up in the library of work they shared with the production staff, who thought that with some reworking would be good for the opening credits.
In addition to original music, Stranger Things features period music from artists including The Clash, Joy Division, Toto, New Order, The Bangles, Foreigner, Echo and the Bunnymen, Peter Gabriel, and Corey Hart, as well as excerpts from Tangerine Dream, John Carpenter, and Vangelis. In particular, The Clash 's "Should I Stay or Should I Go '' was specifically picked to play at pivotal moments of the story, such as when Will is trying to communicate with Joyce from the Upside Down.
Stranger Things ' original soundtrack, consisting of 75 songs from Stein and Dixon split across two volumes, was released by Lakeshore Records. Digital release and streaming options were released on August 10 and 19, 2016 for the two volumes, respectively, while retail versions were available on September 16 and 23, 2016. Limited editions of the soundtrack on vinyl, in both individual and a boxed set, are set for release in July 2017. A cassette version of the soundtrack, sold exclusively by Urban Outfitters, was released on July 14, 2017. The cassette packaging features a cardboard cover that emulates an old VHS sleeves, while the cassette case is made to look like a VHS tape.
Both volumes were nominated individually for the Best Score Soundtrack Category for the 2017 Grammy Awards, though neither won.
The soundtrack for the second season of Stranger Things was released digitally on October 20, 2017. The soundtrack, once again composed by Stein and Dixon, consists of 34 songs and was released by Lakeshore Records in the United States and Invada Records internationally. The soundtrack is intended to be released on physical formats, such as compact disc, vinyl, and cassette as well. On the soundtrack 's composition, Stein and Dixon together said that the score for the season introduces "new styles of composition, while still revisiting old themes when appropriate... We 've created new elements that are necessary to support the story, but still want to remain true to the sound of Season 1. '' The first track from the soundtrack, "Walkin ' in Hawkins '', was released on October 12.
The first season consisted of eight one - hour - long episodes which were released worldwide on Netflix on July 15, 2016, in Ultra HD 4K. The second season, consisting of nine episodes, was released on October 27, 2017 in HDR. A teaser for the second season, which also announced the release date, aired during Super Bowl LI. The third season is expected to consist of eight episodes. It is not expected to be released until late 2018 or early 2019.
The first season of Stranger Things was released on a Blu - ray / DVD combo pack exclusively to Target retailers on October 17, 2017, which includes a vintage VHS - inspired packaging.
As Netflix does not reveal subscriber viewership numbers for any of their original series, Symphony Technology Group compiled data for the season based on people using software on their phones that measures television viewing by detecting a program 's sound. According to Symphony, within the first 35 days of release, Stranger Things averaged ratings around 14.07 million adults between the ages 18 -- 49 in the United States. This made it the third most - watched season of Netflix original content in the U.S. at the time behind the first season of Fuller House and fourth season of Orange Is the New Black. In a September 2016 analysis, Netflix found that Stranger Things "hooked '' viewers by the second episode of the first season, indicating that the second episode was "the first installment that led at least 70 percent of viewers who watched that episode to complete the entire first season of a show. ''
In August 2017, the marketing analytics firm Jumpshot determined the season was the seventh-most viewed Netflix season in the first 30 days after it premiered, garnering slightly more than 20 % of the viewers that the second season of Daredevil received, which was the most viewed season according to Jumpshot. Jumpshot, which "analyzes click - stream data from an online panel of more than 100 million consumers '', looked at the viewing behavior and activity of the company 's U.S. members, factoring in the relative number of U.S. Netflix viewers who watched at least one episode of the season.
Review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes gave the first season an approval rating of 94 % based on 70 reviews, and a weighted average rating of 7.96 / 10. The site 's critical consensus states, "Exciting, heartbreaking, and sometimes scary, Stranger Things acts as an addictive homage to Spielberg films and vintage 1980s television. '' Review aggregator Metacritic gave the first season a normalized score of 76 out of 100 based on 34 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews ''.
IGN gave the score of 8 out of 10 and called the series "Great '', saying "Stranger Things is an easy recommendation, offering viewers an atmospheric and endearing series that is a nostalgic throwback without feeling like a simple copy. '' In a review in the San Francisco Chronicle Dave Wiegand wrote: "Stranger Things reminds us of a time marked by a kind of no - strings escapism. And as it does so, we find ourselves yearning for it because the Duffers have made it so irresistibly appealing. There may be other equally great shows to watch this summer, but I guarantee you wo n't have more fun watching any of them than you will watching Stranger Things. '' Joshua Alston of The A.V. Club also reviewed it positively saying, "Balancing style and substance is always challenging for a series like Stranger Things, but the show is perfectly calibrated. It feels like watching a show produced during the era in which it 's set, but with the craft of today 's prestige television. '' Reviewing for HitFix, Alan Sepinwall said, "Over the course of the eight hours, the story and characters take on enough life of their own so that the references do n't feel self - indulgent, and so that the series can be appreciated even if you do n't know the plot of E.T. or the title font of Stephen King 's early novels (a huge influence on the show 's own opening credits) by heart. ''
Emily Nussbaum of The New Yorker also applauded the series and wrote, "This is astoundingly efficient storytelling, eight hours that pass in a blink, with even minor characters getting sharp dialogue, dark humor, or moments of pathos. '' Television critic Mary McNamara of Los Angeles Times said, "For the most part, and in absolute defiance of the odds, Stranger Things honors its source material in the best way possible: By telling a sweet ' n ' scary story in which monsters are real but so are the transformative powers of love and fealty. '' The Wall Street Journal 's Brian Kelly said, "Matt Duffer and Ross Duffer, brothers and the show 's creators, have done their homework when it comes to ' 80s cinema. Whether you 're a fan of John Carpenter 's The Thing or The Goonies is more your speed, there 's plenty to like in Stranger Things. ''
In a negative review, cultural critic Grafton Tanner called the series "wish fulfillment '' and "a window through which the present - shocked can gaze at a clichéd past. '' Similarly, Marinna Guzy of The Establishment wrote: "When confronted with a story like Stranger Things, a recycled retelling of an old story being marketed as homage and good, clean nostalgia, one has to wonder whether or not studios and content creators like The Duffer Brothers ever ask themselves whether or not the story they are telling is the one that should be told. What purpose does Stranger Things serve beyond reinforcing the status quo in the media landscape and perpetuating the dangerous delusion that things were better way back when? ''
On Rotten Tomatoes, the second season has an approval rating of 94 % based on 120 reviews, and an average rating of 7.79 / 10. The site 's critical consensus states, "Stranger Things ' slow - building sophomore season balances moments of humor and a nostalgic sweetness against a growing horror that 's all the more effective thanks to the show 's full - bodied characters and evocative tone. '' On Metacritic, the second season has a normalized score of 78 out of 100, based on 33 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews ''.
Shortly after its release, Stranger Things gained a dedicated fanbase. One area of focus from these fans was the character of Barb, the nerdy friend and classmate of Nancy who is taken and killed by the monster early in the season. According to actress Shannon Purser, Barb "was n't supposed to be a big deal '', and The Duffer Brothers had not gone into great detail about the character since the focus was on finding Will. However, many fans sympathized with the character, with Laura Bradley of Vanity Fair suggesting that these people found that Barb would be a similar misfit in society, and "looks more like someone you might actually meet in real life '' compared to the other characters, particularly Nancy, in the series. Hashtags such as "# ImWithBarb '' and "# JusticeforBarb '' grew in popularity after the series ' release, and several fan sites and forums were created to support her. While Purser did not return for the second season, The Duffer Brothers used the real - life "Justice for Barb '' movement as inspiration for narrative at the start of the second season, with Nancy addressing the fact "that no one ever cares about '' Barb. Purser and several media outlets took her nomination as Barb for Outstanding Guest Actress in a Drama Series in the 69th Primetime Emmy Awards as achieving "Justice for Barb '', highlighting how well her character was received.
Another impact of the series has been an increase demand for Eggo waffles, as they are shown to be Eleven 's favorite food in several episodes and are seen as a representation of the show. The Kellogg Company, which manufactures Eggo, had not been part of the production prior to the first season 's release, but recognized the market impact of the series. It provided a vintage 1980s Eggo television advertisement for Netflix to use in its Super Bowl LI commercial, and is looking to become more involved with cross-promotion.
With the release of the second season of the series, Netflix also released Beyond Stranger Things, an aftershow hosted by Jim Rash. The guests of the aftershow are composed of cast and crew from the series, including The Duffer Brothers and the series ' stars, to discuss the development and behind - the - scenes production of the series and its larger mythology. Unlike previous aftershows created by Embassy Row, such as Talking Dead and Talking Bad, Beyond Stranger Things is intended to be watched after a screening of the entire current season.
Netflix and BonusXP developed a free mobile game tie - in for Stranger Things, released to iOS and Android devices on October 4, 2017. The game uses a retro - pixel style of art, similar to games for the Super Nintendo Entertainment System. The game is loosely based on the Stranger Things story after season one, with the player starting as Chief of Police Jim Hopper looking for the missing boys. Once these characters are found, they become playable and have special abilities that allow the player to access more areas in the game. BonusXP had less than a year to complete the game. The team decided to make the game in a similar style to The Legend of Zelda because it "was a perfect match because both (Stranger Things and Zelda) are about exploration, and it 's kind of a mysterious fit that fit the mood of the show, '' according to BonusXP president Dave Pottinger. The map of Hawkins in the game was based on a Google street view map of Jackson, Georgia where the series is filmed. In order to help keep the game a secret, BonusXP did not hire game testers for their quality assurance, instead having family members from the design team provide feedback; this process helped create the two difficulty levels in the game. Completing the game gives players a clip from the Season 2 premiere episode of the show. The game was downloaded 3 million times in the first week, becoming a top download and receiving critical praise. With the release of season two, an update to the game added Max as a playable character, and a release for the Amazon Fire TV, which included controller support.
Sony Interactive Entertainment has announced that it is working on a PlayStation 4 - exclusive game, based on Stranger Things, for their PlayStation VR peripheral. The company has since released a teaser showing the Christmas - lights - on - a-wall scenes.
United States Representative David Cicilline compared the state of the nation during the presidency of Donald Trump to that of Stranger Things during a speech given in Congress on February 16, 2017, using a sign "Trump Things '' in the same format as the title card of the show and saying "Like the main characters in Stranger Things, we are now stuck in the Upside Down ''.
As part of its release on Netflix on April 14, 2017, the cast of the rebooted version of Mystery Science Theater 3000 riffed on the first part of "Chapter 1 '' of Stranger Things. Google used augmented reality (AR) "stickers '' of Stranger Things characters to introduce its ARCore technology announced alongside its Pixel 2 phone in October 2017. Sesame Street created a young audience - appropriate spoof of Stranger Things, called Sharing Things, released in November 2017; it featured Cookie Monster as the "Cookiegorgon '', Grover as Lucas, Ernie as Dustin, and included several nods to the narrative of the second season.
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who is the world best player of all time | World Soccer (magazine) - wikipedia
World Soccer is an English language football magazine published by IPC Media. The magazine was established in 1960. It specialises in the international football scene. Its regular contributing writers include Brian Glanville, Keir Radnedge, Sid Lowe and Tim Vickery. World Soccer is a member of the European Sports Magazines (ESM), an umbrella group of similar magazines printed in other languages. Other members include A Bola, Don Balón, Kicker, La Gazzetta dello Sport and Sport Express. The members of this group elect a European "Team of the Month '' and a European "Team of the Year ''.
Since 1982, World Soccer has also organised "Player of the Year '', "Manager of the Year '' and "Team of the Year '' awards. In 2005 awards for the best "Young Player of the Year '' and "Referee of the Year '' were also introduced. In the December 1999 issue of World Soccer, a readers ' poll listing the 100 greatest football players of the 20th century was published.
The magazine marked its 50th anniversary in 2010 with a series of articles looking back on the past 50 years in international football.
JOEL Castaneda is the best
The list is based on votes of 73 experts around the world.
(Published in July 2013)
The list is based on votes of 70 experts around the world. Every expert could choose five managers whom they considered the greatest.
(Published July 2013)
The following managers only received one vote (1.43 %):
(Published December 1999)
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1. what are the two functions of the address bar | Address bar - Wikipedia
In a web browser, the address bar (also location bar or URL bar) is a graphical control element that shows the current URL. The user can type a URL into the bar to navigate to a chosen website. In a file browser it serves the same purpose of navigation but through the file - system hierarchy. Many address bars offer features like autocomplete and a list of suggestions while the address is being typed in. This auto - completion feature bases its suggestions on the browser 's history. Some browsers have keyboard shortcuts to auto - complete an address. These are generally configured by the user on a case - by - case basis. Address bars have been a feature of web browsers since NCSA Mosaic.
For websites using a favicon (a small icon that represents the website), a small icon will generally be present within the address bar, or somewhere nearby. Favicons are specific to websites, thus a generic icon will be displayed if not specified. The address bar is also used, in some browsers, to show the security status of a web page. Various colors and padlock icons may appear if the page is encrypted, and / or to indicate if intended communication is trustworthy and secure.
Some browsers address bars can be used to detect web feeds that can be used to subscribe to pages. The detection of a feed is normally indicated by the RSS icon "". A variety of other icons may also be present in the address bar if included with a browser extension.
Web browsers often include a feature called Smart Bookmarks. In this feature, the user sets a command that allows for a function (such as searching, editing, or posting) of a website to be expedited. Then, a keyword or term associated with the command is typed into the address bar followed by entering the term afterwards or selecting the command from a list.
Quick searches can also be performed in some browsers by entering a shortcut and search terms in lieu of a URL. For example, by associating the shortcut "w '' with Wikipedia, "w cake '' can be entered into the address bar to navigate directly to the Wikipedia article for cake. This feature is available in Firefox, Opera and Google Chrome.
In Opera and Safari, the address bar can double as a progress bar that indicates how much of the contents of the page has been loaded.
In Google Chrome, the address bar (or "Omnibox '') doubles as a search plugin bar which pulls incremental returns for typed phrases from Google Suggest 's pre-emptive search. An add - on is also available for Firefox that duplicates this functionality, and newer versions have the capability built - in. This "Omnibox '' is also capable of, in addition to the quick search function listed above, interpreting any non-URL phrase typed into it as a search on the user 's search engine of choice.
The following sections compare address bar widgets for a few well - known web browsers.
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what does sam have to do to kill lilith | Lilith (Supernatural) - wikipedia
Lilith is a fictional character on The CW Television Network 's drama and horror television series Supernatural. The series ' writers conceptualized her as a dangerous new adversary for series protagonists Sam and Dean Winchester to face, introducing her to stabilize the story arc in the third season by giving demons a new leader in the wake of the death of the villainous Azazel and maintaining her as the primary antagonist until the conclusion of the fourth season. During the third season, Lilith tries to kill Sam and Dean, ordering for their deaths at the hands of her minions. Early in the fourth season it is revealed that her goal is to free her maker, the fallen angel Lucifer, from his imprisonment in Hell. The protagonists ' attempts to thwart her plan is the main plot of that season.
As a "destroyer of children and seducer of men '', the character initially possesses little girls but is later depicted as possessing young women in attempt by the writers to avoid showing violence towards children on - screen. The character received generally favorable reviews from critics, particularly for her role in "No Rest for the Wicked ''.
According to series creator Eric Kripke, the archangel Lucifer "twisted and mutilated '' the human Lilith 's soul into the first demon "to prove a point to God... that human souls were... inferior to God and the angels ''. Having been freed from Hell in the second season finale "All Hell Breaks Loose: Part Two '', Lilith (Rachel Pattee) debuts in the final moments of the third season episode "Jus in Bello '' as the current leader of an army of demons also unleashed from Hell; the first half of the season had established that after the death of the army general and previous series antagonist Azazel created a power vacuum, leading to power struggles between demonic factions, which is resolved when Lilith ultimately emerges as the victor. In her "Jus in Bello '' appearance, she searches a police station for the series protagonists Sam and Dean Winchester, brothers who hunt supernatural creatures. Having just missed them, she proceeds to torture everyone in the station for nearly an hour after destroying the station in a massive explosion. The Winchesters ' demonic ally Ruby explains that Lilith sees Sam as a rival, as he has demonic abilities and was intended -- but unwilling -- to lead Azazel 's demon army. Lilith orders Sam 's death in order to secure her position as the army 's general, even tricking the thief Bela Talbot into making a failed attempt on Sam 's life with the promise of releasing Bela from her Faustian deal, only to go back on her word and let Bela get dragged into Hell.
With Dean having also sold his soul as part of a Faustian deal -- one he made to save Sam 's life -- the brothers spend part of the season searching for the entity that holds the contract to Dean 's soul and eventually learn from Bela that the demon in question is Lilith, who holds the contracts to all deals. In the third season finale "No Rest for the Wicked '', the Winchesters track her down in New Harmony, Indiana, where she is holding a family hostage in the guise of their daughter (Sierra McCormick). Before Sam and Dean can attack her, Lilith secretly takes over Ruby 's host body (Katie Cassidy) in order to catch the brothers off - guard. She has a hellhound kill Dean and bring his soul to Hell to be tortured by Hell 's chief torturer Alastair as part of her plan to begin breaking the 66 mystical seals keeping Lucifer imprisoned in Hell. Lilith then tries to kill Sam as well by blasting him with destructive white energy, only to find that she is powerless against him. Horrified, she escapes before he can retaliate with Ruby 's demon - killing knife.
Throughout the fourth season, Lilith orchestrates the attacks by the forces of Hell on the 66 seals. They are opposed by angels, who resurrect Dean to assist them. Lilith eventually finds out that her death is the final seal that needs to be broken to free Lucifer. Reluctant to sacrifice herself, Lilith (Katherine Boecher) proposes a deal to Sam in "The Monster at the End of This Book '': she will stop breaking the seals in exchange for his and Dean 's lives. He rejects the deal and tries to kill her instead. She quickly overpowers him, but is forced to flee before she can do anymore when Dean tricks an archangel into coming to the location. In the season finale "Lucifer Rising '', Sam kills Lilith under the impression that her death will prevent the final seal from breaking, and in doing so inadvertently breaks the final seal, releasing Lucifer.
Series creator Eric Kripke noted that Lilith is "a combination of all myths concerning Lilith '', and posited that the show would in particular explore her two main mythological roles of "destroyer of children and seducer of men ''. The former characteristic is demonstrated through her possession of children in her early appearances, which writer Sera Gamble considered "creepy and kind of molesty ''. Actress Katherine Boecher supposes that aspect to be "part of the mischievous side of her '', feeling that "maybe there are a lot of demons out there that would n't go that far to take over a child ''. Kripke revealed that another legend about Lilith influencing their portrayal of the show 's character was the traditional story of her origins, explaining that "she is generally esteemed as one of the first demons, certainly the first female demon, so we 're kind of holding to that; we keep in our heads that that 's really what she is, that she very well might have been Adam 's first wife and was banished to become a demon. ''
Nicholas Knight, author of various Supernatural supplementary books, acknowledged that Lilith is evil but also revealed that she is capable of feeling love, stating that she "loves her creator (Lucifer) so completely that she willingly sacrifices herself, allowing Sam to kill her (to free Lucifer) ''. The show 's writers set out to make Lilith 's motivations "as logical as possible '', with Kripke explaining that "everyone sets out thinking they 're doing the right thing ''. He noted that in "Lucifer Rising '', "There 's a private moment with Lilith when she says to her minion, ' Do n't be afraid... we 're going to save the world, ' '' and he believes in her sincerity. Boecher, too, thinks that the character is "super-confident in what she 's doing '' and feels that "she really believes that she 's going to fix things in her own way and that she has to take it into her own hands to do so ''.
Lilith is said to be "older and more powerful than Yellow Eyes (Azazel) '' and thus holds higher status than Azazel, on which Kripke commented, "You do n't get much higher than her until you start digging into Lucifer territory. '' Knight provided more information on the character 's importance in Hell and in the story, explaining that she is a demonic chief of staff in Hell 's hierarchy, ruler over witches, and "Queen of the Crossroads '' for whom "all Crossroads Demons make deals, which is why she ultimately holds sway over Dean Winchester 's soul. '' Knight also noted in - universe rumors that Lilith may be "Queen of Vampires '' as well as the mother of Lucifer - fathered djinn.
The writing team for Supernatural 's third season had "always '' planned to introduce a new demon antagonist at some point in the season for that character to fulfill Azazel 's role in the series as the lead villain. When Kripke felt that the season 's initial format -- that of the Winchesters fighting small, independent groups of demons, an attempt by the writers to reflect terrorist cells -- was not successful, the writers chose to introduce this antagonist as the demons ' new leader halfway through the season in order to stabilize the demon storyline. Although the character had the working title of Zarqawi during the planning stages, Gamble insisted that the demon be female. She eventually suggested the mythological Lilith, who the writers had previously learned was in part the basis for the Bloody Mary legend in conducting their research for the first season episode "Bloody Mary ''.
Writer Jeremy Carver said that the debate about what form Lilith would take quickly ended when the writers realized that a little girl "would be the most powerful representation of evil '', which Kripke supported, saying, "I think it 's just something about the innocence of a child saying truly awful, horror (sic) things. '' Much of Lilith 's actions in "No Rest for the Wicked '' served as a homage to the Twilight Zone episode "It 's a Good Life '', in which a powerful child terrorizes his town. Kripke enjoyed writing Lilith 's scenes in the episode and found them to be among the easiest of the season finale to write, stating his view that she was "a really effective villain. '' Gamble, too, liked the way that Lilith was used that season; she found the decision to have the character be "a demon that likes to possess little girls '' to be "interesting '', and called Lilith "a cool demon to do. '' When Lilith temporarily takes over Ruby 's host, executive producer Kim Manners was impressed by the performance that Ruby 's actress Katie Cassidy gave, describing Cassidy 's transition between the characters as "just astounding ''. Upon realizing that they could not depict Sam killing a child, the writers decided to have Lilith possess adult hosts in future appearances.
The writers initially intended for Sam to develop his demonic abilities in order to use them against Lilith in the third season. How the confrontation would have ended at that stage was uncertain, with Kripke stating that "when they (the Winchesters) went up against Lilith, maybe they would 've survived and maybe they would n't have. '' However, the 2007 -- 2008 Writers Guild of America strike prevented them from fleshing out Sam 's abilities until the fourth season, and so Lilith and Sam 's battle was pushed back. Lilith is "very active behind the scenes '' for much of the fourth season, with the writers planning for her to make her on - screen return later on. Boecher received the part of Lilith for "The Monster at the End of This Book '', with Kripke feeling that she fulfilled Lilith 's myth of being a "seducer of men '' by bringing "a sexuality and a menace to the role ''. Boecher still attempted to maintain some childlike quality for the character to "bring out more sides of Lilith ''. Although demons typically rotate through their hosts, production asked her to return for "Lucifer Rising ''. Kripke admitted the benefit of having a familiar face return for the finale, but furthermore said that the production team "really liked what (Boecher) did, and (...) thought she had such a fascinating look. She 's beautiful, but there 's something really menacing in her performance as well, and the camera just loves her. '' The opportunity to reprise the role both surprised and excited Boecher.
Lilith is the first demon in Supernatural to be depicted with all - white eyes. When creating the character, it was decided that her demonic eye color should set her apart from previous demons in the series in order to illustrate her power. Inspired by his viewing of the horror film I Walked with a Zombie the previous year, Kripke was excited by the opportunity Lilith presented to introduce white - eyed demons into the show 's mythos because he had found a white - eyed creature shown in I Walked with a Zombie to be "really disturbing ''. Unlike actors portraying Azazel in previous seasons who had had to wear contact lenses, Boecher 's eyes were colored white using visual effects.
BuddyTV 's senior writer John Kubieck was shocked by Lilith 's debut in "Jus in Bello '', specifically by the revelation that she appears as a little girl. Tina Charles of TV Guide opined that the decision to portray Lilith as a child played to the show 's strength of "creating kids that are freakin ' scary '', but was surprised by the departure from the normal demonic eye color in Lilith 's white eyes, wondering at its implications for the character. Overall, she deemed Lilith 's introduction one of the highlights of the episode. Despite the change in actresses between Rachel Pattee and Sierra McCormick from "Jus in Bello '' to "No Rest for the Wicked '', Charles felt that "the results were still as creepy ''. Sandrine Sahakians, Editor - in - Chief for TV Equals, agreed, writing that, "the scene where she comes out with her dress all full of blood... was one of the freakiest scenes ever. '' In her review of "The Monster at the End of the Book '', Sahakians was very surprised by how frightened Lilith seemed to be of her fate, musing that the character was "not as invincible as we once thought. '' She also found it "interesting '' that, while Lilith was immune to Sam 's powers, Sam was immune to Lilith 's.
Regarding Lilith 's depiction in "No Rest for the Wicked '', Don Williams of BuddyTV deemed her "one extremely scary little girl ''. He wrote, "As sad as I was to see (Ruby) taken over by Lilith, it was yet another chilling demonstration of how powerful the new demon leader is. Watching the little girl snap her grandpa 's neck just for kicks was creepy enough, but seeing her take over Ruby 's body was truly frightening. It 's one of the many disturbing moments in ' No Rest for the Wicked ' that helps to make it so unforgettable '', concluding that, "By the end of the episode, it 's obvious that the Winchesters have never faced any demon as powerful as adorable little Lilith. '' Karla Peterson of the San Diego Union - Tribune also remarked on Lilith 's possession of Ruby 's host, when she noted that Katie Cassidy did a "terrific job of acting like a completely different character is inside her body ''. Likewise, Diana Steenbergen of IGN found it "nice to see Katie Cassidy have a chance to act so differently '', and believed that "Lilith and her little girl mannerisms in Ruby 's body were far more chilling, and interesting, than Ruby 's tough chick persona ever has been ''. On McCormick 's reprisal of her role as Lilith in "Yellow Fever '', Steenbergen was similarly positive towards Lilith 's characterization, writing that, "Lillith (sic) as a little girl in a cute pink dress being the embodiment of evil is still creepy. '' She felt that the revelation in "When the Levee Breaks '' that Lilith eats babies detracted from an otherwise well - written episode, as she believed that Lilith 's evil had already been so firmly established that adding in a scene implying the murder of infants was "pointless ''.
Brett Love of TV Squad gave a mixed review on how the character was used in "No Rest for the Wicked ''. He enjoyed Lilith 's storyline and that she "served as the catalyst for some great Ruby bits '' throughout the season, but felt that the shortened season did not allow the proper build up for her character. He also did not like the change in Lilith 's host, explaining, "each (body jump) takes away a little bit from the character... Especially if the demon in question keeps jumping into cute little girls ''. Although McCormick impressed him, he posited that "when it comes to menacing and scary, she 's no Fredric Lehne '' (Azazel). Overall, he felt "a little disappointed ''.
Fans have responded positively to Lilith. In 2009, she was voted the third - greatest Supernatural villain in an online poll conducted by BuddyTV, placing her below fellow demons Azazel (the winner of the poll) and Alastair.
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who plays abby in the young and the restless | Melissa Ordway - wikipedia
Melissa Pam Ordway Gaston (born March 31, 1983) is an American actress and model. She has modeled in many campaigns and acted in such films as 17 Again and on television in Privileged. She currently portrays the character of Abby Newman on the drama series The Young and the Restless.
Ordway was born in Atlanta, Georgia, an only child, to John and Christine Ordway. She began doing community theatre in Atlanta and also acting in theatre productions at her high school in Snellville, Georgia. She starred in the stage performances of Beauty and the Beast, The Women, A Midsummer Night 's Dream, and many other shows. After graduating from high school, Ordway attended Georgia State University and is a member of the Delta Zeta sorority. While at Georgia State, Melissa was chosen to participate in a reality show on MTV called The Assistant. She won the show and moved to Los Angeles to pursue a career in acting and modeling.
On September 22, 2012 she married Justin Gaston, whom she met during the filming of Escapee. In 2016, Gaston and Ordway adopted their first child, a daughter. Ordway gave birth to their second daughter in December 2017.
She moved to Los Angeles and signed with Nous Model Management. She started booking national campaigns and magazine covers almost immediately. Melissa 's first big campaign was for Skechers. Within a year Ordway had modeled for Old Navy, Fabrizio Gianni, David 's Bridal, Anchor Blue and Tilly 's; she had also appeared on the cover Los Angeles Weddings Magazine, Grand Sierra Magazine and Hona Hou Magazine. She appeared on The Price is Right as a fill - in model the week of October 7, 2015.
Melissa Ordway 's first major acting part was the recurring roles of Jordanna on The CW television series Privileged. Ordway 's feature film debut was in 17 Again. She has guest starred on such television shows as Entourage and How I Met Your Mother, as well as starring in several independent films including Callers, Tales of an Ancient Empire and I Heart Veronica Martin. In 2010, Ordway appeared in the film The Last Song as Ashley and guest starred on Melrose Place as Morgan McKellan. She starred in the fantasy thriller film Tales of an Ancient Empire. In 2011, she co-starred in Escapee and appeared in Ted directed by Seth MacFarlane.
She was cast in the main role of Chloe Carter on the TeenNick series Hollywood Heights in 2012. In March 2013, Ordway was cast in the role of Abby Newman on the CBS soap opera The Young and the Restless, replacing previous actress Marcy Rylan.
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list and explain the generation of computer and their features | Computer - wikipedia
A computer is a device that can be instructed to carry out arbitrary sequences of arithmetic or logical operations automatically. The ability of computers to follow generalized sets of operations, called programs, enables them to perform an extremely wide range of tasks.
Such computers are used as control systems for a very wide variety of industrial and consumer devices. This includes simple special purpose devices like microwave ovens and remote controls, factory devices such as industrial robots and computer assisted design, but also in general purpose devices like personal computers and mobile devices such as smartphones. The Internet is run on computers and it connects millions of other computers.
Since ancient times, simple manual devices like the abacus aided people in doing calculations. Early in the Industrial Revolution, some mechanical devices were built to automate long tedious tasks, such as guiding patterns for looms. More sophisticated electrical machines did specialized analog calculations in the early 20th century. The first digital electronic calculating machines were developed during World War II. The speed, power, and versatility of computers has increased continuously and dramatically since then.
Conventionally, a modern computer consists of at least one processing element, typically a central processing unit (CPU), and some form of memory. The processing element carries out arithmetic and logical operations, and a sequencing and control unit can change the order of operations in response to stored information. Peripheral devices include input devices (keyboards, mice, joystick, etc.), output devices (monitor screens, printers, etc.), and input / output devices that perform both functions (e.g., the 2000s - era touchscreen). Peripheral devices allow information to be retrieved from an external source and they enable the result of operations to be saved and retrieved.
According to the Oxford English Dictionary, the first known use of the word "computer '' was in 1613 in a book called The Yong Mans Gleanings by English writer Richard Braithwait: "I haue (sic) read the truest computer of Times, and the best Arithmetician that euer (sic) breathed, and he reduceth thy dayes into a short number. '' This usage of the term referred to a person who carried out calculations or computations. The word continued with the same meaning until the middle of the 20th century. From the end of the 19th century the word began to take on its more familiar meaning, a machine that carries out computations.
The Online Etymology Dictionary gives the first attested use of "computer '' in the "1640s, (meaning) "one who calculates, ''; this is an "... agent noun from compute (v.) ''. The Online Etymology Dictionary states that the use of the term to mean "calculating machine '' (of any type) is from 1897. '' The Online Etymology Dictionary indicates that the "modern use '' of the term, to mean "programmable digital electronic computer '' dates from "... 1945 under this name; (in a) theoretical (sense) from 1937, as Turing machine ''.
Devices have been used to aid computation for thousands of years, mostly using one - to - one correspondence with fingers. The earliest counting device was probably a form of tally stick. Later record keeping aids throughout the Fertile Crescent included calculi (clay spheres, cones, etc.) which represented counts of items, probably livestock or grains, sealed in hollow unbaked clay containers. The use of counting rods is one example.
The abacus was initially used for arithmetic tasks. The Roman abacus was developed from devices used in Babylonia as early as 2400 BC. Since then, many other forms of reckoning boards or tables have been invented. In a medieval European counting house, a checkered cloth would be placed on a table, and markers moved around on it according to certain rules, as an aid to calculating sums of money.
The Antikythera mechanism is believed to be the earliest mechanical analog "computer '', according to Derek J. de Solla Price. It was designed to calculate astronomical positions. It was discovered in 1901 in the Antikythera wreck off the Greek island of Antikythera, between Kythera and Crete, and has been dated to circa 100 BC. Devices of a level of complexity comparable to that of the Antikythera mechanism would not reappear until a thousand years later.
Many mechanical aids to calculation and measurement were constructed for astronomical and navigation use. The planisphere was a star chart invented by Abū Rayhān al - Bīrūnī in the early 11th century. The astrolabe was invented in the Hellenistic world in either the 1st or 2nd centuries BC and is often attributed to Hipparchus. A combination of the planisphere and dioptra, the astrolabe was effectively an analog computer capable of working out several different kinds of problems in spherical astronomy. An astrolabe incorporating a mechanical calendar computer and gear - wheels was invented by Abi Bakr of Isfahan, Persia in 1235. Abū Rayhān al - Bīrūnī invented the first mechanical geared lunisolar calendar astrolabe, an early fixed - wired knowledge processing machine with a gear train and gear - wheels, circa 1000 AD.
The sector, a calculating instrument used for solving problems in proportion, trigonometry, multiplication and division, and for various functions, such as squares and cube roots, was developed in the late 16th century and found application in gunnery, surveying and navigation.
The planimeter was a manual instrument to calculate the area of a closed figure by tracing over it with a mechanical linkage.
The slide rule was invented around 1620 -- 1630, shortly after the publication of the concept of the logarithm. It is a hand - operated analog computer for doing multiplication and division. As slide rule development progressed, added scales provided reciprocals, squares and square roots, cubes and cube roots, as well as transcendental functions such as logarithms and exponentials, circular and hyperbolic trigonometry and other functions. Slide rules with special scales are still used for quick performance of routine calculations, such as the E6B circular slide rule used for time and distance calculations on light aircraft.
In the 1770s Pierre Jaquet - Droz, a Swiss watchmaker, built a mechanical doll (automata) that could write holding a quill pen. By switching the number and order of its internal wheels different letters, and hence different messages, could be produced. In effect, it could be mechanically "programmed '' to read instructions. Along with two other complex machines, the doll is at the Musée d'Art et d'Histoire of Neuchâtel, Switzerland, and still operates.
The tide - predicting machine invented by Sir William Thomson in 1872 was of great utility to navigation in shallow waters. It used a system of pulleys and wires to automatically calculate predicted tide levels for a set period at a particular location.
The differential analyser, a mechanical analog computer designed to solve differential equations by integration, used wheel - and - disc mechanisms to perform the integration. In 1876 Lord Kelvin had already discussed the possible construction of such calculators, but he had been stymied by the limited output torque of the ball - and - disk integrators. In a differential analyzer, the output of one integrator drove the input of the next integrator, or a graphing output. The torque amplifier was the advance that allowed these machines to work. Starting in the 1920s, Vannevar Bush and others developed mechanical differential analyzers.
Charles Babbage, an English mechanical engineer and polymath, originated the concept of a programmable computer. Considered the "father of the computer '', he conceptualized and invented the first mechanical computer in the early 19th century. After working on his revolutionary difference engine, designed to aid in navigational calculations, in 1833 he realized that a much more general design, an Analytical Engine, was possible. The input of programs and data was to be provided to the machine via punched cards, a method being used at the time to direct mechanical looms such as the Jacquard loom. For output, the machine would have a printer, a curve plotter and a bell. The machine would also be able to punch numbers onto cards to be read in later. The Engine incorporated an arithmetic logic unit, control flow in the form of conditional branching and loops, and integrated memory, making it the first design for a general - purpose computer that could be described in modern terms as Turing - complete.
The machine was about a century ahead of its time. All the parts for his machine had to be made by hand -- this was a major problem for a device with thousands of parts. Eventually, the project was dissolved with the decision of the British Government to cease funding. Babbage 's failure to complete the analytical engine can be chiefly attributed to difficulties not only of politics and financing, but also to his desire to develop an increasingly sophisticated computer and to move ahead faster than anyone else could follow. Nevertheless, his son, Henry Babbage, completed a simplified version of the analytical engine 's computing unit (the mill) in 1888. He gave a successful demonstration of its use in computing tables in 1906.
During the first half of the 20th century, many scientific computing needs were met by increasingly sophisticated analog computers, which used a direct mechanical or electrical model of the problem as a basis for computation. However, these were not programmable and generally lacked the versatility and accuracy of modern digital computers. The first modern analog computer was a tide - predicting machine, invented by Sir William Thomson in 1872. The differential analyser, a mechanical analog computer designed to solve differential equations by integration using wheel - and - disc mechanisms, was conceptualized in 1876 by James Thomson, the brother of the more famous Lord Kelvin.
The art of mechanical analog computing reached its zenith with the differential analyzer, built by H.L. Hazen and Vannevar Bush at MIT starting in 1927. This built on the mechanical integrators of James Thomson and the torque amplifiers invented by H.W. Nieman. A dozen of these devices were built before their obsolescence became obvious. By the 1950s the success of digital electronic computers had spelled the end for most analog computing machines, but analog computers remained in use during the 1950s in some specialized applications such as education (control systems) and aircraft (slide rule).
By 1938, the United States Navy had developed an electromechanical analog computer small enough to use aboard a submarine. This was the Torpedo Data Computer, which used trigonometry to solve the problem of firing a torpedo at a moving target. During World War II similar devices were developed in other countries as well.
Early digital computers were electromechanical; electric switches drove mechanical relays to perform the calculation. These devices had a low operating speed and were eventually superseded by much faster all - electric computers, originally using vacuum tubes. The Z2, created by German engineer Konrad Zuse in 1939, was one of the earliest examples of an electromechanical relay computer.
In 1941, Zuse followed his earlier machine up with the Z3, the world 's first working electromechanical programmable, fully automatic digital computer. The Z3 was built with 2000 relays, implementing a 22 bit word length that operated at a clock frequency of about 5 -- 10 Hz. Program code was supplied on punched film while data could be stored in 64 words of memory or supplied from the keyboard. It was quite similar to modern machines in some respects, pioneering numerous advances such as floating point numbers. Rather than the harder - to - implement decimal system (used in Charles Babbage 's earlier design), using a binary system meant that Zuse 's machines were easier to build and potentially more reliable, given the technologies available at that time. The Z3 was Turing complete.
Purely electronic circuit elements soon replaced their mechanical and electromechanical equivalents, at the same time that digital calculation replaced analog. The engineer Tommy Flowers, working at the Post Office Research Station in London in the 1930s, began to explore the possible use of electronics for the telephone exchange. Experimental equipment that he built in 1934 went into operation five years later, converting a portion of the telephone exchange network into an electronic data processing system, using thousands of vacuum tubes. In the US, John Vincent Atanasoff and Clifford E. Berry of Iowa State University developed and tested the Atanasoff -- Berry Computer (ABC) in 1942, the first "automatic electronic digital computer ''. This design was also all - electronic and used about 300 vacuum tubes, with capacitors fixed in a mechanically rotating drum for memory.
During World War II, the British at Bletchley Park achieved a number of successes at breaking encrypted German military communications. The German encryption machine, Enigma, was first attacked with the help of the electro - mechanical bombes. To crack the more sophisticated German Lorenz SZ 40 / 42 machine, used for high - level Army communications, Max Newman and his colleagues commissioned Flowers to build the Colossus. He spent eleven months from early February 1943 designing and building the first Colossus. After a functional test in December 1943, Colossus was shipped to Bletchley Park, where it was delivered on 18 January 1944 and attacked its first message on 5 February.
Colossus was the world 's first electronic digital programmable computer. It used a large number of valves (vacuum tubes). It had paper - tape input and was capable of being configured to perform a variety of boolean logical operations on its data, but it was not Turing - complete. Nine Mk II Colossi were built (The Mk I was converted to a Mk II making ten machines in total). Colossus Mark I contained 1,500 thermionic valves (tubes), but Mark II with 2,400 valves, was both 5 times faster and simpler to operate than Mark I, greatly speeding the decoding process.
The U.S. - built ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer) was the first electronic programmable computer built in the US. Although the ENIAC was similar to the Colossus, it was much faster, more flexible, and it was Turing - complete. Like the Colossus, a "program '' on the ENIAC was defined by the states of its patch cables and switches, a far cry from the stored program electronic machines that came later. Once a program was written, it had to be mechanically set into the machine with manual resetting of plugs and switches.
It combined the high speed of electronics with the ability to be programmed for many complex problems. It could add or subtract 5000 times a second, a thousand times faster than any other machine. It also had modules to multiply, divide, and square root. High speed memory was limited to 20 words (about 80 bytes). Built under the direction of John Mauchly and J. Presper Eckert at the University of Pennsylvania, ENIAC 's development and construction lasted from 1943 to full operation at the end of 1945. The machine was huge, weighing 30 tons, using 200 kilowatts of electric power and contained over 18,000 vacuum tubes, 1,500 relays, and hundreds of thousands of resistors, capacitors, and inductors.
The principle of the modern computer was proposed by Alan Turing in his seminal 1936 paper, On Computable Numbers. Turing proposed a simple device that he called "Universal Computing machine '' and that is now known as a universal Turing machine. He proved that such a machine is capable of computing anything that is computable by executing instructions (program) stored on tape, allowing the machine to be programmable. The fundamental concept of Turing 's design is the stored program, where all the instructions for computing are stored in memory. Von Neumann acknowledged that the central concept of the modern computer was due to this paper. Turing machines are to this day a central object of study in theory of computation. Except for the limitations imposed by their finite memory stores, modern computers are said to be Turing - complete, which is to say, they have algorithm execution capability equivalent to a universal Turing machine.
Early computing machines had fixed programs. Changing its function required the re-wiring and re-structuring of the machine. With the proposal of the stored - program computer this changed. A stored - program computer includes by design an instruction set and can store in memory a set of instructions (a program) that details the computation. The theoretical basis for the stored - program computer was laid by Alan Turing in his 1936 paper. In 1945 Turing joined the National Physical Laboratory and began work on developing an electronic stored - program digital computer. His 1945 report "Proposed Electronic Calculator '' was the first specification for such a device. John von Neumann at the University of Pennsylvania also circulated his First Draft of a Report on the EDVAC in 1945.
The Manchester Small - Scale Experimental Machine, nicknamed Baby, was the world 's first stored - program computer. It was built at the Victoria University of Manchester by Frederic C. Williams, Tom Kilburn and Geoff Tootill, and ran its first program on 21 June 1948. It was designed as a testbed for the Williams tube, the first random - access digital storage device. Although the computer was considered "small and primitive '' by the standards of its time, it was the first working machine to contain all of the elements essential to a modern electronic computer. As soon as the SSEM had demonstrated the feasibility of its design, a project was initiated at the university to develop it into a more usable computer, the Manchester Mark 1.
The Mark 1 in turn quickly became the prototype for the Ferranti Mark 1, the world 's first commercially available general - purpose computer. Built by Ferranti, it was delivered to the University of Manchester in February 1951. At least seven of these later machines were delivered between 1953 and 1957, one of them to Shell labs in Amsterdam. In October 1947, the directors of British catering company J. Lyons & Company decided to take an active role in promoting the commercial development of computers. The LEO I computer became operational in April 1951 and ran the world 's first regular routine office computer job.
The bipolar transistor was invented in 1947. From 1955 onwards transistors replaced vacuum tubes in computer designs, giving rise to the "second generation '' of computers. Compared to vacuum tubes, transistors have many advantages: they are smaller, and require less power than vacuum tubes, so give off less heat. Silicon junction transistors were much more reliable than vacuum tubes and had longer, indefinite, service life. Transistorized computers could contain tens of thousands of binary logic circuits in a relatively compact space.
At the University of Manchester, a team under the leadership of Tom Kilburn designed and built a machine using the newly developed transistors instead of valves. Their first transistorised computer and the first in the world, was operational by 1953, and a second version was completed there in April 1955. However, the machine did make use of valves to generate its 125 kHz clock waveforms and in the circuitry to read and write on its magnetic drum memory, so it was not the first completely transistorized computer. That distinction goes to the Harwell CADET of 1955, built by the electronics division of the Atomic Energy Research Establishment at Harwell.
The next great advance in computing power came with the advent of the integrated circuit. The idea of the integrated circuit was first conceived by a radar scientist working for the Royal Radar Establishment of the Ministry of Defence, Geoffrey W.A. Dummer. Dummer presented the first public description of an integrated circuit at the Symposium on Progress in Quality Electronic Components in Washington, D.C. on 7 May 1952.
The first practical ICs were invented by Jack Kilby at Texas Instruments and Robert Noyce at Fairchild Semiconductor. Kilby recorded his initial ideas concerning the integrated circuit in July 1958, successfully demonstrating the first working integrated example on 12 September 1958. In his patent application of 6 February 1959, Kilby described his new device as "a body of semiconductor material... wherein all the components of the electronic circuit are completely integrated ''. Noyce also came up with his own idea of an integrated circuit half a year later than Kilby. His chip solved many practical problems that Kilby 's had not. Produced at Fairchild Semiconductor, it was made of silicon, whereas Kilby 's chip was made of germanium.
This new development heralded an explosion in the commercial and personal use of computers and led to the invention of the microprocessor. While the subject of exactly which device was the first microprocessor is contentious, partly due to lack of agreement on the exact definition of the term "microprocessor '', it is largely undisputed that the first single - chip microprocessor was the Intel 4004, designed and realized by Ted Hoff, Federico Faggin, and Stanley Mazor at Intel.
With the continued miniaturization of computing resources, and advancements in portable battery life, portable computers grew in popularity in the 2000s. The same developments that spurred the growth of laptop computers and other portable computers allowed manufacturers to integrate computing resources into cellular phones. These so - called smartphones and tablets run on a variety of operating systems and have become the dominant computing device on the market, with manufacturers reporting having shipped an estimated 237 million devices in 2Q 2013.
Computers are typically classified based on their uses:
The term hardware covers all of those parts of a computer that are tangible physical objects. Circuits, computer chips, graphic cards, sound cards, memory (RAM), motherboard, displays, power supplies, cables, keyboards, printers and "mice '' input devices are all hardware.
A general purpose computer has four main components: the arithmetic logic unit (ALU), the control unit, the memory, and the input and output devices (collectively termed I / O). These parts are interconnected by buses, often made of groups of wires. Inside each of these parts are thousands to trillions of small electrical circuits which can be turned off or on by means of an electronic switch. Each circuit represents a bit (binary digit) of information so that when the circuit is on it represents a "1 '', and when off it represents a "0 '' (in positive logic representation). The circuits are arranged in logic gates so that one or more of the circuits may control the state of one or more of the other circuits.
When unprocessed data is sent to the computer with the help of input devices, the data is processed and sent to output devices. The input devices may be hand - operated or automated. The act of processing is mainly regulated by the CPU. Some examples of input devices are:
The means through which computer gives output are known as output devices. Some examples of output devices are:
The control unit (often called a control system or central controller) manages the computer 's various components; it reads and interprets (decodes) the program instructions, transforming them into control signals that activate other parts of the computer. Control systems in advanced computers may change the order of execution of some instructions to improve performance.
A key component common to all CPUs is the program counter, a special memory cell (a register) that keeps track of which location in memory the next instruction is to be read from.
The control system 's function is as follows -- note that this is a simplified description, and some of these steps may be performed concurrently or in a different order depending on the type of CPU:
Since the program counter is (conceptually) just another set of memory cells, it can be changed by calculations done in the ALU. Adding 100 to the program counter would cause the next instruction to be read from a place 100 locations further down the program. Instructions that modify the program counter are often known as "jumps '' and allow for loops (instructions that are repeated by the computer) and often conditional instruction execution (both examples of control flow).
The sequence of operations that the control unit goes through to process an instruction is in itself like a short computer program, and indeed, in some more complex CPU designs, there is another yet smaller computer called a microsequencer, which runs a microcode program that causes all of these events to happen.
The control unit, ALU, and registers are collectively known as a central processing unit (CPU). Early CPUs were composed of many separate components but since the mid-1970s CPUs have typically been constructed on a single integrated circuit called a microprocessor.
The ALU is capable of performing two classes of operations: arithmetic and logic. The set of arithmetic operations that a particular ALU supports may be limited to addition and subtraction, or might include multiplication, division, trigonometry functions such as sine, cosine, etc., and square roots. Some can only operate on whole numbers (integers) whilst others use floating point to represent real numbers, albeit with limited precision. However, any computer that is capable of performing just the simplest operations can be programmed to break down the more complex operations into simple steps that it can perform. Therefore, any computer can be programmed to perform any arithmetic operation -- although it will take more time to do so if its ALU does not directly support the operation. An ALU may also compare numbers and return boolean truth values (true or false) depending on whether one is equal to, greater than or less than the other ("is 64 greater than 65? ''). Logic operations involve Boolean logic: AND, OR, XOR, and NOT. These can be useful for creating complicated conditional statements and processing boolean logic.
Superscalar computers may contain multiple ALUs, allowing them to process several instructions simultaneously. Graphics processors and computers with SIMD and MIMD features often contain ALUs that can perform arithmetic on vectors and matrices.
A computer 's memory can be viewed as a list of cells into which numbers can be placed or read. Each cell has a numbered "address '' and can store a single number. The computer can be instructed to "put the number 123 into the cell numbered 1357 '' or to "add the number that is in cell 1357 to the number that is in cell 2468 and put the answer into cell 1595. '' The information stored in memory may represent practically anything. Letters, numbers, even computer instructions can be placed into memory with equal ease. Since the CPU does not differentiate between different types of information, it is the software 's responsibility to give significance to what the memory sees as nothing but a series of numbers.
In almost all modern computers, each memory cell is set up to store binary numbers in groups of eight bits (called a byte). Each byte is able to represent 256 different numbers (2 = 256); either from 0 to 255 or − 128 to + 127. To store larger numbers, several consecutive bytes may be used (typically, two, four or eight). When negative numbers are required, they are usually stored in two 's complement notation. Other arrangements are possible, but are usually not seen outside of specialized applications or historical contexts. A computer can store any kind of information in memory if it can be represented numerically. Modern computers have billions or even trillions of bytes of memory.
The CPU contains a special set of memory cells called registers that can be read and written to much more rapidly than the main memory area. There are typically between two and one hundred registers depending on the type of CPU. Registers are used for the most frequently needed data items to avoid having to access main memory every time data is needed. As data is constantly being worked on, reducing the need to access main memory (which is often slow compared to the ALU and control units) greatly increases the computer 's speed.
Computer main memory comes in two principal varieties:
RAM can be read and written to anytime the CPU commands it, but ROM is preloaded with data and software that never changes, therefore the CPU can only read from it. ROM is typically used to store the computer 's initial start - up instructions. In general, the contents of RAM are erased when the power to the computer is turned off, but ROM retains its data indefinitely. In a PC, the ROM contains a specialized program called the BIOS that orchestrates loading the computer 's operating system from the hard disk drive into RAM whenever the computer is turned on or reset. In embedded computers, which frequently do not have disk drives, all of the required software may be stored in ROM. Software stored in ROM is often called firmware, because it is notionally more like hardware than software. Flash memory blurs the distinction between ROM and RAM, as it retains its data when turned off but is also rewritable. It is typically much slower than conventional ROM and RAM however, so its use is restricted to applications where high speed is unnecessary.
In more sophisticated computers there may be one or more RAM cache memories, which are slower than registers but faster than main memory. Generally computers with this sort of cache are designed to move frequently needed data into the cache automatically, often without the need for any intervention on the programmer 's part.
I / O is the means by which a computer exchanges information with the outside world. Devices that provide input or output to the computer are called peripherals. On a typical personal computer, peripherals include input devices like the keyboard and mouse, and output devices such as the display and printer. Hard disk drives, floppy disk drives and optical disc drives serve as both input and output devices. Computer networking is another form of I / O. I / O devices are often complex computers in their own right, with their own CPU and memory. A graphics processing unit might contain fifty or more tiny computers that perform the calculations necessary to display 3D graphics. Modern desktop computers contain many smaller computers that assist the main CPU in performing I / O. A 2016 - era flat screen display contains its own computer circuitry.
While a computer may be viewed as running one gigantic program stored in its main memory, in some systems it is necessary to give the appearance of running several programs simultaneously. This is achieved by multitasking i.e. having the computer switch rapidly between running each program in turn. One means by which this is done is with a special signal called an interrupt, which can periodically cause the computer to stop executing instructions where it was and do something else instead. By remembering where it was executing prior to the interrupt, the computer can return to that task later. If several programs are running "at the same time ''. then the interrupt generator might be causing several hundred interrupts per second, causing a program switch each time. Since modern computers typically execute instructions several orders of magnitude faster than human perception, it may appear that many programs are running at the same time even though only one is ever executing in any given instant. This method of multitasking is sometimes termed "time - sharing '' since each program is allocated a "slice '' of time in turn.
Before the era of inexpensive computers, the principal use for multitasking was to allow many people to share the same computer. Seemingly, multitasking would cause a computer that is switching between several programs to run more slowly, in direct proportion to the number of programs it is running, but most programs spend much of their time waiting for slow input / output devices to complete their tasks. If a program is waiting for the user to click on the mouse or press a key on the keyboard, then it will not take a "time slice '' until the event it is waiting for has occurred. This frees up time for other programs to execute so that many programs may be run simultaneously without unacceptable speed loss.
Some computers are designed to distribute their work across several CPUs in a multiprocessing configuration, a technique once employed only in large and powerful machines such as supercomputers, mainframe computers and servers. Multiprocessor and multi-core (multiple CPUs on a single integrated circuit) personal and laptop computers are now widely available, and are being increasingly used in lower - end markets as a result.
Supercomputers in particular often have highly unique architectures that differ significantly from the basic stored - program architecture and from general purpose computers. They often feature thousands of CPUs, customized high - speed interconnects, and specialized computing hardware. Such designs tend to be useful only for specialized tasks due to the large scale of program organization required to successfully utilize most of the available resources at once. Supercomputers usually see usage in large - scale simulation, graphics rendering, and cryptography applications, as well as with other so - called "embarrassingly parallel '' tasks.
Software refers to parts of the computer which do not have a material form, such as programs, data, protocols, etc. Software is that part of a computer system that consists of encoded information or computer instructions, in contrast to the physical hardware from which the system is built. Computer software includes computer programs, libraries and related non-executable data, such as online documentation or digital media. Computer hardware and software require each other and neither can be realistically used on its own. When software is stored in hardware that can not easily be modified, such as with BIOS ROM in an IBM PC compatible computer, it is sometimes called "firmware ''.
There are thousands of different programming languages -- some intended to be general purpose, others useful only for highly specialized applications.
The defining feature of modern computers which distinguishes them from all other machines is that they can be programmed. That is to say that some type of instructions (the program) can be given to the computer, and it will process them. Modern computers based on the von Neumann architecture often have machine code in the form of an imperative programming language. In practical terms, a computer program may be just a few instructions or extend to many millions of instructions, as do the programs for word processors and web browsers for example. A typical modern computer can execute billions of instructions per second (gigaflops) and rarely makes a mistake over many years of operation. Large computer programs consisting of several million instructions may take teams of programmers years to write, and due to the complexity of the task almost certainly contain errors.
This section applies to most common RAM machine - based computers.
In most cases, computer instructions are simple: add one number to another, move some data from one location to another, send a message to some external device, etc. These instructions are read from the computer 's memory and are generally carried out (executed) in the order they were given. However, there are usually specialized instructions to tell the computer to jump ahead or backwards to some other place in the program and to carry on executing from there. These are called "jump '' instructions (or branches). Furthermore, jump instructions may be made to happen conditionally so that different sequences of instructions may be used depending on the result of some previous calculation or some external event. Many computers directly support subroutines by providing a type of jump that "remembers '' the location it jumped from and another instruction to return to the instruction following that jump instruction.
Program execution might be likened to reading a book. While a person will normally read each word and line in sequence, they may at times jump back to an earlier place in the text or skip sections that are not of interest. Similarly, a computer may sometimes go back and repeat the instructions in some section of the program over and over again until some internal condition is met. This is called the flow of control within the program and it is what allows the computer to perform tasks repeatedly without human intervention.
Comparatively, a person using a pocket calculator can perform a basic arithmetic operation such as adding two numbers with just a few button presses. But to add together all of the numbers from 1 to 1,000 would take thousands of button presses and a lot of time, with a near certainty of making a mistake. On the other hand, a computer may be programmed to do this with just a few simple instructions. The following example is written in the MIPS assembly language:
Once told to run this program, the computer will perform the repetitive addition task without further human intervention. It will almost never make a mistake and a modern PC can complete the task in a fraction of a second.
In most computers, individual instructions are stored as machine code with each instruction being given a unique number (its operation code or opcode for short). The command to add two numbers together would have one opcode; the command to multiply them would have a different opcode, and so on. The simplest computers are able to perform any of a handful of different instructions; the more complex computers have several hundred to choose from, each with a unique numerical code. Since the computer 's memory is able to store numbers, it can also store the instruction codes. This leads to the important fact that entire programs (which are just lists of these instructions) can be represented as lists of numbers and can themselves be manipulated inside the computer in the same way as numeric data. The fundamental concept of storing programs in the computer 's memory alongside the data they operate on is the crux of the von Neumann, or stored program, architecture. In some cases, a computer might store some or all of its program in memory that is kept separate from the data it operates on. This is called the Harvard architecture after the Harvard Mark I computer. Modern von Neumann computers display some traits of the Harvard architecture in their designs, such as in CPU caches.
While it is possible to write computer programs as long lists of numbers (machine language) and while this technique was used with many early computers, it is extremely tedious and potentially error - prone to do so in practice, especially for complicated programs. Instead, each basic instruction can be given a short name that is indicative of its function and easy to remember -- a mnemonic such as ADD, SUB, MULT or JUMP. These mnemonics are collectively known as a computer 's assembly language. Converting programs written in assembly language into something the computer can actually understand (machine language) is usually done by a computer program called an assembler.
Programming languages provide various ways of specifying programs for computers to run. Unlike natural languages, programming languages are designed to permit no ambiguity and to be concise. They are purely written languages and are often difficult to read aloud. They are generally either translated into machine code by a compiler or an assembler before being run, or translated directly at run time by an interpreter. Sometimes programs are executed by a hybrid method of the two techniques.
Machine languages and the assembly languages that represent them (collectively termed low - level programming languages) tend to be unique to a particular type of computer. For instance, an ARM architecture computer (such as may be found in a smartphone or a hand - held videogame) can not understand the machine language of an x86 CPU that might be in a PC.
Though considerably easier than in machine language, writing long programs in assembly language is often difficult and is also error prone. Therefore, most practical programs are written in more abstract high - level programming languages that are able to express the needs of the programmer more conveniently (and thereby help reduce programmer error). High level languages are usually "compiled '' into machine language (or sometimes into assembly language and then into machine language) using another computer program called a compiler. High level languages are less related to the workings of the target computer than assembly language, and more related to the language and structure of the problem (s) to be solved by the final program. It is therefore often possible to use different compilers to translate the same high level language program into the machine language of many different types of computer. This is part of the means by which software like video games may be made available for different computer architectures such as personal computers and various video game consoles.
Fourth - generation languages (4GL) are less procedural than 3G languages. The benefit of 4GL is that they provide ways to obtain information without requiring the direct help of a programmer.
Program design of small programs is relatively simple and involves the analysis of the problem, collection of inputs, using the programming constructs within languages, devising or using established procedures and algorithms, providing data for output devices and solutions to the problem as applicable. As problems become larger and more complex, features such as subprograms, modules, formal documentation, and new paradigms such as object - oriented programming are encountered. Large programs involving thousands of line of code and more require formal software methodologies. The task of developing large software systems presents a significant intellectual challenge. Producing software with an acceptably high reliability within a predictable schedule and budget has historically been difficult; the academic and professional discipline of software engineering concentrates specifically on this challenge.
Errors in computer programs are called "bugs ''. They may be benign and not affect the usefulness of the program, or have only subtle effects. But in some cases, they may cause the program or the entire system to "hang '', becoming unresponsive to input such as mouse clicks or keystrokes, to completely fail, or to crash. Otherwise benign bugs may sometimes be harnessed for malicious intent by an unscrupulous user writing an exploit, code designed to take advantage of a bug and disrupt a computer 's proper execution. Bugs are usually not the fault of the computer. Since computers merely execute the instructions they are given, bugs are nearly always the result of programmer error or an oversight made in the program 's design. Admiral Grace Hopper, an American computer scientist and developer of the first compiler, is credited for having first used the term "bugs '' in computing after a dead moth was found shorting a relay in the Harvard Mark II computer in September 1947.
Firmware is the technology which has the combination of both hardware and software such as BIOS chip inside a computer. This chip (hardware) is located on the motherboard and has the BIOS set up (software) stored in it.
Computers have been used to coordinate information between multiple locations since the 1950s. The U.S. military 's SAGE system was the first large - scale example of such a system, which led to a number of special - purpose commercial systems such as Sabre. In the 1970s, computer engineers at research institutions throughout the United States began to link their computers together using telecommunications technology. The effort was funded by ARPA (now DARPA), and the computer network that resulted was called the ARPANET. The technologies that made the Arpanet possible spread and evolved.
In time, the network spread beyond academic and military institutions and became known as the Internet. The emergence of networking involved a redefinition of the nature and boundaries of the computer. Computer operating systems and applications were modified to include the ability to define and access the resources of other computers on the network, such as peripheral devices, stored information, and the like, as extensions of the resources of an individual computer. Initially these facilities were available primarily to people working in high - tech environments, but in the 1990s the spread of applications like e-mail and the World Wide Web, combined with the development of cheap, fast networking technologies like Ethernet and ADSL saw computer networking become almost ubiquitous. In fact, the number of computers that are networked is growing phenomenally. A very large proportion of personal computers regularly connect to the Internet to communicate and receive information. "Wireless '' networking, often utilizing mobile phone networks, has meant networking is becoming increasingly ubiquitous even in mobile computing environments.
A computer does not need to be electronic, nor even have a processor, nor RAM, nor even a hard disk. While popular usage of the word "computer '' is synonymous with a personal electronic computer, the modern definition of a computer is literally: "A device that computes, especially a programmable (usually) electronic machine that performs high - speed mathematical or logical operations or that assembles, stores, correlates, or otherwise processes information. '' Any device which processes information qualifies as a computer, especially if the processing is purposeful.
Historically, computers evolved from mechanical computers and eventually from vacuum tubes to transistors. However, conceptually computational systems as flexible as a personal computer can be built out of almost anything. For example, a computer can be made out of billiard balls (billiard ball computer); an often quoted example. More realistically, modern computers are made out of transistors made of photolithographed semiconductors.
There is active research to make computers out of many promising new types of technology, such as optical computers, DNA computers, neural computers, and quantum computers. Most computers are universal, and are able to calculate any computable function, and are limited only by their memory capacity and operating speed. However different designs of computers can give very different performance for particular problems; for example quantum computers can potentially break some modern encryption algorithms (by quantum factoring) very quickly.
There are many types of computer architectures:
Of all these abstract machines, a quantum computer holds the most promise for revolutionizing computing. Logic gates are a common abstraction which can apply to most of the above digital or analog paradigms. The ability to store and execute lists of instructions called programs makes computers extremely versatile, distinguishing them from calculators. The Church -- Turing thesis is a mathematical statement of this versatility: any computer with a minimum capability (being Turing - complete) is, in principle, capable of performing the same tasks that any other computer can perform. Therefore, any type of computer (netbook, supercomputer, cellular automaton, etc.) is able to perform the same computational tasks, given enough time and storage capacity.
A computer will solve problems in exactly the way it is programmed to, without regard to efficiency, alternative solutions, possible shortcuts, or possible errors in the code. Computer programs that learn and adapt are part of the emerging field of artificial intelligence and machine learning. Artificial intelligence based products generally fall into two major categories: rule based systems and pattern recognition systems. Rule based systems attempt to represent the rules used by human experts and tend to be expensive to develop. Pattern based systems use data about a problem to generate conclusions. Examples of pattern based systems include voice recognition, font recognition, translation and the emerging field of on - line marketing.
As the use of computers has spread throughout society, there are an increasing number of careers involving computers.
The need for computers to work well together and to be able to exchange information has spawned the need for many standards organizations, clubs and societies of both a formal and informal nature.
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who are the coaches for the arizona cardinals | List of Arizona Cardinals head coaches - wikipedia
The Arizona Cardinals are a professional American football team based in Glendale, Arizona. They are a member of the Western Division of the National Football Conference (NFC) in the National Football League (NFL). The team began as the Morgan Athletic Club in 1898 in Chicago, Illinois. The team 's second name was the Racine Normals, since it played at Normal Field on Racine Street. In 1901, they were renamed to the Racine Street Cardinals, a name that came from the University of Chicago jerseys that the team used, which were described as "Cardinal red ''. The team was established in Chicago in 1898 and was a charter member of the NFL in 1920. The team has played their home games at the University of Phoenix Stadium since 2006 and is the oldest franchise in the NFL.
The team has moved to numerous cities during its history. After staying in Chicago from 1920 to 1959, it moved to St. Louis, Missouri and remained there from 1960 to 1987. It played in Tempe, Arizona, from 1988 to 2005, before eventually settling in Glendale, Arizona in 2006, where it now resides. Since 1920, two Cardinals coaches have won the NFL Championship: Norman Barry in 1925 and Jimmy Conzelman in 1947. Five other coaches -- Don Coryell, Jim Hanifan, Vince Tobin, Ken Whisenhunt and Bruce Arians -- have led the Cardinals to the playoffs, and in 2009 they went to the Super Bowl.
There have been 40 head coaches for the Cardinals franchise since it became a professional team in 1920; fourteen of the team 's coaches are former Cardinals players. Ernie Nevers and Jimmy Conzelman are the only coaches to have had more than one tenure with the team. Pop Ivy and Gene Stallings both coached the team during its move from one city to another. Cardinals coach Roy Andrews is tied for the lowest winning percentage among the team 's coaches (. 000), having lost the only game he coached, in 1931. Co-coach Walt Kiesling lost all 10 games he coached in 1943, when the team merged with the Steelers during World War II and was known as Card - Pitt. Co-coaches Ray Willsey, Ray Prochaska, and Chuck Drulis have the highest winning percentage among Cardinals coaches (1.000). The team 's all - time leader in games coached is Ken Whisenhunt, who was hired on January 14, 2007, with 96. The all - time leader in wins is Whisenhunt with 45. Whisenhunt was fired on December 31, 2012, after the Cardinals recorded a 5 -- 11 record in 2012.
# denotes interim head coach
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how did last season of once upon a time end | The Final Battle (Once Upon a time) - wikipedia
"The Final Battle '' is the twenty - first and twenty - second episode, and the two hour sixth season finale of the American fantasy drama series Once Upon a Time, which aired on May 14, 2017.
In the episode, Henry and Emma work together to defeat the Black Fairy; in The Enchanted Forest, Snow, David, Hook, Regina, Zelena, the Queen, Aladdin, and Jasmine team up to save the worlds from being destroyed.
The giant beanstalk springs from the ground in the forest. (Part 1)
The Seattle Monorail is seen in the forest. (Part 2)
The Storybrooke events take place after the current events of "The Song in Your Heart '', while the current events in the Enchanted Forest occur after "Mother 's Little Helper ''.
The future events depicted in both Part 1 and Part 2 occurs in a new realm during the events of "The Eighth Witch, '' and the events in "Hyperion Heights ''.
In the woods, a man is seen running away from a beast. He reaches a cabin and sends his daughter Lucy away with the "Once Upon A Time '' storybook, telling her to keep it safe as he fights off the creature.
It has been hours after Fiona enacted her curse on the entire town that engulfed everyone after the wedding. However, Henry, who is spared, thanks to being the Author and having the Heart of the Truest Believer, wakes up with the Storybook in his hands, and starts searching for his family. After running into Archie, he tells Henry that Emma is at the hospital, where she has been committed to a psychiatric ward for the past two years. While visiting Emma, he learns that with Fiona 's Curse, Regina 's original curse was never broken, and Emma had stopped believing him. He asks her where Snow, Hook and David are, but the new Curse now has Emma believing that these events never happened, citing that she has made so much progress and ca n't go back, then tells Henry to stop telling her about these stories. Suddenly Fiona (who is now the Mayor and Henry 's mother) arrives and takes the book from Henry, but before he leaves he whispers in Emma 's ear to tell her to resist, as the Final Battle is coming.
At the same time in the Enchanted Forest, Snow, David, Hook and Regina wake up and discover they have returned to the place where the events that lead to the First Curse began. They discover it is a prison for them and is tied to the book. Fiona, who is using this to banish Emma 's family forever, tells Emma that she must burn the storybook if she wants to be released from the hospital, but Emma refuses, as she does n't want to break Henry 's heart. Back in the Enchanted Forest, everyone realizes that the Final Battle will begin over Emma 's soul and belief. Fiona is trying to get Emma to stop believing so the realm of stories will be consumed by the Darkness and cease to exist. It is later revealed that as each realm is destroyed, the Darkness grows stronger, and so does Fiona, while Light Magic weakens across the remaining cursed realms. When Zelena shows up with the Mad Hatter hat, they transport to a portal of doors, where Zelena 's realm (Oz) has disappeared. If Fiona succeeds, she can make Emma destroy all the realms, prompting them to come up with a plan to save Emma. At the same time in Storybrooke, Fiona brings lunch to Gold and asks that he fix her watch, as it appears that she is now the primary support in the wake of Belle 's "disappearance. ''
It appears that Emma is starting to lose her faith, as the realms start to be consumed by the Darkness, forcing everyone and all the survivors from the other realms to take shelter in the Evil Queen 's Castle, including Aladdin and Jasmine after Agrabah was consumed. Outside, Hook and David climb the magic beanstalk, in hopes of finding a magic bean that will get everyone back to Storybrooke. At the same time, Henry breaks Emma out of the hospital and takes his mother to the rooftop where she was married, in hopes that she will remember her wedding to Killian. She has glimpses of her memories, but Emma has doubts and tells Henry that she wants to return to Boston, for fear that Fiona will put her back in the psychiatric ward. Henry decides to help her. Meanwhile, Gideon is extremely upset with Belle "deserting '' him and now sees Fiona as more of a mother than Belle, and Gold 's attempts to console his son do n't help either. When Gold searches through his belongings, he also discovers that most of his magic potions had been removed by Fiona 's Curse.
Back in the Enchanted Forest, Regina and Zelena try to work on a potion but most of her ingredients have been removed by Fiona 's Curse, when The Evil Queen arrives and offers to help. In Storybrooke, hours later, Henry attempts to steal the Storybook back from Fiona but she catches him, and believes that she can use him to control Emma. As Henry escapes, Fiona uses her magic to push him down the stairs.
Moments later, Gold asks Fiona to reopen the investigation into Belle 's disappearance. As Fiona tries to talk him out of it, she shows him pictures of Belle enjoying life in other countries, and wants Gold to move on from Belle. Back in the Enchanted Forest, Hook and David began their search for the magic beans and Hook finds one, only to encounter a dragon. The creature chases them down the beanstalk after they take the bean. At the hospital, Henry wakes up and discovers that Fiona is manipulating Emma during their visit. Afterwards, Fiona finally succeeds in convincing Emma to burn the storybook in the furnace as Fiona tells Emma it 's the only way to keep Henry safe and to end the delusions. Thanks to Fiona 's scheme, most of the realms depicted in the book are consumed by Darkness (at least 17 realms), and the Darkness arrives on the outskirts of the Enchanted Forest, in the form of a massive storm of Dark Magic. However, as the book is burning, the pages flip to a picture of Hook, and Emma stares at his image as the flames consume the page.
Many years in the future, the young girl returns to her home and discovers everything destroyed. However, Tiger Lily shows up and tells her to take the book to her mother, telling her that the fairies foresaw that she will be reunited with her father.
Back in Storybrooke, Fiona, convinced that she has succeeded, brings what was left of the book to Henry and gloats that Emma has lost her faith, though Henry refuses to accept this. Emma leaves Storybrooke to return to Boston. When she gets home, she discovers that Henry left her a hand - drawn storybook in order to make her remember their past. Meanwhile, as the realms are starting to collapse, and the Darkness approaches, David and Hook escape the dragon, but while climbing down the beanstalk, they lose their balance and fall. Regina and the Evil Queen discover that the bean had withered and lost its magic, because Fiona 's Curse has caused Emma 's lack of faith to drain the magic from the realm. Snow finds Hook alright, and she tells him to take the bean to the castle without her. When Snow finds an unconscious David, she kisses him and when he wakes, he tells her that Darkness never wins. As they rush to the castle, the storm of Dark Magic accelerates towards them.
In Storybrooke, Henry goes to the pawnshop and meets with Gold who attempts to feign ignorance of the Curse. However, Henry goes to the back and uncovers Gold 's potions, proving that Gold remembers his past. Gold acknowledges Henry 's cleverness, but also refuses to help Henry as his primary concern is finding Belle. Henry decides that he should take on Fiona himself, and Gold heals his injuries and allows him to take an enchanted sword, from the shop. Back in the Enchanted Forest, the Darkness has arrived at the castle, the Evil Queen decides to sacrifice herself and use all of her magic to protect the castle, in order to buy enough time for Regina to restore the bean with her magic, while everyone else gathers together in the courtyard. However, Regina fails to restore the bean in time, and the Darkness bursts into the castle, surrounding them, while slowly closing in. They realize that Henry is their only hope, since Regina ca n't restore the bean before they are all consumed. When Henry arrives at the Mayor 's office with the sword, Emma arrives. She tells Henry that while she does n't remember being who Henry tells her she is, but she does believe that she can be that person with his help. Her renewed belief stops the destruction of the Enchanted Forest just in time to save the others. The Darkness pulls back, revealing that everything in the Enchanted Forest Realm had been consumed, except for a small column of land that the group stands on. At the same time, Gold uses a tracking spell on "Her Handsome Hero '' to find Belle, who was hiding from Fiona, and she hides from Gold as well, having been turned into a coward by Fiona 's Curse. Gold tells her about Fiona 's deception, and vows revenge on Fiona for what she had done to Belle.
Fiona stops by the pawn shop to see Gideon, now that Emma has regained her memories, where it turns out that Fiona had reclaimed Gideon 's heart with the Curse. Then, she uses him to recover her own wand, which she uses to decipher the mysterious writings that Henry had scribbled in the page. Fiona then reads the inscriptions, which details the birth of Light and Darkness, their battle throughout the ages waged via their emissaries, the deaths of the previous Saviors and their enemies at each other 's hands, and how the Final Battle will begin after the Emma 's birth. After Gideon leaves to find Emma, Gold arrives in the shop, but Fiona fails to trick Gold into thinking that she had only come for her watch. When Gold confronts Fiona about her plans, she tells her son that once the Final Battle is over, the Curse will be lifted and they can be a family again. She also tells Gold that after she destroys all Light Magic, she will have so much power that she will be able to break the Laws of Magic at will, and she will even be able to bring back the dead. She tells him that she can bring back his first - born son, Baelfire, for him. She goes on to say that with her new powers, she will be able to make his family love him as the Dark One, so that he can keep his power and be loved at the same time. However, Gold knows that is will come with a steep price and tells her that he refuses to pay the price of magic anymore, and he slips Fiona 's wand into his hand. He forces her onto the ground with magic, vowing to make her pay for what she did to Belle. Fiona tells Gold that she had deciphered Henry 's writing. She learned that Darkness can not destroy Light, since Darkness is n't strong enough. However, Light can destroy Light. She explains she gave Gideon one final command; to kill Emma, and that even if she dies, Gideon will still be forced to carry out her command. Gold decides to test this and kills Fiona with her own wand, breaking the Dark Curse. This causes Snow, David, Regina, Hook, and Zelena to be transported back to Storybrooke from the Enchanted Forest, while Emma and the other residents of Storybrooke regain their memories. Soon afterward, Belle returns to Gold and comforts him over his actions, while Gideon arrives at the Mayor 's Office with the sword Hrunting in his hand. As expected, Gideon confronts Emma, and is ready to face off against her.
Both Gold and Belle set off to search for Gideon 's heart. Henry helps Emma escape from Gideon (knocking him out with a fire extinguisher) with Emma placing a protection spell to contain him temporarily. The others realize that Fiona has crafted the perfect trap: If Gideon kills Emma, Light will be destroyed. And if Emma kills Gideon, she will turn dark and Light will still be destroyed. Regina consoles Emma and encourages her to find another way like she always does. Emma attempts to hold off Gideon as Gold finds Gideon 's heart. When Gold finds Gideon 's heart he is tempted by a manifestation of the Darkness, which takes the form of his Enchanted Forest counterpart, Rumplestiltskin. The Dark One manifestation tells him to let Gideon kill Emma so he can finally have it all: power and love. The manifestation reminds Gold of what Fiona told him, that if Emma dies, his Dark Magic will increase exponentially. After it 's all over, he can spend all the time he wants exploring the world with Belle, before spending the next 100 years destroying it. Gold resists the temptation and chooses to do the right thing and tries to use Gideon 's heart to stop him from killing Emma. However Fiona 's spell keeps him from being able to free Gideon, and instead, Gideon 's heart stops beating and dims. The manifestation taunts Gold before disappearing, and Gold heads out to Belle, who consoles him for trying to do the right thing. Back at the intersection, Emma and Gideon fight with Emma acknowledging her role as the Savior to protect those she loves, protect the innocent and to spread light and hope no matter what the cost. Realizing what she must do, Emma throws down her sword and Gideon apologizes and kills her, releasing an enormous blast of light magic, ending the Final Battle and causing Gideon to disappear.
As everyone gathers around Emma 's body Henry, using true love 's kiss, brings her back to life. Gold and Belle discover to their shock that Gideon is once again a baby with his heart restored into his body. Realizing that this is a new start as a family, Belle tells Gold that this is their happy beginning. Snow then sees the "Once Upon a Time '' storybook reappear. Henry looks at the final page of the storybook which suddenly writes itself with the words "When both good and evil did the right thing, faith was restored and the final battle was won. '' Snow reminds everyone that the story is n't over. The Enchanted Forest, Neverland, Wonderland, Agrabah, Arendelle, the Land of Oz and all the other realms are restored and their residents obtain their happy beginnings, as does everyone in Storybrooke. Emma and Hook patrol as the town Sheriffs, Henry goes to school, Regina returns to her role as Mayor when dwarfs gave her title "queen '' without "evil '', David farms with a growing Neal, Zelena spends time with baby Robin, Gold and Belle renew their relationship and raise their son together, Snow White becomes a teacher again and Robin Hood propose to the Evil Queen in Regina 's restored palace. They all gather together at Granny 's to celebrate their lives together.
Many "Years Later '' in Seattle, Lucy arrives at the man 's apartment by train. Lucy tells the man, who is revealed to be an adult Henry, that she is his daughter and that his family needs him, although Henry no longer remembers her.
"The Final Battle '' marks the last appearances as regulars of six of the cast: Jennifer Morrison, Ginnifer Goodwin, Josh Dallas, Jared S. Gilmore, Emilie de Ravin, and Rebecca Mader. The episodes ' bookends set up new timelines that will continue in the seventh season. However, Gilmore 's character, Henry Mills, will be played by Andrew J. West, who along with newcomer Alison Fernandez, became series regulars starting with this episode. Mader would end up with the most season 7 appearances among all departing regulars.
Sean Maguire does not appear in the episode, but is credited, as he lends his voice for a few seconds in a scene with the Evil Queen.
This also marks the series ' final Sunday night airing after six seasons, as ABC announced on May 16, 2017 that Once Upon a Time would move to Friday nights starting in the Fall of 2017.
Despite a 25 % drop from the fifth season 's finale, the episode saw an increase from the previous outing, scoring a 0.9 / 4 among 18 - 49s with 2.93 million viewers tuning in.
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video of nancy sinatra these boots are made for walking | These Boots Are Made for Walkin ' - wikipedia
"These Boots Are Made for Walkin ' '' is a hit song written by Lee Hazlewood and recorded by Nancy Sinatra. It charted January 22, 1966, and reached No. 1 in the United States Billboard Hot 100 and in the UK Singles Chart.
Subsequently, many cover versions of the song have been released in a range of styles: metal, pop, rock, punk rock, country, dance, and industrial. Among the more notable versions are the singles released by Megadeth, Jessica Simpson, and Ella Fitzgerald backed by Duke Ellington and his orchestra.
Lee Hazlewood intended to record the song himself, saying that "it 's not really a girl 's song '', but Sinatra talked him out of it, saying that "coming from a guy it was harsh and abusive, but was perfect for a little girl to sing ''. Hazlewood agreed. Sinatra 's recording of the song was made with the help of Los Angeles session musicians known as the Wrecking Crew. This session included Hal Blaine on drums, Al Casey, Tommy Tedesco, and Billy Strange on guitars, Ollie Mitchell, Roy Caton and Lew McCreary on horns, Carol Kaye on electric bass and Chuck Berghofer on double bass, providing the notable bass line. Nick Bonney was the guitarist for the Nelson Riddle Orchestra.
Other personnel, as seen in the American Federation of Musicians (AFM) contracts for the session include:
The single was released in December 1965, the second song to taken from her debut album Boots, and was a follow - up to the minor hit "So Long, Babe ''. The song became an instant success and in late February 1966 it topped the Billboard Hot 100 chart, a move it replicated in similar charts across the world.
In the same year Sinatra recorded a promotional film, which would later be known as the music video, for the song. It was produced by Color - Sonics and played on Scopitone video jukeboxes. In 1986, for the song 's 20th anniversary, cable station VH1 played the video.
Sinatra told Alison Martino that other videos and performances are from TV shows like The Ed Sullivan Show, Hullaballoo and Shindig!
The videos featured Sinatra wearing an iconic pair of boots.
The song was prominently used by Stanley Kubrick 's in his 1987 film Full Metal Jacket, involving a Vietnamese woman in a miniskirt propositioning a couple of American GIs.
The song was included in the 1995 film Now and Then. However the song did not appear on the film 's soundtrack.
The song was included in the 1997 film Austin Powers: International Man of Mystery
In 2006, Pitchfork Media selected it as the 114th best song of the 1960s. Critic Tom Breihan described the song as "maybe the finest bitchy kiss - off in pop history ''.
Goodyear Tire and Rubber Company used portions of the song for its 1960s ad campaign promoting its "wide boots '' tires. Nancy Sinatra unsuccessfully sued Goodyear for using the song, claiming that it had violated her publicity rights.
This song appears in the 2018 film Ocean 's 8.
Jessica Simpson recorded her own version of "These Boots Are Made for Walkin ' '' (and added her own lyrics) for the soundtrack to the film The Dukes of Hazzard (2005). The version was also included in the international version of her fifth studio album, A Public Affair (2006). Simpson 's cover was co-produced by Jimmy Jam and Terry Lewis and was released as the soundtrack 's first single in 2005. It became Simpson 's fifth top - twenty single in the United States, and its music video drew some controversy because of its sexual imagery.
Simpson 's version of the song is performed from the point of view of her character in The Dukes of Hazzard, Daisy Duke, and it has several major differences from Sinatra 's version. The song 's lyrics were changed almost completely as Simpson felt that they did not accurately convey the feelings needed for the film; in the original Sinatra dealt with a cheating boyfriend, while in the new version Simpson explored Daisy Duke 's personality and experiences. She rewrote the majority of the lyrics herself, although some elements were retained such as the opening line "You keep saying you got something for me... '' and the spoken "Are you ready, boots? Start walkin ' ''.
Simpson also added some new music to her version of the song. Whereas the original version did not have a bridge, she created one for the cover. A risqué rap - like / spoken breakdown was added after the bridge. Because of the legalities of songwriting, Simpson has not been credited for the new music or lyrics that she wrote. The production of the song was altered as well. Producers Jimmy Jam and Terry Lewis gave the cover a country - inspired production because of its relationship to the film The Dukes of Hazzard, but they also added a more hip hop - like beat.
In an interview with GAC Nights, Jessica stated that her record label did not want to promote the song because of its country feel, even though the song is more pop than country. She said that she told the label "It 's a great song and Willie Nelson 's on it with me '' and she said the label told her pop radio would n't understand that importance.
"These Boots Are Made for Walkin ' '' peaked at fourteen on the US Billboard Hot 100, and in late 2005 the RIAA certified the single Gold for 500,000 legal downloads or more. Its digital downloads were high, but radio airplay was low. Due to this, it 's the song that reached the lowest chart position on the Billboard Hot 100 for a song topping the Hot Digital Songs chart. It reached the top ten on Billboard 's Pop 100 chart, and was Simpson 's first single to appear on the chart. On 23 July 2005, the song jumped from 8 - 1 on Hot Digital Songs charts in it _́ s second week with 43,000 downloads. On 11 December 2006 the single was certified Gold by the RIAA again, this time by Epic Records. In total, the single has received 1 million digital downloads.
Internationally it was a success, reaching top 5 in several European countries. It became her biggest hit in Australia, where it reached number two and remained in the top forty for twenty - four weeks. In Ireland, the single also reached number 2. The song also cracked the top five in the United Kingdom, where it reached number four and is to date, her highest peaking single in Britain. It reached the top ten in the chart European Hot 100 Singles, Belgium, and New Zealand and the top twenty in Austria, Switzerland, and Germany. As the end of the year 2005, the single had sold 69,500 copies in UK.
The video, directed by Brett Ratner, has caused some controversy because of its sexual imagery.
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone
Megadeth covered the song on their 1985 debut album Killing Is My Business... and Business Is Good!, which is track four on the original release and eight on the 2002 re-release. Their version (entitled "These Boots '') featured altered lyrics, and was produced more as a parody than a true cover.
When the album started selling well, the writer of the song, Lee Hazlewood, began demanding that the song be omitted, due to its being a "perversion of the original ''. Megadeth guitarist and frontman Dave Mustaine made the point that Hazlewood had been paid royalties for years before he made the complaint, although Mustaine eventually omitted the song anyway from newer pressings of the album. When the album was remixed in 2002, a censored version of the song was included as a bonus track. In 2011, an uncensored live version recorded in 1987 was released as part of the 25th anniversary edition of the album Peace Sells... but Who 's Buying?. In 1987 Megadeth re-recorded the song as part of the soundtrack for Penelope Spheeris ' movie Dudes, changing the title to "These Boots Are Made for Walkin ' ''. In 2018, the song was released with the original Lee Hazlewood lyrics on the remixed and remastered version of Killing Is My Business... and Business Is Good!
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when is the next episode of young sheldon coming out | Young Sheldon - wikipedia
Young Sheldon (stylized as young Sheldon) is an American television comedy on CBS created by Chuck Lorre and Steven Molaro. The series is a spin - off prequel to The Big Bang Theory and follows the character Sheldon Cooper at the age of nine, living with his family in East Texas and going to high school. Iain Armitage stars as young Sheldon, alongside Zoe Perry, Lance Barber, Montana Jordan, Raegan Revord, and Annie Potts. Jim Parsons, who portrays the adult Sheldon Cooper on The Big Bang Theory, narrates the series and serves as an executive producer.
Development of the prequel series began in November 2016, from an initial idea that Parsons passed along to The Big Bang Theory producers. The following March, Armitage and Perry were cast, and the series was ordered by CBS. The series premiered as a special preview on September 25, 2017, and two days later, CBS picked up the series for a full season of 22 episodes. On November 2, 2017, new episodes began airing weekly. In January 2018, CBS renewed the series for a second season which is set to premiere on September 24, 2018.
Set in 1989, the series follows 9 - year - old Sheldon Cooper as he attends high school in the fictional town of Medford, Texas, and tries to fit in the world around him while his family and friends attempt to deal with his unique intellectual capabilities and social challenges.
Elon Musk makes a cameo appearance in the episode "A Patch, a Modem, and a Zantac '' in a flashforward scene set 27 years into the future.
In November 2016, it was reported that CBS was in negotiations to create a spin - off of The Big Bang Theory centered on Sheldon Cooper as a young boy. The prequel series, described as "a Malcolm in the Middle-esque single - camera family comedy '' would be executive produced by The Big Bang Theory co-creator Chuck Lorre and producer Steven Molaro, with The Big Bang Theory co-creator Bill Prady expected to be involved in some capacity, and intended to air in the 2017 -- 18 season alongside The Big Bang Theory. The initial idea for the series came from Jim Parsons (who portrays the older Sheldon on The Big Bang Theory), who passed it along to The Big Bang Theory producers. On March 13, 2017, CBS ordered the spin - off Young Sheldon series, which was created by Lorre and Molaro. Jon Favreau directed and executive produced the pilot. Parsons, Lorre, Molaro and Todd Spiewak also serve as executive producers on the series, for Chuck Lorre Productions, Inc. in association with Warner Bros. Television. On September 27, 2017, CBS picked up the series for a full season of 22 episodes. On January 6, 2018, the show was renewed for a second season. The second season is scheduled to premiere on September 24, 2018.
In early March 2017, Iain Armitage was cast as the younger Sheldon, as well as Zoe Perry as his mother, Mary Cooper. Perry is the real - life daughter of Laurie Metcalf, who portrays Mary Cooper on The Big Bang Theory. Lance Barber stars as George Cooper Sr., Sheldon 's father; he had previously appeared in one episode of The Big Bang Theory. Raegan Revord stars as Missy Cooper, Sheldon 's twin sister; and Montana Jordan as George Cooper Jr., Sheldon 's older brother. Jim Parsons reprises his role as adult Sheldon Cooper, as narrator for the series. In July 2017, Annie Potts was cast as Meemaw, Sheldon 's grandmother.
Young Sheldon began airing weekly episodes on CBS from November 2, 2017, after The Big Bang Theory. It premiered as a special preview on September 25, 2017.
The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reported a 76 % approval rating with an average rating of 6.81 / 10 based on 41 reviews. The website 's consensus reads, "Young Sheldon 's appealing cast and relatable themes bring a fresh -- and overall enjoyable -- perspective to its central character 's familiar story. '' Metacritic, which uses a weighted average, assigned a score of 63 out of 100 based on 25 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews ''.
The first season of Young Sheldon is set to be released on DVD by Warner Brothers on September 4, 2018.
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isn't she lovely song by stevie wonder | Is n't She Lovely - wikipedia
"Is n't She Lovely '' is a US promo single by Stevie Wonder from his 1976 album, Songs in the Key of Life. In the song he celebrates the birth of his daughter, Aisha. There are three verses, each ending with the phrase "is n't she lovely, made from love '' (or "so very lovely... ''). The album version (which features on the B - side) opens with the sound of a baby crying, and the outro features Aisha as a baby. The radio edit (on the A-side) leaves out the crying baby sounds at the beginning and has a much shorter outro. Although the song was very popular and received much radio airplay, it did not chart on the U.S. Billboard Hot 100 or UK chart because Stevie Wonder would not allow it to be released as a commercial 45 RPM single despite being asked to do so by Motown. It has been re-issued on various formats, including 7 '' and 12 ", since.
Nathan Watts said in an interview that he originally recorded a bass track for the song, but Wonder replaced it with his own keyboard bass for the final version.
Jamie Foxx and Stevie Wonder performed the song for Oprah Winfrey at her Surprise Spectacular in May 2011, with lyrics modified to refer to Winfrey.
Stevie Wonder performed this song live for Queen Elizabeth II at her Diamond Jubilee Concert on 4 June 2012, with lyrics modified to refer to the Queen.
The song, musically constructed over basic chord changes, is considered an example of the fusion of fundamental jazz and pop elements. While it received widespread radio airplay, it could not chart on major charts in the US and UK as non-commercial singles were not allowed to chart in those days. It did, however, make the Billboard Adult Contemporary charts as an "album cut '', entering the AC Top 40 on January 8, 1977, staying there for five weeks and peaking at # 23. (This chart did allow album cuts to chart).
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how many public holidays are you entitled to in scotland | Public and bank holidays in Scotland - wikipedia
Bank and public holidays in Scotland are determined under the Banking and Financial Dealings Act 1971 and the St Andrew 's Day Bank Holiday (Scotland) Act 2007. Unlike the rest of United Kingdom, most bank holidays are not recognised as statutory public holidays in Scotland, as most public holidays are determined by local authorities across Scotland. Some of these may be taken in lieu of statutory holidays, while others may be additional holidays, although many companies, including Royal Mail, do not follow all the holidays listed below; and many swap between English and local holidays. Many large shops and supermarkets continue to operate normally during public holidays, especially since there are no restrictions such as Sunday trading rules in Scotland.
Since Easter 1996 the Scottish clearing banks have harmonised the days on which they are closed with those in England and Wales, and are therefore closed on Easter Monday and the last Monday in August (rather than the first). This has resulted in a number of local authorities creating a public holiday on Easter Monday. Previously Easter Monday had not been a public holiday in Scotland. There have been many protests about banks opening on 2 January since this decision was taken. This has resulted in many banks now providing only a limited service on 2 January, with most members of staff still entitled to the holiday.
Schedule 1 to the 1971 Act states that the following days are official bank holidays in Scotland:
If New Year 's Day or 2 January fall on a Saturday or Sunday then the holidays will be taken on Monday or and Tuesday. The St Andrew 's Day Bank Holiday (Scotland) Act 2007, passed by the Scottish Parliament on 29 November 2006, added * St Andrew 's Day (30 November), or the following Monday should 30 November fall on a weekend
Section 1 of the 1971 Act also provides that special days may be appointed as bank holidays (either additional or in place of bank holidays which fall on a Saturday or Sunday) subject to Royal Proclamation each year. These include Boxing Day, which has been an additional bank holiday in Scotland since 1974 and the last Monday in May which has been a bank holiday since 1978.
Section 1 of the 1971 Act also enables the Queen to appoint substitute bank holidays in any one year by Royal Proclamation. Substitute days are customarily appointed for all UK bank holidays which fall on a Saturday or Sunday. Where any of the dates fall on a Sunday, the Act substitutes the following Monday for that date. If any fall on a Saturday (or if Boxing Day falls on a Saturday or Sunday), the Royal Proclamation includes substitute days for these days.
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who wrote the songs for tears for fears | Tears for Fears - wikipedia
Tears for Fears are an English pop rock band formed in Bath in 1981 by Roland Orzabal and Curt Smith. Founded after the dissolution of their first band, the mod - influenced Graduate, they were initially associated with the new wave synthesiser bands of the early 1980s but later branched out into mainstream rock and pop, which led to international chart success. They were part of the MTV - driven Second British Invasion of the US.
Their debut album, The Hurting, released in 1983, reached number one on the UK Albums Chart, while their second album, Songs from the Big Chair, released in 1985, reached number one on the US Billboard 200, achieving multi-platinum status in both the UK and the US. Their second album contained two Billboard Hot 100 number ones: "Shout '' and "Everybody Wants to Rule the World '' ', the latter winning the Brit Award for Best British Single in 1986.
Smith and Orzabal parted company in 1991, after the release of their third platinum - selling album The Seeds of Love (1989). Orzabal retained the Tears for Fears name, releasing the albums Elemental (1993) and Raoul and the Kings of Spain (1995) before he and Smith re-formed as Tears for Fears in 2000 and released an album of new material, Everybody Loves a Happy Ending, in 2004. Since 2013, the duo have been working on their seventh album. Tears for Fears have sold over 30 million albums worldwide.
Orzabal and Smith met as teenagers in Bath, Somerset, England. The duo became session musicians for the band Neon, where they first met future Tears For Fears drummer Manny Elias. Neon also featured Pete Byrne and Rob Fisher who went on to become Naked Eyes. Smith and Orzabal 's professional debut came with the band Graduate, a mod revival / new wave act. In 1980, Graduate released an album, Acting My Age, and a single "Elvis Should Play Ska '' (referring to Elvis Costello, not Presley). The single just missed the top 100 in the UK, though it performed well in Spain and in Switzerland.
By 1981, Orzabal and Smith had become more influenced by artists such as Talking Heads, Peter Gabriel and Brian Eno. They departed from Graduate and formed a band called History of Headaches, which they soon changed to Tears for Fears. The band 's name was inspired by primal therapy, developed by the American psychologist Arthur Janov, which gained tremendous publicity after John Lennon became Janov 's patient in 1970. In a 2004 interview with VH1 UK, Orzabal and Smith said that when they finally met Janov in the mid-1980s, they were disillusioned to find that he had become quite "Hollywood '' and wanted the band to write a musical for him.
As Tears for Fears, Orzabal and Smith intended to form the nucleus of the group and bring in surrounding musicians to help them complete the picture. Around this time they met local musician Ian Stanley who offered them free use of his home 8 - track studio. Stanley began working with the duo as their keyboard player and, after recording two demos, Tears for Fears were signed to Phonogram Records, UK in 1981 by A&R manager Dave Bates. Their first single, "Suffer the Children '' (produced by David Lord), was released on that label in November 1981, followed by the first edition of "Pale Shelter '' (produced by Mike Howlett) in March 1982, though neither of these releases were successful.
The band achieved their first taste of success with their third single, "Mad World '', which reached no. 3 in the UK in November 1982. Their first album, The Hurting, was released in March 1983. For this album (and the next), keyboardist and composer Ian Stanley and drummer Manny Elias were considered full bandmembers, though Smith and Orzabal were still essentially the frontmen and public face (s) of the band.
The album, produced by Chris Hughes and Ross Cullum, showcased guitar and synthesiser - based songs with lyrics reflecting Orzabal 's bitter childhood. The Hurting may be considered Tears for Fears ' only true concept album, as references to emotional distress and primal scream therapy are found in nearly every song. The album itself was a big success and had a lengthy chart run (65 weeks) in the UK, where it reached no. 1 and platinum status. It also reached the top 20 in several other countries and yielded the international hit singles "Mad World '' (top 5 hit in the Philippines and South Africa), "Change '' (top 40 hit in Australia, Canada, Ireland, Israel, Italy, the Netherlands, the Philippines, Poland and South Africa. It also became their first single to reach the US Billboard Hot 100), and a re-recorded version of "Pale Shelter '' (top 10 hit in the Philippines). All three of these singles reached the Top 5 in the UK.
Towards the end of 1983, the band released a new, slightly more experimental single, "The Way You Are '', intended as a stopgap while they worked on their second album. The single was a top 30 hit in the UK, but did not come close to matching the success of their three previous hits, despite a national concert tour in December of that year (captured on the In My Mind 's Eye live video release). The single, which heavily featured sampling and programmed rhythms, was a departure from Tears for Fears ' previous musical approach. In the liner notes to their 1996 B - sides compilation album Saturnine Martial & Lunatic they wrote that "this was the point we realised we had to change direction '', although the somewhat experimental style of the single continued to be reflected in their forthcoming B - sides.
In early 1984, they began working with a new producer, Jeremy Green, on their new single "Mothers Talk ''. However, the band were ultimately unhappy with the results and so producer Chris Hughes was brought back into the fold and the "Mothers Talk '' single re-produced for release in August 1984. A departure from their earlier works, the single became a top 20 hit in the UK, but it was the follow - up single "Shout '' (released in the UK in November 1984) that was the real beginning of the band 's international fame.
"Shout '', a top 5 UK hit, paved the way for their second album, Songs from the Big Chair (released in February 1985), which entered the UK album chart at no. 2 and remained in the upper reaches of the chart for the next 12 months. They did away with the predominantly synthpop feel of the first album, instead expanding into a more sophisticated sound that would become the band 's stylistic hallmark. Anchored around the creative hub of Orzabal, Stanley, and producer Hughes, the new Tears for Fears sound helped to propel Songs from the Big Chair into becoming one of the year 's biggest sellers worldwide, eventually being certified triple - platinum in the UK and quintuple - platinum in the US (where it remained the no. 1 album for five weeks in the summer of 1985).
The album 's title was inspired by the book and television miniseries Sybil, the chronicle of a woman with multiple personality disorder who sought refuge in her analyst 's "big chair '', Orzabal and Smith stating that they felt each of the album 's songs had a distinctive personality of its own. The band had also recorded a track titled "The Big Chair '', which was released as the B - side to "Shout '' but was not included on the album.
The album 's success came in conjunction with the array of hit singles it yielded: "Mothers Talk '' (re-recorded yet again for its US release in 1986), "Shout '' (no. 4 UK, no. 1 in the US, Australia, Canada, Germany, the Netherlands, Switzerland, and a huge hit in other territories, in fact one of the biggest hit songs of the 1980s), "Everybody Wants to Rule the World '' (their highest - charting UK and Irish hit at no. 2 and another no. 1 in the US and in Canada), "Head over Heels '' (UK no. 12, US no. 3, Ireland no. 5, Canada no. 8), and "I Believe (A Soulful Re-Recording) '' (UK no. 23 and Ireland no. 10). Some territories even saw the release of limited edition 10 '' singles for these hits, and a variety of double packs and picture discs in addition to the regular 7 '' and 12 '' formats.
Following the album 's release, the band went on a world tour that lasted most of the year, playing notably at the Montreux Golden Rose Rock and Pop Festival in May 1985. In September 1985, the band performed "Shout '' at the 1985 MTV Video Music Awards at the Radio City Music Hall in New York. Also during the tour, Orzabal and Smith discovered an American female singer / pianist, Oleta Adams, who was performing in a Kansas City hotel bar, and whom they invited to collaborate on their next album. Towards the end of the year, the band released a video collection / documentary entitled Scenes from the Big Chair.
In February 1986, having completed the lengthy and exhausting Big Chair world tour, Tears for Fears were honoured at the 1986 Brit Awards in London where they won the Best British Single award for "Everybody Wants To Rule The World ''. The band was also nominated for Best British Group and Best British Album, and Chris Hughes was nominated for Best Producer. The band performed the song at the ceremony, which became the final public performance of drummer Manny Elias who left the group shortly afterwards.
The same year, Orzabal and Stanley worked together on a side project named Mancrab and released a single, "Fish for Life '', which was written for the soundtrack of the film The Karate Kid, Part II. The track was written and produced by Orzabal and Stanley, and featured vocals by US singer / dancer Eddie Thomas, who was one of the dancers in the video for "Everybody Wants To Rule The World ''.
On 13 July 1985, Tears for Fears were scheduled to perform at JFK Stadium in Philadelphia for the Live Aid charity event. However, on the morning of the historic event, it was announced that the band (who had actually been billed to appear at the event before they had even agreed to do so) had pulled out of the show. They were replaced by blues rock group George Thorogood and the Destroyers, which has a strong Philadelphia - area following. The official reason given for their non-appearance was that two of their backing musicians, guitarist Andrew Saunders and saxophonist Will Gregory, had quit due to the expiration of their contract; they were replaced by Alan Griffiths on guitar and Josephine Wells on saxophone for the remaining bulk of the 1985 world tour. In place of appearing, the band pledged to donate proceeds from their concerts played in Tokyo, Sydney, London and New York.
As a further donation, the band also recorded a slightly rewritten version of one of their biggest hits and released it for the British fundraising initiative Sport Aid, a sister project of Band Aid in which people took part in running races of varying length and seriousness to raise more money for African famine relief projects. Sport Aid 's slogan was "I Ran the World '', therefore Tears for Fears released "Everybody Wants to Run the World '' (no. 5 in the UK and no. 4 in Ireland). Indirectly, the band were involved in the earlier Band Aid single "Do They Know It 's Christmas? '' from 1984, which featured a slowed down sample from their song "The Hurting '' in the introduction.
It was 1989 before the group released their third album, The Seeds of Love (on which Ian Stanley appeared for the last time as a member of Tears for Fears), at a reported production cost of over a million pounds. The album was written largely by Orzabal along with keyboardist Nicky Holland, who had toured with the band on their "Big Chair '' world tour in 1985. Moving from various studios and using various sets of producers over many months, the band ultimately decided to scrap the recordings and take the reins themselves with assistance from engineer Dave Bascombe. Much of the material was recorded in jam sessions and later edited down. The length of the production impacted on the band 's management company, who had financially over-extended themselves in other business matters and were hoping for an earlier release date to pay off their debts.
The album retained the band 's epic sound while showing increasing influences ranging from jazz and blues to the Beatles, the latter being evident on the hit single "Sowing the Seeds of Love '' (the first record ever played on the Irish - based longwave radio station Atlantic 252). The second single from the album was "Woman in Chains '' (a top 40 hit in the UK, Canada, France, Ireland, Italy, Netherlands, Sweden and the US), on which Phil Collins played drums and Oleta Adams -- whom Orzabal would later guide to a successful solo career -- shared vocals.
The album was a worldwide success, entering the UK album charts at no. 1, making the top 10 in the US and in numerous other countries, eventually going on to sell millions of copies internationally. The band set out on an extensive "Seeds of Love '' world tour sponsored by Philips to start recovering the debt incurred. The band 's show in Santa Barbara, California, in May 1990 would be captured on the Going To California live video as the singles "Advice for the Young at Heart '' and "Famous Last Words '' delivered modest chart success.
A 64 - page companion book, simply titled Tears for Fears -- The Seeds of Love, was released by Virgin Books in 1990 and offered extensive insight from Orzabal, Holland and Adams into the songwriting and production process for the album, as well as the musical scores for each track and rare promotional photographs from the era.
After The Seeds of Love, Orzabal and Smith had an acrimonious falling out and parted company in 1991. The split was blamed on Orzabal 's intricate but frustrating approach to production and Smith 's desire to slow down the pace of their work (prior to the release of The Seeds of Love, Smith 's marriage had also broken down).
Another factor in the break - up was the band 's manager, Paul King, who declared bankruptcy in 1990 and was later convicted of fraud. The duo had signed to King 's Outlaw Management Agency in 1982 and remained clients throughout the remainder of the decade (the agency also operated the band 's fan club, the Tears For Fears World Service, between 1983 and 1986). By the late 1980s, the agency had run into serious debt and, after discrepancies were discovered in King 's financial management, Orzabal became increasingly concerned that Smith was unwilling to drop King as their manager. Outlaw folded in 1990 with debts of almost £ 1 million as King declared bankruptcy. In 2004, following fraudulent activities with his other businesses, King was prosecuted for fraud and imprisoned for three and a half years, as well as being disqualified from being a company director again for ten years.
Following Smith 's departure, Orzabal kept the band name alive by releasing the 1992 hit single "Laid So Low (Tears Roll Down) ''. The single was released to promote the band 's greatest hits collection Tears Roll Down (Greatest Hits 82 -- 92), which featured every single to reach the Top 20, either in the UK or internationally, apart from the Sport Aid fundraiser. The album peaked at no. 2 in the UK, where it was certified double platinum, and also reached the Top 10 in France and Italy.
Smith relocated to New York City, and in 1993 he released his first solo album, Soul on Board. The album was a commercial failure and Smith himself has said on numerous occasions that he despised it, alleging that he only made it to fulfill his recording contract. In 1995, he met local songwriter and producer Charlton Pettus. The two formed a self - described "organic '' partnership, writing simple, melody - based songs and recording them at home on vintage analogue equipment. The result was released in 1997 under the name Mayfield and a short US tour followed.
In 1993, Orzabal (still under the name Tears for Fears) released the album Elemental together with longtime collaborator Alan Griffiths. Co-produced by Tim Palmer, it yielded the international hit "Break It Down Again '' (top 20 in the UK, Canada, France, and Italy) and was supported with another successful world tour, including a college tour of the US where "Break It Down Again '' reached no. 25.
The album was a top 10 hit in the UK, France and Italy, and top 30 in several other countries. Although it charted considerably lower in the US than the previous two studio albums (no. 45), it still earned a Gold disc there for sales of over half a million copies. The singles "Cold '', "Elemental '' and "Goodnight Song '' met with minor chart success in certain territories. The lyrics to "Cold '' contained a scathing reference to the band 's former manager, Paul King, in which Orzabal sings "King got caught with his fingers in the till. Where 's your calculator -- did you leave it in your will? ''
Orzabal, still working with Griffiths and Palmer, released another Tears for Fears album, Raoul and the Kings of Spain, in 1995. This was a more contemplative work that delved into his own Spanish heritage and showcased a new Latin musical influence (Raoul was originally the name Orzabal 's parents wanted to give him, and is also the name of his own first son). Orzabal stated that it was not a concept album but that there was a theme, namely that of familial relationships. The album also included a reunion with Oleta Adams who duetted with Orzabal on the track "Me and My Big Ideas ''.
The album was not a commercial success by Tears for Fears standards, though minor chart success came via the single release of the title track (top 40 in the UK) and (to a lesser extent) the single "God 's Mistake ''. The release of the album had been delayed for nearly a year due to a last - minute label switch from Mercury to Epic (part of Sony Music), and the ensuing confusion (Mercury had already begun promotion) did not help the album 's chances either. Although the track listing for the album had been changed at the record company 's request, Sony did not extend Tears for Fears ' contract following the album 's release. A worldwide tour followed, including dates in Latin America, though Orzabal declined to tour his native UK this time except for a single show in London.
In 1996 a B - sides collection, Saturnine Martial & Lunatic, was released on Mercury, which included B - sides and some rare tracks from the successful 1982 -- 93 period. The liner notes, written by Orzabal and Chris Hughes, gave fans an insight into the songwriting process as well as a rare glimpse of self - deprecating humour regarding the tracks they would rather forget.
In 1999, Mercury Records released remastered editions of Tears for Fears ' first three albums, including B - sides, remixes, and extended versions. Supervised by producer Chris Hughes, the remasters also included new liner notes for each album providing details and new insights into the music.
Due to record company mergers and acquisitions in the late 1990s, Tears for Fears ' back catalogue was eventually placed into the Universal Music fold.
After undertaking production work and some songwriting for the Icelandic singer - songwriter Emilíana Torrini on her 1999 album Love in the Time of Science, Orzabal re-teamed with Alan Griffiths and released the album Tomcats Screaming Outside, released on Eagle Records as a solo project under his own name. Whereas Tears for Fears ' work had become guitar - based, Tomcats Screaming Outside showcased a predominantly electronic style.
In 2000, routine paperwork obligations led the duo to re-establish contact with each other after Orzabal signed a business document on Smith 's behalf. Smith flew to Bath (where Orzabal still lived) and they had dinner and decided to work on a new album together.
The songwriting sessions included Charlton Pettus (Smith 's collaborator since the mid-1990s), and fourteen songs were written and recorded in less than six months. The ensuing album, Everybody Loves a Happy Ending, was scheduled for release on Arista Records in late 2003, but a change in management at Arista prompted the band to opt out of their contract and switch to the New Door label (a new offshoot of Universal Music), and delayed the release until September 2004. Two US tours followed, and the 2004 tour included an unrehearsed guest appearance by Oleta Adams at the Kansas City show for a performance of "Woman in Chains ''. The song "Who Killed Tangerine? '' was used in the movie Fever Pitch.
Everybody Loves a Happy Ending was released in the UK and Europe in March 2005 on Gut Records, shortly after the comeback single "Closest Thing to Heaven '' became the first Tears for Fears UK Top 40 hit in a decade. The promo video for the single was a colourful fantasy that featured Hollywood actress Brittany Murphy riding in a hot air balloon. The European releases of the album contained all fourteen tracks recorded during the ELAHE sessions (the US version only contained twelve), and a brief tour of larger UK venues followed in April.
In 2005, the band began discussions with Universal Music for the release of a new comprehensive anthology of their work to date, including a new track entitled "Floating Down the River ''. However, the subsequent release (at least in the US) was a compilation issued as part of Hip - O Records ' generic "Gold '' series, a Universal subsidiary that specialises in budget - priced back catalogue compilations.
A live performance at the Parc des Princes stadium in Paris, recorded in June 2005, was released on CD and DVD in France and Benelux. Entitled Secret World -- Live in Paris, it was released on the XIII Bis label in early 2006 and became a best - seller, with over 70,000 physical copies sold in addition to downloads. The CD contained the aforementioned new studio song, "Floating Down the River '', and a remastered Curt Smith / Mayfield track, "What Are We Fighting For? ''. The relationship with XIII Bis proved so successful that Smith chose the comparatively small French label to release his 2007 solo album, Halfway, Pleased.
In 2006, Songs from the Big Chair was re-issued again by Universal Music, this time as a 2 - disc Deluxe Edition with additional B - sides and rarities added, expanding further than the 1999 remastered version. The release did not include the lyrics as the band had intended with the original release, but came with a 24 - page booklet including rare photographs and newly written liner notes. The 28 - track set contained four sections, with the first disc containing the original album and various B - sides taken from the earlier 1999 remastered edition. It also included the rare piano version of "The Working Hour '', which had previously only been available as a limited edition item. The second disc contained various 7 '' versions of the singles (including the aforementioned "The Way You Are '', the re-recording of "I Believe '' and the 1986 US remix of "Mothers Talk ''), followed by various 12 '' remixes from the era.
In August 2009, the Raoul and the Kings of Spain album was also re-issued by Cherry Red Records, featuring seven bonus B - side tracks from the time of its original release.
In April 2010, Tears for Fears joined the reformed 1980s group Spandau Ballet on their seven - date tour of Australia and New Zealand, before a four - date headlining tour of their own in Southeast Asia (Philippines, Singapore, Hong Kong and Taiwan) and a 17 - date tour of the United States.
In 2011 and 2012, they played dates in the US, Japan, South Korea, Manila and South America.
In May 2013, Smith confirmed that he was writing and recording new Tears for Fears material with Orzabal and Charlton Pettus. Several songs were worked on in the UK at Orzabal 's home studio, Neptune 's Kitchen, in April 2013, and continued in Los Angeles in July 2013. According to Orzabal, they have been producing more dark, dramatic pieces of music. "There 's one track that 's a combination of Portishead and Queen. It 's just crazy, '' Orzabal stated. In August 2013, Tears For Fears released their first newly recorded material in nearly a decade, with a cover of Arcade Fire 's "Ready to Start '' made available on SoundCloud. In 2014, the track was included on a limited edition 3 - track 10 '' vinyl EP from the band called Ready Boy & Girls?, released exclusively for Record Store Day, which also featured covers of Hot Chip 's "Boy From School '' and Animal Collective 's "My Girls ''. All three songs were recorded as "kick - start '' projects as the band commenced work on their seventh studio album. In an interview on BBC Radio Devon in October 2014, Orzabal stated that the band had now signed to Warner Music Group and that around five or six songs had so far been completed for the new album.
To commemorate the 30th anniversary of the band 's debut album The Hurting, Universal Music reissued it in October 2013 in two Deluxe Editions (one a 2 - disc set and the other a 4 - disc set with a DVD of the 1983 In My Mind 's Eye concert). Deluxe Editions of the band 's second album, Songs From The Big Chair, were released on 10 November 2014 including a 6 - disc set that features various rarities and two DVDs (one audio, one video). On 12 November 2014, Tears for Fears performed "Everybody Wants To Rule The World '' on ABC 's Jimmy Kimmel Live! TV programme. In mid 2015, the band began a series of live dates in the US and Canada.
In July 2016, the band played their first live dates in the UK in over ten years: the Newmarket Nights festival at Newmarket Racecourse on 29 July,; and a closing night headlining appearance at Camp Bestival at Lulworth Castle in Dorset on 31 July. The gigs marked the band 's first UK festival appearances since Knebworth in 1990. The band again toured the US and Canada in September and October 2016.
In 2017, the band toured North America with co-headliners Hall & Oates, and also played in Israel, at the British Summer Time Festival in London 's Hyde Park on 8 July, and at the Rock in Rio festival in Brazil on 22 September. In a July 2017 interview, Orzabal stated that the band had collaborated with songwriter / producer Sacha Skarbek on their new album tentatively entitled The Tipping Point, and divulged several song titles from it including "My Demons '', "I Love You But I 'm Lost '', "End of Night '' and "Up Above the World ''. In an interview with SiriusXM Canada the same month, Orzabal divulged that although the band had signed with Warner Music to release their new album (which had been scheduled for October 2017), Universal Music had then approached Warner Music about buying the rights to the album so that they could release it (Universal being the rights holders of the vast majority of the band 's back catalogue).
On 26 October 2017, the band performed a 65 - minute live set at the BBC Radio Theatre in London for the Radio 2 In Concert series, which was broadcast on both radio and television (via the BBC Red Button service). The following night, the band played their first full - length UK concert since 2005, at London 's Royal Albert Hall. Prior to this, on 12 October, "I Love You But I 'm Lost '' was released as the first single from the upcoming new album. The single was also included on a new 16 - track Tears For Fears compilation album entitled Rule The World - The Greatest Hits, released by Universal Music on 10 November 2017. The compilation includes fourteen Top 40 hits from all six previous Tears For Fears albums along with two tracks ("I Love You But I 'm Lost '' and "Stay ''). In October 2017, the band announced a 11 - date UK arena tour for April -- May 2018, which should feature Alison Moyet as the support act. Entitled "Rule the World '', the tour later added 7 dates in European countries: The Netherlands, Germany (2 dates), France, Belgium, Italy and again the UK (as part of The Bath Festivals).
Current members
Former members
Timeline
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who is the actor who played opie on sons of anarchy | Ryan Hurst - wikipedia
Ryan Douglas Hurst (born June 19, 1976) is an American actor, best known for his roles as Gerry Bertier in Disney 's Remember the Titans, Tom Clark in Taken, Opie Winston in the FX network drama series Sons of Anarchy, and as Chick in Bates Motel.
Hurst was born in Santa Monica, California, the son of Candace Kaniecki, an acting coach, and Rick Hurst, an actor. He attended Santa Monica High School.
Growing up in a Hollywood family, Hurst made a very early start in the show business, with a recurring role in the NBC teen situation comedy series Saved by the Bell: The New Class. In the 1998 epic war drama film Saving Private Ryan, Hurst portrayed Mandelsohn, a paratrooper who, because of temporary hearing loss, can not understand Captain Miller 's (Tom Hanks) questions about sighting Private Ryan, which forces Miller to ask the questions in writing. Additionally, he appeared in the 2002 war film We Were Soldiers as Sgt. Ernie Savage, played the football player Lump Hudson in the black comedy thriller film The Ladykillers (2004), and starred in the TNT police drama series Wanted (2005). From 2005 to 2007, Hurst gained recognition for portraying the recurring role of Allison DuBois ' half - brother, Michael Benoit, in NBC 's supernatural procedural drama series Medium.
Hurst 's big break came when he was cast as Opie Winston in the FX crime drama series Sons of Anarchy. Originally a recurring cast member in the first season, he was promoted to main cast member for the following season and went on to become a fan favorite. His character, newly released from a five - year prison stint and "living right '', but not making ends meet, goes back to SAMCRO to provide for his family, despite his wife 's objections and his knowing the risks. Hurst 's portrayal of Opie earned him the 2011 Satellite Award for Best Supporting Actor -- Series, Miniseries or Television Film. Also in 2011, Hurst voiced Jedidiah in the animated box office hit Rango. Also stars in the series, Outsiders.
In 1994, Hurst met Molly Cookson and the couple married in May 2005. Together, they founded the production company Fast Shoes. In April 2013, Hurst purchased a 3,400 square - foot home in Woodland Hills, California for $1.71 million.
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who did we get the mexican cession from | Mexican Cession - wikipedia
The Mexican Cession is the region in the modern - day southwestern United States that Mexico ceded to the U.S. in the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo in 1848 after the Mexican -- American War. This region had not been part of the areas east of the Rio Grande which had been claimed by the Republic of Texas, though the Texas annexation resolution two years earlier had not specified the southern and western boundary of the new State of Texas. The Mexican Cession (529,000 sq. miles) was the third largest acquisition of territory in US history. The largest was the Louisiana Purchase, with some 827,000 sq. miles (including land from fifteen present U.S. states and two Canadian provinces), followed by the acquisition of Alaska (about 586,000 sq. miles).
Most of the area had been the Mexican territory of Alta California, while a southeastern strip on the Rio Grande had been part of Santa Fe de Nuevo Mexico, most of whose area and population were east of the Rio Grande on land that had been claimed by the Republic of Texas since 1835, but never controlled or even approached aside from the Texan Santa Fe Expedition. Mexico controlled the territory later known as the Mexican Cession, with considerable local autonomy punctuated by several revolts and few troops sent from central Mexico, in the period from 1821 -- 22 after independence from Spain up through 1846 when U.S. military forces seized control of California and New Mexico on the outbreak of the Mexican -- American War. The northern boundary of the 42nd parallel north was set by the Adams -- Onís Treaty signed by the United States and Spain in 1821 and ratified by Mexico in 1831. The eastern boundary of the Mexican Cession was the Texas claim at the Rio Grande and extending north from the headwaters of the Jojo Rivera, not corresponding to Mexican territorial boundaries. The southern boundary was set by the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, which followed the Mexican boundaries between Alta California (to the north) and Baja California and Sonora (to the south). The United States paid Mexico $15 million dollars for the land which became known as the Mexican Cession.
Alta California and Santa Fe de Nuevo Mexico were captured soon after the start of the war and the last resistance there was subdued in January 1847, but Mexico would not accept the loss of territory. Therefore, during 1847, troops from the United States invaded central Mexico and occupied the Mexican capital of Mexico City, but still no Mexican government was willing to ratify transfer of the northern territories to the U.S. It was uncertain whether any treaty could be reached. There was even an All of Mexico Movement proposing complete annexation of Mexico among Eastern Democrats, but opposed by Southerners like John C. Calhoun who wanted additional territory for their crops but not the large population of central Mexico.
Eventually Nicholas Trist forced the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, explicitly redefining the border between Mexico and the United States in early 1848 after President Polk had already attempted to recall him from Mexico as a failure. Although Mexico did not overtly cede any land under the treaty, the redefined border had the effect of transferring Alta California and Santa Fe de Nuevo Mexico to the control of the United States. Equally important, the new border also acknowledged Mexico 's loss of Texas, both the core eastern portion and the western claims, neither of which had been formally recognized by Mexico until that time.
The U.S. Senate approved the treaty, rejecting amendments from both Jefferson Davis to also annex most of northeastern Mexico and Daniel Webster not to take even Alta California and Santa Fe de Nuevo Mexico. The United States also paid $15,000,000 ($482 million in 2016 dollars) for the land, and agreed to assume $3.25 million in debts to US citizens. While technically the territory was purchased by the United States, the $15 million payment was simply credited against Mexico 's debt to the U.S. at that time.
The Mexican Cession as ordinarily understood (i.e. excluding lands claimed by Texas) amounted to 525,000 square miles (1,400,000 km), or 14.9 % of the total area of the current United States. If the disputed western Texas claims are also included, that amounts to a total of 750,000 square miles (1,900,000 km). If all of Texas had been seized, since Mexico had not previously acknowledged the loss of any part of Texas, the total area ceded under this treaty comes to 915,000 square miles (2,400,000 km).
Considering the seizures, including all of Texas, Mexico lost 54 % of its pre-1836 territory in the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo. For only fifteen years from 1821 (when Mexican independence was secured) and the Texan Revolt in 1836, the Mexican Cession (excluding Texas) formed approximately 42 % of the country of Mexico; prior to that, it had been a part of the Spanish colony of New Spain for some three centuries. Beginning in the early seventeenth century, a chain of Roman Catholic missions and settlements extended into the New Mexico region, mostly following the course of the Rio Grande from the El Paso area to Santa Fe.
Soon after the war started and long before negotiation of the new US - Mexico border, the question of slavery in the territories to be acquired polarized the Northern and Southern United States in the bitterest sectional conflict up to this time, which lasted for a deadlock of four years during which the Second Party System broke up, Mormon pioneers settled Utah, the California Gold Rush settled California, and New Mexico under a federal military U.S government turned back Texas 's attempt to assert control over territory Texas claimed as far west as the Rio Grande. Eventually the Compromise of 1850 preserved the Union, but only for another decade. Proposals included:
It quickly became apparent that the Mexican Cession did not include a feasible route for a transcontinental railroad connecting to a southern port. The topography of the New Mexico Territory included mountains that naturally directed any railroad extending from the southern Pacific coast northward, to Kansas City, St. Louis, or Chicago. Southerners, anxious for the business such a railroad would bring (and hoping to establish a slave - state beachhead on the Pacific coast), agitated for the acquisition of railroad - friendly land at the expense of Mexico, thus bringing about the Gadsden Purchase of 1853.
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