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whose version of 'house of the rising sun' topped the charts in1964 | The Who - wikipedia
The Who are an English rock band that formed in 1964. Their classic line - up consisted of lead singer Roger Daltrey, guitarist and singer Pete Townshend, bass guitarist John Entwistle, and drummer Keith Moon. They are considered one of the most influential rock bands of the 20th century, selling over 100 million records worldwide and holding a reputation for their live shows and studio work.
The Who developed from an earlier group, the Detours, and established themselves as part of the pop art and mod movements, featuring auto - destructive art by destroying guitars and drums on stage. Their first single as the Who, "I Ca n't Explain '', reached the UK top ten, followed by a string of singles including "My Generation '', "Substitute '' and "Happy Jack ''. In 1967, they performed at the Monterey Pop Festival and released the US top ten single "I Can See for Miles '', while touring extensively. The group 's fourth album, 1969 's rock opera Tommy, included the single "Pinball Wizard '' and was a critical and commercial success. Live appearances at Woodstock and the Isle of Wight Festival, along with the live album Live at Leeds, cemented their reputation as a respected rock act. With their success came increased pressure on lead songwriter and visionary Townshend, and the follow - up to Tommy, Lifehouse, was abandoned. Songs from the project made up 1971 's Who 's Next, which included the hit "Wo n't Get Fooled Again ''. The group released the album Quadrophenia in 1973 as a celebration of their mod roots, and oversaw the film adaptation of Tommy in 1975. They continued to tour to large audiences before semi-retiring from live performances at the end of 1976. The release of Who Are You in 1978 was overshadowed by the death of Moon shortly after.
Kenney Jones replaced Moon and the group resumed activity, releasing a film adaptation of Quadrophenia and the retrospective documentary The Kids Are Alright. After Townshend became weary of touring, the group split in 1982. The Who occasionally re-formed for live appearances such as Live Aid in 1985, a 25th anniversary tour in 1989 and a tour of Quadrophenia in 1996 -- 1997. They resumed regular touring in 1999, with drummer Zak Starkey. After Entwistle 's death in 2002, plans for a new album were delayed. Townshend and Daltrey continued as the Who, releasing Endless Wire in 2006, and continued to play live regularly.
The Who 's major contributions to rock music include the development of the Marshall stack, large PA systems, use of the synthesizer, Entwistle and Moon 's lead playing styles, Townshend 's feedback and power chord guitar technique, and the development of the rock opera. They are cited as an influence by hard rock, punk rock and mod bands, and their songs still receive regular exposure.
The founding members of the Who, Roger Daltrey, Pete Townshend and John Entwistle, grew up in Acton, London and went to Acton County Grammar School. Townshend 's father, Cliff, played saxophone and his mother, Betty, had sung in the entertainment division of the Royal Air Force during World War II, and both supported their son 's interest in rock and roll. Townshend and Entwistle became friends in their second year of Acton County, and formed a trad jazz group; Entwistle also played French horn in the Middlesex Schools ' Symphony Orchestra. Both were interested in rock, and Townshend particularly admired Cliff Richard 's début single, "Move It ''. Entwistle moved to guitar, but struggled with it due to his large fingers, and moved to bass on hearing the guitar work of Duane Eddy. He was unable to afford a bass and built one at home. After Acton County, Townshend attended Ealing Art College, a move he later described as profoundly influential on the course of the Who.
Daltrey, who was in the year above, had moved to Acton from Shepherd 's Bush, a more working - class area. He had trouble fitting in at the school, and discovered gangs and rock and roll. He was expelled at 15 and found work on a building site. In 1959 he started the Detours, the band that was to evolve into the Who. The band played professional gigs, such as corporate and wedding functions, and Daltrey kept a close eye on the finances as well as the music.
Daltrey spotted Entwistle by chance on the street carrying a bass and recruited him into the Detours. In mid-1961, Entwistle suggested Townshend as a guitarist, Daltrey on lead guitar, Entwistle on bass, Harry Wilson on drums, and Colin Dawson on vocals. The band played instrumentals by the Shadows and the Ventures, and a variety of pop and trad jazz covers. Daltrey was considered the leader and, according to Townshend, "ran things the way he wanted them ''. Wilson was fired in mid-1962 and replaced by Doug Sandom, though he was older than the rest of the band, married, and a more proficient musician, having been playing semi-professionally for two years.
Dawson left after frequently arguing with Daltrey and after being briefly replaced by Gabby Connolly, Daltrey moved to lead vocals. Townshend, with Entwistle 's encouragement, became the sole guitarist. Through Townshend 's mother, the group obtained a management contract with local promoter Robert Druce, who started booking the band as a support act. The Detours were influenced by the bands they supported, including Screaming Lord Sutch, Cliff Bennett and the Rebel Rousers, Shane Fenton and the Fentones, and Johnny Kidd and the Pirates. The Detours were particularly interested in the Pirates as they also only had one guitarist, Mick Green, who inspired Townshend to combine rhythm and lead guitar in his style. Entwistle 's bass became more of a lead instrument, playing melodies. In February 1964, the Detours became aware of the group Johnny Devlin and the Detours and changed their name. Townshend and his roommate Richard Barnes spent a night considering names, focusing on a theme of joke announcements, including "No One '' and "the Group ''. Townshend preferred "the Hair '', and Barnes liked "the Who '' because it "had a pop punch ''. Daltrey chose "the Who '' the next morning.
By the time the Detours had become the Who, they had already found regular gigs, including at the Oldfield Hotel in Greenford, the White Hart Hotel in Acton, the Goldhawk Social Club in Shepherd 's Bush, and the Notre Dame Hall in Leicester Square. They had also replaced Druce as manager with Helmut Gorden, with whom they secured an audition with Chris Parmeinter for Fontana Records. Parmeinter found problems with the drumming and, according to Sandom, Townshend immediately turned on him and threatened to fire him if his playing did not immediately improve. Sandom left in disgust, but was persuaded to lend his kit to any potential stand - ins or replacements. Sandom and Townshend did not speak to each other again for 14 years.
During a gig with a stand - in drummer in late April at the Oldfield, the band first met Keith Moon. Moon grew up in Wembley, and had been drumming in bands since 1961. He was performing with a semi-professional band called the Beachcombers, and wanted to play full - time. Moon played a few songs with the group, breaking a bass drum pedal and tearing a drum skin. The band were impressed with his energy and enthusiasm, and offered him the job. Moon performed with the Beachcombers a few more times, but dates clashed and he chose to devote himself to the Who. The Beachcombers auditioned Sandom, but were unimpressed and did not ask him to join.
The Who changed managers to Peter Meaden. He decided that the group would be ideal to represent the growing mod movement in Britain which involved fashion, scooters and music genres such as rhythm and blues, soul and beat. He renamed the group the High Numbers, dressed them up in mod clothes, secured a second, more favourable audition with Fontana and wrote the lyrics for both sides of their single "Zoot Suit '' / "I 'm the Face '' to appeal to mods. The tune for "Zoot Suit '' was "Misery '' by the Dynamics, and "I 'm the Face '' borrowed from Slim Harpo 's "I Got Love If You Want It ''. Although Meaden tried to promote the single, it failed to reach the top 50 and the band reverted to calling themselves the Who. The group began to improve their stage image; Daltrey started using his microphone cable as a whip on stage, and occasionally leapt into the crowd; Moon threw drumsticks into the air mid-beat; Townshend mimed machine gunning the crowd with his guitar while jumping on stage and playing guitar with a fast arm - windmilling motion, or stood with his arms aloft allowing his guitar to produce feedback in a posture dubbed "the Bird Man ''.
Meaden was replaced as manager by two filmmakers, Kit Lambert and Chris Stamp. They were looking for a young, unsigned rock group that they could make a film about, and had seen the band at the Railway Hotel in Wealdstone, which had become a regular venue for them. Lambert related to Townshend and his art school background, and encouraged him to write songs. In August, Lambert and Stamp made a promotional film featuring the group and their audience at the Railway. The band changed their set towards soul, rhythm and blues and Motown covers, and created the slogan "Maximum R&B ''.
In June 1964, during a performance at the Railway, Townshend accidentally broke the head of his guitar on the low ceiling of the stage. Angered by the audience 's laughter, he smashed the instrument on the stage, then picked up another guitar and continued the show. The following week, the audience were keen to see a repeat of the event. Moon obliged by kicking his drum kit over, and auto - destructive art became a feature of the Who 's live set.
By late 1964, the Who were becoming popular in London 's Marquee club, and a rave review of their live act appeared in Melody Maker. Lambert and Stamp attracted the attention of the American producer Shel Talmy, who had produced the Kinks. Townshend had written a song, "I Ca n't Explain '', that deliberately sounded like the Kinks to attract Talmy 's attention. Talmy saw the group in rehearsals and was impressed. He signed them to his production company, and sold the recording to the US arm of Decca Records, which meant that the group 's early singles were released in Britain on Brunswick Records, one of UK Decca 's labels for US artists. "I Ca n't Explain '' was recorded in early November 1964 at Pye Studios in Marble Arch with the Ivy League on backing vocals, and Jimmy Page played fuzz guitar on the B - side, "Bald Headed Woman ''.
"I Ca n't Explain '' became popular with pirate radio stations such as Radio Caroline. Pirate radio was important for bands as there were no commercial radio stations in the UK and BBC Radio played little pop music. The group gained further exposure when they appeared on the television programme Ready Steady Go! Lambert and Stamp were tasked with finding "typical teens '', and invited the group 's regular audience from the Goldhawk Social Club. Enthusiastic reception on television and regular airplay on pirate radio helped the single slowly climb the charts in early 1965 until it reached the top 10. The follow - up single, "Anyway, Anyhow, Anywhere '', by Townshend and Daltrey, features guitar noises such as pick sliding, toggle switching and feedback, which was so unconventional that it was initially rejected by the US arm of Decca. The single reached the top 10 in the UK and was used as the theme song to Ready Steady Go!
The transition to a hit - making band with original material, encouraged by Lambert, did not sit well with Daltrey, and a recording session of R&B covers went unreleased. The Who were not close friends either, apart from Moon and Entwistle, who enjoyed visiting nightclubs together in the West End of London. The group experienced a difficult time when touring Denmark in September, which culminated in Daltrey throwing Moon 's amphetamines down the toilet and assaulting him. Immediately on returning to Britain, Daltrey was sacked, but was reinstated on the condition that the group became a democracy without his dominant leadership. At this time, the group enlisted Richard Cole as a roadie.
The next single, "My Generation '', followed in October. Townshend had written it as a slow blues, but after several abortive attempts, it was turned into a more powerful song with a bass solo from Entwistle. The song used gimmicks such as a vocal stutter to simulate the speech of a mod on amphetamines, and two key changes. Townshend insisted in interviews that the lyrics "Hope I die before I get old '' were not meant to be taken literally. Peaking at No. 2, "My Generation '' is the group 's highest - charting single in the UK. The début album My Generation was released in late 1965. Among original material by Townshend, including the title track and "The Kids Are Alright '', the album has several James Brown covers from the session earlier that year that Daltrey favoured.
After My Generation, the Who fell out with Talmy, which meant an abrupt end to their recording contract. The resulting legal acrimony resulted in Talmy holding the rights to the master tapes, which prevented the album from being reissued until 2002. The Who were signed to Robert Stigwood 's label, Reaction, and released "Substitute ''. Townshend said he wrote the song about identity crisis, and as a parody of the Rolling Stones 's "19th Nervous Breakdown ''. It was the first single to feature him playing an acoustic twelve - string guitar. Talmy took legal action over the B - side, "Instant Party '', and the single was withdrawn. A new B - side, "Waltz for a Pig '', was recorded by the Graham Bond Organisation under the pseudonym "the Who Orchestra ''.
In 1966 the Who released "I 'm a Boy '', about a boy dressed as a girl, taken from an abortive collection of songs called Quads; "Happy Jack ''; and an EP, Ready Steady Who, that tied in with their regular appearances on Ready Steady Go! The group continued to have conflict; on 20 May, Moon and Entwistle were late to a gig having been on the Ready Steady Go! set with The Beach Boys ' Bruce Johnston. During "My Generation '', Townshend attacked Moon with his guitar; Moon suffered a black eye and bruises, and he and Entwistle left the band, but changed their minds and rejoined a week later. Moon kept looking for other work, and Jeff Beck had him play drums on his song "Beck 's Bolero '' (with Page, John Paul Jones and Nicky Hopkins) because he was "trying to get Keith out of the Who ''.
To alleviate financial pressure on the band, Lambert arranged a song - writing deal which required each member to write two songs for the next album. Entwistle contributed "Boris the Spider '' and "Whiskey Man '' and found a niche role as second songwriter. The band found they needed to fill an extra ten minutes, and Lambert encouraged Townshend to write a longer piece, "A Quick One, While He 's Away ''. The suite of song fragments is about a girl who has an affair while her lover is away, but is ultimately forgiven. The album was titled A Quick One (Happy Jack in the US), and reached No. 4 in the UK charts. It was followed in 1967 by the UK Top 5 single "Pictures of Lily ''.
By 1966, Ready Steady Go! had ended, the mod movement was becoming unfashionable, and the Who found themselves in competition on the London circuit with groups including Cream and the Jimi Hendrix Experience. Lambert and Stamp realised that commercial success in the US was paramount to the group 's future, and arranged a deal with promoter Frank Barsalona for a short package tour in New York. The group 's performances, which still involved smashing guitars and kicking over drums, were well received, and led to their first major US appearance at the Monterey Pop Festival. The group, especially Moon, were not fond of the hippie movement, and thought their violent stage act would stand in sharp contrast to the peaceful atmosphere of the festival. Hendrix was also on the bill, and was also going to smash his guitar on stage. Townshend verbally abused Hendrix and accused him of stealing his act, and the pair argued about who should go on stage first, with the Who winning the argument. The Who brought hired equipment to the festival; Hendrix shipped over his regular touring gear from Britain, including a full Marshall stack. According to biographer Tony Fletcher, Hendrix sounded "so much better than the Who it was embarrassing ''. The Who 's appearance at Monterey gave them recognition in the US, and "Happy Jack '' reached the top 30.
The group followed Monterey with a US tour supporting Herman 's Hermits. The Hermits were a straightforward pop band and enjoyed drugs and practical jokes. They bonded with Moon, who was excited to learn that cherry bombs were legal to purchase in Alabama. Moon acquired a reputation of destroying hotel rooms while on tour, with a particular interest in blowing up toilets. Entwistle said the first cherry bomb they tried "blew a hole in the suitcase and the chair ''. Moon recalled his first attempt to flush one down the toilet: "(A) ll that porcelain flying through the air was quite unforgettable. I never realised dynamite was so powerful. '' After a gig in Flint, Michigan on Moon 's 21st birthday on 23 August 1967, the entourage caused $24,000 of damage at the hotel, and Moon knocked out one of his front teeth. Daltrey later said that the tour brought the band closer, and as the support act, they could turn up and perform a short show without any major responsibilities.
After the Hermits tour, the Who recorded their next single, "I Can See for Miles '', which Townshend had written in 1966 but had avoided recording until he was sure it could be produced well. Townshend called it "the ultimate Who record '', and was disappointed it reached only No. 10 in the UK. It became their best selling single in the US, reaching No. 9. The group toured the US again with Eric Burdon and the Animals, including an appearance on The Smothers Brothers Comedy Hour, miming to "I Can See For Miles '' and "My Generation ''. Moon bribed a stage hand to put explosives in his drum kit, who loaded it with ten times the expected quantity. The resulting detonation threw Moon off his drum riser and his arm was cut by flying cymbal shrapnel. Townshend 's hair was singed and his left ear left ringing, and a camera and studio monitor were destroyed.
The next album was The Who Sell Out -- a concept album paying tribute to pirate radio, which had been outlawed in August 1967 by the Marine, &c., Broadcasting (Offences) Act 1967. It included humorous jingles and mock commercials between songs, a mini rock opera called "Rael '', and "I Can See For Miles ''. The Who declared themselves a pop art group and thus viewed advertising as an artform; they recorded a wide variety of radio advertisements, such as for canned milkshakes and the American Cancer Society, in defiance of the rising anti-consumerist ethos of the hippie counterculture. Townshend stated, "We do n't change offstage. We live pop art. ''
Later that year, Lambert and Stamp formed a record label, Track Records, with distribution by Polydor. As well as signing Hendrix, Track became the imprint for all the Who 's UK output until the mid-1970s.
The group started 1968 by touring Australia and New Zealand with the Small Faces. The groups had trouble with the local authorities and the New Zealand Truth called them "unwashed, foul - smelling, booze - swilling no - hopers ''. They continued to tour across the US and Canada during the first half of the year.
By 1968 the Who had started to attract attention in the underground press. Townshend had stopped using drugs and became interested in the teachings of Meher Baba. In August, he gave an interview to Rolling Stone editor Jann Wenner describing in detail the plot of a new album project and its relationship to Baba 's teachings. The album went through several names during recording, including Deaf Dumb and Blind Boy and Amazing Journey; Townshend settled on Tommy for the album about the life of a deaf, dumb and blind boy, and his attempt to communicate with others. Some songs, such as "Welcome '' and "Amazing Journey '' were inspired by Baba 's teaching, and others came from observations within the band. "Sally Simpson '' is about a fan who tried to climb on stage at a gig by the Doors that they attended and "Pinball Wizard '' was written so that New York Times journalist Nik Cohn, a pinball enthusiast, would give the album a good review. Townshend later said, "I wanted the story of Tommy to have several levels... a rock singles level and a bigger concept level '', containing the spiritual message he wanted as well as being entertaining. The album was projected for a Christmas 1968 release but recording stalled after Townshend decided to make a double album to cover the story in sufficient depth.
By the end of the year, 18 months of touring had led to a well - rehearsed and tight live band, which was evident when they performed "A Quick One While He 's Away '' at The Rolling Stones Rock and Roll Circus television special. The Stones considered their own performance lacklustre, and the project was never broadcast. The Who had not released an album in over a year, and had not completed the recording of Tommy, which continued well into 1969, interspersed with gigs at weekends. Lambert was a key figure in keeping the group focused and getting the album completed, and typed up a script to help them understand the story and how the songs fitted together.
The album was released in May with the accompanying single, "Pinball Wizard '', a début performance at Ronnie Scott 's, and a tour, playing most of the new album live. Tommy sold 200,000 copies in the US in its first two weeks, and was a critical smash, Life saying, "... for sheer power, invention and brilliance of performance, Tommy outstrips anything which has ever come out of a recording studio ''. Melody Maker declared: "Surely the Who are now the band against which all others are to be judged. '' Daltrey had significantly improved as a singer, and set a template for rock singers in the 1970s by growing his hair long and wearing open shirts on stage. Townshend had taken to wearing a boiler suit and Doctor Martens shoes.
In August, the Who performed at the Woodstock Festival, despite being reluctant and demanding $13,000 up front. The group were scheduled to appear on Saturday night, 16 August, but the festival ran late and they did not take to the stage until 5am on Sunday; they played most of Tommy. During their performance, Yippie leader Abbie Hoffman interrupted the set to give a political speech about the arrest of John Sinclair; Townshend kicked him off stage, shouting: "Fuck off my fucking stage! '' During "See Me, Feel Me '', the sun rose almost as if on cue; Entwistle later said, "God was our lighting man ''. At the end, Townshend threw his guitar into the audience. The set was professionally recorded and filmed, and portions appear on the Woodstock film, The Old Grey Whistle Test and The Kids Are Alright.
Woodstock has been regarded as culturally significant, but the Who were critical of the event. Roadie John "Wiggie '' Wolff, who arranged the band 's payment, described it as "a shambles ''. Daltrey declared it as "the worst gig (they) ever played '' and Townshend said, "I thought the whole of America had gone mad. '' A more enjoyable appearance came a few weeks later at the second Isle of Wight Festival, which Townshend described as "a great concert for '' the band.
By 1970, the Who were widely considered one of the best and most popular live rock bands; Chris Charlesworth described their concerts as "leading to a kind of rock nirvana that most bands can only dream about ''. They decided a live album would help demonstrate how different the sound at their gigs was to Tommy, and set about listening to the hours of recordings they had accumulated. Townshend baulked at the prospect of doing so, and demanded that all the tapes be burned. Instead, they booked two shows, one in Leeds on 14 February, and one in Hull the following day, with the intention of recording a live album. Technical problems from the Hull gig resulted in the Leeds gig being used, which became Live at Leeds. The album is viewed by several critics including The Independent, The Telegraph and the BBC, as one of the best live rock albums of all time.
The Tommy tour included shows in European opera houses and saw the Who become the first rock act to play at the Metropolitan Opera House in New York City. In March the Who released the UK top 20 hit "The Seeker '', continuing a theme of issuing singles separate to albums. Townshend wrote the song to commemorate the common man, as a contrast to the themes on Tommy.
Tommy secured the Who 's future, and made them millionaires. The group reacted in different ways -- Daltrey and Entwistle lived comfortably, Townshend was embarrassed at his wealth, which he felt was at odds with Meher Baba 's ideals, and Moon spent frivolously.
During the latter part of 1970, Townshend plotted a follow up Tommy: Lifehouse, which was to be a multi-media project symbolising the relationship between an artist and his audience. He developed ideas in his home studio, creating layers of synthesizers, and the Young Vic theatre in London was booked for a series of experimental concerts. Townshend approached the gigs with optimism; the rest of the band were just happy to be gigging again. Eventually, the others complained to Townshend that the project was too complicated and they should simply record another album. Things deteriorated until Townshend had a nervous breakdown and abandoned Lifehouse.
Entwistle was the first member of the group to release a solo album, Smash Your Head Against the Wall, in May 1971.
Recording at the Record Plant in New York City in March 1971 was abandoned when Lambert 's addiction to hard drugs interfered with his ability to produce. The group restarted with Glyn Johns in April. The album was mostly Lifehouse material, with one unrelated song by Entwistle, "My Wife '', and was released as Who 's Next in August. The album reached No. 1 in the UK and No. 4 in the US. "Baba O'Riley '' and "Wo n't Get Fooled Again '' are early examples of synthesizer use in rock, featuring keyboard sounds generated in real time by a Lowrey organ; on "Wo n't Get Fooled Again '', it was further processed through a VCS3 synthesizer. The synthesizer intro to "Baba O'Riley '' was programmed based on Meher Baba 's vital stats, and the track featured a violin solo by Dave Arbus. The album was a critical and commercial success, and has been certified 3x platinum by the RIAA. The Who continued to issue Lifehouse - related material over the next few years, including the singles "Let 's See Action '', "Join Together '' and "Relay ''.
The band went back on tour, and "Baba O ' Riley '' and "Wo n't Get Fooled Again '' became live favourites. In November they performed at the newly opened Rainbow Theatre in London for three nights, continuing in the US later that month, where Robert Hilburn of the Los Angeles Times described the Who as "the Greatest Show on Earth ''. The tour was slightly disrupted at the Civic Auditorium in San Francisco on 12 December when Moon passed out over his kit after overdosing on brandy and barbiturates. He recovered and completed the gig, playing to his usual strength.
After touring Who 's Next, and needing time to write a follow - up, Townshend insisted that the Who take a lengthy break, as they had not stopped touring since the band started. There was no group activity until May 1972, when they started working on a proposed new album, Rock Is Dead -- Long Live Rock!, but, unhappy with the recordings, abandoned the sessions. Tensions began to emerge as Townshend believed Daltrey just wanted a money - making band and Daltrey thought Townshend 's projects were getting pretentious. Moon 's behaviour was becoming increasingly destructive and problematic through excessive drinking and drugs use, and a desire to party and tour. Daltrey performed an audit of the group 's finances and discovered that Lambert and Stamp had not kept sufficient records. He believed them to be no longer effective managers, which Townshend and Moon disputed. The painful dissolution of the managerial and personal relationships are recounted in James D. Cooper 's 2014 retrospective documentary, Lambert & Stamp. Following a short European tour, the remainder of 1972 was spent working on an orchestral version of Tommy with Lou Reizner.
By 1973, the Who turned to recording the album Quadrophenia about mod and its subculture, set against clashes with Rockers in early 1960s Britain. The story is about a boy named Jimmy, who undergoes a personality crisis, and his relationship with his family, friends and mod culture. The music features four themes, reflecting the four personalities of the Who. Townshend played multi-tracked synthesizers, and Entwistle played several overdubbed horn parts. By the time the album was being recorded, relationships between the band and Lambert and Stamp had broken down irreparably, and Bill Curbishley replaced them. The album reached No. 2 in both the UK and US.
The Quadrophenia tour started in Stoke on Trent in October and was immediately beset with problems. Daltrey resisted Townshend 's wish to add Joe Cocker 's keyboardist Chris Stainton (who played on the album) to the touring band. As a compromise, Townshend assembled the keyboard and synthesizer parts on backing tapes, as such a strategy had been successful with "Baba O'Riley '' and "Wo n't Get Fooled Again ''. Unfortunately, the technology was not sophisticated enough to deal with the demands of the music; added to this issue, tour rehearsals had been interrupted due to an argument that culminated in Daltrey punching Townshend and knocking him out cold. At a gig in Newcastle, the tapes completely malfunctioned, and an enraged Townshend dragged sound - man Bob Pridden on - stage, screamed at him, kicked all the amps over and partially destroyed the backing tapes. The show was abandoned for an "oldies '' set, at the end of which Townshend smashed his guitar and Moon kicked over his drumkit. The Independent described this gig as one of the worst of all time. The US tour started on 20 November at the Cow Palace in Daly City, California; Moon passed out during "Wo n't Get Fooled Again '' and during "Magic Bus ''. Townshend asked the audience, "Can anyone play the drums? -- I mean somebody good. '' An audience member, Scot Halpin, filled in for the rest of the show. After a show in Montreal, the band (except for Daltrey, who retired to bed early) caused so much damage to their hotel room, including destroying an antique painting and ramming a marble table through a wall, that federal law enforcement arrested them.
By 1974, work had begun in earnest on a Tommy film. Stigwood suggested Ken Russell as director, whose previous work Townshend had admired. The film featured a star - studded cast, including the band members. David Essex auditioned for the title role, but the band persuaded Daltrey to take it. The cast included Ann - Margret, Oliver Reed, Eric Clapton, Tina Turner, Elton John and Jack Nicholson. Townshend and Entwistle worked on the soundtrack for most of the year, handling the bulk of the instrumentation. Moon had moved to Los Angeles, so they used session drummers, including Kenney Jones. Elton John used his own band for "Pinball Wizard ''. Filming was from April until August. 1500 extras appeared in the "Pinball Wizard '' sequence.
The film premiered on 18 March 1975 to a standing ovation. Townshend was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Original Score. Tommy was shown at the 1975 Cannes Film Festival, but not in the main competition. It won the award for Rock Movie of the Year in the First Annual Rock Music Awards and generated over $2 million in its first month. The soundtrack reached number two on the Billboard charts.
Work on Tommy took up most of 1974, and live performances by the Who were restricted to a show in May at the Valley, the home of Charlton Athletic, in front of 80,000 fans, and a few dates at Madison Square Garden in June. Towards the end of the year, the group released the out - takes album Odds & Sods, which featured several songs from the aborted Lifehouse project.
In 1975, Daltrey and Townshend disagreed about the band 's future and criticised each other via interviews in the music paper New Musical Express. Daltrey was grateful that the Who had saved him from a career as a sheet - metal worker and was unhappy at Townshend not playing well; Townshend felt the commitment of the group prevented him from releasing solo material. The next album, The Who by Numbers, had introspective songs from Townshend that dealt with disillusionment such as "However Much I Booze '' and "How Many Friends ''; they resembled his later solo work. Entwistle 's "Success Story '' gave a humorous look at the music industry, and "Squeeze Box '' was a hit single. The group toured from October, playing little new material and few Quadrophenia numbers, and reintroducing several from Tommy. The American leg of the tour began in Houston to a crowd of 18,000 at The Summit Arena, and was supported by Toots and the Maytals. On 6 December 1975, the Who set the record for largest indoor concert at the Pontiac Silverdome, attended by 78,000. On 31 May 1976, they played a second concert at the Valley which was listed in the Guinness Book of Records as the world 's loudest concert at over 120 dB. Townshend had become fed up of touring but Entwistle considered live performance to be at a peak.
After the 1976 tour, Townshend took most of the following year off to spend time with his family. He discovered that former Beatles and Rolling Stones manager Allen Klein had bought a stake in his publishing company. A settlement was reached, but Townshend was upset and disillusioned that Klein had attempted to take ownership of his songs. Townshend went to the Speakeasy where he met the Sex Pistols ' Steve Jones and Paul Cook, fans of the Who. After leaving, he passed out in a doorway, where a policeman said he would not be arrested if he could stand and walk. The events inspired the title track of the next album, Who Are You.
The group reconvened in September 1977, but Townshend announced there would be no live performances for the immediate future, a decision that Daltrey endorsed. By this point, Moon was so unhealthy that the Who conceded it would be difficult for him to cope with touring. The only gig that year was an informal show on 15 December at the Gaumont State Cinema in Kilburn, London, filmed for the documentary, The Kids Are Alright. The band had not played for 14 months, and their performance was so weak that the footage was unused. Moon 's playing was particularly lacklustre and he had gained a lot of weight, though Daltrey later said, "even at his worst, Keith Moon was amazing. ''
Recording of Who Are You started in January 1978. Daltrey clashed with Johns over the production of his vocals, and Moon 's drumming was so poor that Daltrey and Entwistle considered firing him. Moon 's playing improved, but on one track, "Music Must Change '', he was replaced as he could not play in 6 / 8 time. In May, the Who filmed another performance at Shepperton Sound Studios for The Kids Are Alright. This performance was strong, and several tracks were used in the film. It was the last gig Moon performed with the Who.
The album was released on 18 August, and became their biggest and fastest seller to date, peaking at No. 6 in the UK and No. 2 in the US. Instead of touring, Daltrey, Townshend and Moon did a series of promotional television interviews, and Entwistle worked on the soundtrack for The Kids Are Alright.
On 6 September, Moon attended a party held by Paul McCartney to celebrate Buddy Holly 's birthday. Returning to his flat, Moon took 32 tablets of clomethiazole which had been prescribed to combat his alcohol withdrawal. He passed out the following morning and was discovered dead later that day.
The day after Moon 's death, Townshend issued the statement: "We are more determined than ever to carry on, and we want the spirit of the group to which Keith contributed so much to go on, although no human being can ever take his place. '' Drummer Phil Collins, having a temporary break from Genesis after his first marriage had failed, was at a loose end and asked to replace Moon, but Townshend had already asked Jones, who had previously played with the Small Faces and the Faces. Jones officially joined the band in November 1978. John "Rabbit '' Bundrick joined the live band as an unofficial keyboardist. On 2 May 1979, the Who returned to the stage with a concert at the Rainbow Theatre, followed by the Cannes Film Festival in France and dates at Madison Square Garden in New York.
The Quadrophenia film was released that year. It was directed by Franc Roddam in his feature - directing début, and had straightforward acting rather than musical numbers as in Tommy. John Lydon was considered for Jimmy, but the role went to Phil Daniels. Sting played Jimmy 's friend and fellow mod, the Ace Face. The soundtrack was Jones ' first appearance on a Who record, performing on newly written material not on the original album. The film was a critical and box office success in the UK and appealed to the growing mod revival movement. The Jam were influenced by the Who, and critics noticed a similarity between Townshend and the group 's leader, Paul Weller.
The Kids Are Alright was also completed in 1979. It was a retrospective of the band 's career, directed by Jeff Stein. The film included footage of the band at Monterey, Woodstock and Pontiac, and clips from the Smothers Brothers ' show and Russell Harty Plus. Moon had died one week after seeing the rough cut with Daltrey. The film contains the Shepperton concert, and an audio track of him playing over silent footage of himself was the last time he ever played the drums.
In December, the Who became the third band, after the Beatles and the Band, to appear on the cover of Time. The article, by Jay Cocks, said the band had outpaced, outlasted, outlived and outclassed all of their rock band contemporaries.
On 3 December 1979, a crowd crush at a Who gig at the Riverfront Coliseum, Cincinnati killed 11 fans. This was partly due to the festival seating, where the first to enter get the best positions. Some fans waiting outside mistook the band 's soundcheck for the concert, and attempted to force their way inside. As only a few entrance doors were opened, a bottleneck situation ensued with thousands trying to gain entry, and the crush became deadly.
The Who were not told until after the show because civic authorities feared crowd problems if the concert were cancelled. The band were deeply shaken upon learning of it and requested that appropriate safety precautions be taken in the future. The following evening, in Buffalo, New York, Daltrey told the crowd that the band had "lost a lot of family last night and this show 's for them ''.
Daltrey took a break in 1980 to work on the film McVicar, in which he took the lead role of bank robber John McVicar. The soundtrack album is a Daltrey solo album, though all members of the Who are included in the supporting musicians, and was his most successful solo release.
The Who released two studio albums with Jones as drummer, Face Dances (1981) and It 's Hard (1982). Face Dances produced a US top 20 and UK top ten hit with the single "You Better You Bet '', whose video was one of the first shown on MTV. Both Face Dances and It 's Hard sold well and the latter received a five - star review in Rolling Stone. The single "Eminence Front '' from It 's Hard was a hit, and became a regular at live shows.
By this time Townshend had fallen into depression, wondering if he was no longer a visionary. He was again at odds with Daltrey and Entwistle, who merely wanted to tour and play hits and thought Townshend had saved his best songs for his solo album, Empty Glass (1980). Jones ' drumming style was very different from Moon 's and this drew criticism within the band. Townshend briefly became addicted to heroin before cleaning up early in 1982 after treatment with Meg Patterson.
Townshend wanted the Who to stop touring and become a studio act; Entwistle threatened to quit, saying, "I do n't intend to get off the road... there 's not much I can do about it except hope they change their minds. '' Townshend did not change his mind, and so the Who embarked on a farewell tour of the US and Canada with the Clash as support, ending in Toronto on 17 December 1982.
Townshend spent part of 1983 writing material for a Who studio album owed to Warner Bros. Records from a contract in 1980, but he found himself unable to generate music appropriate for the Who and at the end of 1983 paid for himself and Jones to be released from the contract. On 16 December 1983, Townshend announced at a press conference that he was leaving the Who, effectively ending the band.
After the Who break - up, Townshend focused on solo albums such as White City: A Novel (1985), The Iron Man (1989, featuring Daltrey and Entwistle and two songs credited to the Who), and Psychoderelict (1993).
In July 1985, the Who performed at Live Aid at Wembley Stadium, London. The BBC transmission truck blew a fuse during the set, temporarily interrupting the broadcast. At the 1988 Brit Awards, at the Royal Albert Hall, the band was given the British Phonographic Industry 's Lifetime Achievement Award. The short set they played there was the last time Jones played with the Who.
In 1989, the band embarked on a 25th - anniversary The Kids Are Alright reunion tour with Simon Phillips on drums and Steve "Boltz '' Bolton as a second guitarist. Townshend had announced in 1987 that he suffered from tinnitus and alternated acoustic, rhythm, and lead guitar to preserve his hearing. Their two shows at Sullivan Stadium in Foxborough, Massachusetts, sold 100,000 tickets in less than eight hours, beating previous records set there by U2 and David Bowie. The tour was briefly marred at a gig in Tacoma, Washington, where Townshend injured his arm on - stage. Some critics disliked the tour 's over-produced and expanded line - up, calling it "The Who on Ice ''; Stephen Thomas Erlewine at AllMusic said the tour "tarnished the reputation of the Who almost irreparably ''. The tour included most of Tommy and included such guests as Phil Collins, Billy Idol and Elton John. A 2 - CD live album, Join Together, was released in 1990.
In 1990, the Who were inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame. The group have a featured collection in the hall 's museum, including one of Moon 's velvet suits, a Warwick bass of Entwistle 's, and a drumhead from 1968.
In 1991, the Who recorded a cover of Elton John 's "Saturday Night 's Alright for Fighting '' for the tribute album Two Rooms: Celebrating the Songs of Elton John & Bernie Taupin. It was the last studio recording to feature Entwistle. In 1994, Daltrey turned 50 and celebrated with two concerts at New York 's Carnegie Hall. The shows included guest spots by Entwistle and Townshend. Although all three surviving original members of the Who attended, they appeared on stage together only during the finale, "Join Together '', with the other guests. Daltrey toured that year with Entwistle, Zak Starkey on drums and Simon Townshend filling in for his brother as guitarist.
In 1996, Townshend, Entwistle and Daltrey performed Quadrophenia with guests and Starkey on drums at Hyde Park. The performance was narrated by Daniels, who had played Jimmy in the 1979 film. Despite technical difficulties the show led to a six - night residency at Madison Square Garden and a US and European tour through 1996 and 1997. Townshend played mostly acoustic guitar, but eventually was persuaded to play some electric. In 1998, VH1 ranked the Who ninth in their list of the "100 Greatest Artists of Rock ' n ' Roll ''.
In late 1999, the Who performed as a five - piece for the first time since 1985, with Bundrick on keyboards and Starkey on drums. The first show in Las Vegas at the MGM Grand Garden Arena was partially broadcast on TV and the Internet and released as the DVD The Vegas Job. They then performed acoustic shows at Neil Young 's Bridge School Benefit at the Shoreline Amphitheatre in Mountain View, California, followed by gigs at the House of Blues in Chicago and two Christmas charity shows at the Shepherds Bush Empire in London. Critics were delighted to see a rejuvenated band with a basic line - up comparable to the tours of the 1960s and 1970s. Andy Greene in Rolling Stone called the 1999 tour better than the final one with Moon in 1976.
The band toured the US and UK from June to October 2000, to generally favourable reviews, culminating in a charity show at the Royal Albert Hall for the Teenage Cancer trust with guest performances from Paul Weller, Eddie Vedder, Noel Gallagher, Bryan Adams and Nigel Kennedy. Stephen Tomas Erlewine described the gig as "an exceptional reunion concert ''. In 2001 the band performed the Concert for New York City at Madison Square Garden for families of firefighters and police who had lost their lives following the September 11 attacks on the World Trade Center, and were honoured with a Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award.
The Who played concerts in the UK in early 2002 in preparation for a full US tour. On 27 June, the day before the first date, Entwistle was found dead of a heart attack at 57 at the Hard Rock Hotel in Las Vegas. Cocaine was a contributing factor.
Entwistle 's son, Christopher, gave a statement supporting the Who 's decision to carry on. The US tour began at the Hollywood Bowl with touring bassist Pino Palladino. Townshend dedicated the show to Entwistle, and ended with a montage of pictures of him. The tour lasted until September. The loss of a founding member of the Who caused Townshend to re-evaluate his relationship with Daltrey, which had been strained over the band 's career. He decided their friendship was important, and this ultimately led to writing and recording new material.
To combat bootlegging, the band began to release the Encore Series of official soundboard recordings via themusic.com. An official statement read: "to satisfy this demand they have agreed to release their own official recordings to benefit worthy causes ''.
In 2004, the Who released "Old Red Wine '' and "Real Good Looking Boy '' (with Palladino and Greg Lake, respectively, on bass) on a singles anthology, The Who: Then and Now, and went on an 18 - date tour of Japan, Australia, the UK and the US, including a return appearance at the Isle of Wight. Later that year, Rolling Stone ranked the Who No. 29 on their list of the 100 Greatest Artists of All Time.
The Who announced in 2005 that they were working on a new album. Townshend posted a novella called The Boy Who Heard Music on his blog, which developed into a mini-opera called Wire & Glass, forming the basis for the album. Endless Wire, released in 2006, was the first full studio album of new material since 1982 's It 's Hard and contained the band 's first mini-opera since "Rael '' in 1967. The album reached No. 7 in the US and No. 9 in the UK. Starkey was invited to join Oasis in April 2006 and the Who in November 2006, but he declined and split his time between the two.
In November 2007, the documentary Amazing Journey: The Story of the Who was released, featuring unreleased footage of the 1970 Leeds appearance and a 1964 performance at the Railway Hotel when the group were The High Numbers. Amazing Journey was nominated for a 2009 Grammy Award.
The Who toured in support of Endless Wire, including the BBC Electric Proms at the Roundhouse in London in 2006, headlining the 2007 Glastonbury Festival, a half - time appearance at the Super Bowl XLIV in 2010 and being the final act at the closing ceremony of the London 2012 Olympic Games. In November 2012, the Who released Live at Hull, an album of the band 's performance night after the Live at Leeds gig.
In 2010, the Who performed Quadrophenia with parts played by Vedder and Tom Meighan at the Royal Albert Hall as part of the Teenage Cancer Trust series of 10 gigs. A planned tour for early 2010 was jeopardised by the return of Townshend 's tinnitus. He experimented with an in - ear monitoring system that was recommended by Neil Young and his audiologist.
The Quadrophenia and More tour started in November 2012 in Ottawa with keyboardists John Corey, Loren Gold and Frank Simes, the latter of whom was also musical director. In February 2013, Starkey pulled a tendon and was replaced for a gig by Scott Devours who performed with less than four hours ' notice. The tour moved to Europe and the UK, and ended at the Wembley Arena in July 2013.
In October 2013, Townshend announced the Who would stage their final tour in 2015, performing in locations they have never played before. Daltrey clarified that the tour is unrelated to the band 's 50th anniversary -- which occurred in 2013 -- and indicated that he and Townshend were considering recording new material but would be emphasising their hits in their final stadium tour. Daltrey stated, "We ca n't go on touring forever... it could be open - ended, but it will have a finality to it. ''
In June 2014, Jones reunited with the Who at a charity gig for Prostate Cancer UK his Hurtwood Polo Club, alongside Jeff Beck, Procol Harum, and Mike Rutherford. Later that month, the Who announced plans for a world tour with a possible accompanying album. In September, the Who released the song "Be Lucky '', which was included on the compilation The Who Hits 50! in October. That November, the group released a virtual reality app co-designed by Daltrey 's son, Jamie, featuring events and images from the band 's history.
In June 2015, the Who headlined that year 's Hyde Park Festival, and two days later, the Glastonbury Festival. Townshend suggested to Mojo that it could be the group 's last UK gig. To coincide with The Who 's 50th anniversary, all studio albums, including the new compilation, The Who Hits 50!, were reissued on vinyl. In September 2015, all remaining US tour dates were cancelled after Daltrey contracted viral meningitis. Then Townshend promised the band would come back "stronger than ever ''.
On 11 June 2016 in Newport, England, The Who embarked on the Back to the Who Tour 51!, a new tour seen as a continuation of the previous year 's tour. The new tour included a return visit to the Isle of Wight Festival (at the Seaclose Park in Newport, England) on the opening date on 11 June 2016 and ended at the Empire Polo Grounds in Indio, CA on 16 October 2016 after thirteen concerts. In November 2016, The Who announced that 5 UK dates the following April (previously scheduled for that August and September), would include a full live performance of Tommy. The 5 - date tour was renamed "2017 Tommy & More '', and is the first time that the band will play Tommy in full since 1989.
The Who have been regarded primarily as a rock band, yet have taken influence from several other styles of music during their career. The original group played a mixture of trad jazz and contemporary pop hits as the Detours, and R&B in 1963. The group move to a mod sound the following year, particularly after hearing the Small Faces fuse Motown with a harsher R&B sound. The group 's early work was geared towards singles, though it was not straightforward pop. In 1967, Townshend coined the term "power pop '' to describe the Who 's style. Like their contemporaries, the group were influenced by the arrival of Hendrix, particularly after the Who and the Experience met at Monterey. This and lengthy touring strengthened the band 's sound. In the studio, they began to develop softer pieces, particularly from Tommy onwards, and turned their attention towards albums more than singles.
From the early 1970s, the band 's sound included synthesizers, particularly on Who 's Next and Quadrophenia. Although groups had used synthesizers before, the Who were one of the first to integrate the sound into a basic rock structure. In By Numbers the group 's style had scaled back to more standard rock, but synthesisers regained prominence on Face Dances.
Townshend and Entwistle were instrumental in making extreme volumes and distortion standard rock practices. The Who were early adopters of Marshall Amplification. Entwistle was the first member to get two 4 × 12 speaker cabinets, quickly followed by Townshend. The group used feedback as part of their guitar sound, both live and in the studio. In 1967, Townshend changed to using Sound City amplifiers, customised by Dave Reeves, then in 1970 to Hiwatt. The group were the first to use a 1000 watt PA systems for live gigs, which led to competition from bands such as the Rolling Stones and Pink Floyd.
Throughout their careers, the members of the Who have said their live sound has never been captured as they wished on record. Live gigs and the audience have always been important to the group. "Irish '' Jack Lyons said, "The Who were n't a joke, they were fucking real, and so were we. ''
Daltrey initially based his style on Motown and rock and roll, but from Tommy onwards he tackled a wider range of styles. His trademark sound with the band, as noted in 1983, has been a characteristic scream, as heard at the end of "Wo n't Get Fooled Again ''.
Group backing vocals are prominent in the Who. After "I Ca n't Explain '' used session men for backing vocals, Townshend and Entwistle resolved to do better themselves on subsequent releases, producing strong backing harmonies. Daltrey, Townshend and Entwistle sang lead on various songs, and occasionally Moon joined in. Who 's Next featured Daltrey and Townshend sharing the lead vocals on several songs, and biographer Dave Marsh considers the contrast between Daltrey 's strong, guttural baritone and Townshend 's higher and gentler tenor to be one of the album 's highlights.
Daltrey 's voice is negatively affected by marijuana smoke, to which he says he is allergic. On 20 May 2015, during a Who concert at Nassau Coliseum, he smelled a joint burning and told the smoker to put it out or "the show will be over ''. The fan obliged, without taking Pete Townshend 's advice that "the quickest way '' to extinguish a joint is "up your fucking arse ''.
Townshend considered himself less technical than guitarists such as Eric Clapton and Jeff Beck and wanted to stand out visually instead. His playing style evolved from the banjo, favouring down strokes and using a combination of the plectrum and fingerpicking. His rhythm playing frequently used seventh chords and suspended fourths, and he is associated with the power chord, an easy - to - finger chord built from the root and fifth interval that has since become a fundamental part of the rock guitar vocabulary. Townshend also produced noises by manipulating controls on his guitar and by allowing the instrument to feedback.
In the group 's early career, Townshend favoured Rickenbacker guitars as they allowed him to fret rhythm guitar chords easily and move the neck back and forwards to create vibrato. From 1968 to 1973, he favoured a Gibson SG Special live, and later used customised Les Pauls in different tunings.
In the studio for Who 's Next and thereafter, Townshend used a 1959 Gretsch 6120 Chet Atkins hollow - body guitar, a Fender Bandmaster amp and an Edwards volume pedal, all gifts from Joe Walsh. Townshend started his career with an acoustic guitar and has regularly recorded and written with a Gibson J - 200.
A distinctive part of the original band 's sound was Entwistle 's lead bass playing, while Townshend concentrated on rhythm and chords. Entwistle 's was the first popular use of Rotosound strings in 1966, trying to find a piano - like sound. His bassline on "Pinball Wizard '' was described by Who biographer John Atkins as "a contribution of its own without diminishing the guitar lines ''; he described his part on "The Real Me '' from Quadrophenia, recorded in one take, as "a bass solo with vocals ''. Entwistle 's basses include a "Frankenstein '' assembled from five Fender Precision and Jazz basses, and Warwick, Alembic, Gretsch and Guild basses.
Moon further strengthened the reversal of traditional rock instrumentation by playing lead parts on his drums. His style was at odds with British rock contemporaries such as The Kinks ' Mick Avory and The Shadows ' Brian Bennett who did not consider tom - toms necessary for rock music. Moon used Premier kits starting in 1966. He avoided the hi - hat, and concentrated on a mix of tom rolls and cymbals.
Jones ' drumming style was in sharp contrast to Moon 's. The Who were initially enthusiastic about working with a completely different drummer, though Townshend later stated, "we 've never really been able to replace Keith. '' Starkey knew Moon from childhood and Moon gave him his first drum kit. Starkey has been praised for his playing style which echoes Moon 's without being a copy.
Townshend focused on writing meaningful lyrics inspired by Bob Dylan, whose words dealt with subjects other than boy -- girl relationships that were common in rock music; in contrast to Dylan 's intellectualism, Townshend believed his lyrics should be about things kids could relate to. Early material focused on the frustration and anxiety shared by mod audiences, which Townshend said was a result of "searching for (his) niche ''. By The Who Sell Out, he began to work narrative and characters into songs, which he fully developed by Tommy, including spiritual themes influenced by Baba. From the mid-1970s onwards, his songs tended to be more personal, which influenced his decision to go solo.
Entwistle 's songs, by contrast, typically feature black humour and darker themes. His two contributions to Tommy ("Cousin Kevin '' and "Fiddle About '') appeared because Townshend did not believe he could write songs as "nasty '' as Entwistle 's.
The Who are perceived as having had a poor working relationship. In the original band, Sandom had been the peacemaker and settled disputes. Moon, by contrast, was as volatile as Daltrey and Townshend. Entwistle was too passive to become involved in arguments. The group established their live reputation and stage show in part out of insecurity and aggression amongst its members and Townshend recalled that all decisions had to be made democratically "because we always disagreed ''.
The only genuine friendship in the Who during the 1960s was between Entwistle and Moon. The pair enjoyed each other 's sense of humour and shared a fondness for clubbing. Journalist Richard Green noted a "chemistry of playfullness that would go beyond playfullness ''. Their relationship diminished somewhat when Entwistle got married in 1967, though they still socialised on tour. When Moon was destroying toilets in hotels, Entwistle confessed he "was standing behind him with the matches ''.
The group regularly argued in the press, though Townshend said disputes were amplified in print and the group simply found it difficult to agree on things. Tommy mutually benefitted Townshend and Daltrey 's standing in the band because of the former 's songwriting and the latter 's stage presence, yet even this did not make them close friends. The pair quarrelled, particularly in the mid-1970s, over the group 's direction. During his time with the band, Jones was subject to intermittent criticism from Daltrey.
Entwistle 's death came as a shock to both Townshend and Daltrey, and caused them to re-evaluate their relationship. Townshend has said that he and Daltrey have since become close friends. In 2015, Townshend confirmed their friendship was still strong, adding their acceptance of each other 's differences "brought us to a really genuine and compassionate relationship, which can only be described as love. ''
The Who are one of the most influential rock bands of the 20th century. Their appearances at Monterey and Woodstock helped give them a reputation as one of the greatest live rock acts and they have been credited with originating the "rock opera ''. The band has sold over 100 million records worldwide.
The group 's contributions to rock include the power chord, windmill strum and the use of non-musical instrument noise such as feedback. The band influenced fashion from their earliest days with their embrace of pop art and the use of the Union Jack for clothing. The guitar - smashing incident at the Railway Hotel in 1964 is one of Rolling Stone magazine 's "50 Moments That Changed the History of Rock ' n ' Roll ''.
Pink Floyd began to use feedback from their early shows in 1966, inspired by the Who, whom they considered a formative influence. Shortly after arriving in London in 1966, Hendrix visited Marshall 's music shop demanding an amp setup like Townshend 's and manipulated electronic noises in ways that Townshend had pioneered. The Beatles were fans and socialised with Moon in particular during the mid-1960s. In 1965, Paul McCartney said the Who "are the most exciting thing around '' and was inspired to write "Helter Skelter '' in the group 's "heavy '' style; John Lennon borrowed the acoustic guitar style in "Pinball Wizard '' for "Polythene Pam ''.
The loud volume of the band 's live show influenced the approach of hard rock and heavy metal. Proto punk and punk rock bands such as the MC5, the Stooges, the Ramones the Sex Pistols, the Clash and Green Day cite the Who as an influence. The Who inspired mod revival bands, particularly the Jam, which helped other groups influenced by the Who become popular. The Who influenced hard rock bands such as Guns N ' Roses. In the mid-1990s, Britpop bands such as Blur and Oasis were influenced by the Who. The Who have also influenced pop punk band Panic! at the Disco.
The Who have inspired many tribute bands; Daltrey has endorsed the Whodlums, who raise money for the Teenage Cancer Trust. Many bands have covered Who songs; Elton John 's version of "Pinball Wizard '' reached No. 7 in the UK.
During the Who 's hiatuses in the 1980s and 90s, Townshend developed his skills as a music publisher to be financially successful from the Who without recording or touring. He countered criticism of "selling out '' by saying that licensing the songs to other media allows a wider exposure and widens the group 's appeal.
The American forensic drama CSI (CSI: Crime Scene Investigation, CSI: Miami, CSI: NY, and CSI: Cyber) feature Who songs as theme music, "Who Are You '', "Wo n't Get Fooled Again '', "Baba O'Riley '' and "I Can See for Miles '' respectively. The group 's songs have featured in other popular TV series such as The Simpsons, and Top Gear, which had an episode where the presenters were tasked with being roadies for the band.
Rock - orientated films such as Almost Famous, School of Rock and Tenacious D in the Pick of Destiny refer to the band and feature their songs, and other films have used the band 's material in their soundtracks, including Apollo 13 (which used "I Can See For Miles '') and Austin Powers: The Spy Who Shagged Me (which used a take of "My Generation '' recorded for the BBC). Several of the band 's tracks have appeared in the video game Rock Band and its sequels.
The Who have received many awards and accolades from the music industry for their recordings and their influence. They received a Lifetime Achievement Award from the British Phonographic Industry in 1988, and from the Grammy Foundation in 2001.
The band were inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 1990 where their display describes them as "prime contenders, in the minds of many, for the title of World 's Greatest Rock Band '', and the UK Music Hall of Fame in 2005. Seven of the group 's albums appeared on Rolling Stone 's 500 Greatest Albums of All Time in 2003, more than any act except the Beatles, Bob Dylan, the Rolling Stones and Bruce Springsteen.
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he's the one who likes to shoot his gun | In Bloom - wikipedia
"In Bloom '' is a song by American rock band Nirvana. Written by frontman Kurt Cobain, the song addresses people outside the underground music community who did not understand the band 's message.
Nirvana made its first music video for an early version of "In Bloom '' in 1990; however the song did not appear on a commercial release until the release of the group 's second album, Nevermind, in 1991. "In Bloom '' became the fourth and final single from the album in late 1992. It was accompanied by a new music video which parodied musical performances of 1960s variety shows. The music video for "In Bloom '' won Best Alternative Video at the MTV Video Music Awards in 1993.
Nirvana first played the song the night before it was demoed. Bassist Krist Novoselic recalled that it "originally sounded like a Bad Brains song. Then Kurt turned it into a pop song ''. Cobain went home and reworked the song, playing the revised version of it over the phone to Novoselic. The band recorded "In Bloom '' with producer Butch Vig at Smart Studios in Madison, Wisconsin during April 1990. The material recorded at Smart Studios was intended for the group 's second album for the independent record label Sub Pop. The song originally had a bridge section that Vig removed. Novoselic said that after the band recorded the song, Vig cut out the bridge from the 16 - track master tape with a razor blade and threw it in the garbage. The songs from these sessions were placed on a demo tape that circulated amongst the music industry, generating interest in the group among major record labels.
After signing to DGC Records, Nirvana began recording its second album Nevermind in May 1991. "In Bloom '' was one of the first songs the band recorded during the album sessions at Sound City Studios in Van Nuys, California; Vig thought it would be good to start recording a song previously recorded at Smart Studios. The arrangements for "In Bloom '' and the other songs previously recorded with Vig in 1990 were largely unchanged; the recently hired drummer Dave Grohl stayed mostly with what his predecessor Chad Channing had recorded, but added more power and precision to the recording. Cobain sang progressively "harder '' during the recording of the song, which made it difficult for Vig to balance the volume levels between the verses and choruses. Vig recalled that he had to change the input level "on the fly '' and hoped that Cobain would not "change the phrasing or do something different '' while recording.
Cobain chose not to overdub a harmony vocal part during the Smart Studios sessions, possibly due to time constraints. During the Nevermind sessions, Vig had Grohl sing harmonies on the song. Grohl had difficulty hitting the proper notes, but ultimately was able to sing what Vig wanted. Vig often had to trick Cobain, who was averse to performing multiple takes, into recording additional takes for overdubs on the record. The producer convinced Cobain to double - track his vocals on "In Bloom '' by telling him, "John Lennon did it. '' After doubling Cobain 's vocals, Vig decided he might as well double Grohl 's and had the drummer record an additional track of backing harmonies.
Like many Nirvana songs, "In Bloom '' shifts back and forth between quiet verses and loud choruses. Cobain uses a Mesa Boogie guitar amplifier for the verses, and during the chorus he switches to a Fender Bassman amp (suggested by Vig) for a heavier, double - tracked fuzztone sound. The rhythm section of Novoselic and Grohl kept its parts simple; Grohl stated it was "an unspoken rule '' to avoid unnecessary drum fills, while Novoselic said he felt his role was about "serving the song ''. During the choruses, vocalist Cobain and drummer Grohl harmonize while singing "He 's the one / Who likes all our pretty songs / And he likes to sing along / And he likes to shoot his gun / But he knows not what it means ''. The song 's intro reappears at the end of each chorus.
Cobain 's lyrics address the people outside the underground music scene that began showing up at Nirvana shows after the release of the group 's debut album Bleach. Nirvana biographer Michael Azerrad wrote, "But remarkably, (the song 's lyrics) translated even better to the mass popularity the band enjoyed. '' Regarding the song 's chorus, Azerrad commented, "The brilliant irony is that the tune is so catchy that millions of people actually do sing along to it. '' In his biography of Cobain, Heavier Than Heaven, Charles R. Cross asserted that the song was a "thinly disguised portrait '' of Cobain 's friend Dylan Carlson.
"In Bloom '' was released as the fourth single from Nevermind on November 30, 1992. The single was only released commercially in the United Kingdom; promotional copies were released in the United States. The 7 - inch vinyl and cassette editions of the single contained a live version of "Polly '' as a B - side, while the 12 - inch vinyl and CD versions featured a performance of "Sliver ''; both songs were recorded at the same December 28, 1991 concert. The single peaked at number 28 on the British singles chart. While lacking an American commercial release, the song charted at number five on the Billboard Album Rock Tracks chart.
Nirvana biographer Everett True wrote an uncharacteristically unfavorable review in Melody Maker, accusing the single of being a cash - in on Nevermind 's success. "Whoop whoop bloody whoop '', he wrote, "Forgive me if I do n't sound too thrilled. This release is stretching even my credulity beyond repair. Like, milking a still - breathing (sacred) cow, or what? Badly inferior live versions of ' Polly ' and ' Sliver ' on the flip do n't help matters either. '' In 2011 Rolling Stone magazine ranked the song number 415 on its list of the "500 Greatest Songs of All Time ''.
Nirvana first made a music video for "In Bloom '' in 1990 for the Sub Pop Video Network Program VHS compilation (1991). The recording of the song featured in the video is the version recorded during the Smart Studios sessions. The Sub Pop video features the band walking around various parts of lower Manhattan including the South Street Seaport, the Lower East Side, and Wall Street. While filming the video, Novoselic shaved his head as penance for a bad performance the band gave in New York City. This caused discontinuity in the final cut; shots of the band feature the bassist with and without hair throughout the video. This video was later compiled on the Nirvana box set With the Lights Out (2004). The audio of this version of "In Bloom '' was later released on CD2 of the 20th Anniversary Deluxe Edition of the Nevermind album in 2011.
The second video, created to accompany the 1992 single release that was recorded at Sound City Studios, was directed by Kevin Kerslake, who had previously directed the band 's videos for "Come as You Are '' and "Lithium ''. Cobain 's original concept for the video told the story of a young girl born into a Ku Klux Klan family who one day realizes how evil they are. His concept was too ambitious, so Cobain instead decided to parody musical performances by bands on early 1960s variety shows, such as The Ed Sullivan Show. The humorous tone of the video was a result of Cobain being "so tired for the last year of people taking us so seriously... I wanted to fuck off and show them that we have a humorous side to us ''. Kerslake filmed the video on old Kinescope cameras, and the band improvised its performance. The video begins with an unnamed variety show host (played by Doug Llewelyn, former host of The People 's Court) introducing Nirvana to an in - studio crowd of screaming teenagers; their non-stop screaming is heard throughout the duration of the song. The band members, whom the host refers to as "thoroughly all right and decent fellas '', perform dressed in Beach Boys - style outfits; Cobain wears glasses that blurred his vision, while Novoselic cut his hair short and liked it so much he kept it that way afterwards. As the video progresses, the band destroys the set and its instruments.
Three different edits of the Kerslake video were made. Cobain intended to replace the first version of the video after a period with a new take featuring the band wearing dresses instead of suits. MTV 's alternative rock show 120 Minutes insisted on premiering the video, but Cobain felt the program would not properly convey the humor of the "pop idol '' version. Instead, a new edit was produced which contained shots of the band in both suits and dresses. The original edit of the video never aired. This video won the award for Best Alternative Video at the 1993 MTV Video Music Awards, and topped the music video category in the 1992 Village Voice Pazz & Jop critics ' poll.
All tracks written by Kurt Cobain.
Country musician Sturgill Simpson recorded a cover in 2016 for his Grammy - winning album A Sailor 's Guide to Earth. The cover was released as a single and received airplay on adult alternative stations. It also features altered lyrics in the chorus, instead of "But he knows not what it means, knows not what it means. And I say '' his version is "But he do n't know what it means, Do n't know what it means to love someone ''. He has stated the lyric change was a mistake during the recording process, caused by him not reading the lyrics before recording the song.
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when was the first bank of the united states formed by the federalists | First bank of the United States - wikipedia
The President, Directors and Company, of the Bank of the United States, commonly known as the First Bank of the United States, was a national bank, chartered for a term of twenty years, by the United States Congress on February 25, 1791. It followed the Bank of North America, the nation 's first de facto central bank.
Establishment of the Bank of the United States was part of a three - part expansion of federal fiscal and monetary power, along with a federal mint and excise taxes, championed by Alexander Hamilton, first Secretary of the Treasury. Hamilton believed a national bank was necessary to stabilize and improve the nation 's credit, and to improve handling of the financial business of the United States government under the newly enacted Constitution.
The First Bank building, located in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, within Independence National Historical Park, was completed in 1797, and is a National Historic Landmark for its historic and architectural significance.
In 1791, The First Bank of the United States was one of the four major financial innovations proposed and supported by Hamilton, first Secretary of the Treasury. In addition to the national bank, the other measures were assumption of the state war debts by the U.S. Government, establishment of a mint and imposition of a federal excise tax. The goals of Hamilton 's three measures were to:
In simpler words, Hamilton 's four goals were to
According to the plan put before the first session of the First Congress in 1790, Hamilton proposed establishing the initial funding for the First Bank of the United States through the sale of $10 million in stock of which the United States government would purchase the first $2 million in shares. Hamilton, foreseeing the objection that this could not be done since the U.S. government did not have $2 million, proposed that the government make the stock purchase using money lent to it by the bank; the loan to be paid back in ten equal annual installments. The remaining $8 million of stock would be available to the public, both in the United States and overseas. The chief requirement of these non-government purchases was that one - quarter of the purchase price had to be paid in gold or silver; the remaining balance could be paid in bonds, acceptable scrip, etc.
By continuously insisting on these conditions, the First Bank of the United States might technically possess $500,000 in "real '' money that it could, and would, use as security to make loans up to its capitalized limit of $10 million. However, unlike the Bank of England, the primary function of the bank would be credit issued to government and private interests, for internal improvements and other economic development, per Hamilton 's system of Public Credit. The business it would be involved in on behalf of the federal government -- a depository for collected taxes, making short term loans to the government to cover real or potential temporary income gaps, serving as a holding site for both incoming and outgoing monies -- was considered highly important but still secondary in nature.
There were other, nonnegotiable conditions for the establishment of the First Bank of the United States. Among these were:
To ensure that the government could meet both the current and future demands of its governmental accounts, an additional source of funding was required, "for interest payments on the assumed state debts would begin to fall due at the end of 1791... those payments would require $788,333 annually, and... an additional $38,291 was needed to cover deficiencies in the funds that had been appropriated for existing commitments. '' To achieve this, Hamilton repeated a suggestion he had made nearly a year before -- increase the duty on imported spirits, plus raise the excise tax on domestically distilled whiskey and other liquors. Local opposition to the tax led to the Whiskey Rebellion.
Hamilton 's bank proposal faced widespread resistance from opponents of increased federal power. Secretary of State Thomas Jefferson and James Madison led the opposition, which claimed that the bank was unconstitutional, and that it benefited merchants and investors at the expense of the majority of the population.
Like most of the Southern members of Congress, Jefferson and Madison also opposed a second of the three proposals of Hamilton: establishing an official government Mint. They believed this centralization of power away from local banks was dangerous to a sound monetary system and was mostly to the benefit of business interests in the commercial north, not southern agricultural interests, arguing that the right to own property would be infringed by these proposals. Furthermore, they contended that the creation of such a bank violated the Constitution, which specifically stated that congress was to regulate weights and measures and issue coined money (rather than mint and bills of credit).
The first part of the bill, the concept and establishment of a national mint, met with no real objection, and sailed through; it was assumed the second and third part (the bank and an excise tax to finance it) would likewise glide through, and in their own way they did: The House version of the bill, despite some heated objections, easily passed. The Senate version of the bill did likewise, with considerably fewer, and milder, objections. It was when "the two bills changed houses, complications set in. In the Senate, Hamilton 's supporters objected to the House 's alteration of the plans for the excise tax. ''
The establishment of the bank also raised early questions of constitutionality in the new government. Hamilton, then Secretary of the Treasury, argued that the bank was an effective means to utilize the authorized powers of the government implied under the law of the Constitution. Secretary of State Thomas Jefferson argued that the bank violated traditional property laws and that its relevance to constitutionally authorized powers was weak. Another argument came from James Madison, who believed Congress had not received the power to incorporate a bank, or any other governmental agency. His argument rested primarily on the Tenth Amendment: that all powers not endowed to Congress are retained by the States (or the people). Additionally, his belief was that if the Constitution 's writers had wanted Congress to have such power, they would have made it explicit. The decision would ultimately fall on President George Washington, following his deliberate investigation of the cabinet members ' opinions.
George Washington initially declared that he was hesitant to sign the "bank bill '' into law. Washington asked for the written advice and supporting reasons from all his cabinet members -- most particularly from Hamilton. Attorney General Edmund Randolph from Virginia felt that the bill was unconstitutional. Jefferson, also from Virginia, agreed that Hamilton 's proposal was against both the spirit and letter of the Constitution. Hamilton, who, unlike his fellow cabinet members, came from New York, quickly responded to those who claimed incorporation of the bank unconstitutional. While Hamilton 's rebuttals were many and varied, chief among them were these two:
On February 25, 1791, convinced that the constitution authorized the measure, Washington signed the "bank bill '' into law.
On March 19, 1791 Washington appointed three Commissioners for the taking of subscriptions for this new bank: Thomas Willing, David Rittenhouse, and Samuel Howell.
After Hamilton left office in 1795, the new Secretary of the Treasury Oliver Wolcott, Jr. informed Congress that, due to the existing state of government finances, more money was needed. This could be achieved either by selling the government 's shares of stock in the bank, or by raising taxes. Wolcott advised the first choice. Congress quickly agreed. Hamilton objected, believing that the dividends on that stock had been inviolably pledged for the support of the sinking fund to retire the debt. Hamilton tried to organize opposition to the measure, but was unsuccessful.
In 1811, the U.S. Senate tied on a vote to renew the bank 's charter. Vice President George Clinton broke the tie and voted against renewal. The bank 's charter thus expired in 1811.
In 1816, the bank was succeeded by the Second Bank of the United States.
After the charter for the First Bank of the United States expired in 1811, Stephen Girard purchased most of its stock as well as the building and its furnishings on South Third Street in Philadelphia and opened his own bank, later known as Girard Bank. Girard hired George Simpson, the cashier of the First Bank of the United States, as cashier of the new bank, and with seven other employees, opened for business on May 18, 1812. He allowed the Trustees of the First Bank of the United States to use some offices and space in the vaults to continue the process of winding down the affairs of the closed bank at a very nominal rent.
Over its early history the bank was known as "Girard 's Bank, '' or as "Girard Bank '' or also as "Stephen Girard 's Bank '' or even the "Bank of Stephen Girard. '' Girard was the sole proprietor of his bank, and thus avoided the Pennsylvania state law which prohibited an unincorporated association of persons from establishing a bank, and which required a charter from the legislature for a banking corporation.
The First Bank of the United States was established in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, while the city served as the national capital, from 1790 to 1800. In the eighteenth century, Philadelphia was one of the largest cities in the English - speaking world. The bank began operations in Carpenters ' Hall in 1791, some 200 feet from its permanent home.
Design of the bank building is credited to Samuel Blodgett, Superintendent of Buildings for the new capital in Washington, DC., although it has also been attributed to James Hoban. It was completed in 1795.
The First Bank of the United States has received various designations as a historic building. It was included in Independence National Historical Park when the park was formed in 1956. The building 's architecture was studied by the Historic American Buildings Survey in 1958. With the rest of Independence National Historical Park, it was listed on the National Register of Historic Places on October 15, 1966, and the bank was then declared a National Historic Landmark on May 4, 1987. It is described in the landmark designation as an early masterpiece of monumental Classical Revival design.
Until about 2000, the building housed offices for Independence National Historical Park. A proposal to have it house the collection of the Philadelphia Civil War Museum was abandoned when funding from the state of Pennsylvania was not forthcoming. Future plans are for it to house the National Park Service archaeology lab, currently across the street in the old Visitor Center.
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who are the remaining contestants on top chef | Top chef (season 15) - wikipedia
Top Chef: Colorado is the fifteenth season of the American reality television series Top Chef. Initial details about the season and its cast were revealed on October 12, 2017. The show was filmed in various cities across Colorado, including Denver, Boulder, Telluride, and Aspen. The season premiered on December 7, 2017, and concluded on March 8, 2018. Last Chance Kitchen premiered on November 30, 2017. In the season finale, Joseph Flamm was declared the Top Chef, defeating Adrienne Cheatham. Fatima Ali was voted Fan Favorite.
Top Chef: Colorado features a cast of 15 new contestants. In addition, four returning competitors from previous seasons competed in the Last Chance Kitchen for the opportunity to enter the main competition: Top Chef: San Francisco contestant Lee Anne Wong, Top Chef: Los Angeles runner - up and All - Stars contestant Marcel Vigneron, Top Chef: California contestant Kwame Onwuachi, and Top Chef: Las Vegas finalist and All - Stars contestant Jennifer Carroll. Following the sixth episode of Last Chance Kitchen, Wong was selected to join the main cast.
^ Note 1: The chef (s) did not receive immunity for winning the Quickfire Challenge. ^ Note 2: Laura lost the Sudden Death Quickfire Challenge and was eliminated. ^ Note 3: Following Episode 6 of Last Chance Kitchen, Claudette rejoined the competition and Lee Anne was introduced as a regular competitor. ^ Note 4: Due to severe altitude sickness, Lee Anne voluntarily withdrew from the competition. ^ Note 5: Joseph lost the Sudden Death Quickfire Challenge and was eliminated. ^ Note 6: Joseph won Last Chance Kitchen and returned to the competition.
Quickfire Challenge: To introduce themselves to the judges and their fellow competitors, the chefs had to create a dish for a potluck. The contestants then voted for their most and least favorite dishes. The winner received immunity from elimination.
Elimination Challenge: The chefs were tasked with putting a modern spin on a meat and potatoes dish. The dishes were served to 200 Denver locals at a block party located in Larimer Square.
Quickfire Challenge: Divided into two teams, the chefs competed in the series ' traditional mise en place relay race. The race consisted of three tasks: peel and brunoise shallots; peel, destem, and slice mushrooms; and butcher twenty pieces of beef tenderloin. The members of the winning team then competed against each other, cooking dishes using the three prepped ingredients. The winner received immunity from elimination, US $5,000, and a year 's supply of Blue Apron dinners. The guest judge for the challenge was chef Troy Guard.
Elimination Challenge: The chefs, remaining in the same teams from the Quickfire Challenge, were required to prepare a four - course meal which incorporated four different cheeses. The guest judge for the challenge was chef Alex Seidel.
Sudden Death Quickfire Challenge: The chefs deconstructed the Denver omelette. The winner received immunity from elimination. The guest judge for the challenge was chef Lachlan Mackinnon - Patterson.
Elimination Challenge: The chefs, separated into teams of three, had to create a food truck concept with a cohesive three - item menu, which would be served to 150 college students. Each diner was provided a ticket to exchange at one food truck; the team who received the most tickets was safe from elimination. The guest judge for the challenge was Top Chef: New York winner Hosea Rosenberg.
Quickfire Challenge: The chefs elevated items from a traditional kids ' menu; they were also limited to using kids - sized kitchen equipment. The winner received immunity from elimination. The guest judge for the challenge was chef Curtis Stone.
Elimination Challenge: The chefs created dishes inspired by their heritage and backgrounds. The guest judge for the challenge was Food & Wine contributor Nilou Motamed.
Elimination Challenge: While camping outside near the mountains of Estes Park, the chefs had to create a meal using only camping equipment and ingredients native to Colorado. The guest judge for the challenge was chef Naomi Pomeroy. Prior to the challenge, Claudette and Lee Anne were selected by head judge Colicchio to join the main competition, following their wins in Episode 6 of Last Chance Kitchen.
Quickfire Challenge: The chefs had to cook one of the most complicated dishes from their restaurants ' menus in only 30 minutes. The winner received immunity from elimination and had their recipe featured in a BuzzFeed Tasty video. The guest judge for the challenge was Top Chef: All - Stars winner Richard Blais.
Elimination Challenge: The chefs were responsible for elevating traditional German cuisine. In addition, each contestant had to create their own original radler to pair with their dish. The guest judge for the challenge was chef Keegan Gerhard.
Quickfire Challenge: The chefs made breakfast dishes featuring Nutella. The winner received immunity from elimination and US $5,000. The guest judge for the challenge was Top Chef: Charleston winner Brooke Williamson.
Elimination Challenge: The chefs participated in a team challenge inspired by the 2018 Winter Olympics. In teams of three, the contestants competed head - to - head in three rounds showcasing speed, precision, and creativity. The dishes were served in the Top Chef kitchen, which was converted into an arena setting, to 70 diners, including Olympians Meryl Davis, Gus Kenworthy, and John Daly. In the speed round, the chefs had to feed 30 diners in 45 minutes. In the precision round, the chefs had to cook a protein to the perfect temperature and compose their dish using three knife cut techniques: chiffonade, bâtonnet, and brunoise. In the creativity round, the chefs had to produce the most creative dish possible using a mystery protein. The team with the lowest combined score after all three rounds faced elimination. The guest judge for the challenge was originally chef John Besh. However, following numerous sexual harassment allegations against him in late 2017, Bravo made the decision to edit Besh out of the episode.
Elimination Challenge: The chefs competed in Top Chef 's traditional Restaurant Wars challenge. The contestants, split into two teams, were responsible for transforming an empty space into a fully functioning pop - up restaurant within 24 hours. As usual, the teams were required to cook three - course meals; however, instead of two options, they had to create three options per course, resulting in nine total dishes. To help with the increased workload, each team was allowed to select one sous chef from the pool of previously eliminated chefs. The winning team received US $40,000. The guest judges for the challenge were chefs Bruce Bromberg and Eric Bromberg.
Sudden Death Quickfire Challenge: The chefs incorporated edible flowers into their dishes. Beginning with this challenge, immunity from elimination was no longer awarded to the winner. The guest judge for the challenge was chef David Kinch.
Elimination Challenge: Working in teams of two, the chefs had to create one plate of food for a tailgate Super Bowl party at Sports Authority Field at Mile High. The winners each received a trip for two to Super Bowl LII. The guest judge for the challenge was chef Adam Perry Lang.
Quickfire Challenge: The chefs traveled to The Stanley Hotel, where they crafted desserts visualizing their worst nightmares.
Elimination Challenge: The chefs were tasked with creating dishes that embodied their culinary journeys on Top Chef. The dishes were served at the Colorado Governor 's Mansion to a table of guests, including Governor of Colorado John Hickenlooper. The guest judge for the challenge was chef Frank Bonanno.
Quickfire Challenge: The chefs served gastropub - inspired dishes featuring sarsaparilla. The guest judge for the challenge was chef Wylie Dufresne.
Elimination Challenge: The chefs had to create high concept dishes under high - altitude cooking conditions. The dishes were served at Alpino Vino, the highest elevation restaurant in North America, which sits at approximately 12,000 feet (3.7 km) above sea level. Each chef was also required to include a baking element to their dish. The guest judges for the challenge were chefs Wylie Dufresne and Paul Liebrandt.
Quick Fire Challenge: The chefs had to create a dish with Rocky Mountain oysters prepared two ways. The guest judges for the challenge were Top Chef: Las Vegas winner Michael Voltaggio and his brother Bryan Voltaggio. The winner received an advantage in the following Elimination Challenge.
Elimination Challenge: The chefs were greeted by their family members at a surprise reunion. After enjoying a meal served by the contestants ' family, the chefs were instructed to take the dish cooked by their relative and elevate it to the next level. As the winner of the Quickfire Challenge, Joe received an extra 30 minutes of prep time.
Quick Fire Challenge: The chefs had to go fly fishing, catch a trout, and cook a dish within the allotted time frame. The guest judge for the challenge was Top Chef Masters Season 4 winner Chris Cosentino. The winner received an advantage in the following Elimination Challenge.
Elimination Challenge: The chefs served vegetarian dishes to various chefs and food connoisseurs attending the Food & Wine Classic in Aspen, including Brooke Williamson, Danny Meyer, Bryan Voltaggio, Michael Voltaggio, Ludo Lefebvre, Scott Conant, and Tim Love. To help with the challenge, each contestant received the assistance of one of the three most recently eliminated competitors: Carrie, Chris, and Bruce. As the winner of the Quickfire Challenge, Joseph was able to select his own sous chef and assign his opponents '. He selected Carrie for himself, Bruce for Adrienne, and Chris for Joe. The guest judge for the challenge was chef Daniel Boulud.
Elimination Challenge: The finalists had to create the best four - course progressive meal of their lives. Each finalist received help from two sous chefs, consisting of previously eliminated contestants. Adrienne was assisted by Chris and Carrie, while Joseph was assisted by Joe and Fatima. The guest judges for the challenge were Jonathan Waxman, Nancy Silverton, and Curtis Duffy.
Challenge: The four returning Top Chef contestants had to create a dish that represented their current ventures as a chef. In addition, the contestants had to agree upon five ingredients which they would all have to incorporate into their dishes; they chose cauliflower, lamb, serrano peppers, fennel, and olives. Only three contestants would move on to compete against the first eliminated chef from the main cast.
Challenge: The chefs had to create a dish featuring potatoes.
Challenge: Inspired by the Little Miss Muffet nursery rhyme, the chefs had to create a dish using cheese curds, whey, and dried zebra tarantulas.
Challenge: The chefs were shown seven baskets filled with unusual pairings of ingredients: vanilla beans and pickles, strawberries and garlic, liquorice and peanut butter, sour candy and gochujang, bonito flakes and chocolate, bananas and capers, and coffee and anchovy paste. Each contestant had to select one basket and create a cohesive dish using their ingredients, attempting to turn "two wrongs into a right ''. Following the judging, two chefs were eliminated.
Challenge (Part 1): In the first round of a two - part challenge, the chefs had to create dishes using animal heads.
Challenge (Part 2): In the second round of a two - part challenge, the chefs had to create dishes using the innards of various animals. The winners of the challenge earned spots in the main competition.
Challenge: The chefs made dishes highlighting the flavors and textures of the unconventionally eaten parts of the tree, such as spruce tips, pine tips, curry leaves, and kaffir lime leaves.
Challenge: The chefs were allowed to cook any dish, but were only given ten minutes to do so.
Challenge: The chefs had to create dishes using produce that has gone bad; they were also restricted from using any proteins.
Challenge: The chefs put their own spin on tacos. Instead of creating the entire dish themselves, the chefs had to lay out the components for their tacos and allow Colicchio, as well as the other eliminated contestants, to build their own. In addition, at least one component had to incorporate Hidden Valley ranch seasoning.
Challenge: Inspired by the fairy tale "Goldilocks and the Three Bears '', the chefs had to create a porridge dish.
Challenge: The finalists were allowed to cook any dish. The dishes were served to Colicchio, guest judge Lachlan Mackinnon - Patterson, and the gallery of previously eliminated chefs, who then voted for their favorite dish. The chef who received the most votes was declared the winner of Last Chance Kitchen and rejoined the main competition.
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why water potential of a cell is normally a negative value | Water potential - wikipedia
Water potential is the potential energy of water per unit volume relative to pure water in reference conditions. Water potential quantifies the tendency of water to move from one area to another due to osmosis, gravity, mechanical pressure, or matrix effects such as capillary action (which is caused by surface tension). The concept of water potential has proved useful in understanding and computing water movement within plants, animals, and soil. Water potential is typically expressed in potential energy per unit volume and very often is represented by the Greek letter ψ.
Water potential integrates a variety of different potential drivers of water movement, which may operate in the same or different directions. Within complex biological systems, many potential factors may be operating simultaneously. For example, the addition of solutes lowers the potential (negative vector), while an increase in pressure increases the potential (positive vector). If flow is not restricted, water will move from an area of higher water potential to an area that is lower potential. A common example is water with a dissolved salt, such as sea water or the fluid in a living cell. These solutions have negative water potential, relative to the pure water reference. With no restriction on flow, water will move from the locus of greater potential (pure water) to the locus of lesser (the solution); flow proceeds until the difference in potential is equalized or balanced by another water potential factor, such as pressure or elevation.
Many different factors may affect the total water potential, and the sum of these potentials determines the overall water potential and the direction of water flow:
where:
All of these factors are quantified as potential energies per unit volume, and different subsets of these terms may be used for particular applications (e.g., plants or soils). Different conditions are also defined as reference depending on the application: for example, in soils, the reference condition is typically defined as pure water at the soil surface.
Pressure potential is based on mechanical pressure, and is an important component of the total water potential within plant cells. Pressure potential increases as water enters a cell. As water passes through the cell wall and cell membrane, it increases the total amount of water present inside the cell, which exerts an outward pressure that is opposed by the structural rigidity of the cell wall. By creating this pressure, the plant can maintain turgor, which allows the plant to keep its rigidity. Without turgor, plants will lose structure and wilt.
The pressure potential in a plant cell is usually positive. In plasmolysed cells, pressure potential is almost zero. Negative pressure potentials occur when water is pulled through an open system such as a plant xylem vessel. Withstanding negative pressure potentials (frequently called tension) is an important adaptation of xylem. This tension can be measured empirically using the Pressure bomb.
Pure water is usually defined as having an osmotic potential (Ψ π (\ displaystyle \ Psi _ (\ pi))) of zero, and in this case, solute potential can never be positive. The relationship of solute concentration (in molarity) to solute potential is given by the van ' t Hoff equation:
where M (\ displaystyle M) is the concentration in molarity of the solute, i (\ displaystyle i) is the van ' t Hoff factor, the ratio of amount of particles in solution to amount of formula units dissolved, R (\ displaystyle R) is the ideal gas constant, and T (\ displaystyle T) is the absolute temperature.
For example, when a solute is dissolved in water, water molecules are less likely to diffuse away via osmosis than when there is no solute. A solution will have a lower and hence more negative water potential than that of pure water. Furthermore, the more solute molecules present, the more negative the solute potential is.
Osmotic potential has important implications for many living organisms. If a living cell is surrounded by a more concentrated solution, the cell will tend to lose water to the more negative water potential (Ψ w (\ displaystyle \ Psi _ (w))) of the surrounding environment. This can be the case for marine organisms living in sea water and halophytic plants growing in saline environments. In the case of a plant cell, the flow of water out of the cell may eventually cause the plasma membrane to pull away from the cell wall, leading to plasmolysis. Most plants, however, have the ability to increase solute inside the cell to drive the flow of water into the cell and maintain turgor.
This effect can be used to power an osmotic power plant.
A soil solution also experiences osmotic potential. The osmotic potential is made possible due to the presence of both inorganic and organic solutes in the soil solution. As water molecules increasingly clump around solute ions or molecules, the freedom of movement, and thus the potential energy, of the water is lowered. As the concentration of solutes is increased, the osmotic potential of the soil solution is reduced. Since water has a tendency to move toward lower energy levels, water will want to travel toward the zone of higher solute concentrations. Although, liquid water will only move in response to such differences in osmotic potential if a semipermeable membrane exists between the zones of high and low osmotic potential. A semipermeable membrane is necessary because it allows water through its membrane while preventing solutes from moving through its membrane. If no membrane is present, movement of the solute, rather than of the water, largely equalizes concentrations.
Since regions of soil are usually not divided by a semipermeable membrane, the osmotic potential typically has a negligible influence on the mass movement of water in soils. On the other hand, osmotic potential has an extreme influence on the rate of water uptake by plants. If soils are high in soluble salts, the osmotic potential is likely to be lower in the soil solution than in the plant root cells. In such cases, the soil solution would severely restrict the rate of water uptake by plants. In salty soils, the osmotic potential of soil water may be so low that the cells in young seedlings start to collapse (plasmolyze).
When water is in contact with solid particles (e.g., clay or sand particles within soil), adhesive intermolecular forces between the water and the solid can be large and important. The forces between the water molecules and the solid particles in combination with attraction among water molecules promote surface tension and the formation of menisci within the solid matrix. Force is then required to break these menisci. The magnitude of matrix potential depends on the distances between solid particles -- the width of the menisci (also capillary action and differing Pa at ends of capillary) -- and the chemical composition of the solid matrix (meniscus, macroscopic motion due to ionic attraction).
In many cases, absolute value of matrix potential can be relatively large in comparison to the other components of water potential discussed above. Matrix potential markedly reduces the energy state of water near particle surfaces. Although water movement due to matrix potential may be slow, it is still extremely important in supplying water to plant roots and in engineering applications. The matrix potential is always negative because the water attracted by the soil matrix has an energy state lower than that of pure water. Matrix potential only occurs in unsaturated soil above the water table. If the matrix potential approaches a value of zero, nearly all soil pores are completely filled with water, i.e. fully saturated and at maximum retentive capacity. The matrix potential can vary considerably among soils. In the case that water drains into less - moist soil zones of similar porosity, the matrix potential is generally in the range of − 10 to − 30 kPa.
At a potential of 0 kPa, soil is in a state of saturation. At saturation, all soil pores are filled with water, and water typically drains from large pores by gravity. At a potential of − 33 kPa, or − 1 / 3 bar, (− 10 kPa for sand), soil is at field capacity. Typically, at field capacity, air is in the macropores and water in micropores. Field capacity is viewed as the optimal condition for plant growth and microbial activity. At a potential of − 1500 kPa, soil is at its permanent wilting point, meaning that soil water is held by solid particles as a "water film '' that is retained too tightly to be taken up by plants.
In contrast, atmospheric water potentials are much more negative -- a typical value for dry air is − 100 MPa, though this value depends on the temperature and the humidity. Root water potential must be more negative than the soil, and the stem water potential and intermediate lower value than the roots but higher than the leaf water potential, to create a passive flow of water from the soil to the roots, up the stem, to the leaves and then into the atmosphere.
A tensiometer, electrical resistance gypsum block, neutron probes, or time - domain reflectometry (TDR) can be used to determine soil water potential energy. Tensiometers are limited to 0 to − 85 kPa, electrical resistance blocks is limited to − 90 to − 1500 kPa, neutron probes is limited to 0 to − 1500 kPa, and TDR is limited to 0 to − 10,000 kPa. A scale can be used to estimate water weight (percentage composition) if special equipment is not on hand.
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what are 4 of the forms that are used to create an african mask | Traditional African masks - wikipedia
Ritual and ceremonial masks are an essential feature of the traditional culture of the peoples of a part of Sub-Saharan Africa, e.g. roughly between the Sahara and the Kalahari Desert. While the specific implications associated to ritual masks widely vary in different cultures, some traits are common to most African cultures. For instance, masks usually have a spiritual and religious meaning and they are used in ritual dances and social and religious events, and a special status is attributed to the artists that create masks to those that wear them in ceremonies. In most cases, mask - making is an art that is passed on from father to son, along with the knowledge of the symbolic meanings conveyed by such masks. African masks come in all different colours, such as red, black, orange, and brown.
Traditional African masks are one of the elements of great African art that have most evidently influenced Europe and Western art in general; in the 20th century, artistic movements such as cubism, fauvism and expressionism have often taken inspiration from the vast and diverse heritage of African masks. Influences of this heritage can also be found in other traditions such as South - and Central American masked Carnival parades.
In most traditional African cultures, the person who wears a ritual mask conceptually loses his or her human life and turns into the spirit represented by the mask itself. This transformation of the mask wearer into a spirit usually relies on other practices, such as specific types of music and dance, or ritual costumes that contribute to conceal the mask - wearer 's human identity. The mask wearer thus becomes a sort of medium that allows for a dialogue between the community and the spirits (usually those of the dead or nature - related spirits). Masked dances are a part of most traditional African ceremonies related to weddings, funerals, initiation rites, and so on. Some of the most complex rituals that have been studied by scholars are found in Nigerian cultures such as those of the Yoruba and Edo peoples, that bear some resemblances to the Western notion of theatre.
Since every mask has a specific spiritual meaning, most traditions comprise several different traditional masks. The traditional religion of the Dogon people of Mali, for example, comprises three main cults (the Awa or cult of the dead, the Bini or cult of the communication with the spirits, and the Lebe or cult of nature); each of these has its pantheon of spirits, corresponding to 78 different types of masks overall. It is often the case that the artistic quality and complexity of a mask reflects the relative importance of the portrayed spirit in the systems of beliefs of a particular people; for example, simpler masks such as the kple kple of the Baoulé people of Côte d'Ivoire (essentially a circle with minimal eyes, mouth and horns) are associated to minor spirits.
African masks are usually shaped after a human face or some animal 's muzzle, albeit rendered in a sometimes highly abstract form. The inherent lack of realism in African masks (and African art in general) is justified by the fact that most African cultures clearly distinguish the essence of a subject from its looks, the former, rather than the latter, being the actual subject of artistical representation. An extreme example is given by nwantantay masks of the Bwa people (Burkina Faso) that represent the flying spirits of the forest; since these spirits are deemed to be invisible, the corresponding masks are shaped after abstract, purely geometrical forms.
Stylish elements in a mask 's looks are codified by the tradition and may either identify a specific community or convey specific meanings. For example, both the Bwa and the Buna people of Burkina Faso have hawk masks, with the shape of the beak identifying a mask as either Bwa or Buna. In both cases, the hawk 's wings are decorated with geometric patterns that have moral meanings; saw - shaped lines represent the hard path followed by ancestors, while chequered patterns represent the interaction of opposites (male - female, night - day, and so on)
Traits representing moral values are found in many cultures. Masks from the Senufo people of Ivory Coast, for example, have their eyes half closed, symbolizing a peaceful attitude, self - control, and patience. In Sierra Leone and elsewhere, small eyes and mouth represent humility, and a wide, protruding forehead represents wisdom. In Gabon, large chins and mouths represent authority and strength. The Grebo of the Ivory Coast carve masks with round eyes to represent alertness and anger, with the straight nose to represent unwillingness to retreat.
Animals are common subjects in African masks. Animal masks might actually represent the spirit of animals, so that the mask - wearer becomes a medium to speak to animals themselves (e.g. to ask wild beasts to stay away from the village); in many cases, nevertheless, an animal is also (sometimes mainly) a symbol of specific virtues. Common animal subjects include the buffalo (usually representing strength, as in the Baoulé culture), crocodile, hawk, hyena, warthog and antelope. Antelopes have a fundamental role in many cultures of the Mali area (for example in Dogon and Bambara culture) as representatives of agriculture. Dogon antelope masks are highly abstract, with a general rectangular shape and many horns (a representation of abundant harvest. Bambara antelope masks (called chiwara) have long horns representing the thriving growth of millet, legs (representing roots), long ears (representing the songs sung by the working women at harvest time), and a saw - shaped line that represents the path followed by the Sun between solstices. A 12th / 13th century mural from Old Dongola, the capital of the Nubian kingdom of Makuria, depicts dancing masks decorated with cowrie shells imitating some animal with long snouts and big ears.
A common variation on the animal - mask theme is the composition of several distinct animal traits in a single mask, sometimes along with human traits. Merging distinct animal traits together is sometimes a means to represent unusual, exceptional virtue or high status. For example, the Poro secret societies of the Senufo people of the Ivory Coast have masks that celebrate the exceptional power of the society by merging three different "danger '' symbols: antelope horns, crocodile teeth, and warthog fangs. Another well - known example is that of kifwebe masks of the Songye people (Congo basin), that mix the stripes of a zebra (or okapi), the teeth of a crocodile, the eyes of a chameleon, the mouth of an aardvark, the crest of a rooster, the feathers of an owl and more.
Another common subject of African masks is a woman 's face, usually based on a specific culture 's ideal of feminine beauty. Female masks of the Punu people of Gabon, for example, have long curved eyelashes, almond - shaped eyes, thin chin, and traditional ornaments on their cheeks, as all these are considered good - looking traits. Feminine masks of the Baga people have ornamental scars and breasts. In many cases, wearing masks that represent feminine beauty is strictly reserved to men.
One of the well - known representations of female beauty is the Idia mask of Benin. It is believed to have been commissioned by a king of Benin in memory of his mother. To honor his dead mother, the king wore the mask on his hip during special ceremonies.
As the veneration of defunct ancestors is a fundamental element of most African traditional cultures, it is not surprising that the dead is also a common subject for masks. Masks referring to dead ancestors are most often shaped after a human skull. A well - known example is the mwana pwo (literally, "young woman '') of the Chokwe people (Angola), that mixes elements referring to feminine beauty (well - proportioned oval face, small nose and chin) and other referring to death (sunken eye sockets, cracked skin, and tears); it represents a female ancestor who died young, venerated in rites such as circumcision rites and ceremonies associated to the renewal of life. As veneration of the dead is most often associated to fertility and reproduction, many dead - ancestor masks also have sexual symbols; the ndeemba mask of the Yaka people (Angola and DR Congo), for example, is shaped after a skull complemented with a phallic - shaped nose.
A special class of ancestor masks are those related to notable, historical or legendary people. The mwaash ambooy mask of the Kuba people (DR Congo), for example, representing the legendary founder of the Kuba Kingdom, Woot, while the mgady amwaash mask represents his wife Mweel.
The most commonly used material for masks is wood, although a wide variety of other elements can be used, including light stone such as steatite, metals such as copper or bronze, different types of fabric, pottery, and more. Some masks are painted (for example using ochre or other natural colorants). A wide array of ornamental items can be applied to the mask surface; example include animal hair, horns, or teeth, sea shells, seeds, straws, egg shell, and feathers. For example, animal hair or straws are often used for a mask 's hair or beard.
The general structure of a mask varies depending on the way it is intended to be worn. The most common type applies to the wearer 's face, like most Western (e.g., carnival) masks. Others are worn like hats on the top of the wearer 's head; examples include those of the Ekhoi people of Nigeria and Bwa people of Burkina Faso, as well as the famous chiwara masks of the Bambara people. Some masks (for example those of the Sande society of Liberia and the Mende people of Sierra Leone, that are made from hollow tree stumps) are worn like helmets covering both the head and face. Some African cultures have mask - like ornaments that are worn on the chest rather than the head of face; this includes those used by the Makonde people of East Africa in ndimu ceremonies.
As African masks are largely appreciated by Europeans, they are widely commercialized and sold in most tourist - oriented markets and shops in Africa (as well as "ethnic '' shops in the Western World). As a consequence, the traditional art of mask - making has gradually ceased to be a privileged, status - related practice, and mass production of masks has become widespread. While, in most cases, commercial masks are (more or less faithful) reproductions of traditional masks, this connection is weakening over time, as the logics of mass - production make it harder to identify the actual geographical and cultural origins of the masks found in such venues as curio shops and tourist markets. For example, the Okahandja market in Namibia mostly sells masks that are produced in Zimbabwe (as they are cheaper and more easily available than local masks), and, in turn, Zimbabwean mask - makers reproduce masks from virtually everywhere in Africa rather than from their own local heritage.
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distance from winter quarters to salt lake city | Mormon Trail - wikipedia
The Mormon Trail is the 1,300 - mile (2,092 km) route that members of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter - day Saints traveled from 1846 to 1868. Today, the Mormon Trail is a part of the United States National Trails System, known as the Mormon Pioneer National Historic Trail.
The Mormon Trail extends from Nauvoo, Illinois, which was the principal settlement of the Latter Day Saints from 1839 to 1846, to Salt Lake City, Utah, which was settled by Brigham Young and his followers beginning in 1847. From Council Bluffs, Iowa to Fort Bridger in Wyoming, the trail follows much the same route as the Oregon Trail and the California Trail; these trails are collectively known as the Emigrant Trail.
The Mormon pioneer run began in 1846, when Young and his followers were driven from Nauvoo. After leaving, they aimed to establish a new home for the church in the Great Basin and crossed Iowa. Along their way, some were assigned to establish settlements and to plant and harvest crops for later emigrants. During the winter of 1846 -- 47, the emigrants wintered in Iowa, other nearby states, and the unorganized territory that later became Nebraska, with the largest group residing in Winter Quarters, Nebraska. In the spring of 1847, Young led the vanguard company to the Salt Lake Valley, which was then outside the boundaries of the United States and later became Utah.
During the first few years, the emigrants were mostly former occupants of Nauvoo who were following Young to Utah. Later, the emigrants increasingly comprised converts from the British Isles and Europe.
The trail was used for more than 20 years, until the completion of the First Transcontinental Railroad in 1869. Among the emigrants were the Mormon handcart pioneers of 1856 -- 60. Two of the handcart companies, led by James G. Willie and Edward Martin, met disaster on the trail when they departed late and were caught by heavy snowstorms in Wyoming.
Under the leadership of Joseph Smith, Latter Day Saints established several communities throughout the United States between 1830 and 1844, most notably in Kirtland, Ohio; Independence, Missouri; and Nauvoo. However, the Saints were driven out of each of them in turn, due to conflicts with other settlers (see History of the Latter Day Saint movement). This included the actions of Governor Lilburn Boggs, who issued Missouri Executive Order 44, which called for the "extermination '' of all Mormons in Missouri. Latter - day Saints were finally forced to abandon Nauvoo in 1846.
Although the movement had split into several denominations after Smith 's death in 1844, most members aligned themselves with Brigham Young and The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter - day Saints (LDS). Under Young 's leadership, about 14,000 Mormon citizens of Nauvoo set out to find a new home in the West.
As the senior apostle of the Quorum of the Twelve Apostles after Joseph Smith 's death, Brigham Young assumed responsibility of the leadership of the church. He would later be sustained as President of the Church and prophet.
Young now had to lead the Saints into the far west, without knowing exactly where to go or where they would end up. He insisted the Mormons should settle in a place no one else wanted and felt the isolated Great Basin would provide the Saints with many advantages.
Young reviewed information on the Great Salt Lake Valley and the Great Basin, consulted with mountain men and trappers, and met with Father Pierre - Jean De Smet, a Jesuit missionary familiar with the region. Young also organized a vanguard company to break trail to the Rocky Mountains, evaluate trail conditions, find sources of water, and select a central gathering point in the Great Basin. A new route on the north side of the Platte and North Platte rivers was chosen to avoid potential conflicts over grazing rights, water access, and campsites with travelers using the established Oregon Trail on the river 's south side.
The Quincy Convention of October 1845 passed resolutions demanding that the Latter - day Saints withdraw from Nauvoo by May 1846. A few days later, the Carthage Convention called for establishment of a militia that would force them out if they failed to meet the May deadline. To try to meet this deadline and to get an early start on the trek to the Great Basin, the Latter - day Saints began leaving Nauvoo in February 1846.
The departure from Nauvoo began on February 4, 1846, under the leadership of Brigham Young. This early departure exposed them to the elements in the worst of winter. After crossing the Mississippi River, the journey across Iowa Territory followed primitive territorial roads and Native American trails.
Young originally planned to lead an express company of about 300 men to the Great Basin during the summer of 1846. He believed they could cross Iowa and reach the Missouri River in four to six weeks. However, the actual trip across Iowa was slowed by rain, mud, swollen rivers, and poor preparation, and it required 16 weeks -- nearly three times longer than planned.
Heavy rains turned the rolling plains of southern Iowa into a quagmire of axle - deep mud. Furthermore, few people carried adequate provisions for the trip. The weather, general unpreparedness, and lack of experience in moving such a large group of people all contributed to the difficulties they endured.
The initial party reached the Missouri River on June 14. It was apparent that the Latter - day Saints could not make it to the Great Basin that season and would have to winter on the Missouri River...
Some of the emigrants established a settlement called Kanesville on the Iowa side of the river. Others moved across the river into the area of present - day Omaha, Nebraska, and built a camp called Winter Quarters.
In April 1847, chosen members of the vanguard company gathered, final supplies were packed, and the group was organized into 14 military companies. A militia and night guard were formed. The company consisted of 143 men, including three blacks and eight members of the Quorum of the Twelve, three women, and two children. The train contained 73 wagons, draft animals, and livestock, and carried enough supplies to provision the group for one year. On April 5, the wagon train moved west from Winter Quarters toward the Great Basin.
The journey from Winter Quarters to Fort Laramie took six weeks; the company arrived at the fort on June 1. While at Fort Laramie, the vanguard company was joined by members of the Mormon Battalion, who had been excused due to illness and sent to winter in Pueblo, Colorado, and a group of Church members from Mississippi. At this point, the now larger company took the established Oregon Trail toward the trading post at Fort Bridger.
Young met mountain man Jim Bridger on June 28. They discussed routes into the Salt Lake Valley and the feasibility of viable settlements in the mountain valleys of the Great Basin. The company pushed on through South Pass, rafted across the Green River, and arrived at Fort Bridger on July 7. About the same time, they were joined by 12 more members of the sick detachment of the Mormon Battalion.
Now facing a more rugged and hazardous trek, Young chose to follow the trail used by the Donner -- Reed party on their journey to California the previous year. As the vanguard company traveled through the rugged mountains, they divided into three sections. Young and several other members of the party suffered from a fever, generally accepted as a "mountain fever '' induced by wood ticks. The small sick detachment lagged behind the larger group, and a scouting division was created to move farther ahead on the designated route.
Scouts Erastus Snow and Orson Pratt entered the Salt Lake Valley on July 21. On July 23, Pratt offered a prayer dedicating the land to the Lord. Ground was broken, irrigation ditches were dug, and the first fields of potatoes and turnips were planted. On July 24, Young first saw the valley from a "sick '' wagon driven by his friend Wilford Woodruff. According to Woodruff, Young expressed his satisfaction in the appearance of the valley and declared, "This is the right place, drive on. ''
In August 1847, Young and selected members of the vanguard company returned to Winter Quarters to organize the companies scheduled for following years. By December 1847, more than 2,000 Mormons had completed the journey to the Salt Lake Valley, then in Mexican territory.
Farming the uncultivated land was initially difficult, as the shares broke when they tried to plow the dry ground. Therefore, an irrigation system was designed and the land was flooded before plowing, and the resulting system provided supplemental moisture during the year.
Salt Lake City was laid out and designated as Church headquarters. Hard work produced a prosperous community. In their new settlement, entertainment was also important, and the first public building was a theater.
It did not take long, however, until the United States caught up with them, and in 1848, after the end of the war with Mexico, the land in which they settled became part of the United States.
Each year during the Mormon migration, people continued to be organized into "companies '', each company bearing the name of its leader and subdivided into groups of 10 and 50. The Saints traveled the trail broken by the vanguard company, splitting the journey into two sections. The first segment began in Nauvoo and ended in Winter Quarters, near modern - day Omaha, Nebraska. The second half of the journey took the Saints through the area that later became Nebraska and Wyoming, before finishing their journey in the Salt Lake Valley in present - day Utah. The earlier groups used covered wagons pulled by oxen to carry their supplies across the country. Some later companies used handcarts and traveled by foot.
By 1849, many of the Latter - day Saints who remained in Iowa or Missouri were poor and unable to afford the costs of the wagon, teams of oxen, and supplies that would be required for the trip. Therefore, the LDS Church established a revolving fund, known as the Perpetual Emigration Fund, to enable the poor to emigrate. By 1852, most of the Latter - day Saints from Nauvoo who wished to emigrate had done so, and the church abandoned its settlements in Iowa. However, many church members from the eastern states and from Europe continued to emigrate to Utah, often assisted by the Perpetual Emigration Fund.
In 1856, the church inaugurated a system of handcart companies in order to enable poor European emigrants to make the trek more cheaply. Handcarts, two - wheeled carts that were pulled by emigrants instead of draft animals, were sometimes used as an alternate means of transportation from 1856 to 1860. They were seen as a faster, easier, and cheaper way to bring European converts to Salt Lake City. Almost 3,000 Mormons, with 653 carts and 50 supply wagons, traveling in 10 different companies, made the trip over the trail to Salt Lake City. While not the first to use handcarts, they were the only group to use them extensively.
The handcarts were modeled after carts used by street sweepers and were made almost entirely of wood. They were generally six to seven feet (183 to 213 cm) long, wide enough to span a narrow wagon track, and could be alternately pushed or pulled. The small boxes affixed to the carts were three to four feet (91 to 122 cm) long and eight inches (20 cm) high. They could carry about 500 pounds (227 kg), most of this weight consisting of trail provisions and a few personal possessions.
All but two of the handcart companies successfully completed the rugged journey, with relatively few problems and only a few deaths. However, the fourth and fifth companies, known as the Willie and Martin Companies, respectively, had serious problems. The companies left Iowa City, Iowa, in July 1856, very late to begin the trip across the plains. They met severe winter weather west of present - day Casper, Wyoming, and continued to cope with deep snow and storms for the remainder of the journey. Food supplies were soon exhausted. Young organized a rescue effort that brought the companies in, but more than 210 of the 980 emigrants in the two parties died.
The handcart companies continued with more success until 1860, and traditional ox - and - wagon companies also continued for those who could afford the higher cost. After 1860, the church began sending wagon companies east each spring, to return to Utah in the summer with the emigrating Latter - day Saints. Finally, with the completion of the Transcontinental Railroad in 1869, future emigrants were able to travel by rail, and the era of the Mormon pioneer trail came to an end.
The following are major points along the trail at which the early Mormon pioneers stopped, established temporary camps, or used as landmarks and meeting places. The sites are categorized by their location in respect to modern - day US states.
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who wrote send em on down the road | Man Against Machine - wikipedia
Man Against Machine is the ninth studio album by American country music artist Garth Brooks. It was released on November 11, 2014 by RCA Records Nashville and Pearl Records. Brooks confirmed the album in July 2014 while announcing his comeback world tour. Brooks ' first studio album since Scarecrow, which was released in 2001, it was his first album released digitally, exclusively to his online music store, GhostTunes. The album 's lead single, "People Loving People '', was released on September 3, 2014.
Prior to the album 's release, Brooks told CMT that regardless of the album 's chart performance, he does not plan on following the charts, believing that "quality music will show success over time, regardless of initial sales numbers. '' As of 2016, the album sold less than Brooks ' previous efforts, having received considerably less support from radio but has gained generally favorable reviews. Brooks ' decision to not release the album via iTunes contributed to its poor digital sales.
In October 2000, Brooks announced his retirement from recording and performing. His final studio album at the time, Scarecrow, was released in 2001. Nine years later, Brooks announced he was coming out of retirement to perform a series of weekend concerts at Encore Las Vegas, titled Garth at Wynn. Following the conclusion of his Las Vegas residency shows, Brooks announced plans for a world tour during a December 2013 appearance on Good Morning America.
On July 10, 2014 Brooks held a press conference where he confirmed a world tour and announced plans for a new album. The album would be Brooks ' first album released digitally, available only through Brooks ' online music store GhostTunes. The original release date was November 28, 2014; however it was later changed to November 11, 2014. Prior to the album 's release GhostTunes featured a digital preorder, providing immediate downloads of the first released single, "People Loving People '', as well as "Send ' Em On Down the Road ''. Brooks performed "Mom '' during a November 7, 2014 appearance on Good Morning America, receiving a great deal of media attention in promotion of the album. The album was released on November 11, 2014.
On July 10, 2014 Brooks held a press conference where he confirmed a world tour and announced plans for a new album. The album would be Brooks ' first album released digitally, available only through Brooks ' online music store, GhostTunes. The original release date was November 28, 2014; however it was later changed to November 11, 2014.
Prior to the album 's release, GhostTunes featured a digital preorder, providing immediate downloads of the first released single, "People Loving People '', as well as B - side track, "Send ' Em On Down the Road '', on September 3, 2014. On November 24, the album 's second single, "Mom '', was released. Brooks performed the song during an appearance on Good Morning America, receiving a great deal of media attention. The album was released on November 11, 2014.
At Metacritic, which assigns a "weighted average '' rating out of 100 to selected independent ratings and reviews from mainstream critics, the album has received a Metascore of 68, based on 9 reviews, indicating "generally favorable reviews ''.
Three and a half star reviewer for AllMusic, Stephen Thomas Erlewine replies: "There are no surprises, but that 's what 's welcome about Man Against Machine. Brooks does n't try to do anything differently; he just picks up where he left off and the time away has only made it clearer how he 's different from all that came before and all that came since. '' Writing for Rolling Stone and rating the album three and a half out of five stars, Christopher Weingarten states: "Garth Brooks returns with one of the year 's best accidental rock albums... With ripping guitar solos, Aerosmith - style strings and gospel - tinged background vocals, this is a record that could take Eric to Church. '' In rating the album a B+ for Entertainment Weekly, Madison Vain claims: "Thirteen years after his last LP, the country superstar returns with Man Against Machine, an album brimming with arena - size anthems, glossy production, and intimate storytelling. '' Mikael Wood gave a rating of three stars out of four for the Los Angeles Times publication, where he suggests: "His primary weapon -- and the quality that most sets him apart from the country stars who 've surfaced in his wake -- is his earnestness. The singer 's aggressive sincerity remains intact. '' In another three out of four star review for USA Today, Jerry Shriver comments: "Brooks ' first album of original material since 2001 's Scarecrow, fits comfortably in the country mainstream that he once defined, yet does n't sound dated... Mostly, though, there are well - constructed songs with singalong melodies and a sturdy voice that show that a decade of rest has served Brooks well. '' Jon Caramanica for The New York Times looked on the album positively, where he writes: "His first album of original music since 2001, is defiantly behind the times, and skillful enough -- mostly -- to transcend them. '' In rating the album three and a half out of five stars for Billboard, Melinda Newman claims: "Man Against Machine is no reinvention, but rather a continuation... So Brooks does the only thing he can: writing and finding songs that reflect where he is now, but staying true to the quality and tone of his past work... A rowdy, vintage - Brooks - style slam - dunk like "Friends in Low Places '' or "Fever '' is missing here, but that 's a small complaint for such a solid return. '' Reviewing and rating the album an A+ The Plain Dealer, Chuck Yarborough says: "He 's still got it, as I said. But even more important, now he 's sharing it with us again. '' The Tampa Bay Times rating the music a B, Sean Daly reports: "But Garth 's limitations never kept him from becoming one of the bestselling artists of all time, genres be darned. If anything, his phenomenal success is partly hinged on a common - schlub relatability... But he nevertheless gets dark for a reason: Whining is for puppies. Old dogs just growl and wag on. ''
In a two star out of five review, Jim Faber from the New York Daily News publication opines: "He should have waited longer. '' Writing for The A.V. Club and rating the album a C, Laura M. Browning remarks: "For a man who helped lead the charge of bringing country to the mainstream, Man Against Machine relies neither on Brooks ' country backbone nor his love of rock... Instead of building on Brooks ' strengths, Man Against Machine is firmly rooted in midair. '' Sarah Rodman for The Boston Globe newspaper gave a mixed impression of the music, where she states: "Presumably for this momentous release, which would be showcased on his current tour, Brooks was offered the best tunes available. (He also co-wrote three.) But that blandly uplifting first taste was underwhelming... The rest of "Machine '' ascends from there, but only sporadically matches Brooks at his peak. The baker 's dozen tracks on the collection break like so: two classics, six above - average cuts, and six songs, like "People, '' that are just fine. '' In an unfavorable review from Omaha World - Herald, Kevin Coffey suggests: "There 's very little to make any of these songs stand out among a crowded field of country artists and especially not amid Brooks 's already crowded catalog of hits... If Brooks were to reissue "The Hits, '' I doubt any of these tunes would make the cut. '' Two and a half star reviewer for The Buffalo News, Jeff Miers suggests: "Man Against Machine '' arrives naked and unassuming, though. The contemporary country scene acknowledges Brooks ' influence -- how could it possibly not? -- but it does n't necessarily want or need him around any longer... So welcome to the world of classic rock, Garth. Better not put too many new tunes in the set list. Stick to the hits, and nobody gets hurt. '' Rating the project two stars for Las Vegas Weekly, Josh Bell finds: "Man Against Machine is n't desperate or pandering, but it is bland and mediocre, far from the momentous return Brooks ' fans have been waiting for all these years. ''
According to industry sources, the album was originally estimated to sell between 250,000 to 300,000 copies in the US in its first week of release; but the estimate was later reduced to 140,000. It was predicted to fall behind Pink Floyd 's The Endless River, Foo Fighters ' Sonic Highways and Taylor Swift 's 1989 on the Billboard 200.
The album debuted at number four on the Billboard 200 and number one on the US Top Country Albums Chart, selling an initial 130,000 copies, below even the downward - revised prediction. On January 9, 2015 the album was certified gold and platinum by the RIAA. As of November 2016, it has sold 685,000 copies in the US, making it Brooks 's lowest selling studio effort until the following album Gunslinger.
In Canada, the album debuted at number four on the Canadian Albums Chart, initially selling 8,500 copies.
According to Brooks via an interview with CMT, he did not plan on following the album 's chart performance, believing that "quality music will show success over time, regardless of initial sales numbers. ''
The following credits are sourced from liner notes included in the album.
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone
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where does the water from victoria falls go | Victoria falls - wikipedia
Victoria Falls (Tokaleya Tonga: Mosi - oa - Tunya, "The Smoke that Thunders '') is a waterfall in southern Africa on the Zambezi River at the border between Zambia and Zimbabwe. It has been described by CNN as one of the Seven Natural Wonders of the world.
David Livingstone, the Scottish missionary and explorer, is believed to have been the first European to view Victoria Falls on 16 November 1855, from what is now known as Livingstone Island, one of two land masses in the middle of the river, immediately upstream from the falls near the Zambian shore. Livingstone named his discovery in honour of Queen Victoria of Britain, but the indigenous Tonga name, Mosi - oa - Tunya -- "The Smoke That Thunders '' -- continues in common usage as well. The World Heritage List officially recognizes both names.
The nearby national park in Zambia is named Mosi - oa - Tunya, whereas the national park and town on the Zimbabwean shore are both named Victoria Falls.
While it is neither the highest nor the widest waterfall in the world, Victoria Falls is classified as the largest, based on its combined width of 1,708 metres (5,604 ft) and height of 108 metres (354 ft), resulting in the world 's largest sheet of falling water. Victoria Falls is roughly twice the height of North America 's Niagara Falls and well over twice the width of its Horseshoe Falls. In height and width Victoria Falls is rivalled only by Argentina and Brazil 's Iguazu Falls. See table for comparisons.
For a considerable distance upstream from the falls, the Zambezi flows over a level sheet of basalt, in a shallow valley, bounded by low and distant sandstone hills. The river 's course is dotted with numerous tree - covered islands, which increase in number as the river approaches the falls. There are no mountains, escarpments, or deep valleys; only a flat plateau extending hundreds of kilometres in all directions.
The falls are formed as the full width of the river plummets in a single vertical drop into a transverse chasm 1708 metres (5604 ft) wide, carved by its waters along a fracture zone in the basalt plateau. The depth of the chasm, called the First Gorge, varies from 80 metres (260 ft) at its western end to 108 metres (354 ft) in the centre. The only outlet to the First Gorge is a 110 - metre (360 ft) wide gap about two - thirds of the way across the width of the falls from the western end. The whole volume of the river pours into the Victoria Falls gorges from this narrow cleft.
There are two islands on the crest of the falls that are large enough to divide the curtain of water even at full flood: Boaruka Island (or Cataract Island) near the western bank, and Livingstone Island near the middle -- the point from which Livingstone first viewed the falls. At less than full flood, additional islets divide the curtain of water into separate parallel streams. The main streams are named, in order from Zimbabwe (west) to Zambia (east): Devil 's Cataract (called Leaping Water by some), Main Falls, Rainbow Falls (the highest) and the Eastern Cataract.
The Zambezi river, upstream from the falls, experiences a rainy season from late November to early April, and a dry season the rest of the year. The river 's annual flood season is February to May with a peak in April, The spray from the falls typically rises to a height of over 400 metres (1,300 ft), and sometimes even twice as high, and is visible from up to 48 km (30 mi) away. At full moon, a "moonbow '' can be seen in the spray instead of the usual daylight rainbow. During the flood season, however, it is impossible to see the foot of the falls and most of its face, and the walks along the cliff opposite it are in a constant shower and shrouded in mist. Close to the edge of the cliff, spray shoots upward like inverted rain, especially at Zambia 's Knife - Edge Bridge.
As the dry season takes effect, the islets on the crest become wider and more numerous, and in September to January up to half of the rocky face of the falls may become dry and the bottom of the First Gorge can be seen along most of its length. At this time it becomes possible (though not necessarily safe) to walk across some stretches of the river at the crest. It is also possible to walk to the bottom of the First Gorge at the Zimbabwean side. The minimum flow, which occurs in November, is around a tenth of the April figure; this variation in flow is greater than that of other major falls, and causes Victoria Falls ' annual average flow rate to be lower than might be expected based on the maximum flow.
The entire volume of the Zambezi River pours through the First Gorge 's 110 - metre - wide (360 ft) exit for a distance of about 150 metres (500 ft), then enters a zigzagging series of gorges designated by the order in which the river reaches them. Water entering the Second Gorge makes a sharp right turn and has carved out a deep pool there called the Boiling Pot. Reached via a steep footpath from the Zambian side, it is about 150 metres (500 ft) across. Its surface is smooth at low water, but at high water is marked by enormous, slow swirls and heavy boiling turbulence. Objects -- and humans -- that are swept over the falls, including the occasional hippopotamus or crocodile, are frequently found swirling about here or washed up at the north - east end of the Second Gorge. This is where the bodies of Mrs Moss and Mr Orchard, mutilated by crocodiles, were found in 1910 after two canoes were capsized by a hippo at Long Island above the falls. The principal gorges are (see reference for note about these measurements):
The recent geological history of Victoria Falls can be seen in the form of the gorges below the falls. The basalt plateau over which the Upper Zambezi flows has many large cracks filled with weaker sandstone. In the area of the current falls the largest cracks run roughly east to west (some run nearly north - east to south - west), with smaller north - south cracks connecting them.
Over at least 100,000 years, the falls have been receding upstream through the Batoka Gorges, eroding the sandstone - filled cracks to form the gorges. The river 's course in the current vicinity of the falls is north to south, so it opens up the large east - west cracks across its full width, then it cuts back through a short north - south crack to the next east - west one. The river has fallen in different eras into different chasms which now form a series of sharply zig - zagging gorges downstream from the falls.
Apart from some dry sections, the Second to Fifth and the Songwe Gorges each represents a past site of the falls at a time when they fell into one long straight chasm as they do now. Their sizes indicate that we are not living in the age of the widest - ever falls.
The falls have already started cutting back the next major gorge, at the dip in one side of the "Devil 's Cataract '' (also known as "Leaping Waters '') section of the falls. This is not actually a north - south crack, but a large east - northeast line of weakness across the river, where the next full - width falls will eventually form.
Further geological history of the course of the Zambezi River is in the article of that name.
Archaeological sites around the falls have yielded Homo habilis stone artifacts from 3 million years ago, 50,000 - year - old Middle Stone Age tools and Late Stone Age (10,000 and 2,000 years ago) weapons, adornments and digging tools. Iron - using Khoisan hunter - gatherers displaced these Stone Age people and in turn were displaced by Bantu tribes such as the southern Tonga people known as the Batoka / Tokalea, who called the falls Shungu na mutitima. The Matabele, later arrivals, named them aManz ' aThunqayo, and the Batswana and Makololo (whose language is used by the Lozi people) call them Mosi - o - Tunya. All these names mean essentially "the smoke that thunders ''.
A map from c. 1750 drawn by Jacques Nicolas Bellin for Abbé Antoine François Prevost d'Exiles marks the falls as "cataractes '' and notes a settlement to the north of the Zambezi as being friendly with the Portuguese at the time. Earlier still Nicolas de Fer 's 1715 map of southern Africa has the fall clearly marked in the correct position. It also has dotted lines denoting trade routes that David Livingstone followed 140 years later.
The first European to see the falls was David Livingstone on 17 November 1855, during his 1852 -- 56 journey from the upper Zambezi to the mouth of the river. The falls were well known to local tribes, and Voortrekker hunters may have known of them, as may the Arabs under a name equivalent to "the end of the world ''. Europeans were sceptical of their reports, perhaps thinking that the lack of mountains and valleys on the plateau made a large falls unlikely.
Livingstone had been told about the falls before he reached them from upriver and was paddled across to a small island that now bears the name Livingstone Island in Zambia. Livingstone had previously been impressed by the Ngonye Falls further upstream, but found the new falls much more impressive, and gave them their English name in honour of Queen Victoria. He wrote of the falls, "No one can imagine the beauty of the view from anything witnessed in England. It had never been seen before by European eyes; but scenes so lovely must have been gazed upon by angels in their flight. ''
In 1860, Livingstone returned to the area and made a detailed study of the falls with John Kirk. Other early European visitors included Portuguese explorer Serpa Pinto, Czech explorer Emil Holub, who made the first detailed plan of the falls and its surroundings in 1875 (published in 1880), and British artist Thomas Baines, who executed some of the earliest paintings of the falls. Until the area was opened up by the building of the railway in 1905, though, the falls were seldom visited by other Europeans. Some writers believe that the Portuguese priest Gonçalo da Silveira was the first European to catch sight of the falls back in the sixteenth century.
European settlement of the Victoria Falls area started around 1900 in response to the desire of Cecil Rhodes ' British South Africa Company for mineral rights and imperial rule north of the Zambezi, and the exploitation of other natural resources such as timber forests north - east of the falls, and ivory and animal skins. Before 1905, the river was crossed above the falls at the Old Drift, by dugout canoe or a barge towed across with a steel cable. Rhodes ' vision of a Cape - Cairo railway drove plans for the first bridge across the Zambezi and he insisted it be built where the spray from the falls would fall on passing trains, so the site at the Second Gorge was chosen. See the main article Victoria Falls Bridge for details. From 1905 the railway offered accessible travel from as far as the Cape in the south and from 1909, as far as the Belgian Congo in the north. In 1904 the Victoria Falls Hotel was opened to accommodate visitors arriving on the new railway. The falls became an increasingly popular attraction during British colonial rule of Northern Rhodesia (Zambia) and Southern Rhodesia (Zimbabwe), with the town of Victoria Falls becoming the main tourist centre.
In 1964, Northern Rhodesia became the independent state of Zambia. The following year, Rhodesia unilaterally declared independence. This was not recognized by Zambia, the United Kingdom nor the vast majority of states and led to United Nations - mandated sanctions. In response to the emerging crisis, in 1966 Zambia restricted or stopped border crossings; it did not re-open the border completely until 1980. Guerilla warfare arose on the southern side of the Zambezi from 1972: the Rhodesian Bush War. Visitor numbers began to drop, particularly on the Rhodesian side. The war affected Zambia through military incursions, causing the latter to impose security measures including the stationing of soldiers to restrict access to the gorges and some parts of the falls.
Zimbabwe 's internationally recognised independence in 1980 brought comparative peace, and the 1980s witnessed renewed levels of tourism and the development of the region as a centre for adventure sports. Activities that gained popularity in the area include whitewater rafting in the gorges, bungee jumping from the bridge, game fishing, horse riding, kayaking, and flights over the falls.
By the end of the 1990s almost 400,000 people were visiting the falls annually, and this was expected to rise to over a million in the next decade. Unlike the game parks, Victoria Falls has more Zimbabwean and Zambian visitors than international tourists; the attraction is accessible by bus and train, and is therefore comparatively inexpensive to reach.
Both countries permit tourists to make day trips across the border to view the falls from both viewpoints. Visitors with single - entry visas are required to purchase a visa each time they cross the border; visas can be obtained at both border posts. Costs vary from US $50 -- $80 (as of January 2017). Visa regulations change frequently; visitors are advised to check the rules currently in effect in both countries before crossing the border in either direction. Additionally, foreign tourists may purchase a KAZA visa for US $50 that will permit visitors to travel between Zambia and Zimbabwe for up to 30 days as long as they remain within the covered countries.
A famous feature is the naturally formed "Armchair '' (now sometimes called "Devil 's Pool ''), near the edge of the falls on Livingstone Island on the Zambian side. When the river flow is at a certain level, usually between September and December, a rock barrier forms an eddy with minimal current, allowing adventurous swimmers to splash around in relative safety a few feet from the point where the water cascades over the falls. Occasional deaths have been reported when people have slipped over the rock barrier.
The numbers of visitors to the Zimbabwean side of the falls has historically been much higher than the number visiting the Zambia side, due to the greater development of the visitor facilities there. However, the number of tourists visiting Zimbabwe began to decline in the early 2000s as political tensions between supporters and opponents of president Robert Mugabe increased. In 2006, hotel occupancy on the Zimbabwean side hovered at around 30 %, while the Zambian side was at near - capacity, with rates in top hotels reaching US $ 630 per night. The rapid development has prompted the United Nations to consider revoking the Falls ' status as a World Heritage Site. In addition, problems of waste disposal and a lack of effective management of the falls ' environment are a concern.
The two national parks at the falls are relatively small -- Mosi - oa - Tunya National Park is 66 square kilometres (16,309 acres) and Victoria Falls National Park is 23 square kilometres (5,683 acres). However, next to the latter on the southern bank is the Zambezi National Park, extending 40 kilometres (25 mi) west along the river. Animals can move between the two Zimbabwean parks and can also reach Matetsi Safari Area, Kazuma Pan National Park and Hwange National Park to the south.
On the Zambian side, fences and the outskirts of Livingstone tend to confine most animals to the Mosi - oa - Tunya National Park. In addition fences put up by lodges in response to crime restrict animal movement.
In 2004 a separate group of police called the Tourism Police was started. They are commonly seen around the main tourist areas, and can be identified by their uniforms with yellow reflective bibs.
Mopane woodland savannah predominates in the area, with smaller areas of miombo and Rhodesian teak woodland and scrubland savannah. Riverine forest with palm trees lines the banks and islands above the falls. The most notable aspect of the area 's vegetation though is the rainforest nurtured by the spray from the falls, containing plants rare for the area such as pod mahogany, ebony, ivory palm, wild date palm and a number of creepers and lianas. Vegetation has suffered in recent droughts, and so have the animals that depend on it, particularly antelope.
The national parks contain abundant wildlife including sizable populations of elephant, buffalo, giraffe, Grant 's zebra, and a variety of antelope. Katanga lions, African leopards and South African cheetahs are only occasionally seen. Vervet monkeys and baboons are common. The river above the falls contains large populations of hippopotamus and crocodile. African bush elephants cross the river in the dry season at particular crossing points.
Klipspringers, honey badgers, lizards and clawless otters can be glimpsed in the gorges, but they are mainly known for 35 species of raptors. The Taita falcon, black eagle, peregrine falcon and augur buzzard breed there. Above the falls, herons, fish eagles and numerous kinds of waterfowl are common.
The river is home to 39 species of fish below the falls and 89 species above it. This illustrates the effectiveness of the falls as a dividing barrier between the upper and lower Zambezi.
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when is the last time the us passed a budget | United States budget process - wikipedia
The United States budget process is the framework used by Congress and the President of the United States to formulate and create the United States federal budget. The process was established by the Budget and Accounting Act of 1921, the Congressional Budget and Impoundment Control Act of 1974, and additional budget legislation.
Prior to 1974, Congress had no formal process for establishing a federal budget. When President Richard Nixon began to refuse to spend funds that Congress had allocated, they adopted a more formal means by which to challenge him. The Congressional Budget Act of 1974 created the Congressional Budget Office (CBO), which gained more control of the budget, limiting the power of the President 's Office of Management and Budget (OMB). The Act passed easily while the administration was embroiled in the Watergate scandal and was unwilling to provoke Congress.
The United States budget process begins when the President of the United States submits a budget request to Congress. The President 's budget is formulated over a period of months with the assistance of the Office of Management and Budget (OMB), the largest office within the Executive Office of the President. The budget request includes funding requests for all federal executive departments and independent agencies. Budget documents include supporting documents and historical budget data and contains detailed information on spending and revenue proposals, along with policy proposals and initiatives with significant budgetary implications. The President 's budget request constitutes an extensive proposal of the administration 's intended revenue and spending plans for the following fiscal year. The budget proposal includes volumes of supporting information intended to persuade Congress of the necessity and value of the budget provisions. In addition, each federal executive department and independent agency provides additional detail and supporting documentation on its own funding requests. The documents are also posted on the OMB website.
The Budget and Accounting Act of 1921 requires the President to submit the budget to Congress for each fiscal year, which is the 12 - month period beginning on October 1 and ending on September 30 of the next calendar year. The current federal budget law (31 U.S.C. § 1105 (a)) requires that the President submit the budget between the first Monday in January and the first Monday in February. In recent times, the President 's budget submission has been issued in the first week of February. The budget submission has been delayed, however, in some new presidents ' first year when the previous president belonged to a different party. The 2014 United States federal budget was not submitted by the President until April 10, 2013 due to negotiations over the United States fiscal cliff and implementation of the sequester cuts mandated by the Budget Control Act of 2011. (The House had already prepared its budget proposal on March 21, and the Senate proposed a budget on March 23.)
President Warren G. Harding brought about the enactment of the Budget and Accounting Act of 1921, which, for the first time, required the President to submit a budget annually to Congress and which established the Bureau of the Budget, the forerunner of the Office of Management and Budget, to assist in the formulation of the budget. Initially the Bureau was within the U.S. Department of the Treasury, but in 1939 it was moved to the Executive Office of the President.
The President 's budget submission is referred to the House and Senate Budget Committees and to the Congressional Budget Office (CBO). Other committees with budgetary responsibilities submit requests and estimates to the budget committees during this time.
In March, the CBO publishes an analysis of the President 's budget proposals. The CBO budget report and other publications are also posted on the CBO website. CBO computes a current - law baseline budget projection that is intended to estimate what federal spending and revenues would be in the absence of new legislation for the current fiscal year and for the coming 10 fiscal years. However, the CBO also computes a current - policy baseline, which makes assumptions about, for instance, votes on tax cut sunset provisions. The current CBO 10 - year budget baseline projection grows from $3.7 trillion in 2011 to $5.7 trillion in 2021.
In March, the budget committees consider the President 's budget proposals in the light of the CBO budget report, and each committee submits a budget resolution to its house by April 1. The House and Senate each consider these budget resolutions, and are expected to pass them, possibly with amendments, by April 15. A budget resolution is a kind of concurrent resolution; it is not a law, and therefore does not require the President 's signature.
There is no obligation for either or both houses of Congress to pass a budget resolution. There may not be a resolution every year; if none is established, the previous year 's resolution remains in force. For example, the Senate has not passed a budget resolution for FY2011, FY2012, or FY2013, and passed the FY2014 budget resolution on March 23, 2013, 23 days before the April 15 deadline set by the No Budget, No Pay Act of 2013. This was the first budget resolution passed by the Senate since a FY2010 budget passed on April 29, 2009. The House and Senate may propose a budget independently of the President 's budget. For example, for the 2014 budget process, the House prepared its budget proposal on March 21 and the Senate proposed a budget on March 23, while the President 's budget was not submitted until April 10.
After both houses pass a budget resolution, selected Representatives and Senators negotiate a conference report to reconcile differences between the House and the Senate versions. The conference report, in order to become binding, must be approved by both the House and Senate.
The budget resolution is not legally binding but serves as a blueprint for the actual appropriation process, and provides Congress with some control over the appropriation process. All new discretionary spending requires authority through enactment of appropriation bills or continuing resolutions.
In general, funds for federal government programs must be authorized by an "authorizing committee '' through enactment of legislation. Then, through subsequent acts by Congress, budget authority is then appropriated by the Appropriations Committee of the House. In principle, committees with jurisdiction to authorize programs make policy decisions, while the Appropriations Committees decide on funding levels, limited to a program 's authorized funding level, though the amount may be any amount less than the limit.
The budget resolutions specify funding levels for the House and Senate Appropriations Committees and their 12 subcommittees, establishing various budget totals, allocations, entitlements, and may include reconciliation instructions to designated House or Senate committees. The appropriations committees start with allocations in the budget resolution and draft appropriations bills, which may be considered in the House after May 15. Once appropriations committees pass their bills, they are considered by the House and Senate. When there is a final budget, the spending available to each appropriations committee for the coming fiscal year is usually provided in the joint explanatory statement included in the conference report. The appropriations committees then allocate that amount among their respective subcommittees, each to allocate the funds they control among the programs within their jurisdiction.
A conference committee is typically required to resolve differences between House and Senate appropriation bills. Once a conference bill has passed both chambers of Congress, it is sent to the President, who may sign the bill or veto it. If he signs, the bill becomes law. Otherwise, Congress must pass another bill to avoid a shutdown of at least part of the federal government.
In recent years, Congress has not passed all of the appropriations bills before the start of the fiscal year. Congress may then enact continuing resolutions that provide for the temporary funding of government operations. Failure to appropriate funds results in a partial government shutdown, such the federal government shutdown in October 2013.
In practice, the separation between policy making and funding and the division between appropriations and authorization activities are imperfect. Authorizations for many programs have long lapsed, yet still receive appropriated amounts, while other programs that are authorized receive no funds at all. In addition, policy language, which is legislative text changing permanent law, is included in appropriation measures.
Each function within the budget may include "budget authority '' and "outlays '' that fall within the broad categories of discretionary spending or direct spending.
Discretionary spending requires an annual appropriation bill, which is a piece of legislation. Discretionary spending is typically set by the House and Senate Appropriations Committees and their various subcommittees. Since the spending is typically for a fixed period (usually a year), it is said to be under the discretion of the Congress. Some appropriations last for more than one year (see Appropriation bill for details). In particular, multi-year appropriations are often used for housing programs and military procurement programs.
There are currently 12 appropriation bills that must be passed each fiscal year in order for continued discretionary spending to occur. The subject of each appropriations bill corresponds to the jurisdiction of the respective House and Senate appropriation subcommittees:
As of 2012, there are 12 appropriations bills which need to be passed each year:
Multiple bills are sometimes combined into one piece of legislation, such as the Omnibus Appropriations Act, 2009. A continuing resolution is often passed if an appropriations bill has not been signed into law by the end of the fiscal year.
Direct spending, also known as mandatory spending, refers to spending enacted by law, but not dependent on an annual or periodic appropriation bill. Most mandatory spending consists of transfer payments and welfare benefits such as Social Security benefits, Medicare, and Medicaid. Many other expenses, such as salaries of federal judges, are mandatory, but account for a relatively small share of federal spending. The Congressional Budget Office (CBO) estimates costs of mandatory spending programs on a regular basis.
Congress can affect spending on entitlement programs by changing eligibility requirements or the structure of programs. Certain programs, because the language authorizing them are included in appropriation bills, are termed "appropriated entitlements. '' This is a convention rather than a substantive distinction, since the programs, such as Food Stamps, would continue to be funded even were the appropriation bill to be vetoed or otherwise not enacted.
The federal budget is divided into categories known as budget functions. These functions include all spending for a given topic, regardless of the federal agency that oversees the individual federal program. Both the President 's budget, and Congress ' budget resolution provide summaries by function.
List of budget functions:
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where are main group elements located on the periodic table | Main - group element - wikipedia
In chemistry and atomic physics, the main group is the group of elements whose lightest members are represented by helium, lithium, beryllium, boron, carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, and fluorine as arranged in the periodic table of the elements. The main group includes the elements (except hydrogen, which is sometimes not included) in groups 1 and 2 (s - block), and groups 13 to 18 (p - block). The s - block elements are primarily characterised by one main oxidation state, and the p - block elements, when they have multiple oxidation states, often have common oxidation states separated by two units.
Group 12 elements are often considered to be transition metals; however, zinc (Zn), cadmium (Cd), and mercury (Hg) share some properties of both groups, and many scientists believe they should be included in the main group. Occasionally, even the group 3 elements as well as the lanthanides and actinides have been included, because especially the group 3 elements and lanthanides are electropositive elements with only one main oxidation state like the group 1 and 2 elements. The position of the actinides is more questionable, but the most common and stable of them, thorium (Th) and uranium (U), are similar to main - group elements as thorium is an electropositive element with only one main oxidation state (+ 4), and uranium has two main ones separated by two oxidation units (+ 4 and + 6).
In older nomenclature the main - group elements are groups IA and IIA, and groups IIIB to 0 (CAS groups IIIA to VIIIA). Group 12 is labelled as group IIB in both systems. Group 3 is labelled as group IIIA in the older nomenclature (CAS group IIIB).
Main - group elements (with some of the lighter transition metals) are the most abundant elements on Earth, in the Solar System, and in the Universe. They are sometimes also called the representative elements.
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where does the myocardium receives oxygenated blood from | Coronary circulation - wikipedia
Coronary circulation is the circulation of blood in the blood vessels of the heart muscle (myocardium).
Coronary arteries supply blood to the myocardium and other components of the heart. Two coronary arteries originate from the left side of the heart at the beginning (root) of the aorta, just after the aorta exits the left ventricle. There are three aortic sinuses (dilations) in the wall of the aorta just superior to the aortic semilunar valve. Two of these, the left posterior aortic sinus and anterior aortic sinus, give rise to the left and right coronary arteries, respectively. The third sinus, the right posterior aortic sinus, typically does not give rise to a vessel. Coronary vessel branches that remain on the surface of the artery and follow the sulci of the heart are called epicardial coronary arteries.
The left coronary artery distributes blood to the left side of the heart, the left atrium and ventricle, and the interventricular septum. The circumflex artery arises from the left coronary artery and follows the coronary sulcus to the left. Eventually, it will fuse with the small branches of the right coronary artery. The larger anterior interventricular artery, also known as the left anterior descending artery (LAD), is the second major branch arising from the left coronary artery. It follows the anterior interventricular sulcus around the pulmonary trunk. Along the way it gives rise to numerous smaller branches that interconnect with the branches of the posterior interventricular artery, forming anastomoses. An anastomosis is an area where vessels unite to form interconnections that normally allow blood to circulate to a region even if there may be partial blockage in another branch. The anastomoses in the heart are very small. Therefore, this ability is somewhat restricted in the heart so a coronary artery blockage often results in myocardial infarction causing death of the cells supplied by the particular vessel.
The right coronary artery proceeds along the coronary sulcus and distributes blood to the right atrium, portions of both ventricles, and the heart conduction system. Normally, one or more marginal arteries arise from the right coronary artery inferior to the right atrium. The marginal arteries supply blood to the superficial portions of the right ventricle. On the posterior surface of the heart, the right coronary artery gives rise to the posterior interventricular artery, also known as the posterior descending artery. It runs along the posterior portion of the interventricular sulcus toward the apex of the heart, giving rise to branches that supply the interventricular septum and portions of both ventricles.
There are some anastomoses between branches of the two coronary arteries. However the coronary arteries are functionally end arteries and so these meetings are referred to as potential anastamoses, which lack function, as opposed to true anastomoses like that in the palm of the hand. This is because blockage of one coronary artery generally results in death of the heart tissue due to lack of sufficient blood supply from the other branch. When two arteries or their branches join, the area of the myocardium receives dual blood supply. These junctions are called anastomoses. If one coronary artery is obstucted by an atheroma, the second artery is still able to supply oxygenated blood to the myocardium. However, this can only occur if the atheroma progresses slowly, giving the anastomoses a chance to proliferate.
Under the most common configuration of coronary arteries, there are three areas of anastomoses. Small branches of the LAD (left anterior descending / anterior interventricular) branch of the left coronary join with branches of the posterior interventricular branch of the right coronary in the interventricular sulcus (groove). More superiorly, there is an anastomosis between the circumflex artery (a branch of the left coronary artery) and the right coronary artery in the atrioventricular groove. There is also an anastomosis between the septal branches of the two coronary arteries in the interventricular septum. The photograph shows area of heart supplied by the right and the left coronary arteries.
The left and right coronary arteries occasionally arise by a common trunk, or their number may be increased to three; the additional branch being the posterior coronary artery (which is smaller in size). In rare cases, a person will have the third coronary artery run around the root of the aorta.
Occasionally, a coronary artery will exist as a double structure (i.e. there are two arteries, parallel to each other, where ordinarily there would be one).
The artery that supplies the posterior third of the interventricular septum -- the posterior descending artery (PDA) determines the coronary dominance.
Approximately 70 % of the general population are right - dominant, 20 % are co-dominant, and 10 % are left - dominant. A precise anatomic definition of dominance would be the artery which gives off supply to the AV node i.e. the AV nodal artery. Most of the time this is the right coronary artery.
The papillary muscles attach the mitral valve (the valve between the left atrium and the left ventricle) and the tricuspid valve (the valve between the right atrium and the right ventricle) to the wall of the heart. If the papillary muscles are not functioning properly, the mitral valve may leak during contraction of the left ventricle. This causes some of the blood to travel "in reverse '', from the left ventricle to the left atrium, instead of forward to the aorta and the rest of the body. This leaking of blood to the left atrium is known as mitral regurgitation. Similarly, the leaking of blood from the right ventricle through the tricuspid valve and into the right atrium can also occur, and this is described as tricuspid insufficiency or tricuspid regurgitation.
The anterolateral papillary muscle more frequently receives two blood supplies: left anterior descending (LAD) artery and the left circumflex artery (LCX). It is therefore more frequently resistant to coronary ischemia (insufficiency of oxygen - rich blood). On the other hand, the posteromedial papillary muscle is usually supplied only by the PDA. This makes the posteromedial papillary muscle significantly more susceptible to ischemia. The clinical significance of this is that a myocardial infarction involving the PDA is more likely to cause mitral regurgitation.
During contraction of the ventricular myocardium (systole), the subendocardial coronary vessels (the vessels that enter the myocardium) are compressed due to the high ventricular pressures. This compression results in momentary retrograde blood flow (i.e., blood flows backward toward the aorta) which further inhibits perfusion of myocardium during systole. However, the epicardial coronary vessels (the vessels that run along the outer surface of the heart) remain open. Because of this, blood flow in the subendocardium stops during ventricular contraction. As a result, most myocardial perfusion occurs during heart relaxation (diastole) when the subendocardial coronary vessels are open and under lower pressure. Flow never comes to zero in the right coronary artery, since the right ventricular pressure is less than the diastolic blood pressure.
The heart regulates the amount of vasodilation or vasoconstriction of the coronary arteries based upon the oxygen requirements of the heart. This contributes to the filling difficulties of the coronary arteries. Compression remains the same. Failure of oxygen delivery caused by a decrease in blood flow in front of increased oxygen demand of the heart results in tissue ischemia, a condition of oxygen deficiency. Brief ischemia is associated with intense chest pain, known as angina. Severe ischemia can cause the heart muscle to die from hypoxia, such as during a myocardial infarction. Chronic moderate ischemia causes contraction of the heart to weaken, known as myocardial hibernation.
In addition to metabolism, the coronary circulation possesses unique pharmacologic characteristics. Prominent among these is its reactivity to adrenergic stimulation.
The following are the named branches of the coronary circulation in a right - dominant heart:
The vessels that remove the deoxygenated blood from the heart muscle are known as cardiac veins. These include the great cardiac vein, the middle cardiac vein, the small cardiac vein, the smallest cardiac veins, and the anterior cardiac veins. Cardiac veins carry blood with a poor level of oxygen, from the myocardium to the right atrium. Most of the blood of the coronary veins returns through the coronary sinus. The anatomy of the veins of the heart is very variable, but generally it is formed by the following veins: heart veins that go into the coronary sinus: the great cardiac vein, the middle cardiac vein, the small cardiac vein, the posterior vein of the left ventricle, and the vein of Marshall. Heart veins that go directly to the right atrium: the anterior cardiac veins, the smallest cardiac veins (Thebesian veins).
The vessels that deliver oxygen - rich blood to the myocardium are the coronary arteries. When the arteries are healthy, they are capable of autoregulating themselves to maintain the coronary blood flow at levels appropriate to the needs of the heart muscle. These relatively narrow vessels are commonly affected by atherosclerosis and can become blocked, causing angina or a heart attack. The coronary arteries that run deep within the myocardium are referred to as subendocardial. The coronary arteries are classified as "end circulation '', since they represent the only source of blood supply to the myocardium; there is very little redundant blood supply, that is why blockage of these vessels can be so critical.
Anterior view of coronary circulation
Posterior view of coronary circulation
Illustration of coronary arteries
The human heart viewed from the front and from behind
This article incorporates text from the CC - BY book: OpenStax College, Anatomy & Physiology. OpenStax CNX. 30 jul 2014...
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rich man poor man beggar man thief board game | Tinker, tailor - wikipedia
"Tinker Tailor '' is a counting game, nursery rhyme and fortune telling song traditionally played in England, that can be used to count cherry stones, buttons, daisy petals and other items. It has a Roud Folk Song Index number of 802. Its American version is commonly used by children for "counting out, '' e.g. for choosing who shall be "It '' in a game of tag.
The most common modern version is:
The most common American version is:
Skipping version from the 70s:
A similar rhyme has been noted in William Caxton 's, The Game and Playe of the Chesse (c. 1475), in which pawns are named: "Labourer, Smith, Clerk, Merchant, Physician, Taverner, Guard and Ribald. ''
The first record of the opening four professions being grouped together is in William Congreve 's Love for Love (1695), which has the lines:
When James Orchard Halliwell collected the rhyme in the 1840s, it was for counting buttons with the lines: "My belief - a captain, a colonel, a cow - boy, a thief. '' The version printed by William Wells Newell in Games and Songs of American Children in 1883 was: "Rich man, Poor man, beggar - man, thief, Doctor, lawyer (or merchant), Indian chief '', and it may be from American tradition that the modern lyrics solidified.
A.A. Milne 's Now We Are Six (1927) had the following version of "Cherry stones '':
The "tinker, tailor '' rhyme is one part of a longer counting or divination game, often played by young girls to foretell their futures; it runs as follows:
During the divination, the girl will ask a question and then count out a series of actions or objects by reciting the rhyme. The rhyme is repeated until the last of the series of objects or actions is reached. The last recited term or word is that which will come true. Buttons on a dress, petals on a flower, bounces of a ball, number of jumps over a rope, etc., may be counted.
There are innumerable variations of the rhyme:
A 2013 variation:
In Nella Larsen 's novel, "Passing '', it is referred to by character Irene Redfield. "Rich man, poor man, Beggar man, thief, Doctor, lawyer, Indian chief. ''
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what is cyclomatic complexity explain with an example | Cyclomatic complexity - wikipedia
Cyclomatic complexity is a software metric, used to indicate the complexity of a program. It is a quantitative measure of the number of linearly independent paths through a program 's source code. It was developed by Thomas J. McCabe, Sr. in 1976.
Cyclomatic complexity is computed using the control flow graph of the program: the nodes of the graph correspond to indivisible groups of commands of a program, and a directed edge connects two nodes if the second command might be executed immediately after the first command. Cyclomatic complexity may also be applied to individual functions, modules, methods or classes within a program.
One testing strategy, called basis path testing by McCabe who first proposed it, is to test each linearly independent path through the program; in this case, the number of test cases will equal the cyclomatic complexity of the program.
The cyclomatic complexity of a section of source code is the number of linearly independent paths within it. For instance, if the source code contained no control flow statements (conditionals or decision points), the complexity would be 1, since there would be only a single path through the code. If the code had one single - condition IF statement, there would be two paths through the code: one where the IF statement evaluates to TRUE and another one where it evaluates to FALSE, so the complexity would be 2. Two nested single - condition IFs, or one IF with two conditions, would produce a complexity of 3.
Mathematically, the cyclomatic complexity of a structured program is defined with reference to the control flow graph of the program, a directed graph containing the basic blocks of the program, with an edge between two basic blocks if control may pass from the first to the second. The complexity M is then defined as
where
An alternative formulation is to use a graph in which each exit point is connected back to the entry point. In this case, the graph is strongly connected, and the cyclomatic complexity of the program is equal to the cyclomatic number of its graph (also known as the first Betti number), which is defined as
This may be seen as calculating the number of linearly independent cycles that exist in the graph, i.e. those cycles that do not contain other cycles within themselves. Note that because each exit point loops back to the entry point, there is at least one such cycle for each exit point.
For a single program (or subroutine or method), P is always equal to 1. So a simpler formula for a single subroutine is
Cyclomatic complexity may, however, be applied to several such programs or subprograms at the same time (e.g., to all of the methods in a class), and in these cases P will be equal to the number of programs in question, as each subprogram will appear as a disconnected subset of the graph.
McCabe showed that the cyclomatic complexity of any structured program with only one entrance point and one exit point is equal to the number of decision points (i.e., "if '' statements or conditional loops) contained in that program plus one. However, this is true only for decision points counted at the lowest, machine - level instructions. Decisions involving compound predicates like those found in high - level languages like IF cond1 AND cond2 THEN... should be counted in terms of predicate variables involved, i.e. in this example one should count two decision points, because at machine level it is equivalent to IF cond1 THEN IF cond2 THEN...
Cyclomatic complexity may be extended to a program with multiple exit points; in this case it is equal to:
where π is the number of decision points in the program, and s is the number of exit points.
An even subgraph of a graph (also known as an Eulerian subgraph) is one where every vertex is incident with an even number of edges; such subgraphs are unions of cycles and isolated vertices. In the following, even subgraphs will be identified with their edge sets, which is equivalent to only considering those even subgraphs which contain all vertices of the full graph.
The set of all even subgraphs of a graph is closed under symmetric difference, and may thus be viewed as a vector space over GF (2); this vector space is called the cycle space of the graph. The cyclomatic number of the graph is defined as the dimension of this space. Since GF (2) has two elements and the cycle space is necessarily finite, the cyclomatic number is also equal to the 2 - logarithm of the number of elements in the cycle space.
A basis for the cycle space is easily constructed by first fixing a spanning forest of the graph, and then considering the cycles formed by one edge not in the forest and the path in the forest connecting the endpoints of that edge; these cycles constitute a basis for the cycle space. Hence, the cyclomatic number also equals the number of edges not in a maximal spanning forest of a graph. Since the number of edges in a maximal spanning forest of a graph is equal to the number of vertices minus the number of components, the formula E − N + P (\ displaystyle E-N + P) above for the cyclomatic number follows.
For the more topologically inclined, cyclomatic complexity can alternatively be defined as a relative Betti number, the size of a relative homology group:
which is read as "the rank of the first homology group of the graph G, relative to the terminal nodes t ''. This is a technical way of saying "the number of linearly independent paths through the flow graph from an entry to an exit '', where:
This corresponds to the intuitive notion of cyclomatic complexity, and can be calculated as above.
Alternatively, one can compute this via absolute Betti number (absolute homology -- not relative) by identifying (gluing together) all the terminal nodes on a given component (or equivalently, draw paths connecting the exits to the entrance), in which case (calling the new, augmented graph G ~ (\ displaystyle (\ tilde (G))), which is), one obtains:
It can also be computed via homotopy. If one considers the control flow graph as a 1 - dimensional CW complex called X (\ displaystyle X), then the fundamental group of X (\ displaystyle X) will be π 1 (X) = Z n (\ displaystyle \ pi _ (1) (X) = \ mathbb (Z) ^ (n)). The value of n + 1 (\ displaystyle n + 1) is the cyclomatic complexity. The fundamental group counts how many loops there are through the graph, up to homotopy, and hence aligns with what we would intuitively expect.
This corresponds to the characterization of cyclomatic complexity as "number of loops plus number of components ''.
One of McCabe 's original applications was to limit the complexity of routines during program development; he recommended that programmers should count the complexity of the modules they are developing, and split them into smaller modules whenever the cyclomatic complexity of the module exceeded 10. This practice was adopted by the NIST Structured Testing methodology, with an observation that since McCabe 's original publication, the figure of 10 had received substantial corroborating evidence, but that in some circumstances it may be appropriate to relax the restriction and permit modules with a complexity as high as 15. As the methodology acknowledged that there were occasional reasons for going beyond the agreed - upon limit, it phrased its recommendation as: "For each module, either limit cyclomatic complexity to (the agreed - upon limit) or provide a written explanation of why the limit was exceeded. ''
Section VI of McCabe 's 1976 paper is concerned with determining what the control flow graphs (CFGs) of non-structured programs look like in terms of their subgraphs, which McCabe identifies. (For details on that part see structured program theorem.) McCabe concludes that section by proposing a numerical measure of how close to the structured programming ideal a given program is, i.e. its "structuredness '' using McCabe 's neologism. McCabe called the measure he devised for this purpose essential complexity.
In order to calculate this measure, the original CFG is iteratively reduced by identifying subgraphs that have a single - entry and a single - exit point, which are then replaced by a single node. This reduction corresponds to what a human would do if she extracted a subroutine from the larger piece of code. (Nowadays such a process would fall under the umbrella term of refactoring.) McCabe 's reduction method was later called condensation in some textbooks, because it was seen as a generalization of the condensation to components used in graph theory. If a program is structured, then McCabe 's reduction / condensation process reduces it to a single CFG node. In contrast, if the program is not structured, the iterative process will identify the irreducible part. The essential complexity measure defined by McCabe is simply the cyclomatic complexity of this irreducible graph, so it will be precisely 1 for all structured programs, but greater than one for non-structured programs.
Another application of cyclomatic complexity is in determining the number of test cases that are necessary to achieve thorough test coverage of a particular module.
It is useful because of two properties of the cyclomatic complexity, M, for a specific module:
All three of the above numbers may be equal: branch coverage ≤ (\ displaystyle \ leq) cyclomatic complexity ≤ (\ displaystyle \ leq) number of paths.
For example, consider a program that consists of two sequential if - then - else statements.
In this example, two test cases are sufficient to achieve a complete branch coverage, while four are necessary for complete path coverage. The cyclomatic complexity of the program is 3 (as the strongly connected graph for the program contains 9 edges, 7 nodes and 1 connected component) (9 - 7 + 1).
In general, in order to fully test a module, all execution paths through the module should be exercised. This implies a module with a high complexity number requires more testing effort than a module with a lower value since the higher complexity number indicates more pathways through the code. This also implies that a module with higher complexity is more difficult for a programmer to understand since the programmer must understand the different pathways and the results of those pathways.
Unfortunately, it is not always practical to test all possible paths through a program. Considering the example above, each time an additional if - then - else statement is added, the number of possible paths grows by a factor of 2. As the program grows in this fashion, it quickly reaches the point where testing all of the paths becomes impractical.
One common testing strategy, espoused for example by the NIST Structured Testing methodology, is to use the cyclomatic complexity of a module to determine the number of white - box tests that are required to obtain sufficient coverage of the module. In almost all cases, according to such a methodology, a module should have at least as many tests as its cyclomatic complexity; in most cases, this number of tests is adequate to exercise all the relevant paths of the function.
As an example of a function that requires more than simply branch coverage to test accurately, consider again the above function, but assume that to avoid a bug occurring, any code that calls either f1 () or f3 () must also call the other. Assuming that the results of c1 () and c2 () are independent, that means that the function as presented above contains a bug. Branch coverage would allow us to test the method with just two tests, and one possible set of tests would be to test the following cases:
Neither of these cases exposes the bug. If, however, we use cyclomatic complexity to indicate the number of tests we require, the number increases to 3. We must therefore test one of the following paths:
Either of these tests will expose the bug.
One would also expect that a module with higher complexity would tend to have lower cohesion (less than functional cohesion) than a module with lower complexity. The possible correlation between higher complexity measure with a lower level of cohesion is predicated on a module with more decision points generally implementing more than a single well defined function. A 2005 study showed stronger correlations between complexity metrics and an expert assessment of cohesion in the classes studied than the correlation between the expert 's assessment and metrics designed to calculate cohesion.
A number of studies have investigated the correlation between McCabe 's cyclomatic complexity number with the frequency of defects occurring in a function or method. Some studies find a positive correlation between cyclomatic complexity and defects: functions and methods that have the highest complexity tend to also contain the most defects. However, the correlation between cyclomatic complexity and program size (typically measured in lines of code) has been demonstrated many times. Les Hatton has claimed that complexity has the same predictive ability as lines of code. Studies that controlled for program size (i.e., comparing modules that have different complexities but similar size) are generally less conclusive, with many finding no significant correlation, while others do find correlation. Some researchers who have studied the area question the validity of the methods used by the studies finding no correlation. Although this relation is probably true, it is n't commercially useful. Since program size is not a controllable feature of commercial software, the usefulness of McCabes 's number has been called to question. The essence of this observation is that larger programs tend to be more complex and to have more defects. As a result, the metric has not been accepted by commercial software development organizations. Thus, reducing the cyclomatic complexity of code is not proven to reduce the number of errors or bugs in that code.
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pictures of the grotto in west bend iowa | Grotto of the Redemption - wikipedia
The Shrine of the Grotto of the Redemption is a religious shrine located in West Bend, Iowa, in the Roman Catholic Diocese of Sioux City. A conglomeration of nine grottos depicting scenes in the life of Jesus, the Grotto contains a large collection of minerals and petrifications and is believed to be the largest grotto in the world.
It is also "considered to be the world 's most complete man - made collection of minerals, fossils, shells, and petrifications in one place. '' The total value of all the rocks and minerals which make up the Grotto is over $4,308,000. Over 100,000 people visit the Grotto each year.
The shrine includes a museum with precious and semiprecious stones from throughout the world, and photos and artifacts about the construction of the shrine.
Father Paul Dobberstein was a German immigrant ordained in 1897. He became critically ill with pneumonia and promised to build a shrine to the Virgin Mary if she interceded for him. After his recovery, he began stockpiling rocks and precious stones. Construction of the grotto began in 1912 and continued year round for 42 years.
Father Dobberstein used the knowledge and skills gained during construction of his first grotto honoring Our Lady of Lourdes, while training at St. Francis Seminary in St. Francis, Wisconsin. His method was to set fancy rocks and gems into concrete. In 1946, Father Louis Greving began helping Dobberstein with the construction. The grotto covered an area the size of a city block when Dobberstein died in 1954. Matt Szerensce helped work on the grotto until his retirement in 1959. Construction still continues and has been maintained by Deacon Gerald Streit since 1994.
Father Dobberstein 's works inspired Mathias Wernerus (who also attended St. Francis Seminary) to build the Dickeyville Grotto in Dickeyville, Wisconsin, in 1930, thus starting the grotto building movement in America.
As of August 1, 2015, the grotto has been raised to the status of diocesan shrine by R. Walker Nickless, Bishop of Sioux City. This is the first Catholic religious shrine designated in the diocese.
The Grotto of the Redemption is featured in the David Lynch film The Straight Story.
Entrance sign
View of Lower Arcade: Small Stations of the Cross
Station 13
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how did the empire become the first order | First Order (Star Wars) - wikipedia
The First Order is an autocratic military dictatorship in the Star Wars franchise, introduced in the 2015 film Star Wars: The Force Awakens. Formed following the fall of the Galactic Empire after the events of Return of the Jedi (1983), the organization has amassed its power in secret over three decades. In The Force Awakens, the First Order is commanded by Supreme Leader Snoke and has begun executing its plan to depose the New Republic and reclaim control of the galaxy. The Knights of Ren are a mysterious group of elite warriors within their ranks, led by Kylo Ren.
Critics and fans have noted the use of imagery highly reminiscent of Nazi Germany for the First Order in The Force Awakens, including a sequence mimicking the 1935 Nazi propaganda film Triumph of the Will. The Force Awakens writer / director J.J. Abrams said that the First Order is inspired by the theory of ODESSA, which involved SS officers allegedly fleeing to Argentina and other countries following the aftermath of World War II.
According to Star Wars: The Force Awakens: The Visual Dictionary (2015) and the novel Star Wars: Aftermath (2015) by Chuck Wendig, after the Galactic Empire was defeated in Return of the Jedi at the climactic Battle of Endor, thousands of worlds rose up to join the Rebel Alliance and destroy the disorganized Imperials, who fell victim to warlordism. The Alliance formally reorganized itself as the New Republic, and retook the Core Worlds, including the galactic capital Coruscant. One year after Endor, the remaining Imperial Fleet made a final, massive attempt at a counter-offensive which came to a climax at the planet Jakku, the biggest battle in the war since Endor. Ultimately, the Imperial counter-offensive was decisively defeated. The remaining Imperial forces were pushed back to a handful of sectors on the fringe of the Outer Rim, containing only a small fraction of the galaxy 's population and industrial base. These sectors were a heavily fortified final redoubt, and the New Republic deemed that they posed too minor of a threat to justify the high cost in life that liberating them would require. The New Republic forced the Empire to settle for the Galactic Concordance, a humiliating armistice agreement which imposed strict disarmament plans and punishing reparations on the remaining Imperials.
Over time, elements of the Imperial Remnant reorganized itself, becoming a firmly entrenched and isolationist hermit kingdom, and spent the next three decades instigating a "cold war '' against the New Republic and gradually rebuilding its military strength, secretly re-arming in violation of its armistice agreements. The vestigial Empire secretly expanded from its original few sectors (in the galactic north), aggressively pushing into the Unknown Regions (the unexplored swaths of territory in the galactic west) to seize new undeveloped worlds there to supplement their resource base, as well as build new shipyards and industrial infrastructure far away from the eyes of the New Republic.
The 2016 novel Star Wars: Bloodline explained how this faction officially reorganized into the "First Order '', and that this final transition only occurred about six years before The Force Awakens. By that time, the New Republic Senate had become divided into two parties: the Populists led by Leia Organa, who wanted to decentralize authority, and the Centrists, who wanted power to remain concentrated in a strong central government. Many of the Centrists were former Imperials who admired the old Empire for bringing order to the galaxy, and who feared that without strong central control the New Republic would become as weak and ineffectual as the Old Republic. Ultimately, many Centrist worlds seceded from the New Republic to reunite with the holdout Imperial remnants on the fringe of the galaxy, and formally combined into a new government called "the First Order ''. First Order conspirators publicly revealed that Leia was in fact the daughter of Darth Vader, severely harming her political standing among the remaining Populists.
The vast majority of the New Republic 's worlds remained intact, but with the exodus of the Centrists its Senate became dominated by the remaining Populists, who favored decentralization and demilitarization, not confrontation. Even after these events, most in the remaining Senate were happy to see the Centrists go, feeling that the new First Order still controlled far too few sectors of the galaxy to ever pose a serious threat to galactic peace. In their view, it was easier to just let the Centrist worlds peacefully leave of their own volition and rejoin the Imperial worlds rather than fight a war to keep them by force.
The formation of the First Order when the old Imperial remnants annexes the Centrist worlds (and the New Republic 's lack of reaction to this increasing threat) are apparently a reference to the real life inaction of the Western powers when Nazi Germany annexed Austria and the subsequent Munich Agreement letting Germany annex Sudetenland, both in 1938. According to Star Wars: The Force Awakens: The Visual Dictionary, a reference to this is in the name of the current Chancellor of the New Republic: "Lanever Villecham '', which is a play on words for "Neville Chamberlain '' (La - nev - er Ville - Cham), Prime Minister of the United Kingdom in 1938, who famously proclaimed that giving the Nazis what they wanted in the Munich Agreement assured "peace for our time ''. Villecham is seen briefly in the final version of The Force Awakens but is not identified by name: more scenes with him and the Senate were filmed but deleted for time and pacing reasons.
Through as - yet - unexplained circumstances, the new "First Order '' came to be ruled by the mysterious Force - wielder known as Supreme Leader Snoke. At some point Snoke seduced Leia 's own son Ben Solo to the Dark Side of the Force, who renamed himself "Kylo Ren ''. On his turn to the Dark Side, Ben / Kylo slaughtered most of his uncle Luke Skywalker 's other Jedi apprentices (with the rest joining him) and destroyed his new academy. Blaming himself, Luke fled into self - imposed exile to search for the ancient first Jedi Temple. Kylo Ren, meanwhile, took on a position as Snoke 's right hand within the First Order 's military.
With her political standing severely weakened, and the New Republic Senate gridlocked and unwilling to recognize the First Order 's military buildup, Leia Organa decides to withdraw and form her own small private army, known as the Resistance, to fight the First Order within its own borders. She is joined by other members of the former Rebel Alliance such as Admiral Ackbar. Publicly the New Republic continues to disavow direct association with the Resistance to maintain plausible deniability, and though the majority of the Senate does not want to intervene against the First Order, several Senators privately channel funds and resources to the Resistance. This state of affairs continued on for the next six years until the events of The Force Awakens. Comic book writer Charles Soule, creator of the 2015 Marvel Comics series Star Wars: Poe Dameron, explained that immediately prior to the events of The Force Awakens, "The New Republic and the First Order are in a position of detente, and while there have been a few small skirmishes between the Resistance and the First Order, it 's very much a sort of cold war. ''
The First Order 's handful of sectors simply do not possess the galaxy - wide resources the old Empire used to be able to draw upon, and in addition the armistice treaties with the New Republic put strict limitations on how many ships it could physically build. Therefore, unlike the old Galactic Empire 's swarm tactics, the First Order 's military has had to adapt to a more "quality over quantity '' philosophy, making efficient use of what few resources it has.
The First Order lacked the resources to build and crew thousands of star destroyers. While its fleet is a fraction of the size of the Imperial Fleet at its height, on a one - for - one basis its new ships are much more powerful. In addition, they boast thirty years ' worth of advances in military technologies compared to the old Empire. As a result, the First Order now deploys starships such as the new Resurgent - class Star Destroyer, nearly twice as large as the old Imperial - class Star Destroyer which it replaced as the mainstay of the First Order fleet. With a naval doctrine that accepted the renewed importance of starfighters within their overall strategy, the Resurgent - class adopted the carrier - centric designs of the Galactic Republic 's Venator - class Star Destroyer.
The First Order 's TIE fighters, designated TIE / fo, are more advanced than the old Empire 's TIE / ln model, and show greater concern for unit stamina and survivability. The First Order 's Special Forces use a more heavily armed two - man TIE / sf variant. Visually, their color scheme is reversed from the old Imperial design: the Empire 's TIE Fighters have black solar panels on a light grey metal body frame, while First Order TIE Fighters have white solar panels on a dark metal frame.
For space to surface delivery, the First Order is also seen deploying several standard troop transports. Elite units and high value command personnel such as Kylo Ren use the Upsilon - class Transport, a stylistic evolution of the old Imperial Lambda - class Transport (but without the third fin on top, and now sporting large wings that retract upon themselves on landing).
The Last Jedi introduces several more ships of the First Order. Dreadnoughts are larger but rarer than Resurgent - class Star Destroyers, used as orbital bombardment platforms which can functionally wipe out entire planets ' population centers (albeit through conventional weapons, just short of being considered super-weapons). Dwarfing even these other vessels are Supreme Leader Snoke 's personal flagship and mobile capital, the Mega Star Detroyer Supremacy: a wing - shaped vessel wider than it is long, the size of a small country. Supremacy measures 60 kilometers at its greatest width -- equal to about 18 Resurgent - class Star Destroyers lined up end to end.
The Last Jedi also introduces a new starfighter element to the First Order fleet, the TIE Silencer superiority fighter. Much as TIE Interceptors were the next generation fighter starting to phase out the original Imperial TIE Fighters, TIE Silencers are a next - generation fighter given only to the most elite units. Visually they somewhat resemble a cross between a TIE Interceptor and Darth Vader 's TIE X-1 prototype, being wider and more elongated, while boasting heavier weapons, shields, etc. to be able to face X-Wings head - on. Kylo Ren pilots his own personal TIE Silencer. Their technical designation is "TIE / vn '' (because in earlier drafts, the ship was called "TIE Vendetta '').
A major plot point in The Last Jedi is that the First Order has developed new "hyperspace tracking '' technology, allowing them to continue to chase enemy vessels through hyperspace from one jump to the next (until one or the other runs out of fuel). This technology was first mentioned in passing in Rogue One as another research project the Empire was starting to develop almost forty years before.
The First Order employs a quality - over-quantity philosophy with its soldiers and personnel. Unable to conscript trillions of soldiers to fill its Stormtrooper ranks, yet unwilling to switch back to using a rapidly produced clone army (like the original Stormtroopers at the end of the Clone Wars), First Order Stormtroopers are trained from birth, raised their entire lives for no other purpose. First Order soldiers and crews have constantly trained for combat in war games and simulations, making them much more effective one - on - one than the endless waves of Stormtrooper conscripts fielded by the old Empire. First Order Stormtroopers are regularly put through mental indoctrination and propaganda programs, to make sure that they remain fanatically loyal and never hesitate or question orders. Being taken from their families at birth, these soldiers are not even given individual names for themselves but merely serial numbers, such as "FN - 2187 ''. This was the name Finn, a defector and Resistance hero, was originally given. His current name, given by Poe Dameron, derives from the FN, which was the only part Dameron was able to remember easily.
First Order Stormtroopers are formally deployed in squads of ten, with the tenth spot reserved for a heavy weapons specialist as the needs of the mission require: usually a heavy gunner, but sometimes also flamethrower troops, or riot troops equipped with energy batons (which are incidentally capable of blocking a lightsaber). The design of the armour of regular and heavy gunner Stormtroopers bears significant resemblances to the design used by the Galactic Empire, such as the helmet visor, nasal filters, and overall shape. However, the filter was extended, among other practical features. According to the famed First Order officer Captain Phasma, not even a Wookiee (the species Chewbacca belonged to) could crush the said armour. Some stormtroopers held high ranks -- a significant improvement from the one - rank system of the Empire. These were indicated by the colour of shoulder pauldrons. In the rare instance of a stormtrooper earning the rank of Captain, they often earned a blasterproof cape. Occasionally, they modify their outfit even further -- Captain Phasma made blasterproof, chrome copies of all her equipment and greatly improved vision modes of her helmet 's visor. Captain Cardinal, the bodyguard of a First Order founding father, received almost all - red armour from his superior as a sign of trust.
As a heavy siege weapon, the First Order also fields its own evolution of the old AT - series of armored transports, the AT - M6. Dwarfing the older AT - AT, the AT - M6 has numerous design improvements including heavy serrated cable - cutters mounted on its legs -- to avoid being tripped up again like AT - AT 's were at the Battle of Hoth. These cutters are positioned in such a way that the AT - M6 walks on its "knuckles '' instead of the pads of its feet, which -- combined with a heavy siege cannon which gives it a hunched - over appearance -- gives the AT - M6 an almost gorilla - like profile compared to the more elephant - like AT - AT.
In the film, the First Order is led by a mysterious figure named Snoke, who has assumed the title of Supreme Leader. Like the Empire before them, the Order commands a vast force of stormtroopers. The First Order uses regular and Special Forces versions of the Empire 's venerable TIE fighter. Its primary base of operations is Starkiller Base, a fortified ice planet which houses a superweapon capable of destroying entire star systems across the galaxy by firing through hyperspace. The base commander of Starkiller is General Hux, a ruthless young officer dedicated to the Order.
Snoke is a powerful figure in the dark side of the Force and has corrupted Ben, the son of Han Solo and Leia Organa who had been an apprentice to his uncle, the Jedi Master Luke Skywalker. Masked and using the name Kylo Ren, he is one of Snoke 's enforcers, much like his grandfather Darth Vader had been the enforcer of Emperor Palpatine during the days of the Empire decades earlier. Kylo is the master of the Knights of Ren, a mysterious group of elite warriors. Kylo and Hux are rivals for Snoke 's approval, and the third member of the "commanding triumvirate '' of the First Order is the formidable Captain Phasma, the commander of the stormtroopers.
Kylo is searching for Luke, who vanished some years earlier. Snoke believes that as long as Luke lives, a new generation of Jedi Knights can rise again. The First Order destroys Hosnian Prime, the New Republic 's current capital world, using the Starkiller superweapon. This devastating first strike takes the New Republic completely by surprise, not only killing most of its leadership in the Galactic Senate, but wiping out a substantial portion of the New Republic 's core military fleets. This paves the way for a resulting Blitzkrieg of the rest of the galaxy by the First Order, using the disproportionately powerful military it has rebuilt over the past three decades.
Kylo fails to retrieve the map fragment that would lead him to Luke, and the Resistance manages to destroy the Starkiller Base moments before it is able to fire on the Resistance base on D'Qar, though Kylo and General Hux are able to escape the explosion.
The Last Jedi follows immediately after the events of The Force Awakens, and the narrative narrowly focuses on the First Order 's fleet attacking and chasing the Resistance from their only base (on the planet D'Qar). As a result, the First Order 's intended galaxy - wide offensive against the decapitated New Republic is only alluded to in passing -- and indeed, has only just begun, given that the events of The Last Jedi itself only span a few days or weeks.
The First Order 's main fleet, led by General Hux and Kylo Ren, assault the Resistance base on D'Qar now that they have discovered its location (in a conventional attack, as their original plan to obliterate it using Starkiller Base failed). The Resistance manages to evacuate most of its personnel and equipment from the surface before it is destroyed by orbital bombardment, but then have to fight their way through the First Order blockade. Poe Dameron rashly leads an assault against a First Order Dreadnought -- one of only a handful of heavy orbital bombardment platforms in the enemy fleet -- and manages to destroy it, but at the cost of the entire bomber wing of the Resistance. Kylo Ren then personally leads an assault in his TIE Silencer which destroys the rest of the Resistance fighter wing in its own carrier 's hangar bay. Ren hesitates to fire on the command bridge of the Resistance carrier, containing his mother Leia Organa, but his support craft carry through with their attack, wiping out all of the Resistance leadership (including Admiral Ackbar), except for Leia herself (who, while blown out into space, uses the Force to pull herself back to the ship). Vice Admiral Holdo assumes control of the Resistance fleet while Leia recovers.
The small Resistance fleet manages to escape via a hyperspace jump, only for the First Order fleet to reappear at their location moments later: the First Order developed a new "hyperspace tracking '' technology, making it impossible to evade them simply by jumping away. The Resistance ships would simply exhaust their fuel by making more hyperspace jumps, without shaking the First Order fleet, so they continue to flee at sub-light speed (at which they are slightly faster than the larger and more powerful First Order ships). This only forestalls the inevitable, however, as their sub-light fuel at continuous full speed will still be exhausted in a day. This devolves into a siege - like battle of attrition, as one by one the smaller Resistance ships run out of fuel and are destroyed by the chasing First Order Star Destroyers.
Ultimately, Supreme Leader Snoke and Kylo Ren trick Rey to come to Snoke 's command ship, the Mega-class Star Destroyer Supremacy. Kylo Ren kills Snoke and replaces him as Supreme Leader of the First Order. He offers Rey that they could rule the galaxy together, but she refuses, as he will not return to the Light side of the Force. They resume fighting and she manages to knock him unconscious, then escapes the ship. When General Hux arrives, he blames the murder on Rey, and Hux begrudgingly accepts his new rank.
Meanwhile, Poe Dameron stages a mutiny against Holdo, believing she had no plan but to run until their fuel ran out. As it turns out, however, she had a plan, but did n't trust him after the fiasco of his assault on the dreadnaught: she would remain to pilot their last surviving ship (their command carrier, Raddus), while all of their personnel fled in cloaked shuttles to an old Rebel Alliance base on the salt flats planet Crait. The First Order discovered the ruse, however, destroying most of the shuttlecraft. Already determined to lay down her life for the Resistance, Holdo then directs the command carrier on a suicide run, making a faster - than - light jump directly into Snoke 's Star Destroyer -- cutting it in half, and destroying much of the First Order fleet in the wreckage.
With the old Rebel base on Crait hardened against orbital bombardment, Kylo Ren commands Hux to land all of their surviving ground forces to wipe them out: only a few dozen Resistance members are left alive, but Leia is among them, and if they escape they could rally the rest of the galaxy against them. Leia sends out transmissions to allies "in the Outer Rim '' begging for aid, but they inexplicably do not appear. Just as the First Order breaches the base, Luke Skywalker appears to challenge them. A full barrage by their artillery has no effect on Luke, so Kylo Ren descends to duel him in person -- but Luke easily dodges the attacks of his former apprentice, humiliating Ren as he frustrates himself in empty rage. Ren finally manages to land a hit -- only to realize that Luke is not truly present on Crait at all, but in an unprecedented display of his power using the Force, projected his appearance halfway across the galaxy. Luke tricked Ren to buy time for the Resistance to escape the planet, and humiliate Ren in front of his new - won empire -- though the strain of this Force - projection is fatal to Luke, and he peacefully becomes one with the Force after he buys enough time for the remaining members of the Resistance to escape.
The handful of surviving Resistance members escape on the Millenium Falcon with Rey. While the Resistance has been functionally destroyed, their one ship contains the seeds to destroy the First Order: Leia and her allies aboard live to rally the remnants of the New Republic in the rest of the galaxy, while Rey saved all of the ancient Jedi texts, to one day give rise to new generation of Jedi to fight the First Order.
The First Order will appear in Star Wars Episode IX.
Robbie Collin of The Telegraph described the disfigured and skeletal Snoke as a "sepulchral horror '' and referred to Hux as "a spitting fanatic of the First Order whose every gesture speaks of utter contempt for, well, everyone. ''
Critics and fans have noted the use of imagery highly reminiscent of Nazi Germany for the First Order in The Force Awakens, including a sequence mimicking the 1935 Nazi propaganda film Triumph of the Will. The Force Awakens writer / director J.J. Abrams said that the First Order is inspired by the theory of ODESSA, which involved SS officers allegedly fleeing to Argentina and other countries following the aftermath of World War II. Abrams explained:
That all came out of conversations about what would have happened if the Nazis all went to Argentina but then started working together again? What could be born of that? Could The First Order exist as a group that actually admired The Empire? Could the work of The Empire be seen as unfulfilled? And could Vader be a martyr? Could there be a need to see through what did n't get done?
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what is the function of the second polar body | Polar body - wikipedia
A polar body is a small haploid cell that is formed concomitantly as an egg cell during oogenesis, but which generally does not have the ability to be fertilized. When certain diploid cells in animals undergo cytokinesis after meiosis to produce egg cells, they sometimes divide unevenly. Most of the cytoplasm is segregated into one daughter cell, which becomes the egg or ovum, while the smaller polar bodies only get a small amount of cytoplasm. They frequently die (apoptosis) and disappear, but in some cases they remain and can be important in the life cycle of the organism.
Polar body twinning is a hypothesized form of twinning in meiosis, where one or more polar bodies do not disintegrate and are fertilized by sperm.
Twinning would occur, in principle, if the egg cell and a polar body were both fertilized by separate sperms. However, even if fertilization occurs, further development would usually not occur because the zygote formed by the fusion of the sperm and polar body would not have enough cytoplasm or stored nutrients to feed the developing embryo.
Diagram showing the reduction in number of the chromosomes in the process of maturation of the ovum.
Scheme showing analogies in the process of maturation of the ovum and the development of the spermatids.
The process of fertilization in the ovum of a mouse.
Polar body bulging from an animal pole of a starfish oocyte
Polar bodies were first identified and characterized in the early 20th century, primarily by O. Hertwig, T. Boveri, and E.L. Mark. They were described as non-functioning egg cells which disintegrated because the spermatozoon, with rare exceptions, could not fertilize them and instead chemically triggered their dissolution.
Polar bodies serve to eliminate one half of the diploid chromosome set produced by meiotic division in the egg, leaving behind a haploid cell. To produce the polar bodies, the cell must divide asymmetrically, which is fueled by furrowing (formation of a trench) near a particular point on the cell membrane. The presence of chromosomes induces the formation of an actomyosin cortical cap, a myosin II ring structure and a set of spindle fibers, the rotation of which promotes invagination at the edge of the cell membrane and splits the polar body away from the oocyte.
Meiotic errors can lead to aneuploidy in the polar bodies, which, in the majority of cases, produces an aneuploid zygote. Errors can occur during either of the two meiotic divisions that produce each polar body, but are more pronounced if they occur during the formation of the first polar body, because the formation of the first polar body influences the chromosomal makeup of the second. For example, predivision (the separation of chromatids before anaphase) in the first polar body can induce the formation of an aneuploid polar body. Therefore, the formation of the first polar body is an especially important factor in forming a healthy zygote.
However, chromosomally abnormal polar bodies are not guaranteed to induce the development of an abnormal zygote. A euploid zygote can be produced if the aneuploidy is reciprocal: one polar body has an extra chromosome and the other lacks the same chromosome (see also uniparental disomy). If the extra chromosome is absorbed into a polar body rather than being passed into the oocyte, trisomy can be avoided. Whether this is a chance event or is some way influenced by the microenvironment is unclear. In at least one case, this euploid zygote has been traced through development to birth as a healthy child with a normal chromosome count.
A polar body biopsy is the sampling of a polar body of an oocyte. After sampling of a polar body, subsequent analysis can be used to predict viability and pregnancy chance of the oocyte, as well as the future health of a person resulting such pregnancy. The latter use makes it a form of preimplantation genetic screening (PGS). Compared to a blastocyst biopsy, a polar body biopsy can potentially be of lower costs, less harmful side - effects, and more sensitive in detecting abnormalities. The main advantage of the use of polar bodies in PGD is that they are not necessary for successful fertilisation or normal embryonic development, thus ensuring no deleterious effect for the embryo.
One of the disadvantages of PB biopsy is that it only provides information about the maternal contribution to the embryo, which is why cases of autosomal dominant and X-linked disorders that are maternally transmitted can be diagnosed, and autosomal recessive disorders can only partially be diagnosed. Another drawback is the increased risk of diagnostic error, for instance due to the degradation of the genetic material or events of recombination that lead to heterozygous first polar bodies.
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cast of orange is the new black ages | Orange Is the New Black - Wikipedia
Orange Is the New Black (sometimes abbreviated to OITNB) is an American comedy - drama web television series created by Jenji Kohan for the streaming service Netflix. The series is based on Piper Kerman 's memoir, Orange Is the New Black: My Year in a Women 's Prison (2010), about her experiences at FCI Danbury, a minimum - security federal prison. Produced by Tilted Productions in association with Lionsgate Television, Orange Is the New Black premiered on Netflix on July 11, 2013. In February 2016, the series was renewed for a fifth, sixth, and seventh season. The sixth season was released on July 27, 2018. On October 17, 2018, it was confirmed that the seventh season would be its last and would be released in 2019.
Orange Is the New Black has become Netflix 's most - watched original series. It has received critical acclaim and many accolades. For its first season, the series garnered 12 Primetime Emmy Award nominations, including Outstanding Comedy Series, Outstanding Writing for a Comedy Series, and Outstanding Directing for a Comedy Series, winning three. A new Emmy rule in 2015 forced the series to change categories from comedy to drama. For its second season, the series received four Emmy nominations, including Outstanding Drama Series, and Uzo Aduba won for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Drama Series. Orange Is the New Black is the first series to score Emmy nominations in both comedy and drama categories. The series has also received six Golden Globe Award nominations, six Writers Guild of America Award nominations, a Producers Guild of America Award, an American Film Institute award, and a Peabody Award.
The series begins revolving around Piper Chapman (Taylor Schilling), a woman in her thirties living in New York City who is sentenced to 15 months in Litchfield Penitentiary, a minimum - security women 's federal prison in upstate New York. Chapman was convicted of transporting a suitcase full of drug money for her girlfriend Alex Vause (Laura Prepon), an international drug smuggler. The offense had occurred 10 years prior to the start of the series and in that time Piper had moved on to a quiet, law - abiding life among New York 's upper middle class. Her sudden and unexpected indictment disrupts her relationships with her fiancé, family and friends. In prison, Chapman is reunited with Vause (who named Chapman in her trial, resulting in Chapman 's arrest) and they re-examine their relationship. Simultaneously, Chapman, along with the other inmates, attempt to grapple with prison 's numerous, inherent struggles. Episodes often feature flashbacks of significant events from various inmates ' and prison guards ' pasts. These flashbacks typically depict how an inmate came to be in prison or develop a character 's backstory. The prison is initially operated by the "Federal Department of Corrections '' (a fictional version of the Federal Bureau of Prisons), and was in a later season acquired by the Management & Correction Corporation (MCC), a private prison company.
The fifth season shows the prisoners revolting against the guards, wardens and the system after MCC 's failed handling of an inmate 's death at the hands of a guard in the fourth season. The inmate death had followed a peaceful protest and subsequent instigation of an inmate fight by another guard. Fueled by the conditions the inmates are forced to tolerate, as well as grudges against the prison guards, a three - day riot ensues, during which some inmates attempt to negotiate better living conditions and seek justice for the death of the inmate, while others pursue their own interests and entertainment, and a few seek no involvement in the riot. At the emergence of the riot, the guard who incited the fight in the prior season is critically shot by an inmate who took the gun the guard illegally brought into the prison. At the end of the season, SWAT raids the prison to end the riot and remove all inmates from the facility. During this raid, a correctional officer is fatally shot by a corrupt "strike team '', which then conspires to blame the guard 's death on inmates who hid in an underground bunker and had taken hostage of the guard. All inmates are transported to other prisons.
The consequences of the riot are shown in the sixth season. A number of the inmates, including Chapman and Vause, are transported to Litchfield Maximum Security. Most of these inmates are interrogated, and several of them charged and sentenced for their involvement in the riot. In max, new inmates are introduced, alliances are made, and a gang - like war emerges between two prison blocks, spearheaded by a longstanding feud between two sisters and a grudge harbored by them toward a former maximum - security inmate who returned. Inmates who arrived from the minimum security prison are either caught up or willingly participate in the war between prison blocks. The season portrays further corruption and guard brutality.
Throughout the series, it is shown how various forms of corruption, funding cuts, privatization of prison, overcrowding, guard brutality and racial discrimination, among other issues, affect the prisoners ' safety, health and well - being, the correctional officers, and the prison 's basic ability to fulfill its fundamental responsibilities and ethical obligations as a corrections institution. One of the show 's key conflicts involves the minimum - security prison 's Director of Human Activities, Joe Caputo, whose efforts and aims as a warden constantly conflict with the corporate interests of MCC, which acquired the facility when it was about to be shut down.
Show creator Jenji Kohan read Piper Kerman 's memoir after a friend sent it to her. She then set up a meeting with Kerman to pitch her on a TV adaptation, which she notes she "screwed up '' as she spent most of the time asking Kerman about her experiences she described in the book rather than selling her on the show. This appealed to Kerman as it let her know that she was a fan and she signed off on the adaptation. Kohan would later go on to describe the main character, Piper Chapman, as a "trojan horse '' for the series, allowing it to focus on characters whose demographics would not normally be represented on TV.
In July 2011, it was revealed that Netflix was in negotiations with Lionsgate for a 13 - episode TV adaptation of Kerman 's memoirs with Kohan as creator. In November 2011, negotiations were finalized and the series had been greenlit. Kohan had initially wanted to cast Katie Holmes in the role of Piper Chapman, and met with the actress to discuss it, but Holmes had other commitments. Casting announcements began in August 2012 with Taylor Schilling, the first to be cast, as Piper Chapman, followed by Jason Biggs as Piper 's fiancé Larry Bloom.
Laura Prepon and Yael Stone were next to join the series, as Alex Vause and Lorna Morello, respectively. Abigail Savage, who plays Gina, and Alysia Reiner, who plays Fig, had auditioned for role of Alex Vause. Prepon initially auditioned for Piper Chapman, however Kohan felt she would not worry about her (in prison), noting a "toughness and a presence to her that was n't right for the character. '' Kohan instead gave her the role of Alex. Stone had originally auditioned for the role of Nicky Nichols, but she was not considered "tough enough '' for the character; she was asked to audition for Lorna Morello instead. Likability was important for Morello, whom casting director Jen Euston deemed "a very helpful, nice, sweet Italian girl. '' Natasha Lyonne was to audition for Alex, but was asked to read for the character Nicky Nichols; "(Kohan knew) she could do Nicky with her eyes closed. She was perfect, '' said Euston. Laverne Cox, a black transgender woman, was cast as Sophia Burset, a transgender character. The Advocate touted Orange Is the New Black as possibly the first women - in - prison narrative to cast a transgender woman for this type of role. Uzo Aduba read for the part of Janae Watson but was offered the character Suzanne "Crazy Eyes '' Warren. Taryn Manning was offered the role of Tiffany "Pennsatucky '' Doggett. This American Life host Ira Glass was offered a role as a public radio host, but he declined. The role instead went to Robert Stanton, who plays the fictional host Maury Kind.
The series is set in a fictional prison in Litchfield, New York, which is a real town in upstate New York, but it does not have a federal penitentiary. The series began filming in the old Rockland Children 's Psychiatric Center in Rockland County, New York, on March 7, 2013. The title sequence features photos of real former female prisoners including Kerman herself.
On June 27, 2013, prior to the series ' premiere, Netflix renewed the show for a second season consisting of 13 episodes. For the second season, Uzo Aduba, Taryn Manning, Danielle Brooks, and Natasha Lyonne were promoted to series regulars. Laura Prepon did not return as a series regular for a second season because of scheduling conflicts, but returned for season 3 as a regular. On May 5, 2014, the series was renewed for a third season, as revealed by actress Laura Prepon. For the third season, several actors were promoted to series regulars, including Selenis Leyva, Adrienne C. Moore, Dascha Polanco, Nick Sandow, Yael Stone, and Samira Wiley. Both Jason Biggs and Pablo Schreiber were confirmed as not returning for the third season, but Schreiber appeared in the 10th episode of the third season. The series was renewed for a fourth season on April 15, 2015, prior to its third - season release. For the fourth season, Jackie Cruz and Lea DeLaria were promoted to series regulars; with Elizabeth Rodriguez also being promoted by the season 's sixth episode. On February 5, 2016, the series was renewed for a fifth, sixth and seventh season. In season six, Dale Soules, Laura Gómez, and Matt Peters were promoted to series regulars. On October 17, 2018, Netflix announced that the seventh season would be the series ' last and would be released in 2019.
Orange Is the New Black has received critical acclaim. It has been particularly praised for humanizing prisoners and for its depiction of race, sexuality, gender and body types.
The first season received positive reviews from critics. Review aggregator Metacritic gave it a weighted average score of 79 out of 100 based on reviews from 32 critics, indicating favorable reviews. On Rotten Tomatoes, season one has a 94 % approval rating based on 47 reviews, with an average rating of 8.24 out of 10. The site 's critical consensus is "Orange Is the New Black is a sharp mix of black humor and dramatic heft, with interesting characters and an intriguing flashback structure. ''
Hank Stuever, television critic for The Washington Post, gave Orange Is the New Black a perfect score. In his review of the series, he stated: "In Jenji Kohan 's magnificent and thoroughly engrossing new series, Orange Is the New Black, prison is still the pits. But it is also filled with the entire range of human emotion and stories, all of which are brought vividly to life in a world where a stick of gum could ignite either a romance or a death threat. '' Maureen Ryan, of The Huffington Post, wrote: "Orange is one of the best new programs of the year, and the six episodes I 've seen have left me hungry to see more. ''
The second season also received critical acclaim. Rotten Tomatoes gave a rating of 98 %, with an average rating of 9.17 out of 10 based on 45 reviews. The site 's critical consensus reads: "With a talented ensemble cast bringing life to a fresh round of serial drama, Orange Is the New Black 's sophomore season lives up to its predecessor 's standard for female - led television excellence. '' Metacritic gave the second season a score of 89 out of 100 based on 31 critics, indicating "universal acclaim. '' David Wiegland of the San Francisco Chronicle gave the season a positive review, calling the first six episodes "not only as great as the first season, but arguably better. ''
The third season received critical acclaim. On Metacritic, it has a score of 83 out of 100 based on 24 reviews. On Rotten Tomatoes, it has a 95 % rating with an average score of 8.15 out of 10 based on 58 reviews. The site 's critical consensus reads: "Thanks to its blend of potent comedy and rich character work, Orange is the New Black remains a bittersweet pleasure in its third season. ''
The fourth season received critical acclaim. On Metacritic, it has a score of 86 out of 100 based on 19 reviews. On Rotten Tomatoes, it has a 96 % rating with an average score of 8.46 out of 10 based on 47 reviews. The site 's critical consensus reads: "Orange is the New Black is back and better than ever, with a powerful fourth season full of compelling performances by the ensemble cast. '' James Poniewozik of The New York Times reviewed the fourth season as "Do you measure the quality of a TV season as a beginning - to - end average or by how well it ends? By the first yardstick, Season 4 is ambitious but uneven; by the latter, it 's the series ' best. ''
The fifth season received "generally favorable reviews ''. On Metacritic, it has a score of 67 out of 100 based on 20 reviews. On Rotten Tomatoes, it has a 73 % rating with an average score of 7.19 out of 10 based on 41 reviews. The site 's critical consensus reads: "Orange Is the New Black 's fifth season offers up more of the sharp writing and dizzying tonal juggling acts that fans expect -- albeit somewhat less successfully. ''
The sixth season received positive reviews from critics, with many critics noting its improvement over the previous season. On Metacritic, it has a score of 69 out of 100 based on 14 reviews. On Rotten Tomatoes, it has an 84 % rating with an average score of 7.3 out of 10 based on 32 reviews. The site 's critical consensus reads: "Brutality and humor continue to mesh effectively in a season of Orange Is the New Black that stands as a marked improvement from its predecessor, even if some arcs are more inspired than others. ''
Orange Is the New Black has received many accolades since its debut. The series has garnered 16 Emmy Award nominations and four wins. For its first season, it received 12 Emmy Award nominations, including Outstanding Comedy Series, Outstanding Writing for a Comedy Series, and Outstanding Directing for a Comedy Series, winning three. Taylor Schilling received a Golden Globe Award nomination for Best Actress in a Television Series -- Drama. In 2013, the American Film Institute selected the series as one of the Top 10 Television Programs of the Year.
A new Emmy rule in 2015, classifying half - hour shows as comedies and hour - long shows as dramas, forced the series to change categories from comedy to drama for its second season. That year, the series received four Emmy nominations, including Outstanding Drama Series, and Aduba won her second Emmy Award, for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Drama Series. Orange Is the New Black became the first series to receive Emmy nominations in both comedy and drama categories. For its second season, the series also received three Golden Globe Award nominations: Best Television Series -- Musical or Comedy, Best Actress -- Television Series Musical or Comedy for Schilling, and Best Supporting Actress -- Series, Miniseries or Television Film for Aduba. At the 21st Screen Actors Guild Awards, the series won Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Comedy Series and Aduba won Outstanding Performance by a Female Actor in a Comedy Series.
For its third season, Orange Is the New Black won Screen Actors Guild Awards for Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Comedy Series and Outstanding Performance by a Female Actor in a Comedy Series (Aduba). It received a Golden Globe Award nomination for Best Television Series -- Musical or Comedy. The series has also received, among other accolades, six Writers Guild of America Award nominations, five Satellite Awards, four Critics ' Choice Television Awards, a GLAAD Media Award, an American Cinema Editors Award, a Producers Guild of America Award, and a Peabody Award.
-- Variety
The series began airing on broadcast television in New Zealand on TV2 on August 19, 2013. It premiered in Australia on October 9, 2013, on Showcase. The second season began on Showcase on July 16, 2014, and the third season premiered on June 11, 2015. The first season began airing on broadcast television in the UK on Sony Channel from April 19, 2017.
In April 2017, it was reported that a cybercriminal had stolen the first ten episodes of the fifth season in a security breach of a post-production company. Netflix failed to respond to ransom demands, and the cybercriminal leaked the episodes online. Netflix confirmed the security breach and an ongoing investigation by federal law enforcement. Multichannel News reported that demand for the series significantly increased over the seven - day period following the leak of the episodes. It was also said that the leak would likely cause a decrease in demand for the fifth season when Netflix releases it in June.
Orange Is the New Black generated more viewers and hours viewed in its first week than the other top Netflix original series House of Cards and Arrested Development. In October 2013, Netflix stated that the show is a "tremendous success '' for the streaming platform. "It will end the year as our most watched original series ever and, as with each of our other previously launched originals, enjoys an audience comparable with successful shows on cable and broadcast TV. '' As reported in February 2016, Orange Is the New Black remains Netflix 's most - watched original series. In 2016, a New York Times study of the 50 TV shows with the most Facebook Likes found that Orange Is the New Black is one of the shows most watched in urban areas, and despite its "minority - rich ensemble cast, '' the series "appeals more to a white audience. ''
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list of countries in the world in hindi | List of countries and dependencies and their capitals in native languages - wikipedia
The following chart lists countries and dependencies along with their capital cities, in English as well as any additional official language (s).
(formerly Ivory Coast)
Phoenician (Phoenician script)
Jílóngpō 吉隆坡
Kōlā lampūr கோலாலம்பூர்
Latin
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an example of a product distributed from the producer to the consumers through the retailer is | Marketing channel - wikipedia
A marketing channel is the people, organizations, and activities necessary to transfer the ownership of goods from the point of production to the point of consumption. It is the way products and services get to the end - user, the consumer; and is also known as a distribution channel. A marketing channel is a useful tool for management, and is crucial to creating an effective and well - planned marketing strategy.
Another less known form of the marketing channel is the Dual Distribution channel. This channel is a less traditional form that allows the manufacturer or wholesaler to reach the end - user by using more than one distribution channel. The producer can simultaneously reach the consumer through a direct market, such as a website, or sell to another company or retailer that will reach the consumer through another channel, i.e., a store. An example of this type of channel would be franchising.
Roles of marketing channel in marketing strategies
There are four main types of marketing channels.
The producer sells the goods or provides the service directly to the consumer with no involvement with a middle man such as an intermediary, a wholesaler, a retailer, an agent, or a reseller. The consumer goes directly to the producer to buy the product without going through any other channel. This type of marketing is most beneficial to farmers who can set the prices of their products without having to go through the Canadian Federation of Agriculture. Typically, goods are that consumed by a smaller segment of the market has influence over producers and, therefore, goods that are produced in the response on the order of a few consumers are taken into account. Normally goods and services of this channel are not utilized by large market segments. Also, the price of the goods is subject to significant fluctuations. For example, high demand dictates an increase in the price.
In addition, this particular channel has three main ways of direct selling and these include; peddling, mail - order sales and trade through manufacturer - owned stores. Peddling is an outdated version of trade between two parties and consignments are often sold in small amounts by sellers who are traveling to different places. For example, sales representative sells New Wave cosmetics to housewives by using a method of peddling. Mail - order sales are usually used to sell catalogs, books etc., except industrial and bulky goods. For example, a firm sells collectible through the use of mail - order. Also, this method of selling is normally made without eye contact.
The last method undergoes through manufacture - owned stores. In this situation, the manufacturer itself is surrounded by the stores and directly supplies goods to its stores. For example, Zinger sells its sewing machines through its own stores. Due to distance of goods and products between producer and a seller, it takes an advantage to be an effective channel of distribution in its kind and these advantages are; producers pay close attention with customers and are aware of theirs ' thought 's and ideas that are shared with them, there are no intermediaries that could substantially reduce the profit of a company which would then result in significant loss and delivery time is shortened due to having no obstacles like middleman etc. Despite these apparent advantages, direct selling has not become a powerful channel. According to an estimate, even less than 3 percent of total consumers ' sales are made in this channel.
On the other hand, technological innovations, the aid of the internet and convenient smartphones are now changing the way that commerce works significantly. The proliferation of internet - direct channels means that internet companies will be able to produce and directly trade and services and goods with consumers. It can be distributed directly through the internet, for example, services in the sphere of gambling or software such as antivirus programs as such.
Retailers, like Walmart and Target, buy the product from the manufacturer and sell them directly to the consumer. This channel works best for manufacturers that produce shopping goods like, clothes, shoes, furniture, tableware, and toys. Since consumers need more time with these items before they decide to purchase them, it is in the best interest of the manufacturer to sell them to another user before it gets into the hand of the consumers. It is also a good strategy to use another dealer to get the product to the end - user if the producer needs to get to the market more quickly by using an established network that already has brand loyalty. In accordance with the form of the retail property, operators can be an independent company, owned by a different owner or to engage in the retail network. Intermediaries (retail service) are essential and useful due to its professionalism, an ability to offer products to the target market, using their connections in the industry, experience, the advantages of specialization and the high quality of work. The fact suggests that manufactories produce large goods and products but limited in its assortment and merchandise. However, consumers seek broader assortment in lesser quantities. Therefore, it is highly important to distribute goods from different manufacturers to suit consumers needs and wants. When creating a retail store the efforts that required by buyers when making a purchase are considered. For example, stores that selling everyday consumer goods are conveniently located for residents of the nearby neighborhood. The speed and convenience of service for clients ' interests are put in high priority and suits their schedule. An equally important component of the retail trade are the retail functions that play crucial roles and they include; research of products, implementation of storage, setting of pricing policy, arrangements of products and its selection for the creation of different merchandise assortments, exploration of the condition prevailing in the market. This channel is considered to be beneficial if; the volume of pre-sale and post-sale is insignificant, the amount of segments of the market is not enormous, the assortment of goods and products is broad. Ultimately, the significance of intermediaries in distribution business is vital as they help consumers obtain a particular good of a particular brand without unnecessary steps. Thus, mediators play an important role in establishing a correspondence between demand and supply.
Wholesalers, like Costco, buy the products from the manufacturer and sell them to the consumer. In this channel, consumers can buy products directly from the wholesaler in bulk. By buying the items in bulk from the wholesaler the prices of the product are reduced. This is because the wholesaler takes away extra costs, such as service costs or sales force costs, that customers usually pay when buying from retail; making the price much cheaper for the consumer. However, the wholesaler does not always sell directly to the consumer. Sometimes the wholesaler will go through a retailer before the product gets into the hands of the consumer. Each dealer (the manufacturer, the wholesaler, and the retailer) will be looking to make a decent profit margin from the product. So each time the buyer purchases the merchandise from another source, the price of the product has to increase, in order to maximize the profit each person will receive. This raises the price of the product for the end - user. Due to the simultaneous and joint work of wholesaler and retailer, a trade can only be beneficial if; a market is situated on a larger area, the supply of goods and products is carried out small but urgent consignments (products), it can be cost - effective and profitable by supplying bigger consignments (products) to fewer customers. Industrial factories are in the seek of using advantages of mass production in order to produce and sell big lots (batches) while retailers look and prefer purchasing smaller consignments. This method for factories could lead to instant sales, high efficiency, and cost - effectiveness. Therefore, particularly in these situations wholesaler now plays a role where it reconciles these contradictory aspirations. The wholesaler purchases big lots then divides minimizes after resells them to further retailers. The work of wholesaler facilitates and makes it less burdensome for the transportation of production. Hence, an amount of delivered goods diminishes through the use of this channel (the wholesale). For example, if five manufactories supply goods directly to hundred different retail stores, then they will have to have 500 of deliveries (5 times 100). However, if those five manufactories supply the same wholesaler, and the wholesaler at this stage supplies 100 different retailers, then the total number of deliveries will decrease to 105 (5 plus 100). Another important component to consider in the practice of wholesaling is storage. Storage of goods is one of the characterized aspects of the work of a wholesaler. Wholesaler regulates the deliveries of goods, having synchronized the production and consumption of material goods. Moreover, he as the wholesaler further assumes the financial obligations related to the immobilization of funds invested in the creation of commodity stocks. Although, the chain of transition suggests that the wholesaler directly communicates and deals with a manufacturer may not be unambiguous. The contribution of a distributor is highly acknowledged and plays a crucial role in distributing flows of goods before it gets in the hands of wholesalers, retailers and so on. A distributor is the representative of the manufacturer and performs functions on behalf of the manufacturer for the distribution of goods from producer to wholesaler or retailer. A distributor is always in the seek out for orders from different clients and possesses activeness in promoting producer 's products and services. The main tasks of a distributor are; study the market and the creation of databases of consumers, advertising of goods, an organization of a service for the delivery of goods, stocking up the inventory levels, the creation of a stable sales network, which includes dealers and other intermediaries, depending on the market situation. Distributors scarcely sell a manufactories ' goods directly to customers.
This distribution channel involves more than one intermediary before the product gets into the hands of the consumer. This middleman, known as the agent, assists with the negotiation between the manufacturer and the seller. Agents come into play when the producers need to get their product into the market as quickly as possible. This happens mostly when the item is perishable and has to get to the market fresh before it starts to rot. At times, the agent will directly go to the retailer with the goods, or take an alternate route through the wholesaler who will go to a retailer and then finally to the consumer. A mutual cooperation normally occurs when parties, in particular, the last channel of marketing chain of distribution meet. Due to the fact that producers, agents, retailers / wholesalers and consumers of this channel aid each other and benefit from each other. Their cooperation generates a greater output in terms of further profitability, by discernment and exploring newer markets of sales and building a better business relationship. The participants of distribution channels must have knowledge and experience not only for the effective maintenance of target segments but also to maintain the competitive advantage of the manufacturer. For example, an Agent who is able to vary prices for certain products can negotiate and or lower prices. This will assist him in sustain the comparative advantage, stay on top of its competitors and stay demanded on the market. A Broker works mainly to bring the seller and the buyer and to assist in the negotiation process. An intermediary like Broker is usually dependent on the commission of a sold product or production in terms of goods. In addition, therefore, a Broker is involved in one - off transactions and can not be an effective channel of distribution. However, he can maintain a competitive advantage over other firms in the form of a particular brand if he has obtained the right to exclusive representation of the manufacturer and can profit from it more. He acts on behalf of the seller (Producer / Manufacture) and has no rights to modify prices for products. In addition, having formed a channel of distribution it is important to remember that the exploitation and utilization of intermediaries in a business (not only wholesalers, retailers but also transport logistics) will lengthen the chain of distribution. A business will then need to consider which channel is more cost effective and productive in terms of time delivery, efficiency, pricing policy and where it stands among competitors; for example, overall feedback, higher rating, higher demand from customers etc. The best use and help of intermediaries can be applied to start - up businesses and perhaps an established business
Brands involved in selling through marketing channels (also commonly known as distribution channels) have relationships with the channel partners (local resellers, retailers, field agents, etc.) that sell their products or services to the end customer. Brands that aim to maximize sales through channel partners provide them with advertising and promotional support that is pre-configured and often subsidized by the brand.
Brands carry out online and offline advertising on behalf of channel partners to aid them in generating sales of their branded products. Those online and offline marketing initiatives can either be isolated or coordinated to inform one another.
An example of this is an apple orchard: Apple orchard > Transport > Processing factory > Packaging > Final product to be sold > Apple pie eaten
An alternative term is distribution channel or ' route - to - market '. It is a ' path ' or ' pipeline ' through which goods and services flow in one direction (from vendor to the consumer), and the payments generated by them flow in the opposite direction (from consumer to the vendor). A marketing channel can be as short as being direct from the vendor to the consumer or may include several inter-connected (usually independent but mutually dependent) intermediaries such as wholesalers, distributors, agents, retailers. Each intermediary receives the item at one pricing point and moves it to the next higher pricing point until it reaches the final buyer.
Marketing Channels can be long term or short term.
Short term channels are influenced by market factors such as: business users, geographically concentrated, extensive technical knowledge and regular servicing required, and large orders. Short term product are influenced by factors such as: perishable, complex, and expensive. Short term producer factors include whether the manufacturer has adequate resources to perform channel functions, Broad product line, and channel control is important. Short term competitive factors include: manufacturing feels satisfied with marketing intermediaries ' performance in promoting products.
Long term market factors include consumers, geographically dispersed, little technical knowledge and regular servicing is not required, and small orders. Product factors for long term marketing channels are: durable, standardized, and inexpensive. Producer factors are manufacturer lacks adequate resources to perform channel functions, limited product line, and channel control not important. The competitive factors are: manufacturer feels dissatisfied with marketing intermediaries ' performance in promoting products
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where do you measure the long jump from | Long jump - wikipedia
The long jump (historically called the broad jump in the USA) is a track and field event in which athletes combine speed, strength and agility in an attempt to leap as far as possible from a take off point. Along with the triple jump, the two events that measure jumping for distance as a group are referred to as the "horizontal jumps ''. This event has a history in the Ancient Olympic Games and has been a modern Olympic event for men since the first Olympics in 1896 and for women since 1948.
At the elite level, competitors run down a runway (usually coated with the same rubberized surface as running tracks, crumb rubber also vulcanized rubber -- known generally as an all - weather track) and jump as far as they can from a wooden board 20 cm or 8 inches wide that is built flush with the runway into a pit filled with finely ground gravel or sand. If the competitor starts the leap with any part of the foot past the foul line, the jump is declared a foul and no distance is recorded. A layer of plasticine is placed immediately after the board to detect this occurrence. An official (similar to a referee) will also watch the jump and make the determination. The competitor can initiate the jump from any point behind the foul line; however, the distance measured will always be perpendicular to the foul line to the nearest break in the sand caused by any part of the body or uniform. Therefore, it is in the best interest of the competitor to get as close to the foul line as possible. Competitors are allowed to place two marks along the side of the runway in order to assist them to jump accurately. At a lesser meet and facilities, the plasticine will likely not exist, the runway might be a different surface or jumpers may initiate their jump from a painted or taped mark on the runway. At a smaller meet, the number of attempts might also be limited to four or three.
Each competitor has a set number of attempts. That would normally be three trials, with three additional jumps being awarded to the best 8 or 9 (depending on the number of lanes on the track at that facility, so the event is equatable to track events) competitors. All legal marks will be recorded but only the longest legal jump counts towards the results. The competitor with the longest legal jump (from either the trial or final rounds) at the end of competition is declared the winner. In the event of an exact tie, then comparing the next best jumps of the tied competitors will be used to determine place. In a large, multi-day elite competition (like the Olympics or World Championships), a set number of competitors will advance to the final round, determined in advance by the meet management. A set of 3 trial round jumps will be held in order to select those finalists. It is standard practice to allow at a minimum, one more competitor than the number of scoring positions to return to the final round, though 12 plus ties and automatic qualifying distances are also potential factors. (For specific rules and regulations in United States Track & Field see Rule 185).
For record purposes, the maximum accepted wind assistance is two metres per second (m / s) (4.5 mph).
The long jump is the only known jumping event of Ancient Greece 's original Olympics ' pentathlon events. All events that occurred at the Olympic Games were initially supposed to act as a form of training for warfare. The long jump emerged probably because it mirrored the crossing of obstacles such as streams and ravines. After investigating the surviving depictions of the ancient event it is believed that unlike the modern event, athletes were only allowed a short running start. The athletes carried a weight in each hand, which were called halteres (between 1 and 4.5 kg). These weights were swung forward as the athlete jumped in order to increase momentum. It was commonly believed that the jumper would throw the weights behind him in midair to increase his forward momentum; however, halteres were held throughout the duration of the jump. Swinging them down and back at the end of the jump would change the athlete 's center of gravity and allow the athlete to stretch his legs outward, increasing his distance. The jump itself was made from the bater ("that which is trod upon ''). It was most likely a simple board placed on the stadium track which was removed after the event. The jumpers would land in what was called a skamma ("dug - up '' area). The idea that this was a pit full of sand is wrong. Sand in the jumping pit is a modern invention. The skamma was simply a temporary area dug up for that occasion and not something that remained over time.
The long jump was considered one of the most difficult of the events held at the Games since a great deal of skill was required. Music was often played during the jump and Philostratus says that pipes at times would accompany the jump so as to provide a rhythm for the complex movements of the halteres by the athlete. Philostratus is quoted as saying, "The rules regard jumping as the most difficult of the competitions, and they allow the jumper to be given advantages in rhythm by the use of the flute, and in weight by the use of the halter. '' Most notable in the ancient sport was a man called Chionis, who in the 656 BC Olympics staged a jump of 7.05 metres (23 feet and 1.7 inches).
There has been some argument by modern scholars over the long jump. Some have attempted to recreate it as a triple jump. The images provide the only evidence for the action so it is more well received that it was much like today 's long jump. The main reason some want to call it a triple jump is the presence of a source that claims there once was a fifty - five ancient foot jump done by a man named Phayllos.
The long jump has been part of modern Olympic competition since the inception of the Games in 1896. In 1914, Dr. Harry Eaton Stewart recommended the "running broad jump '' as a standardized track and field event for women. However, it was not until 1948 that the women 's long jump was added to the Olympic athletics programme.
There are five main components of the long jump: the approach run, the last two strides, takeoff, action in the air, and landing. Speed in the run - up, or approach, and a high leap off the board are the fundamentals of success. Because speed is such an important factor of the approach, it is not surprising that many long jumpers also compete successfully in sprints. A classic example of this long jump / sprint doubling are performances by Carl Lewis.
The objective of the approach is to gradually accelerate to a maximum controlled speed at takeoff. The most important factor for the distance travelled by an object is its velocity at takeoff -- both the speed and angle. Elite jumpers usually leave the ground at an angle of twenty degrees or less; therefore, it is more beneficial for a jumper to focus on the speed component of the jump. The greater the speed at takeoff, the longer the trajectory of the center of mass will be. The importance of a takeoff speed is a factor in the success of sprinters in this event.
The length of the approach is usually consistent distance for an athlete. Approaches can vary between 12 and 19 strides on the novice and intermediate levels, while at the elite level they are closer to between 20 and 22 strides. The exact distance and number of strides in an approach depends on the jumper 's experience, sprinting technique, and conditioning level. Consistency in the approach is important as it is the competitor 's objective to get as close to the front of the takeoff board as possible without crossing the line with any part of the foot.
Inconsistent approaches are a common problem in the event. As a result, the approach is usually practiced by athletes about 6 -- 8 times per jumping session (see Training below).
The objective of the last two strides is to prepare the body for takeoff while conserving as much speed as possible.
The penultimate stride is longer than the last stride. The competitor begins to lower his or her center of gravity to prepare the body for the vertical impulse. The final stride is shorter because the body is beginning to raise the center of gravity in preparation for takeoff.
The last two strides are extremely important because they determine the velocity with which the competitor will enter the jump.
The objective of the takeoff is to create a vertical impulse through the athlete 's center of gravity while maintaining balance and control.
This phase is one of the most technical parts of the long jump. Jumpers must be conscious to place the foot flat on the ground, because jumping off either the heels or the toes negatively affects the jump. Taking off from the board heel - first has a braking effect, which decreases velocity and strains the joints. Jumping off the toes decreases stability, putting the leg at risk of buckling or collapsing from underneath the jumper. While concentrating on foot placement, the athlete must also work to maintain proper body position, keeping the torso upright and moving the hips forward and up to achieve the maximum distance from board contact to foot release.
There are four main styles of takeoff: the kick style, double - arm style, sprint takeoff, and the power sprint or bounding takeoff.
The kick style takeoff is where the athlete actively cycles the leg before a full impulse has been directed into the board then landing into the pit. This requires great strength in the hamstrings. This causes the jumper to jump to large distances.
The double - arm style of takeoff works by moving both arms in a vertical direction as the competitor takes off. This produces a high hip height and a large vertical impulse.
The sprint takeoff is the style most widely instructed by coaching staff. This is a classic single - arm action that resembles a jumper in full stride. It is an efficient takeoff style for maintaining velocity through takeoff.
The power sprint takeoff, or bounding takeoff, is one of the more common elite styles. Very similar to the sprint style, the body resembles a sprinter in full stride. However, there is one major difference. The arm that pushes back on takeoff (the arm on the side of the takeoff leg) fully extends backward, rather than remaining at a bent position. This additional extension increases the impulse at takeoff.
The "correct '' style of takeoff will vary from athlete to athlete.
There are three major flight techniques for the long jump: the hang, the sail, and the hitch - kick. Each technique is to combat the forward rotation experienced from take - off but is basically down to preference from the athlete. It is important to note that once the body is airborne, there is nothing that the athlete can do to change the direction they are traveling and consequently where they are going to land in the pit. However, it can be argued that certain techniques influence an athlete 's landing, which can affect the distance measured. For example, if an athlete lands feet first but falls back because they are not correctly balanced, a lower distance will be measured.
In the 1970s some jumpers used a forward somersault, including Tuariki Delamere who used it at the 1974 NCAA Championships, and who matched the jump of the current Olympic champion Randy Williams. The somersault jump has potential to produce longer jumps than other techniques because in the flip, no power is lost countering forward momentum, and it reduces wind resistance in the air. The front flip jump was subsequently banned due to fear of it being unsafe.
The long jump generally requires training in a variety of areas. These areas include: speed work, jumping, over distance running, weight training, plyometric training.
Speed work is essentially short distance speed training where the athlete would be running at top or near top speeds. The distances for this type of work would vary between indoor and outdoor season but are usually around 30 -- 60 m for indoors and up to 100 m for outdoors.
Long Jumpers tend to practice jumping 1 -- 2 times a week. Approaches, or run - throughs, are repeated sometimes up to 6 -- 8 times per session. Short approach jumps are common for jumpers to do, as it allows for them to work on specific technical aspects of their jumps in a controlled environment. Using equipment such as low hurdles and other obstacles are common in long jump training, as it helps the jumper maintain and hold phases of their jump. As a common rule, it is important for the jumper to engage in full approach jumps at least once a week, as it will prepare the jumper for competition.
Over-distance running workouts helps the athlete jump a further distance than their set goal. For example, having a 100 m runner practice by running 200 m repeats on a track. This is specifically concentrated in the season when athletes are working on building endurance. Specific over-distance running workouts are performed 1 -- 2 times a week. This is great for building sprint endurance, which is required in competitions where the athlete is sprinting down the runway 3 -- 6 times. Typical workouts would include 5 × 150 m. Preseason workouts may be longer, including workouts like 6 × 300 m
During pre-season training and early in the competition season weight training tends to play a major role in the sport. It is customary for a long jumper to weight train up to 4 times a week, focusing mainly on quick movements involving the legs and trunk. Some athletes perform Olympic lifts in training. Athletes use low repetition and emphasize speed to maximize the strength increase while minimizing adding additional weight to their frame. Important lifts for a long jumper include the back squat, front squat, power cleans and hang cleans. The emphasis on these lifts should be on speed and explosive as those are crucial in the long jump take off phase.
Plyometrics, including running up and down stairs and hurdle bounding, can be incorporated into workouts, generally twice a week. This allows an athlete to work on agility and explosiveness. Other plyometric workouts that are common for long jumpers are box jumps. Boxes of various heights are set up spaced evenly apart and jumpers can proceed jumping onto them and off moving in a forward direction. They can vary the jumps from both legs to single jumps. Alternatively, they can set up the boxes in front of a high jump mat if allowed, and jump over a high jump bar onto the mat mimicking a landing phase of the jump. These plyometric workouts are typically performed at the end of a workout.
Bounding is any sort of continuous jumping or leaping. Bounding drills usually require single leg bounding, double - leg bounding, or some variation of the two. The focus of bounding drills is usually to spend as little time on the ground as possible and working on technical accuracy, fluidity, and jumping endurance and strength. Technically, bounding is part of plyometrics, as a form of a running exercise such as high knees and butt kicks.
Flexibility is an often forgotten tool for long jumpers. Effective flexibility prevents injury, which can be important for high - impact events such as the long jump. It also helps the athlete sprint down the runway. Hip and groin injuries are common for long jumpers who may neglect proper warm - up and stretching.
Hurdle mobility drills are a common way that jumpers improve flexibility. Common hurdle drills include setting up about 5 -- 7 hurdles at appropriate heights and having athletes walk over them in a continuous fashion. Other variations of hurdle mobility drills are used as well, including hurdle skips. This is a crucial part of a jumper 's training since they perform most exercises for a very short period of time and often are n't aware of their form and technique. A common tool in many long jump workouts is the use of video taping. This enables the athlete to go back and watch their own progress as well as letting the athlete compare their own footage to that of some of the world - class jumpers.
Training styles, duration, and intensity vary immensely from athlete to athlete and are based on the experience and strength of the athlete as well as on their coaching style.
Track and field events have been selected as a main motif in numerous collectors ' coins. One of the recent samples is the € 10 Greek Long Jump commemorative coin, minted in 2003 to commemorate the 2004 Summer Olympics. The obverse of the coin portrays a modern athlete at the moment he is touching the ground, while the ancient athlete in the background is shown while starting off his jump, as he is seen on a black - figure vase of the 5th century BC.
The long jump world record has been held by just four individuals for the majority of its existence. The first record ratified by the IAAF in 1901, by Peter O'Connor stood just short of 20 years. After it was broken in 1921, the record changed hands six times until Jesse Owens set the record at the 1935 Big Ten track meet in Ann Arbor, Michigan of 8.13 m (26 ft 8 in) that was not broken for 25 years and 2 months, until 1960 by Ralph Boston. Boston improved upon it and exchanged records with Igor Ter - Ovanesyan seven times over the next seven years. At the 1968 Summer Olympics Bob Beamon jumped 8.90 m (29 ft 2 ⁄ in) at an altitude of 7,349 feet (2,240 m), a jump not exceeded for 23 years, and which remains the second longest legal jump of all time. On 30 August 1991 Mike Powell of the United States set the current men 's world record at the World Championships in Tokyo. It was in a well - known show down against Carl Lewis, who also beat Beamon 's record that day but with an aiding wind (thus not legal for record purposes). Powell 's record 8.95 m (29 ft 4 ⁄ in) has now stood for more than 26 years.
Some jumps over 8.95 m (29 ft 4 ⁄ in) have been officially recorded. 8.99 m (29 ft 5 ⁄ in) was recorded by Mike Powell himself (wind - aided + 4.4) set at high altitude in Sestriere, Italy in 1992. A potential world record of 8.96 m (29 ft 4 ⁄ in) was recorded by Iván Pedroso, with a "legal '' wind reading also at Sestriere, but the jump was not validated because videotape revealed someone was standing in front of the wind gauge, invalidating the reading (and costing Pedroso a Ferrari valued at $130,000 -- the prize for breaking the record at that meet). Lewis himself jumped 8.91 m moments before Powell 's record - breaking jump with the wind exceeding the maximum allowed. This jump remains the longest ever not to win an Olympic or World Championship gold medal, or any competition in general.
The women 's world record has seen much more consistent improvement except for the current record. The longest to hold the record prior was by Fanny Blankers - Koen during World War II. There have been three days where the record was tied or improved upon twice in the same competition. That record stood for just over 10 years. The current world record for women is held by Galina Chistyakova of the former Soviet Union who leapt 7.52 m (24 ft 8 in) in Leningrad on 11 June 1988, a mark that has stood for over 29 years.
Below is a list of all other legal jumps equal or superior to 8.71 m:
Below is a list of all other legal jumps equal or superior to 7.40 m:
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who won the pikes peak hill climb this year | Pikes Peak International Hill Climb - Wikipedia
The Pikes Peak International Hill Climb (PPIHC), also known as The Race to the Clouds, is an annual automobile and motorcycle hillclimb to the summit of Pikes Peak in Colorado, USA. The track measures 12.42 miles (19.99 km) over 156 turns, climbing 4,720 ft (1,440 m) from the start at Mile 7 on Pikes Peak Highway, to the finish at 14,110 ft (4,300 m), on grades averaging 7.2 %. It used to consist of both gravel and paved sections, however as of August 2011, the highway is fully paved and as a result all subsequent events will be run on asphalt from start to finish.
The race is self sanctioned and has taken place since 1916. It is currently contested by a variety of classes of cars, trucks, motorcycles and quads. There are often numerous new classes tried and discarded year - to - year. On average there are 130 competitors. The PPIHC operates as the Pikes Peak Auto Hill Climb Educational Museum to organize the annual motorsports event.
The first Pikes Peak Hill Climb was promoted by Spencer Penrose, who had converted the narrow carriage road into the much wider Pikes Peak Highway.
The first Penrose Trophy was awarded in 1916 to Rea Lentz with a time of 20: 55.60. In the same year Floyd Clymer won the motorcycle class with a time of 21: 58.41. In 1924 the final Penrose Trophy was awarded to Otto Loesche in his Lexington Special. In the years following, Glen Scultz and Louis Unser shared a rivalry and won the event 12 times between them. In 1929 the popular stock car class was added to the event.
Following world war two, Louis Unser returned to his winning ways at Pikes Peak, winning a further three more times between 1946 and 1970, these wins were tightly contended with rival Al Rogers. During this time the event was part of the AAA and USAC IndyCar championship. In 1953, the SCCA sponsors the event, bringing with it an influx of sports cars. In this period the course record was broken every year from 1953 until 1962, this is the largest string of record breaking runs in the event 's history. The majority of these records were set by Bobby Unser, the younger brother of Louis. In 1954 motorcycles return to the event, the first time since its inception 1916. The motorcycle overall victory that year went to Bill Meier riding a Harley - Davidson.
In 1971 the event was won by the first non-gasoline vehicle (propane), this was also the first overall victory from the stock car class (1970 Ford Mustang), the car was driven by the Danish - American Ak Miller.
In 1984 the first European racers took part in the PPIHC with Norwegian Rallycrosser Martin Schanche (Ford Escort Mk3 4x4) and French Rally driver Michèle Mouton (Audi Sport quattro), thereby starting a new era for European teams in the almost unknown American hillclimb. While Schanche failed to set a new track record, due to a flat right front tire, Mouton (together with her World Rally Championship co-driver Fabrizia Pons from Italy) won the Open Rally category, but failed to win the event overall. Mouton achieved the overall victory and course record in the following year.
In 1989, an award - winning short film about the 1988 event was released by French director Jean - Louis Mourey. The film, titled Climb Dance, captured the efforts of Finnish former World Rally Champion Ari Vatanen, as he won the event in a record - breaking time with his turbocharged Peugeot 405 Turbo - 16.
The City of Colorado Springs began to pave the highway in 2002 after losing a lawsuit against the Sierra Club, which sued on account of erosion damage to streams, reservoirs, vegetation and wetlands downstream from the 1.5 million tons of road gravel deposited over several decades. The local authority paved approximately 10 % of the route each year after the order. The 2011 event was the last race with dirt sections, comprising approximately 25 % of the course.
During this evolutionary period of the event, the Japanese driver Nobuhiro Tajima with Suzuki cars scored 6 overall victories (2006 - 2011) and two course records. His 2011 record was the first to break the 10 minute barrier.
Hill Climb champion Rod Millen warned at the time that paving the road would put an end to the race. However, the 2012 race saw over 170 racer registrations by December 2011, compared with 46 at the same time the previous year.
The 90th running of the event happened in 2012 and saw a larger field and a longer race day than ever before. This was the first time the race has been run on all asphalt leading to the breaking of several records, notably the overall record, which fell numerous times during the event finally falling to Rhys Millen the son of previous event winner Rod Millen, in the Time Attack Division. During the event Mike Ryan spun his big rig in a hairpin in a section called the "W '' s, hitting the guard rail, he then managed to execute a three - point turn and continued on course, at which point he broke his old record by 5 seconds. This highlighted the change that a fully paved course made to the speed of the event. The 2012 event also saw the first motorcycle to achieve a sub 10 minute time with Carlin Dunne in the 1205 Division riding a Ducati with a time of 9: 52.819 which was only 1.5 seconds slower than the previous year 's overall record.
2013 saw the nine - minute barrier shattered by WRC legend Sébastien Loeb, with a time of 8: 13.878, while Rhys Millen ended up second with 9: 02.192, beating his own record by more than 44 seconds. Jean - Philippe Dayrault finished third with a time of 9: 42.740, and Paul Dallenbach fourth with a time of 9: 46.001, making it four drivers to beat the overall record set only the previous year.
Electric cars have featured on and off in the PPIHC since the early 1980s. In 1981 Joe Ball took a Sears Electric Car to the top in 32: 07: 410, in 1994 Katy Endicott brought her Honda to the top in 15: 44.710 and in 2013 Nobuhiro Tajima broke the 10 minute barrier with a time of 9: 46.530 in his E-RUNNER Pikes Peak Special. In the following years electric entries would become more common, steadily breaking their powertrain records and eventually the overall record in 2018.
For hill - climb events and this event in particular it is reasonable to suggest that a modern, well designed electric car will be at an advantage over internal combustion engined cars. The issue of limited range does not apply to short sprints and the twisty nature of the Pikes Peak course lends itself well to the almost instant torque delivery of electric motors. In addition to this, the lowering air density of high altitudes does not reduce the power available to the driver as it does with air breathing engines.
Although the 2014 event was won by a gasoline powered car; second (Greg Tracy), third (Hiroshi Masuoka) and fourth (Nobuhiro Tajima) places overall were taken by electric cars. In 2015, electric cars placed first (Rhys Millen) and second (Nobuhiro Tajima) overall. In an interview with Rhys Millen, he said that he had lost power to the car 's rear motor pack before the halfway point. Had this not happened he had expected his run to be 30 seconds faster. In 2016 gasoline again took top honours but electric completed the podium taking second (Rhys Millen) and third (Tetsuya Yamano) as well as fifth (Nobuhiro Tajima) places overall.
At the 2018 event, an electric car set a new overall record for the first time in the event 's history. Frenchman Romain Dumas completed the course in the all - electric Volkswagen I.D. R with a time of 7: 57.148.
The Pikes Peak International Hill climb consists of seven divisions incorporating twelve classes for both cars and motorcycles. An additional four special record classes consisting of former classes are defined in the appendix.
Unlimited Division
Time Attack Division
A division for production based two and four wheel drive vehicles. Only closed cockpit four - wheeled vehicles are allowed to participate.
Pikes Peak Challenge Car Division
Established in 2014, the Pikes Peak Challenge Division encompasses a wide variety of class options.
Pikes Peak Heavyweight Division
Pikes Peak Middleweight Division
Pikes Peak Lightweight Division
Pikes Peak Challenge Motorcycle Division
Established is 2014, the Pikes Peak Challenge Motorcycle Division encompasses a wide variety of class options.
Time Attack 2 Production Record
Vintage Car Record
Sidecar Record
Vintage Motorcycle Record
Below follows all currently recognised records. Records set during the most recent running of the event are in bold type.
The Pikes Peak International Hill Climb is an event run by both cars and motorcycles. The overall honours have always fallen to vehicles in car divisions, however motorcycles have their own divisions, records and winners. Cars have entered the event every year since its inception in 1916 (with the exception of years during the world wars) whereas motorcycles have only entered in a limited number of years.
Overall winners can compete under any class of cars or motorcycles, although the majority come from the open wheel and more recently the unlimited classes. A time in italics indicates this was a previous course record, a time in bold indicates the current course record.
Motorcycle winners can compete under any class, although the majority come from open or large displacement classes. A time in italics indicates this was a previous motorcycle record, a time in bold indicates the current motorcycle record.
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what does it mean to smog a car | California smog check program - wikipedia
The California Smog Check Program requires vehicles that were manufactured in 1976 or later to participate in the biennial (every two years) smog check program in participating counties. The program 's stated aim is to reduce air pollution from vehicles by ensuring that cars with excessive emissions are repaired in accordance with federal and state guidelines. With some exceptions, gasoline - powered vehicles that are six years old or newer are not required to participate; instead, these vehicles pay a smog abatement fee for the first 6 years in place of being required to pass a smog check. The six - year exception does not apply to nonresident (previously registered out - of - state) vehicles being registered in California for the first time, diesel vehicles 1998 model or newer and weighing 14,000 lbs or less, or specially constructed vehicles 1976 and newer. The program is a joint effort between the California Air Resources Board, the California Bureau of Automotive Repair, and the California Department of Motor Vehicles.
A Smog Check is not required for electric, diesel powered manufactured before 1998 or weighing over 14,000 lbs, trailers, motorcycles, or gasoline powered vehicles 1975 or older. In April 2015, hybrid vehicles became subject to smog check requirements.
Although vehicles 1975 and older are not required to get a smog check, owners of these vehicles must still ensure that their emissions systems are intact.
Anyone wishing to sell a vehicle that is over four years old must first have a smog check performed. It is the seller 's responsibility to get the smog certificate prior to the sale. If the vehicle is registered in California and was acquired from a spouse, domestic partner, sibling, child, parent, grandparent, or grandchild it is exempt.
According to the California EPA, "Californians set the pace nationwide in their love affair with cars ''. The state 's 34 million residents own approximately 25 million cars -- one for every adult aged 18 years or older.
Smog is created when nitrogen oxides (NOx) and hydrocarbon gases (HC) are exposed to sunlight. The five gasses monitored during a smog check are Hydrocarbons (HC), Carbon Monoxide (CO), Nitrogen Oxides (NOx), Carbon Dioxide (CO2), and Oxygen (O2).
In 1998 the Air Resource Board identified diesel particulate matter as carcinogenic. Further research revealed that it can cause life - shortening health problems such as respiratory illness, heart problems, asthma, and cancer. Diesel particulate matter is the most common airborne toxin that Californians breathe.
Between 2005 and 2007 air pollution led to almost 30,000 hospital and emergency room visits in California for asthma, pneumonia, and other respiratory and cardiovascular ailments. A study by RAND Corporation showed the cost to the state, federal and private health insurers was over $193 million in hospital - based medical care. John Romley lead author of the study. said "California 's failure to meet air pollution standards causes a large amount of expensive hospital care. '' According to the American Lung Association, California 's dirty air causes 19,000 premature deaths, 9,400 hospitalizations and more than 300,000 respiratory illnesses including asthma and acute bronchitis.
A study of children living in Southern California found that smog can cause asthma. The study of over 3,000 children showed those living in high - smog areas were more likely to develop asthma if they were avid athletes, when compared to children who did not participate in sports.
More people in California live in areas that do not meet federal clean air standards than in any other state. A report by the American Lung Association states that some areas in California are the most polluted in the United States, with air quality that is likely damaging the health of millions of people. The report finds that Los Angeles, Bakersfield (CA), and Visalia - Porterville (CA) rank among the five U.S. cities most polluted with particulates and ozone.
Carbon dioxide (CO2) is a greenhouse gas that is associated with global warming. Vehicles are a significant source of CO2 emissions and thus contribute to global warming. According to an advocacy group Environmental Defense, in 2004, automobiles from the three largest automakers in the US -- Ford, GM, and DaimlerChrysler -- contributed CO2 emissions that were comparable to those from the top 11 electric companies.
Historically, California was hottest in July and August, but as climate change takes place, the temperature may be extended from July through September, according to a report from the team established by the Air Resource Board. Some climate change simulations indicate the global warming impact on California will be an increase in the frequency of hot daytime and nighttime temperatures. The climate change simulations also indicate that drying in the Sacramento area may be evident by the mid 21st century. The California sea level has risen at about 7 inches per century, but this trend could change with global warming. According to the report by the Climate Action Team, "(t) he sea - level rise projections in the 2008 Impacts Assessment indicate that the rate and total sea - level rise in future decades may increase substantially above the recent historical rates ''. While all sectors are vulnerable to rising sea - levels, 70 percent of those at risk are residential areas. Hospitals, schools, water treatment plants, and other buildings may be at risk of flooding.
Climate change may also affect California 's diverse agricultural sector, since it is likely to change precipitation, temperature averages, pest and weed ranges, and the length of the growing season (this affecting crop productivity). In one study, researchers looked at the possible effects on the agricultural sector in the US and identified some possible effects. Results suggested that climate change will decrease annual crop yields in the long - term, especially for cotton.
Climate change in California could also impact energy consumption. Demand patterns for electricity might be affected as the mean temperatures and the frequency of hot days increases, increasing demand for cooling in summertime.
Air pollution has two primary sources, biogenic and anthropogenic. Biogenic sources are natural sources, such as volcanoes that spew particulate matter, lightning strikes that cause forest fires, and trees and other vegetation that release pollen and spores into the atmosphere.
Californian greenhouse gas emissions come mostly from transportation, utilities, and industries including refineries, cement, manufacturing, forestry, and agriculture. In 2004, transportation accounted for approximately 40 percent of total greenhouse gas emissions in California. About 80 percent of that came from road transportation.
Population growth increases air pollution, as more vehicles are on the road. California 's large population significantly contributes to the high amount of smog and air pollution in the state. In 1930, California 's population was less than six million people and the total registered vehicles were two million.
California has a unique topography which contributes to some of the problems; the warm, sunny climate is ideal for trapping and forming air pollutants. On hot, sunny days, pollutants from vehicles, industry, and many products may chemically react with each other. In the winter, temperature inversions can trap tiny particles of smoke and exhaust from vehicles and anything else that burns fuel. This keeps pollution closer to the ground.
The first "Smog Check '' program was implemented in March 1984. It came about as a result of "SB 33 '' which was passed in 1982. The program included a biennial and change of ownership testing, "BAR 84 '' idle emissions test plus a visual and functional inspection of various emission control components, a $50 repair cost limit, licensing shops to perform smog checks and mechanic certification for emissions repair competence. The program is generally known as "BAR 84 '' program. During the BAR 84 program, the first acceleration simulation mode (ASM) test was implemented which tests for 2 gases, HC and CO (hydrocarbons and carbon monoxide).
Motor vehicles from the 1966 model year and beyond were subjected to Smog Check I. Also automobiles with a motor swap performed prior to the March 19, 1984 mandate which was older than the model year of the vehicle e.g. a 1970 LT - 1 350 swapped into a 1975 Chevrolet with the 1970 smog gear intact (with documentation e.g. receipts) are considered noncompliant illegal engine swaps including nonstock exhaust swaps e.g. dual catalytic converters with a true dual exhaust not original to the vehicle - this means that the engine swap performed after the date of enactment must be the same model year or newer. Engine swaps which are the same year or newer where the vehicle class did not have it as a manufacturer option (from a Chevrolet S - 10 with a late model LSx powertrain transplant with the associated smog gear intact salvaged from the donor vehicle which includes the OBDII diagnostic connections and associated exhaust system with the catalytic converter attached including the secondary downstream oxygen sensor (catalytic converter must be California legal which has a serial number and build date mandated under California state law) must be approved by a ' referee ' smog test station where the engine / transmission package is certified where a silver tag is stickered to the door jamb. Although the engine may be newer than the vehicle model year even with an OBDII upgrade the automobile must be tested based on the model year using the test criteria based on the VIN and registration. This means that even with an OBDII powertrain upgrade regardless of the engine swap being 1996 and newer, the vehicle being smogged must be tested using BAR97 criteria, not the OBDII standard procedure.
In 1997 important laws were passed that made significant changes to Smog Check II.
In 1999, "AB 1105 '' made additional changes to the program. It authorized but did not require the Bureau of Automotive Repairs (BAR) to exempt vehicles up to six years old from the biennial smog check and gave the agency authorization to except additional vehicles by low - emitter profiling (Schwartz). It also created additional changes to the repair assistance program and provided BAR with increased flexibility for how much to pay drivers whose vehicle failed the smog check so that the vehicle may be scrapped.
In 2010 the Air Resource Board and the Bureau of Automotive Repair jointly sponsored legislation, "AB 2289 '', that is designed to improve the program to reduce air pollution through "the use of new technologies that provide considerable time and cost savings to consumers while at the same time improving consumer protections by adopting more stringent fine structures to respond to stations and technicians that perform improper and incomplete inspections ''. The bill, which passed and took effect in 2013, will allow for a major upgrade in technologies used to test vehicle emissions. According to ARB Chairman, Mary D. Nichols, "(t) his new and improved program will have the same result as taking 800,000 vehicles away from California residents, also resulting in a more cost effective program for California motorists ''. One way the program would reduce costs is by taking advantage of on - board diagnostic (OBDII) technology that has been installed on new vehicles since 1996. The program will eliminate tailpipe testing of post-1999 vehicles and instead use the vehicle 's own emissions monitoring systems. This system has saved consumers in 22 states time and money. Vehicles manufactured in the model years between 1976 and 1999 are now required to pass a more stringent dynamometer - based tail - pipe test than was previously required. A high number of vehicles in this range have begun to fail the emissions test with the arrival of their first test - year under the new rule; some question the influence of the automotive industry on the new rule and the inherent push and perceived unfair requirement to purchase a new or near - new vehicle to replace an otherwise functional and OBDII compliant vehicle.
The Department of Motor Vehicles (DMV) sends a registration renewal notice which indicates if a smog check is required. If the DMV requires a smog check for a vehicle, the owner must comply with the notice within 90 days and provide a completed smog check certificate.
A smog check inspection is performed by a station that has been licensed by the California Bureau of Automotive Repair (BAR). Depending on the situation, the owner may be required to take the vehicle to one of the following types of smog check stations:
Until a smog certificate can be provided registration will not be renewed. If the vehicle fails the smog check, the owner will be required to complete all necessary repairs and pass a smog check retest in order to complete the registration. If the costs of repairing the vehicle outweigh its value, the state may buy it and have it scrapped. The buyback program is part of California 's Consumer Assistance Program (CAP) that also offers consumer assistance for repairs related to smog check. The program is administered by the Bureau of Automotive Repair.
Air is susceptible to the Tragedy of the Commons, but that can be overcome with policy tools. In their book Environmental Law and Policy, Salzman and Thompson describe these policy tools as the "5 P 's '' - Prescriptive Regulation, Property Rights, Penalties, Payments, and Persuasion.
Throughout the years there have been some tensions between the US EPA and the California EPA with disagreements centered on California 's Smog Check Policy (The Press - Enterprise, 1997). One disagreement has been over where smog checks are performed. The EPA believes that smog checks and smog repairs must be done separately, to avoid conflicts of interest.
For years, California has been asking the US EPA to approve a waiver allowing it to enforce its own greenhouse gas emission standards for new motor vehicles. A request was made in December 2005, but denied in March 2008 under the Bush administration, when interpretations of the Clean Air Act found California did not have the need for special emission standards. However, shortly after taking office, president Obama asked the EPA to assess if it was appropriate to deny the waiver and subsequently allowed the waiver. US EPA 's interpretation of the Clean Air Act allows California to have its own vehicle emissions program and set greenhouse gas standards due to the state 's unique need.
Car manufacturers have been strongly opposed to the emission standards set by California, arguing that regulation imposes further costs on consumers. In 2004, California approved the world 's most stringent standards to reduce auto emissions, and the auto industry threatened to challenge the regulations in court. The new regulations required car makers to cut exhaust from cars and light trucks by 25 % and from larger trucks and SUVs by 18 %, standards that must be met by 2016. The auto industry argued that California 's Air Resource Board did not have the authority to adopt such regulation and that the new standards could not be met with the current technology. They further argued that it would raise vehicle costs by as much as $3,000. The agency, however, countered that argument by saying that the additional costs would only be about $1,000 by 2016.
The Obama administration has proposed setting a national standard for greenhouse gas emissions from vehicles, which could potentially increase fuel efficiency by an average of 5 % per year from 2012 to 2016.
According to the California Air Resources Board, the California Smog Check program removes about 400 tons of smog - forming pollutants from California 's air every day.
On March 12, 2009, the Bureau of Automotive Repair and the Air Resource Board hired Sierra Research, Inc. to analyze the data collected in the BAR 's Roadside Inspection Program to evaluate the effectiveness of the Smog Check Program from data collected in 2003 -- 2006. Under the Roadside Inspection Program vehicles are randomly inspected at checkpoints set up by the California Highway Patrol (CHP). One objective of the evaluation was to compare the post smog check performance of pre-1996 (1974 -- 1995) vehicles to the post smog check performance determined from a previous evaluation collected in 2000 -- 2002. The report made several recommendations to reduce the number of vehicles failing the Roadside test. One was to develop a method for evaluating station performance. The other was to perform inspections immediately following certifications at smog check stations. Finally, the report recommended continued use of the Roadside test to evaluate the effectiveness of the Smog Check program.
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the girl with the dragon tattoo movie synopsis | The Girl with the Dragon Tattoo (2011 film) - wikipedia
The Girl with the Dragon Tattoo is a 2011 psychological thriller film based on the 2005 novel of the same name by Stieg Larsson. This film adaptation was directed by David Fincher and written by Steven Zaillian. Starring Daniel Craig as journalist Mikael Blomkvist and Rooney Mara as Lisbeth Salander, it tells the story of Blomkvist 's investigation to find out what happened to a woman from a wealthy family who disappeared 40 years prior. He recruits the help of Salander, a computer hacker.
Sony Pictures Entertainment began development on the film in 2009. It took the company a few months to obtain the rights to the novel, while recruiting Zaillian and David Fincher. The casting process for the lead roles was exhaustive and intense; Craig faced scheduling conflicts, and a number of actresses were sought for the role of Lisbeth Salander. The script took over six months to write, which included three months of analyzing the novel.
Critics gave the film favorable reviews, praising its bleak tone and lauding Craig and Mara 's performances. With a production budget of $90 million the film grossed $232.6 million worldwide. The film was chosen by National Board of Review as one of the top ten films of 2011 and was a candidate for numerous awards, winning, among others, the Academy Award for Best Film Editing, while Mara 's performance earned her an Academy Award nomination for Best Actress.
In Stockholm, Sweden, divorced journalist Mikael Blomkvist (Daniel Craig), co-owner of Millennium magazine, has lost a libel case brought against him by businessman Hans - Erik Wennerström (Ulf Friberg). Lisbeth Salander (Rooney Mara), a brilliant but troubled investigator and hacker, compiles an extensive background check on Blomkvist for business magnate Henrik Vanger (Christopher Plummer), who has a special task for him. In exchange for the promise of damning information about Wennerström, Blomkvist agrees to move to the Hedestad and investigate the disappearance and assumed murder of Henrik 's grandniece, Harriet, 40 years ago, to the disappointment of Blomkvist 's long - term lover and business partner Erika Berger (Robin Wright) who wants him to stay in Stockholm. After moving to the Vanger family 's estate, Blomkvist uncovers a notebook containing a list of names and numbers that no one has been able to decipher.
Salander, who is under state legal guardianship due to diagnosed mental incompetency, is appointed a new guardian, lawyer Nils Bjurman (Yorick van Wageningen) in control of her finances, after her previous guardian Holger Palmgren suffers a stroke. Bjurman, a sexual sadist, abuses his authority to extort sexual favors from Salander and violently rapes her, not realizing she is secretly recording the assault with a camera on her bag. At their next meeting, Salander exacts revenge by incapacitating Bjurman with a taser, binding him to the legs of a bed, raping him with a dildo, and then tattooing a statement on his chest permanently marking him as a rapist. She coerces him into using his authority to have her incompetency diagnosis invalidated and leave her in control of her finances, threatening to upload the video of his assault to the Internet if he fails or refuses.
Blomkvist 's daughter Pernilla (Josefin Asplund) visits him and notes that the numbers from the notebook are Bible references. Blomkvist tells Vanger 's lawyer, Dirch Frode (Steven Berkoff), that he needs help with his research, and Frode recommends Salander based on the work she did researching Blomkvist himself. Blomkvist hires Salander to investigate the notebook 's content. She uncovers a connection to a series of murders of young women from 1947 through to 1967, with the women either being Jewish or having Biblical names; many of the Vangers are known antisemites. One morning, Blomkvist finds the mutilated corpse of a cat he 'd been tending to and one night while walking, he is shot at and narrowly escapes. While Salander tends to his injuries, they have sex and become lovers. Henrik 's openly national socialist brother Harald identifies Martin (Stellan Skarsgård), Harriet 's brother and operational head of the Vanger empire, and Blomkvist marks Martin as a possible suspect. Salander 's research uncovers evidence that Martin and his deceased father, Gottfried, committed the murders.
Blomkvist breaks into Martin 's house to look for more clues, but Martin catches him and prepares to kill him. While torturing Blomkvist, Martin brags of having killed women for decades but denies killing Harriet. Salander arrives, subdues Martin and saves Blomkvist. While Salander tends to Blomkvist, Martin flees. Salander, on her motorcycle, pursues Martin in his SUV. He loses control of his vehicle on an icy road and dies when it catches fire. Salander nurses Blomkvist back to health and tells him that she tried to kill her father when she was 12 which led to her being under state care. Blomkvist deduces that Harriet is still alive and her cousin Anita (Joely Richardson) probably knows where she is. They travel to London where Anita has been living since leaving Sweden and he and Salander monitor her, waiting for her to contact Harriet. When nothing happens, Blomkvist confronts her, deducing that the woman posing as Anita is Harriet herself. She explains that her father and brother had sexually abused her for years, and that Martin saw her kill their father in self - defense. Her cousin, Anita, smuggled her out of the island and let her live under her identity when she moved to London. Finally free of her brother Martin, she returns to Sweden and tearfully reunites with Henrik.
As promised, Henrik gives Blomkvist the information on Wennerström, but it proves worthless. Salander hacks into Wennerström 's computer and presents Blomkvist with evidence of Wennerström 's crimes. Blomkvist publishes an article that ruins Wennerström, who flees the country. Salander hacks into Wennerström 's bank accounts and, travelling to Switzerland in disguise, transfers two billion euros to various accounts. Wennerström is found murdered. Salander reveals to her former guardian Holger Palmgren that she has made a friend (Blomkvist) and is happy. On her way to give Blomkvist a Christmas present, Salander sees him together with Erika, though he had said he was going to see his daughter that evening. Heartbroken, Salander discards the gift and rides away.
The success of Stieg Larsson 's novel created Hollywood interest in adapting the book, as became apparent in 2009, when Lynton and Pascal pursued the idea of developing an "American '' version unrelated to the Swedish film adaptation released that year. By December, two major developments occurred for the project: Steven Zaillian, who had recently completed the script for Moneyball (2011), became the screenwriter, while producer Scott Rudin finalized a partnership allocating full copyrights to Sony. Zaillian, who was unfamiliar with the novel, got a copy from Rudin. The screenwriter recalled, "They sent it to me and said, ' We want to do this. We will think of it as one thing for now. It 's possible that it can be two and three, but let 's concentrate on this one. ' '' After reading the book, the screenwriter did no research on the subject. Fincher, who was requested with partner Cean Chaffin by Sony executives to read the novel, was astounded by the series ' size and success. As they began to read, the duo noticed that it had a tendency to take "readers on a lot of side trips '' -- "from detailed explanations of surveillance techniques to angry attacks on corrupt Swedish industrialists, '' professed The Hollywood Reporter 's Gregg Kilday. Fincher recalled of the encounter: "The ballistic, ripping - yarn thriller aspect of it is kind of a red herring in a weird way. It is the thing that throws Salander and Blomkvist together, but it is their relationship you keep coming back to. I was just wondering what 350 pages Zaillian would get rid of. '' Because Zaillian was already cultivating the screenplay, the director avoided interfering. After a conversation, Fincher was comfortable "they were headed in the same direction ''.
-- Steven Zaillian
The writing process consumed approximately six months, including three months creating notes and analyzing the novel. Zaillian noted that as time progressed, the writing accelerated. "As soon as you start making decisions, '' he explained, "you start cutting off all of the other possibilities of things that could happen. So with every decision that you make you are removing a whole bunch of other possibilities of where that story can go or what that character can do. '' Given the book 's sizable length, Zaillian deleted elements to match Fincher 's desired running time. Even so, Zaillan took significant departures from the book. To Zaillian, there was always a "low - grade '' anxiety, "but I was never doing anything specifically to please or displease, '' he continued. "I was simply trying to tell the story the best way I could, and push that out of my mind. I did n't change anything just for the sake of changing it. There 's a lot right about the book, but that part, I thought we could do it a different way, and it could be a nice surprise for the people that have read it. ''
Zaillian discussed many of the themes in Larsson 's Millennium series with Fincher, taking the pair deeper into the novel 's darker subjects, such as the psychological dissimilarities between rapists and murderers. Fincher was familiar with the concept, from projects such as Seven (1995) and Zodiac (2007). Zaillian commented, "A rapist, or at least our rapist, is about exercising his power over somebody. A serial killer is about destruction; they get off on destroying something. It 's not about having power over something, it 's about eliminating it. What thrills them is slightly different. '' The duo wanted to expose the novels ' pivotal themes, particularly misogyny. "We were committed to the tack that this is a movie about violence against women about specific kinds of degradation, and you ca n't shy away from that. But at the same time you have to walk a razor thin line so that the audience can viscerally feel the need for revenge but also see the power of the ideas being expressed. '' Instead of the typical three - act structure, they reluctantly chose a five - act structure, which Fincher pointed out is "very similar to a lot of TV cop dramas. ''
Fincher and Zaillian 's central objective was to maintain the novel 's setting. To portray Larsson 's vision of Sweden, and the interaction of light on its landscape, Fincher cooperated with an artistic team that included cinematographer Jeff Cronenweth and production designer Donald Graham Burt. The film was wholly shot using Red Digital Cinema Camera Company 's RED MX digital camera, chosen to help evoke Larsson 's tone. The idea, according to Cronenweth, was to employ unorthodox light sources and maintain a realistic perspective. "So there may be shadows, there may be flaws, but it 's reality. You allow silhouettes and darkness, but at the same time we also wanted shots to counter that, so it would not all be one continuous dramatic image. '' Sweden 's climate was a crucial element in enhancing the mood. Cronenweth commented, "It 's always an element in the background and it was very important that you feel it as an audience member. The winter becomes like a silent character in the film giving everything a low, cool - colored light that is super soft and non-direct. '' To get acquainted with Swedish culture, Burt set out on a month - long expedition across the country. He said of the process, "It takes time to start really taking in the nuances of a culture, to start seeing the themes that recur in the architecture, the landscape, the layouts of the cities and the habits of the people. I felt I had to really integrate myself into this world to develop a true sense of place for the film. It was not just about understanding the physicality of the locations, but the metaphysics of them, and how the way people live comes out through design. ''
Principal photography began in Stockholm, Sweden in September 2010. Production mostly took place at multiple locations in the city 's central business district, including at the Stockholm Court House. One challenge was realizing the Vanger estate. They picked an eighteenth - century French architecture mansion Hofsta located approximately 60 miles (97 km) southwest of Stockholm. Filmmakers wanted to use a typical "manor from Småland '' that was solemn, formal, and "very Old Money ''. "The Swedish are very good at the modern and the minimal but they also have these wonderful country homes that can be juxtaposed against the modern city -- yet both speak to money. '' Principal photography relocated in October to Uppsala. On Queen Street, the facade of the area was renovated to mimic the Hotel Alder, after an old photograph of a building obtained by Fincher. From December onward, production moved to Zurich, Switzerland, where locations were established at Dolder Grand Hotel and the Zurich Airport. Because of the "beautiful '' environment of the city, Fincher found it difficult to film in the area. Principal photography concluded in Oslo, Norway, where production took place at Oslo Airport, Gardermoen. Recorded for over fifteen hours, twelve extras were sought for background roles. Filming also took place in the United Kingdom and the United States.
In one sequence the character Martin Vanger plays the song "Orinoco Flow '' by Enya before beginning his torture of Mikael Blomkvist. David Fincher, the director, said that he believed that Martin "does n't like to kill, he does n't like to hear the screams, without hearing his favorite music '' so therefore the character should play a song during the scene. Daniel Craig, the actor who played Blomkvist, selected "Orinoco Flow '' on his iPod as a candidate song. Fincher said "And we all almost pissed ourselves, we were laughing so hard. No, actually, it 's worse than that. He said, ' Orinoco Flow! ' Everybody looked at each other, like, what is he talking about? And he said, ' You know, "Sail away, sail away... '' ' And I thought, this guy is going to make Blomkvist as metro as we need. ''
Tim Miller, creative director for the title sequence, wanted to develop an abstract narrative that reflected the pivotal moments in the novel, as well as the character development of Lisbeth Salander. It was arduous for Miller to conceptualize the sequence abstractly, given that Salander 's occupation was a distinctive part of her personality. His initial ideas were modeled after a keyboard. "We were going to treat the keyboard like this giant city with massive fingers pressing down on the keys, '' Miller explained, "Then we transitioned to the liquid going through the giant obelisks of the keys. '' Among Miller 's many vignettes was "The Hacker Inside '', which revealed the character 's inner disposition and melted them away. The futuristic qualities in the original designs provided for a much more cyberpunk appearance than the final product. In creating the "cyber '' look for Salander, Miller said, "Every time I would show David a design he would say, ' More Tandy! ' It 's the shitty little computers from Radio Shack, the Tandy computers. They probably had vacuum tubes in them, really old technology. And David would go ' More Tandy ', until we ended up with something that looked like we glued a bunch of computer parts found at a junkyard together. ''
Fincher wanted the vignette to be a "personal nightmare '' for Salander, replaying her darkest moments. "Early on, we knew it was supposed to feel like a nightmare, '' Miller professed, who commented that early on in the process, Fincher wanted to use an artwork as a template for the sequence. After browsing through various paintings to no avail, Fincher chose a painting that depicted the artist, covered in black paint, standing in the middle of a gallery. Many of Miller 's sketches contained a liquid - like component, and were rewritten to produce the "gooey '' element that was so desired. "David said let 's just put liquid in all of them and it will be this primordial dream ooze that 's a part of every vignette, '' Miller recalled. "It ties everything together other than the black on black. ''
The title sequence includes abundant references to the novel, and exposes several political themes. Salander 's tattoos, such as her phoenix and dragon tattoos, were incorporated. The multiple flower representations signified the biological life cycle, as well as Henrik, who received a pressed flower each year on his birthday. "One had flowers coming out of this black ooze, '' said Fincher, "it blossoms, and then it dies. And then a different flower, as that one is dying is rising from the middle of it. It was supposed to represent this cycle of the killer sending flowers. '' Ultimately, the vignette becomes very conceptual because Miller and his team took "a whole thought, and cut it up into multiple different shots that are mixed in with other shots ''. In one instance, Blomkvist is strangled by strips of newspaper, a metaphor for the establishment squelching his exposes.
In the "Hot Hands '' vignette, a pair of rough, distorted hands that embrace Salander 's face and melt it represent all that 's bad in men. The hands that embrace Blomkvist 's face and shatter it, represent wealth and power. Themes of domestic violence become apparent as a woman 's face shatters after a merciless beating; this also ties in the brutal beating of Salander 's mother by her father, an event revealed in the sequel, The Girl Who Played with Fire (2006).
A cover of Led Zeppelin 's "Immigrant Song '' (1970) plays throughout the title sequence. The rendition was produced by soundtrack composers Atticus Ross and Nine Inch Nails member Trent Reznor, and features vocals from Yeah Yeah Yeahs lead singer Karen O. Fincher suggested the song, but Reznor agreed only at his request. Led Zeppelin licensed the song only for use in the film 's trailer and title sequence. Fincher stated that he sees title sequences as an opportunity to set the stage for the film, or to get an audience to let go of its preconceptions.
Software packages that were primarily used are 3ds Max (for modeling, lighting, rendering), Softimage (for rigging and animation), Digital Fusion (for compositing), Real Flow (for fluid dynamics), Sony Vegas (for editorial), Zbrush and Mudbox (for organic modeling), and VRAY (for rendering).
-- Trent Reznor
Fincher recruited Reznor and Ross to produce the score; aside from their successful collaboration on The Social Network, the duo had worked together on albums from Nine Inch Nails ' later discography. They dedicated much of the year to work on the film, as they felt it would appeal to a broad audience. Akin to his efforts in The Social Network, Reznor experiments with acoustics and blends them with elements of electronic music, resulting in a forbidding atmosphere. "We wanted to create the sound of coldness -- emotionally and also physically, '' he asserted, "We wanted to take lots of acoustic instruments (...) and transplant them into a very inorganic setting, and dress the set around them with electronics. ''
Even before viewing the script, Reznor and Ross opted to use a redolent approach to creating the film 's score. After discussing with Fincher the varying soundscapes and emotions, the duo spent six weeks composing. "We composed music we felt might belong, '' stated the Nine Inch Nails lead vocalist, "and then we 'd run it by Fincher, to see where his head 's at and he responded positively. He was filming at this time last year and assembling rough edits of scenes to see what it feels like, and he was inserting our music at that point, rather than using temp music, which is how it usually takes place, apparently. '' Finding a structure for the soundtrack was arguably the most strenuous task. "We were n't working on a finished thing, so everything keeps moving around, scenes are changing in length, and even the order of things are shuffled around, and that can get pretty frustrating when you get precious about your work. It was a lesson we learned pretty quickly of, ' Everything is in flux, and approach it as such. Hopefully it 'll work out in the end. ' ''
A screening for The Girl with the Dragon Tattoo took place on November 28, 2011, as part of a critics - only event hosted by the New York Film Critics Circle. Commentators at the event predicted that while the film would become a contender for several accolades, it would likely not become a forerunner in the pursuit for Academy Award nominations. A promotional campaign commenced thereafter, including a Lisbeth Salander - inspired collection, designed by Trish Summerville for H&M. The worldwide premiere was at the Odeon Leicester Square in London on December 12, 2011, followed by the American opening at the Ziegfeld Theatre in New York City on December 14 and Stockholm the next day. Sony 's target demographics were men and women over the age of 25 and 17 -- 34. The film went into general release in North America on December 21, at 2,700 theaters, expanding to 2,974 theaters on its second day. The United Kingdom release was on December 26, Russia on January 1, 2012, and Japan on February 13. India and Vietnam releases were abandoned due to censorship concerns. A press statement from the Central Board of Film Certification stated: "Sony Pictures will not be releasing The Girl with the Dragon Tattoo in India. The censor board has judged the film unsuitable for public viewing in its unaltered form and, while we are committed to maintaining and protecting the vision of the director, we will, as always, respect the guidelines set by the board. '' In contrast, the National Film Board of Vietnam insisted that the film 's withdrawal had no relation to rigid censorship guidelines, as it had not been reviewed by the committee.
Sony Pictures Home Entertainment released the film in a DVD and Blu - ray disc combo pack in the United States on March 20, 2012. Bonus features include a commentary from Fincher, featurettes on Blomkvist, Salander, the sets and locations, etc. The disc artwork for the DVD version of the film resembles a Sony brand DVD - R, a reference to the hacker Lisbeth Salander. This caused a bit of confusion in the marketplace with consumers thinking they had obtained a bootleg copy. The release sold 644,000 copies in its first week, in third place behind The Muppets and Hop. The following week, the film sold an additional 144,000 copies generating $2.59 million in gross revenue. As of January 2014, 1,478,230 units had been sold, grossing $22,195,069.
Fincher 's film grossed $232.6 million during its theatrical run. The film 's American release grossed $1.6 million from its Tuesday night screenings, a figure that increased to $3.5 million by the end of its first day of general release. It maintained momentum into its opening weekend, accumulating $13 million for a total of $21 million in domestic revenue. The film 's debut figures fell below media expectations. Aided by positive word of mouth, its commercial performance remained steady into the second week, posting $19 million from 2,914 theaters. The third week saw box office drop 24 % to $11.3 million, totaling $76.8 million. The number of theaters slightly increased to 2,950. By the fifth week, the number of theaters shrank to 1,907, and grosses to $3.7 million, though it remained within the national top ten. The film completed its North American theatrical run on March 22, 2012, earning over $102.5 million.
The international debut was in six Scandinavian markets on December 19 -- 25, 2011, securing $1.6 million from 480 venues. In Sweden the film opened in 194 theaters to strong results, accounting for more than half of international revenue at the time ($950,000). The first full week in the United Kingdom collected $6.7 million from 920 theaters. By the weekend of January 6 -- 8, 2012, the film grossed $12.2 million for a total of $29 million; this included its expansion into Hong Kong, where it topped the box office, earning $470,000 from thirty - six establishments. The film similarly led the field in South Africa. It accumulated $6.6 million from an estimated 600 theaters over a seven - day period in Russia, placing fifth. The expansion continued into the following week, opening in nine markets. The week of January 13 -- 15 saw the film yield $16.1 million from 3,910 locations in over forty - three territories, thus propelling the international gross to $49.3 million. It debuted at second place in Austria and Germany, where in the latter, it pulled $2.9 million from 525 locations. Similar results were achieved in Australia, where it reached 252 theaters. The film 's momentum continued throughout the month, and by January 22, it had hit ten additional markets, including France and Mexico, from which it drew $3.25 million from 540 venues and $1.25 million from 540 theaters, respectively. In its second week in France it descended to number three, with a total gross of $5.8 million.
The next major international release came in Japan on February 13, where it opened in first place with $3.68 million (¥ 288 million) in 431 theaters. By the weekend of February 17 -- 19, the film had scooped up $119.5 million from international markets. The total international gross for The Girl with the Dragon Tattoo was $130.1 million. MGM, one of the studios involved in the production, posted a "modest loss '' and declared that they had expected the film to gross at least 10 % more.
The Girl with the Dragon Tattoo received positive reviews from critics, with particular note to the cast, tone, score and cinematography. Review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes gives the film a rating of 86 %, based on 224 reviews, with an average rating of 7.6 / 10. The site 's consensus states, "Brutal yet captivating, The Girl with the Dragon Tattoo is the result of David Fincher working at his lurid best with total role commitment from star Rooney Mara. '' At Metacritic, which assigns a normalized score, the film received an average score of 71 out of 100, based on 41 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews ''.
David Denby of The New Yorker asserted that the austere, but captivating installment presented a "glancing, chilled view '' of a world where succinct moments of loyalty coexisted with constant trials of betrayal. To USA Today columnist Claudia Puig, Fincher captures the "menace and grim despair in the frosty Scandinavian landscape '' by carefully approaching its most gruesome features. Puig noted a surfeit of "stylistic flourishes '' and "intriguing '' changes in the narrative, compared to the original film. In his three - and - a-half star review, Chris Knight of the National Post argued that it epitomized a so - called "paradoxical position '' that was both "immensely enjoyable and completely unnecessary ''. Rene Rodriguez of The Miami Herald said that the "fabulously sinister entertainment '' surpassed the original film "in every way ''. The film took two - and - a-half stars from Rolling Stone commentator Peter Travers, who concluded: "Fincher 's Girl is gloriously rendered but too impersonal to leave a mark. '' A.O. Scott, writing for The New York Times, admired the moments of "brilliantly orchestrated '' anxiety and confusion, but felt that The Girl with the Dragon Tattoo was vulnerable to the "lumbering proceduralism '' that he saw in its literary counterpart, as evident with the "long stretches of drab, hackneyed exposition that flatten the atmosphere ''. The Wall Street Journal 's Joe Morgenstern praised Cronenweth 's cinematography, which he thought provided for glossy alterations in the film 's darkness; "Stockholm glitters in nighttime exteriors, and its subway shines in a spectacular spasm of action involving a backpack. '' Rex Reed of The New York Observer professed that despite its occasional incomprehensibility, the movie was "technically superb '' and "superbly acted ''. In contrast, Kyle Smith of New York Post censured the film, calling it "rubbish '' and further commenting that it "demonstrates merely that masses will thrill to an unaffecting, badly written, psychologically shallow and deeply unlikely pulp story so long as you allow them to feel sanctified by the occasional meaningless reference to feminism or Nazis. ''
The performances were a frequent topic in the critiques. Mara 's performance, in particular, was admired by commentators. A revelation in the eyes of Entertainment Weekly 's Owen Gleiberman, he proclaimed that her character was more important than "her ability to solve a crime ''. Her "hypnotic '' portrayal was noted by Justin Chang of Variety, as well as Salon critic Andrew O'Hehir, who wrote, "Rooney Mara is a revelation as Lisbeth Salander, the damaged, aggressive computer geek and feminist revenge angel, playing the character as far more feral and vulnerable than Noomi Rapace 's borderline - stereotype sexpot Goth girl. '' Scott Tobias of The A.V. Club enjoyed the chemistry between Mara and Craig, as did David Germain of the Associated Press; "Mara and Craig make an indomitable screen pair, he nominally leading their intense search into decades - old serial killings, she surging ahead, plowing through obstacles with flashes of phenomenal intellect and eruptions of physical fury. '' Although Puig found Mara inferior to Rapace in playing Salander, with regard to Craig 's performance, he said that the actor shone. This was supported by Morgenstern, who avouched that Craig "nonetheless finds welcome humor in Mikael 's impassive affect ''. In his 2016 assessment of Craig 's career for Taste of Cinema, Eoghan Lyng ranked this portrayal as one of his best. Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun - Times said the film was given a more assured quality than the original because of Fincher 's direction and the lead performances, although he believed this did not always work to the film 's advantage, preferring the original version 's "less confident surface '' where "emotions were closer to the surface. ''
In addition to numerous awards, The Girl with the Dragon Tattoo was included on several year - end lists by film commentators and publications. It was named the best film of 2011 by MTV and James Berardinelli of ReelViews. The former wrote, "The director follows up the excellent Social Network with another tour de force, injecting the murder mystery that introduces us to outcast hacker Lisbeth Salander (...) and embattled journalist (...) with style, intensity and relentless suspense. Mara is a revelation, and the film 's daunting 160 - minute runtime breezes by thanks to one heart - racing scene after the next. Dark and tough to watch at times, but a triumph all around. '' The film came second in indieWire 's list of "Drew Taylor 's Favorite Films Of 2011 '', while reaching the top ten of seven other publications, including the St. Louis Post-Dispatch, San Francisco Chronicle, and the New Orleans Times - Picayune. The Girl with the Dragon Tattoo was declared one of the best films of the year by the American Film Institute, as well as the National Board of Review of Motion Pictures.
In December 2011, Fincher stated that he wanted to film the sequels, The Girl Who Played with Fire and The Girl Who Kicked the Hornets ' Nest, "back to back. '' There was an announced release date of 2013 for a film version of The Girl Who Played with Fire, although by August 2012 it was delayed due to difficulties with the script, being written by Zaillian. In July 2013, Andrew Kevin Walker was hired to re-write the script.
In September 2014, Fincher stated that a script for Played with Fire had been written that was "extremely different from the book, '' and that, despite the long delay, he was confident that the film would be made because Sony "already has spent millions of dollars on the rights and the script ''. Mara, when asked about potential sequels, expressed much less optimism about them, though she stated that she was still very interested in continuing on in the role.
In November 2015, it was announced that Sony was planning on doing a soft - reboot to the franchise with an adaptation of The Girl in the Spider 's Web, a 2015 novel by David Lagercrantz that was a continuation of the original Millennium trilogy after series creator Stieg Larsson died in 2004. At the time, Alicia Vikander was considered a favorite to take over the role of Salander.
In November 2016, Fede Álvarez was announced as the new director. The Girl in the Spider 's Web will be the first in the book series to be produced into an English - language film in its initial adaptation. Knight will serve as screenwriter, together with Alvarez and Jay Basu. In March 2017, it was confirmed that the film would have an entirely new cast and was scheduled to be released on October 5, 2018. In September 2017, Claire Foy was officially cast for the role of Lisbeth Salander in the new film.
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what id is required to register to vote | Voter ID laws in the United states - Wikipedia
Voter ID laws in the United States are laws that require a person to provide some form of official identification before they are permitted to register to vote, receive a ballot for an election, or to actually vote.
At the federal level, the Help America Vote Act of 2002 requires voter ID for all new voters in federal elections who registered by mail and who did not provide a driver 's license number or the last four digits of a Social Security number that was matched against government records. Though state laws requiring some sort of identification at voting polls go back to 1950, no state required a voter to produce a government - issued photo ID as a condition for voting before the 2006 election. Indiana in 2006 became the first state to enact a strict photo ID law, a law that was upheld two years later by the U.S. Supreme Court. As of September 2016, 33 states have enacted some form of voter ID requirement. Lawsuits have been filed against many of the voter ID requirements on the basis that they are discriminatory with an intent to reduce voting by traditionally Democratic constituencies. Parts of voter ID laws in several states have been overturned by courts.
Proponents of voter ID laws argue that they reduce electoral fraud while placing only little burden on voters. Opponents argue that electoral fraud is extremely rare in the United States and has been magnified as an issue to create barriers to voter registration, and that requiring voter ID in effect discriminates against minority groups and those who are less likely to possess photo IDs. Critics have argued that the barriers could result in the disenfranchisement of black, Hispanic and other minority voters.
Research has shown that the type of voter fraud that would be prevented by voter IDs is extremely rare; research is mixed as to whether voter ID laws reduce overall turnout or minority turnout; and research has shown that Republican legislators in swing states and districts with sizable black or Hispanic populations push the hardest for voter ID laws.
There is no empirical evidence that voter fraud occurs often enough to have any plausible impact on elections. One study, commonly cited by President Trump and other Republicans, purported to show that non-citizens vote in large numbers in the United States, but the findings of the study were later shown to be driven by measurement error and have been comprehensively rebutted. The authors of the study have conceded that measurement error "may have biased our numbers '', and have also rebuked President Trump for claiming that millions voted illegally in 2016.
The National Conference of State Legislatures (NCSL) provides a web page and a map with ID requirements for voting in each state. In states with strict ID laws, the voter is required to take additional action after the provisional ballot is cast to verify ID. The NCSL website describes strict states as follows:
In the "strict '' states, a voter can not cast a valid ballot without first presenting ID. Voters who are unable to show ID at the polls are given a provisional ballot. Those provisional ballots are kept separate from the regular ballots. If the voter returns to election officials within a short period of time after the election (generally a few days) and presents acceptable ID, the provisional ballot is counted. If the voter does not come back to show ID, that provisional ballot is never counted.
In states with non-strict voter ID laws, other methods of validation are allowed, which vary by state. Possible alternatives are: signing an affidavit, having a poll worker vouch for voter, having election officials verify a voter 's identity after the vote is cast, or having the voter return an inquiry mailed to their reported address.
The NCSL categorizes state - level voter ID laws as follows:
Since the late 20th century, the Republican Party has led efforts to create more stringent voter ID laws for the stated objective of preventing electoral fraud. 12 states now require voters to show some form of photo identification (see table below) with approximately 13 other states pursuing similar legislation. The laws were often introduced by the Republican members of ALEC and signed by Republican governors.
Some of the states that were pursuing new photo identification requirements were legally bound under the Voting Rights Act of 1965 to apply for federal preclearance prior to enacting any new election laws. (One provision of the Voting Rights Act was that 13 southern states with a history of discrimination be required to obtain this federal preclearance in order to prevent further discriminatory laws from being passed.) However, in the 2013 case Shelby County v. Holder, the United States Supreme Court struck down section 4 (b) of the Act, which contained the formula determining which states were required to seek preclearance, based on historic under - representation of portions of the population. They said that this section was unconstitutional as the model was not based on current conditions. It said the provision was rational and needed at the time it was enacted, but it is no longer an accurate formula based on the changing demographics of different states and the nation overall. In effect, federal preclearance is no longer a requirement; Congress would need to update this section based on current data for a new formula that is deemed constitutional. States that had passed photo identification requirements but had not received federal preclearance were allowed to have those laws immediately take effect.
The practical effect of striking out section 4 (b) of the Voting Rights Act in Shelby 's case was that a challenge to electoral law changes in covered states could no longer be determined by a federal administrative or judicial officer, instead having to be litigated in a court of law on a case - by - case basis, a much more costly and time - consuming process.
By the end of July 2016, federal courts ruled on challenges to voter ID laws in Ohio, Texas, North Carolina and Wisconsin. All the cases are likely to be heard ultimately by the US Supreme Court. The court ruled that the legislature 's ending of Ohio 's "Golden Week '' imposed a "modest burden '' on the right to vote of African Americans and said that the state 's justifications for the law "fail to outweigh that burden. '' This week had been a period of time when residents could "register to vote and cast an early ballot at the same location. ''
The Texas law was not overturned, but the state was advised it needed to have alternative processes in place that were not discriminatory before the November 2016 election. A North Carolina law was overturned as "its provisions deliberately ' target African - Americans '... in an effort to depress black turnout at the polls. '' Parts of Wisconsin 's voter ID laws were ruled to be unconstitutional and it was advised to accept more forms of identification for the fall 2016 election cycle.
Voter ID laws go back to 1950, when South Carolina became the first state to start requesting identification from voters at the polls. The identification document did not have to include a picture; any document with the name of the voter sufficed. In 1970, Hawaii joined in requiring ID, and Texas a year later. Florida was next in 1977, and Alaska in 1980 to become the first five states in the United States to request identification of some sort from voters at the polls.
In 1999, Virginia Governor Jim Gilmore attempted to start a pilot program that required voters to show IDs at the polls. His initiative was blocked by Democrats and the NAACP, and was stopped by court order. His administration had spent and mailed $275,000 worth of free voter ID cards to residents in Arlington and Fairfax counties.
Afterward Republican - dominated states have worked to pass laws for voter IDs, ostensibly to prevent "voter fraud '', which studies have shown is "vanishingly rare. '' Opponents say that many of the provisions of such laws are a conspiracy designed to disadvantage minorities, poor and elderly, many of whom have tended in recent years to vote Democratic, so the Republicans are deriving political benefits from their voter ID campaign. In 2002, President Bush signed the Help America Vote Act into law, which required all first - time voters in federal elections to show photo or non-photo ID upon either registration or arrival at the polling place.
In 2004, Arizona passed a law requiring voters to bring a state - issued photo ID to the polling place. Similar proposals were discussed in various other states and were passed in some cases. In several states, a person 's citizenship status is noted on their photo ID.
Indiana passed a law in 2005 requiring a photo ID be shown by all voters before casting ballots. Civil rights groups in Indiana launched a lawsuit, Crawford v. Marion County Election Board, that reached the Supreme Court in 2008. The Court ruled that the law was constitutional, paving the way for expanded ID laws in other states.
In 2011, Wisconsin Governor Scott Walker (WI Act 23) and Ohio Governor John Kasich enacted similar laws. Texas Governor Rick Perry placed a voter ID bill as an "emergency item '' in 2011, allowing legislators to rush it through the process. Jurisdiction over Texas election procedure had been given to the Department of Justice, which was required to pre-clear the law for approval. The Texas law recognized government - issued photo identification and weapons permits but not college IDs, resulting in criticism that the law was unfavorable to young voters, who trend liberal, while favorable to gun owners, who trend conservative. Rhode Island passed a voter ID law in 2011; it is the only state with a Democratic - controlled legislature to do so.
In South Carolina, Gov. Nikki Haley enacted a 2011 law requiring government - issued IDs at the polls, which included provisions for the issuance of free IDs. Haley made a one - time offer to arrange for voter ID applicants to be driven to issuing locations. The ID requirement was blocked by the Justice Department.
Wisconsin 's Voter ID law in 2011 provided free IDs to people who did not have them. But in practice, state employees at the DMV were instructed to provide the IDs for free only if people specifically asked to have their fee waived. The requirement to show photo ID had been declared in violation of the Wisconsin Constitution and blocked by state and federal judges, but those decisions were overturned by the Wisconsin Supreme Court and later the 7th Circuit Court of Appeals. Weeks later, the U.S. Supreme Court again blocked the law for 2014. On March 23, 2015, the U.S. Supreme Court rejected an appeal by the ACLU, effectively upholding the 7th Circuit 's decision Wisconsin 's voter ID law as constitutional.
Pennsylvania 's voter ID law allowed various forms of photo identification cards, including those held by drivers, government employees, in - state college students, and residents of elder - care facilities. Voters who do not possess these forms of identification can obtain voting - only photo IDs issued by the Pennsylvania Department of State through the Pennsylvania Department of Transportation (PennDOT). A judicial order on October 2, 2012 blocked enforcement of Pennsylvania 's law until after the 2012 Presidential election. Following a trial in the summer of 2013 and a six - month delay, Commonwealth Court Judge Bernard L. McGinley struck down Pennsylvania 's voter ID law on January 17, 2014 as violative of the constitutional rights of state voters.
He noted that required alternative voter IDs were available only through 71 PennDOT Drivers Licensing Centers across the state. Five of the 71 DLCs are located in Philadelphia, nine counties have no DLCs at all, and DLCs have limited hours: in nine counties they are open only one day per week, and in 13 counties they are open only two days per week. The court ruled that the Pennsylvania Department of State provided too little access, no financial support to provide IDs to those without access, and no alternatives to obtaining the required IDs. Judge McGinley found that this leaves about half of Pennsylvania without DLCs for five days a week, imposing a significant barrier to obtaining Pennsylvania 's "free ID ''. Photo IDs are not required to vote in PA.
Voters in Minnesota rejected a voter ID proposal on the 2012 general election ballot by a margin of 54 -- 46 %. It is the only such ballot defeat for a voter ID law in the country.
On June 25, 2013, the US Supreme Court declared, by a 5 -- 4 decision, in Shelby v. Holder that Section 4 (b) of the Voting Rights Act of 1965 was unconstitutional. Previously, states with a history of proven voter discrimination were required to obtain preclearance from a federal court before making changes to their voting laws. "Section 4 of the Act contained the formula for determining which states or political subdivisions were covered by Section 5. The majority opinion argued that the formula used to determine which jurisdictions required federal oversight or preclearance had not been updated to reflect current social conditions, including a decline in institutionalized discrimination and direct voter suppression. Since the Court 's decision, several states passed new voter ID laws and other restrictions on registration and on voting.
A 2005 report by former President Jimmy Carter and Former Secretary of State James Baker concluded that concerns of both those who support and oppose strengthened voter ID laws were legitimate. It recommended voter ID requirements be enacted, to be slowly phased in over a period of five years, and accompanied by the issuance of free ID cards provided by mobile ID vans that would visit traditionally underserved communities. In 2007, a report prepared by the staff of the federal Election Assistance Commission concluded "there is a great deal of debate on the pervasiveness of fraud. ''
According to a Harvard study, "the expenses for documentation, travel, and waiting time (for obtaining voter identification cards) are significant -- especially for minority group and low - income voters -- typically ranging from about $75 to $175. When legal fees are added to these numbers, the costs range as high as $1,500. '' So even if the cards themselves may be free, the costs associated with obtaining the card can be expensive. The author of the study notes that the costs associated with obtaining the card far exceeds the $1.50 poll tax outlawed by the 24th amendment in 1964.
The vast majority of voter ID laws in the United States target only voter impersonation, of which there are only 31 documented cases in the United States from the 2000 -- 2014 period. According to PolitiFact, "in - person voter fraud -- the kind targeted by the ID law -- remains extremely rare ''. According to the Associated Press, the New York Times, NPR, CNBC, the Guardian and FactCheck.Org the available research and evidence point to the type of fraud that would be prevented by voter ID laws as "very rare '' or "extremely rare ''. PolitiFact finds the suggestion that "voter fraud is rampant '' false, giving it its "Pants on Fire '' rating. Most cases of alleged voter fraud involving dead voters have been shown to be a result of incorrect matching of voter rolls and death records, such as when someone died after they voted rather than before.
Proponents of voter ID laws cite the registration of dead and out - of - state voters as a vulnerability in the electoral system. A 2012 report by the Pew Center showed that more than 1.8 million deceased people remain registered to vote nationwide. The same report found 3 million voters registered in multiple states, presumably due to changes of residency. David Becker, the director of Election Initiatives for Pew, said this study 's results pointed to the need to improve voter registration, rather than to evidence of voter fraud or suppression.
Proponents of voter ID laws fear that motivated individuals could exploit registration irregularities to impersonate dead voters or impersonate former state residents, casting multiple fraudulent ballots. Critics of such laws note that they only prevent one kind of fraud, namely voter impersonation. They say that this form of fraud is illogical, as the risks (a fine of up to $10,000 and / or 5 years in prison) far outweigh the benefits (casting one extra vote for the voter 's desired candidate). Democrats have alleged that the scale of impersonation fraud has been greatly exaggerated by Republicans for political reasons.
A 2012 investigation of 207 alleged dead voters in South Carolina found only five instances unexplained by clerical errors. For instance, sometimes a son with the same name as his dead father was accidentally recorded as voting under the father 's name. A study of dead voters in the 2006 Georgia midterm election concluded that only fifteen of the 66 alleged instances of dead voting were potentially fraudulent. All but four of the dead votes were cast absentee, and most of the absentee voters in question cast early ballots but died before the election, giving the impression of voter fraud. A 2013 study testing for additional cases of electoral fraud in addition to two cases that had already been documented found no additional cases of such fraud.
A 2007 report by the Brennan Center for Justice concluded that voter impersonation was rarer than being struck by lightning. The author of this report, Justin Levitt, later reported in 2014 that he had identified only thirty - one credible instances of voter impersonation since 2000, involving a total of 241 ballots, out of a billion ballots cast. Also, in 2007, Lorraine Minnite released a report for Project Vote concluding that voter fraud was "extremely rare '' in the United States. A 2012 analysis by student investigative journalism project News21 found only ten cases of alleged voter impersonation in the U.S. since 2000. In 2014, a survey was published concluding that there was no evidence of widespread voter impersonation in the 2012 U.S. general election.
Other instances of voter fraud may be understated as state governments often lack the information necessary to compare voting records between states. For example, many states do not collect the last four digits of a voter 's SSN, preventing detection of individuals who vote in multiple states or individuals who vote under the names of former state residents. Writing in 2009, Harvard political scientist Stephen Ansolabehere noted that despite the common belief "that fraud occurs at least somewhat often in elections... social scientists have been unable to develop unambiguous measures of the incidence of fraud, and legal cases find very little hard evidence on the matter. ''
Proponents of voter ID laws have pointed to a 2014 study by Old Dominion University professors Jesse Richman and David Earnest as justification. The study, which used data developed by the Cooperative Congressional Election Study, concluded that more than 14 percent of self - identified non-citizens in 2008 and 2010 indicated that they were registered to vote, approximately 6.4 % of surveyed non-citizens voted in 2008, and 2.2 % of surveyed non-citizens voted in 2010. However, the study also concluded that voter ID requirements would be ineffective at reducing non-citizen voting. This study has been criticized by numerous academics. A 2015 study by the managers of the Cooperative Congressional Election Study found that Richman and Earnest 's study was "almost certainly flawed '' and that, in fact, it was most likely that 0 % of non-citizens had voted in recent American elections. Richman and Earnest 's findings were the result of measurement error; some individuals who answered the survey checked the wrong boxes in surveys. Richman and Earnest therefore extrapolated from a handful of wrongfully classified cases to achieve an exaggerated number of individuals who appeared to be non-citizen voters. Richman later conceded that "the response error issues... may have biased our numbers ''. Richman has also rebuked President Trump for claiming that millions voted illegally in 2016. Brian Schaffner, Professor of Political Science at University of Massachesetts, Amherst, who was part of the team that debunked Richman and Earnest 's study said that the study
... is not only wrong, it is irresponsible social science and should never have been published in the first place. There is no evidence that non-citizens have voted in recent U.S. elections... It is bad research, because it fails to understand basic facts about the data it uses. Indeed, it took me and my colleagues only a few hours to figure out why the authors ' findings were wrong and to produce the evidence needed to prove as much. The authors were essentially basing their claims on two pieces of data associated with the large survey -- a question that asks people whether they are citizens and official vote records to which each respondent has been matched to determine whether he or she had voted. Both these pieces of information include some small amounts of measurement error, as is true of all survey questions. What the authors failed to consider is that measurement error was entirely responsible for their results. In fact, once my colleagues and I accounted for that error, we found that there were essentially zero non-citizens who voted in recent elections...
Support for voter ID laws correlates with perceived prevalence of voter fraud. Although absentee ballot fraud is more common than voter impersonation, only six of the 31 states with voter ID laws also impose similar requirements on people who mail in absentee ballots.
Lorraine Minnite of Demos has criticized proponents of voter ID laws for shifting their arguments in favor of such laws from voter fraud to electoral integrity. In an expert report prepared for the ACLU, she argued that "Calling the problem "electoral integrity '' does not change the fact that the only threat to electoral integrity addressed by photo ID laws is in - person voter fraud, '' and that because such fraud is extremely rare, voter ID laws are not justified to prevent this problem. But in 2005, American University 's Commission on Federal Election Reform, co-chaired by former President Jimmy Carter and former Secretary of State James Baker, wrote:
The electoral system can not inspire public confidence if no safeguards exist to deter or detect fraud or to confirm the identity of voters. Photo IDs currently are needed to board a plane, enter federal buildings, and cash a check. Voting is equally important.
The Commission concluded that, although proven voter impersonation is minimal, a photo ID requirement will ensure election integrity and safeguard public perception of the nation 's voting system at little cost to anyone.
However, among certain demographics, voter ID laws lower electoral confidence. A 2016 study concluded that Democrats in states with strict ID laws have reduced faith in the electoral system. It said that negative politicization by the Democratic Party may be to blame. On the other hand, Republicans living in strict photo identification states were more confident in their elections, though possibly due to similar politicization by Republican elites. Another 2015 study found that voters living in states with voter ID laws were not more confident in elections than voters who lived in states without such laws. A 2016 study found that people living in states with voter ID laws were no more confident in their elections than people in states without such laws, nor did they perceive lower rates of voter impersonation fraud. A 2017 study found similar results for both national and local election outcomes.
Studies of the effects of voter ID laws on turnout in the United States have generally found that such laws have little, if any, effect on turnout. This may be because these laws do not reduce turnout very much; it may also be because the strictest voter ID laws have the largest effect on turnout, and they have only been enacted relatively recently. Although most Americans possess a government - issued photo ID, those without ID may have trouble acquiring the proper credentials, lowering their turnout. The most comprehensive study of voter IDs, a 2017 study by Harvard political scientist Stephen Ansolabehere and Tufts political scientist Eitan Hersh, found that in Texas, 1.5 % of those who showed up to vote in the 2012 election lacked the kinds of IDs that are targeted by voter ID laws, 4.5 % of the total eligible population lacked them, 7.5 % of black registered voters lack them. The numbers are likely higher in states with more urban areas, as fewer voters have driving licenses. A 2011 study by New York University 's Brennan Center estimated that of the US population that is of voting age, 6 -- 11 % lack government - issued photo ID. The Heritage Foundation, a conservative think tank, disputed the methodology of the study, citing a question in which 14 percent of respondents said they had both a U.S. birth certificate and naturalization papers.
Since some legitimate voters lack the kind of IDs demanded by voter ID laws, some commentators have argued that strict voter ID laws reduce voter turnout, especially among the poor, blacks, elderly, disabled, and minority - language voters, and voters who have changed their names. However, the results of studies assessing the effect (or lack thereof) of these laws on turnout have been inconclusive. For example, a 2012 study found that a stricter voter ID law in Georgia lowered turnout by about 0.4 % in 2008 compared to 2004. A 2006 study also found that voter ID laws decreased aggregate turnout by between 3 and 4 percent. In contrast, several other studies have failed to demonstrate significant turnout reductions. A 2010 study found that 1.2 % of registered voters in three states with voter ID laws (Indiana, Maryland, and Mississippi) lacked an ID that complied with the law. A 2011 study found that photo ID laws were correlated with a 1.6 % decline in turnout, and non-photo ID laws were correlated with a 2.2 % decline. In a 2014 review by the Government Accountability Office of the academic literature, five studies out of ten found that voter ID laws had no significant effect on overall turnout, four studies found that voter ID laws decreased overall turnout, and one study found that the laws increased overall turnout.
A 2014 Rice University study reported that Texas 's voter ID law decreased turnout mainly among people who incorrectly thought they did not have the type of ID needed to comply with the law. The authors of this study also suggested that an education campaign aimed at clearly communicating what types of ID are acceptable in Texas would be beneficial.
A 2016 study argued that, although no clear - cut relationship exists between strict voter ID laws and voter turnout, the disenfranchising impact of voter ID laws may be hidden by Democratic voter mobilization. Strong negative reactions to voter ID laws among Democratic constituencies could, in theory, boost Democratic turnout enough to compensate for effects of the laws themselves. A 2007 report found a small increase in Democratic turnout in places with new voter ID laws.
A 2017 study found that 474 people tried to vote in Virginia 's 2014 Senate election, but could not do so because they lacked the proper ID to comply with the state 's voter ID law. The same study found that turnout was higher in parts of the state where registered voters were less likely to have a driver 's license. The authors suggested that "This unexpected relationship might be explained by a targeted Department of Elections mailing, suggesting that the initial impact of voter ID laws may hinge on efforts to notify voters likely to be affected. ''
Charges of racial discrimination in voter ID laws are founded in the disparate impact doctrine of constitutional law, which claims that any action -- intentional or unintentional -- that statistically disadvantages a protected class constitutes discrimination. Disparate impact is most often discussed in the context of African Americans. The moral validity and constitutionality of this doctrine is hotly debated. This is relevant to voter ID laws because of accusations that these laws disproportionately reduce turnout among minority voters.
Federal appeals courts have struck down strict voter - ID laws in Texas and North Carolina, citing intent by the legislatures to discriminate against minority voters. The appeals court noted that the North Carolina Legislature "requested data on the use, by race, of a number of voting practices '' -- then, data in hand, "enacted legislation that restricted voting and registration in five different ways, all of which disproportionately affected African Americans. '' The changes to the voting process "target African Americans with almost surgical precision, '' and "impose cures for problems that did not exist. ''
A 2008 study found that the strictest voter ID laws reduced voter turnout relative to the most lax form of such laws (stating one 's name). The same study reported that "the stricter voter identification requirements depress turnout to a greater extent for less educated and lower income populations, for both minorities and non-minorities. '' A 2009 study found that 84 % of white registered voters in Indiana had access to photo ID to comply with that state 's ID law, as compared to 78 % of black voters on the rolls there. A 2008 study found that African Americans, Hispanics, and the elderly were less likely to have a voter ID that complied with Georgia 's voter ID law.
A 2012 analysis by Nate Silver found that voter ID laws seem to decrease turnout by between 0.8 % and 2.4 %, depending on how strict they are, and tend to cause a shift towards the Republican candidate of between 0.4 % and 1.2 %. Silver found that the statistical reasoning was flawed in a number of studies which had found small effects but had described them as not statistically significant.
In 2012, an investigation by Reuters found that voter ID laws in Georgia and Indiana had not led to lower turnout of minorities and concluded that concerns about this "are probably overstated ''. In a 2014 review by the Government Accountability Office of the academic literature, three studies out of five found that voter ID laws reduced minority turnout whereas two studies found no significant impact.
A 2014 study by the Government Accountability Office reported that voter ID laws in Kansas and Tennessee reduced turnout in these states by 1.9 and 2.2 percent, respectively, compared to four states that did not pass voter ID laws -- Alabama, Arkansas, Delaware, and Maine. The study indicates that young people, black people, and newly registered voters were most likely to have their turnout reduced. But Tennessee officials suggested that the reduced turnout may have been due to a lack of compelling ballot measures in 2012, and Kansas officials dismissed the drop in black voters as a product of high random variance in a small population. Tennessee officials questioned the reproducibility of this report, given its reliance on data from Catalist, which they claimed was a progressive political group.
A 2014 study from the University of Iowa found no evidence that strict voter ID laws reduce minority turnout. A 2012 study found that, although the Georgia voter ID laws lowered overall turnout by 0.4 %, there was no racial or ethnic component to the suppression effect.
Disparate impact may also be reflected in access to information about voter ID laws. A 2015 experimental study found that election officials queried about voter ID laws were more likely to respond to emails from a non-Latino Anglo or European name (70.5 % response rate) than a Latino name (64.8 % response rate), though response accuracy was similar across those groups.
Studies have also analyzed racial differences in ID requests rates. A 2012 study in the city of Boston found strong evidence that non-white voters were more likely to be asked for ID during the 2008 election. According to exit polls, 23 % of whites, 33 % of Asians, 33 % of blacks, and 38 % of Hispanics were asked for ID, though this effect is partially attributed to black and Hispanics preferring non-peak voting hours when election officials inspected a greater portion of IDs. Precinct differences confound the data, as black and Hispanic voters tended to vote at black and Hispanic - majority precincts.
A 2010 study of the 2006 midterm election in New Mexico found that election officials asked Hispanics for ID more often than they did early voters, women, and non-Hispanics. A 2009 study of the 2006 midterm elections nationwide found that 47 % of white voters reported being asked to show photo identification at the polls, compared with 54 % of Hispanics and 55 % of African Americans. '' Very few people were denied the chance to vote as a result of voter identification requests. A 2015 study found that turnout among blacks in Georgia was generally higher since the state began enforcing its strict voter ID law.
A 2017 study in the Journal of Politics "shows that strict identification laws have a differentially negative impact on the turnout of racial and ethnic minorities in primaries and general elections. We also find that voter ID laws skew democracy toward those on the political right. '' The results of this study were challenged in a paper by Stanford political scientist Justin Grimmer and four other political scientists. The paper says that the findings in the aforementioned study "a product of data inaccuracies, the presented evidence does not support the stated conclusion, and alternative model specifications produce highly variable results. When errors are corrected, one can recover positive, negative, or null estimates of the effect of voter ID laws on turnout, precluding firm conclusions. '' In a response, the authors of the original study dismissed the aforementioned criticisms, and stood by the findings of the original article.
A 2017 report by Civis Analytics for the liberal super PAC Priorities USA purported to show that Hillary Clinton lost Wisconsin the 2016 presidential election due to voter suppression brought on by Wisconsin 's strict voter ID laws. Political scientists expressed serious skepticism of the report 's methodology; Yale University political scientist Eitan Hersh said the report "does not meet acceptable evidence standards. '' A 2017 paper by University of Wisconsin - Madison political scientists Kenneth Mayer and Michael DeCrescenzo also purported to show that voter suppression swayed Wisconsin from Clinton; this paper was also rebutted by other political scientists on the basis of poor methodology.
Many nations require some form of voter identification at the polling place, but specific details of the requirement vary widely. In Spain, Greece, France, Belgium, and Italy, a government - issued photo ID is required to cast a ballot. However, all citizens in these nations are automatically provided with a photo ID upon reaching adulthood. Mexico has a similar system, with all registered voters receiving a photo ID upon completing the registration process. Several Western democracies do not require identification for voting, such as Denmark, Australia, New Zealand, and the United Kingdom. In Ireland, Sweden, and Switzerland, poll workers reserve the right to request identification but are not required to do so. In Canada, identification is required, but voters can provide any two forms of ID from a list of 45 possibilities. Canada 's system is more stringent than the 17 U.S. states that do not require ID but less stringent than the 22 U.S. states with strict requirements. The strict Indiana ID system, for instance, accepts only five forms of ID: an Indiana driver 's license, an Indiana ID card, a military ID, a US passport, or a student ID card from an in - state college or university. Conversely, some countries, like Australia, require no form of identification at any election. This position is similar to the situation in New York and California.
Several developing nations have instituted voter ID laws. Many Arab nations require voters to leave a fingerprint upon casting a ballot, allowing quick detection of fraud. In 2012, the head of Libya 's national election commission expressed surprise that the American system "depends so much on trust and the good faith of election officials and voters alike ''. Likewise, India requires one of fifteen forms of identification to vote. The Gambia gives each voter a single marble to cast, ensuring that no one can vote multiple times.
Public opinion polls have shown support for voter ID laws among voters in the United States. A 2011 Rasmussen poll found that 75 % of likely voters "believe voters should be required to show photo identification, such as a driver 's license, before being allowed to vote. '' A Pew poll showed that 95 % of Republicans, 83 % of independent voters, and 61 % of Democrats favor requirements that voters should show photo IDs to vote. A 2012 Fox News poll produced similar results, revealing that 87 % of Republicans, 74 % of independent voters, and 52 % of Democrats supported new voter ID laws.
Although all major political demographics support voter ID laws, a 2013 study showed significant divergence in opinion between conservative - affiliated demographics, which are staunch supporters, and liberal - affiliated demographics, which are less supportive. The study also showed that support depends on survey framing: when questions biased against voter ID laws are asked, support drops 15 % compared to when questions favorable to voter ID laws are asked. A 2016 study showed that emphasizing the adverse effects of voter ID laws on eligible voters decreased popular support for such laws. Another 2016 study found that white people with high levels of implicit racism, but not explicit racism, were more supportive of voter ID laws when they were exposed to a fear - eliciting condition. A 2016 study found that partisan affiliation is a major determinant of support for voter ID laws and that Republicans are especially likely to be concerned about voter fraud. Research shows that Individuals who hold anti-immigrant views are most likely to believe that voter fraud is rampant.
In 2014, a study released by the Congressional Research Service concluded that, in the absence of systematic risk analyses, it is difficult to determine what points in the election process -- voter registration, voting systems, polling place location and hours, pollworker training, voter identification, vote tabulation, or other steps -- involve the greatest potential risks to election integrity and therefore warrant the greatest attention. Another 2014 study argued that careful voter roll maintenance is probably a more effective method for preventing voter fraud than voter ID laws.
A 2015 study found that local coverage of voter fraud during the 2012 elections was greatest in presidential swing states and states that passed strict vote ID laws prior to the 2012 election. There was no evidence that the reporting was related to the actual rate of voter fraud in each state. Based on this data, the authors concluded that "parties and campaigns sought to place voter fraud on the political agenda in strategically important states to motivate their voting base ahead of the election ''. Another 2015 study found a similar correlation between the enactment of voter ID laws and a state 's electoral competitiveness, suggesting electioneering motives.
A 2016 study found polarization over voter ID laws was less stark in state legislatures where electoral competition was not intense. The same 2016 study found a notable relationship between the racial composition of a member 's district, region, and electoral competition, and the likelihood that a state lawmaker supported a voter ID bill. The study found that "Democratic lawmakers representing substantial black district populations are more opposed to restrictive voter ID laws, whereas Republican legislators with substantial black district populations are more supportive. '' Southern lawmakers (particularly Democrats) were more opposed to restrictive voter ID legislation. Black legislators in the South were the least supportive of restrictive voter ID bills.
A 2017 study in American Politics Research found that the adoption of voter ID laws is most likely when control of the governor 's office and state legislature switches to Republicans, and when the size of black and Latino populations in the state increases. Another 2017 study found that the different advertising strategies used to advertise Kansas ' voter ID laws by different county clerks there influenced the effect of these laws on turnout.
Several states controlled by Democrats maintain voter ID laws. For instance, Hawaii has required a state - issued photo ID for decades. In 2011, the Rhode Island legislature enacted a photo ID requirement, which was signed by governor Lincoln Chafee, making Rhode Island the most recent state controlled by Democrats to pass such legislation. However, both Hawaii and Rhode Island are "non-strict photo ID states '', meaning that, in some circumstances, an affidavit or other legal measure can satisfy the ID requirement.
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who plays governor conway in house of cards | Joel Kinnaman - wikipedia
Charles Joel Nordström Kinnaman (born 25 November 1979) is a Swedish American actor, best known in Sweden for playing the lead role in the Swedish film Easy Money, a role that earned him a Guldbagge Award in the "Best Actor '' category, and also for his roles as Frank Wagner in the Johan Falk film series and Governor Will Conway in the U.S. version of House of Cards. He starred as detective Stephen Holder on AMC 's The Killing, and played Alex Murphy in the 2014 RoboCop remake, and Rick Flag in the film adaptation of Suicide Squad (2016), based on the DC Comics anti-hero team of the same name.
Kinnaman was born and raised in Stockholm. His mother, Bitte, a therapist, is a Swedish citizen. His father, Steve Kinnaman (originally David Kinnaman), is an American who was drafted during the Vietnam War and deserted the military from his base in Bangkok. Kinnaman has both Swedish and American citizenship, because of his father 's American nationality. Kinnaman 's father, whose family was from the American Midwest, is of English, German, Irish, and Scottish descent, while Kinnaman 's mother is Ukrainian Jewish descent. He has five sisters, one of whom is actress Melinda Kinnaman (his half - sister). During his childhood, Kinnaman learned two languages as he "spoke English with my dad and Swedish with my mom. '' Kinnaman spent a year in Texas as a high school exchange student.
He originally started his career as a child actor in 1990, in the soap opera Storstad. His older sister was dating one of the show 's directors, and he asked Joel to try out for a role. After portraying Felix Lundström in 22 episodes, he stepped away from acting.
Kinnaman restarted his acting career in 2002, taking part in a thriller called The Invisible and enrolling in the Swedish Academic School of Drama in Malmö, where actors such as Michael Nyqvist have studied. He graduated in 2007, and afterwards attracted the attention of Swedish media in a stage adaptation of Crime and Punishment. Kinnaman then went on to star in nine Swedish movies in 14 months. He made his breakthrough in the 2009 film I skuggan av värmen and his success continued with a role in six films of the Johan Falk film series. He was then cast in the film Easy Money (released January 2010), which brought him attention in Sweden and the rest of the world. Looking to expand his acting career, Kinnaman hired an agent in the United States, the same agent that represents Johnny Depp. It was announced in the spring of 2010 that he would be making his international film debut in the thriller The Darkest Hour, which began filming in Moscow in June 2010 and was released in December 2011. Beginning in April 2011, Kinnaman had a starring role as Detective Stephen Holder in the AMC television series The Killing.
Kinnaman was one of the contenders for the lead roles in Thor (2011) and Mad Max: Fury Road (2015). He told the newspaper Östran that he "was really close to getting the lead role in Mad Max 4. It was between me and two others, and the one who got the role was Tom Hardy. (The director) was very pleased (with my performance) -- but they needed someone who seemed older. '' Regarding Thor, he has stated that "they wanted someone with a Scandinavian touch. There were only five candidates left in the end, but unfortunately I could n't fly over (to the United States) and do test shoots with Natalie Portman, because it would interfere with the filming of Easy Money. '' Although Kinnaman has said that he is eager to work and become recognized in America, he added that "I absolutely do n't feel that I have to take any role that I can get just because it is the United States. I 'm looking for something interesting, I 'm still young in my artistry, and I must dare to do things even when there 's a risk for failure ''.
Kinnaman reunited with Easy Money director Daniel Espinosa in his Hollywood debut, 2012 's Safe House. On 3 March 2012, it was confirmed that Kinnaman would play the lead role of Alex James Murphy / Robocop in the 2014 remake of 1987 's RoboCop. The film was released in February 2014. In 2015, he appeared in the drama Knight of Cups and starred in the thrillers Run All Night and Child 44. Kinnaman next played Rick Flag Jr. in the Warner Bros. and DC Comics adaptation of Suicide Squad (2016), directed by David Ayer.
In 2016, Kinnaman also starred in the independent drama - thriller film Edge of Winter. He plays Elliot Baker, a father of two who takes his children on a shooting trip that goes horribly wrong. The film was released on demand on 27 July, and in select theatres on 12 August. Joel has also been cast as the main protagonist in Netflix 's Altered Carbon, an adaption to Richard K. Morgan 's hardboiled cyberpunk science fiction novel of the same name. Netflix has ordered a 10 - episode season one. Kinnaman will portray Takeshi Kovacs, a native of the planet Harlan 's World. Kovacs is of Japanese and Eastern - European descent, and was a teenage gang member before enlisting in the military. After leaving the Envoy Corps, an elite military force, Kovacs returned to criminal life and became a mercenary, and was eventually imprisoned, his cortical "stack '' stored without a body for decades at a time as punishment before being paroled or hired out to work high - risk situations.
In mid-2014, Kinnaman began dating Swedish tattoo artist Cleo Wattenström. In April 2016, Kinnaman revealed he and Wattenström are married.
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who did the ottoman empire fight with in ww1 | History of the Ottoman Empire during World war I - wikipedia
The Ottoman Empire participated in World War I as one of the Central Powers. The Ottoman Empire entered the war by carrying out a surprise attack on Russia 's Black Sea coast on 29 October 1914, with Russia responding by declaring war on 5 November 1914. Ottoman forces fought the Entente in the Balkans and the Middle Eastern theatre of World War I. The Ottoman Empire 's defeat in the war in 1918 was crucial in the eventual dissolution of the empire in 1921.
The Ottoman entry into World War I began on 29 October 1914 when it launched the Black Sea Raid against Russian ports. Following the attack, Russia and its allies (Britain and France) declared war on the Ottomans in November 1914. The Ottoman Empire started military action came after three months of formal neutrality, but it had signed a secret alliance with the Central Powers in August 1914.
The political reasons for the Ottoman Sultan 's entry into the war are disputed. and the Ottoman Empire was an agricultural state in an age of industrialized warfare, Also, the economic resources of the empire were depleted by the cost of the Balkan Wars of 1912 and 1913.
The great land mass of Anatolia was between the Ottoman army 's headquarters in Istanbul and many of the theatres of war. During Abdulhamit II 's reign civilian communications had improved, but the road and rail network was not ready for war. It took more than a month to reach Syria and nearly two months to reach Mesopotamia. To reach the border with Russia, the railway ran only 60 km east of Ankara, and from there, it was 35 days to Erzurum. The Army used Trabzon port as logistical shortcut to east. It took less time to arrive at any of those fronts from London than from the Ottoman War Department because of the poor condition of Ottoman supply ships.
The empire fell into disorder with the declaration of war along with Germany. On 11 November a conspiracy was discovered in Constantinople against Germans and the Committee of Union and Progress (CUP) in which some of the CUP leaders were shot. That followed the 12 November revolt in Adrianople against the German military mission. On 13 November, a bomb exploded in Enver Pasha 's palace, which killed five German officers but missed the Enver Pasha. On 18 November were more anti-German plots. Committees formed around the country to rid the country of those who sided with Germany. Army and navy officers protested against the assumption of authority by Germans. On 4 December, widespread riots took place throughout the country. On 13 December was an anti-war demonstration by women in Konak (Izmir) and Erzurum. Throughout December, the CUP dealt with mutiny among soldiers in barracks and among naval crews. The head of the German Military Mission, Field Marshal von der Goltz, survived a conspiracy against his life.
The military power remained firmly in the hands of War Minister Enver Pasha, domestic issues (civil matters) on Interior Minister Talat Pasha, and, an interesting point, Cemal Pasha had sole control over Ottoman Syria. Rest of the governance, provincial governors, ran their regions with differing degrees of autonomy. An interesting case is Izmir; Rahmi Bey behaved almost as if his region was a neutral zone between the warring states.
Ottoman 's entrance into the war greatly increased the Triple Entente 's military burdens. Russia had to fight on the Caucasus Campaign alone and in the Persian Campaign along with the United Kingdom. İsmail Enver Pasha set off for the Battle of Sarikamish with the intention of recapturing Batum and Kars, overrunning Georgia and occupying north - western Persia and the oil fields. Fighting the Russians in the Caucasus, however, the Ottomans lost ground, and over 100,000 soldiers, in a series of battles. 60,000 Ottoman soldiers died in the winter of 1916 -- 17 on the Mus -- Bitlis section of the front. Ottomans preferred to keep the Caucasus militarily silent as they had to regroup reserves to retake Baghdad and Palestine from the British. 1917 and first half of 1918 was the time for negotiations. On 5 December 1917, the armistice of Erzincan (Erzincan Cease - fire Agreement) signed between the Russians and Ottomans in Erzincan that ended the armed conflicts between Russia and Ottoman Empire. On 3 March, the Grand vizier Talat Pasha signed the Treaty of Brest - Litovsk with the Russian SFSR. It stipulated that Bolshevik Russia cede Batum, Kars, and Ardahan. In addition to these provisions, a secret clause was inserted which obligated the Russians to demobilize Armenian national forces.
Between 14 March -- April 1918 the Trabzon peace conference held among the Ottoman Empire and the delegation of the Transcaucasian Diet. Enver Pasha offered to surrender all ambitions in the Caucasus in return for recognition of the Ottoman reacquisition of the east Anatolian provinces at Brest - Litovsk at the end of the negotiations. On 5 April, the head of the Transcaucasian delegation Akaki Chkhenkeli accepted the Treaty of Brest - Litovsk as a basis for more negotiations and wired the governing bodies urging them to accept this position. The mood prevailing in Tiflis was very different. Tiflis acknowledge the existence of a state of war between themselves and the Ottoman Empire.
In April 1918, the Ottoman 3rd Army finally went on the offensive in Armenia. Opposition from Armenian forces led to the Battle of Sardarapat, the Battle of Kara Killisse (1918), and the Battle of Bash Abaran. On 28 May 1918, the Armenian National Council based in Tiflis declared the Democratic Republic of Armenia. The new Republic of Armenia was forced to sign the Treaty of Batum.
In July 1918, Ottomans faced with the Centrocaspian Dictatorship at the Battle of Baku, with the goal of taking Britain Baku on the Caspian Sea.
The British captured Basra in November 1914, and marched north into Iraq. Initially Ahmed Djemal Pasha was ordered to gather an army in Palestine to threaten the Suez Canal. In response, the Allies -- including the newly formed Australian and New Zealand Army Corps ("ANZACs '') -- opened another front with the Battle of Gallipoli. The army led by Ahmed Djemal Pasha (Fourth Army) to eject the British from Egypt was stopped at the Suez canal in February 1915, and again the next summer. The canal was vital to the British war effort. The 1915 locust plague breaks out in the Palestine region, to be exact the Ottoman military hospitals record the period as March -- October 1915:
The expected, and feared, British invasion came not through Cilicia or northern Syria, but through the straits. The aim of the Dardanelles campaign was to support Russia. Most military observers recognized that the uneducated Ottoman soldier was lost without good leadership, and at Gallipoli Mustafa Kemal realized the capabilities of his man if their officers led from the front. The war was something from a different era, as the agrarian Ottoman Empire faced two industrialized forces, at silent predawn attacks in which officers with drawn swords went ahead of troops and only the troops to shout their battlecry of "Allahu Akbar! '' when they reached the enemy 's trenches.
The United Kingdom was obliged to defend India and the southern Persian oil territory by undertaking the Mesopotamian campaign. Britain also had to protect Egypt in the Sinai - Palestine - Syria Campaign. These campaigns strained Allied resources and relieved Germany.
The repulse of British forces in Palestine in the spring of 1917 was followed by the loss of Jerusalem in December of the same year. The Ottoman authorities deport the entire civilian population of Jaffa and Tel Aviv, The Tel Aviv and Jaffa deportation, pursuant to the order from Ahmed Jamal Pasha on 6 April 1917. The Muslim evacuees allowed to return before long, At the same period the Balfour Declaration was being negotiated (published on 2 November 1917) in which the British Government declares its support for the establishment of a Jewish national home in Palestine. Ahmed Jamal Pasha effectively separates these groups. The Jewish evacuees returned after the British conquest of Palestine.
The Ottomans were eventually defeated due to key attacks by the British general Edmund Allenby.
The war tested to the limit the empire 's relations with its Arab population. In February 1915 in Syria, Cemal Pasha exercised absolute power in both military and civil affairs. Cemal Pasha was convinced that an uprising among local Arabs was imminent. Leading Arabs were executed, and notable families deported to Anatolia. Cemal 's policies did nothing to alleviate the famine that was gripping Syria; it was exacerbated by a British and French blockade of the coastal ports, the requisitioning of transports, profiteering and -- strikingly -- Cemal 's preference for spending scarce funds on public works and the restoration of historic monuments During the war, Britain had been a major sponsor of Arab nationalist thought and ideology, primarily as a weapon to use against the power of the Empire. Sharif Hussein ibn Ali rebelled against the Ottoman rule during the Arab Revolt of 1916. In August he was replaced by Sharif Haydar, but in October he proclaimed himself king of Arabia and in December was recognized by the British as an independent ruler. There was little the Empire could do to influence the course of events, other than try to prevent news of the uprising spreading, prevent it to demoralize the army or act as a propaganda for anti-Ottoman Arab factions. On 3 October 1918 forces of the Arab Revolt enter Damascus accompanied by British troops, ending 400 years of Ottoman rule.
In order to support the other Central Powers, Enver Pasha sent 3 Army Corps or around 100.000 men to fight in Eastern Europe.
The Constantinople Agreement on 18 March 1915 was a set of secret assurances, which Great Britain promised to give the Capital, and the Dardanelles to the Russians in the event of victory. The city of Constantinople was intended to be a free port.
During 1915, British forces invalidated the Anglo - Ottoman Convention, declaring Kuwait to be an "independent sheikdom under British protectorate. ''
On 10 September 1915, Interior Minister Talat Pasha abolished the "Capitulations ''. On 10 September 1915 Grand Vizier Said Halim Pasha annulled (Vizer had the authority on annuls) the Capitulations, which ended the special privileges they granted to foreign nationals. The capitulation holders refused to recognize his action (unilateral action). The American ambassador expressed the Great Power view:
The capitulary regime, as it exists in the Empire, is not an autonomous institution of the Empire, but the result of international treaties, of diplomatic agreements and of contractual acts of various sorts. The regime, consequently, can not be modified in any of its parts and still less suppressed in its entirety by the Ottoman Government except in consequence of an understanding with the contracting Powers.
Beside the capitulations, there was another issue which evolved under the shadow of capitulations. The dept and financial control (revenue generation) of the empire was intertwined under single institution, which its board was constituted from Great Powers rather than Ottomans. There is no sovereignty in this design. The public debt could and did interfere in state affairs because it controlled (collected) one - quarter of state revenues. The debt was administered by the Ottoman Public Debt Administration and its power extended to the Imperial Ottoman Bank (equates to modern central banks). Debt Administration controlled many of the important revenues of the empire. The council had power over every financial affairs. Its control extended to determine the tax on livestock in districts. Ottoman public debt was part of a larger scheme of political control, through which the commercial interests of the world had sought to gain advantages that may not be to Empire 's interest. The immediate purpose of the abolition of capitulations and the cancellation of foreign debt repayments was to reduce the foreign stranglehold on the Ottoman economy; a second purpose -- and one to which great political weight was attached -- was to extirpate non -- Muslims from the economy by transferring assets to Muslim Turks and encouraging their participation with government contracts and subsidies.
The French - Armenian Agreement of 27 October 1916, was reported to the interior minister, Talat Pasha, which agreement negotiations were performed with the leadership of Boghos Nubar the chairman of the Armenian National Assembly and one of the founder of the AGBU.
In 1917 the Ottoman Cabinet considered maintaining relations with Washington after the United States had declared war on Germany on 6 April. But the views of the war party prevailed and they insisted on maintaining a common front with their allies. Thus, relations with America were broken on 20 April 1917.
The 1917 Russian revolution changed the realities. The war devastated not only Russian soldiers, also the Russian economy was breaking down under the heightened strain of wartime demand by the end of 1915. The tsarist regime 's advances for the security on its southern borders proved ruinous. The tsarist regime 's desire to control the Eastern Anatolia and the straits (perceived as an underbelly), in the end created the conditions that brought about Russia 's own downfall. Unable to use Straits disrupted the Russian supply chain. Russia might survived without the Straits, but the strain was the tipping point for its war economy. This question was left to Soviet historians: "whether a less aggressive policy toward the Ottoman Empire before the war would have caused Istanbul to maintain neutrality or whether Russia later might have induced Istanbul to leave the war, the outcome of tsarist future would be different. Nicholas 's inept handling of his country and the war destroyed the Tsar and ended up costing him both his reign and his life.
Enver immediately instructed the Vehib Pasha, Third Army, to propose a ceasefire to Russia 's Caucasus Army. Vehib cautioned withdrawing forces, as due to the politics in Russia -- neither Russia 's Caucasus Army nor Caucasian civil authorities give assurance that an armistice would hold. On 7 November 1917 the Bolshevik Party led by Vladimir Lenin over threw the Provisional Government in a violent coup plunged Russia into multitude of civil wars between ethnic groups. The slow dissolution of Russia 's Caucasus Army relieved one form of military threat from the east but brought another one. Russia was a long time threat, but at the same time kept the civil unrest in his land at bay without spreading to Ottomans in a violent. On 3 December the Ottoman foreign minister Ahmed Nesimi Bey informed the "Chamber of Deputies '' about the prospects. Chamber discussed the possible outcomes and priorities. On 15 December Armistice between Russia and the Central Powers signed. On 18 December Armistice of Erzincan signed. The Bolsheviks ' anti-imperialist formula of peace with no annexations and no indemnities was close to Ottoman position. The Bolsheviks ' position brought a conflict with the Germany 's aim to preserve control over the East European lands it occupied and with Bulgaria 's claims on Dobruja and parts of Serbia. In December Enver informed the Quadruple Alliance that they would like to see the 1877 border (Russo - Turkish War (1877 -- 1878)), pointing out that the only Ottomans lost territory and 1877 boarder was Ottoman territories inhabited by Muslims. Ottomans did not pushed 1877 position too hard, scared to fall back to bilateral agreements. On the other hand, Germany, Austria - Hungary, and Bulgaria clearly stood behind on the pulling back the Ottoman and Russian forces from Iran. Ottomans wanted Muslim Iran be under its own control. The ambassador to Berlin, Ibrahim Hakki Pasha, wrote: "Although Russia may be in a weakened state today, it is always an awesome enemy and it is probable that in a short time it will recover its former might and power.
On 22 December 1917, the first meeting between Ottomans and the Bolsheviks, the temporary head Zeki Pasha, until Talat Pasha 's arrival, requested of Lev Kamenev to put an end to atrocities being committed on Russian - occupied territory by Armenian partisans. Kamenev agreed and added "an international commission should be established to oversee the return of refugees (by own consent) and deportees (by forced relocation) to Eastern Anatolia. The battle of ideals, rhetoric, and material for the fate of Eastern Anatolia opened with this dialog.
The Treaty of Brest - Litovsk represented an enormous success for the empire. Minister of Foreign Affairs Halil Bey announced the achievement of peace to the Chamber of Deputies. He cheered the deputies further with his prediction of the imminent signing of a third peace treaty (the first Ukraine, second Russia, and with Romania). Halil Bey thought the Entente to cease hostilities and bring a rapid end to the war. The creation of an independent Ukraine promised to cripple Russia, and the recovery of Kars, Ardahan and Batum gave the CUP a tangible prize. Nationalism emerged at the center of the diplomatic struggle between the Central Powers and the Bolsheviks. Empire recognized that Russia 's Muslims, their co-religionists, are disorganized and dispersed to come out as an entity in the future battles of ideals, rhetoric, and material. Thus, the Ottomans mobilized the Caucasus Committee to make claims on behalf of the Muslims. The Caucasus Committee had declined Ottoman earnest requests to break from Russia and embrace independence. The Caucasian Christians was far ahead in this new world concept. Helping the Caucasian Muslims to be free, like their neighbors, would be the Ottomans ' challenge.
In the overall war effort, the CUP was convinced that empire 's contribution was essential. Ottoman armies had tied down large numbers of Allied troops on various fronts, keeping them away from theatres in Europe where they would have been used against German and Austrian forces. Moreover, they claimed that their success at Gallipoli had been an important factor in bringing about the collapse of Russia, resulting in the revolution of April 1917. They had turned the war in favor of Germany and her allies. Hopes were initially high for the Ottomans that their losses in the Middle East might be compensated for by successes in the Caucasus Campaign. Enver Pasha maintained an optimistic stance, hid information that made the Ottoman position appear weak, and let most of the Ottoman elite believe that the war was still winnable.
Ottoman policy toward the Caucasus evolved according to the changing demands of the diplomatic and geopolitical environment. What was the Ottoman premise in involving with the Azerbaijan and the North Caucasus? The Empire 's leaders, in the parliament discussions throughout 1917, understood that Russia 's collapse presented a historic window of opportunity to redraw the map of the Caucasus. They were convinced, however, that soon enough Russia would recover and reemerge as the dominant power in the region and shut that window.
The principle of "self - determination '' became the criterion, or at least in part, to give them a chance to stand on their feet. The Bolsheviks did not regard national separatism in this region as a lasting force. Their expectation was whole region come under a "voluntary and honest union '' and this union bearing no resemblance to Lenin 's famous description of Russia as a "prison house of peoples. '' Lenin 's arrival to Russia was formally welcomed by Nikolay Chkheidze, the Menshevik Chairman of the Petrograd Soviet.
Ottoman 's did not see a chance of these new states to stand against new Russia. These new Muslim states needed support to be emerged as viable independent states. In order to consolidate a buffer zone with Russia (both for the Empire and these new states), however, Ottomans needed to expel the Bolsheviks from Azerbaijan and the North Caucasus before the end of war. Based on 1917 negotiations, Enver concluded that Empire should not to expect much military assistance from the Muslims of the Caucasus as they were the one in need. Enver also knew the importance of Kars -- Julfa railroad and the adjacent areas for this support. Goal was set forward beginning from 1918 to end of the war.
The Empire duly recognized the Transcaucasian Democratic Federative Republic in February 1918. This preference to remain part of Russia led Caucasusian politics to the Trebizond Peace Conference to base their diplomacy on the incoherent assertion that they were an integral part of Russia but yet not bound The representatives were Rauf Bey for the Empire, and Akaki Chkhenkeli from the Transcaucasian delegation.
On 11 May, a new peace conference opened at Batum. The Treaty of Batum was signed on 4 June 1918, in Batum between the Ottoman Empire and three Trans - Caucasus states: First Republic of Armenia, Azerbaijan Democratic Republic and Democratic Republic of Georgia.
The goal was to assist Azerbaijan Democratic Republic at Battle of Baku, then turn north to assist the embattled Mountainous Republic of the Northern Caucasus and then sweep southward to encircle the British in Mesopotamia and retake Baghdad. The British in Mesopotamia already moving north, with forty vans (claimed to loaded with gold and silver for buying mercenary) accompanied with only a brigade, to establish a foothold. At the time Baku was under the control of the 26 Baku Commissars which were Bolshevik and Left Socialist Revolutionary (SR) members of the Baku Soviet Commune. The commune was established in the city of Baku. In this plan, they expected resistance from Bolshevik Russia and Britain, but also Germany, which opposed the extension of their influence into the Caucasus. Ottoman 's goal to side with Muslims of Azerbaijan and MRNC managed to get Bolsheviks of Russia, Britain and Germany on the same side of a conflict box at this brief point in the history.
Developments in Southeast Europe squashed the Ottoman government 's hopes. In September 1918, the Allied forces under the command of Louis Franchet d'Espèrey mounted a sudden offensive at the Macedonian Front, which proved quite successful. Bulgaria was forced to sue for peace in the Armistice of Salonica. This development undermined both the German and Ottoman cause simultaneously - the Germans had no troops to spare to defend Austria - Hungary from the newly formed vulnerability in Southeast Europe after the losses it had suffered in France, and the Ottomans suddenly faced having to defend Istanbul against an overland European siege without help from the Bulgarians.
Grand Vizier Talaat Pasha visited both Berlin, and Sofia, in September 1918, and came away with the understanding that the war was no longer winnable. With Germany likely seeking a separate peace, the Ottomans would be forced to as well. Grand Vizier Talaat convinced the other members of the ruling party that they must resign, as the Allies would impose far harsher terms if they thought the people who started the war were still in power. He also sought out the United States to see if he could surrender to them and gain the benefits of the Fourteen Points despite the Ottoman Empire and the United States not being at war; however, the Americans never responded, as they were waiting on British advice as to how to respond which never came. On 13 October, Talaat and the rest of his ministry resigned. Ahmed Izzet Pasha replaced Talaat as Grand Vizier.
Two days after taking office, Ahmed Izzet Pasha sent the captured British General Charles Vere Ferrers Townshend to the Allies to seek terms on an armistice. The British Cabinet were eager to negotiate a deal. British government interpreted that not only should Britain conduct the negotiations, but should conduct them alone. There may be a desire to cut the French out of territorial "spoils '' promised to them in the Sykes - Picot agreement. Talaat (before resigning) had sent an emissary to the French as well, but that emissary had been slower to respond back. The British cabinet empowered Admiral Calthorpe to conduct the negotiations, and to explicitly exclude the French from them. The negotiations began on Sunday, 27 October on the HMS Agamemnon, a British battleship. The British refused to admit French Vice-Admiral Jean Amet, the senior French naval officer in the area, despite his desire to join; the Ottoman delegation, headed by Minister of Marine Affairs Rauf Bey.
Unknown to both sides, both sides were actually quite eager to sign a deal and willing to give up their objectives to do so. The British delegation had been given a list of 24 demands, but were told to concede on any of them except allowing the occupation of the forts on the Dardanelles as well as free passage through the Bosphorus; the British desired access to the Black Sea for the Rumanian front. Prime Minister David Lloyd George also desired to make a deal quickly before the United States could step in; according to the diary of Maurice Hankey:
(Lloyd George) was also very contemptuous of President Wilson and anxious to arrange the division of Empire between France, Italy, and G.B. before speaking to America. He also thought it would attract less attention to our enormous gains during the war if we swallowed our share of Empire now, and the German colonies later.
The Ottomans, for their part, believed the war to be lost and would have accepted almost any demands placed on them. As a result, the initial draft prepared by the British was accepted largely unchanged; the Ottomans did not know they could have pushed back on most of the clauses, and the British did not know they could have demanded even more. The Ottomans ceded the rights to the Allies to occupy "in case of disorder '' any Ottoman territory, a vague and broad clause. The French were displeased with the precedent; French Premier Clemenceau disliked the British making unilateral decisions in so important a matter. Lloyd George countered that the French had concluded a similar armistice on short notice in the Armistice of Salonica which had been negotiated by French General d'Esperey, and that Great Britain (and Czarist Russia) had committed the vast majority of troops to the campaign against the Ottomans. The French agreed to accept the matter as closed.
On 30 October 1918, the Armistice of Mudros was signed, ending Ottoman involvement in World War 1. The Ottoman public, however, was given misleadingly positive impressions of the severity of the terms of the Armistice. They thought its terms were considerably more lenient than they actually were, a source of discontent later that the Allies had betrayed the offered terms.
During WWI the Ottoman Empire engaged in a genocide against local ethnicities in its territory. The Armenian Genocide, also known as the Armenian Holocaust, was the Ottoman government 's systematic extermination of 1.5 million Christian Armenians, mostly Ottoman citizens within the Ottoman Empire and its successor state, the Republic of Turkey. The starting date is conventionally held to be 24 April 1915, the day that Ottoman authorities rounded up, arrested, and deported 235 to 270 Armenian intellectuals and community leaders from Constantinople to Ankara, the majority of whom were eventually murdered. The genocide was carried out during and after World War I and implemented in two phases: the wholesale killing of the able - bodied male population through massacre and subjection of army conscripts to forced labour, followed by the deportation of women, children, the elderly, and the infirm on death marches leading to the Syrian desert. Driven forward by military escorts, the deportees were deprived of food and water and subjected to periodic robbery, rape, and massacre. Other indigenous and Christian ethnic groups such as the Assyrians and the Ottoman Greeks were similarly targeted for extermination by the Ottoman government in the Assyrian genocide and the Greek genocide, and their treatment is considered by some historians to be part of the same genocidal policy. Most Armenian diaspora communities around the world came into being as a direct result of the genocide.
Raphael Lemkin was explicitly moved by the Armenian annihilation to define systematic and premeditated exterminations within legal parameters and to coin the word genocide in 1943. The Armenian Genocide is acknowledged to have been one of the first modern genocides, because scholars point to the organized manner in which the killings were carried out in order to eliminate the Armenians, and it is the second most - studied case of genocide after the Holocaust.
Turkey, the successor state of the Ottoman Empire, denies the word genocide as an accurate term for the mass killings of Armenians that began under Ottoman rule in 1915. It has in recent years been faced with repeated calls to recognize them as genocide. To date, 29 countries have officially recognized the mass killings as genocide, as have most genocide scholars and historians.
Includes most of to daysader nation of Europe
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where does the speaker of the house sit | Speaker of the House of Commons (United Kingdom) - wikipedia
The Speaker of the House of Commons is the presiding officer of the House of Commons, the United Kingdom 's lower chamber of Parliament. The office is currently held by John Bercow, who was initially elected on 22 June 2009, following the resignation of Michael Martin. He was returned as an MP in the 2010 general election and was re-elected as Speaker when the House sat at the start of the new Parliament on 18 May 2010. He was again returned as an MP in the 2015 general election and was re-elected, unopposed, as Speaker when the House sat at the start of the new Parliament on 18 May 2015 and again on 13 June 2017.
The Speaker presides over the House 's debates, determining which members may speak. The Speaker is also responsible for maintaining order during debate, and may punish members who break the rules of the House. Unlike presiding officers of legislatures in many other countries, the Speaker remains strictly non-partisan, and renounces all affiliation with his or her former political party when taking office as well as when leaving the office. The Speaker does not take part in debate or vote (except to break ties; and even then, the convention is that the speaker casts the tie - breaking vote according to Speaker Denison 's rule). Aside from duties relating to presiding over the House, the Speaker also performs administrative and procedural functions, and remains a constituency Member of Parliament (MP). The Speaker has the right and obligation to reside in Speaker 's House at the Palace of Westminster.
The office of Speaker is almost as old as Parliament itself. The earliest year for which a presiding officer has been identified is 1258, when Peter de Montfort presided over the Parliament held in Oxford. Early presiding officers were known by the title parlour or prolocutor. The continuous history of the office of Speaker is held to date from 1376 when Sir Peter de la Mare spoke for the commons in the "Good Parliament '' as they joined leading magnates in purging the chief ministers of the Crown and the most unpopular members of the king 's household. Edward III was frail and in seclusion, his prestigious eldest son, Edward the Black Prince, terminally ill. It was left to the next son, a furious John of Gaunt, to fight back. He arrested De la Mare and disgraced other leading critics. In the next, "Bad Parliament '', in 1377, a cowed Commons put forward Gaunt 's steward, Thomas Hungerford, as their spokesman in retracting their predecessors ' misdoings of the previous year. Gaunt evidently wanted a ' mirror - image ' as his form of counter-coup and this notion, born in crisis, of one ' speaker ', who quickly also became ' chairman ' and organiser of the Commons ' business, was recognised as valuable and took immediate root after 1376 - 7.
On 6 October 1399, Sir John Cheyne of Beckford (Gloucester) was elected speaker. The powerful Archbishop of Canterbury, Thomas Arundel, is said to have voiced his fears of Cheyne 's reputation as a critic of the Church. Eight days later, Cheyne resigned on grounds of ill - health, although he remained in favour with the king and active in public life for a further 14 years.
Although the officer was elected by the Commons at the start of each Parliament, with at least one contested election known, in 1420 (Roger Hunt prevailing by a majority of just four votes), in practice the Crown was usually able to get whom it wanted, indicating that the famous ' defence of the Commons ' privilege ' should not be seen in isolation as the principal thread in the office 's evolution. Whilst the idea of giving this spokesman personal immunity from recrimination as only being the voice of the whole body was quickly adopted and did enhance the Commons ' role, the Crown found it useful to have one person with the authority to select and lead the lower house 's business and responses to the Crown 's agenda, much more often than not in the way the Crown wanted. Thus, Whig ideas of the Commons growing in authority as against royal power are somewhat simplistic -- the Crown used the Commons as and when it found it advantageous to do so, and the speakership was part of the process of making the Commons a more cohesive, defined and effective instrument of the king 's government.
Throughout the medieval and early modern period, every speaker was an MP for a county, reflecting the implicit situation that such shire representatives were of greater standing in the house than the more numerous burgess MPs. Although evidence is almost non-existent, it has been surmised that any vote was by count of head, but by the same token perhaps the fact so very little is said about actual votes suggests that most decisions, at least of a general kind, were reached more through persuasion and the weight by status of the county MPs. In such a situation, the influence of the speaker should not be underestimated. Sir Thomas More was the first speaker to go on to become Lord Chancellor.
Until the 17th century, members of the House of Commons often continued to view their Speaker (correctly) as an agent of the Crown. As Parliament evolved, however, the Speaker 's position grew into one that involved more duties to the House than to the Crown; such was definitely the case by the time of the English Civil War. This change is sometimes said to be reflected by an incident in 1642, when King Charles I entered the House in order to search for and arrest five members for high treason. When the King asked him if he knew of the location of these members, the Speaker, William Lenthall, famously replied: "May it please your Majesty, I have neither eyes to see nor tongue to speak in this place but as the House is pleased to direct me, whose servant I am here. ''
The development of Cabinet government under King William III in the late 17th century caused further change in the nature of the Speakership. Speakers were generally associated with the ministry, and often held other government offices. For example, Robert Harley served simultaneously as Speaker and as a Secretary of State between 1704 and 1705. The Speaker between 1728 and 1761, Arthur Onslow, reduced ties with the government, though the office did remain to a large degree political. The Speakership evolved into its modern form -- in which the holder is an impartial and apolitical officer who does not belong to any party -- only during the middle of the 19th century.
Over 150 individuals have served as Speaker of the House of Commons. Their names are inscribed in gold leaf around the upper walls of Room C of the House of Commons Library. The three most recent Speakers have been notable for a series of firsts. Betty Boothroyd, elected in 1992, was the first woman Speaker. Michael Martin, elected in 2000, was the first Roman Catholic Speaker since the Reformation. John Bercow, elected in 2009, is the first Jewish Speaker.
By convention, Speakers have traditionally been addressed in Parliament as "Mr Speaker '', and their deputies as "Mr Deputy Speaker '', regardless of their gender or their usual title. Betty Boothroyd was, at her request, addressed as "Madam Speaker ''. When Betty Harvie Anderson served in the 1970s as a Deputy Speaker, on the other hand, she was addressed as "Mr Deputy Speaker ''. Eleanor Laing, a Deputy Speaker since 2013, is addressed as "Madam Deputy Speaker ''.
MPs elect the Speaker from amongst their own ranks. The House must elect a Speaker at the beginning of each new parliamentary term after a general election, or after the death or resignation of the incumbent. Once elected, a Speaker continues in office until the dissolution of Parliament, unless he or she resigns prior to this. Customarily, the House re-elects Speakers who desire to continue in office for more than one term. Theoretically, the House could vote against re-electing a Speaker, but such an event is extremely unlikely.
The procedure for electing a Speaker has changed in recent years. Until 1971, the Clerk of the House of Commons became temporary Chairman of the House. As the Clerk is never a Member, and therefore is not permitted to speak, he would silently stand and point at the Member who was to speak. However, this procedure broke down at the election of a new Speaker in 1971 (see below) and had to be changed. Since that time, as recommended by a Select Committee, the Father of the House (the member of the House with the longest period of unbroken service who is not a Minister) becomes the presiding officer.
Until 2001, the election of a Speaker was conducted as a routine matter of House of Commons business, as it used motions and amendments to elect. A member would move "That Mr (s) (X) do take the Chair of this House as Speaker '', and following debate (which may have included an amendment to replace the name of the member on whom the Speakership was to be conferred), a routine division of the House would resolve in favour of one candidate. There was, however, a considerable amount of behind - the - scenes lobbying before suitable candidates were agreed upon, and so it was very rare for a new Speaker to be opposed. However, this system broke down in 2000 when 12 rival candidates declared for the job and the debate occupied an entire Parliamentary day. The House of Commons Procedure Committee then re-examined the means of electing a Speaker and recommended a new system that came into effect in 2007 and was first used in June 2009, following the resignation of Michael Martin.
Under the new system, candidates must be nominated by at least twelve members, of whom at least three must be of a different party from the candidate. Each member may nominate no more than one candidate. The House then votes by secret ballot; an absolute majority (in the UK sense, i.e. more than 50 % of the votes cast) is required for victory. If no candidate wins a majority, then the individual with the fewest votes is eliminated, as are any other candidates who receive less than five percent of the votes cast. The House continues to vote, for several rounds if necessary, until one member receives the requisite majority. Then, the House votes on a formal motion to appoint the member in question to the Speakership. (In the unlikely event that this motion fails, the House must hold a fresh series of ballots on all of the nominees.)
If only one candidate is nominated, then no ballot is held, and the House proceeds directly to the motion to appoint the candidate to the Speakership. A similar procedure is used if a Speaker seeks a further term after a general election: no ballot is held, and the House immediately votes on a motion to re-elect the Speaker. If the motion to re-elect the Speaker fails, candidates are nominated, and the House proceeds with voting (as described above).
Upon the passage of the motion, the Speaker - elect is expected to show reluctance at being chosen; he or she is customarily "dragged unwillingly '' by MPs to the Speaker 's bench. This custom has its roots in the Speaker 's original function of communicating the Commons ' opinions to the monarch. Historically, the Speaker, representing the House to the Monarch, potentially faced the Monarch 's anger and therefore required some persuasion to accept the post. Contrary to an often repeated tradition, no speaker has ever been executed for his actions in that capacity. Six former speakers have been executed (sometimes many years after their terms), five of which due their close association with a former king after a new monarch had succeeded.
The Speaker - elect must receive approbation by the Sovereign, before he or she may take office. On the day of the election, the Speaker - elect leads the Commons to the Chamber of the House of Lords, where Lords Commissioners appointed by the Crown confirm him or her in the monarch 's name. Thereafter, the Speaker requests "in the name and on behalf of the Commons of the United Kingdom, to lay claim, by humble petition to Her Majesty, to all their ancient and undoubted rights and privileges, especially to freedom of speech in debate, to freedom from arrest, and to free access to Her Majesty whenever occasion shall require. '' After the Lords Commissioners, on the behalf of the Sovereign, confirm the Commons ' rights and privileges, the Commons return to their Chamber. If a Speaker is chosen in the middle of a Parliament due to a vacancy in the office, he or she must receive the royal approbation as described above, but does not again lay claim to the Commons ' rights and privileges.
Though the election of a Speaker is normally non-partisan, there have been several controversial elections in history. For example, in 1895, the sudden retirement of Arthur Peel came at a time when partisan feelings were running high. The Conservatives and Liberal Unionists put forward Sir Matthew White Ridley, a well - respected MP who had many years of experience, and hoped for a unanimous election as the previous Speaker had been a Liberal. However, the Liberals decided to oppose him and nominated William Court Gully who had been an MP for only nine years and had been a relatively quiet presence. On a party - line vote, Gully was chosen by 285 to 274. Although Gully proved his impartiality to the satisfaction of most of his opponents, and was unanimously re-elected after the 1895 general election, the episode left many Unionists bitter. During that year 's general election, Gully became one of the few Speakers to be opposed in his own constituency, a sign of the bitterness of the time. It was not until the mid-1930s that it became common for a Speaker to face some form of opposition for re-election.
The 1951 election was similarly controversial. After the incumbent Speaker, Douglas Clifton Brown, retired at the 1951 general election, there was a great demand from the Labour Party for Major James Milner to become the first Labour Speaker after he had served as Deputy Speaker for eight years. However, the Conservatives (who had just regained power) nominated William Shepherd Morrison against him. The vote again went down party lines, and Morrison was elected. Milner received a peerage as compensation.
In 1971, having had early warning that Horace King would be retiring, the Conservatives took the lead in offering to the Labour Party either Selwyn Lloyd or John Boyd - Carpenter as potential Speakers. The Labour Party chose Selwyn Lloyd, partly because he was perceived as a weak figure. However, when the House of Commons debated the new Speaker, Conservative MP Robin Maxwell - Hyslop and Labour MP Willie Hamilton nominated Geoffrey de Freitas, a senior and respected backbench Labour MP. De Freitas was taken aback by the sudden nomination and urged the House not to support him (a genuine feeling, unlike the feigned reluctance which all Speakers traditionally show). Lloyd was elected, but there was a feeling among all parties that the system of election needed to be overhauled. Now, a candidate 's consent is required before he or she can be nominated.
The last three instances of the election of a new Speaker (1992, 2000 and 2009) have all been relatively controversial. Bernard Weatherill had announced his impending retirement a long time before the 1992 general election, leading to a long but suppressed campaign for support. Betty Boothroyd, a Labour MP who had been Deputy Speaker, was known to be extremely interested in becoming the first woman Speaker (and in doing so, finished the chances of fellow Labour MP Harold Walker who had also been Deputy Speaker). The Conservative former Cabinet member Peter Brooke was put forward at a late stage as a candidate. Unlike previous elections, there was an active campaign among Conservative MPs to support Boothroyd and about 70 of them did so, ensuring her election. She was the only speaker elected in the 20th century not to be a member of the governing party at the time of her first election.
Betty Boothroyd announced her retirement shortly before the summer recess in 2000, which left a long time for would - be Speakers to declare their candidature but little opportunity for Members of Parliament to negotiate and decide on who should be chosen. Many backbench Labour MPs advanced the claims of Michael Martin. Most Conservatives felt strongly that the recent alternation between the main parties ought to be maintained and a Conservative Speaker chosen. The most prominent Conservative choices were Sir George Young and Deputy Speaker Sir Alan Haselhurst. With several additional candidates announcing themselves, the total number of Members seeking the Speakership was 14, none of whom would withdraw. A lengthy sitting of the House saw Michael Martin first proposed, then each of the other candidates proposed in turn as amendments, which were all voted down. In points of order before the debate, many members demanded a secret ballot.
By convention the Speaker severs all ties with his or her political party, as it is considered essential that the Speaker be seen as an impartial presiding officer. In many cases, individuals have served in ministerial or other political positions before being elected Speaker. For example, Selwyn Lloyd and George Thomas had both previously served as high - ranking Cabinet members, whilst Bernard Weatherill was previously a party whip.
In the House, the Speaker does not vote on any motion, except in order to resolve ties. After leaving office, the Speaker normally takes no part in party politics; if elevated to the House of Lords, he or she would normally sit as a crossbencher.
If the current Speaker decides to contest a general election, he / she does not stand under a party label, but is entitled to describe himself / herself on the ballot as "The Speaker seeking re-election '', under the Political Parties, Elections and Referendums Act. In the past, the Speaker could sometimes be returned unopposed; this has not happened in the last few decades, but they have sometimes faced opposition only from fringe candidates.
When Speaker Edward FitzRoy, previously a Conservative MP, was opposed by a Labour Party candidate at the 1935 general election, there was strong disapproval from other parties and a sub-committee of the Cabinet considered whether a special constituency should be created for the Speaker to remove the obligation to take part in electoral contests. The sub-committee came to the conclusion that Parliamentary opinion would not favour this suggestion; however, in December 1938, with a general election expected within a year or so, a motion from the Prime Minister was put down to nominate a Select Committee to examine the suggestion. The committee, chaired by former Prime Minister David Lloyd George, reported in April 1939 that no change should be made; it found that preventing opposition to a sitting Speaker would be "a serious infringement of democratic principles '' and that "to alter the status of the Speaker so that he ceased to be returned to the House of Commons by the same electoral methods as other members or as a representative of a Parliamentary constituency would be equally repugnant to the custom and tradition of the House ''. With the outbreak of the Second World War, no general election was held until 1945.
More generally, the convention that major parties do not stand against the Speaker is not as firmly established as is sometimes suggested. Generally, former Labour Speakers have faced only fringe candidates, but former Conservative Speakers have faced major party candidates. The Labour and Liberal parties stood against Selwyn Lloyd in both elections in 1974, and Labour and the SDP stood against Bernard Weatherill in 1987. Speakers who represented Scottish or Welsh constituencies have also faced nationalist opponents: Plaid Cymru stood against George Thomas in 1979, and the Scottish National Party stood against Michael Martin in 2001 and 2005. At the 2010 general election, Speaker John Bercow faced ten opponents, including Nigel Farage, former leader of UKIP, who obtained 17.4 % of the vote, and John Stevens, from the Buckinghamshire Campaign for Democracy party, who obtained 21.4 %. Bercow won with 47 % of the vote.
The Speaker 's primary function is to preside over the House of Commons. Traditionally, the Speaker when presiding wore court dress -- a black coat with white shirt and bands, beneath a black gown, with stockings and buckled shoes, and a full - bottomed wig. But in 1992 Betty Boothroyd, the first female Speaker, eschewed the wig. Her successor, Michael Martin, also declined to wear the wig; moreover, he chose to simplify other aspects of the costume, doing away with the once customary buckled court shoes and silk stockings. His successor John Bercow abandoned traditional dress, wearing a plain black gown over his lounge suit when presiding. For ceremonial occasions such as the State Opening, the Speaker wears a black and gold robe with a train; previously, this was worn over court dress with a white waterfall cravat, but the present Speaker wears plain morning dress.
Whilst presiding, the Speaker sits in a chair at the front of the House. Traditionally, members supporting the Government sit on his or her right, and those supporting the Opposition on his or her left. The Speaker 's powers are extensive -- much more so than those of his or her Lords counterpart, the Lord Speaker. Most importantly, the Speaker calls on members to speak; no member may make a speech without the Speaker 's prior permission. By custom, the Speaker alternates between members supporting the Government and those supporting the Opposition. Members direct their speeches not to the whole House, but to the Speaker, using the words "Mister Speaker '' or "Madam Speaker ''. Members must refer to each other in the third person by the name of their constituency or their ministerial titles (not their names); they may not directly address anyone other than the Speaker (who does call them by name). In order to remain neutral, the Speaker generally refrains from making speeches, although there is nothing to prevent him or her from doing so. For example, on Wednesday 3 December 2008, Speaker Martin addressed the House on the subject of the arrest of Damian Green MP and the subsequent searching of his office within the precincts of the House of Commons.
During debate, the Speaker is responsible for maintaining discipline and order. He or she rules on all points of order (objections made by members asserting that a rule of the House has been broken); the decisions may not be appealed. The Speaker bases decisions on the rules of the House and on precedent; if necessary, he or she may consult with the Parliamentary Clerks before issuing a ruling. In addition, the Speaker has other powers that he may use to maintain orderly debate. Usually, the Speaker attempts to end a disruption, or "calls members to order '', by repeating "Order! Order! '' If members do not follow his or her instructions, the Speaker may punish them by demanding that they leave the House for the remainder of the day 's sitting. For grave disobedience, the Speaker may "name '' a member, by saying "I name (Mr X). '' (deliberately breaching the convention that members are only referred to by reference to their constituency, "The (Right) Honourable Member for (Y) ''). The House may then vote to suspend the member "named '' by the Speaker. In case of "grave disorder '', the Speaker may immediately adjourn the entire sitting. This power has been invoked on several occasions since it was conferred in 1902.
In addition to maintaining discipline, the Speaker must ensure that debate proceeds smoothly. If the Speaker finds that a member is making irrelevant remarks, is tediously repetitive, or is otherwise attempting to delay proceedings, he or she may order the member to end the speech. Furthermore, before debate begins, the Speaker may invoke the "Short Speech '' rule, under which he or she may set a time limit (at least eight minutes), which will apply to every speech. At the same time, however, the Speaker is charged with protecting the interests of the minority by ensuring sufficient debate before a vote. Thus, the Speaker may disallow a closure, which seeks to end debate and immediately put the question to a vote, if he or she finds that the motion constitutes an abuse of the rules or breaches the rights of the minority.
Before the House votes on any issue, the Speaker "puts the question ''; that is, he or she orally states the motion on which the members are to vote. He or she then assesses the result of a voice vote, but any member may demand a division (a recorded vote). The Speaker may overrule a request for a division and maintain the original ruling; this power, however, is used only rarely, usually when members make frivolous requests for divisions in order to delay proceedings.
The Speaker does not vote in the division, except when the Ayes and Noes are tied, in which case he or she must use the casting vote. In exercising the casting vote, the Speaker may theoretically vote as he or she pleases, but, in practice, always votes in accordance with certain unwritten conventions, such as Speaker Denison 's rule. First, the Speaker votes to give the House further opportunity to debate a bill or motion before reaching a final decision. (For example, the Speaker would be obliged to vote against a closure motion.) Secondly, any final decision should be approved by the majority. (Thus, for instance, the Speaker would vote against the final passage of a bill.) Finally, the Speaker should vote to leave a bill or motion in its existing form; in other words, the Speaker would vote against an amendment.
Since the House of Commons is a very large body, Speakers are rarely called upon to use the casting vote. Since 1801, there have been only 49 instances of tied divisions. The last tied votes were on 30 January 1980, when the House divided 201 - 201 on a motion to grant leave to bring the Televising of Parliament Bill (the then Deputy Speaker Bernard Weatherill voted Aye) and on 21 June 1990, 197 -- 197 on an Amendment of Law Relating to Termination of Pregnancy (the Deputy Speaker Sir Paul Dean voted No). There was believed to be a 317 -- 317 vote on an amendment to a motion concerning the Maastricht Treaty in 1993, but it was quickly discovered that one extra "Aye '' vote had been erroneously counted. Prior to the counting error having been noted, Speaker Betty Boothroyd did give a Casting Vote of No, although this was later expunged when the error became clear.
In addition to his or her role as presiding officer, the Speaker performs several other functions on the behalf of the House of Commons. He or she represents the body in relations with the Sovereign, the House of Lords, and non-parliamentary bodies. On important occasions of state (such as Queen Elizabeth II 's Golden Jubilee in 2002), the Speaker presents Addresses to the Crown on behalf of the House.
The Speaker performs various procedural functions. He or she may recall the House from recess during a national emergency, or when otherwise requested by the Government. When vacancies arise, the Speaker authorises the issuance of writs of election. Furthermore, the Speaker is responsible for certifying bills that relate solely to national taxation as "money bills '' under the Parliament Acts 1911 and 1949. The House of Lords has no power to block or substantially delay a money bill; even if the Lords fail to pass the bill, it becomes law within a month of passage by the Commons. The Speaker 's decision on the matter is final, and can not be challenged by the Upper House.
The Speaker is also responsible for overseeing the administration of the House. He or she chairs the House of Commons Commission, a body that appoints staff, determines their salaries, and supervises the general administration of those who serve the House. Furthermore, the Speaker controls the parts of the Palace of Westminster used by the House of Commons. Also, the Speaker is the ex officio Chairman of the four boundary commissions (for England, Wales, Scotland, and Northern Ireland), which are charged with redrawing the boundaries of parliamentary constituencies to reflect population changes. However, the Speaker normally does not attend meetings of the boundary commissions; instead, the Deputy Chairman of the Commission (usually a judge) normally presides.
Finally, the Speaker continues to represent his or her constituency in Parliament. Like any other Member of Parliament, he or she responds to letters from constituents and attempts to address their concerns.
The Speaker is assisted by three deputies, all of whom are elected by the House. The most senior deputy is known as the Chairman of Ways and Means; the title derives from the now defunct Ways and Means Committee which formerly considered taxation - related bills. The remaining deputies are known as the First Deputy and Second Deputy Chairmen of Ways and Means. Typically, the Speaker presides for only three hours each day; for the remainder of the time, one of the deputies takes the Chair. During the annual Budget, when the Chancellor of the Exchequer reads out the government 's spending proposal, the Chairman of Ways and Means, rather than the Speaker, presides. Moreover, the Speaker never presides over the Committee of the Whole House, which, as its name suggests, consists of all the members, but operates under more flexible rules of debate. (This device was used so that members could debate independently of the Speaker, who they suspected acted as an agent or spy of the monarch. Now, the procedure is used to take advantage of the more flexible rules of debate.)
Deputies have the same powers as the Speaker when presiding. Akin to the Speaker, they do not take part in partisan politics, and remain completely impartial in the House. However, they are entitled to take part in constituency politics, and to make their views known on these matters. In general elections, they stand as party politicians. If a Deputy Speaker is presiding, then he or she holds the casting vote instead of the Speaker.
The Speaker is one of the highest - ranking officials in the United Kingdom. By an Order in Council issued in 1919, the Speaker ranks in the order of precedence above all non-royal individuals except the Prime Minister, the Lord Chancellor, and the Lord President of the Council. In England and Wales, he also ranks below the two archbishops of the Church of England, in Scotland, he also ranks below the Moderator of the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland, and in Northern Ireland, he also ranks below the Church of Ireland and Roman Catholic archbishops of Ireland, and the Moderator of the General Assembly of the Presbyterian Church.
In 2010, the Speaker received a salary of £ 145,492, equal to that of a Cabinet Minister. Speaker 's House, the official residence, is at the northeast corner of the Palace of Westminster and is used for official functions and meetings, with private accommodation in a four - bedroom apartment upstairs. Each day, prior to the sitting of the House of Commons, the Speaker and other officials travel in procession from the apartments to the Chamber. The procession includes the Doorkeeper, the Serjeant - at - Arms, the Speaker, a trainbearer, the Chaplain, and the Speaker 's Private Secretary. The Serjeant - at - Arms attends the Speaker on other occasions, and in the House; he or she bears a ceremonial mace that symbolises the royal authority under which the House meets, as well as the authority of the House of Commons itself.
Customarily, Speakers are appointed to the Privy Council upon election. Thus, the present and former Speakers are entitled to the style "The Right Honourable ''. On retirement, Speakers were traditionally elevated to the House of Lords as viscounts. The last Speaker to receive a viscountcy was George Thomas, who became Viscount Tonypandy on his retirement in 1983. Since that year, it has instead been normal to grant only life baronies to retiring Speakers.
The post of chaplain to the Speaker has historically been held by a Canon Residentiary of Westminster Abbey; in recent years, the post was held by the same canon who was also the Rector of St Margaret 's, Westminster (Parliament 's parish church.) In 2010, Bercow appointed Rose Hudson - Wilkin, Vicar of Dalston and Haggerston as his chaplain; she remains a vicar as well as Speaker 's Chaplain. Hudson - Wilkin was the first chaplain appointed not to be a canon of Westminster.
On normal sitting days, the Speaker wears a black silk lay - type gown (similar to a Queen 's Counsel 's gown) with (or without, in the case of Bercow) a train and a mourning rosette (also known as a ' wig bag ') over the flap collar at the back.
On state occasions (such as the Opening of Parliament), the Speaker wears a robe of black satin damask trimmed with gold lace and frogs with full bottomed wig and, in the past, a tricorne hat.
The current Speaker, John Bercow, no longer wears the traditional court dress outfit, which included knee breeches, silk stockings and buckled court shoes under the gown, or the wig. Betty Boothroyd first decided not to wear the wig and Michael Martin chose not to wear knee breeches, silk stockings or the traditional buckled shoes, preferring flannel trousers and Oxford shoes. Bercow chose not to wear court dress altogether in favour of a lounge suit, as he felt "uncomfortable '' in court dress (he wore morning dress under the State Robe at State Openings). As seen at the 2015 State Opening of Parliament, Bercow further toned down the state robe by removing the gold frogging on the sleeves and train, so that it now resembles a pro-chancellor 's robe at certain universities. However, he returned to wearing the traditional robe in 2016.
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what part of the military is delta force | Delta Force - wikipedia
Operation Eagle Claw Operation Urgent Fury Operation Just Cause Operation Acid Gambit Gulf War Colombian Drug War Somali Civil War
Operation Uphold Democracy Yugoslav Wars
Global War on Terrorism
Mexican Drug War
The 1st Special Forces Operational Detachment - Delta (1st SFOD - D), commonly referred to as Delta Force, Combat Applications Group (CAG), "The Unit '', Army Compartmented Element (ACE), or within JSOC as Task Force Green, is an elite special mission unit of the United States Army, under operational control of the Joint Special Operations Command. The unit is tasked with specialized missions primarily involving hostage rescue and counter-terrorism, as well as direct action and special reconnaissance against high - value targets. Delta Force and its maritime counterpart, the U.S. Navy 's SEAL Team Six (also known as DEVGRU), are the U.S. military 's primary counterterrorism units. Delta Force and DEVGRU perform the most complex, classified, and dangerous missions in the U.S. military, as directed by the U.S. National Command Authority.
Most Delta Force operators are selected from the United States Army Special Operations Command 's elite Special Forces Groups and the 75th Ranger Regiment, as well as from other special operations units.
Delta Force was formed after numerous well - publicized terrorist incidents in the 1970s. These incidents led the U.S. government to develop a full - time counterterrorism unit.
Key military and government figures had already been briefed on this type of unit in the early 1960s. Charlie Beckwith, a Special Forces (Green Berets) officer and Vietnam veteran, served as an exchange officer with the British Army 's Special Air Service (22 SAS Regiment) during the Malayan Emergency. On his return, Beckwith presented a detailed report highlighting the U.S. Army 's vulnerability in not having an SAS - type unit. U.S. Army Special Forces in that period focused on unconventional warfare, but Beckwith recognized the need for "not only teachers, but doers. '' He envisioned highly adaptable and completely autonomous small teams with a broad array of special skills for direct action and counterterrorist missions. He briefed military and government figures, who were resistant to creating a new unit outside of Special Forces or changing existing methods.
Finally, in the mid-70s, as the threat of terrorism grew, the Pentagon and Army senior leadership appointed Beckwith to form the unit. Beckwith estimated that it would take 24 months to get his new unit mission - ready. Beckwith 's estimate came from a conversation he had had earlier with Brigadier John Watts while in England in 1976. Watts had made it clear to Beckwith that it would take eighteen months to build a squadron, but advised him to tell the Army leadership that it would take two years, and not to "let anyone talk (him) out of this. '' To justify why it would take two years to build Delta, Beckwith and his staff drafted what they dubbed the "Robert Redford Paper. '' In it Delta outlined its necessities and historical precedents for a four - phase selection / assessment process.
Delta Force was then established on 19 November 1977, by Beckwith and Colonel Thomas Henry. In the meantime, Colonel Bob "Black Gloves '' Mountel of the 5th Special Forces Group was tasked with creating a unit "to breach the short - term gap '' that existed until Delta was ready, dubbed Blue Light. The initial members of the unit were screened from volunteers and put through a specialized selection process in early 1978, involving a series of land navigation problems in mountainous terrain while carrying increasing weight. The purpose was to test candidates ' endurance, stamina, willingness to endure and mental resolve. The first training course lasted from April to September 1978. Delta Force was certified as fully mission capable in Fall 1979 right before the Iran hostage crisis.
On 4 November 1979, 53 American diplomats and citizens were taken captive and held in the U.S. embassy in Tehran, Iran. Delta Force was tasked to plan and execute Operation Eagle Claw and recover the hostages from the embassy by force on the nights of 24 and 25 April in 1980. The operation was aborted due to problems with helicopter failures. The review commission that examined the failure found 23 problems with the operation, among them unexpected weather encountered by the aircraft, command - and - control problems between the multi-service component commanders, a collision between a helicopter and a ground - refueling tanker aircraft, and mechanical problems that reduced the number of available helicopters from eight to five (one fewer than the minimum desired) before the mission contingent could leave the trans - loading / refueling site.
After the failed operation, the U.S. government realized more changes needed to be made. The 160th Special Operations Aviation Regiment (Airborne), also known as the "Night Stalkers '', was created for special operations requiring aviation support. The Navy 's SEAL Team Six, an earlier incarnation of the current Naval Special Warfare Development Group, was created for maritime counterterrorism operations. The Joint Special Operations Command was created for command and control of the various counterterrorism units of the U.S. military.
The unit is under the organization of the US Army Special Operations Command (USASOC) but is controlled by the Joint Special Operations Command (JSOC). Command of 1st SFOD - D is a colonel 's billet. Virtually all information about the unit is highly classified and details about specific missions or operations generally are not available publicly. The unit is headquartered at Fort Bragg, North Carolina.
Delta Force 's structure is similar to the British 22 Special Air Service, the unit that inspired Delta 's formation. In Not a Good Day to Die: The Untold Story of Operation Anaconda, Army Times staff writer Sean Naylor describes Delta as having nearly 1,000 soldiers, of which approximately 250 to 300 are trained to conduct direct action and hostage rescue operations. The rest are highly specialized support personnel who are among the very best in their fields.
Sean Naylor further goes into detail of Delta Force 's structure in his book "Relentless Strike ''. He describes a few formations in Delta, primarily the operational sabre squadrons:
Within each sabre squadron there are three troops: two assault troops specializing in direct action and a reconnaissance and surveillance, or "recce '', troop, for penetrating enemy lines unseen, watching enemy positions, and sniping. Each squadron is commanded by a Lieutenant Colonel (O - 5) and troops are led by Majors (O - 4). Each troop has multiple teams, each one led by a non-commissioned officer, usually a Master Sergeant (E-8) or Sergeant Major (E-9). The rest of these teams are filled out with operators ranging in rank from Sergeant (E-5) to Master Sergeant (E-8).
Delta trains with other foreign units, with the purpose to improve tactics, increase relationships and exchanges with international special operations communities.
Since the 1990s, the Army has posted recruitment notices for the 1st SFOD - D. The Army, however, has never released an official fact sheet for the elite force. The recruitment notices in Fort Bragg 's newspaper, Paraglide, refer to Delta Force by name, and label it "... the U.S. Army 's special operations unit organized for the conduct of missions requiring rapid response with surgical application of a wide variety of unique special operations skills... ''. The notice states that applicants must be male, in the grade of E-4 through E-8, have at least two and a half years of service remaining in their enlistment, be 21 years or older, and score high enough on the Armed Services Vocational Aptitude Battery to attend a briefing to be considered for admission. Candidates must be airborne qualified or volunteer for airborne training. Officer candidates need to be O - 3 captains or O - 4 majors. All candidates must be eligible for a security clearance level of "Secret '' and have not been convicted by court - martial or have disciplinary action noted in their official military personnel file under the provisions of Article 15 of the Uniform Code of Military Justice.
On 29 June 2006 during a session of the Committee on Armed Services, General Wayne Downing testified before the U.S. House of Representatives that 70 percent of all Delta operators had served in the 75th Ranger Regiment.
Eric Haney 's book Inside Delta Force described the selection course and its inception in detail. Haney wrote that the selection course began with standard tests including push - ups, sit - ups, and a 2 - mile (3.2 km) run, an inverted crawl and a 100 - meter swim fully dressed. The candidates are then put through a series of land navigation courses to include an 18 - mile (29 km) all - night land navigation course while carrying a 40 - pound (18 kg) rucksack. The rucksack 's weight and the distance of the courses are increased and the time standards to complete the task are shortened with every march. The physical testing ended with a 40 - mile (64 km) march with a 45 - pound (20 kg) rucksack over rough terrain that had to be completed in an unknown amount of time. Haney wrote that only the senior officer and NCO in charge of selection are allowed to see the set time limits, but all assessment and selection tasks and conditions were set by Delta training cadre.
The mental portion of the testing began with numerous psychological exams. The men then went in front of a board of Delta instructors, unit psychologists, and the Delta commander, who each ask the candidate a barrage of questions and then dissect every response and mannerism of the candidate with the purpose of mentally exhausting the candidate. The unit commander then approaches the candidate and tells him if he has been selected. If an individual is selected for Delta, he undergoes an intense 6 - month Operator Training Course (OTC), to learn counterterrorism and counterintelligence techniques, in which the individual maintains little contact with friends and family for the duration. Training includes firearm accuracy and various other weapons training.
In an interview, former Delta operator Paul Howe talked about the high attrition rate of the Delta selection course. He said that out of his two classes of 120 applicants each, 12 to 14 completed the selection.
The Central Intelligence Agency 's highly secretive Special Activities Division (SAD) and more specifically its elite Special Operations Group (SOG), often works with -- and recruits -- operators from Delta Force.
According to Eric Haney, the unit 's Operator Training Course is approximately six months long. While the course is constantly changing, the skills taught broadly include the following:
The Department of Defense tightly controls information about Delta Force and refuses to comment publicly on the highly secretive unit and its activities; usually unless the unit is part of a major operation or a unit member has been killed. Delta operators are granted an enormous amount of flexibility and autonomy during military operations overseas. To conceal their identities, soldiers rarely wear a uniform and usually wear civilian clothing both on and off duty. When military uniforms are worn, they lack markings, surnames, or branch names. Civilian hair styles and facial hair are allowed to enable the members to blend in and avoid recognition as military personnel. Their Navy counterpart DEVGRU is also granted the same amount of autonomy and flexibility.
The origin of the term operator in American special operations comes from the U.S. Army Special Forces (aka the Green Berets). The Army Special Forces was established in 1952, ten years before the Navy SEALs and 25 - years before DELTA. Every other modern U.S. special operations units in the Army, Navy, Air Force and Marines were established after 1977. In the Veritas: Journal of Army Special Operations History, Charles H. Briscoe states that the Army "Special Forces did not misappropriate the appellation. Unbeknownst to most members of the Army Special Operations Force (ARSOF) community, that moniker was adopted by the Special Forces in the mid-1950s. '' He goes on to state that all qualified enlisted and officers in Special Forces had to "voluntary subscribe to the provisions of the "Code of the Special Forces Operator '' and pledge themselves to its tenets by witnessed signature. '' This pre-dates every other special operations unit that currently use the term / title operator.
Inside the United States Special Operations community, an operator is a Delta Force member who has completed selection and has graduated OTC (Operators Training Course). Operator was used by Delta Force to distinguish between operational and non-operational personnel assigned to the unit. Other special operations forces use specific names for their jobs, such as Army Rangers and Air Force Pararescuemen. The Navy uses the acronym SEAL for both their special warfare teams and their individual members, who are also known Special Operators. In 2006 the Navy created "Special Warfare Operator '' (SO) as a rating specific to Naval Special Warfare enlisted personnel, grades E-4 to E-9. (See Navy special warfare ratings). Operator is the specific term for operational personnel, and has become a colloquial term for almost all special operations forces in the U.S. military, as well as around the world.
The majority of the operations assigned to Delta are classified and may never be known to the public. However, details of some operations have become public knowledge. For service during Operation Urgent Fury, Delta was awarded the Joint Meritorious Unit Award. The unit was awarded the Valorous Unit Award for extraordinary heroism during the Modelo Prison Hostage Rescue Mission and the capture of Manuel Noriega in December 1989 during Operation Just Cause in Panama. During Operation Iraqi Freedom and Operation Enduring Freedom, the 1st SFOD - D was awarded the Presidential Unit Citation for combat operations in Afghanistan from 4 October 2001 to 15 March 2002 and Iraq from 19 March 2003 to 13 December 2003.
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louis armstrong what a wonderful world disney movie | What a Wonderful World - wikipedia
"What a Wonderful World '' is a pop ballad written by Bob Thiele (as "George Douglas '') and George David Weiss. It was first recorded by Louis Armstrong and released in 1967 as a single, which topped the pop charts in the United Kingdom. Thiele and Weiss were both prominent in the music world (Thiele as a producer and Weiss as a composer / performer). Armstrong 's recording was inducted in the Grammy Hall of Fame in 1999. The publishing for this song is controlled by Memory Lane Music Group, Carlin Music Corp. and BMG Rights Management.
The song was initially offered to Tony Bennett, who turned it down. Thereafter, it was offered to Louis Armstrong. George Weiss recounts in the book Off the Record: Songwriters on Songwriting by Graham Nash that he wrote the song specifically for Louis Armstrong. Weiss was inspired by Armstrong 's ability to bring people of different races together. The song was not initially a hit in the United States, where it sold fewer than 1,000 copies because ABC Records head Larry Newton did not like the song and therefore did not promote it, but was a major success in the United Kingdom, reaching number one on the UK Singles Chart. In the United States, the song hit No. 116 on the Billboard Bubbling Under Chart. It was also the biggest - selling single of 1968 in the UK where it was among the last pop singles issued by HMV Records before becoming an exclusive classical music label. The song made Louis Armstrong the oldest male to top the UK Singles Chart, at sixty - six years and ten months old. Armstrong 's record was broken in 2009 when a remake of "Islands in the Stream '' recorded for Comic Relief -- which included the 68 - year - old Tom Jones -- reached number one in that chart. Tony Bennett did go on to record "What A Wonderful World '' several times, as in 2003 with k.d. lang, paying homage to Bennett 's friend, Armstrong.
ABC Records ' European distributor EMI forced ABC to issue a What a Wonderful World album in 1968 (catalogue number ABCS - 650). It did not chart in the United States, due to ABC not promoting it, but charted in the UK where it was issued by Stateside Records with catalogue number SSL 10247 and peaked on the British chart at No. 37.
The song gradually became something of a standard and reached a new level of popularity. In 1978, Armstrong 's 1967 recording was featured in the closing scenes of the first series of BBC radio 's cult hit, The Hitchhiker 's Guide to the Galaxy, and was repeated for BBC 's 1981 TV adaptation of the series. In 1988, Armstrong 's recording appeared in the film Good Morning, Vietnam (despite the film being set in 1965 -- two years before it was recorded) and was re-released as a single, hitting No. 32 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart in February 1988. The single charted at number one for the fortnight ending June 27, 1988 on the Australian chart. It is also the closing song for the 1995 movie 12 Monkeys.
In 2001, rappers Ghostface Killah, Raekwon and The Alchemist released "The Forest, '' a song that begins with three lines of lyric adapted from "What a Wonderful World '', altered to become "an invitation to get high '' on marijuana. The rappers and their record company, Sony Music Entertainment, were sued by the owners of "What a Wonderful World, '' Abilene Music. The suit was thrown out of court after Judge Gerard E. Lynch determined that the altered lyric was indisputably a parody, transforming the uplifting original message to a new one with a darker nature.
By April 2014, Louis Armstrong 's 1967 recording had sold 2,173,000 downloads in the United States after it was released digitally.
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when did the minnesota vikings last win a superbowl | Minnesota Vikings - wikipedia
National Football League (1961 -- present)
Purple, Gold, White
League championships (0 †)
Conference championships (4)
Division championships (20)
The Minnesota Vikings are an American football team based in Minneapolis, Minnesota. The Vikings joined the National Football League (NFL) as an expansion team in 1960, and first took the field for the 1961 season. The team competes in the National Football Conference (NFC) North division. The Vikings played in four Super Bowl games in the 1970s, but lost all four.
During the 1960s, the Vikings ' record was typical for an expansion franchise, but improved over the course of the decade, resulting in a Central Division title in 1968. In 1969, their dominant defense led to the Vikings ' league championship in 1969, the last NFL championship prior to the merger of the NFL with the AFL.
The team plays its home games at U.S. Bank Stadium in the Downtown East section of Minneapolis.
Professional football in the Minneapolis -- Saint Paul area (the "Twin Cities '') began with the Minneapolis Marines / Red Jackets, an NFL team that played intermittently in the 1920s and 1930s. However, a new professional team in the area did not surface again until August 1959, when Minneapolis businessmen Bill Boyer, H.P. Skoglund, and Max Winter were awarded a franchise in the new American Football League (AFL). Five months later, in January 1960, after significant pressure from the NFL, the ownership group, along with Bernard H. Ridder Jr., reneged on its agreement with the AFL and then was awarded the National Football League 's 14th franchise, with play to begin in 1961. Ole Haugsrud was added to the NFL team ownership because, in the 1920s, when he sold his Duluth Eskimos team back to the league, the agreement allowed him 10 percent of any future Minnesota team. Coincidentally or not, the teams from Ole Haugsrud 's high school, Central High School in Superior, Wisconsin, were also called the Vikings and also had a similar purple - and - yellow uniform design and color scheme.
From the team 's first season in 1961 to 1981, the team called Metropolitan Stadium in suburban Bloomington home. The Vikings conducted summer training camp at Bemidji State University from 1961 to 1965. In 1966, the team moved to their training camp to Minnesota State University in Mankato. The training camp at Minnesota State was one of the longest continuously running training camp events in the NFL and is remembered as part of the golden era history of the team. The Vikings played their home games at the Hubert H. Humphrey Metrodome in Minneapolis from 1982 to 2013. The Vikings played their last game at the Metrodome on December 29, 2013, defeating the Detroit Lions 14 -- 13 to end the season.
Since the team 's first season in 1961, the Vikings have had one of the highest winning percentages in the NFL. As of 2017, they have won at least three games in every season except in 1962, and are one of only six NFL teams to win at least 15 games in a regular season. The Vikings have won one NFL Championship, in 1969, before the league 's merger with the American Football League (AFL). Since the league merger in 1970, they have qualified for the playoffs 27 times, third-most in the league. The team has played in Super Bowls IV, VIII, IX, and XI, though failing to win any of them. In addition, they have lost in their last six NFC Championship Game appearances since 1978. The team currently has 14 members in the Pro Football Hall of Fame.
The team was officially named the Minnesota Vikings on September 27, 1960; the name is partly meant to reflect Minnesota 's place as a center of Scandinavian American culture. From the start, the Vikings embraced an energetic marketing program that produced first - year season ticket sales of nearly 26,000 and an average home attendance of 34,586, about 85 percent of Metropolitan Stadium 's capacity of 40,800. Eventually, the capacity of Met Stadium was increased to 47,900. Bert Rose, former public relations director for the Los Angeles Rams, was appointed the team 's first general manager. The search for the first head coach saw the team court then - Northwestern University head coach Ara Parseghian, who, according to Minneapolis Star writer Jim Klobuchar -- the Vikings ' first beat reporter for that newspaper -- visited team management in the Twin Cities under the condition that his visit was to be kept secret from his current employer. His cover was blown by local columnist Sid Hartman, who reported the visit and forced Parseghian to issue denials. Philadelphia Eagles assistant Nick Skorich and a man with Minnesota ties who was working in the CFL, Bud Grant, were also candidates until a different Eagle, quarterback Norm Van Brocklin, was hired on January 18, 1961. Van Brocklin had just finished his career as a player on a high note, having defeated the Green Bay Packers in the 1960 NFL Championship Game.
As a new franchise, the Vikings had the first overall selection in the 1961 NFL Draft, and they picked running back Tommy Mason of Tulane. They also took a young quarterback from the University of Georgia named Fran Tarkenton in the third round. Notable veterans acquired in the offseason were George Shaw and Hugh McElhenny. The Vikings won their first regular season game, defeating the Chicago Bears 37 -- 13 on Opening Day 1961; Tarkenton came off the bench to throw four touchdown passes and run for another to lead the upset. Reality set in as the expansion team lost its next seven games on their way to a 3 -- 11 record. The losing continued throughout much of the 1960s as the Vikings had a combined record of 32 wins, 59 losses, and 7 ties in their first seven seasons with only one winning season (8 -- 5 -- 1 in 1964).
On March 7, 1967, quarterback Fran Tarkenton was traded to the New York Giants for a first - round and second - round draft choice in 1967, a first - round choice in 1968 and a second - round choice in 1969. With the picks, Minnesota selected Clinton Jones and Bob Grim in 1967, Ron Yary in 1968 and Ed White in 1969. On March 10, 1967 the Vikings hired new head coach Bud Grant to replace Van Brocklin, who had resigned on February 11, 1967. Grant came to the Vikings from the Canadian Football League as head coach for the Winnipeg Blue Bombers, whom he led to four Grey Cup Championships in 10 years. Replacing Tarkenton at quarterback was eight - year CFL veteran and Grey Cup champion Joe Kapp. During the late 1960s, the Vikings built a powerful defense known as the Purple People Eaters, led by Alan Page, Carl Eller, Gary Larsen, and Jim Marshall. In 1968, that stingy defense earned the Vikings their first Central Division title and their first playoff berth.
In 1969, the Vikings secured a 12 -- 2 record. The team had 12 straight regular - season victories after a season - opening loss to the New York Giants, which was the longest single - season winning streak in 35 years. The Vikings defeated the Cleveland Browns 27 -- 7 in the last pre-merger NFL Championship Game on January 4, 1970, at Metropolitan Stadium. The Vikings became the first modern NFL expansion team to win an NFL Championship Game, and earned a berth in Super Bowl IV; however, the heavily favored Vikings lost that game to the Kansas City Chiefs, 23 -- 7. The team MVP that season was Joe Kapp, who threw for seven touchdowns against the Baltimore Colts -- still an all - time NFL record; however, Kapp refused to accept the award, stating, "There is not one most valuable Viking... there are 40 most valuable Vikings! ''
The team continued to dominate in 1970 and 1971, reaching the playoffs behind the stubborn "Purple People Eaters '' defensive line. In 1971, Alan Page won the NFL Most Valuable Player Award given by the Associated Press. He was the first defensive player to win the award.
On January 27, 1972, the Vikings traded Norm Snead, Bob Grim, Vince Clements and first - round draft picks in 1972 and 1973 to the New York Giants to reacquire the popular Fran Tarkenton. While the acquisitions of Tarkenton and wide receiver John Gilliam improved the passing attack, the running game was inconsistent and the Vikings finished with a disappointing 7 -- 7 record. The Vikings addressed the problem by drafting running back Chuck Foreman with their first pick in the 1973 Draft. Co-owner Bill Boyer died on February 19, 1973 and was replaced on the team 's board of directors by his son - in - law Jack Steele.
The Vikings won their first nine games of 1973 and finished the season with a 12 -- 2 record. They then advanced to their second Super Bowl in franchise history, Super Bowl VIII, against the Miami Dolphins at Rice Stadium in Houston, Texas; however, the Dolphins prevailed, 24 -- 7.
The Vikings won the Central Division again in 1974 with a 10 -- 4 record. In the playoffs they built on their cold weather reputation, defeating both the St. Louis Cardinals 30 -- 14 and the Los Angeles Rams 14 -- 10 in frozen Metropolitan Stadium. The Vikings played in their second straight Super Bowl, Super Bowl IX (3rd overall), losing to the Pittsburgh Steelers, 16 -- 6, at Tulane Stadium in New Orleans on January 12, 1975.
Led by Tarkenton and running back Chuck Foreman, the 1975 Vikings got off to a 10 -- 0 start and easily won another division title. However, the Vikings lost to the Dallas Cowboys in the playoffs, 17 -- 14, on a controversial touchdown pass from the Cowboys ' quarterback Roger Staubach to wide receiver Drew Pearson that became known as the Hail Mary. The touchdown was controversial because many felt that Pearson pushed off on Vikings defensive back Nate Wright, committing pass interference. As the Metropolitan Stadium crowd was stunned to learn that no penalty was called, debris was thrown on the field for several minutes. A Corby 's Whiskey bottle struck game official Armen Terzian, rendering him unconscious.
The Vikings played in Super Bowl XI, their third Super Bowl (fourth overall) in four years, against the Oakland Raiders at the Rose Bowl in Pasadena, California, on January 9, 1977. The Vikings, however, lost 32 -- 14.
In 1977, the Vikings again won the Central Division with a 9 -- 5 record and advanced to their 4th NFC Championship Game in 5 years, but were defeated by the eventual Super Bowl Champion Cowboys, 23 -- 6, at Texas Stadium.
By 1978, age was taking its toll on the Vikings, but they still made the playoffs with an 8 -- 7 -- 1 record. There was no more playoff magic as the Rams finally defeated the Vikings, 34 -- 10 in Los Angeles after having lost in their previous four playoff matchups (in 1969, ' 74, ' 76 and ' 77). Quarterback Fran Tarkenton retired following the season holding league passer records in attempts (6,467), completions (3,686), yards (47,003), and touchdowns (342).
In December 1979, ground was broken for construction of the Hubert H. Humphrey Metrodome in downtown Minneapolis.
On May 15, 1981, the Vikings moved into a new facility in suburban Eden Prairie that houses the team 's offices, locker room and practice fields. The complex was named "Winter Park '' after Max Winter, one of the Vikings ' founders, who served as the team 's president from 1965 to 1987. The Vikings played their final game at Metropolitan Stadium on December 20 to conclude the 1981 NFL season by losing to the Kansas City Chiefs, 10 -- 6.
The Vikings played their first game at the Metrodome in a preseason matchup against the Seattle Seahawks on August 21, 1982 in a game Minnesota won, 7 -- 3. The first touchdown in the new facility was scored by Joe Senser on an 11 - yard pass from Tommy Kramer. The first regular - season game in the Metrodome was the 1982 opener on September 12, when the Vikings defeated Tampa Bay, 17 -- 10. Rickey Young scored the first regular - season touchdown in the facility on a 3 - yard run in the 2nd quarter. That year the defense led by Joey Browner began a dominant 10 - year run as a premier NFL defense. The Vikings beat the St. Louis Cardinals 28 - 10 on August 6, 1983 at Wembley Stadium in London in the very first international game in the NFL.
On January 27, 1984, Bud Grant retired as head coach of the Vikings. With a career regular - season record of 151 -- 87 -- 5 (. 632) in 17 seasons with Minnesota, Grant led the franchise to 12 playoff appearances, 11 division titles, and four Super Bowls. Les Steckel, who was an offensive assistant with the Vikings for 5 seasons, was then named the 3rd head coach in franchise history. Steckel, who came to the Vikings in 1979 after working as an assistant with the 49ers, was the youngest head coach in the NFL in 1984 at age 38. However, the Vikings lost a franchise - worst 13 games. After the season Steckel was fired, and on December 18, 1984, Bud Grant came out of retirement and was rehired as the head coach of the Vikings.
On January 6, 1986, following the 1985 season, Bud Grant re-retired, this time permanently, as head coach of the Vikings. At the time of his retirement he was the 6th winningest coach in NFL history with 168 career wins, including playoffs. In 18 seasons, he led the Vikings to a 158 -- 96 -- 5 regular season record. Longtime Vikings assistant coach Jerry Burns was named the fourth head coach in team history on January 7, 1986. He served as the Vikings ' offensive coordinator from 1968 to 1985, when the team won 11 division titles and played in four Super Bowls. In his first season, the Vikings, led by the NFL Comeback Player of the Year Tommy Kramer, went 9 -- 7, their first winning record in four years. On August 2, 1986, Fran Tarkenton was the first player who played the majority of his career with the Vikings to be inducted into the Pro Football Hall of Fame.
Following the strike - shortened 1987 season, the 8 -- 7 Vikings, who had finished 8 -- 4 in regular games but 0 -- 3 using strike - replacement players, pulled two upsets in the playoffs. They defeated the 12 -- 3 New Orleans Saints 44 -- 10 at the Louisiana Superdome in the Wild Card game. The following week, in the Divisional Playoff game, they beat the 13 -- 2 San Francisco 49ers 36 -- 24 at Candlestick Park. During that game, Anthony Carter set the all - time record for most receiving yards in a playoff game with 227 yards. The Vikings played the Washington Redskins in the NFC Championship Game on January 17, 1988, at RFK Stadium. Trailing 17 -- 10, the Vikings drove to the Redskins ' 6 - yard line with a little over a minute left in the game, but failed to get the ball into the end zone. The Vikings ' hopes of a Super Bowl ended when Darrin Nelson dropped a pass from Wade Wilson on fourth down at the goal line.
On October 12, 1989, the Vikings acquired Herschel Walker from Dallas. The final result of the trade gave the Vikings Walker, third - round choice Mike Jones, fifth - round choice Reggie Thornton and 10th - round choice Pat Newman in 1990 and a third - round choice Jake Reed in 1991. Dallas received Issiac Holt, David Howard, Darrin Nelson, Jesse Solomon, Alex Stewart, a first -, second - and a sixth - round choice in 1990, first - and second - round choices in 1991 and a first -, second - and third - round choice in 1992. Two of those selections turned into Emmitt Smith and Darren Woodson. Walker 's performance fell short of expectations in his three seasons with the Vikings, while the Cowboys rode their draft picks to three Super Bowl victories in the early - to - mid-1990s.
On December 3, 1991, Jerry Burns announced his retirement effective at the end of the 1991 season. In six seasons as Head Coach of the Vikings, Burns compiled a career record of 52 -- 43 (. 547). He also led Minnesota to three playoff appearances, including a division title and an NFC Championship Game. Dennis Green was later named the fifth head coach in team history, after turning around a struggling Stanford University football program as head coach from 1989 to 1991. In his 10 seasons as the coach of the Vikings, Green won four NFC Central division titles, had eight playoff appearances, two NFC Championship Game appearances and an all - time record of 97 -- 62. The Vikings therefore had the fifth highest winning percentage among all NFL teams during the regular season in the 1990s.
1998 was a year to remember for the franchise. With a spectacular offense led by quarterback Randall Cunningham (who replaced an injured Brad Johnson), running back Robert Smith, veteran wide receiver Cris Carter, and explosive rookie Randy Moss, the Vikings set a then - NFL record by scoring a total of 556 points, never scoring fewer than 24 in a game. The Vikings finished the season 15 -- 1, their only loss was to the Tampa Bay Buccaneers 27 -- 24 in Week 9. In the playoffs, the Vikings rolled past the Arizona Cardinals 41 -- 21, and came into the Metrodome heavily favored for their NFC title showdown with the Atlanta Falcons, who had gone 14 -- 2 in the regular season. After kicker Gary Anderson, who had just completed the first perfect regular season in NFL history (not missing a single extra point or field goal attempt the entire year), missed a 38 - yard field goal attempt with just over 2 minutes remaining, the Falcons ' ensuing drive tied the game. This led to a controversial decision by head coach Dennis Green to run out the clock and let the game go to overtime. Though the Vikings won the coin toss, Atlanta went on to win it 30 -- 27 in overtime on Morten Andersen 's 38 - yard field goal. The Vikings became the first 15 -- 1 team to fail to reach the Super Bowl. The Falcons lost Super Bowl XXXIII to John Elway and the Denver Broncos.
Cunningham resumed duties again in 1999, but after a lukewarm 2 -- 4 start, Jeff George replaced him as starting quarterback. He finished the season with an 8 -- 2 record, and led the Vikings into the postseason once again, with an overall team record of 10 -- 6. Minnesota beat Dallas in the Wild Card game 27 -- 10, and faced playoff newcomer Kurt Warner and the St. Louis Rams in the Divisional matchup. The game was a shootout that Minnesota led 17 -- 14 at halftime, but the Rams outscored Minnesota 35 -- 20 in the second half to win 49 -- 37. St. Louis would go on to win Super Bowl XXXIV.
The Vikings entered the decade by winning the divisional championship and an appearance in the NFC Championship game, where they were defeated 41 - 0 by the New York Giants. The following season, they struggled by posting a 5 -- 11 record in 2001. The team would make the playoffs again in 2004, but would not win a divisional title again until 2008. Since the merger, the 2000s became the decade with the fewest playoff berths for the franchise.
In 2000, the Vikings went 11 -- 5. The Vikings were 11 -- 2 after 14 weeks, but slumped briefly, losing their last three to the Rams, Packers and Colts while starting quarterback Daunte Culpepper was hampered by injury. Nonetheless, the Vikings made the playoffs for the fifth straight year. After easily beating the Saints in the Divisional game 34 -- 16, they traveled to New York City to face the Giants in the NFC Championship Game. Though they were the road team, the Vikings were favored to win the game (since most considered their 11 -- 2 record with Culpepper more indicative than their 0 -- 3 record when he was out); instead, the Vikings were defeated 41 -- 0, their worst defeat in playoff history. Robert Smith, who ran for 1,521 yards that season, retired at the end of the year after only playing eight NFL seasons.
In 2001, after a disappointing 5 -- 11 season, the Vikings bought out the contract of Dennis Green, despite his successful coaching tenure with the team. Mike Tice coached the final game of 2001, losing to the Ravens 19 -- 3. Tice was named the permanent coach after the season, but he would not lead the Vikings back to the playoffs until 2004.
During the 2003 season, the Vikings came close to getting into the playoffs. However, the Arizona Cardinals completed a game - winning touchdown on 4th - and - 28 with 0: 00 left, knocking the Vikings out of the playoffs. The moment of Arizona 's touchdown was actually the first moment the entire season in which the Vikings had n't led their division. The Vikings became the second team in football history to miss the playoffs after getting off to a 6 -- 0 start, following the 1978 Washington Redskins.
In 2004, Daunte Culpepper amassed MVP - like statistics, throwing for 4,717 passing yards (leading the NFL), 39 passing touchdowns (a Viking record), and 5,123 total yards (an NFL record). In the wild card game, the Vikings defeated the rival Green Bay Packers in their first - ever playoff meeting, 31 -- 17. In doing so, the Vikings became the second team in NFL history to have a. 500 record (8 -- 8) in the regular season and win a playoff game (The St. Louis Rams did the same thing only a day earlier). In the divisional round, the Vikings were defeated by the eventual NFC champion Philadelphia Eagles.
On March 2, 2005, Vikings wide receiver Randy Moss was traded to the Oakland Raiders for linebacker Napoleon Harris and the Raiders ' first round draft pick. After struggling to a disappointing 2 -- 5 start to the 2005 season, Vikings lost quarterback Daunte Culpepper to a season - ending knee injury. This injury was a very significant part to this Minnesota Vikings team due to the fact they also lost Moss. The dynamic duo from years earlier were now gone and a new leader would eventually emerge. The Vikings finished the 2005 season with a 9 -- 7 record. However, this season would be more notable for off - the - field events. In October, 17 team members were part of a party of about 90 that went out on a pleasure cruise on local Lake Minnetonka. The incident erupted into scandal when media reported that a number of the players had performed sex acts and that prostitutes had been flown in. Four players were ultimately charged with misdemeanors related to the party.
Mike Tice was let go after the 2005 season and was replaced by Brad Childress. This was one of many significant front office moves made by the new ownership team, led by Zygi Wilf.
Minnesota began the 2006 season 4 -- 2 (with Childress becoming the first Vikings coach to start his career 2 -- 0), but would finish the year at 6 -- 10, receiving the 7th pick in the NFL Draft; with it, the Vikings selected Adrian Peterson out of the University of Oklahoma.
Peterson 's first career touchdown was a 60 - yard screen pass against the Atlanta Falcons in his first career game. When the Vikings played the Chicago Bears in Week 6, Peterson broke the record for single game All - Purpose (rushing, receiving, kick returning) yards (361 total yards, 224 rushing). In Week 9, Peterson broke the NFL single game rushing record set by Jamal Lewis in 2003 by rushing for 296 yards against the San Diego Chargers. Despite a strong push in the middle of the season, winning five straight games, the Vikings lost their final two games to finish the season at 8 -- 8 and missed the playoffs.
In Week 13 of the 2008 season against the Bears, Gus Frerotte hooked up with Bernard Berrian and set the record for longest play in franchise history with a 99 - yard touchdown pass. In the 2009 season, Adrian Peterson led the NFL with 1760 rushing yards, breaking the franchise record. The Vikings clinched the NFC North championship for the first time after defeating the New York Giants 20 -- 19 in Week 17, when kicker Ryan Longwell made the game - winning field goal. Peterson had 19 carries for 109 yards and added a touchdown during the game.
On January 4, 2009, the Vikings hosted the Philadelphia Eagles for the Wild Card round, their first home playoff game in eight years. The Eagles led the Viking 16 -- 14 at halftime and, coming off a 44 -- 6 victory over the Dallas Cowboys, went on to defeat the Vikings 26 -- 14. The Eagles would go on to defeat the defending Super Bowl champion New York Giants in the Divisional round, only to lose to the Arizona Cardinals in the NFC Championship Game.
Since 2006, the Vikings have been known especially for their strong run defense (# 1 in the NFL in 2006, 2007, and 2008; they are the first NFL team to accomplish this since the AFL -- NFL merger in 1970), anchored by the Williams Wall consisting of defensive tackle Kevin Williams and nose tackle Pat Williams (no relation). With the addition of sack - leader Jared Allen in 2008, the dominant front four began being called by several nicknames, including "Thunder and Plunder '' and "Shock and AWE '' (an acronym of their surname initials).
On August 18, 2009, after months of speculation and negotiations, twice - retired veteran quarterback Brett Favre, who until 2007 had played 16 years for division archrival Green Bay Packers, signed a two - year, $25 million deal with the Vikings.
On October 5, 2009, the Vikings hosted the Green Bay Packers as Favre played his former team for the first time. With a 30 -- 23 victory on Monday Night Football, the Vikings moved to a 4 -- 0 record. Favre became the first quarterback in NFL history to defeat all 32 current teams as a starter. Over 21.8 million viewers tuned in to watch the game, beating the previous record for a cable television program set by a game between the Philadelphia Eagles and the Dallas Cowboys in 2008 (18.6 million viewers).
The Vikings beat the New York Giants, 44 -- 7, in Week 17 to help the team clinch the second seed in the conference and a first round - bye with an Eagles loss later that same day. The Vikings ended the regular season with a 12 -- 4 record, their best record since 2000 and the first 11 - plus win season since their record - setting 1998 campaign. The Vikings played the Dallas Cowboys in the divisional round on January 17, 2010, and won the game by a score of 34 -- 3, advancing the Vikings to the NFC Championship game, the ninth in franchise history. This would also be the first NFC Championship game for the team since the 2000 season. Minnesota would travel to New Orleans the following week to face the top - seeded Saints in the first conference championship game held at the Superdome. Despite out - gaining the Saints on offense by nearly a twofold margin, the Vikings were severely hindered by five turnovers, including a Favre interception in the final minute of the fourth quarter in Saints territory. They were ousted in overtime, 31 -- 28, as the Saints won the coin toss and kicked a 40 - yard field goal on the first possession of overtime.
In the first week of the 2010 NFL regular season, the Vikings played the defending Super Bowl champions, the New Orleans Saints. The Vikings lost 14 -- 9. In Week 2, the Vikings played the Miami Dolphins and lost 14 -- 10. The Vikings defeated the Detroit Lions 24 -- 10 in the third week of the season. After a week four bye - week, the Vikings received star wide receiver Randy Moss in a trade with the New England Patriots. Even with the addition of Moss, the Vikings lost to the New York Jets 29 -- 20 in Week 5. The Vikings won a crucial victory against another struggling team in the form of the Dallas Cowboys 24 -- 21, but in Week 7 the Vikings lost to the arch - rival Green Bay Packers 28 -- 24. In Week 9, the Vikings played the Arizona Cardinals at home and won 27 -- 24 in overtime, coming back from a 24 -- 10 deficit in the final four minutes of regulation. Favre threw for a career - high 446 passing yards. The Vikings then went on to face the Chicago Bears, but were defeated, and then went on to be blown out 31 -- 3 at home by the Packers the following game. Head coach Brad Childress was fired the following Monday. With Leslie Frazier filling in for the fired Childress, the Vikings won two games in a row. One against the Washington Redskins on the road, and a blowout win over the Buffalo Bills at home.
After a winter storm dropped nearly 17 inches of snow in the Minneapolis / St Paul area the Saturday before the Vikings December 12 home game versus the New York Giants and 30 mph gusts drove snow removers off the dome 's roof overnight, several panels were damaged as the weight of the snow caused the roof to collapse. After viewing the damage, Vikings management and the NFL decided to move the game to Monday and play it at Ford Field in Detroit, Michigan. Because of on - going repairs to the roof of the Metrodome, the Vikings played their December 20 game versus the Chicago Bears at TCF Bank Stadium. Favre threw the final touchdown pass of his career (to Percy Harvin) in this game. The game was played 29 years to the day after the last outdoor game at old Met Stadium. On December 26, the NFL announced that the game versus the Philadelphia Eagles was being postponed to Tuesday, December 28, 2010 because of blizzard conditions. This marks the third consecutive venue or date change for a Vikings game and was the first NFL game played on a Tuesday since 1964. The Vikings proceeded to upset the dynamic Eagles offense, led by a resurgent Michael Vick, 24 -- 14 with rookie Joe Webb at the helm. The Vikings finished the season 6 -- 10 with a 20 -- 13 loss against the Detroit Lions.
The 2010 -- 11 season was a step down for the Minnesota Vikings. After coming within a few plays of Super Bowl XLIV, Minnesota ended the 2010 season with a 6 -- 10 record and a last place finish in the NFC North for the first time since 1990. During the season, the Vikings had many distractions, including trading for Randy Moss and then waiving him only a month later, Brett Favre 's NFL investigation for allegedly sending inappropriate text messages to Jets ' employee Jenn Sterger while he was with the team in 2008, the Metrodome 's collapse and resulting venue changes, and finally head coach Brad Childress ' firing on November 22 following a 31 -- 3 loss at the hands of the rival Green Bay Packers.
After serving as the interim head coach for the final six games of the season (finishing with a 3 -- 3 record), defensive coordinator Leslie Frazier was officially named the head coach on January 3, 2011, after signing a three - year contract. On January 17, Brett Favre retired for the third, and officially last, time, leaving the team in search for a long term replacement at the quarterback position. Wasting no time after being appointed head coach, Frazier began to restructure the team 's coaching staff, including letting go of offensive coordinator Darrell Bevell and hiring Mike Singletary as linebackers coach and Bill Musgrave as the new offensive coordinator. Their first round draft pick was Christian Ponder, a quarterback from Florida State University. The team finished with a 3 -- 13 record, tied with the 1984 Vikings for the second worst record in franchise history.
During the 2012 NFL Draft, the team selected USC lineman Matt Kalil with the 4th overall pick after a trade with the Cleveland Browns, and Notre Dame safety Harrison Smith in the first round. Both players were instrumental in helping the Vikings reach the playoffs for the 27th time in franchise history, as was fellow draftee, sixth - round selection Blair Walsh. After beating the Packers in the final game of 2012 to reach the playoffs as the NFC 's sixth seed, the Vikings lost 24 -- 10 to the Packers in the rematch at Lambeau Field in the Wild Card round. The team was forced to play backup Joe Webb during the game after Ponder was sidelined due to an arm injury sustained from the previous week. Peterson was later named the league 's MVP, after rushing for 2,097 yards, the second most rushing yards in a season in NFL history.
In the 2013 season, the Vikings finished with five wins, ten losses, and one tie, with no road wins. Notable moments include acquired free agent Matt Cassel outplaying Christian Ponder at the quarterback position and the defense allowing a league - worst 480 points, coming within four points of matching the franchise 's worst set in 1984. This was also the last season played at the Metrodome as a new stadium deal was reached. Leslie Frazier was fired after the regular season ended.
The team hired former Cincinnati Bengals defensive coordinator Mike Zimmer to replace Leslie Frazier as head coach on January 16, 2014. Former Cleveland Browns offensive coordinator Norv Turner replaced Bill Musgrave, and George Edwards replaced Alan Williams as defensive coordinator. In the 2014 NFL Draft, the Vikings selected Anthony Barr, a linebacker out of UCLA, and Teddy Bridgewater, a quarterback out of the University of Louisville. Bridgewater would later lose the starting job to Matt Cassel only to become the starter for the Vikings when Cassel was lost to a season - ending foot injury in week 3. Star running back Adrian Peterson only played in one regular season game due to his ongoing child abuse trial, with NFL commissioner Roger Goodell placing Peterson on the Commissioner 's Exempt List indefinitely. On April 16, 2015, the league released a statement issuing Peterson 's reinstatement to occur on April 17, 2015. The Vikings concluded their season with seven wins and nine losses, winning only one game against a divisional opponent, although Bridgewater set a franchise record for wins by a rookie starting quarterback. On January 3, 2016, the Vikings beat divisional rival Green Bay 20 -- 13 to win the NFC North for the first time since 2009. The Vikings, led by their top 5 defense, ended the 2015 season with an 11 -- 5 record, and a # 3 seed in the playoffs. However, they lost to the Seattle Seahawks 10 -- 9 after Blair Walsh missed a 27 - yard field goal in the third coldest game in NFL playoff history.
The Vikings were responsible for a historic milestone in the late rounds of the 2016 NFL draft. Their sixth - round selection, German wide receiver Moritz Böhringer, was the first European player ever to be drafted by an NFL team without having previously played at any level in North America. After Teddy Bridgewater went down with a knee injury in the preseason of 2016, the Vikings traded their 2017 first round pick and a conditional fourth round pick to the Philadelphia Eagles for quarterback Sam Bradford, who threw for 20 touchdowns, 5 interceptions, 3,877 yards, and led the Vikings to an 8 - 8 season. Following the knee injury, the Vikings declined to pick up the 5th year option for Teddy Bridgewater. Running back Adrian Peterson went down to injury in Week 2 against the Green Bay Packers with a torn meniscus and was placed on the Injured Reserve until Week 15. On February 28, 2017, the Vikings announced they would not exercise Peterson 's 2017 contract option which made him a free agent. Had they exercised the option, Peterson would be owed $18 million for the 2017 season. On April 25, 2017, the New Orleans Saints signed Peterson to a 2 - year, $7 million contract, ending his tenure with the Vikings since his debut in 2007 as a rookie. He holds several Vikings records including most career rushing touchdowns, career rushing yards, and most rushing yards in a season.
In the summer of 2017, the Vikings ownership announced they would end the 52 year annual tradition of summer training camp in Mankato, Minnesota at Minnesota State University, Mankato as they built a large new headquarters, training facility and area property development in Eagan, Minnesota on the site of the former Northwest Airlines offices to be completed in the spring of 2018 in time for the 2018 summer training camp.
The Minneapolis Miracle was the final play of the 2017 / 18 Divisional Round game against the New Oreans Saints. The Vikings were trailing by one point and needed a touchdown to secure a trip to the NFC Chamionship Game. With less than ten seconds remaining in the game quarterback Case Keenum lobbed the ball to wide receiver Stefon Diggs, which became the game winning touchdown. This also happens to be the very first walk - off victory in NFL playoff history. On KFAN 100.3, radio announcer, Paul Allen dubbed the play the ' Minneapolis Miraracle '.
The Vikings ' trademark horned helmet and purple - and - gold uniforms were designed by Los Angeles Examiner cartoonist Karl Hubenthal. Bert Rose and Norm Van Brocklin both knew Hubenthal from their days with the Los Angeles Rams organization. Hubenthal also designed the original Norseman logo.
From the team 's debut in 1961 to 1995, the Vikings ' logos and uniforms essentially remained the same. Reflecting Minnesota 's Scandinavian cultural heritage, one of the team 's two primary logos consists of a profile of a blond norseman, while the other consists of a white Viking horn.
The team 's helmet is purple with a Viking horn logo on each side. Each horn is outlined in gold. The horn logo was slightly revised in 2006. The original uniform design consisted of white pants, gold trim, and either purple or white jerseys. From 1962 to 1964, the Vikings wore purple pants with their white jerseys (The Vikings, with their new uniform, still wear, on occasion, purple pants with yellow and white trim). In a design that was unique among American football teams, the white jerseys had a completely different stripe pattern, which was over the shoulders, than the purple ones, which was around the sleeve cuff. These unique shoulder stripes on the white jerseys did not appear until 1969, the year they went to their first Super Bowl. There have also been minor changes to the uniform design throughout the years, such as changing the color of the facemask from gray to white (1980), and then to purple (1985); and adding the Norseman logo to the sleeves (1996). The Vikings continued to wear black shoes until Les Steckel became head coach in 1984. In 2006, the team returned to black shoes for first time since the 1983 season.
The Vikings tweaked their Norseman logo, which involved updating the shading, altering the shape and base of the horns, thickening the mustache and face, making the gold tones brighter, and shortening the braid. The new logo was unveiled on February 14, 2013. On March 28, the team reported that new uniforms will be unveiled on April 25.
On April 25, 2013, the Minnesota Vikings unveiled the club 's new uniforms during its annual NFL Draft party.
From 1969 through 1973, the Vikings had an alternate purple jersey without stripes for warm - weather games.
The team 's uniforms were redesigned in 2006, the first significant change in the franchise 's 46 - year history. Although the team colors remained the same, trim lines were added to the outside shoulders and sleeves, and the sides of the jerseys and pants. In addition the horn on the helmet was slightly more defined. Included in the new design are both white and purple pants, the purple pants have not been regularly used since 2007, but resurfaced twice in 2010.
The team wore black armbands for the last four games in 1978 in memory of Jack "Jocko '' Nelson, an assistant coach who died during the season. In 1985 the team wore a 25 years patch on their jerseys. In 1989, they wore a "40 for 60 '' patch honoring the 1969 NFL championship team. They wore a 35 years patch in 1995, 40 years in 2000 and 45 years in 2005. They also wore patches in 1999 for assistant coach Chip Myers who died in the offseason and in 2001 for Korey Stringer. The Vikings, like other teams, wore NFL 50th and 75th anniversary patches in 1969 and 1994.
In the 1960s the Vikings wore purple pants with road white jerseys. On October 11, 1964 the Vikings played the Detroit Lions at Metropolitan Stadium and the Lions mistakenly only brought their white jerseys to Minnesota. Both teams started the game in white, but by the second quarter the Vikings were able to obtain their purple tops. The Vikings changed jerseys on the sidelines during the 2nd quarter, finishing the game in purple jerseys and purple pants. It was n't until 43 years later, on December 17, 2007 (a Monday Night Football game versus the Chicago Bears) that the Vikings again donned both purple jerseys and purple pants -- the first time the Vikings wore all - purple intentionally. Three years later, the Vikings played the November 7, 2010 home game against the Arizona Cardinals in the all - purple uniform.
The NFL added new Color Rush uniforms for all 32 teams during the 2016 - 17 season, specifically for Thursday Night Football games. The Vikings showed off an all purple look with gold numbers and stripes on the pants, debuting their own Color Rush uniform on December 1 versus the Dallas Cowboys at U.S. Bank Stadium.
After several failed attempts at developing an official team - owned mascot, the Vikings finally introduced Viktor the Viking during the 2007 Vikings ' season. Team officials had long indicated that they were after a mascot concept that would primarily appeal to the team 's younger fan base. Viktor the Viking, a muscle - bound, blond - haired and mustachioed character, wears a Vikings ' # 1 jersey and an oversized Vikings helmet with protruding horns and a small yellow nose guard.
From 1970 to 1992, Hub Meeds dressed as a Viking and served as the team mascot. Meeds asked to become the mascot after being accidentally let onto the field by security during Super Bowl IV.
From 1994 to 2015, the team mascot was Ragnar (played by Joseph Juranitch) and was based on the legendary Viking Ragnar Lodbrok. Juranitch admits to being somewhat of an eccentric -- he holds the current world record for fastest time shaving a beard with an axe, but has n't shaved his beard since he won the Ragnar job among 3,000 applicants. Ragnar drove onto the field at the beginning of a game dressed in Viking garb, on a motorcycle, while a cheerleader used to ride a snowmobile. Although never one to shy away from confrontations with opposing players, notably Chad "Ochocinco '' Johnson, he had a soft spot for Brett Favre while the quarterback started for the rival Green Bay Packers. In 2015, the Vikings announced that they were not able to reach a new contract agreement with Juranitch which he wanted $20,000 per game, and released him.
Another mascot associated with the Vikings was "Vikadontis Rex '', a purple foam dinosaur. Vikadontis was the official mascot of the Minnesota Vikings Children 's Fund and took part in the 1995 Celebrity Mascot Olympics. Vikadontis was retired starting with the 2000 season. The team also had an NFL Huddles mascot in the mid-1980s, (somewhat similar to Viktor the Viking). Krazy George was also employed as a cheerleader from 1982 to 1985.
"Skol, Vikings '' is the fight song of the Minnesota Vikings. It was introduced around the time the team was founded in 1961. It is always played whenever the team scores a touchdown, field goal or safety, and at the end of each half.
The song "Purple and Gold '' was recorded in 2010 by Prince to be used as a fight song for the Minnesota Vikings.
Due to geographic and cultural proximity, the Vikings ' foremost rival is the Green Bay Packers. Some sources cite this rivalry as the biggest overall in the NFC North apart from the Packers - Bears rivalry (which dates back several more decades, i.e. to 1920).
Vikings fans are known to dress up in "Helga hats '', purple hats with white horns and blonde braids, mimicking the helmets popularly believed to have been worn by Viking warriors. The original Helga Hats are still hand assembled in the Twin Cities area.
During home games, the Vikings ' Gjallarhorn is loudly played and sounds often after the team has made a big play, gets a first down, or scores a touchdown. The team often also uses the horn during its pre-game ceremonies. In addition, a flash cannon fires upon Vikings touchdowns.
Running backs
Wide receivers
Tight ends
Defensive linemen
Defensive backs
Special teams
Unrestricted FAs
Restricted FAs
Exclusive - Rights FAs
Roster updated February 12, 2018 Depth chart Transactions 42 Active, 10 Inactive, 19 FAs
italics = played only a minor portion of their career with the Vikings, and are recognized primarily based upon achievements with other teams
In connection with the team 's 50th anniversary, the Vikings announced a group of 50 top players on December 19, 2010.
Offense
Defense
Special teams
Head Coach
→ Coaching Staff → Management → More NFL staffs
The Vikings ' flagship radio station is KFXN - FM (100.3), which uses the branding "KFAN '' based on its former calls on 1130 AM before a format flip between the AM and FM stations before the 2011 season; 1130 AM also continues to broadcast game play - by - play as KTLK.
The games are also heard on the "KFAN Radio Network '' in Minnesota, Wisconsin, Iowa, South Dakota, and North Dakota, as well as many other outlets. Paul Allen has been the play - by - play announcer since the 2002 NFL season with Pete Bercich filling in as analyst, who began his first season in 2007.
Telecasts of preseason games not shown on national networks are aired on KMSP (Channel 9) in the Twin Cities with a simulcast of KFAN 's radio broadcast while Fox Sports North shows a tape delay later.
Source:
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who has the most touchdown passes in college football | List of NCAA Division I FBS Career Passing touchdowns Leaders - wikipedia
This lists quarterbacks in NCAA in Division I FBS and its predecessors who have passed for at least 100 touchdowns in their college football careers. Statistics are current through games of December 2, 2017. Players active during the 2017 season are shown in bold.
^ Does not include 15 touchdown passes thrown when Marshall was competing in Division I - AA, now known as Division I FCS.
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tear in my heart lyrics meaning twenty one pilots | Tear in My Heart - wikipedia
"Tear in My Heart '' is a song written and recorded by American musical duo Twenty One Pilots, for their fourth studio album Blurryface. The song was released as a single on April 6, 2018 and was released to radio on April 14 of the same year.
A music video for "Tear in My Heart '' was uploaded to YouTube on April 6, 2015 and was directed by Marc Klasfeld. In addition to both band members, lead singer Tyler Joseph 's wife Jenna, who he married the previous month, also appears in the music video.
The music video for "Tear in My Heart '' shows Joseph and Dun performing in Chinatown, Los Angeles, with Joseph singing in the town square. The people do n't notice them while Joseph sings the first verse of the song. As more people begin to notice them, their eyes distort. The buildings surrounding Joseph and Dun begin to crumble, as Joseph notices his wife in the group of people; he then proceeds to follow her down an alley and into a restaurant. Jenna sings the lyrics "sometimes you 've got to bleed and know / that you 're alive and have a soul ''. Joseph then sings the following line, "but it takes someone to come around / to show you how ''. Jenna starts choking, punching, kicking, and beating Joseph until he is bleeding. Jenna then holds his chin and they kiss.
Twenty One Pilots performed a remix of Tear in My Heart by DJ SoySauce at their Emotional Roadshow concert in Cincinnati, Ohio, in the form of a drum line which consisted of Dun and two other men in hazmat suits beside him. This was continued to be done throughout the tour.
Additional musicians
shipments figures based on certification alone sales + streaming figures based on certification alone
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where did the system of checks and balances come from | Cabinet (government) - wikipedia
A cabinet is a body of high - ranking state officials, typically consisting of the top leaders of the executive branch. They are usually called ministers, but in some jurisdictions are sometimes called secretaries. The supranational European Commission of the European Union uniquely refers to its executive cabinet as a "college '', with its top public officials referred to as "commissioners ''.
The functions of a cabinet are varied: in some countries it is a collegial decision - making body with collective responsibility, while in others it may function either as a purely advisory body or an assisting institution to a decision making head of state or head of government. In some countries, the cabinet is called "Council of Ministers '' or "Government Council '' or lesser known names such as "Federal Council '' (in Switzerland), "Inner Council '' or "High Council ''. These countries may differ in the way that the cabinet is used or established.
In some countries, particularly those that use a parliamentary system (e.g., the UK), the Cabinet collectively decides the government 's direction, especially in regard to legislation passed by the parliament. In countries with a presidential system, such as the United States, the Cabinet does not function as a collective legislative influence; rather, their primary role is as an official advisory council to the head of government. In this way, the President gets opinions and advice in upcoming decisions.
Legally, under both types of systems, the Westminster variant of a parliamentary system and the presidential system, the Cabinet "advises '' the Head of State: the difference is that, in a parliamentary system, the monarch, viceroy or ceremonial president will almost always follow this advice, whereas in a presidential system, a president who is also head of government and political leader may depart from the Cabinet 's advice if they do not agree with it.
In nearly all parliamentary democracies that do not follow the Westminster system, and in three countries that do (Japan, Ireland, and Israel), very often the Cabinet does not "advise '' the Head of State as they play only a ceremonial role. Instead, it is usually the Head of Government who holds all means of power in their hands (e.g. in Germany, Sweden, etc.) and the Cabinet reports to them.
The second role of cabinet officials is to administer executive branch government agencies or departments (in the United States federal government, these are the federal executive departments).
In many parliamentary democracies, including those that use the Westminster system, Cabinet ministers are usually (or mandatorily) appointed from among sitting members of the legislature and either remain members of the legislature while serving in the cabinet (e.g. in the United Kingdom), or have to give up their seat in parliament, which is especially the case in countries with a strict separation between the executive and legislative branches of government (e.g. Luxembourg, Switzerland, Belgium etc.).
The latter is usually also the case in countries with a presidential system: Cabinet members can not be sitting legislators, and legislators who are offered appointments must resign if they wish to accept.
In most governments, members of the Cabinet are given the title of minister, and each holds a different portfolio of government duties ("Minister for the Environment '', etc.).
In a few governments, as in the case of Mexico, the Philippines, the United Kingdom, and United States, the title of secretary is also used for some Cabinet members ("Secretary of Education '', or "Secretary of State '' in the UK). In many countries (e.g. Germany, Luxembourg, France, etc.), a Secretary (of State) is a cabinet member with an inferior rank to a minister.
In some countries (e.g. the US) attorneys general also sit in the cabinet, while in many others this is strictly prohibited as the attorneys general are considered to be part of the judicial branch of government. The day - to - day role of most cabinet members is to serve as the chief of one segment of the executive branch of the national government (or regional government in federal systems) and its respective bureaucracy to whom all other subordinate public servants and employees in that ministry or department have to report.
The size of cabinets varies, although most contain around ten to twenty ministers. Researchers have found an inverse correlation between a country 's level of development and cabinet size: on average, the more developed a country is, the smaller is its cabinet.
In the United Kingdom and its colonies, cabinets began as smaller sub-groups of the English Privy Council. The term comes from the name for a relatively small and private room used as a study or retreat. Phrases such as "cabinet counsel, '' meaning advice given in private to the monarch, occur from the late 16th century, and, given the non-standardized spelling of the day, it is often hard to distinguish whether "council '' or "counsel '' is meant.
The Oxford English Dictionary credits Francis Bacon in his Essays (1605) with the first use of "Cabinet council '', where it is described as a foreign habit, of which he disapproves: "For which inconveniences, the doctrine of Italy, and practice of France, in some kings ' times, hath introduced cabinet counsels; a remedy worse than the disease ''.
Charles I began a formal "Cabinet Council '' from his accession in 1625, as his Privy Council, or "private council '', was evidently not private enough, and the first recorded use of "cabinet '' by itself for such a body comes from 1644, and is again hostile and associates the term with dubious foreign practices. The process has repeated itself in recent times, as leaders have felt the need to have a Kitchen Cabinet or "sofa government ''.
Under the Westminster system, members of the cabinet are Ministers of the Crown who are collectively responsible for all government policy. All ministers, whether senior and in the cabinet or junior ministers, must publicly support the policy of the government, regardless of any private reservations. Although, in theory, all cabinet decisions are taken collectively by the cabinet, in practice many decisions are delegated to the various sub-committees of the cabinet, which report to the full cabinet on their findings and recommendations. As these recommendations have already been agreed upon by those in the cabinet who hold affected ministerial portfolios, the recommendations are usually agreed to by the full cabinet with little further discussion. The cabinet may also provide ideas on / if new laws were established, and what they include. Cabinet deliberations are secret and documents dealt with in cabinet are confidential. Most of the documentation associated with cabinet deliberations will only be publicly released a considerable period after the particular cabinet disbands, depending on provisions of a nation 's freedom of information legislation.
In theory the prime minister or premier is first among equals. However, the prime minister is the person from whom the head of state will ultimately take advice on the exercise of executive power, which may include the powers to declare war, use nuclear weapons, expel ministers from the cabinet, and to determine their portfolios in a cabinet reshuffle. This position in relation to the executive power means that, in practice, the prime minister has a high degree of control over the cabinet: any spreading of responsibility for the overall direction of the government has usually been done as a matter of preference by the prime minister -- either because they are unpopular with their backbenchers, or because they believe that the cabinet should collectively decide things.
The shadow cabinet consists of the leading members, or frontbenchers, of an opposition party, who generally hold critic portfolios "shadowing '' cabinet ministers, questioning their decisions and proposing policy alternatives. In some countries, the shadow ministers are referred to as spokespersons.
The Westminster cabinet system is the foundation of cabinets as they are known at the federal and provincial (or state) jurisdictions of Australia, Bangladesh, Canada, Pakistan, India, South Africa, New Zealand, and other Commonwealth of Nations countries whose parliamentary model is closely based on that of the United Kingdom.
Under the doctrine of separation of powers, a cabinet under a presidential system of government is part of the executive branch. In addition to administering their respective segments of the executive branch, cabinet members are responsible for advising the head of government on areas within their purview.
They are appointed by and serve at the pleasure of the head of government and are therefore strongly subordinate to the president as they can be replaced at any time. Normally, since they are appointed by the president, they are members of the same political party, but the executive is free to select anyone, including opposition party members, subject to the advice and consent of the Senate.
Normally, the legislature or a segment thereof must confirm the appointment of a cabinet member; this is but one of the many checks and balances built into a presidential system. The legislature may also remove a cabinet member through a usually difficult impeachment process.
In the Cabinet, members do not serve to influence legislative policy to the degree found in a Westminster system; however, each member wields significant influence in matters relating to their executive department. Since the administration of Franklin D. Roosevelt, the President of the United States has acted most often through his own executive office or the National Security Council rather than through the Cabinet as was the case in earlier administrations.
In some European countries and in the institutions of the European Union, "cabinet '' refers not to a group of officials, but to the private office of consultants and assistants working directly for a minister or senior executive.
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5. draw the cie chromaticity diagram and explain how it is useful in calculating the wavelengths | CIE 1931 color space - wikipedia
The CIE 1931 color spaces were the first defined quantitative links between distributions of wavelengths in the electromagnetic visible spectrum, and physiological perceived colors in human color vision. The mathematical relationships that define these color spaces are essential tools for color management, important when dealing with color inks, illuminated displays, and recording devices such as digital cameras.
The CIE 1931 RGB color space and CIE 1931 XYZ color space were created by the International Commission on Illumination (CIE) in 1931. They resulted from a series of experiments done in the late 1920s by William David Wright and John Guild. The experimental results were combined into the specification of the CIE RGB color space, from which the CIE XYZ color space was derived.
The CIE 1931 color spaces are still widely used, as is the 1976 CIELUV color space.
The human eye with normal vision has three kinds of cone cells that sense light, having peaks of spectral sensitivity in short ("S '', 420 nm -- 440 nm), middle ("M '', 530 nm -- 540 nm), and long ("L '', 560 nm -- 580 nm) wavelengths. These cone cells underlie human color perception in conditions of medium and high brightness; in very dim light color vision diminishes, and the low - brightness, monochromatic "night vision '' receptors, denominated "rod cells '', become effective. Thus, three parameters corresponding to levels of stimulus of the three kinds of cone cells, in principle describe any human color sensation. Weighting a total light power spectrum by the individual spectral sensitivities of the three kinds of cone cells renders three effective values of stimulus; these three values compose a tristimulus specification of the objective color of the light spectrum. The three parameters, denoted "S '', "M '', and "L '', are indicated using a 3 - dimensional space denominated the "LMS color space '', which is one of many color spaces devised to quantify human color vision.
A color space maps a range of physically produced colors from mixed light, pigments, etc. to an objective description of color sensations registered in the human eye, typically in terms of tristimulus values, but not usually in the LMS color space defined by the spectral sensitivities of the cone cells. The tristimulus values associated with a color space can be conceptualized as amounts of three primary colors in a tri-chromatic, additive color model. In some color spaces, including the LMS and XYZ spaces, the primary colors used are not real colors in the sense that they can not be generated in any light spectrum.
The CIE XYZ color space encompasses all color sensations that are visible to a person with average eyesight. That is why CIE XYZ (Tristimulus values) is a device - invariant representation of color. It serves as a standard reference against which many other color spaces are defined. A set of color - matching functions, like the spectral sensitivity curves of the LMS color space, but not restricted to non-negative sensitivities, associates physically produced light spectra with specific tristimulus values.
Consider two light sources composed of different mixtures of various wavelengths. Such light sources may appear to be the same color; this effect is denominated "metamerism ''. Such light sources have the same apparent color to an observer when they produce the same tristimulus values, regardless of the spectral power distributions of the sources.
Most wavelengths stimulate two or all three kinds of cone cell because the spectral sensitivity curves of the three kinds overlap. Certain tristimulus values are thus physically impossible, for example LMS tristimulus values that are non-zero for the M component and zero for both the L and S components. Furthermore, LMS tristimulus values for pure spectral colors would, in any normal trichromatic additive color space, e.g. the RGB color spaces, imply negative values for at least one of the three primaries because the chromaticity would be outside the color triangle defined by the primary colors. To avoid these negative RGB values, and to have one component that describes the perceived brightness, "imaginary '' primary colors and corresponding color - matching functions were formulated. The CIE 1931 color space defines the resulting tristimulus values, in which they are denoted by "X '', "Y '', and "Z ''. In XYZ space, all combinations of non-negative coordinates are meaningful, but many, such as the primary locations (1, 0, 0), (0, 1, 0), and (0, 0, 1), correspond to imaginary colors outside the space of possible LMS coordinates; imaginary colors do not correspond to any spectral distribution of wavelengths and therefore have no physical reality.
When judging the relative luminance (brightness) of different colors in well - lit situations, humans tend to perceive light within the green parts of the spectrum as brighter than red or blue light of equal power. The luminosity function that describes the perceived brightnesses of different wavelengths is thus roughly analogous to the spectral sensitivity of M cones.
The CIE model capitalises on this fact by defining Y as luminance. Z is quasi-equal to blue stimulation, or the S cone response, and X is a mix (a linear combination) of cone response curves chosen to be nonnegative. The XYZ tristimulus values are thus analogous to, but different from, the LMS cone responses of the human eye. Defining Y as luminance has the useful result that for any given Y value, the XZ plane will contain all possible chromaticities at that luminance.
The unit of the tristimulus values X, Y, and Z is often arbitrarily chosen so that Y = 1 or Y = 100 is the brightest white that a color display supports. The corresponding whitepoint values for X and Z can then be inferred using the standard illuminants.
Due to the distribution of cones in the eye, the tristimulus values depend on the observer 's field of view. To eliminate this variable, the CIE defined a color - mapping function called the standard (colorimetric) observer, to represent an average human 's chromatic response within a 2 ° arc inside the fovea. This angle was chosen owing to the belief that the color - sensitive cones resided within a 2 ° arc of the fovea. Thus the CIE 1931 Standard Observer function is also known as the CIE 1931 2 ° Standard Observer. A more modern but less - used alternative is the CIE 1964 10 ° Standard Observer, which is derived from the work of Stiles and Burch, and Speranskaya.
For the 10 ° experiments, the observers were instructed to ignore the central 2 ° spot. The 1964 Supplementary Standard Observer function is recommended when dealing with more than about a 4 ° field of view. Both standard observer functions are discretized at 5 nm wavelength intervals from 380 nm to 780 nm and distributed by the CIE. All corresponding values have been calculated from experimentally obtained data using interpolation. The standard observer is characterized by three color matching functions.
The derivation of the CIE standard observer from color matching experiments is given below, after the description of the CIE RGB space.
The CIE 's color matching functions x _̄ (λ) (\ displaystyle (\ overline (x)) (\ lambda)), y _̄ (λ) (\ displaystyle (\ overline (y)) (\ lambda)) and z _̄ (λ) (\ displaystyle (\ overline (z)) (\ lambda)) are the numerical description of the chromatic response of the observer (described above). They can be thought of as the spectral sensitivity curves of three linear light detectors yielding the CIE tristimulus values X, Y and Z. Collectively, these three functions are known as the CIE standard observer.
Other observers, such as for the CIE RGB space or other RGB color spaces, are defined by other sets of three color - matching functions, and lead to tristimulus values in those other spaces.
The tristimulus values for a color with a spectral radiance L are given in terms of the standard observer by:
where λ (\ displaystyle \ lambda) is the wavelength of the equivalent monochromatic light (measured in nanometers), and the standard limits of the integral are λ ∈ (380, 780) (\ displaystyle \ lambda \ in (380,780)).
The values of X, Y, and Z are bounded if the radiance spectrum L is bounded.
The reflective and transmissive cases are very similar to the emissive case, with a few differences. The spectral radiance L is replaced by the spectral reflectance (or transmittance) S (λ) of the object being measured, multiplied by the spectral power distribution of the illuminant I (λ).
where
K is a scaling factor (usually 1 or 100), and λ (\ displaystyle \ lambda) is the wavelength of the equivalent monochromatic light (measured in nanometers), and the standard limits of the integral are λ ∈ (380, 780) (\ displaystyle \ lambda \ in (380,780)).
Since the human eye has three types of color sensors that respond to different ranges of wavelengths, a full plot of all visible colors is a three - dimensional figure. However, the concept of color can be divided into two parts: brightness and chromaticity. For example, the color white is a bright color, while the color grey is considered to be a less bright version of that same white. In other words, the chromaticity of white and grey are the same while their brightness differs.
The CIE XYZ color space was deliberately designed so that the Y parameter is a measure of the luminance of a color. The chromaticity of a color is then specified by the two derived parameters x and y, two of the three normalized values being functions of all three tristimulus values X, Y, and Z:
The derived color space specified by x, y, and Y is known as the CIE xyY color space and is widely used to specify colors in practice.
The X and Z tristimulus values can be calculated back from the chromaticity values x and y and the Y tristimulus value:
The figure on the right shows the related chromaticity diagram. The outer curved boundary is the spectral locus, with wavelengths shown in nanometers. Note that the chromaticity diagram is a tool to specify how the human eye will experience light with a given spectrum. It can not specify colors of objects (or printing inks), since the chromaticity observed while looking at an object depends on the light source as well.
Mathematically the colors of the chromaticity diagram occupy a region of the real projective plane.
The chromaticity diagram illustrates a number of interesting properties of the CIE XYZ color space:
When two or more colors are additively mixed, the x and y chromaticity coordinates of the resulting color (x, y) may be calculated from the chromaticities of the mixture components (x, y; x, y;...; x, y) and their corresponding luminances (L, L,..., L) with the following formulas:
These formulas can be derived from the previously presented definitions of x and y chromaticity coordinates by taking advantage of the fact that the tristimulus values X, Y, and Z of the individual mixture components are directly additive. In place of the luminance values (L, L, etc.) one can alternatively use any other photometric quantity that is directly proportional to the tristimulus value Y (naturally meaning that Y itself can also be used as well).
As already mentioned, when two colors are mixed, the resulting color x, y will lie on the straight line segment that connects these colors on the CIE xy chromaticity diagram. To calculate the mixing ratio of the component colors x, y and x, y that results in a certain x, y on this line segment, one can use the formula
where L is the luminance of color x, y and L the luminance of color x, y. Note that because y is unambiguously determined by x and vice versa, knowing just another of them is enough for calculating the mixing ratio. Also note that the mixing ratio L / L may -- in accordance with the remarks concerning the formulas for x and y -- well be expressed in terms of other photometric quantities than luminance.
The CIE RGB color space is one of many RGB color spaces, distinguished by a particular set of monochromatic (single - wavelength) primary colors.
In the 1920s, W. David Wright and John Guild independently conducted a series of experiments on human sight which laid the foundation for the specification of the CIE XYZ color space. Wright carried out trichromatic color matching experiments with ten observers. Guild actually conducted his experiments with seven observers.
The experiments were conducted by using a circular split screen (a bipartite field) 2 degrees in diameter, which is the angular size of the human fovea. On one side of the field a test color was projected and on the other side, an observer - adjustable color was projected. The adjustable color was a mixture of three primary colors, each with fixed chromaticity, but with adjustable brightness.
The observer would alter the brightness of each of the three primary beams until a match to the test color was observed. Not all test colors could be matched using this technique. When this was the case, a variable amount of one of the primaries could be added to the test color, and a match with the remaining two primaries was carried out with the variable color spot. For these cases, the amount of the primary added to the test color was considered to be a negative value. In this way, the entire range of human color perception could be covered. When the test colors were monochromatic, a plot could be made of the amount of each primary used as a function of the wavelength of the test color. These three functions are called the color matching functions for that particular experiment.
Although Wright and Guild 's experiments were carried out using various primaries at various intensities, and although they used a number of different observers, all of their results were summarized by the standardized CIE RGB color matching functions r _̄ (λ) (\ displaystyle (\ overline (r)) (\ lambda)), g _̄ (λ) (\ displaystyle (\ overline (g)) (\ lambda)), and b _̄ (λ) (\ displaystyle (\ overline (b)) (\ lambda)), obtained using three monochromatic primaries at standardized wavelengths of 700 nm (red), 546.1 nm (green) and 435.8 nm (blue). The color matching functions are the amounts of primaries needed to match the monochromatic test primary. These functions are shown in the plot on the right (CIE 1931). Note that r _̄ (λ) (\ displaystyle (\ overline (r)) (\ lambda)) and g _̄ (λ) (\ displaystyle (\ overline (g)) (\ lambda)) are zero at 435.8 nm, r _̄ (λ) (\ displaystyle (\ overline (r)) (\ lambda)) and b _̄ (λ) (\ displaystyle (\ overline (b)) (\ lambda)) are zero at 546.1 nm and g _̄ (λ) (\ displaystyle (\ overline (g)) (\ lambda)) and b _̄ (λ) (\ displaystyle (\ overline (b)) (\ lambda)) are zero at 700 nm, since in these cases the test color is one of the primaries. The primaries with wavelengths 546.1 nm and 435.8 nm were chosen because they are easily reproducible monochromatic lines of a mercury vapor discharge. The 700 nm wavelength, which in 1931 was difficult to reproduce as a monochromatic beam, was chosen because the eye 's perception of color is rather unchanging at this wavelength, and therefore small errors in wavelength of this primary would have little effect on the results.
The color matching functions and primaries were settled upon by a CIE special commission after considerable deliberation. The cut - offs at the short - and long - wavelength side of the diagram are chosen somewhat arbitrarily; the human eye can actually see light with wavelengths up to about 810 nm, but with a sensitivity that is many thousand times lower than for green light. These color matching functions define what is known as the "1931 CIE standard observer ''. Note that rather than specify the brightness of each primary, the curves are normalized to have constant area beneath them. This area is fixed to a particular value by specifying that
The resulting normalized color matching functions are then scaled in the r: g: b ratio of 1: 4.5907: 0.0601 for source luminance and 72.0962: 1.3791: 1 for source radiance to reproduce the true color matching functions. By proposing that the primaries be standardized, the CIE established an international system of objective color notation.
Given these scaled color matching functions, the RGB tristimulus values for a color with a spectral power distribution S (λ) (\ displaystyle S (\ lambda)) would then be given by:
These are all inner products and can be thought of as a projection of an infinite - dimensional spectrum to a three - dimensional color.
One might ask: "Why is it possible that Wright and Guild 's results can be summarized using different primaries and different intensities from those actually used? '' One might also ask: "What about the case when the test colors being matched are not monochromatic? '' The answer to both of these questions lies in the (near) linearity of human color perception. This linearity is expressed in Grassmann 's law.
The CIE RGB space can be used to define chromaticity in the usual way: The chromaticity coordinates are r and g where:
Having developed an RGB model of human vision using the CIE RGB matching functions, the members of the special commission wished to develop another color space that would relate to the CIE RGB color space. It was assumed that Grassmann 's law held, and the new space would be related to the CIE RGB space by a linear transformation. The new space would be defined in terms of three new color matching functions x _̄ (λ) (\ displaystyle (\ overline (x)) (\ lambda)), y _̄ (λ) (\ displaystyle (\ overline (y)) (\ lambda)), and z _̄ (λ) (\ displaystyle (\ overline (z)) (\ lambda)) as described above. The new color space would be chosen to have the following desirable properties:
In geometrical terms, choosing the new color space amounts to choosing a new triangle in rg chromaticity space. In the figure above - right, the rg chromaticity coordinates are shown on the two axes in black, along with the gamut of the 1931 standard observer. Shown in red are the CIE xy chromaticity axes which were determined by the above requirements. The requirement that the XYZ coordinates be non-negative means that the triangle formed by C, C, C must encompass the entire gamut of the standard observer. The line connecting C and C is fixed by the requirement that the y _̄ (λ) (\ displaystyle (\ overline (y)) (\ lambda)) function be equal to the luminance function. This line is the line of zero luminance, and is called the alychne. The requirement that the z _̄ (λ) (\ displaystyle (\ overline (z)) (\ lambda)) function be zero above 650 nm means that the line connecting C and C must be tangent to the gamut in the region of K. This defines the location of point C. The requirement that the equal energy point be defined by x = y = 1 / 3 puts a restriction on the line joining C and C, and finally, the requirement that the gamut fill the space puts a second restriction on this line to be very close to the gamut in the green region, which specifies the location of C and C. The above described transformation is a linear transformation from the CIE RGB space to XYZ space. The standardized transformation settled upon by the CIE special commission was as follows:
The numbers in the conversion matrix below are exact, with the number of digits specified in CIE standards.
While the above matrix is exactly specified in standards, going the other direction uses an inverse matrix that is not exactly specified, but is approximately:
The integrals of the XYZ color matching functions must all be equal by requirement 3 above, and this is set by the integral of the photopic luminous efficiency function by requirement 2 above. The tabulated sensitivity curves have a certain amount of arbitrariness in them. The shapes of the individual X, Y and Z sensitivity curves can be measured with a reasonable accuracy. However, the overall luminosity curve (which in fact is a weighted sum of these three curves) is subjective, since it involves asking a test person whether two light sources have the same brightness, even if they are in completely different colors. Along the same lines, the relative magnitudes of the X, Y, and Z curves are arbitrary. Furthermore, one could define a valid color space with an X sensitivity curve that has twice the amplitude. This new color space would have a different shape. The sensitivity curves in the CIE 1931 and 1964 XYZ color spaces are scaled to have equal areas under the curves.
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in which states does werner have chain banks | Werner Enterprises - Wikipedia
Werner Enterprises, Inc. (NASDAQ: WERN) is an American freight carrier and transportation and logistics company headquartered in Omaha, Nebraska. It was founded in 1956 by Executive Chairman, Clarence L. (C.L.) Werner. He started his business with one truck at the age of 19.
As Werner celebrates its 60th year in business, C.L. Werner, the company 's founder and first driver, stepped down from the position of chief executive officer as part of the planned management transition announced in August 2015 and will remain as executive chairman of the company. Derek Leathers was promoted to president and CEO in May 2016.
Werner ships throughout the USA, Canada, Mexico, Asia, Europe, South America, Africa and Australia. It has a fleet of 7,400 trucks and more than 24,000 trailers. In 2015, their net profit was estimated as being $123.7 million.
Werner has terminals strategically located in 11 states to provide services for drivers, equipment and local recruiting.
It offers van, flatbed and temperature controlled services.
It has regional offices throughout North America, China and Australia.
Werner 's current fleet is made up of the following makes and models:
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who doesn't have the right to vote in the us | Federal voting rights in Puerto Rico - wikipedia
Voting rights of United States citizens in Puerto Rico, like the voting rights of residents of other United States territories, differ from those of United States citizens in each of the fifty states and the District of Columbia. Residents of Puerto Rico and other U.S. territories do not have voting representation in the United States Congress, and are not entitled to electoral votes for President. The United States Constitution grants congressional voting representation to U.S. states, which Puerto Rico and other U.S. territories are not, specifying that members of Congress shall be elected by direct popular vote and that the President and the Vice President shall be elected by electors chosen by the States.
Puerto Rico is a territory under the sovereignty of the federal government, but is not part of any state nor is it a state itself. It has been organized (given a measure of self - rule by the Congress) subject to the Congress ' plenary powers under the territorial clause of Article IV, sec. 3, of the U.S. Constitution. In the U.S. House of Representatives, Puerto Rico is entitled to a Resident Commissioner, a delegate who is not allowed to vote on the floor of the House, but can vote on procedural matters and in House committees. In most other U.S. overseas (and historically pre-state) territories, as well as the District of Columbia, a similar representative position is styled Delegate.
The lack of direct voting representation in Congress for residents of the territory has been an issue since the U.S. Congress granted U.S. citizenship to Puerto Rico citizens in 1917. All judicial claims have been met with political or constitutional challenges; therefore, there has been no change in Puerto Rico 's representation in the Congress or representation on the electoral college for the U.S. citizens residing in Puerto Rico.
Like other territories, Puerto Rico can participate in the presidential primary process. It holds a primary election in the spring of each presidential election year. Then the parties choose delegates to the Republican and Democratic National Convention, who are pledged to vote at that convention for the winners of Puerto Rico 's primary, but that 's the end of their participation in the presidential election. See United States presidential primaries in Puerto Rico, 2016.
Puerto Rico is an insular area -- a United States territory that is neither a part of one of the fifty states nor a part of the District of Columbia, the nation 's federal district. Insular areas, including Puerto Rico, the U.S. Virgin Islands and Guam, are not allowed to choose electors in U.S. presidential elections or elect voting members of the U.S. Congress. This grows out of Articles One and Two of the United States Constitution, which state that electors are to be chosen by "the People of the several States. '' In 1961, the 23rd amendment extended the right to choose electors to the District of Columbia; the insular areas, however, were not addressed in that Amendment.
On December 29, 2003, The Inter-American Commission on Human Rights of the Organization of American States concluded that the United States is responsible for violations of the District of Columbia 's rights under Articles II and XX of the American Declaration of the Rights and Duties of Man by denying District of Columbia citizens an effective opportunity to participate in their federal legislature. On October 17, 2006, Pedro Rosselló, a former governor of Puerto Rico, and the Unfinished Business of American Democracy Committee on behalf of the approximately four million U.S. citizens residing in the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico, presented a petition to the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights of the Organization of American States seeking the Commission 's aid in obtaining enfranchisement.
Any U.S. citizen who resides in Puerto Rico is effectively disenfranchised at the national level, as are all U.S. citizen residents of U.S. unincorporated territories. Although the Republican Party and Democratic Party chapters in Puerto Rico have selected voting delegates to the national nominating conventions participating on U.S. presidential primaries or caucuses, U.S. citizens without a voting residence in one of the 50 states or in the District of Columbia may not vote in federal elections.
Both the Puerto Rican Independence Party and the New Progressive Party outright reject the status quo that permits disenfranchisement (from their distinct respective positions on the ideal enfranchised status for the island - nation of Puerto Rico). The remaining political organization, the Popular Democratic Party, is less active in its opposition of this case of disenfranchisement but has officially stated that it favors fixing the remaining "deficits of democracy '' that the Bill Clinton and George W. Bush administrations have publicly recognized in writing through reports of the President 's Task Force on Puerto Rico 's Status.
Various scholars, including a US judge in the United States Court of Appeals for the First Circuit, conclude that the U.S. national - electoral process is not fully democratic due to U.S. government disenfranchisement of U.S. citizens residing in Puerto Rico.
The appeals court decision in 2005, on appeal of the decision in the third filing of the case Igartua - de la Rosa v. United States, 417 F. 3d 145 (1st Cir. P.R. 2005), reads in part:
August 3, 2005 OPINION EN BANC Boudin, Chief Judge. This case brings before this court the third in a series of law suits by Gregorio Igartúa, a U.S. citizen resident in Puerto Rico, claiming the constitutional right to vote quadrennially for President and Vice President of the United States. Panels of this court have rejected such claims on all three occasions. We now do so again, this time en banc, rejecting as well an adjacent claim: that the failure of the Constitution to grant this vote should be declared a violation of U.S. treaty obligations. The constitutional claim is readily answered. Voting for President and Vice President of the United States is governed neither by rhetoric nor intuitive values but by a provision of the Constitution. This provision does not confer the franchise on "U.S. citizens '' but on "Electors '' who are to be "appoint (ed) '' by each "State, '' in "such Manner '' as the state legislature may direct, equal to the number of Senators and Representatives to whom the state is entitled. U.S. Const. art. II, § 1, cl. 2; see also id. amend. XII.
Judges Campbell and Lipez concurred in the decision. Judge Torruella dissented, opening his dissent as follows:
In its haste to "put (plaintiffs - appellants ') constitutional claim fully at rest, '' maj. op. at 6, the majority has chosen to overlook the issues actually before this en banc court as framed by the order of the rehearing panel, see Igartúa de la Rosa v. United States, 404 F. 3d 1 (1st Cir. 2005) (order granting panel rehearing), which panel the en banc court suppressed, but whose order was adopted as establishing the parameters of the issues to be decided by the en banc court. See Igartúa de la Rosa v. United States, 407 F. 3d 30, 31 (1st Cir. 2005) (converting to en banc review panel rehearing in which "the parties (are) to address two issues: first, the plaintiffs ' claim that the United States was in default of its treaty obligations and, second, the availability of declaratory judgment concerning the government 's compliance with any such obligations. ''). It is these issues that the parties were asked to brief. Instead the majority has sidetracked this appeal into a dead end that is no longer before us: Puerto Rico 's lack of electoral college representation, see U.S. Const. art. II, § 1, cl. 2, and our lack of authority to order any constitutional change to such status by reason of that constitutional impediment. In doing so, the majority fails to give any weight to the fundamental nature of the right to vote, and the legal consequences of this cardinal principal. Under the combined guise of alleged political question doctrine, its admitted desire to avoid "embarrassment '' to the United States, and its pious lecturing on what it deems to be the nature of the judicial function, the majority seeks to avoid what I believe is its paramount duty over and above these stated goals: to do justice to the civil rights of the four million United States citizens who reside in Puerto Rico. The majority labels this duty with despect as "rhetoric '' and "intuitive values. '' Maj. op. at 3. I beg to differ, and so, I suspect, do a considerable number of those four million U.S. citizens who, lacking any political recourse, look to the courts of the United States for succor because they are without any other avenue of relief. See United States v. Carolene Prods. Co., 304 U.S. 144, 152 n. 4 (1938) ("(P) rejudice against discrete and insular minorities may be a special condition, which tends seriously to curtail the operation of those political processes ordinarily to be relied upon to protect minorities and... may call for correspondingly more searching judicial inquiry. '').
On November 24, 2010, Gregorio Igartúa and others brought suit claiming they and other U.S. citizen - residents of Puerto Rico have a right to vote for a Representative to the U.S. House of Representatives from Puerto Rico and a right to have Representatives from Puerto Rico in that body. In 1917, residents of Puerto Rico were granted U.S. citizenship by statute. See Pub. L. No. 368, ch. 145, § 5, 39 Stat. 951 (1917).
The panel is unanimous in agreeing that the U.S. Constitution does not give Puerto Rico residents the right to vote for members of the House of Representatives because Puerto Rico is not a state.
Chief Judge Lynch and Judge Lipez conclude that this panel is bound by Igartúa III 's holding that the Constitution does not permit granting such a right to the plaintiffs by means other than those specified for achieving statehood or by amendment. Chief Judge Lynch independently concludes that this holding in Igartúa III is correct. Judge Lipez considers the panel bound by this holding in Igartúa III, but he does not express a view of his own on its merit. Chief Judge Lynch and Judge Lipez agree that Igartúa III requires dismissal of plaintiffs ' claims based on treaties and international law. Judge Lipez joins the holding that dismissal of the case is affirmed. He joins this introduction, the introduction to Section II, Sections II. A, II. B, and II. C. 1, and Section III of Chief Judge Lynch 's opinion. He expresses additional views in his concurring opinion.
Judge Torruella dissents and is of the view that the constitutional text neither denies citizens of Puerto Rico the right to vote for members of the House of Representatives nor imposes a limitation on the federal government 's authority to extend the franchise to territorial residents under other constitutional powers.
Lipez opened his concurrence opinion as follows:
- Concurring Opinion Follows -
LIPEZ, Circuit Judge, concurring in the judgment. Despite our court 's 2005 en banc decision rejecting the right of Puerto Rico 's four million residents to vote in presidential elections, the issue of federal voting rights for these longstanding United States citizens remains a compelling legal problem. The unequal distribution of the fundamental privilege of voting among different categories of citizens is deeply troubling and, not surprisingly, the legal arguments in favor of enfranchising Puerto Rico residents have continued to evolve. Although the en banc decision forecloses this panel 's reconsideration of issues the full court resolved, that decision should not be the final word on the subject. Judge Torruella 's dissent highlights important issues that deserve consideration in a new en banc proceeding. As I shall explain, if each of those issues were decided in plaintiffs ' favor, United States citizens residing in Puerto Rico would have a viable claim to equal voting rights under the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights ("ICCPR '').
Thus, while I agree with Chief Judge Lynch that our panel must adhere to the precedent set five years ago by the en banc court on the constitutional and treaty interpretation issues addressed in the majority opinion, I can not agree that the plaintiffs ' claims should be dismissed without review by the full court. Given the magnitude of the issues and Judge Torruella 's forceful analysis, this is one of those rare occasions when reconsideration of an en banc ruling is warranted.
Lipez, on his concurrence opinion on a section of The Constitutional Argument indicated:
- Concurring Opinion Follows -
As Judge Torruella points out, the view that the Constitution does not necessarily forbid extensions of the rights it delineates has been articulated in scholarly writing, and it underlies the effort to legislate voting rights for residents of the District of Columbia. See Opinion of Torruella, J.; see also José R. Coleman Tió, Comment, Six Puerto Rican Congressmen Go to Washington, 116 Yale L.J. 1389, 1394 (2007). Judge Torruella aptly invokes as well precedent applying the same notion of the Constitution 's reach - i.e., that it neither requires nor prohibits conferring rights on citizens outside the States - in the context of diversity jurisdiction. That precedent, including the Supreme Court 's decision in National Mutual Insurance Co. v. Tidewater Transfer Co., 337 U.S. 582 (1949), confirmed Congress 's power to extend diversity jurisdiction to the District of Columbia even though the provisions of Article III creating such jurisdiction refer only to States. By analogy, such cases support the argument that references in Article I to the voting rights of the people of "the States '' are not necessarily negative references to the voting rights of citizens residing in other United States jurisdictions. Cf. Adams v. Clinton, 90 F. Supp. 2d 35, 95 (D.D.C. 2000) (Oberdorfer, J., dissenting in part) ("(T) he use of the term ' State ' in the diversity jurisdiction clause of the Constitution can not mean ' and not of the District of Columbia. ' '' (citing Tidewater)).
Moreover, the redressability concern that underlay my concurrence in Igartúa III stemmed in large part from the courts ' inability to order Congress to take the only actions that I thought could deliver the remedy the plaintiffs sought - "to either admit Puerto Rico as a state or to propose a Constitutional amendment allocating electors to Puerto Rico. '' See 417 F. 3d at 154. If Puerto Rico residents ' right to vote originates from a source of United States law other than the Constitution, however, it is possible that declaratory relief could properly involve individual government officials rather than Congress. For example, precedent indicates that the Secretary of Commerce is empowered to take the steps necessary to conform the apportionment process to the law. See Franklin v. Massachusetts, 505 U.S. 788, 802 (1992) (plurality opinion) (noting that "injunctive relief against executive officials like the Secretary of Commerce is within the courts ' power '') (citing Youngstown Sheet & Tube Co. v. Sawyer, 343 U.S. 579 (1952)); Adams, 90 F. Supp. 2d at 41 (noting that the Secretary of Commerce is tasked with reporting the population of each state to the President for congressional apportionment).
Torruella opened his Opinion Concurring in Part and Dissenting in Part, as follows:
TORRUELLA, Circuit Judge (Concurring in part; Dissenting in part). Although in a different format than presented on prior occasions, we once more have before us issues that arise by reason of the political inequality that exists within the body politic of the United States, as regards the four million citizens of this Nation who reside in Puerto Rico.
This is a fundamental constitutional question that will not go away notwithstanding this Court 's repeated efforts to suppress these issues. 21 We can now add to that dismal list the endeavors of the lead opinion. This is a most unfortunate and denigrating predicament for citizens who for more than one hundred years have been branded with a stigma of inferiority, and all that follows therefrom.
At the root of this problem is the unacceptable role of the courts. Their complicity in the perpetuation of this outcome is unconscionable. As in the case of racial segregation, see Plessy v. Ferguson, 163 U.S. 557 (1896) (overruled by Brown v. Bd. of Educ., 347 U.S. 482 (1954)), it is the courts that are responsible for the creation of this inequality. 22 Furthermore, it is the courts that have clothed this noxious condition in a mantle of legal respectability.
But perhaps even more egregious is the fact that it is this judiciary that has mechanically parroted the outdated and retrograde underpinnings on which this invented inferiority is perpetuated. This result is now reached without so much as a minimum of analysis or consideration for the passage of time and the changed conditions, both legal and societal. 23 These changed conditions have long undermined the foundations of these judge - made rules, which were established in a by - gone era in consonance with the distorted views of that epoch. 24 Although the unequal treatment of persons because of the color of their skin or other irrelevant reasons, was then the modus operandi of governments, and an accepted practice of societies in general, the continued enforcement of these rules by the courts is today an outdated anachronism, to say the least. Such actions, particularly by courts of the United States, only serve to tarnish our judicial system as the standard - bearer of the best values to which our Nation aspires. Allowing these antiquated rules to remain in place, long after the unequal treatment of American citizens has become constitutionally, morally and culturally unacceptable in the rest of our Nation, see Brown v. Bd. of Educ., 347 U.S. 483, is an intolerable state of affairs which can not be excused by hiding behind any theory of law.
The conclusions of the lead opinion in refusing to consider the merit of Appellants ' claims is particularly inexcusable because, as will be further elaborated, the present decision can not be legitimately grounded on the Supreme Law of the Land, which requires that Appellants be provided an effective judicial remedy for the correction of the wrongs they allege. See International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, art. 2, § 3, Dec. 19, 1966, 999 U.N.T.S. 171 (hereinafter ICCPR) ("Each State Party (including the United States). undertakes (t) o ensure that any person whose (ICCPR) rights are violated shall have an effective remedy, '' and to ensure that these rights are "determined by competent judicial, administrative, or legislative authorities. ''). The suggestion that Appellants seek a political rather than a judicial remedy to correct the grievous violation of their rights claimed in this action, is, at a minimum, ironic given that it is precisely the lack of political representation that is the central issue in this case. It is this lack of any political power by these disenfranchised U.S. citizens, and the cat and mouse games that have been played with them by the United States government, including its courts, that have resulted in their interminable unequal condition.
When this status of second - class citizenship is added to the also judicially established rule that grants Congress plenary powers over the territories and their inhabitants, i.e., that recognizes in Congress practically unfettered authority over the territories and their inhabitants, 26 one has to ask what effective political process is the lead opinion suggesting be turned to by Appellants to resolve the constitutional issues raised by this case? In fact, the referral by the lead opinion to the exercise of political power by these disenfranchised citizens, as the solution to their political inequality is nothing more than the promotion of the continued colonial status that has existed since Puerto Rico was acquired by the United States as booty after the Spanish - American War of 1898.27 As such, this suggestion is totally lacking in consequence or substance, and undeserving of a serious response.
With the primary vehicle for exerting effective political pressure being barred by the lack of elected voting representatives in Congress, it is a travesty to tout the political process as a means of vindicating the fundamental inequality of the United States citizens who reside in Puerto Rico. The lead opinion 's ruling is the equivalent of having decided, before Brown v. Board of Education, that African - Americans should forgo their right to judicial action under the Constitution as the road map to overruling the inequality promoted by Plessy.
In 1961, just a few years after the United Nations first ratified the ICCPR, the Twenty - third Amendment to the United States Constitution was passed, allowing United States citizens residing in the District of Columbia to vote for the executive offices. As of 2009 a bill was pending in Congress that would treat the District of Columbia as "a congressional district for purposes of representation in the House of Representatives '', and permit United States citizens residing in the capitol to vote for members of the House of Representatives. However, the United States has not taken similar steps with regard to the five million United States citizens who reside in the U.S. territories, of which close to four million are residents of Puerto Rico. In an opinion concurring in part and dissenting in part in a judicial decision, Puerto Rican jurist Juan R. Torruella wrote that this inaction is in clear violation of the United States ' obligations under the ICCPR.
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can you visit the uk without a visa | Visa policy of the United Kingdom - wikipedia
The visa policy of the United Kingdom is the policy by which Her Majesty 's Government determines who may and may not enter the country of the United Kingdom, and the Crown dependencies of Guernsey, Jersey, and the Isle of Man. Visitors must obtain a visa unless they are exempt.
The UK is a member of the European Union, but it has an opt - out from the Schengen border - free area. It operates its own visa policy and also maintains the Common Travel Area with the Republic of Ireland, the Channel Islands and the Isle of Man.
British Overseas Territories generally apply their own similar but legally distinct visa policies.
The following individuals can enter the United Kingdom, the Channel Islands and the Isle of Man without a visa:
British Nationals who are not European Union citizens and citizens of 56 countries and territories are visa - exempt for stays in the UK of up to 6 months (or 3 months if they enter from the Republic of Ireland):
Visa free
Unknown: Andorra, Germany, Latvia and Lithuania (1992 - 1993), Vatican
Antigua and Barbuda, Australian, Bahamian, Barbadian, Belizean, Botswana, Bruneian, Canadian, Cypriot, Dominica, East Timorese, Grenadian, Irish, Kiribati, Malaysian, Maltese, Marshallese, Micronesian, Namibian, New Zealand, Nauruan, Palauan, Saint Kitts and Nevis, Saint Lucian, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, Samoan, Seychellois, Singaporean, Solomon Islands, Tongan, Trinidad and Tobago, Tuvaluan and Vanuatuan citizens have never needed a visa to gain access to the United Kingdom
Cancelled:
Electronic Visa
Citizens of the following countries can obtain an electronic visa waiver (EVW) online:
Citizens of the following countries can travel to the UK without a visa if they hold a valid Irish visa endorsed with BIVS:
The scheme might be expanded for all visa requiring nationals in the future.
Holders of diplomatic or special passports of the following countries do not require a visa:
Visa waiver also applies to holders of United Nations laissez - passer when they travel to the United Kingdom on official business.
There are two types of transit through the United Kingdom under the United Kingdom Transit Rules -- the airside transit and the landside transit. The Transit Without Visa facility for visa requiring nationals was abolished, effective 1 December 2014, and replaced with United Kingdom Transit Rules. Notwithstanding the lists below, in general, even persons from ' Direct Airside transit visa exempt nationalities ' require a transit visa if transiting though the UK to other parts of the Common Travel Area including Ireland.
The exemption applies where travellers:
E-visas or e-residence permits are not acceptable for airside transit unless the airline is able to verify it with the issuing country. Nationals of Syria who are holders of US B1 / B2 visas are not exempt.
The exemption applies where travellers:
E-visas such as those regularly issued by Australia or e-residence permits are not acceptable for landside transit.
Visitors entering the UK, the Channel Islands and / or the Isle of Man who do not qualify for one of the visa exemptions listed above have to apply for a visa in advance through the UK Visas and Immigration at a visa application centre.
All visitors must apply by registering an online account (except citizens of North Korea who must apply in person at the British Embassy), fill in the application form, pay the fee and attend an appointment at a visa application centre.
A visitor 's visa for a single stay or multiple stays of up to 6 months costs £ 83. A multiple - entry visitor 's visa valid for 2 years costs £ 300, 5 years £ 544 and 10 years £ 737. Special provisions are made for Chinese citizens as they are eligible for a 2 - year, multiple - entry visitor 's visa at a cost of £ 83.
Family members of EU, EEA and Swiss citizens who are not covered by one of the visa exemptions above can apply for an EEA Family Permit free of charge (instead of a visa).
Visitors applying for most types of UK visas (including a visitor 's visa and an EEA Family Permit) are required to submit biometric identifiers (all fingerprints and a digital facial image) as part of the visa application process. However, diplomats, foreign government ministers and officials and members of Commonwealth Forces are exempt from the requirement to submit biometric identifiers. Applicants who have obtained a new passport and are merely requesting a transfer of their visa vignette from their old passport to their new passport are not required to re-submit biometric identifiers. In addition, applicants who are travelling directly to the Channel Islands or Gibraltar without passing through the UK or the Isle of Man are exempt from providing biometric information. Children must be accompanied by an adult when their biometric identifiers are taken. Biometric identifiers may be shared with foreign governments. Biometric identifiers are destroyed 10 years after the last date a person 's fingerprints and digital facial image were captured.
Most visa applications are decided within 3 weeks.
Applicants resident in the following countries and territories who wish to enter the UK for 6 months or more are required to be tested for tuberculosis as part of the visa application process:
After a person has successfully obtained a UK visa, if he / she subsequently obtains a new passport, but the UK visa in his / her old passport still has remaining validity, he / she is not required to have the UK visa vignette affixed in the old passport transferred to the new passport, but must be able to present both the new and old passports at passport control when entering the UK.
If a person who has successfully obtained a UK visa subsequently loses the passport in which the visa vignette is affixed (or if it is stolen), he / she has to pay the original visa fee in full again and may be required to show that his / her circumstances have not changed when applying for a replacement visa. However, a new ' confirmation of acceptance for studies ' (CAS) / ' certificate of sponsorship ' (COS) is not required when applying for a replacement Tier 4 / Tier 2 visa.
These are correct as of April 2015.
By early 1917, all aliens (i.e. persons who were not British subjects) were required to obtain visas from a British consul before embarking for the United Kingdom. Visa requirements would then be maintained for aliens under the peacetime regime of immigration control retained after 1918.
In March 2007, the Home Office announced that it would carry out its first Visa Waiver Test to review the list of countries and territories outside the European Union, European Economic Area and Switzerland whose nationals are exempt from holding a visa for the UK.
After carrying out the review, in July 2008, Jacqui Smith, the Home Secretary, and David Miliband, the Foreign Secretary, announced to Parliament that the results of the test showed a ' strong case ' for introducing visa regimes for 11 countries (Bolivia, Botswana, Brazil, Lesotho, Malaysia, Mauritius, Namibia, South Africa, Swaziland, Trinidad and Tobago and Venezuela) having taken into account the following factors (including the extent to which they were being addressed by the countries ' authorities):
Following the July 2008 announcement, the UK Government entered into a 6 - month period of ' detailed dialogue ' with the governments of the 11 countries ' to examine how risks can be reduced in a way that obviates the need for a visa regime to be introduced '. In order to maintain visa - free access to the UK, the 11 countries had to ' demonstrate a genuine commitment to put into effect credible and realistic plans, with clear timetables, to reduce the risks to the UK, and begin real implementation of these plans by the end of the dialogue period '.
On 9 January 2009, the new visa rules announced required citizens of Bolivia, Lesotho, South Africa and Swaziland to obtain a visa, and only Venezuelan nationals travelling on biometric passports with an electronic chip issued since 2007 could continue to enter the UK without a visa. The existing visa - free status for citizens of Botswana, Brazil, Malaysia, Mauritius, Namibia and Trinidad and Tobago was maintained.
Starting from 3 March 2009, a transitional regime was put in place until 30 June 2009 for South African citizens - those who held a valid South African passport and had previously entered the UK lawfully using that passport could continue to enter the UK without a visa, whilst all other South African citizens were required to apply for a visa. On the same day, Taiwan citizens were able to enter the UK without a visa. On 18 May 2009, Bolivian citizens were no longer able to enter the UK without a visa and Venezuelan citizens were required to present a biometric passport to enter the UK without a visa. On 1 July 2009, all South African citizens were required to apply for a visa to enter the UK. On the same day, citizens of Lesotho and Swaziland were required to apply for a visa to enter the UK.
On 30 March 2010, Alan Johnson, the Home Secretary, and David Miliband, the Foreign Secretary, announced to Parliament that, having carried out a review of visa regimes in relation to Eastern Caribbean countries, 5 countries (Antigua and Barbuda, Barbados, Grenada, St Kitts and Nevis and St Vincent and the Grenadines) would have their visa - free status maintained. At the same time, the UK Government would enter a six - month period of ' detailed dialogue ' with the governments of 2 countries (Dominica and St Lucia), who would have to ' demonstrate a genuine commitment to put into effect credible and realistic plans, with clear timetables, to reduce the risks to the UK, and begin implementing these plans by the end of the dialogue period ' to maintain their visa - free status. On 2 March 2011, Theresa May, the Home Secretary, and William Hague, the Foreign Secretary, announced to Parliament that the governments of Dominica and St Lucia ' have made concrete improvements to the immigration, border control and identity systems which would not have happened without the test ', and so the visa - free status for the 2 countries would be maintained.
On 13 June 2011, new Immigration Rules were laid before Parliament that came into force on 4 July 2011 introducing a new streamlined application procedure (waiving the normal requirements to provide documentary evidence of maintenance and qualifications at the time of application) for some non-visa nationals from ' low - risk countries ' who wish to study in the UK for more than 6 months and apply for Tier 4 entry clearance. The following 15 countries and territories were categorised as ' low - risk ' and included in ' Appendix H ' of the Immigration Rules: Argentina, Australia, Brunei, Canada, Chile, Croatia, Hong Kong, Japan, New Zealand, Singapore, South Korea, Taiwan, Trinidad and Tobago and the United States. Although the announcement did not relate to a Visa Waiver Test per se, it showed that the UK Border Agency considers some countries and territories in the list of visa - free nationalities to be lower risk than others. In particular, Trinidad and Tobago, which was considered to be a high - risk country from a visa regime perspective in 2008 when the Visa Waiver Test was carried out, was now viewed by the UK Border Agency as a low - risk country. On 5 September 2012, two more countries (Botswana and Malaysia) were added to the list of ' low - risk ' nationalities for the purpose of Tier 4 entry clearance applications, i.e. ' Appendix H ', (taking effect on 1 October 2012), whilst on 6 September 2013, Barbados was also added to ' Appendix H ' (taking effect on 1 October 2013). Again, although the announcement did not relate to a Visa Waiver Test per se, it showed that Botswana, Malaysia and Barbados (countries which were considered to be a high - risk countries from a visa regime perspective when the Visa Waiver Test was carried out in 2008 in the case of Botswana and Malaysia, and in 2010 in the case of Barbados) were now viewed by the UK Border Agency as low - risk countries.
In March 2013, it was revealed that Theresa May, the Home Secretary, was considering removing Brazil from the list of visa - exempt nationalities due to concerns about illegal immigration, since Brazil was fifth in the top 10 of illegal immigrant nationalities in the UK according to Home Office figures for 2011, and was the only country on the list for which short - term visitors do not need a visa. However, the UK Government later decided to retain the visa exemption for Brazilian citizens, a decision which was seen as attempting to develop closer trading links with Brazil.
On 1 January 2014, an electronic visa waiver (EVW) scheme was introduced, enabling citizens of Oman, Qatar and the United Arab Emirates who have obtained an EVW authorisation online to visit and / or study in the UK for up to 6 months without a visa. After ' assessing countries against a list of risk and compliance criteria ', on 13 March 2014 the UK Government added Oman, Qatar and the UAE to ' Appendix H ' (the list of ' low - risk ' nationalities for the purpose of Tier 4 student visa applications), with the change taking effect on 6 April 2014. These two changes reflect the UK Government 's view that Oman, Qatar and the UAE should now be regarded as low - risk countries from a visa regime perspective, and it is possible that in future nationals of these three countries will be classified as non-visa nationals (enabling them to visit and / or study in the UK without a visa for up to 6 months without having to obtain an EVW authorisation online every time they wish to enter the UK). According to Frank Baker, the British Ambassador to Kuwait, the EVW will be extended to Kuwaiti citizens in the near future.
On 13 March 2014, the UK Government announced that, with effect from 5 May 2014, Venezuelan citizens (including those with biometric passports) would require a visa to enter the UK.
At present, although citizens of Argentina, Brazil, Israel, holders of Hong Kong SAR passports and Macao SAR passports are able to visit and / or study in the UK without a visa for up to 6 months, and although citizens of Oman, Qatar and the United Arab Emirates with an EVW can visit and / or study in the UK without a visa for up to 6 months, if they decide to stay for more than 6 months and have been granted entry clearance permitting them to do so, they are required to register with the police at a cost of £ 34 within 7 days of arriving in the UK (or within 7 days of obtaining their visa if they apply within the UK). This suggests that citizens of these 8 countries and territories are considered to be higher - risk than other non-visa nationalities (who are not required to register with the police if they obtain a visa to stay in the UK for more than 6 months), although Argentina, Hong Kong, Oman, Qatar and the UAE are deemed to be ' low - risk ' from a visa regime perspective for the purpose of Tier 4 student visa applications and appear in ' Appendix H ' (see above).
Directive 2004 / 38 / EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 29 April 2004 recognises the right of citizens of the Union and their family members to move and reside freely within the territory of the Member States defines the right of free movement for citizens of the European Economic Area (EEA), which includes the European Union (EU) and the three European Free Trade Association (EFTA) members Iceland, Norway and Liechtenstein. Switzerland, which is a member of EFTA but not of the EEA, is not bound by the Directive but rather has a separate bilateral agreement on the free movement with the EU.
Citizens of all European Economic Area (EEA) member states and Switzerland holding a valid passport or national identity card enjoy freedom of movement rights in each other 's territory and can enter and reside in the each other 's territory without a visa.
Although, by law, EU, EEA and Swiss citizens are entitled to use their valid national identity cards as travel documents to enter the UK, in practice UK Border Force officials have been known to place extra scrutiny on and to spend longer processing identity cards issued by certain member states which are deemed to have limited security features and hence more susceptible to tampering / forgery. Unlike their counterparts in the Schengen Area (who, by law, must only perform a ' rapid ' and ' straightforward ' visual check for signs of falsification and tampering and are not obliged to use technical devices (such as document scanners, UV light and magnifiers) when EU / EEA / Swiss citizens present their passports and / or national identity cards at external border checkpoints), as a matter of policy UKBF officials are required to examine physically all passports and national identity cards presented by EU / EEA / Swiss citizens for signs of forgery and tampering. In addition, unlike their counterparts in the Schengen Area (who, when presented with a passport or national identity card by an EU / EEA / Swiss citizen, are not legally obliged to check it against a database of lost / stolen / invalidated travel documents (and, if they do so, must only perform a ' rapid ' and ' straightward ' database check) and may only check to see if the traveller is on a database containing persons of interest on a strictly ' non-systematic ' basis where such a threat is ' genuine ', ' present ' and ' sufficiently serious '), as a matter of policy UKBF officials are required to check every EU / EEA / Swiss citizen and their passport / national identity card against the Warnings Index (WI) database. For this reason, when presented with a non-machine readable identity card, it can take up to four times longer for a UKBF official to process the card as the official has to enter the biographical details of the holder manually into the computer to check against the WI database and, if a large number of possible matches is returned, a different configuration has to be entered to reduce the number of possible matches. For example, at Stansted Airport UKBF officials have been known to take longer to process Italian paper identity cards because they often need to be taken out of plastic wallets, because they are particularly susceptible to forgery / tampering and because, as non-machine readable documents, the holders ' biographical details have to be entered manually into the computer.
If EU, EEA and Swiss nationals are unable to present a valid passport or national identity card at the border, they must nonetheless be afforded every reasonable opportunity to obtain the necessary documents or have them brought to them within a reasonable period of time or corroborate or prove by other means that they are covered by the right of free movement. Where, after being given every reasonable opportunity, they are still unable to demonstrate their identity and nationality, they should be either considered for Temporary Admission to allow further enquiries to be made or refused entry.
However, entry can be refused to an EU / EEA / Swiss national on public policy, public security or public health grounds where the person presents a "genuine, present and sufficiently serious threat affecting one of the fundamental interests of society ''. If the person has obtained permanent residence in the country where he / she seeks entry (a status which is normally attained after 5 years of residence), the member state can only expel him / her on serious grounds of public policy or public security. Where the person has resided for 10 years or is a minor, the member state can only expel him / her on imperative grounds of public security (and, in the case of minors, if expulsion is necessary in the best interests of the child, as provided for in the Convention on the Rights of the Child). Expulsion on public health grounds must relate to diseases with ' epidemic potential ' which have occurred less than 3 months from the person 's the date of arrival in the Member State where he / she seeks entry.
A family member of an EU / EEA / Swiss citizen who is in possession of a residence card indicating their status is exempt from the requirement to hold a visa when entering the Schengen area, European Economic Area or Switzerland if his residence card is issued from one of a Schengen members states and Ireland (called Stamp 4 EU FAM), European Economic Area or Switzerland.
However A family member of an EU / EEA / Swiss citizen who is in possession of a residence permit indicating their status is exempt from the requirement to hold a visa for entering to European Union outside Schengen member states (Ireland, Bulgaria, Romania, Cyprus) when they are accompanying their EU / EEA / Swiss family member or are seeking to join them.
As of 6 April 2015, the non-EU family members of an EU national who are in possession of a residence card, which is issued to them under article 10 of directive 2004 / 38, are entitled to enter the UK without the need to apply for an EEA Family Permit, only by providing their residence card at the border. However, the UK border officers would grant entry to non-EU family members if they can prove their relation to the EU national family member who would be accompanying them, by providing documents such as marriage or birth certificate. In the case of the EU national family member being present in the UK, the non-EU family members should be able to prove that the EU national family member is residing in the UK and whether they have a right of residency in the UK as a qualified person. Therefore, the non-EU family member should be able to demonstrate that the EU national family member is residing in the UK less than three months (the initial right of residence) and if more than three month, then they are in the UK as worker, self - employed, self - sufficient or student or they acquired the status of permanent residency after having resided in the UK for five years.
Of the 58 countries and territories outside the European Union, European Economic Area and Switzerland whose citizens are granted 6 months ' visa - free access to the UK, the following offer full reciprocal treatment to British citizens: Andorra, Antigua and Barbuda, Bahamas, Barbados, Canada, Dominica, Grenada, Hong Kong, Macao, Mexico, Monaco, New Zealand, Panama, San Marino and Vatican City.
Other countries and territories only offer partially reciprocal treatment to British citizens (i.e. visa - free access that is less than 6 months). The following countries permit British citizens to stay without a visa for up to 90 days (or 3 months) only: Argentina, Australia, Brazil, Brunei, Chile, Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guyana, Honduras, Israel, Malaysia, Namibia, Nicaragua, Paraguay, Saint Kitts and Nevis, Singapore, Solomon Islands, South Korea, Trinidad and Tobago, United States, Uruguay and Venezuela. (However, the United States requires British citizens to obtain an ESTA (at a cost of US $14) in advance if entering the US by air or by sea, whilst Australia requires British citizens to obtain an eVisitor authorisation online in advance free of charge, although the UK does not require Australian and US citizens to obtain an authorisation in advance.) The following countries and territories permit British citizens to stay without a visa for up to 90 days (although an extension is possible for a stay beyond 90 days): Botswana, Japan and Taiwan. The following countries also only offer partially reciprocal treatment: Belize (1 month), Fiji (4 months, extendable for an extra 2 months), Kiribati (30 days), Maldives (30 days), Marshall Islands (30 days), Mauritius (60 days for tourists, 90 days on business), Micronesia (30 days), Nauru (30 days), Palau (30 days), St Lucia (6 weeks), Samoa (60 days), Seychelles (1 month, extendable to 12 months), Tonga (31 days), Tuvalu (1 month) and Vanuatu (30 days).
Two countries whose citizens can enter the UK visa - free for up to 6 months require British citizens to obtain a visa: Papua New Guinea requires British citizens to obtain a visa on arrival that is valid for up to 60 days and costs PGK100 (tourist) or PGK500 (business); Timor - Leste requires British citizens to obtain a visa on arrival valid for up to 30 days at a cost of US $30.
Most visitors arriving to United Kingdom were from the following countries of nationality:
British Overseas Territories. Open border with Schengen Area. Russia is a transcontinental country in Eastern Europe and Northern Asia. The majority of its population (80 %) lives in European Russia, therefore Russia as a whole is included as a European country here. Turkey is a transcontinental country in the Middle East and Southeast Europe. Has part of its territory (3 %) in Southeast Europe called Turkish Thrace. Azerbaijan (Artsakh) and Georgia (Abkhazia; South Ossetia) are transcontinental countries. Both have part of their territories in the European part of the Caucasus. Kazakhstan is a transcontinental country. Has part of its territories located west of the Urals in Eastern Europe. Armenia and Cyprus (Northern Cyprus; Akrotiri and Dhekelia) are entirely in Southwest Asia but having socio - political connections with Europe. Egypt is a transcontinental country in North Africa and the Middle East. Has part of its territory in the Middle East called Sinai Peninsula. Part of the Realm of New Zealand. Partially recognized. Unincorporated territory of the United States. Part of Norway, not part of the Schengen Area, special open - border status under Svalbard Treaty
British Overseas Territories. Open border with Schengen Area. Russia is a transcontinental country in Eastern Europe and Northern Asia. The vast majority of its population (80 %) lives in European Russia. Turkey is a transcontinental country in the Middle East and Southeast Europe. Has a small part of its territory (3 %) in Southeast Europe called Turkish Thrace. Azerbaijan and Georgia (Abkhazia; South Ossetia) are transcontinental countries. Both have a small part of their territories in the European part of the Caucasus. Kazakhstan is a transcontinental country. Has a small part of its territories located west of the Urals in Eastern Europe. Armenia (Artsakh) and Cyprus (Northern Cyprus) are entirely in Southwest Asia but having socio - political connections with Europe. Egypt is a transcontinental country in North Africa and the Middle East. Has a small part of its territory in the Middle East called Sinai peninsula. Partially recognized.
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adaptation is based on the level of phosphorylation of mcps | Chemotaxis - wikipedia
Chemotaxis (from chemo - + taxis) is the movement of an organism in response to a chemical stimulus. Somatic cells, bacteria, and other single - cell or multicellular organisms direct their movements according to certain chemicals in their environment. This is important for bacteria to find food (e.g., glucose) by swimming toward the highest concentration of food molecules, or to flee from poisons (e.g., phenol). In multicellular organisms, chemotaxis is critical to early development (e.g., movement of sperm towards the egg during fertilization) and subsequent phases of development (e.g., migration of neurons or lymphocytes) as well as in normal function. In addition, it has been recognized that mechanisms that allow chemotaxis in animals can be subverted during cancer metastasis.
Positive chemotaxis occurs if the movement is toward a higher concentration of the chemical in question; negative chemotaxis if the movement is in the opposite direction. Chemically prompted kinesis (randomly directed or nondirectional) can be called chemokinesis.
Although migration of cells was detected from the early days of the development of microscopy by Leeuwenhoek, a Caltech lecture regarding chemotaxis propounds that ' erudite description of chemotaxis was only first made by T.W. Engelmann (1881) and W.F. Pfeffer (1884) in bacteria, and H.S. Jennings (1906) in ciliates '. The Nobel Prize laureate I. Metchnikoff also contributed to the study of the field during 1882 to 1886, with investigations of the process as an initial step of phagocytosis. The significance of chemotaxis in biology and clinical pathology was widely accepted in the 1930s, and the most fundamental definitions underlying the phenomenon were drafted by this time. The most important aspects in quality control of chemotaxis assays were described by H. Harris in the 1950s. In the 1960s and 1970s, the revolution of modern cell biology and biochemistry provided a series of novel techniques that became available to investigate the migratory responder cells and subcellular fractions responsible for chemotactic activity. The availability of this technology led to the discovery of C5a, a major chemotactic factor involved in acute inflammation. The pioneering works of J. Adler represented a significant turning point in understanding the whole process of intracellular signal transduction of bacteria.
Chemoattractants and chemorepellents are inorganic or organic substances possessing chemotaxis - inducer effect in motile cells. Effects of chemoattractants are elicited via described or hypothetic chemotaxis receptors, the chemoattractant moiety of a ligand is target cell specific and concentration dependent. Most frequently investigated chemoattractants are formyl peptides and chemokines. Responses to chemorepellents result in axial swimming and they are considered a basic motile phenomena in bacteria. The most frequently investigated chemorepellents are inorganic salts, amino acids, and some chemokines.
Some bacteria, such as E. coli, have several flagella per cell (4 -- 10 typically). These can rotate in two ways:
The directions of rotation are given for an observer outside the cell looking down the flagella toward the cell.
The overall movement of a bacterium is the result of alternating tumble and swim phases. If one watches a bacterium swimming in a uniform environment, its movement will look like a random walk with relatively straight swims interrupted by random tumbles that reorient the bacterium. Bacteria such as E. coli are unable to choose the direction in which they swim, and are unable to swim in a straight line for more than a few seconds due to rotational diffusion; in other words, bacteria "forget '' the direction in which they are going. By repeatedly evaluating their course, and adjusting if they are moving in the wrong direction, bacteria can direct their motion to find favorable locations with high concentrations of attractants (usually food) and avoid repellents (usually poisons).
In the presence of a chemical gradient bacteria will chemotax, or direct their overall motion based on the gradient. If the bacterium senses that it is moving in the correct direction (toward attractant / away from repellent), it will keep swimming in a straight line for a longer time before tumbling; however, if it is moving in the wrong direction, it will tumble sooner and try a new direction at random. In other words, bacteria like E. coli use temporal sensing to decide whether their situation is improving or not, and in this way, find the location with the highest concentration of attractant (usually the source) quite well. Even under very high concentrations, it can still distinguish very small differences in concentration, and fleeing from a repellent works with the same efficiency.
This biased random walk is a result of simply choosing between two methods of random movement; namely tumbling and straight swimming. In fact, chemotactic responses such as forgetting direction and choosing movements resemble the decision - making abilities of higher life - forms with brains that process sensory data.
The helical nature of the individual flagellar filament is critical for this movement to occur, and the protein that makes up the flagellar filament, flagellin, is quite similar among all flagellated bacteria. Vertebrates seem to have taken advantage of this fact by possessing an immune receptor (TLR5) designed to recognize this conserved protein.
As in many instances in biology, there are bacteria that do not follow this rule. Many bacteria, such as Vibrio, are monoflagellated and have a single flagellum at one pole of the cell. Their method of chemotaxis is different. Others possess a single flagellum that is kept inside the cell wall. These bacteria move by spinning the whole cell, which is shaped like a corkscrew.
Chemical gradients are sensed through multiple transmembrane receptors, called methyl - accepting chemotaxis proteins (MCPs), which vary in the molecules that they detect. These receptors may bind attractants or repellents directly or indirectly through interaction with proteins of periplasmatic space. The signals from these receptors are transmitted across the plasma membrane into the cytosol, where Che proteins are activated. The Che proteins alter the tumbling frequency, and alter the receptors.
The proteins CheW and CheA bind to the receptor. The absence of receptor activation results in autophosphorylation in the histidine kinase, CheA, at a single highly conserved histidine residue. CheA, in turn, transfers phosphoryl groups to conserved aspartate residues in the response regulators CheB and CheY; CheA is a histidine kinase and it does not actively transfer the phosphoryl group, rather, the response regulator CheB takes the phosphoryl group from CheA. This mechanism of signal transduction is called a two - component system, and it is a common form of signal transduction in bacteria. CheY induces tumbling by interacting with the flagellar switch protein FliM, inducing a change from counter-clockwise to clockwise rotation of the flagellum. Change in the rotation state of a single flagellum can disrupt the entire flagella bundle and cause a tumble.
CheB, when activated by CheA, acts as a methylesterase, removing methyl groups from glutamate residues on the cytosolic side of the receptor; it works antagonistically with CheR, a methyl transferase, which adds methyl residues to the same glutamate residues. If the level of an attractant remains high, the level of phosphorylation of CheA (and, therefore, CheY and CheB) will remain low, the cell will swim smoothly, and the level of methylation of the MCPs will increase (because CheB - P is not present to demethylate). The MCPs no longer respond to the attractant when they are fully methylated; therefore, even though the level of attractant might remain high, the level of CheA - P (and CheB - P) increases and the cell begins to tumble. The MCPs can be demethylated by CheB - P, and, when this happens, the receptors can once again respond to attractants. The situation is the opposite with regard to repellents: fully methylated MCPs respond best to repellents, while least - methylated MCPs respond worst to repellents. This regulation allows the bacterium to ' remember ' chemical concentrations from the recent past, a few seconds, and compare them to those it is currently experiencing, thus ' know ' whether it is traveling up or down a gradient. Although the methylation system accounts for the wide range of sensitivity that bacteria have to chemical gradients, other mechanisms are involved in increasing the absolute value of the sensitivity on a given background. Well - established examples are the ultra-sensitive response of the motor to the CheY - P signal, and the clustering of chemoreceptors. (
The mechanism that eukaryotic cells employ is quite different from that in bacteria; however, sensing of chemical gradients is still a crucial step in the process. Due to their size, prokaryotes can not detect effective concentration gradients; therefore, these cells scan and evaluate their environment by a constant swimming (consecutive steps of straight swims and tumbles). In contrast, the size of eukaryotic cells allows for the possibility of detecting gradients, which results in a dynamic and polarized distribution of receptors; induction of these receptors by chemoattractants or chemorepellents results in migration towards or away from the chemotactic substance.
Levels of receptors, intracellular signalling pathways and the effector mechanisms all represent diverse, eukaryotic - type components. In eukaryotic unicellular cells, amoeboid movement and cilium or the eukaryotic flagellum are the main effectors (e.g., Amoeba or Tetrahymena). Some eukaryotic cells of higher vertebrate origin, such as immune cells also move to where they need to be. Besides immune competent cells (granulocyte, monocyte, lymphocyte) a large group of cells -- considered previously to be fixed into tissues -- are also motile in special physiological (e.g., mast cell, fibroblast, endothelial cells) or pathological conditions (e.g., metastases). Chemotaxis has high significance in the early phases of embryogenesis as development of germ layers is guided by gradients of signal molecules.
Unlike motility in bacterial chemotaxis, the mechanism by which eukaryotic cells physically move is unclear. There appear to be mechanisms by which an external chemotactic gradient is sensed and turned into an intracellular PIP3 gradient, which results in a gradient and the activation of a signaling pathway, culminating in the polymerisation of actin filaments. The growing distal end of actin filaments develops connections with the internal surface of the plasma membrane via different sets of peptides and results in the formation of anterior pseudopods and posterior uropods. Cilia of eukaryotic cells can also produce chemotaxis; in this case, it is mainly a Ca - dependent induction of the microtubular system of the basal body and the beat of the 9 + 2 microtubules within cilia. The orchestrated beating of hundreds of cilia is synchronized by a submembranous system built between basal bodies. The details of the signaling pathways are still not totally clear.
Although chemotaxis is the most frequently studied form of migration there are several other forms of locomotion in the cellular level.
In general, eukaryotic cells sense the presence of chemotactic stimuli through the use of 7 - transmembrane (or serpentine) heterotrimeric G - protein - coupled receptors, a class representing a significant portion of the genome. Some members of this gene superfamily are used in eyesight (rhodopsins) as well as in olfaction (smelling). The main classes of chemotaxis receptors are triggered by:
However, induction of a wide set of membrane receptors (e.g., amino acids, insulin, vasoactive peptides) also elicit migration of the cell.
While some chemotaxis receptors are expressed in the surface membrane with long - term characteristics, as they are determined genetically, others have short - term dynamics, as they are assembled ad hoc in the presence of the ligand. The diverse features of the chemotaxis receptors and ligands allows for the possibility of selecting chemotactic responder cells with a simple chemotaxis assay. By chemotactic selection, we can determine whether a still - uncharacterized molecule acts via the long - or the short - term receptor pathway. The term chemotactic selection is also used to designate a technique that separates eukaryotic or prokaryotic cells according to their chemotactic responsiveness to selector ligands.
The number of molecules capable of eliciting chemotactic responses is relatively high, and we can distinguish primary and secondary chemotactic molecules. The main groups of the primary ligands are as follows:
Chemotactic responses elicited by the ligand - receptor interactions are, in general, distinguished upon the optimal effective concentration (s) of the ligand. Nevertheless, correlation of the amplitude elicited and ratio of the responder cells compared to the total number are also characteristic features of the chemotactic signaling. Investigations of ligand families (e.g., amino acids or oligo peptides) proved that there is a fitting of ranges (amplitudes; number of responder cells) and chemotactic activities: Chemoattractant moiety is accompanied by wide ranges, whereas chemorepellent character by narrow ranges.
A changed migratory potential of cells has relatively high importance in the development of several clinical symptoms and syndromes. Altered chemotactic activity of extracellular (e.g., Escherichia coli) or intracellular (e.g., Listeria monocytogenes) pathogens itself represents a significant clinical target. Modification of endogenous chemotactic ability of these microorganisms by pharmaceutical agents can decrease or inhibit the ratio of infections or spreading of infectious diseases. Apart from infections, there are some other diseases wherein impaired chemotaxis is the primary etiological factor, as in Chédiak -- Higashi syndrome, where giant intracellular vesicles inhibit normal migration of cells.
Several mathematical models of chemotaxis were developed depending on the type of
Although interactions of the factors listed above make the behavior of the solutions of mathematical models of chemotaxis rather complex, it is possible to describe the basic phenomenon of chemotaxis - driven motion in a straightforward way. Indeed, let us denote with φ (\ displaystyle \ varphi) the spatially non-uniform concentration of the chemo - attractant and with ∇ φ (\ displaystyle \ nabla \ varphi) its gradient. Then the chemotactic cellular flow (also called current) J (\ displaystyle J) that is generated by the chemotaxis is linked to the above gradient by the law: J = χ C ∇ φ (\ displaystyle J = \ chi C \ nabla \ varphi), where C (\ displaystyle C) is the spatial density of the cells and χ (\ displaystyle \ chi) is the so - called ' Chemotactic coefficient '. However, note that in many cases χ (\ displaystyle \ chi) is not constant: It is, instead, a decreasing function of the concentration of the chemo - attractant φ (\ displaystyle \ varphi): χ (φ) (\ displaystyle \ chi (\ varphi)).
Spatial ecology of soil microorganisms is a function of their chemotactic sensitivities towards substrate and fellow organisms. The chemotactic behavior of the bacteria was proven to lead to non-trivial population patterns even in the absence of environmental heterogeneities. The presence of structural pore scale heterogeneities has an extra impact on the emerging bacterial patterns.
A wide range of techniques is available to evaluate chemotactic activity of cells or the chemoattractant and chemorepellent character of ligands. The basic requirements of the measurement are as follows:
Despite the fact that an ideal chemotaxis assay is still not available, there are several protocols and pieces of equipment that offer good correspondence with the conditions described above. The most commonly used are summarised in the table below:
Chemical robots that use artificial chemotaxis to navigate autonomously have been designed. Applications include targeted delivery of drugs in the body.
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who won the best actress at the academy awards | Academy award for Best actress - wikipedia
The Academy Award for Best Actress is an award presented annually by the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences (AMPAS). It is given in honor of an actress who has delivered an outstanding performance in a leading role while working within the film industry.
The 1st Academy Awards ceremony was held in 1929 with Janet Gaynor receiving the award for her roles in 7th Heaven, Street Angel, and Sunrise. Currently, nominees are determined by single transferable vote within the actors branch of AMPAS; winners are selected by a plurality vote from the entire eligible voting members of the Academy. In the first three years of the awards, actresses were nominated as the best in their categories. At that time, all of their work during the qualifying period (as many as three films, in some cases) was listed after the award. However, during the 3rd ceremony held in 1930, only one of those films was cited in each winner 's final award, even though each of the acting winners had two films following their names on the ballots.
The following year, this unwieldy and confusing system was replaced by the current system in which an actress is nominated for a specific performance in a single film. Starting with the 9th ceremony held in 1937, the category was officially limited to five nominations per year. One actress has been nominated posthumously, Jeanne Eagels. Only three film characters have been nominated more than once in this category: Elizabeth I of England (two times by Cate Blanchett), Leslie Crosbie in The Letter, and Esther Blodgett in A Star Is Born. Six women on the list have received an Honorary Academy Award for their acting; they are Greta Garbo, Barbara Stanwyck, Mary Pickford, Deborah Kerr, Gena Rowlands, and Sophia Loren.
Since its inception, the award has been given to 75 actresses. Katharine Hepburn has won the most awards in this category, with four Oscars. Meryl Streep, who has a total of 21 Oscar nominations (three wins), has been nominated in this category on 17 occasions, resulting in two awards. As of the 2018 ceremony, Frances McDormand is the most recent winner in this category for her role as Mildred Hayes in Three Billboards Outside Ebbing, Missouri.
In the following table, the years are listed as per Academy convention, and generally correspond to the year of film release in Los Angeles County; the ceremonies are always held the following year. For the first five ceremonies, the eligibility period spanned twelve months from August 1 to July 31. For the 6th ceremony held in 1934, the eligibility period lasted from August 1, 1932, to December 31, 1933. Since the 7th ceremony held in 1935, the period of eligibility became the full previous calendar year from January 1 to December 31.
The following individuals received two or more Best Actress awards:
The following individuals received four or more Best Actress nominations:
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who is the irish actor in leap year | Matthew Goode - wikipedia
Matthew William Goode (born 3 April 1978) is an English actor. He made his screen debut in 2002 with ABC 's TV movie feature Confessions of an Ugly Stepsister. His breakthrough role was in romantic comedy Chasing Liberty (2004), for which he received a nomination at Teen Choice Awards. He then appeared in supporting roles in Woody Allen 's Match Point (2005), the German - British romantic comedy Imagine Me and You (2006), the period drama Copying Beethoven (2006). He gained praise for his performance as an aspiring artist in Julian Jarrold 's drama Brideshead Revisited (2008) and as Ozymandias in the American neo-noir - superhero film Watchmen (2009), based on DC Comics ' limited series of the same name. He then starred in romantic comedy Leap Year (2010) and Australian drama Burning Man (2011), the latter earning him a nomination for Best Actor at the Film Critics Circle of Australia Awards.
Other notable film roles include The Lookout (2007), A Single Man (2009), Cemetery Junction (2010), Stoker (2013), Belle (2013), The Imitation Game (2014) and Self / less (2015). As well as appearing in films, Goode has appeared in numerous television shows. His most notable television roles include Henry Talbot in the final season of historical period drama Downton Abbey and Finley "Finn '' Polmar in the CBS legal drama The Good Wife. He also had a lead role in short - lived, critically acclaimed British drama Dancing on the Edge, as music journalist Stanley Mitchell, for which he earned a nomination for Best Actor in a Miniseries or a Television Film at the Satellite Awards. In 2017, Goode portrayed Antony Armstrong - Jones, 1st Earl of Snowdon in the Netflix biographical drama series The Crown.
Goode was born in Exeter, Devon. His father is a geologist and his mother, Jennifer, is a nurse and amateur theatre director. Goode is the youngest of five children with a brother, two half - brothers, and a half - sister, television presenter Sally Meen, from his mother 's previous marriage. He grew up in the village of Clyst St. Mary, near Exeter. Goode was educated at Exeter School, an independent school in Exeter, Devon, followed by the University of Birmingham and London 's Webber Douglas Academy of Dramatic Art.
Goode played Peter Lynley, the brother of Inspector Lynley in the BBC production Inspector Lynley Mysteries: A Suitable Vengeance and co-starred in the TV film Confessions of an Ugly Stepsister, based on the Gregory Maguire novel of the same name and William Shakespeare 's play The Tempest. In 2004, Goode made his American film debut opposite Mandy Moore in the romantic comedy Chasing Liberty.
Goode co-starred in Woody Allen 's thriller Match Point, opposite Jonathan Rhys Meyers and Scarlett Johansson, Ol Parker 's romantic comedy Imagine Me & You, opposite Piper Perabo and Lena Headey, the TV film My Family and Other Animals, opposite Imelda Staunton, the biographical - musical drama Copying Beethoven, opposite Ed Harris and Diane Kruger and Scott Frank 's crime drama The Lookout opposite Joseph Gordon - Levitt. He had a whimsical take on Brooke Burgess in the BBC miniseries He Knew He Was Right based upon Anthony Trollope 's novel of the same name.
In 2008, Goode starred in the drama film Brideshead Revisited as Charles Ryder, based on Evelyn Waugh 's novel of the same name. In 2009, Goode co-starred opposite Malin Akerman in Zack Snyder 's superhero film Watchmen as Ozymandias / Adrian Veidt, and co-starred opposite Colin Firth in the drama film A Single Man, based on Christopher Isherwood 's novel of the same name. In 2010, he co-starred opposite Amy Adams in the romantic comedy Leap Year.
In 2013, Goode played the lead in the BBC Two drama Dancing on the Edge, as magazine columnist Stanley Mitchell. That same year, he co-starred opposite Mia Wasikowska and Nicole Kidman in the psychological thriller film Stoker.
Also in 2013, Goode co-starred as George Wickham opposite Matthew Rhys in the three - part BBC murder mystery miniseries Death Comes to Pemberley, based on P.D. James ' novel of the same name, and a spin - off of the 1995 drama miniseries Pride and Prejudice to commemorate the 200th anniversary of the publication of Jane Austen 's novel of the same name.
In March 2014, Goode joined the cast of the CBS legal drama The Good Wife during the fifth season replacing Josh Charles, who played Will Gardner as Finley "Finn '' Polmar, a State prosecutor. He made his debut in the fifteenth episode titled "Dramatics, Your Honor '' in which Will was killed off. That same year, he appeared in the historical thriller The Imitation Game as Hugh Alexander, a British Second World War cryptanalyst and chess champion.
In 2014, Goode co-starred in the ITV drama Downton Abbey 's Season 5 Christmas special titled "A Moorland Holiday '' as Henry Talbot. He returned to Downton Abbey in October 2015 beginning in the fourth episode of the sixth season.
In May 2015, Goode left The Good Wife after the sixth - season finale titled "Wanna Partner? ''. After appearing in multiple films in the mid-2010s, he appeared in 2016 's Allied.
Began working on WGN 's production of Roadside Picnic series based on the Strugatsky novel in autumn 2016, set to air sometime in 2017.
Goode has been in a relationship with Sophie Dymoke since 2005, and they married in 2007. They have two daughters, Matilda Eve Goode (b. March 2009) and Teddie Eleanor Rose Goode (b. September 2013), and a son, Ralph Goode (b. August 2015).
He supports Liverpool Football Club.
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who is inducted in the rock hall of fame | List of Rock and Roll Hall of Fame inductees - wikipedia
The Rock and Roll Hall of Fame, established in 1983 and located in Cleveland, Ohio, United States, is dedicated to recording the history of some of the best - known and most influential musicians, bands, producers, and others that have in some major way influenced the music industry, particularly in the area of rock and roll. Originally, there were four categories of induction: performers, non-performers, early influences, and lifetime achievement. In 2000, "sidemen '' was introduced as a category.
The only category that has seen new inductees every single year is the performers category. Artists become eligible for induction in that category 25 years after the release of their first record. In order to be inducted, an artist must be nominated by a committee that selects anywhere from nine to a dozen candidates. Ballots are then sent to 600 "rock experts '' who evaluate the candidates and vote on who should be inducted. The performers that receive the highest number of votes and more than 50 percent of the vote are inducted. In 2010, the number inducted was five. The rest of the categories are voted on by special committees. As of 2017, new inductees will be honored at an annual ceremony held alternately in New York and at the Hall of Fame in Cleveland; prior to that, the ceremonies rotated between Cleveland, New York, and Los Angeles.
The Rock and Roll Hall of Fame has garnered criticism for allegedly allowing the nomination process to be controlled by a few individuals, nominating too many artists in too many genres that are not entirely rock, ignoring entire rock genres, and using technicalities to induct groups who may not have been among the top vote getters. The Sex Pistols, who were inducted in 2006, refused to attend the ceremony; John Lydon writing a note, read out by Jann Wenner, calling the museum a "piss stain. ''
The performers category is meant for recording artists and bands that have "influence and significance to the development and perpetuation of rock and roll. '' Artists become eligible for induction in that category 25 years after the release of their first record. In order to be inducted, an artist must be nominated by a committee that selects anywhere from nine to a dozen candidates. Ballots are sent to 600 "rock experts '' who then evaluate the candidates and vote on who should be inducted. The performers who receive the highest number of votes and more than 50 percent of the vote are inducted. In 2011, the number inducted was five. The rest of the categories are voted on by special committees. In 2012, six additional bands and groups were inducted as performers by a special committee, due to the controversial nature of their band being excluded when their lead singer was inducted. "There was a lot of discussion about this, '' said Terry Stewart, a member of the nominating committee. "There had always been conversations about why the groups were n't included when the lead singers were inducted. Very honestly, nobody could really answer that question -- it was so long ago... We decided we 'd sit down as an organization and look at that. This is the result. ''
The vast majority of the inducted bands and vocal groups have experienced personnel changes during their careers (although there are a very few exceptions, such as The Beastie Boys and U2, who never changed their lineups.) The Hall of Fame only inducts the most significant members of the group, although it is unclear what the criteria are for excluding or including members. This has led to many anamolies. For example, the Red Hot Chili Peppers excluded longtime guitarists Jack Sherman and Dave Navarro while including new guitarist Josh Klinghoffer who had only been a full member of the band for a year or two at the time of induction. For another example, Guns N ' Roses lead singer Axl Rose outlasted every other member of the "classic '' quintet which performed on the first two albums, eventually putting together an entirely new lineup which stayed together for twenty years or so beginning in the mid-1990s (but only released one album.) All the newer members were excluded from the Hall of Fame induction save drummer Matt Sorum and keyboardist Dizzy Reed (both of whom joined in 1990.)
A few of the conspicuously absent members of other inducted groups include Cindy Birdsong of the Supremes; Eric Carr, Eric Singer and Bruce Kulick of KISS; Bruce Johnston of the Beach Boys; Richie Ramone and C.J. Ramone of the Ramones; Randy Jackson of the Jacksons and Pete Best of the Beatles. On the other hand, two bands included inducted members who were primarily non-performers: road manager (and very occasional keyboardist) Ian Stewart was inducted with the Rolling Stones and lyricist Robert Hunter was inducted with the Grateful Dead.
^ Note 1. These backing bands were inducted by a separate committee, and not by the ballot voting used for all other performer inductees.
^ Note 2. This artist was later inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame after inducting someone else.
^ Note 3. This artist was already a member of the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame when they inducted someone else.
^ Note 4. Dire Straits were the first artist in the hall 's history to not have an official induction speaker. Band member John Illsley did the induction speech himself.
Artists inducted into the early influences category are those "whose music predated rock and roll but had an impact on the evolution of rock and roll and inspired rock 's leading artists. '' Unlike the performers category, these inductees are selected by a committee. The full process is not transparent and it is unclear who comprises this selection committee.
^ A. Inducted members: Bill Kenny, Charlie Fuqua, Deek Watson, and Orville "Hoppy '' Jones. ^ B. Inducted members: Roy Crain Sr., R.H. Harris, Jesse Farley, and E.A. Rundless. ^ C. Inducted members: Sonny Til, Tommy Gaither, George Nelson, Johnny Reed, and Alexander Sharp. ^ D. Inducted members: Bob Wills, Tommy Duncan, Leon McAuliffe, Johnny Gimble, Joe "Jody '' Holley, Tiny Moore, Herb Remington, Eldon Shamblin, and Al Stricklin. ^ E. Nominated as a performer. ^ F. Inducted members: John L. Tanner, Eugene Tanner, James E. Moore, Obadiah H. Carter and Lowman Pauling, Jr
The non-performer category honors "songwriters, producers, disc jockeys, record executives, journalists and other industry professionals who have had a major influence on the development of rock and roll. '' Several of the inductees in this category were in fact prominent performers as well. The inductees in this category are selected by the same committee that chooses the early influences. The full process is not transparent and it is unclear who comprises this selection committee. This category has been criticized for inducting those that have "been coming to the dinner for years and paying for their tickets '' and not revealing their full criteria. In 2008, this category was renamed the "Ahmet Ertegün Award ''.
This category, which replaced sidemen, "honors those musicians, producers and others who have spent their careers out of the spotlight working with major artists on various parts of their recording and live careers. ''
^ G. Inducted members: Garry Tallent, Roy Bittan, Max Weinberg, Steven Van Zandt, Nils Lofgren, Patti Scialfa, Clarence Clemons, Danny Federici, Vini Lopez, David Sancious.
At the 2018 ceremony, a new induction category for singles was announced by Steven Van Zandt. According to Van Zandt, the category is "a recognition of the excellence of the singles that shaped rock ' n ' roll, kind of a rock ' n ' roll jukebox, records by artists not in the Rock Hall -- which is not to say these artists will never be in the Rock Hall. They just are not in the Rock Hall at the moment. ''
Established in 2000, the sidemen category "honors those musicians who have spent their careers out of the spotlight, performing as backup musicians for major artists on recording sessions and in concert. '' A separate committee, composed mainly of producers, chooses the inductees. In 2010, the category was renamed to "Award for Musical Excellence ''. According to Joel Peresman, the president of the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame Foundation, "This award gives us flexibility to dive into some things and recognize some people who might not ordinarily get recognized. ''
The following were inducted for "Lifetime Achievement in the Non-Performer Category. ''
As of 2017, 22 performers have been inducted twice or more; fourteen have been recognized as a solo artist and with a band and seven have been inducted with two separate bands. Eric Clapton is the only one to be inducted three times: as a solo artist, with Cream and with The Yardbirds. Clyde McPhatter was the first to ever be inducted twice and is one of three artists to be inducted first as a solo artist and then as a member of a band, the other artists being Neil Young and Rod Stewart. Stephen Stills is the only artist to be inducted twice in the same year. Crosby, Stills & Nash, inducted in 1997, is the only band to see all of its inducted members be inducted with other acts: David Crosby with The Byrds in 1991, Stephen Stills with Buffalo Springfield in 1997, and Graham Nash with The Hollies in 2010.
Two inducted bands were spinoffs of other inducted bands. Journey was founded by two former members of Santana. Led Zeppelin was founded by lead guitarist Jimmy Page after The Yardbirds broke up, with the encouragement of the band 's management. They were originally billed as "The New Yardbirds. ''
The Beatles, inducted in 1988, is the second band to have all of its members be inducted, as well as the only band to have each of its members be inducted for their solo careers as their second induction. Ringo Starr is the first inductee to be inducted twice in different categories (The Beatles were inducted in the performers category in 1988 and Starr was inducted as a solo artist in the Award for Musical Excellence category in 2015). He also holds the record for the longest time between first and second inductions, at 27 years. Both of Stills ' inductions happened during the 1997 ceremony and Clapton and McPhatter were inducted in back - to - back years (1987 / 88 for McPhatter, 1992 / 93 for Clapton, as well as his solo induction in 2000).
The Traveling Wilburys are the only band to have all of its members be inducted without the band itself having been inducted: Roy Orbison as a solo artist in 1987, Bob Dylan as a solo artist in 1988, George Harrison with the Beatles in 1988 and as a solo artist in 2004, Tom Petty with Tom Petty and the Heartbreakers in 2002, and Jeff Lynne with the Electric Light Orchestra in 2017.
There are several performers who were inducted with one (or more) of the bands they played for, but were not inducted as members of one (or more) other bands. For example, Neil Young was inducted with Buffalo Springfield and as a solo artist, but was left out when Crosby, Stills & Nash were inducted. Other examples include Terry Chimes (inducted with The Clash but not with Black Sabbath), Kenney Jones (inducted with The Faces but not with The Who), and Sly Stone (inducted with Sly & the Family Stone but not with Parliament - Funkadelic.) Singer Axl Rose of Guns N ' Roses fame joined AC / DC after both bands were inducted.
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when did the idea of self driving cars start | History of autonomous cars - wikipedia
Experiments have been conducted on automating cars since at least the 1920s; promising trials took place in the 1950s and work has proceeded since then. The first self - sufficient and truly autonomous cars appeared in the 1980s, with Carnegie Mellon University 's Navlab and ALV projects in 1984 and Mercedes - Benz and Bundeswehr University Munich 's Eureka Prometheus Project in 1987. Since then, numerous major companies and research organizations have developed working prototype autonomous vehicles including Mercedes - Benz, General Motors, Continental Automotive Systems, Autoliv Inc., Bosch, Nissan, Toyota, Audi, Volvo, Vislab from University of Parma, Oxford University and Google. In July 2013, Vislab demonstrated BRAiVE, a vehicle that moved autonomously on a mixed traffic route open to public traffic.
As of 2013, four U.S. states have passed laws permitting autonomous cars: Nevada, Florida, California, and Michigan. In Europe, cities in Belgium, France, Italy and the UK are planning to operate transport systems for driverless cars, and Germany, the Netherlands, and Spain have allowed testing robotic cars in traffic.
In 1925, Houdina Radio Control demonstrated the radio - controlled "American Wonder '' on New York City streets, traveling up Broadway and down Fifth Avenue through the thick of the traffic jam. The American Wonder was a 1926 Chandler that was equipped with a transmitting antennae on the tonneau and was operated by a second car that followed it and sent out radio impulses which were caught by the transmitting antennae. The antennae introduced the signals to circuit - breakers which operated small electric motors that directed every movement of the car.
Achen Motor, a distributor of cars in Milwaukee and surrounding territory, used Francis ' invention under the name "Phantom Auto '' and demonstrated it in December 1926 on the streets of Milwaukee. It was demonstrated again in June 1932 on the streets of Fredericksburg as a feature attraction of Bigger Bargain Day in which most of the merchants of the city were participating.
An early representation of an automated guided car was Norman Bel Geddes 's Futurama exhibit sponsored by General Motors at the 1939 World 's Fair, which depicted radio - controlled electric cars that were propelled via electromagnetic fields provided by circuits embedded in the roadway.
Bel Geddes later outlined his vision in his book, Magic Motorways (1940), promoting advances in highway design and transportation, foreshadowing the Interstate Highway System, and arguing that humans should be removed from the process of driving. Bel Geddes forecasted these advances to be a reality in 1960.
In 1953, RCA Labs successfully built a miniature car that was guided and controlled by wires that were laid in a pattern on a laboratory floor. The system sparked the imagination of Leland M. Hancock, traffic engineer in the Nebraska Department of Roads, and of his director, L.N. Ress, state engineer. The decision was made to experiment with the system in actual highway installations.
In 1957, a full size system was successfully demonstrated by RCA Labs and the State of Nebraska on a 400 - foot strip of public highway at the intersection of U.S. Route 77 and Nebraska Highway 2, then just outside Lincoln, Nebraska. A series of experimental detector circuits buried in the pavement were a series of lights along the edge of the road. The detector circuits were able to send impulses to guide the car and determine the presence and velocity of any metallic vehicle on its surface. A previous test installation of the system in September 1954 along U.S. Route 73 and U.S. Route 75 in Cass County, Nebraska was utilized as an experimental traffic counter. It was developed in collaboration with General Motors, who paired two standard models with equipment consisting of special radio receivers and audible and visual warning devices that were able to simulate automatic steering, accelerating and brake control.
It was further demonstrated on 5 June 1960, at RCA Lab 's headquarter in Princeton, New Jersey, where reporters were allowed to "drive '' on the cars. Commercialization of the system was expected to happen by 1975.
Also during the 1950s throughout the 1960s, General Motors showcased the Firebirds, a series of experimental cars that were described to have an "electronic guide system (that) can rush it over an automatic highway while the driver relaxes ''.
In 1960, Ohio State University 's Communication and Control Systems Laboratory launched a project to develop driverless cars which were activated by electronic devices imbedded in the roadway. Head of the project, Dr. Robert L. Cosgriff, claimed in 1966 that the system could be ready for installation on a public road in 15 years.
In the early 1960s, the Bureau of Public Roads considered the construction of an experimental electronically controlled highway. Four states -- Ohio, Massachusetts, New York and California -- were bidding for the construction. In August 1961, Popular Science reported on the Aeromobile 35B, an air - cushion vehicle (ACV) that was invented by William Bertelsen and was envisioned to revolutionize the transportation system, with personal self - driving hovering cars that could speed up to 1,500 MPH.
During the 1960s, the United Kingdom 's Transport and Road Research Laboratory tested a driverless Citroen DS that interacted with magnetic cables that were embedded in the road. It went through a test track at 80 miles per hour (130 km / h) without deviation of speed or direction in any weather conditions, and in a far more effective way than by human control. Research continued in the ' 70s with cruise control devices activated by signals in the cabling beneath the tracks. According to cost benefit analyses that were made, adoption of system on the British motorways would be repaid by end of the century, increase the road capacity by at least 50 % and prevent around 40 % of the accidents. Funding for these experiments was withdrawn by the mid-1970s.
Also during the 1960s and the 1970s, Bendix Corporation developed and tested driverless cars that were powered and controlled by buried cables, with wayside communicators relaying computer messages. Stanford demonstrated its Artificial Intelligence Laboratory Cart, a small wheeled robot that once accidentally navigated onto a nearby road.
Preliminary research into the intelligent automated logic needed for autonomous cars was conducted at the Coordinated Science Laboratory of the University of Illinois in the early to mid 1970s.
In the 1980s, a vision - guided Mercedes - Benz robotic van, designed by Ernst Dickmanns and his team at the Bundeswehr University Munich in Munich, Germany, achieved a speed of 39 miles per hour (63 km / h) on streets without traffic. Subsequently, EUREKA conducted the € 749,000,000 Prometheus Project on autonomous vehicles from 1987 to 1995.
In the same decade, the DARPA - funded Autonomous Land Vehicle (ALV) project in the United States made use of new technologies developed by the University of Maryland, Carnegie Mellon University, the Environmental Research Institute of Michigan, Martin Marietta and SRI International. The ALV project achieved the first road - following demonstration that used lidar, computer vision and autonomous robotic control to direct a robotic vehicle at speeds of up to 19 miles per hour (31 km / h). In 1987, HRL Laboratories (formerly Hughes Research Labs) demonstrated the first off - road map and sensor - based autonomous navigation on the ALV. The vehicle traveled over 2,000 feet (610 m) at 1.9 miles per hour (3.1 km / h) on complex terrain with steep slopes, ravines, large rocks, and vegetation. By 1989, Carnegie Mellon University had pioneered the use of neural networks to steer and otherwise control autonomous vehicles, forming the basis of contemporary control strategies.
In 1991, the United States Congress passed the ISTEA Transportation Authorization bill, which instructed USDOT to "demonstrate an automated vehicle and highway system by 1997. '' The Federal Highway Administration took on this task, first with a series of Precursor Systems Analyses and then by establishing the National Automated Highway System Consortium (NAHSC). This cost - shared project was led by FHWA and General Motors, with Caltrans, Delco, Parsons Brinkerhoff, Bechtel, UC - Berkeley, Carnegie Mellon University, and Lockheed Martin as additional partners. Extensive systems engineering work and research culminated in Demo ' 97 on I - 15 in San Diego, California, in which about 20 automated vehicles, including cars, buses, and trucks, were demonstrated to thousands of onlookers, attracting extensive media coverage. The demonstrations involved close - headway platooning intended to operate in segregated traffic, as well as "free agent '' vehicles intended to operate in mixed traffic. Other carmakers were invited to demonstrate their systems, such that Toyota and Honda also participated. While the subsequent aim was to produce a system design to aid commercialization, the program was cancelled in the late 1990s due to tightening research budgets at USDOT. Overall funding for the program was in the range of $90 million.
In 1994, the twin robot vehicles VaMP and Vita - 2 of Daimler - Benz and Ernst Dickmanns of UniBwM drove more than 620 miles (1,000 km) on a Paris three - lane highway in standard heavy traffic at speeds up to 81 miles per hour (130 km / h), albeit semi-autonomously with human interventions. They demonstrated autonomous driving in free lanes, convoy driving, and lane changes with autonomous passing of other cars. That same year, Lucas Industries developed parts for a semi-autonomous car in a project that was funded by Jaguar Cars, Lucas, and the UK Department of Trade and Industry.
In 1995, Carnegie Mellon University 's Navlab project completed a 3,100 miles (5,000 km) cross-country journey, of which 98.2 % was autonomously controlled, dubbed "No Hands Across America ''. This car, however, was semi-autonomous by nature: it used neural networks to control the steering wheel, but throttle and brakes were human - controlled, chiefly for safety reasons. Also in 1995, Dickmanns ' re-engineered autonomous S - Class Mercedes - Benz undertook a 990 miles (1,590 km) journey from Munich in Bavaria, Germany to Copenhagen, Denmark and back, using saccadic computer vision and transputers to react in real time. The robot achieved speeds exceeding 109 miles per hour (175 km / h) on the German Autobahn, with a mean time between human interventions of 5.6 miles (9.0 km), or 95 % autonomous driving. It drove in traffic, executing manoeuvres to pass other cars. Despite being a research system without emphasis on long distance reliability, it drove up to 98 miles (158 km) without human intervention.
In 1996, (now Professor) Alberto Broggi of the University of Parma launched the ARGO Project, which worked on enabling a modified Lancia Thema to follow the normal (painted) lane marks in an unmodified highway. The culmination of the project was a journey of 1,200 miles (1,900 km) over six days on the motorways of northern Italy dubbed Mille Miglia in Automatico ("One thousand automatic miles ''), with an average speed of 56 miles per hour (90 km / h). The car operated in fully automatic mode for 94 % of its journey, with the longest automatic stretch being 34 miles (55 km). The vehicle had only two black - and - white low - cost video cameras on board and used stereoscopic vision algorithms to understand its environment.
The ParkShuttle, billed as the world 's first driverless vehicle, is an automated people mover which uses artificial reference points (magnets) embedded in the road surface to verify its position. Two pilot projects were started in the Netherlands, at Schiphol Airport (December 1997) and business park Rivium (1999). Both carried members of the general public and as such claim stake to the title to the first driverless vehicles. The vehicles are autonomous, do not feature a steering wheel or pedals, nor do they have a safety driver or steward on board. The drive at grade, on a dedicated lane which does feature intersections with pedestrians, bicyclists and cars.
The US Government funded three military efforts known as Demo I (US Army), Demo II (DARPA), and Demo III (US Army). Demo III (2001) demonstrated the ability of unmanned ground vehicles to navigate miles of difficult off - road terrain, avoiding obstacles such as rocks and trees. James Albus at the National Institute of Standards and Technology provided the Real - Time Control System which is a hierarchical control system. Not only were individual vehicles controlled (e.g. throttle, steering, and brake), but groups of vehicles had their movements automatically coordinated in response to high level goals.
In the first Grand Challenge held in March 2004, DARPA (the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency) offered a $1 million prize to any team of robotic engineers which could create an autonomous car capable of finishing a 150 - mile course in the Mojave Desert. No team was successful in completing the course.
In October 2005, the second DARPA Grand Challenge was again held in a desert environment. GPS points were placed and obstacle types were located in advance. This year, five vehicles completed the course.
In November 2007, DARPA again sponsored Grand Challenge III, but this time the Challenge was held in an urban environment. In this race, a 2007 Chevy Tahoe autonomous car from Carnegie Mellon University earned the 1st place. Prize competitions as DARPA Grand Challenges gave students and researchers an opportunity to research a project on autonomous cars to reduce the burden of transportation problems such as traffic congestion and traffic accidents that increasingly exist on many urban residents.
In January 2006, the United Kingdom 's ' Foresight ' think - tank revealed a report which predicts RFID - tagged driverless cars on UK 's roads by 2056 and the Royal Academy of Engineering claimed that driverless trucks could be on Britain 's motorways by 2019.
In 1998, Willie Jones states that many automakers consider autonomous technology as part of their research yearly. He notes "In May 1998, Toyota became the first to introduce an Adaptive Cruise Control (ACC) system on a production vehicle when it unveiled a laser - based system for its Progres compact luxury sedan, which it sold in Japan ''.
Autonomous vehicles have also been used in mining. In December 2008, Rio Tinto Alcan began testing the Komatsu Autonomous Haulage System -- the world 's first commercial autonomous mining haulage system -- in the Pilbara iron ore mine in Western Australia. Rio Tinto has reported benefits in health, safety, and productivity. In November 2011, Rio Tinto signed a deal to greatly expand its fleet of driverless trucks.
Google began developing its self - driving cars in 2009, but did so privately, avoiding public announcement of the program until a later time.
Many major automotive manufacturers, including General Motors, Ford, Mercedes Benz, Volkswagen, Audi, Nissan, Toyota, BMW, and Volvo, are testing driverless car systems as of 2013. BMW has been testing driverless systems since around 2005, while in 2010, Audi sent a driverless Audi TTS to the top of Pike 's Peak at close to race speeds. In 2011, GM created the EN - V (short for Electric Networked Vehicle), an autonomous electric urban vehicle. In 2012, Volkswagen began testing a "Temporary Auto Pilot '' (TAP) system that will allow a car to drive itself at speeds of up to 80 miles per hour (130 km / h) on the highway. Ford has conducted extensive research into driverless systems and vehicular communication systems. In January 2013, Toyota demonstrated a partially self - driving car with numerous sensors and communication systems. Other programs in the field include the 2GetThere passenger vehicles from the Netherlands and the DARPA Grand Challenge in the USA; some plans for bimodal public transport systems include autonomous cars as a component.
In 2010, Italy 's VisLab from the University of Parma, led by Professor Alberto Broggi, ran the VisLab Intercontinental Autonomous Challenge (VIAC), a 9,900 - mile (15,900 km) test run which marked the first intercontinental land journey completed by autonomous vehicles. Four electric vans made a 100 - day journey, leaving Parma, Italy, on 20 July 2010, and arriving at the Shanghai Expo in China on 28 October.
The research project is co-funded by the European Union CORDIS program.
In 2010, the Institute of Control Engineering of the Technische Universität Braunschweig demonstrated the first autonomous driving on public streets in Germany with the research vehicle Leonie. It was the first car licensed for autonomous driving on the streets and highways in Germany.
In October 2010, an attorney for the California Department of Motor Vehicles, raised concerns that "(t) he technology is ahead of the law in many areas '', citing state laws that "all presume to have a human being operating the vehicle ''.
In 2011, the Freie Universität Berlin developed two autonomous cars to drive in the innercity traffic of Berlin in Germany. Led by the AutoNOMOS group, the two vehicles Spirit of Berlin and MadeInGermany handled intercity traffic, traffic lights and roundabouts between International Congress Centrum and Brandenburg Gate. It was financed by the German Federal Ministry of Education and Research.
Nevada passed a law in June 2011 concerning the operation of autonomous cars in Nevada, which went into effect on March 1, 2012. A Toyota Prius modified with Google 's experimental driverless technology was licensed by the Nevada Department of Motor Vehicles (DMV) in May 2012. This was the first license issued in the United States for a self - driven car. License plates issued in Nevada for testing autonomous cars have a red background and feature an infinity symbol (∞) on the left side because, according to the DMV Director, "... using the infinity symbol was the best way to represent the ' car of the future ' ''. Nevada 's test regulations required a person behind the wheel and one in the passenger 's seat during tests.
On May 1, 2012, a 22 km (14 mi) driving test was administered to a Google self - driving car by Nevada motor vehicle examiners in a test route in the city of Las Vegas, Nevada. The autonomous car passed the test, but was not tested at roundabouts, no - signal railroad crossings, or school zones.
In April 2012, Florida became the second state in the United States to allow the testing of autonomous cars on public roads, and California became the third when Governor Jerry Brown signed the bill into law at Google Headquarters in Mountain View.
In 2013, on July 12, VisLab conducted another pioneering test of autonomous vehicles, during which a robotic vehicle drove in downtown Parma with no human control, successfully navigating roundabouts, traffic lights, pedestrian crossings and other common hazards.
In August 2013, Daimler R&D with Karlsruhe Institute of Technology / FZI, made a Mercedes - Benz S - class vehicle with close - to - production stereo camera S and radars drive completely autonomously for about 100 km from Mannheim to Pforzheim, Germany, following the historic Bertha Benz Memorial Route.
In August 2013 Nissan announced its plans to launch several driverless cars by 2020. The company is building in Japan a dedicated autonomous driving proving ground, to be completed in 2014. Nissan installed its autonomous car technology in a Nissan Leaf electric car for demonstration purposes. The car was demonstrated at Nissan 360 test drive event held in California in August 2013. In September 2013, the Leaf fitted the prototype Advanced Driver Assistance System was granted a license plate that allows to drive it on Japanese public roads. The testing car will be used by Nissan engineers to evaluate how its in - house autonomous driving software performs in the real world. Time spent on public roads will help refine the car 's software for fully automated driving. The autonomous Leaf was demonstrated on public roads for the first time at a media event held in Japan in November 2013. The Leaf drove on the Sagami Expressway in Kanagawa prefecture, near Tokyo. Nissan vice chairman Toshiyuki Shiga and the prefecture 's Governor, Yuji Kuroiwa, rode in the car during the test.
Available in 2013, the 2014 Mercedes S - Class has options for autonomous steering, lane keeping, acceleration / braking, parking, accident avoidance, and driver fatigue detection, in both city traffic and highway speeds of up to 124 miles (200 km) per hour.
Released in 2013, the 2014 Infiniti Q50 uses cameras, radar and other technology to deliver various lane - keeping, collision avoidance and cruise control features. One reviewer remarked, "With the Q50 managing its own speed and adjusting course, I could sit back and simply watch, even on mildly curving highways, for three or more miles at a stretch, '' adding that he was n't touching the steering wheel or pedals.
Although as of 2013, fully autonomous vehicles are not yet available to the public, many contemporary car models have features offering limited autonomous functionality. These include adaptive cruise control, a system that monitors distances to adjacent vehicles in the same lane, adjusting the speed with the flow of traffic; lane assist, which monitors the vehicle 's position in the lane, and either warns the driver when the vehicle is leaving its lane, or, less commonly, takes corrective actions; and parking assist, which assists the driver in the task of parallel parking.
In January 2014, Induct Technology 's Navia shuttle became the first self - driving vehicle to be available for commercial sale. Limited to 12.5 miles per hour (20.1 km / h), the open - air electric vehicle resembles a golf cart and seats up to eight people. It is intended to shuttle people around "pedestrianized city centers, large industrial sites, airports, theme parks, university campuses or hospital complexes. ''
On May 27, 2014, Google announced plans to unveil 100 autonomous car prototypes built from scratch inside Google 's secret X lab, as manifestations of years of work that began by modifying existing vehicles, along with, "in the next couple of years '' according to Google in the above blog post, a pilot program similar to that which was used for the Cr - 48 Chromebook back in 2010.
In October 2014 Tesla Motors announced its first version of AutoPilot. Model S cars equipped with this system are capable of lane control with autonomous steering, braking and speed limit adjustment based on signals image recognition. The system also provide autonomous parking and is able to receive software updates to improve skills over time. As of March 2015, Tesla has been testing the autopilot system on the highway between San Francisco and Seattle with a driver but letting the car to drive the car almost unassisted.
In February 2015, the UK Government announced it would oversee public trials of the LUTZ Pathfinder driverless pod in Milton Keynes.
In March 2015 Tesla Motors announced that it will introduce its Autopilot technology by mid 2015 through a software update for the cars equipped with the systems that allow autonomous driving. Some industry experts have raised questions about the legal status of autonomous driving in the U.S. and whether Model S owner would violate current state regulations when using the autopilot function. The few states that have passed laws allowing autonomous cars on the road limit their use for testing purposes, not the use by the general public. Also, there are questions about the liability for autonomous cars in case there is a mistake. A Tesla spokesman said there is "nothing in our autopilot system that is in conflict with current regulations. '' "We are not getting rid of the pilot. This is about releasing the driver from tedious tasks so they can focus and provide better input. '' Google 's director of self - driving cars at the company said he does not think there is a regulatory block as far as the self - driving vehicle met crash - test and other safety standards. A spokesman for the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) said that "any autonomous vehicle would need to meet applicable federal motor vehicle safety standards '' and the NHTSA "will have the appropriate policies and regulations in place to ensure the safety of this type of vehicles. ''
In mid October 2015 Tesla Motors rolled out version 7 of their software in the U.S. that included Autopilot capability. On January 9, 2016, Tesla rolled out version 7.1 as an over-the - air update, adding a new "summon '' feature that allows cars to self - park at parking locations without the driver in the car. Tesla 's autonomous driving features are ahead of production cars, and can be classified as is somewhere between level 2 and level 3 under the defunct NHTSA five levels of vehicle automation. At this levels the car can act autonomously but requires the full attention of the driver, who must be prepared to take control at a moment 's notice. Autopilot should be used only on limited - access highways, and sometimes it will fail to detect lane markings and disengage itself. In urban driving the system will not read traffic signals or obey stop signs. The system also does not detect pedestrians or cyclists.
In February 2015 Volvo Cars announced its plans to lease 100 XC90 SUVs fitted with Drive Me Level 3 automation technology to residents of Gothenburg in 2017. The Drive Me XC90s will be equipped with Nvidia 's Drive PX 2 supercomputer, and will be driven autonomously in certain weather conditions and on one road that loops around the city. As part of Volvo 's Drive Me project, the 100 cars in the Sweden test will have an interface called IntelliSafe Auto Pilot, a feature that will let drivers activate and deactivate the autonomous mode through specially - designed paddles on the steering wheel. The interface was developed to oversee how drivers will transfer control to a car 's autonomous driving mode in future cars. Volvo considers autonomous driving systems as the tool that will help it meet the company 's goal to have no one seriously injured or killed in a new Volvo by the year 2020.
In April 2015, a car designed by Delphi Automotive became the first automated vehicle to complete a coast - to - coast journey across North America. It traveled from San Francisco to New York, under computer control for 99 % of that distance.
In July 2015, Google announced that the test vehicles in its driverless car project had been involved in 14 minor accidents since the project 's inception in 2009. Chris Urmson, the project leader, said that all of the accidents were caused by humans driving other cars, and that 11 of the mishaps were rear - end collisions. "Our self - driving cars are being hit surprisingly often by other drivers who are distracted and not paying attention to the road. That 's a big motivator for us. '' Over the six years of the project 's existence the test vehicles had logged nearly 2 million miles on the road.
In April 2016 Volvo announced plans to deploy 100 XC90 self - driving cars to test them in everyday driving conditions in China in 2017. Also in April 2016, the carmaker announced plans to begin a trial in London in 2017 with 100 Volvo XC90 plug - in hybrids fitted with Drive Me technology. The XC90s will be leased to everyday users, and the self - driving cars will log each and every journey, passing on that data to Thatcham Research, which will conduct a thorough analysis to examine how the car behaves in everyday situations as well as understanding how other road users and the car 's occupants respond to autonomous driving decisions made by the car.
The first known fatal accident involving a vehicle being driven by itself took place in Williston, Florida on 7 May 2016 while a Tesla Model S electric car was engaged in Autopilot mode. The driver was killed in a crash with a large 18 - wheel tractor - trailer. On 28 June 2016 the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) opened a formal investigation into the accident working with the Florida Highway Patrol. According to the NHTSA, preliminary reports indicate the crash occurred when the tractor - trailer made a left turn in front of the Tesla at an intersection on a non-controlled access highway, and the car failed to apply the brakes. The car continued to travel after passing under the truck 's trailer. The NHTSA 's preliminary evaluation was opened to examine the design and performance of any automated driving systems in use at the time of the crash, which involves a population of an estimated 25,000 Model S cars.
In August 2016 Singapore launched the first self - driving taxi service, provided by nuTonomy.
Starting October 2016, all Tesla cars are built with the necessary hardware to allow full self - driving capability at a safety level (SAE Level 5). The hardware includes eight surround cameras and twelve ultrasonic sensors, in addition to the forward - facing radar with enhanced processing capabilities. The system will operate in "shadow mode '' (processing without taking action) and send data back to Tesla to improve its abilities until the software is ready for deployment via over-the - air upgrades. Full autonomy is only likely after millions of miles of testing, and approval by authorities. Tesla Motors says it expects to enable full self - driving by the end of 2017, however, as of March 2018, this has not happened yet.
On June 4, 2017, Audi stated that its new A8 will be fully self - driving for speeds up to 60 km / h using its Audi AI. Contrary to other cars, the driver will not have to do safety checks such as touching the steering wheel every 15 seconds to use this feature. The Audi A8 will therefore be the first production car to reach level 3 autonomous driving, meaning that the driver can safely turn their attention away from driving tasks, e.g. the driver can text or watch a movie. Audi will also be the first manufacturer to use a 3D LIDAR system in addition to cameras and ultrasonic sensors for their AI.
In March 2018, a Arizona pedestrian was hit and killed by an Uber self - driving car in what was believed to be the first reported fatal crash involving a self - driving vehicle and a pedestrian in the US. Later in the same month, San Francisco police issued a ticket to the passenger of a self - driving car that had failed to yield to a pedestrian in a crosswalk.
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what books of the bible does the torah include | Torah - wikipedia
Outline of Bible - related topics
Torah (/ ˈtɔːrə, ˈtoʊrə /; Hebrew: תּוֹרָה , "Instruction '', "Teaching '' or "Law '') has a range of meanings. It can most specifically mean the first five books (Pentateuch) of the 24 books of the Tanakh, and is usually printed with the rabbinic commentaries (perushim). It can mean the continued narrative from the Book of Genesis to the end of the Tanakh, and it can even mean the totality of Jewish teaching, culture and practice, whether derived from biblical texts or later rabbinic writings. Common to all these meanings, Torah consists of the origin of Jewish peoplehood: their call into being by God, their trials and tribulations, and their covenant with their God, which involves following a way of life embodied in a set of moral and religious obligations and civil laws (halakha).
In rabbinic literature the word "Torah '' denotes both the five books (Hebrew: תורה שבכתב "Torah that is written '') and the Oral Torah (תורה שבעל פה, "Torah that is spoken ''). The Oral Torah consists of interpretations and amplifications which according to rabbinic tradition have been handed down from generation to generation and are now embodied in the Talmud and Midrash. According to rabbinic tradition, all of the teachings found in the Torah, both written and oral, were given by God through the prophet Moses, some at Mount Sinai and others at the Tabernacle, and all the teachings were written down by Moses, which resulted in the Torah that exists today. According to the Midrash, the Torah was created prior to the creation of the world, and was used as the blueprint for Creation. The majority of Biblical scholars believe that the written books were a product of the Babylonian captivity (c. 600 BCE), based on earlier written and oral traditions, which could only have arisen from separate communities within ancient Israel, and that it was completed by the period of Achaemenid rule (c. 400 BCE).
Traditionally, the words of the Torah are written on a scroll by a scribe (sofer) in Hebrew. A Torah portion is read publicly at least once every three days in the presence of a congregation. Reading the Torah publicly is one of the bases for Jewish communal life.
The word "Torah '' in Hebrew is derived from the root ירה, which in the hif'il conjugation means "to guide / teach '' (cf. Lev 10: 11). The meaning of the word is therefore "teaching '', "doctrine '', or "instruction ''; the commonly accepted "law '' gives a wrong impression. The Alexandrian Jews who translated the Septuagint used the Greek word "nomos '', meaning norm, standard, doctrine, and later "law ''. Greek and Latin Bibles then began the custom of calling the Pentateuch The Law. Other translational contexts in the English language include custom, theory, guidance, or system.
The term "Torah '' is used in the general sense to include both Rabbinic Judaism 's written law and Oral Law, serving to encompass the entire spectrum of authoritative Jewish religious teachings throughout history, including the Mishnah, the Talmud, the Midrash and more, and the inaccurate rendering of "Torah '' as "Law '' may be an obstacle to understanding the ideal that is summed up in the term talmud torah (תלמוד תורה, "study of Torah '').
The earliest name for the first part of the Bible seems to have been "The Torah of Moses ''. This title, however, is found neither in the Torah itself, nor in the works of the pre-Exilic literary prophets. It appears in Joshua (8: 31 -- 32; 23: 6) and Kings (I Kings 2: 3; II Kings 14: 6; 23: 25), but it can not be said to refer there to the entire corpus (according to academic Bible criticism). In contrast, there is every likelihood that its use in the post-Exilic works (Mal. 3: 22; Dan. 9: 11, 13; Ezra 3: 2; 7: 6; Neh. 8: 1; II Chron. 23: 18; 30: 16) was intended to be comprehensive. Other early titles were "The Book of Moses '' (Ezra 6: 18; Neh. 13: 1; II Chron. 35: 12; 25: 4; cf. II Kings 14: 6) and "The Book of the Torah '' (Neh. 8: 3), which seems to be a contraction of a fuller name, "The Book of the Torah of God '' (Neh. 8: 8, 18; 10: 29 -- 30; cf. 9: 3).
Christian scholars usually refer to the first five books of the Hebrew Bible as the "Pentateuch '' (Greek: πεντάτευχος, pentáteuchos, "five scrolls ''), a term first used in the Hellenistic Judaism of Alexandria,
The Torah starts from the beginning of God 's creating the world, through the beginnings of the people of Israel, their descent into Egypt, and the giving of the Torah at biblical Mount Sinai. It ends with the death of Moses, just before the people of Israel cross to the promised land of Canaan. Interspersed in the narrative are the specific teachings (religious obligations and civil laws) given explicitly (i.e. Ten Commandments) or implicitly embedded in the narrative (as in Exodus 12 and 13 laws of the celebration of Passover).
In Hebrew, the five books of the Torah are identified by the incipits in each book; and the common English names for the books are derived from the Greek Septuagint and reflect the essential theme of each book:
Genesis begins with the "primeval history '' (Genesis 1 -- 11), the story of the world 's beginnings and the descent from Adam. This is followed by the story of the three patriarchs (Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob), Joseph (Genesis 12 -- 50) and the four matriarchs (Sarah, Rebekah, Leah, and Rachel). God gives to the patriarchs a promise of the land of Canaan, but at the end of Genesis the sons of Jacob end up leaving Canaan for Egypt due to a regional famine. They had heard that there was a grain storage and distribution facility in Egypt.
Exodus begins the story of God 's revelation to his people of Israel through Moses, who leads them out of Egypt (Exodus 1 -- 18) to Mount Sinai. There the people accept the covenant with God, agreeing to be his people and abide by his holy Law, in return for his agreeing to be their God, and protect and defend them from their enemies, and provide for them and make them prosper. Moses receives the Torah from God, and teaches His laws and Covenant (Exodus 19 -- 24) to the people of Israel. It also talks about the first violation of the covenant when the golden calf was constructed (Exodus 32 -- 34). Exodus includes the instructions on building the Tabernacle and concludes with its actual construction (Exodus 25 -- 31; 35 -- 40).
Leviticus begins with instructions to the Israelites on how to use the Tabernacle, which they had just built (Leviticus 1 -- 10). This is followed by rules of clean and unclean (Leviticus 11 -- 15), which includes the laws of slaughter and animals permissible to eat (see also: Kashrut), the Day of Atonement (Leviticus 16), and various moral and ritual laws sometimes called the Holiness Code (Leviticus 17 -- 26). Leviticus 26 provides a detailed list of rewards for following God 's commandments and a detailed list of punishments for not following them. Leviticus 17 establishes sacrifices at the Tabernacle as an everlasting ordinance, but this ordinance is altered in later books with the Temple being the only place in which sacrifices are allowed.
Numbers tells how Israel consolidated itself as a community at Sinai (Numbers 1 -- 9), set out from Sinai to move towards Canaan and spied out the land (Numbers 10 -- 13). Because of unbelief at various points, but especially at Kadesh Barnea (Numbers 14), the Israelites were condemned to wander for forty years in the desert in the vicinity of Kadesh instead of immediately entering the Promised Land. Even Moses sins and is told he would not live to enter the land (Numbers 20). At the end of Numbers (Numbers 26 -- 35) Israel moves from Kadesh to the plains of Moab opposite Jericho, ready to enter the Promised Land.
Deuteronomy is a series of speeches by Moses on the plains of Moab opposite Jericho. Also referred to as Mishneh Torah in Hebrew (a repeat of the Torah) the essential gist of the entire book is a rebuke to the Children of Israel to not worship idolatry, to not follow in the ways of Cana'an, and to cleave to God. Moses proclaims the Law (Deuteronomy 12 -- 26), gives instruction concerning covenant renewal at Shechem (Deuteronomy 27 -- 28) and gives Israel new laws (the "Deuteronomic Code ''). At the end of the book (Deuteronomy 34) Moses is allowed to see the promised land from a mountain, and then dies. The text emphasises that no one knows where Moses was finally buried (34: 6). Knowing that he was nearing the end of his life, Moses had appointed Joshua his successor, bequeathing to him the mantle of leadership. Soon afterwards Israel begins the conquest of Canaan.
The Talmud holds that the Torah was written by Moses, with the exception of the last eight verses of Deuteronomy, describing his death and burial, being written by Joshua. Alternatively, Rashi quotes from the Talmud that, "God spoke them, and Moses wrote them with tears ''. The Mishnah includes the divine origin of the Torah as an essential tenet of Judaism.
The modern scholarly consensus is that the Torah has multiple authors and that its composition took place over centuries. This contemporary common hypothesis among biblical scholars states that the first major comprehensive draft of the Pentateuch was composed in the late 7th or the 6th century BCE (the Jahwist source), and that this was later expanded by the addition of various narratives and laws (the Priestly source) into a work very like the one existing today.
"The consensus of scholarship is that the stories are taken from four different written sources and that these were brought together over the course of time to form the first five books of the Bible as a composite work. The sources are known as J, the Jahwist source (from the German transliteration of the Hebrew YHWH), E, the Elohist source, P, the priestly source, and D, the Deuteronomist source... Thus, the Pentateuch (or Torah, as it is known by Jews) comprises material taken from six centuries of human history, which has been put together to give a comprehensive picture of the creation of the world and of God 's dealings with his peoples, specifically with the people of Israel. '' (Professor John Riches of the University of Glasgow).
Rabbinic writings indicate that the Oral Torah was given to Moses at Mount Sinai, which, according to the tradition of Orthodox Judaism, occurred in 1312 BC. The Orthodox rabbinic tradition holds that the Written Torah was recorded during the following forty years, though many non-Orthodox Jewish scholars affirm the modern scholarly consensus that the Written Torah has multiple authors and was written over centuries.
The Talmud (Gittin 60a) presents two opinions as to how exactly the Torah was written down by Moses. One opinion holds that it was written by Moses gradually as it was dictated to him, and finished it close to his death, and the other opinion holds that Moses wrote the complete Torah in one writing close to his death, based on what was dictated to him over the years.
The Talmud (Menachot 30a) says that the last eight verses of the Torah that discuss the death and burial of Moses could not have been written by Moses, as writing it would have been a lie, and that they were written after his death by Joshua. Abraham ibn Ezra and Joseph Bonfils observed that phrases in those verses present information that people should only have known after the time of Moses. Ibn Ezra hinted, and Bonfils explicitly stated, that Joshua wrote these verses many years after the death of Moses. Other commentators do not accept this position and maintain that although Moses did not write those eight verses it was nonetheless dictated to him and that Joshua wrote it based on instructions left by Moses, and that the Torah often describes future events, some of which have yet to occur.
All classical rabbinic views hold that the Torah was entirely Mosaic and of divine origin. Present - day Reform and Liberal Jewish movements all reject Mosaic authorship, as do most shades of Conservative Judaism.
According to Legends of the Jews, God gave Torah to the children of Israel after he approached every tribe and nation in the world, and offered them the Torah, but the latter refused it so they might have no excuse to be ignorant about it. In this book, Torah is defined as one of the first things created, as remedy against the evil inclination, and as the counselor who advised God to create human in the creation of world in order to make him the honored One.
Torah reading (Hebrew: קריאת התורה, K'riat HaTorah, "Reading (of) the Torah '') is a Jewish religious ritual that involves the public reading of a set of passages from a Torah scroll. The term often refers to the entire ceremony of removing the Torah scroll (or scrolls) from the ark, chanting the appropriate excerpt with traditional cantillation, and returning the scroll (s) to the ark. It is distinct from academic Torah study.
Regular public reading of the Torah was introduced by Ezra the Scribe after the return of the Jewish people from the Babylonian captivity (c. 537 BCE), as described in the Book of Nehemiah. In the modern era, adherents of Orthodox Judaism practice Torah - reading according to a set procedure they believe has remained unchanged in the two thousand years since the destruction of the Temple in Jerusalem (70 CE). In the 19th and 20th centuries CE, new movements such as Reform Judaism and Conservative Judaism have made adaptations to the practice of Torah reading, but the basic pattern of Torah reading has usually remained the same:
As a part of the morning prayer services on certain days of the week, fast days, and holidays, as well as part of the afternoon prayer services of Shabbat, Yom Kippur, and fast days, a section of the Pentateuch is read from a Torah scroll. On Shabbat (Saturday) mornings, a weekly section ("parashah '') is read, selected so that the entire Pentateuch is read consecutively each year. The division of parashot found in the modern - day Torah scrolls of all Jewish communities (Ashkenazic, Sephardic, and Yemenite) is based upon the systematic list provided by Maimonides in Mishneh Torah, Laws of Tefillin, Mezuzah and Torah Scrolls, chapter 8. Maimonides based his division of the parashot for the Torah on the Aleppo Codex. Conservative and Reform synagogues may read parashot on a triennial rather than annual schedule, On Saturday afternoons, Mondays, and Thursdays, the beginning of the following Saturday 's portion is read. On Jewish holidays, the beginnings of each month, and fast days, special sections connected to the day are read.
Jews observe an annual holiday, Simchat Torah, to celebrate the completion and new start of the year 's cycle of readings.
Torah scrolls are often dressed with a sash, a special Torah cover, various ornaments and a Keter (crown), although such customs vary among synagogues. Congregants traditionally stand in respect when the Torah is brought out of the ark to be read, while it is being carried, and lifted, and likewise while it is returned to the ark, although they may sit during the reading itself.
The Torah contains narratives, statements of law, and statements of ethics. Collectively these laws, usually called biblical law or commandments, are sometimes referred to as the Law of Moses (Torat Moshe תּוֹרַת ־ מֹשֶׁה ), Mosaic Law, or Sinaitic Law.
Rabbinic tradition holds that Moses learned the whole Torah while he lived on Mount Sinai for 40 days and nights and both the oral and the written Torah were transmitted in parallel with each other. Where the Torah leaves words and concepts undefined, and mentions procedures without explanation or instructions, the reader is required to seek out the missing details from supplemental sources known as the oral law or oral Torah. Some of the Torah 's most prominent commandments needing further explanation are:
According to classical rabbinic texts this parallel set of material was originally transmitted to Moses at Sinai, and then from Moses to Israel. At that time it was forbidden to write and publish the oral law, as any writing would be incomplete and subject to misinterpretation and abuse.
However, after exile, dispersion, and persecution, this tradition was lifted when it became apparent that in writing was the only way to ensure that the Oral Law could be preserved. After many years of effort by a great number of tannaim, the oral tradition was written down around 200 CE by Rabbi Judah haNasi, who took up the compilation of a nominally written version of the Oral Law, the Mishnah (Hebrew: משנה). Other oral traditions from the same time period not entered into the Mishnah were recorded as "Baraitot '' (external teaching), and the Tosefta. Other traditions were written down as Midrashim.
After continued persecution more of the oral law was committed to writing. A great many more lessons, lectures and traditions only alluded to in the few hundred pages of Mishnah, became the thousands of pages now called the Gemara. Gemara is written in Aramaic, having been compiled in Babylon. The Mishnah and Gemara together are called the Talmud. The Rabbis in Israel also collected their traditions and compiled them into the Jerusalem Talmud. Since the greater number of Rabbis lived in Babylon, the Babylonian Talmud has precedence should the two be in conflict.
Orthodox and Conservative branches of Judaism accept these texts as the basis for all subsequent halakha and codes of Jewish law, which are held to be normative. Reform and Reconstructionist Judaism deny that these texts, or the Torah itself for that matter, may be used for determining normative law (laws accepted as binding) but accept them as the authentic and only Jewish version for understanding the Torah and its development throughout history. Humanistic Judaism holds that the Torah is a historical, political, and sociological text, but does not believe that every word of the Torah is true, or even morally correct. Humanistic Judaism is willing to question the Torah and to disagree with it, believing that the entire Jewish experience, not just the Torah, should be the source for Jewish behavior and ethics.
Kabbalists hold that not only do the words of Torah give a divine message, but they also indicate a far greater message that extends beyond them. Thus they hold that even as small a mark as a kotzo shel yod (קוצו של יוד), the serif of the Hebrew letter yod (י), the smallest letter, or decorative markings, or repeated words, were put there by God to teach scores of lessons. This is regardless of whether that yod appears in the phrase "I am the Lord thy God '' (אָנֹכִי יְהוָה אֱלֹהֶיךָ , Exodus 20: 2) or whether it appears in "And God spoke unto Moses saying '' (וַיְדַבֵּר אֱלֹהִים, אֶל - מֹשֶׁה; וַיֹּאמֶר אֵלָיו, אֲנִי יְהוָה. Exodus 6: 2). In a similar vein, Rabbi Akiva (c. 50 -- c. 135 CE), is said to have learned a new law from every et (את) in the Torah (Talmud, tractate Pesachim 22b); the particle et is meaningless by itself, and serves only to mark the direct object. In other words, the Orthodox belief is that even apparently contextual text "And God spoke unto Moses saying... '' is no less important than the actual statement.
Manuscript Torah scrolls are still scribed and used for ritual purposes (i.e., religious services); this is called a Sefer Torah ("Book (of) Torah ''). They are written using a painstakingly careful methodology by highly qualified scribes. This has resulted in, according to B. Barry Levy, "The popular assumption that no changes were ever introduced into copies of the Bible during rabbinic times. '' However, he writes that this "simply does not accord with the facts ''. It is believed that every word, or marking, has divine meaning, and that not one part may be inadvertently changed lest it lead to error. The fidelity of the Hebrew text of the Tanakh, and the Torah in particular, is considered paramount, down to the last letter: translations or transcriptions are frowned upon for formal service use, and transcribing is done with painstaking care. An error of a single letter, ornamentation, or symbol of the 304,805 stylized letters that make up the Hebrew Torah text renders a Torah scroll unfit for use, hence a special skill is required and a scroll takes considerable time to write and check.
According to Jewish law, a sefer Torah (plural: Sifrei Torah) is a copy of the formal Hebrew text handwritten on gevil or klaf (forms of parchment) by using a quill (or other permitted writing utensil) dipped in ink. Written entirely in Hebrew, a sefer Torah contains 304,805 letters, all of which must be duplicated precisely by a trained sofer ("scribe ''), an effort that may take as long as approximately one and a half years. Most modern Sifrei Torah are written with forty - two lines of text per column (Yemenite Jews use fifty), and very strict rules about the position and appearance of the Hebrew letters are observed. See for example the Mishnah Berurah on the subject. Any of several Hebrew scripts may be used, most of which are fairly ornate and exacting.
The completion of the sefer Torah is a cause for great celebration, and it is a mitzvah for every Jew to either write or have written for him a Sefer Torah. Torah scrolls are stored in the holiest part of the synagogue in the Ark known as the "Holy Ark '' (אֲרוֹן הקֹדשׁ aron hakodesh in Hebrew.) Aron in Hebrew means "cupboard '' or "closet '', and kodesh is derived from "kadosh '', or "holy ''.
The Book of Ezra refers to translations and commentaries of the Hebrew text into Aramaic, the more commonly understood language of the time. These translations would seem to date to the 6th century BCE. The Aramaic term for translation is Targum. The Encyclopedia Judaica has:
At an early period, it was customary to translate the Hebrew text into the vernacular at the time of the reading (e.g., in Palestine and Babylon the translation was into Aramaic). The targum ("translation '') was done by a special synagogue official, called the meturgeman... Eventually, the practice of translating into the vernacular was discontinued.
However, there is no suggestion that these translations had been written down as early as this. There are suggestions that the Targum was written down at an early date, although for private use only.
The official recognition of a written Targum and the final redaction of its text, however, belong to the post-Talmudic period, thus not earlier than the fifth century C.E.
One of the earliest known translations of the first five books of Moses from the Hebrew into Greek was the Septuagint. This is a Koine Greek version of the Hebrew Bible that was used by Greek speakers. The Greek version 's name in Latin is the Septuagint: Latin septem meaning seven, plus - gintā meaning "times ten ''. It was named Septuagint from the traditional number of its translators. This Greek version of the Hebrew Scriptures dates from the 3rd century BCE, originally associated with Hellenistic Judaism. It contains both a translation of the Hebrew and additional and variant material.
Later translations into Greek include seven or more other versions. These do not survive, except as fragments, and include those by Aquila, Symmachus, and Theodotion.
Early translations into Latin -- the Vetus Latina -- were ad hoc conversions of parts of the Septuagint. With Saint Jerome in the 4th century CE came the Vulgate Latin translation of the Hebrew Bible.
From the eighth century AD, the cultural language of Jews living under Islamic rule became Arabic rather than Aramaic. "Around that time, both scholars and lay people started producing translations of the Bible into Judeo - Arabic using the Hebrew alphabet. '' Later, by the 10th century, it became essential for a standard version of the Bible in Judeo - Arabic. The best known was produced by Saadiah, and continues to be in use today, "in particular among Yemenite Jewry ''.
Rav Sa'adia produced an Arabic translation of the Torah known as Targum Tafsir and offered comments on Rasag 's work. There is a debate in scholarship whether Rasag wrote the first Arabic translation of the Torah.
The Torah has been translated by Jewish scholars into most of the major European languages, including English, German, Russian, French, Spanish and others. The most well - known German - language translation was produced by Samson Raphael Hirsch. A number of Jewish English Bible translations have been published.
As a part of the Christian Biblical canon, the Torah has been translated into hundreds of languages.
The major figure in Christianity, Jesus Christ, emphasized the Law of Moses in his teachings, saying that whoever believed in Moses ' writings would also believe Jesus ' words:
Do not think that I will accuse you to the Father: there is one that accuseth you, even Moses, in whom ye trust. For had ye believed Moses, ye would have believed me; for he wrote of me. But if ye believe not his writings (Torah), how shall ye believe my words?
Among early centers of Christianity the Septuagint was used by Greek speakers, while Aramaic Targums were used by Aramaic speakers such as the Syriac Orthodox Church. It was regarded as the standard form of the "Old Testament '' in the early Greek Christian Church and is still considered canonical in the Eastern Orthodox Church. Though different Christian denominations have slightly different versions of the "Old Testament '' in their Bibles, the Torah as the "Five Books of Moses '' (or "the Mosaic Law '') is common among them all.
While Christianity includes the five books of Moses (the Pentateuch) among their sacred texts in its "Old Testament '', Islam states that only the original Torah was sent by God. In neither religion does the Torah retain the religious legal significance that it does in Orthodox Judaism.
The Quran refers heavily to Moses to outline the truth of his existence and the religious guidelines that God had revealed to the Children of Israel. According to the Qur'an, Allah says, "It is He Who has sent down the Book (the Qur'an) to you with truth, confirming what came before it. And He sent down the Taurat (Torah) and the Injeel (Gospel). '' (3: 3)
Muslims call the Torah the Tawrat and consider it the word of God given to Moses. However, Muslims also believe that this original revelation was corrupted (tahrif) (or simply altered by the passage of time and human fallibility) over time by Jewish scribes and hence do not revere the present "Jewish version '' Torah as much. 7: 144 -- 144 The Torah in the Quran is always mentioned with respect in Islam. The Muslims ' belief in the Torah, as well as the prophethood of Moses, is one of the fundamental tenets of Islam.
The Bahá'í position on the Torah was composed in 1906 by its official interpreter on all matters religious, Sir ' Abdu'l - Bahá ' Abbas K.B.E.
"The Torah, held to be the most ancient of histories, existeth today in three separate versions: the Hebrew, considered authentic by the Jews and the Protestant clergy; the Greek Septuagint, which was used as authoritative in the Greek and other eastern churches; and the Samaritan Torah, the standard authority for that people. These three versions differ greatly, one from another, even with regard to the lifetimes of the most celebrated figures. In the Hebrew Torah, it is recorded that from Noah 's flood until the birth of Abraham there was an interval of two hundred and ninety - two years. In the Greek, that time span is given as one thousand and seventy - two years, while the Samaritan, the recorded span is nine hundred and forty - two years. Refer to the commentary by Henry Westcott for tables are supplied therein which show the discrepancies among the three Torahs as to the birth dates of a number of the descendants of Shem, and thou wilt see how greatly the versions differ from one another. Moreover, according to the text of the Hebrew Torah, from the creation of Adam until Noah 's flood the elapsed time is recorded as one thousand six hundred and fifty - six years, while in the Greek Torah the interval is given as two thousand two hundred and sixty - two years, and in the Samaritan text, the same period is said to have lasted one thousand three hundred and seven years. Reflect now over the discrepancies among these three Torahs. The case is indeed surprising. The Jews and Protestants belittle the Greek Torah, while to the Greeks, the Hebrew version is spurious, and the Samaritans deny both the Hebrew and the Greek versions. ''
' Abdu'l Bahá 's elucidations above in 1906 are found in his letter to Ethel Jenner Rosenberg (1858 -- 1930, without issue and no relation to the famous spies, Ethel and Julius Rosenberg)
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where is the show battle creek filmed at | Battle Creek (tv series) - wikipedia
Battle Creek is an American comedy - drama television series that premiered on CBS on March 1, 2015. Starring Josh Duhamel and Dean Winters, the show followed the mismatched partnership of a police detective and FBI agent in Battle Creek, Michigan. CBS announced on May 8, 2015, after only 9 episodes had aired, that Battle Creek would end after 13 episodes.
In September 2013, Sony Pictures Television announced that it struck a deal with CBS to produce a new television series created by Vince Gilligan titled Battle Creek based on a script written by Gilligan ten years prior. Despite the name, establishing shots and location shots were not shot in Battle Creek, Michigan. However most of the scenes in the opening credits were filmed in Battle Creek. The main actors visited Battle Creek, Michigan, in the summer of 2014 to get a feel of the location, people, and especially the police department.
CBS ordered thirteen episodes, all of which it guaranteed to air. It premiered on CBS on March 1, 2015. On May 8, 2015, the network announced that Battle Creek would not be renewed for a second season. The series ended on May 24, 2015.
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which is bigger north dakota or south dakota | South Dakota - wikipedia
South Dakota (/ - dəˈkoʊtə / (listen)) is a U.S. state in the Midwestern region of the United States. It is named after the Lakota and Dakota Sioux Native American tribes, who compose a large portion of the population and historically dominated the territory. South Dakota is the seventeenth largest by area, but the fifth smallest by population and the 5th least densely populated of the 50 United States. As the southern part of the former Dakota Territory, South Dakota became a state on November 2, 1889, simultaneously with North Dakota. Pierre is the state capital and Sioux Falls, with a population of about 183,200, is South Dakota 's largest city.
South Dakota is bordered by the states of North Dakota (to the north), Minnesota (to the east), Iowa (to the southeast), Nebraska (to the south), Wyoming (to the west), and Montana (to the northwest). The state is bisected by the Missouri River, dividing South Dakota into two geographically and socially distinct halves, known to residents as "East River '' and "West River ''.
Eastern South Dakota is home to most of the state 's population, and the area 's fertile soil is used to grow a variety of crops. West of the Missouri, ranching is the predominant agricultural activity, and the economy is more dependent on tourism and defense spending. Most of the Native American reservations are in West River. The Black Hills, a group of low pine - covered mountains sacred to the Sioux, are in the southwest part of the state. Mount Rushmore, a major tourist destination, is there. South Dakota has a temperate continental climate, with four distinct seasons and precipitation ranging from moderate in the east to semi-arid in the west. The state 's ecology features species typical of a North American grassland biome.
Humans have inhabited the area for several millennia, with the Sioux becoming dominant by the early 19th century. In the late 19th century, European - American settlement intensified after a gold rush in the Black Hills and the construction of railroads from the east. Encroaching miners and settlers triggered a number of Indian wars, ending with the Wounded Knee Massacre in 1890. Key events in the 20th century included the Dust Bowl and Great Depression, increased federal spending during the 1940s and 1950s for agriculture and defense, and an industrialization of agriculture that has reduced family farming.
While several Democratic senators have represented South Dakota for multiple terms at the federal level, the state government is largely controlled by the Republican Party, whose nominees have carried South Dakota in each of the last 13 presidential elections. Historically dominated by an agricultural economy and a rural lifestyle, South Dakota has recently sought to diversify its economy in areas to attract and retain residents. South Dakota 's history and rural character still strongly influence the state 's culture.
South Dakota is in the north - central United States, and is considered a part of the Midwest by the U.S. Census Bureau; it is also part of the Great Plains region. The culture, economy, and geography of western South Dakota have more in common with the West than the Midwest. South Dakota has a total area of 77,116 square miles (199,730 km), making the state the 17th largest in the Union.
Black Elk Peak, formerly named Harney Peak, with an elevation of 7,242 ft (2,207 m), is the state 's highest point, while the shoreline of Big Stone Lake is the lowest, with an elevation of 966 ft (294 m). South Dakota is bordered to the north by North Dakota; to the south by Nebraska; to the east by Iowa and Minnesota; and to the west by Wyoming and Montana. The geographical center of the U.S. is 17 miles (27 km) west of Castle Rock in Butte County. The North American continental pole of inaccessibility is between Allen and Kyle, 1,024 mi (1,648 km) from the nearest coastline.
The Missouri River is the largest and longest river in the state. Other major South Dakota rivers include the Cheyenne, James, Big Sioux, and White Rivers. Eastern South Dakota has many natural lakes, mostly created by periods of glaciation. Additionally, dams on the Missouri River create four large reservoirs: Lake Oahe, Lake Sharpe, Lake Francis Case, and Lewis and Clark Lake.
South Dakota can generally be divided into three regions: eastern South Dakota, western South Dakota, and the Black Hills. The Missouri River serves as a boundary in terms of geographic, social, and political differences between eastern and western South Dakota. The geography of the Black Hills, long considered sacred by Native Americans, differs from its surroundings to such an extent it can be considered separate from the rest of western South Dakota. At times the Black Hills are combined with the rest of western South Dakota, and people often refer to the resulting two regions divided by the Missouri River as West River and East River.
Eastern South Dakota generally features higher precipitation and lower topography than the western part of the state. Smaller geographic regions of this area include the Coteau des Prairies, the Dissected Till Plains, and the James River Valley. The Coteau des Prairies is a plateau bordered on the east by the Minnesota River Valley and on the west by the James River Basin. Further west, the James River Basin is mostly low, flat, highly eroded land, following the flow of the James River through South Dakota from north to south. The Dissected Till Plains, an area of rolling hills and fertile soil that covers much of Iowa and Nebraska, extends into the southeastern corner of South Dakota. Layers deposited during the Pleistocene epoch, starting around two million years ago, cover most of eastern South Dakota. These are the youngest rock and sediment layers in the state, the product of several successive periods of glaciation which deposited a large amount of rocks and soil, known as till, over the area.
The Great Plains cover most of the western two - thirds of South Dakota. West of the Missouri River the landscape becomes more arid and rugged, consisting of rolling hills, plains, ravines, and steep flat - topped hills called buttes. In the south, east of the Black Hills, lie the South Dakota Badlands. Erosion from the Black Hills, marine skeletons which fell to the bottom of a large shallow sea that once covered the area, and volcanic material all contribute to the geology of this area.
The Black Hills are in the southwestern part of South Dakota and extend into Wyoming. This range of low mountains covers 6,000 sq mi (16,000 km), with peaks that rise from 2,000 to 4,000 feet (600 to 1,200 m) above their bases. The Black Hills are the location of Black Elk Peak (7,242 ft or 2,207 m above sea level), the highest point in South Dakota and also the highest point in the United States east of the Rocky Mountains. Two billion - year - old Precambrian formations, the oldest rocks in the state, form the central core of the Black Hills. Formations from the Paleozoic Era form the outer ring of the Black Hills; these were created between roughly 540 and 250 million years ago. This area features rocks such as limestone, which were deposited here when the area formed the shoreline of an ancient inland sea.
Much of South Dakota (except for the Black Hills area) is dominated by a temperate grasslands biome. Although grasses and crops cover most of this region, deciduous trees such as cottonwoods, elms, and willows are common near rivers and in shelter belts. Mammals in this area include bison, deer, pronghorn, coyotes, and prairie dogs. The state bird, the ring - necked pheasant, has adapted well to the area after being introduced from China. Growing populations of bald eagles are spread throughout the state, especially near the Missouri River. Rivers and lakes of the grasslands support populations of walleye, carp, pike, bass, and other species. The Missouri River also contains the pre-historic paddlefish.
Due to a higher elevation and level of precipitation, the Black Hills ecology differs significantly from the plains. The mountains are thickly blanketed by various types of pines, including ponderosa and lodgepole pines, as well as spruces. Black Hills mammals include deer, elk (wapiti), bighorn sheep, mountain goats, pine marten, and mountain lions, while the streams and lakes contain several species of trout.
South Dakota has a continental climate with four distinct seasons, ranging from cold, dry winters to hot and semi-humid summers. During the summers, the state 's average high temperature is often close to 90 ° F (32 ° C), although it cools to near 60 ° F (16 ° C) at night. It is not unusual for South Dakota to have severe hot, dry spells in the summer with the temperature climbing above 100 ° F (38 ° C) several times a year. Winters are cold with January high temperatures averaging below freezing and low temperatures averaging below 10 ° F (− 12 ° C) in most of the state. The highest recorded temperature is 120 ° F (49 ° C) at Usta on July 15, 2006 and the lowest recorded temperature is − 58 ° F (− 50 ° C) at McIntosh on February 17, 1936.
Average annual precipitation in South Dakota ranges from semi-arid conditions in the northwestern part of the state (around 15 inches or 380 mm) to semi-humid around the southeast portion of the state (around 25 inches or 640 mm), although a small area centered on Lead in the Black Hills has the highest precipitation at nearly 30 inches (760 mm) per year.
South Dakota summers bring frequent, sometimes severe, thunderstorms with high winds, thunder, and hail. The state 's eastern part is often considered part of Tornado Alley, and South Dakota experiences an average of 30 tornadoes each year. Severe blizzards and ice storms occur often during winter.
South Dakota has several sites administered by the National Park Service. Two national parks have been established in South Dakota, both in the state 's southwestern part. Wind Cave National Park, established in 1903 in the Black Hills, has an extensive cave network as well as a large herd of bison. Badlands National Park was created in 1978. The park features an eroded, brightly colored landscape surrounded by semi-arid grasslands. Mount Rushmore National Memorial in the Black Hills was established in 1925. The sculpture of four U.S. Presidents was carved into the mountainside by sculptor Gutzon Borglum.
Other areas managed by the National Park Service include Jewel Cave National Monument near Custer, the Lewis and Clark National Historic Trail, the Minuteman Missile National Historic Site, which features a decommissioned nuclear missile silo and a separate missile control area several miles away, and the Missouri National Recreational River. The Crazy Horse Memorial is a large mountainside sculpture near Mt. Rushmore being built with private funds. The Mammoth Site near Hot Springs is another privately owned attraction in the Black Hills. A working paleontological dig, the site has one of the world 's largest concentrations of mammoth remains.
Humans have lived in what is today South Dakota for several thousand years. The first inhabitants were Paleoindian hunter - gatherers, and disappeared from the area around 5000 BC. Between 500 AD and 800 AD, a semi-nomadic people known as the Mound Builders lived in central and eastern South Dakota. In the 14th century, the Crow Creek Massacre occurred, in which several hundred men, women, and children were killed near the Missouri River.
By 1500, the Arikara (or Ree) had settled in much of the Missouri River valley. European contact with the area began in 1743, when the LaVérendrye brothers explored the region. The LaVérendrye group buried a plate near the site of modern - day Pierre, claiming the region for France as part of greater Louisiana. In 1762 the entire region became part of the Spanish Louisiana until 1802. By the early 19th century, the Sioux had largely replaced the Arikara as the dominant group in the area.
In 1803, the United States purchased the Louisiana Territory, an area that included most of South Dakota, from Napoleon Bonaparte, and President Thomas Jefferson organized a group commonly referred to as the "Lewis and Clark Expedition '' to explore the region. In 1817, an American fur trading post was set up at present - day Fort Pierre, beginning continuous American settlement of the area. In 1855, the U.S. Army bought Fort Pierre but abandoned it in 1857 in favor of Fort Randall to the south. Settlement by Americans and Europeans was by this time increasing rapidly, and in 1858 the Yankton Sioux signed the 1858 Treaty, ceding most of present - day eastern South Dakota to the United States.
Land speculators founded two of eastern South Dakota 's largest present - day cities: Sioux Falls in 1856 and Yankton in 1859. In 1861, the Dakota Territory was established by the United States government (this initially included North Dakota, South Dakota, and parts of Montana and Wyoming). Settlement of the area, mostly by people from the eastern United States as well as western and northern Europe, increased rapidly, especially after the completion of an eastern railway link to Yankton in 1873.
In 1874, gold was discovered in the Black Hills during a military expedition led by George A. Custer and miners and explorers began illegally entering land promised to the Lakota. Custer 's expedition took place despite the fact the US had granted the entire western half of present - day South Dakota (West River) to the Sioux in 1868 by the Treaty of Laramie as part of the Great Sioux Reservation. The Sioux declined to grant mining rights or land in the Black Hills, and war broke out after the U.S. failed to stop white miners and settlers from entering the region. Eventually the US defeated the Sioux and broke up the Great Sioux Reservation into five reservations, settling the Lakota in those areas. (In 1980, the US Supreme Court and Congress ordered payment to the Lakota for the illegal seizure of the Black Hills. The case remains unsettled, as the Lakota refuse to accept the money and instead insist on the return of the land.)
A growing population and political concerns (admitting two states meant having four new senators for the Republican Party) caused Dakota Territory to be divided in half and President Benjamin Harrison signed proclamations formally admitting South Dakota and North Dakota to the union on November 2, 1889. Harrison had the papers shuffled to obscure which one was signed first and the order went unrecorded.
On December 29, 1890, the Wounded Knee Massacre occurred on the Pine Ridge Indian Reservation. Commonly cited as the last major armed conflict between the United States and the Lakota Sioux Nation, the massacre resulted in the deaths of at least 146 Sioux, many of them women and children. 31 U.S. soldiers were also killed in the conflict.
During the 1930s, several economic and climatic conditions combined with disastrous results for South Dakota. A lack of rainfall, extremely high temperatures and inappropriate cultivation techniques produced what was known as the Dust Bowl in South Dakota and several other plains states. Fertile topsoil was blown away in massive dust storms, and several harvests were completely ruined. The experiences of the Dust Bowl, coupled with local bank foreclosures and the general economic effects of the Great Depression, resulted in many South Dakotans leaving the state. The population of South Dakota declined by more than 7 % between 1930 and 1940.
Economic stability returned with the U.S. entry into World War II in 1941, when demand for the state 's agricultural and industrial products grew as the nation mobilized for war. In 1944, the Pick -- Sloan Plan was passed as part of the Flood Control Act of 1944 by the U.S. Congress, resulting in the construction of six large dams on the Missouri River, four of which are at least partially in South Dakota. Flood control, hydroelectricity, and recreational opportunities such as boating and fishing are provided by the dams and their reservoirs.
In recent decades, South Dakota has been transformed from a state dominated by agriculture to one with a more diversified economy. The tourism industry has grown considerably since the completion of the interstate system in the 1960s, with the Black Hills becoming more important as a destination. The financial service industry began to grow in the state as well, with Citibank moving its credit card operations from New York to Sioux Falls in 1981, a move that has been followed by several other financial companies. South Dakota was the first state to eliminate caps on interest rates.
In 2007, the site of the recently closed Homestake gold mine near Lead was chosen as the location of a new underground research facility, the Deep Underground Science and Engineering Laboratory. Despite a growing state population and recent economic development, many rural areas have been struggling over the past 50 years with locally declining populations and the emigration of educated young adults to larger South Dakota cities, such as Rapid City or Sioux Falls, or to other states. Mechanization and consolidation of agriculture has contributed greatly to the declining number of smaller family farms and the resulting economic and demographic challenges facing rural towns.
The United States Census Bureau estimates the population of South Dakota was 858,469 on July 1, 2015, a 5.44 % increase since the 2010 United States Census, only North Dakota, Alaska, Vermont, and Wyoming have fewer residents.
As of 2015, South Dakota had an estimated population of 858,469, an increase of 44,289, or 5.44 %, since the year 2010. 7.3 % of South Dakota 's population was reported as under 5, 24 % under 18, and 14.3 % were 65 or older. Females made up approximately 50.2 % of the population. As of the 2000 census, South Dakota ranked fifth - lowest in the nation in population and population density.
Of the people residing in South Dakota, 65.7 % were born in South Dakota, 31.4 % were born in another U.S. state, 0.6 % were born in Puerto Rico, U.S. Island areas, or born abroad to American parent (s), and 2.3 % were born in another country.
The center of population of South Dakota is in Buffalo County, in the unincorporated county seat of Gann Valley.
According to the 2010 Census, the racial composition of the population was:
Ethnically, 2.7 % of South Dakota 's population was of Hispanic, Latino, or Spanish origin (they may be of any race).
As of 2011, 25.4 % of South Dakota 's population younger than age 1 were minorities, meaning they had at least one parent who was not non-Hispanic white.
As of 2000, the five largest ancestry groups in South Dakota are German (40.7 %), Norwegian (15.3 %), Irish (10.4 %), Native American (8.3 %), and English (7.1 %).
German Americans are the largest ancestry group in most parts of the state, especially in East River (east of the Missouri River), although there are also large Scandinavian - descended populations in some counties. South Dakota has the nation 's largest population of Hutterites, a communal Anabaptist group which emigrated in 1874 from Europe, primarily from German - speaking areas.
American Indians, largely Lakota, Dakota, and Nakota (Sioux), are predominant in several counties and comprise 20 per cent of the population in West River. The seven large Indian reservations in the state occupy an area much diminished from their former Great Sioux Reservation of West River, which the US government had once allocated to the Sioux tribes. South Dakota has the third - highest proportion of Native Americans of any state, behind Alaska and New Mexico.
Five of the state 's counties are wholly within the boundaries of sovereign Indian reservations. Because of the limitations of climate and land, and isolation from urban areas with more employment opportunities, living standards on many South Dakota reservations are often far below the national average; Ziebach County ranked as the poorest county in the nation in 2009. The unemployment rate in Fort Thompson, on the Crow Creek Reservation, is 70 %, and 21 % of households lack plumbing or basic kitchen appliances. A 1995 study by the U.S. Census Bureau found 58 % of homes on the Pine Ridge Indian Reservation did not have a telephone. The reservations ' isolation also inhibits their ability to generate revenue from gaming casinos, an avenue that has proved profitable for many tribes closer to urban centers.
In 1995 the legislature passed a law to make English the "common language '' of the state. As of the 2000 census, 1.90 % of the population aged 5 or older speak German at home, while 1.51 % speak Lakota or Dakota, and 1.43 % Spanish. As of 2010, 93.46 % (692,504) of South Dakota residents aged 5 and older spoke English as their primary language. 6.54 % of the population spoke a language other than English. 2.06 % (15,292) of the population spoke Spanish, 1.39 % (10,282) spoke Dakota, and 1.37 % (10,140) spoke German. Other languages spoken included Vietnamese (0.16 %), Chinese (0.12 %), and Russian (0.10 %).
Over the last several decades, the population in many rural areas has declined in South Dakota, in common with other Great Plains states. The change has been characterized as "rural flight '' as family farming has declined. Young people have moved to cities for other employment. This trend has continued in recent years, with 30 of South Dakota 's counties losing population between the 1990 and the 2000 census. During that time, nine counties had a population loss of greater than 10 %, with Harding County, in the northwest corner of the state, losing nearly 19 % of its population. Low birth rates and a lack of younger immigration has caused the median age of many of these counties to increase. In 24 counties, at least 20 % of the population is over the age of 65, compared with a national rate of 12.8 %.
The effect of rural flight has not been spread evenly through South Dakota, however. Although most rural counties and small towns have lost population, the Sioux Falls area, the larger counties along Interstate 29, the Black Hills, and many Indian reservations have all gained population. As the reservations have exercised more sovereignty, some Sioux have returned to them from urban areas. Lincoln County near Sioux Falls was the seventh fastest - growing county (by percentage) in the United States in 2010. The growth in these areas has compensated for losses in the rest of the state. South Dakota 's total population continues to increase steadily, albeit at a slower rate than the national average.
The largest denominations by number of adherents in 2010 were the Roman Catholic Church with 148,883 members; the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America (ELCA) with 112,649 members; and the United Methodist Church (UMC) with 36,020 members. (The ELCA and UMC are specific denominations within the broader terms ' Lutheran ' and ' Methodist ', respectively.) The results of a 2001 survey, in which South Dakotans were asked to identify their religion, include:
The current - dollar gross state product of South Dakota was US $39.8 billion as of 2010, the fifth smallest total state output in the US. The per capita personal income was $38,865 in 2010, ranked 25th in the U.S., and 12.5 % of the population was below the poverty line in 2008. CNBC 's list of "Top States for Business for 2010 '' has recognized South Dakota as the seventh best state in the nation. In July 2011, the state 's unemployment rate was 4.7 %.
The service industry is the largest economic contributor in South Dakota. This sector includes the retail, finance, and health care industries. Citibank, which was the largest bank holding company in the United States at one time, established national banking operations in South Dakota in 1981 to take advantage of favorable banking regulations. Government spending is another important segment of the state 's economy, providing over ten percent of the gross state product. Ellsworth Air Force Base, near Rapid City, is the second - largest single employer in the state.
Agriculture has historically been a key component of the South Dakota economy. Although other industries have expanded rapidly in recent decades, agricultural production is still very important to the state 's economy, especially in rural areas. The five most valuable agricultural products in South Dakota are cattle, corn (maize), soybeans, wheat, and hogs. Agriculture - related industries such as meat packing and ethanol production also have a considerable economic impact on the state. South Dakota is the sixth leading ethanol - producing state in the nation.
Another important sector in South Dakota 's economy is tourism. Many travel to view the attractions of the state, particularly those in the Black Hills region, such as historic Deadwood, Mount Rushmore, and the nearby state and national parks. One of the largest tourist events in the state is the annual Sturgis Motorcycle Rally. The five - day event drew over 739,000 attendees in 2015; significant considering the state has a total population of 850,000. In 2006, tourism provided an estimated 33,000 jobs in the state and contributed over two billion dollars to the economy of South Dakota.
South Dakota has 83,609 miles (134,556 km) of highways, roads, and streets, along with 679 miles (1,093 km) of interstate highways. Two major interstates pass through South Dakota: Interstate 90, which runs east and west through the southern half of the state; and Interstate 29, running north and south in the eastern portion of the state. The I - 29 corridor features generally higher rates of population and economic growth than areas in eastern South Dakota further from the interstate.
Also in the state are the shorter Interstates 190, a spur into central Rapid City, and 229, a loop around southern and eastern Sioux Falls. Several major U.S. highways pass through the state. U.S. routes 12, 14, 16, 18 and 212 travel east and west, while U.S. routes 81, 83, 85 and 281 run north and south. South Dakota and Montana are the only states sharing a land border which is not traversed by a paved road.
South Dakota contains two National Scenic Byways. The Peter Norbeck National Scenic Byway is in the Black Hills, while the Native American Scenic Byway runs along the Missouri River in the north - central part of the state. Other scenic byways include the Badlands Loop Scenic Byway, the Spearfish Canyon Scenic Byway, and the Wildlife Loop Road Scenic Byway.
Railroads have played an important role in South Dakota transportation since the mid-19th century. Some 4,420 miles (7,110 km) of railroad track were built in South Dakota during the late 19th century and early 20th century, but only 1,839 miles (2,960 km) are active. BNSF Railway is the largest railroad in South Dakota; the Rapid City, Pierre and Eastern Railroad (formerly the Dakota, Minnesota and Eastern) is the state 's other major carrier. Other state carriers include Dakota Southern Railway, Dakota and Iowa Railroad, Ellis and Eastern Railroad, Sunflour Railroad, Canadian Pacific Railway, and the Sisseton Milbank Railroad. Rail transportation in the state is mostly confined only to freight, but two passenger heritage railroads operate in the state, them being The Black Hills Central, and the Prairie Village, Herman, and Milwaukee Railroad. However, South Dakota is one of the two contiguous US states (Wyoming being the other) lacking Amtrak service.
South Dakota 's largest commercial airports in terms of passenger traffic are the Sioux Falls Regional Airport and Rapid City Regional Airport. Delta Air Lines, Frontier Airlines, and Allegiant Airlines, as well as commuter airlines using the brand affiliation with major airlines serve the two largest airports. Several other cities in the state also have commercial air service: Aberdeen Regional Airport, Huron Regional Airport, Pierre Regional Airport, Brookings Regional Airport and Watertown Regional Airport, some of which is subsidized by the Essential Air Service program.
Like other U.S. states, the structure of the government of South Dakota follows the same separation of powers as the federal government, with executive, legislative, and judicial branches. The structure of the state government is laid out in the Constitution of South Dakota, the highest law in the state. The constitution may be amended by a majority vote of both houses of the legislature, or by voter initiative.
The Governor of South Dakota occupies the executive branch of the state government. The current governor is Dennis Daugaard, a Republican from Garretson. The state constitution gives the governor the power to sign into law or veto bills passed by the state legislature, to serve as commander - in - chief of the South Dakota National Guard, to appoint a cabinet, and to commute criminal sentences or to pardon those convicted of crimes. The governor serves for a four - year term, and may not serve more than two consecutive terms.
The state legislature is made up of two bodies, the Senate, which has 35 members, and the House of Representatives, with 70 members. South Dakota is divided into 35 legislative districts, with voters electing two representatives and one senator per district. The legislature meets for an annual session which begins on the second Tuesday in January and lasts for 30 days; it also meets if a special session is called by the governor.
The judicial branch is made up of several levels. The state supreme court, with four justices and a chief justice, is the highest court in the state. Below the supreme court are the circuit courts; 41 circuit judges serve in seven judicial circuits in the state. Below the circuit courts are the magistrate courts, which deal with more minor criminal and civil actions.
As of 2005, South Dakota has the lowest per capita total state tax rate in the United States. The state does not levy personal or corporate income taxes, inheritance taxes, or taxes on intangible personal property. The state sales tax rate is 4.5 percent. Various localities have local levies so in some areas the rate is 6 percent. The state sales tax does not apply to sales to Indians on Indian reservations, but many reservations have a compact with the state. Businesses on the reservation collect the tax and the state refunds to the Indian Tribes the percentage of sales tax collections relating to the ratio of Indian population to total population in the county or area affected. Ad valorem property taxes are local taxes and are a large source of funding for school systems, counties, municipalities and other local government units. The South Dakota Special Tax Division regulates some taxes including cigarette and alcohol - related taxes.
South Dakota is represented at the federal level by Senator John Thune, Senator Mike Rounds, and Representative Kristi Noem. All three are Republicans. South Dakota is one of seven states with only one seat in the US House of Representatives. In United States presidential elections, South Dakota is allotted three of 538 votes in the Electoral College. As in all other states except Maine and neighboring Nebraska, South Dakota 's electoral votes are granted in a winner - take - all system.
South Dakota politics are generally dominated by the Republican Party. Since statehood, Republicans have carried the state 's electoral votes in all but five presidential elections: 1896, 1912 (By Theodore Roosevelt 's Progressive Party), 1932, 1936 and 1964. Only Alaska has been carried fewer times by Democrat presidential candidates. Not even George McGovern, the Democratic nominee in 1972 as well as a native South Dakotan, was able to carry the state. Additionally, a Democrat has not won the governorship since 1974. As of 2016, Republicans hold a 15 % voter registration advantage over Democrats and hold large majorities in both the state House of Representatives and Senate.
Despite the state 's general Republican and conservative leanings, Democrats have found success in various statewide elections, most notably in those involving South Dakota 's congressional representatives in Washington. American Indians have been becoming more active in state and county electoral politics. In the 2002 election, American Indian voting carried Tim Johnson as the Democratic candidate by a margin of 532 votes. Until his electoral defeat in 2004, Senator Tom Daschle was the Senate minority leader (and briefly its majority leader during Democratic control of the Senate in 2001 -- 02).
In 2016, South Dakota voted for Republican nominee Donald Trump over Democratic nominee Hillary Clinton by a margin of 30 %, incumbent Republican Senator John Thune won a third term against Democrat Jay Williams, and incumbent Republican congresswoman Kristi Noem defeated Democrat Paula Hawks for South Dakota 's at - large seat in the US House.
Contemporary political issues in South Dakota include the costs and benefits of the state lottery, South Dakota 's relatively low rankings in education spending (particularly teacher pay -- recently the State Sales Tax was increased from 4 % to 4.5 % to finance an increase in teacher pay), and recent legislative and electoral attempts to ban abortion in the state.
South Dakota 's culture reflects the state 's American Indian, rural, Western, and European roots. A number of annual events celebrating the state 's ethnic and historical heritage take place around the state, such as Days of ' 76 in Deadwood, Czech Days in Tabor, and the annual St. Patrick 's Day and Cinco de Mayo festivities in Sioux Falls. The various tribes hold many annual pow wows at their reservations throughout the state, to which non-Native Americans are sometimes invited. Custer State Park holds an annual Buffalo Roundup, in which volunteers on horseback gather the park 's herd of around 1,500 bison.
Black Elk (Lakota) was a medicine man and heyokha, whose life spanned the transition to reservations. His accounts of the 19th - century Indian Wars and Ghost Dance movement, and his deep thoughts on personal visions and Native American religion, form the basis of the book Black Elk Speaks, first published in 1932. (Among several editions, a premier annotated edition was published in 2008.) Paul Goble, an award - winning children 's book author and illustrator, has been based in the Black Hills since 1977.
Laura Ingalls Wilder, whose semi-autobiographical books are based on her experiences as a child and young adult on the frontier, is one of South Dakota 's best - known writers. She drew from her life growing up on a homestead near De Smet as the basis for five of her novels: By the Shores of Silver Lake, The Long Winter, Little Town on the Prairie, These Happy Golden Years, and The First Four Years. These gained renewed popularity in the United States when Little House on the Prairie was adapted and produced as a television series in the. Wilder 's daughter, Rose Wilder Lane, who became a well - known writer in her own right, was born near De Smet in 1886.
South Dakota has also produced several notable artists. Harvey Dunn grew up on a homestead near Manchester in the late 19th century. While Dunn worked most of his career as a commercial illustrator, his most famous works showed various scenes of frontier life; he completed these near the end of his career. Oscar Howe (Crow) was born on the Crow Creek Indian Reservation and won fame for his watercolor paintings. Howe was one of the first Native American painters to adopt techniques and style heavily influenced by the mid-20th century abstraction movement, rather than relying on traditional Native American styles. Terry Redlin, originally from Watertown, is an accomplished painter of rural and wildlife scenes. Many of his works are on display at the Redlin Art Center in Watertown.
Sioux Falls is the largest city in South Dakota, with a 2010 population of 153,888, and a metropolitan area population of 238,122. The city, founded in 1856, is in the southeast corner of the state. Retail, finance, and healthcare have assumed greater importance in Sioux Falls, where the economy was originally centered on agri - business and quarrying.
Rapid City, with a 2010 population of 67,956, and a metropolitan area population of 124,766, is the second - largest city in the state. It is on the eastern edge of the Black Hills, and was founded in 1876. Rapid City 's economy is largely based on tourism and defense spending, because of the proximity of many tourist attractions in the Black Hills and Ellsworth Air Force Base.
The next eight largest cities in the state, in order of descending 2010 population, are Aberdeen (26,091), Brookings (22,056), Watertown (21,482), Mitchell (15,254), Yankton (14,454), Pierre (13,646), Huron (12,592), and Vermillion (10,571). Pierre is the state capital, and Brookings and Vermillion are the locations of the state 's two largest universities (South Dakota State University and University of South Dakota, respectively). With a population of about 14,000, Pierre is the second smallest state capital in the United States. Of the ten largest cities in the state, only Rapid City is west of the Missouri River.
South Dakota 's first newspaper, the Dakota Democrat, began publishing in Yankton in 1858. Today, the state 's largest newspaper is the Sioux Falls Argus Leader, with a Sunday circulation of 63,701 and a weekday circulation of 44,334. The Rapid City Journal, with a Sunday circulation of 32,638 and a weekday circulation of 27,827, is South Dakota 's second largest newspaper. The next four largest newspapers in the state are the Aberdeen American News, the Watertown Public Opinion, the Huron Plainsman, and the Brookings Register. In 1981, Tim Giago founded the Lakota Times as a newspaper for the local American Indian community on the Pine Ridge Indian Reservation. The newspaper, now published in New York and known as Indian Country Today, is available in every state in the country. The Sioux City Journal also covers parts of South Dakota.
There are nine television stations broadcasting in South Dakota; South Dakota Public Television broadcasts from a number of locations around the state, while the other stations broadcast from Sioux Falls or Rapid City. The two largest television media markets in South Dakota are Sioux Falls - Mitchell, with a viewership of 246,020, and Rapid City, with a viewership of 91,070. The two markets rank as 114th and 177th largest in the United States, respectively. The state 's first television station, KELO - TV, began airing in Sioux Falls in 1953. Among KELO 's early programs was Captain 11, an afternoon children 's program. Captain 11 ran from 1955 until 1996, making it the nation 's longest continuously running children 's television program.
A number of South Dakotans are famous for their work in television and publishing. Former NBC Nightly News anchor and author Tom Brokaw is from Webster and Yankton, USA Today founder Al Neuharth was from Eureka and Alpena, gameshow host Bob Barker spent much of his childhood in Mission, and entertainment news hosts Pat O'Brien and Mary Hart are from Sioux Falls.
As of 2006, South Dakota has a total primary and secondary school enrollment of 136,872, with 120,278 of these students being educated in the public school system. There are 703 public schools in 168 school districts, giving South Dakota the highest number of schools per capita in the United States. The current high school graduation rate is 89.9 %, and the average ACT score is 21.8, slightly above the national average of 21.1. 89.8 % of the adult population has earned at least a high school diploma, and 25.8 % has earned a bachelor 's degree or higher. South Dakota 's 2008 average public school teacher salary of $36,674, compared to a national average of $52,308, was the lowest in the nation. In 2007 South Dakota passed legislation modeled after Montana 's Indian Education for All Act (1999), mandating education about Native American tribal history, culture, and heritage in all the schools, from pre-school through college, in an effort to increase knowledge and appreciation about Indian culture among all residents of the state, as well as to reinforce Indian students ' understanding of their own cultures ' contributions.
The South Dakota Board of Regents, whose members are appointed by the governor, controls the six public universities in the state. South Dakota State University (SDSU), in Brookings, is the state 's largest university, with an enrollment of 12,831. The University of South Dakota (USD), in Vermillion, is the state 's oldest university, and has South Dakota 's only law school and medical school. South Dakota also has several private universities, the largest of which is Augustana College in Sioux Falls.
Because of its low population, South Dakota does not host any major league professional sports franchises. The state has minor league and independent league teams, all of which play in Sioux Falls or Rapid City. Sioux Falls is home to four teams: the Sioux Falls Canaries (baseball), the Sioux Falls Skyforce (basketball), the Sioux Falls Stampede (hockey), and the Sioux Falls Storm (indoor American football). The Canaries play in the American Association, and their home field is Sioux Falls Stadium. The Skyforce play in the NBA G League, and are owned by the NBA 's Miami Heat. They play at the Sanford Pentagon. The Stampede and Storm share the Denny Sanford Premier Center. The Stampede play in the USHL, and the Storm play in the IFL. Rapid City has a hockey team named the Rapid City Rush that plays in the ECHL. The Rush began their inaugural season in 2008 at the Rushmore Plaza Civic Center.
Universities in South Dakota host a variety of sports programs. For many years, South Dakota was one of the only states in the country without a NCAA Division I football or basketball team. However, several years ago SDSU decided to move their teams from Division II to Division I, a move followed by the University of South Dakota. Other universities in the state compete at the NCAA 's Division II or III levels, or in the NAIA.
Famous South Dakota athletes include Billy Mills, Mike Miller, Mark Ellis, Becky Hammon, Brock Lesnar, Chad Greenway, and Adam Vinatieri. Mills is from the town of Pine Ridge and competed at the 1964 Summer Olympic Games in Tokyo, becoming the only American to win a gold medal in the 10,000 - meter event. Miller, of Mitchell, is a two - time NBA champion who played college basketball at the University of Florida, leading them to the 2000 NCAA Championship game his sophomore year, and won the 2001 NBA rookie of the year award. Ellis, of Rapid City, played for the University of Florida and four MLB teams before retiring in 2015. Hammon, of Rapid City, played for the WNBA 's New York Liberty and San Antonio Silver Stars before becoming an assistant coach for the NBA 's San Antonio Spurs in 2014. Lesnar, of Webster, is a former heavy - weight champion in the UFC and WWE. Vinatieri is an NFL placekicker who grew up in Rapid City and attended SDSU.
Fishing and hunting are popular outdoor activities in South Dakota. Fishing contributes over $224 million to South Dakota 's economy, and hunting contributes over $303 million. In 2007, over 275,000 hunting licences and 175,000 fishing licences were sold in the state; around half of the hunting licences and over two - thirds of the fishing licences were purchased by South Dakotans. Popular species of game include pheasants, white - tailed deer, mule deer, and turkeys, as well as waterfowl such as Canada geese, snow geese, and mallards. Targets of anglers include walleye in the eastern glacial lakes and Missouri River reservoirs, Chinook salmon in Lake Oahe, and trout in the Black Hills.
Other sports, such as cycling and running, are also popular in the state. In 1991, the state opened the George S. Mickelson Trail, a 109 - mile (175 km) rail trail in the Black Hills. Besides being used by cyclists, the trail is also the site of a portion of the annual Mount Rushmore marathon; the marathon 's entire course is at an elevation of over 4,000 feet (1,200 m). Other events in the state include the Tour de Kota, a 478 - mile (769 km), six - day cycling event that covers much of eastern and central South Dakota, and the annual Sturgis Motorcycle Rally, which draws hundreds of thousands of participants from around the United States.
Some of South Dakota 's official state symbols include:
Coordinates: 44 ° 30 ′ N 100 ° 00 ′ W / 44.5 ° N 100 ° W / 44.5; - 100
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who were the indo-europeans and why are they important | Indo - European migrations - wikipedia
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Indo - European migrations were the movements of peoples speaking Proto - Indo - European language, who departed their homeland at the Pontic - Caspian steppes spreading throughout Europe and Asia.
Modern knowledge of these migrations is based on data from linguistics, archaeology, anthropology and genetics. Linguistics describes the similarities between various languages, and the linguistic laws at play in the changes in those languages. Archaeological data, describes the spread of the Proto - Indo - European language and culture in several stages from the Proto - Indo - European Eurasian homeland in the Pontic -- Caspian steppe, into Western Europe and Central and South Asia, by migrations, and by language shift through elite - recruitment as described by anthropological research. Recent genetic research has a growing contribution to the understanding of the historical relations between various historical cultures.
The Indo - European languages and cultures spread in various stages. Early migrations from c. 4200 -- 3000 BCE brought archaic proto - Indo - European into the lower Danube valley, Anatolia, and the Altai region. Pre-Celtic and pre-Italic probably spread into Europe after new migrations into the Danube Valley, while pre-Germanic and pre-Balto - Slavic developed east of the Carpathian mountains, at present - day Ukraine, moving north and spreading with the Corded Ware culture in Middle Europe (third millennium BCE).
The Indo - Iranian language and culture emerged at the Sintashta culture (c. 2100 -- 1800 BCE), at the eastern border of the Yamna horizon and the Corded ware culture, growing into the Andronovo culture (c. 1800 -- 800 BCE). Indo - Aryans moved into the Bactria -- Margiana Archaeological Complex (c. 2300 -- 1700 BCE) and spread to the Levant (Mitanni), northern India (Vedic people, c. 1500 BCE), and China (Wusun). The Iranian languages spread throughout the steppes with the Scyths and into Iran with the Medes, Parthians and Persians from ca. 800 BCE.
The Indo - European languages are a family of several hundred related languages and dialects. There are about 439 languages and dialects, according to the 2009 Ethnologue estimate, about half (221) belonging to the Indo - Aryan subbranch. It includes most major current languages of Europe, the Iranian plateau, the northern half of the Indian Subcontinent, Sri Lanka (Sinhala) and was also predominant in ancient Anatolia. With written attestations appearing since the Bronze Age in the form of the Anatolian languages and Mycenaean Greek, the Indo - European family is significant to the field of historical linguistics as possessing the second - longest recorded history, after the Afro - Asiatic family.
Indo - European languages are spoken by almost 3 billion native speakers, the largest number by far for any recognised language family. Of the 20 languages with the largest numbers of native speakers according to SIL Ethnologue, 12 are Indo - European: Spanish, English, Hindi, Portuguese, Bengali, Russian, German, Punjabi, Marathi, French, Urdu, Italian, accounting for over 1.7 billion native speakers. Several disputed proposals link Indo - European to other major language families.
The similarities between various European languages, Sanskrit and Persian were noted by Sir William Jones when learning Sanskrit in India, concluding that all these languages originated from the same source.
The Proto - Indo - European language (PIE) is the linguistic reconstruction of a common ancestor of the Indo - European languages spoken by the Proto - Indo - Europeans. PIE was the first proposed proto - language to be widely accepted by linguists. Far more work has gone into reconstructing it than any other proto - language and it is by far the most well - understood of all proto - languages of its age. During the 19th century, the vast majority of linguistic work was devoted to reconstruction of Proto - Indo - European or its daughter proto - languages such as Proto - Germanic, and most of the current techniques of historical linguistics (e.g. the comparative method and the method of internal reconstruction) were developed as a result.
Scholars estimate that PIE may have been spoken as a single language (before divergence began) around 3500 BCE, though estimates by different authorities can vary by more than a millennium. The most popular hypothesis for the origin and spread of the language is the Kurgan hypothesis, which postulates an origin in the Pontic -- Caspian steppe of Eastern Europe.
The existence of PIE was first postulated in the 18th century by Sir William Jones, who observed the similarities between Sanskrit, Ancient Greek, and Latin. By the early 20th century, well - defined descriptions of PIE had been developed that are still accepted today (with some refinements). The largest developments of the 20th century have been the discovery of Anatolian and Tocharian languages and the acceptance of the laryngeal theory. The Anatolian languages have also spurred a major re-evaluation of theories concerning the development of various shared Indo - European language features and the extent to which these features were present in PIE itself.
PIE is thought to have had a complex system of morphology that included inflections (suffixing of roots, as in who, whom, whose), and ablaut (vowel alterations, as in sing, sang, sung). Nouns used a sophisticated system of declension and verbs used a similarly sophisticated system of conjugation.
Relationships to other language families, including the Uralic languages, have been proposed but remain controversial.
There is no written evidence of Proto - Indo - European, so all knowledge of the language is derived by reconstruction from later languages using linguistic techniques such as the comparative method and the method of internal reconstruction.
The Indo - Hittite hypothesis postulates a common predecessor for both the Anatolian languages and the other indo - European languages, called Indi - Hittite or Indo - Anatolian. Although it 's obvious that PIE had predecessors, the Indo - Hittite hypothesis is not widely accepted, and there is little to suggest that it is possible to reconstruct a proto - Indo - Hittite stage that differes substantially from what is already reconstructed for PIE.
According to Kortlandt, Indo - Uralic is the pre-PIE, postulating that Indo - European and Uralic share a common ancestor. According to Kortlandt, "Indo - European is a branch of Indo - Uralic which was radically transformed under the influence of a North Caucasian substratum when its speakers moved from the area north of the Caspian Sea to the area north of the Black Sea. '' Anthony notes that the validity of such deep relationships can not be reliably demonstrated due to the time - depth involved, and also notes that the similarities may be explained by borrowings from PIE into proto - Uralic. Yet, Anthony also notes that the North Caucasian communities "were southern participants in the steppe world ''.
Using a mathematical analysis borrowed from evolutionary biology, Don Ringe and Tandy Warnow propose the following evolutionary tree of Indo - European branches:
David Anthony, following the methodology of Ringe and Warnow, proposes the following sequence:
Ringe and Warnow 's methodology may be outdated, and not accurately reflect the development of the IE languages.
Archaeological research has unearthed a broad range of historical cultures which can be related to the spread of the Indo - European languages. Various steppe - cultures show strong similarities with the Yamna - horizon at the Pontic steppe, while the time - range of several Asian cultures also coincides with the proposed trajectory and time - range of the Indo - European migrations.
According to the widely accepted Kurgan hypothesis c.q. Steppe theory, the Indo - European language and culture spread in several stages from the Proto - Indo - European Eurasian homeland in the Pontic steppes, into Western Europe, Central and South Asia, through folk migrations and so - called elite recruitment. This process started with the introduction of cattle at the Eurasian steppes around 5200 BCE, and the mobilisation of the steppe herder cultures with the introduction of wheeled wagons and horse - back riding, which led to a new kind of culture. Between 4,500 and 2,500 BCE, this "horizon '', which includes several distinctive cultures, spread out over the Pontic steppes, and outside into Europe and Asia.
Early migrations at ca. 4200 BCE brought steppe herders into the lower Danube valley, either causing or taking advantage of the collapse of Old Europe. According to Anthony, the Anatolian branch, to which the Hittites belong, probably arrived in Anatolia from the Danube valley. According to Matieson & Reich et al. (2017), it is unlikely that the Anatolian branch arrived in Anatolia via the Balkans.
Migrations eastward from the Yamna culture founded the Afanasevo culture which developed into the Tocharians. The Tarim mummies may represent an migration of Tocharian speakers from the Afanasevo culture in the Tarim Basin. Migrations southward may have founded the Maykop culture, but the Maikop origins could also have been in the Caucasus.
The western Indo - European languages (Germanic, Celtic, Italic) probably spread into Europe from the Balkan - Danubian complex, a set of cultures in Southeast Europe. At ca. 3000 BCE a migration of Proto - Indo - European speakers from the Yamna - culture took place toward the west, along the Danube river, Slavic and Baltic developed a little later at the middle Dniepr (present - day Ukraine), moving north toward the Baltic coast. The Corded Ware culture in Middle Europe (third millennium BCE), which materialized with a massive migration from the Eurasian steppes to Central Europe, probably played a central role in the spread of the pre-Germanic and pre-Baltic - Slavic dialects.
The eastern part of the Yamna horizon and the Corded ware culture contributed to the Sintashta culture (c. 2100 -- 1800 BCE), where the Indo - Iranian language and culture emerged, and where the chariot was invented. The Indo - Iranian language and culture was further developed in the Andronovo culture (c. 1800 -- 800 BCE), and influenced by the Bactria -- Margiana Archaeological Complex (c. 2300 -- 1700 BCE). The Indo - Aryans split off around 1800 -- 1600 BCE from the Iranians, whereafter Indo - Aryan groups moved to the Levant (Mitanni), northern India (Vedic people, c. 1500 BCE), and China (Wusun). The Iranian languages spread throughout the steppes with the Scyths and into Iran with the Medes, Parthians and Persians from ca. 800 BCE.
According to Marija Gimbutas, the process of "Indo - Europeanization '' of Europe was essentially a cultural, not a physical transformation. It is understood as Yamnaya migration to Europe, as military victors in terms of successfully imposing a new administrative system, language and religion upon the indigenous groups. The social organization greatly facilitated the Yamnaya people 's effectiveness in war, their patrilinear and patriarchal structure. The Old Europeans (indigenous groups) had neither a warrior class nor horses. They lived in (probably) theocratic monarchies presided over by a queen - priestess; this Old European social structure contrasted with Yamnaya Indo - European arrivals.
Indo - European languages probably spread through language shifts. Small groups can change a larger cultural area, and elite male dominance by small groups may have led to a language shift in northern India.
According to Guus Kroonen, Indo - Europeans encountered existing populations that spoke dissimilar, unrelated languages when they migrated to Europe from Yamnaya steppes. Relatively little is known about the Pre-Indo - European linguistic landscape of Europe, except for Basque, as the "Indo - Europeanization '' of Europe caused a largely unrecorded, massive linguistic extinction event, most likely through language - shift. Guus Kroonens ' study reveals that Pre-Indo - European speech contains a clear Neolithic signature emanating from the Aegean language family and thus patterns with the prehistoric migration of Europe 's first farming populations.
According to Edgar Polomé, 30 % of non-Indo - European substratum found in modern German derives from non-Indo - European - speakers of Funnelbeaker Culture indigenous to southern Scandinavia. When Yamnaya Indo - European speakers came into contact with the indigenous peoples during the 3rd millennium BCE, they came to dominate the local populations yet parts of the indigenous lexicon persisted in the formation of Proto - Germanic, thus giving German the status of being an Indo - Europeanized language. According to Marija Gimbutas, Corded Ware cultures migration to Scandinavia "synthesized '' with the Funnelbeaker culture, giving birth to the Proto - Germanic language.
David Anthony, in his "revised Steppe hypothesis '' notes that the spread of the Indo - European languages probably did not happen through "chain - type folk migrations '', but by the introduction of these languages by ritual and political elites, which were emulated by large groups of people, a process which he calls "elite recruitment ''.
According to Parpola, local elites joined "small but powerful groups '' of Indo - European speaking migrants. These migrants had an attractive social system and good weapons, and luxury goods which marked their status and power. Joining these groups was attractive for local leaders, since it strengthened their position, and gave them additional advantages. These new members were further incorporated by matrimonial alliances.
According to Joseph Salmons, language shift is facilitated by "dislocation '' of language communities, in which the elite is taken over. According to Salmons, this change is facilitated by "systematic changes in community structure '', in which a local community becomes incorporated in a larger social structure.
Since the 2000s genetical studies are assuming a prominent role in the research on Indo - European migrations. Whole - genome studies reveal relations between various cultures and the time - range in which those relations were established. Research by Haak et al. (2015) showed that ~ 75 % of the Corded Ware ancestry came from Yamna - related populations, while Allentoft et al. (2015) shows that the Sintashta culture is genetically related to the Corded Ware culture.
Climate change and drought may have triggered both the initial dispersal of Indo - European speakers, and the migration of Indo - Europeans from the steppes in south central Asia and India.
Around 4200 -- 4100 BCE a climate change occurred, manifesting in colder winters in Europe. Steppe herders, archaic Proto - Indo - European speakers, spread into the lower Danube valley about 4200 -- 4000 BCE, either causing or taking advantage of the collapse of Old Europe.
The Yamna horizon was an adaptation to a climate change which occurred between 3500 and 3000 BCE, in which the steppes became drier and cooler. Herds needed to be moved frquently to feed them sufficiently, and the use of wagons and horse - back riding made this possible, leading to "a new, more mobile form of pastoralism ''.
In the second century BCE widespread aridization lead to water shortages and ecological changes in both the Eurasian steppes and south Asia. At the steppes, humidization lead a change of vegetation, triggering "higher mobility and transition to the nomadic cattle breeding ''. Water shortage also had a strong impact in south Asia, "causing the collapse of sedentary urban cultures in south central Asia, Afghanistan, Iran, and India, and triggering large - scale migrations ''.
The Proto - Indo - European Urheimat hypotheses are tentative identifications of the Urheimat, or primary homeland, of the hypothetical Proto - Indo - European language. Such identifications attempt to be consistent with the glottochronology of the language tree and with the archaeology of those places and times. Identifications are made on the basis of how well, if at all, the projected migration routes and times of migration fit the distribution of Indo - European languages, and how closely the sociological model of the original society reconstructed from Proto - Indo - European lexical items fits the archaeological profile.
Since the early 1980s the mainstream consensus among Indo - Europeanists favors Marija Gimbutas ' "Kurgan hypothesis '', c.q. David Anthony 's "Revised Steppe theory '', derived from Gimbutas ' pioneering work, placing the Indo - European homeland in the Pontic steppe, more specifically, between the Dniepr (Ukraine) and the Ural river (Russia), of the Chalcolithic period (4th to 5th millennia BCE), where various related cultures developed. The Pontic steppe is a large area of grasslands in far Eastern Europe, located north of the Black Sea, Caucasus Mountains and Caspian Sea and including parts of eastern Ukraine, southern Russia and northwest Kazakhstan. This is the time and place of the earliest domestication of the horse, which according to this hypothesis was the work of early Indo - Europeans, allowing them to expand outwards and assimilate or conquer many other cultures. The Yamna culture (3300 -- 2500 BCE), located on the middle Don and Volga, is the specific culture from where this expansion in its major form started.
The primary competitor is the Anatolian hypothesis advanced by Colin Renfrew, which states that the Indo - European languages began to spread peacefully into Europe from Asia Minor (modern Turkey) from around 7000 BCE with the Neolithic advance of farming (wave of advance). Another theory which has drawn considerable attention is the Armenian plateau hypothesis of Gamkrelidze and Ivanov, who have argued that the urheimat was south of the Caucasus, specifically, "within eastern Anatolia, the southern Caucasus and northern Mesopotamia '' in the fifth to fourth millennia BC.
All hypotheses assume a significant period (at least 1500 -- 2000 years) between the time of the Proto - Indo - European language and the earliest attested texts, at Kültepe, c. 19th century BCE.
The Kurgan hypothesis (also theory or model) argues that the people of an archaeological "Kurgan culture '' (a term grouping the Yamna, or Pit Grave, culture and its predecessors) in the Pontic steppe were the most likely speakers of the Proto - Indo - European language. The term is derived from kurgan (курган), a Turkic loanword in Russian for a tumulus or burial mound. An origin at the Pontic - Caspian steppes is the most widely accepted scenario of Indo - European origins.
Marija Gimbutas formulated her Kurgan hypothesis in the 1950s, grouping together a number of related cultures at the Pontic steppes. She defined the "Kurgan culture '' as composed of four successive periods, with the earliest (Kurgan I) including the Samara and Seroglazovo cultures of the Dnieper / Volga region in the Copper Age (early 4th millennium BCE). The bearers of these cultures were nomadic pastoralists, who, according to the model, by the early 3rd millennium expanded throughout the Pontic - Caspian steppe and into Eastern Europe.
Gimbutas ' grouping is nowadays considered to have been too broad. According to Anthony, it is better to speak of the Yamna culture or "horizon '', which included several related cultures, as the defining Proto - Indo - European culture at the Pontic steppe. David Anthony has incorporated recent developments in his "revised steppe theory '', which also supports a steppe origin of the Indo - European languages. Anthony emphasizes the Yamnaya culture as the origin of the Indo - European dispersal. Recent research by Haak et al. (2015) confirms the migration of Yamnaya - people into western Europe, forming the Corded Ware culture.
The Proto - Indo - Europeans were the speakers of the Proto - Indo - European language (PIE), a reconstructed prehistoric language of Eurasia. Knowledge of them comes chiefly from the linguistic reconstruction, along with material evidence from archaeology and archaeogenetics.
According to some archaeologists, PIE speakers can not be assumed to have been a single, identifiable people or tribe, but were a group of loosely related populations ancestral to the later, still partially prehistoric, Bronze Age Indo - Europeans. This view is held especially by those archaeologists who posit an original homeland of vast extent and immense time depth. However, this view is not shared by linguists, as proto - languages generally occupy small geographical areas over a very limited time span, and are generally spoken by close - knit communities such as a single small tribe.
The Proto - Indo - Europeans were likely to have lived during the late Neolithic, or roughly the 4th millennium BCE. Mainstream scholarship places them in the forest - steppe zone immediately to the north of the western end of the Pontic - Caspian steppe in Eastern Europe. Some archaeologists would extend the time depth of PIE to the middle Neolithic (5500 to 4500 BCE) or even the early Neolithic (7500 to 5500 BCE), and suggest alternative Proto - Indo - European Urheimats.
By the late 3rd millennium BCE, offshoots of the Proto - Indo - Europeans had reached Anatolia (Hittites), the Aegean (Mycenaean Greece), Western Europe, and southern Siberia (Afanasevo culture).
The proto - Indo - Europeans, c.q. the Yamnaya people and the related cultures, seem to have been a mix from eastern European hunter - gatherers; and people related to the near east, c.q. Caucasus hunter - gatherers c.q. Iran Chalcolithic people with a Caucasian hunter - gatherer component.
According to Haak et al. (2015), "the Yamnaya steppe herders of this time were descended not only from the preceding eastern European hunter - gatherers, but from a population of Near Eastern ancestry. ''
According to Jones et al. (2015), Caucasus hunter - gatherers (CHG) "genomes significantly contributed to the Yamnaya steppe herders who migrated into Europe ~ 3,000 BCE, supporting a formative Caucasus influence on this important Early Bronze age culture. CHG left their imprint on modern populations from the Caucasus and also central and south Asia possibly marking the arrival of Indo - Aryan languages. ''
According to Lazaridis et al. (2016), "a population related to the people of the Iran Chalcolithic contributed ~ 43 % of the ancestry of early Bronze Age populations of the steppe. '' According to Lazaridis et al. (2016), these Iranian Chacolithic people were a mixture of "the Neolithic people of western Iran, the Levant, and Caucasus Hunter Gatherers ''.
According to Anthony, the development of the Proto - Indo - European cultures started with the introduction of cattle at the Pontic - Caspian steppes. Until ca. 5200 -- 5000 BCE the Pontic - Caspian steppes were populated by hunter - gatherers. According to Anthony, the first cattle herders arrived from the Danube Valley at ca. 5800 -- 5700 BCE, descendants from the first European farmers. They formed the Criş culture (5800 -- 5300 BCE), creating a cultural frontier at the Prut - Dniestr watershed. The adjacent Bug - Dniester culture (6300 -- 5500 BCE) was a local forager culture, from where cattle breeding spread to the steppe peoples. The Dniepr Rapids area was the next part of the Pontic - Caspian steppes to shift to cattle - herding. It was the densely populated area of the Pontic - Caspian steppes at the time, and had been inhabited by various hunter - gatherer populations since the end of the Ice Age. From ca. 5800 -- 5200 it was inhabited by the first phase of the Dnieper - Donets culture, a hunter - gatherer culture contemporaneous with the Bug - Dniestr culture.
At ca. 5200 -- 5000 BCE the non-Indo - European Cucuteni - Tripolye culture (6000 -- 3500 BCE) appears east of the Carpathian mountains, moving the cultural frontier to the Southern Bug valley, while the foragers at the Dniepr Rapids shifted to cattle herding, marking the shift to Dniepr - Donets II (5200 / 5000 -- 4400 / 4200 BCE). The Dniepr - Donets culture kept cattle not only for ritual sacrifices, but also for their daily diet. The Khvalynsk culture (4700 -- 3800 BCE), located at the middle Volga, which was connected with the Danube Valley by trade networks, also had cattle and sheep, but they were "more important in ritual sacrifices than in the diet ''. The Samara culture (early 5th millennium BCE), north of the Khvalynsk culture, interacted with the Khvalynsk culture, while the archaeological findings seem related to those of the Dniepr - Dontes II Culture.
The Sredny Stog culture (4400 -- 3300 BCE) appears at the same location as the Dniepr - Donets culture, but shows influences from people who came from the Volga river region.
The Khvalynsk culture (4700 -- 3800 BCE) (middle Volga) and the Don - based Repin culture (ca. 3950 -- 3300 BCE) preceded the Yamnaya culture (3300 -- 2500 BCE), which originated in the Don - Volga area. Late pottery from these two cultures can barely be distinguished from early Yamna pottery.
The Yamna horizon was an adaptation to a climate change which occurred between 3500 and 3000 BCE, in which the steppes became drier and cooler. Herds needed to be moved frequently to feed them sufficiently, and the use of wagons and horse - back riding made this possible, leading to "a new, more mobile form of pastoralism ''. It was accompanied by new social rules and institutions, to regulate the local migrations in the steppes, creating a new social awareness of a distinct culture, and of "cultural Others '' who did not participate in these new institutions.
The Yamna culture c.q. horizon (a.k.a. Pit Grave culture) spreads quickly across the Pontic - Caspian steppes between ca. 3400 and 3200 BCE. According to Anthony, "the spread of the Yamnaya horizon was the material expression of the spread of late Proto - Indo - European across the Pontic - Caspian steppes. '' Anthony further notes that "the Yamnaya horizon is the visible archaeological expression of a social adjustment to high mobility -- the invention of the political infrastructure to manage larger herds from mobile homes based in the steppes. '' The Yamnaya horizon represents the classical reconstructed Proto - Indo - European society with stone idols, predominantly practising animal husbandry in permanent settlements protected by hillforts, subsisting on agriculture, and fishing along rivers. According to Gimbutas, contact of the Yamna culture with late Neolithic Europe cultures results in the "kurganized '' Globular Amphora and Baden cultures. Anthony excludes the Globular Amphora culture.
The Maykop culture (3700 -- 3000) emerges somewhat earlier in the northern Caucasus. Although considered by Gimbutas as an outgrowth of the steppe cultures, it is related to the development of Mesopotamia, and Anthony does not consider it to be a Proto - Indo - European culture. The Maykop culture shows the earliest evidence of the beginning Bronze Age, and Bronze weapons and artifacts are introduced to the Yamna horizon.
Between 3100 -- 2600 BCE Yamna people into the Danube Valley as far as Hungary. This migration probably gave rise to Proto - Celtic and Pre-Italic. Pre-Germanic dialects may have developed between the Dniestr (west Ukraine) and the Vistula (Poland) at c. 3100 -- 2800 BCE, and spread with the Corded Ware culture. Slavic and Baltic developed at the middle Dniepr (present - day Ukraine) at c. 2800 BCE, also spreading with the Corded Ware horizon.
In the northern Don - Volga area the Yamnaya culture was followed by the Poltavka culture (2700 -- 2100 BCE), while the Sintashta culture (2100 -- 1800) extended the Indo - European culture zone east of the Ural mountains, giving rise to Proto - Indo - Iranian and the subsequent spread of the Indo - Iranian languages toward India and the Iranian plateau.
According to Anthony, steppe herders, archaic Proto - Indo - European speakers, spread into the lower Danube valley about 4200 -- 4000 BCE, either causing or taking advantage of the collapse of Old Europe. According to Anthony, their languages "probably included archaic Proto - Indo - European dialects of the kind partly preserved later in Anatolian. '' According to Anthony their descendants later moved into Anatolia, at an unknown time, but maybe as early as 3,000 BCE. According to Matieson & Reich et al. (2017), it is unlikely that the Anatolian branch arrived in Anatalia via the Balkans.
According to Parpola, the appearance of Indo - European speakers from Europe into Anatolia, and the appearance of Hittite, is related to later migrations of Proto - Indo - European speakers from the Yamna - culture into the Danube Valley at ca. 2800 BCE, which is in line with the "customary '' assumption that the Anatolian Indo - European language was introduced into Anatolia somewhere in the third millennium BCE.
The Anatolians were a group of distinct Indo - European peoples who spoke the Anatolian languages and shared a common culture. The Anatolian languages were a branch of the larger Indo - European language family.
Although the Hittites are placed in the 2nd millennium BCE, the Anatolian branch seems to have separated at a very early stage from Proto - Indo - European, or may have developed from an older Pre-Proto - Indo - European ancestor. If it separated from Proto - Indo - European, it likely did so between 4500 -- 3500 BCE.
The archeological discovery of the archives of the Hittites and the belonging of the Hittite language to a separate Anatolian branch of the Indo - European languages caused a sensation among historians, forcing a re-evaluation of Near Eastern history and Indo - European linguistics. In accordance with the Kurgan hypothesis, J.P. Mallory notes in Encyclopedia of Indo - European Culture that it is likely that the Anatolians reached the Near East from the north, either via the Balkans or the Caucasus in the 3rd millennium BCE. According to Anthony, descendants of archaic Proto - Indo - European steppe herders, who moved into the lower Danube valley about 4200 -- 4000 BCE, later moved into Anatolia, at an unknown time, but maybe as early as 3,000 BCE. According to Parpola the movement into Anatolia took place at a later date. According to Matieson & Reich et al. (2017), it is unlikely that the Anatolian branch arrived in Anatolia via the Balkans.
Together with the Tocharians, the Anatolians constituted the first known wave of Indo - European emigrants out of the Eurasian steppe. Although they had wagons, they probably emigrated before Indo - Europeans had learned to use chariots for war. It is likely that their arrival was one of gradual settlement and not as an invading army. The Anatolians ' earliest linguistic and historical attestation are as names mentioned in Assyrian mercantile texts from 19th - century BCE Kanesh.
The Hittites, who established an extensive empire in the Middle East in the 2nd millennium BCE, are by far the best known members of the Anatolian group. The history of the Hittite civilization is known mostly from cuneiform texts found in the area of their kingdom, and from diplomatic and commercial correspondence found in various archives in Egypt and the Middle East. Despite the use of Hatti for their core territory, the Hittites should be distinguished from the Hattians, an earlier people who inhabited the same region (until the beginning of the 2nd millennium). The Hittite military made successful use of chariots. Although belonging to the Bronze Age, they were the forerunners of the Iron Age, developing the manufacture of iron artifacts from as early as the 14th century, when letters to foreign rulers reveal the latter 's demand for iron goods. The Hittite empire reached its height during the mid-14th century under Suppiluliuma I, when it encompassed an area that included most of Asia Minor as well as parts of the northern Levant and Upper Mesopotamia. After 1180 BCE, amid the Bronze Age Collapse in the Levant associated with the sudden arrival of the Sea Peoples, the kingdom disintegrated into several independent "Neo-Hittite '' city - states, some of which survived until as late as the 8th century BCE. The lands of the Anatolian peoples were successively invaded by a number of peoples and empires at high frequency: the Phrygians, Bithynians, the Medes, the Persians, the Greeks, the Galatian Celts, Romans and the Oghuz Turks. Many of these invaders settled in Anatolia, in some cases causing the extinction of the Anatolian languages. By the Middle Ages, all the Anatolian languages (and the cultures accompanying them) were extinct, although there may be lingering influences on the modern inhabitants of Anatolia, most notably Armenians.
The Afanasievo culture (3300 to 2500 BC) is the earliest Eneolithic archaeological culture found until now in south Siberia, occupying the Minusinsk Basin, Altay and Eastern Kazakhstan. It originated with a migration of people from the pre-Yamnaya Repin culture, at the Don river, and is related to the Tocharians.
Radiocarbon gives dates as early as 3705 BCE on wooden tools and 2874 BCE on human remains for the Afanasievo culture. The earliest of these dates has now been rejected, giving a date of around 3300 BCE for the start of the culture.
The Tocharians, or "Tokharians '' (/ təˈkɛəriənz / or / təˈkɑːriənz /) were inhabitants of medieval oasis city - states on the northern edge of the Tarim Basin (modern Xinjiang, China). Their Tocharian languages (a branch of the Indo - European family) are known from manuscripts from the 6th to 8th centuries CE, after which they were supplanted by the Turkic languages of the Uyghur tribes. These people were called "Tocharian '' by late 19th - century scholars who identified them with the Tókharoi described by ancient Greek sources as inhabiting Bactria. Although this identification is now generally considered mistaken, the name has become customary.
The Tocharians are thought to have developed from the Afanasevo culture of eastern Siberia (c. 3500 -- 2500 BCE). It is believed that the Tarim mummies, dated from 1800 BCE, represent a migration of Tocharian speakers from the Afanasevo culture in the Tarim Basin in the early 2nd millennium BCE. By the end of the 2nd millennium BCE, the dominant people as far east as the Altai Mountains southward to the northern outlets of the Tibetan Plateau were anthropologically Caucasian, with the northern part speaking Iranian Scythian languages and the southern parts Tocharian languages, having Mongoloid populations as their northeastern neighbors. These two groups were in competition with each other until the latter overcame the former. The turning point occurred around the 5th to 4th centuries BCE with a gradual Mongolization of Siberia, while Eastern Central Asia (East Turkistan) remained Caucasian and Indo - European - speaking until well into the 1st millennium CE.
The Sinologist Edwin G. Pulleyblank has suggested that the Yuezhi, the Wusun the Dayuan, the Kangju and the people of Yanqi, could have been Tocharian - speaking. Of these the Yuezhi are generally held to have been Tocharians. The Yuezhi were originally settled in the arid grasslands of the eastern Tarim Basin area, in what is today Xinjiang and western Gansu, in China. After the Yuezhi were defeated by the Xiongnu, in the 2nd century BCE, a small group, known as the Little Yuezhi, fled to the south, later spawning the Jie people who dominated the Later Zhao until their complete extermination by Ran Min in the Wei -- Jie war. The majority of the Yuezhi however migrated west to the Ili Valley, where they displaced the Sakas (Scythians). Driven from the Ili Valley shortly afterwards by the Wusun, the Yuezhi migrated to Sogdia and then Bactria, where they are often identified with the Tókharoi (Τοχάριοι) and Asioi of Classical sources. They then expanded into northern South Asia, where one branch of the Yuezhi founded the Kushan Empire. The Kushan empire stretched from Turfan in the Tarim Basin to Pataliputra on the Gangetic plain at its greatest extent, and played an important role in the development of the Silk Road and the transmission of Buddhism to China. Tocharian languages continued to be spoken in the city - states of the Tarim Basin, only becoming extinct in the Middle Ages.
The Maykop culture (also spelled Maikop), c. 3700 -- 3000 BCE, was a major Bronze Age archaeological culture in the Western Caucasus region of Southern Russia. It extends along the area from the Taman Peninsula at the Kerch Strait to near the modern border of Dagestan and southwards to the Kura River. The culture takes its name from a royal burial found in Maykop kurgan in the Kuban River valley.
According to Mallory and Adams, migrations southward founded the Maykop culture (c. 3500 -- 2500 BCE). Yet, according to Mariya Ivanova the Maikop origins were on the Iranian Plateau, while kurgans from the beginning of the 4th millennium at Soyuqbulaq in Azerbaijan, which belong to the Leyla - Tepe culture, show parallels with the Maikop kurgans. According to Museyibli, "the Leylatepe Culture tribes migrated to the north in the mid-fourth millennium and played an important part in the rise of the Maikop Culture of the North Caucasus. ''
Mallory notes that the Italic, Celtic and Germanic languages are closely related, which accords with their historic distribution. The Germanic languages are related to the Baltic and Slavic languages, which in turn share similarities with the Indo - Iranic languages. The Greek, Armenian and Indo - Iranian languages are also related, which suggests "a chain of central Indo - European dialects stretching from the Balkans across the Black sea to the east Caspian ''. And the Celtic, Italic, Anatolian and Tocharian languages preserve archaisms which are preserved only in those languages. According to David Anthony, pre-Germanic split - off earliest (3300 BCE), followed by pre-Italic and pre-Celtic (3000 BCE), pre-Armenian (2800 BCE), pre-Balto - Slavic (2800 BCE) and pre-Greek (2500 BCE).
The Balkan - Danubian complex is a set of cultures in Southeast Europe from which the western Indo - European languages probably spread into western Europe from c. 3500 BCE. According to Anthony, Pre-Italic, Pre-Celtic and Pre-Germanic may have split - off here from Proto - Indo - European.
The Usatovo culture developed in south - eastern Central Europe at around 3300 -- 3200 BCE at the Dniestr river. Although closely related to the Tripolye culture, it is contemporary with the Yamna culture, and resembles it in significant ways. According to Anthony, it may have originated with "steppe clans related to the Yamnaya horizon who were able to impose a patron - client relationship on Tripolye farming villages ''. According to Anthony, the Pre-Germanic dialects may have developed in this culture between the Dniestr (west Ukraine) and the Vistula (Poland) at c. 3100 -- 2800 BCE, and spread with the Corded Ware culture.
Between 3100 -- 2800 / 2600 BCE, when the Yamna horizon spread fast across the Pontic Steppe, a real folk migration of Proto - Indo - European speakers from the Yamna - culture took place into the Danube Valley, moving along Usatovo territory toward specific destinations, reaching as far as Hungary, where as many as 3,000 kurgans may have been raised. Bell Beaker sites at Budapest, dated c. 2800 -- 2600 BCE, may have aided in spreading Yamna dialects into Austria and southern Germany at their west, where Proto - Celtic may have developed. Pre-Italic may have developed in Hungary, and spread toward Italy via the Urnfield culture and Villanovan culture. According to Anthony, Slavic and Baltic developed at the middle Dniepr (present - day Ukraine) at c. 2800 BCE, spreading north from there.
According to Parpola, this migration into the Danube Valley is related to the appearance of Indo - European speakers from Europe into Anatolia, and the appearance of Hittite.
The Balkan languages (Thracian, Dacian, Illyrian) may have developed among of the early Indo - European populations of southeastern Europe. In the early Middle Ages their territory was occupied by migrating Slavic people, and by east Asian steppe peoples.
The Corded Ware culture in Middle Europe (c. 3200 / 2,900 -- 2450 / 2350 cal. BCE) probably played an essential role in the origin and spread of the Indo - European languages in Europe during the Copper and Bronze Ages. According to Mallory, the Corded Ware culture may be postulated as "the common prehistoric ancestor of the later Celtic, Germanic, Baltic, Slavic, and possibly some of the Indo - European languages of Italy ''. Yet, Mallory also notes that the Corded Ware can not account for Greek, Illyrian, Thracian and East Italic, which may be derived from Southeast Europe. According to Anthony, the Corded ware horizon may have introduced Germanic, Baltic and Slavic into northern Europe.
According to Gimbutas, the Corded Ware culture was preceded by the Globular Amphora culture (3400 -- 2800 BCE), which she regarded to be an Indo - European culture. The Globular Amphora culture stretched from central Europe to the Baltic sea, and emerged from the Funnelbeaker culture.
The Corded Ware spread across northern Europe after 3000 BCE, with an "initial rapid spread '' between 2900 and 2700 BCE. Around 2400 BCE the people of the Corded Ware replaced their predecessors and expanded to Danubian and Nordic areas of western Germany. A related branch invaded Denmark and southern Sweden. In places a continuity between Funnelbeaker and Corded Ware can be demonstrated, whereas in other areas Corded Ware heralds a new culture and physical type. According to Cunliffe, most of the expansion was clearly intrusive.
Recent research by Haak et al. confirms that a massive migration took place from the Eurasian steppes to Central Europe. This migration is closely associated with the Corded Ware culture. Haak et al. (2015) note that German Corded ware "trace ~ 75 % of their ancestry to the Yamna '', envisioning a migration from the Yamna culture through western Ukraine and Poland into Germany. Allentoft et al. (2015) envision a migration from the Yamna culture towards northern Europe both via Central Europe and the territory of present - day Russia toward the Baltic area and the eastern periphery of the Corded ware culture.
In supplementary information to Haak et al. (2015) Anthony, together with Lazaridis, Haak, Patterson, and Reich, notes that the mass migration of Yamna people to northern Europe shows that "the languages could have been introduced simply by strength of numbers: via major migration in which both sexes participated. ''
The Germanic peoples (also called Teutonic, Suebian or Gothic in older literature) are an Indo - European ethno - linguistic group of Northern European origin, identified by their use of the Germanic languages which diversified out of Proto - Germanic starting during the Pre-Roman Iron Age.
The term "Germanic '' originated in classical times, when groups of tribes were referred to using this term by Roman authors. For them, the term was not necessarily based upon language, but rather referred to tribal groups and alliances who were considered less civilised than the Celtic Gauls living in the region of modern France. Tribes referred to as Germanic in that period lived generally to the north and east of the Gauls.
In modern times the term occasionally has been used to refer to ethnic groups who speak a Germanic language and claim ancestral and cultural connections to ancient Germanic peoples. Within this context, modern Germanic peoples include the Norwegians, Swedes, Danes, Icelanders, Germans, Austrians, English, Dutch, Afrikaners, Flemish, Frisians and others.
The Germanic languages are spoken by a sizable population in Western Europe, North America, and Australasia. The common ancestor of all of the languages in this branch is called Proto - Germanic (also known as Common Germanic), which was spoken in approximately the middle of the 1st millennium BCE in Iron Age northern Europe. Proto - Germanic, along with all of its descendants, is characterized by a number of unique linguistic features, most famously the consonant change known as Grimm 's law. Early varieties of Germanic enter history with the Germanic tribes moving south from northern Europe in the 2nd century BCE, to settle in north - central Europe.
The most widely spoken Germanic languages are English and German, with approximately 300 -- 400 million native English speakers and over 100 million native German speakers. They belong to the West Germanic family. The West Germanic group also includes other major languages, such as Dutch with 23 million, Low Saxon with approximately 5 million speakers in Germany and 1.7 million in the Netherlands, and Afrikaans with over 6 million native speakers. The North Germanic languages include Norwegian, Danish, Swedish, Icelandic, and Faroese, which have a combined total of about 20 million speakers. There is also the East Germanic branch, which includes languages such as Gothic, Burgundian, and Vandalic, but it has been extinct for at least two centuries. The SIL Ethnologue lists 48 different living Germanic languages, with the Western branch accounting for 42, and the Northern for 6 languages. The total number of Germanic languages is unknown, as some of them, especially East Germanic languages, disappeared shortly after the Migration Period.
The Italic languages are a subfamily of the Indo - European language family originally spoken by Italic peoples. They include the Romance languages derived from Latin (Italian, Spanish, Catalan, Portuguese, French, Romanian, Occitan, etc.); a number of extinct languages of the Italian Peninsula, including Umbrian, Oscan, Faliscan, South Picene; and Latin itself. At present, Latin and its daughter Romance languages are the only surviving languages of the Italic language family.
The most widely accepted theory suggests that Latins and other proto - Italic tribes first entered in Italy with the late Bronze Age Proto - Villanovan culture, then part of the central European Urnfield culture system. In particular various authors, like Marija Gimbutas, had noted important similarities between proto - villanova, the South - German Urnfield culture of Bavaria - Upper Austria and Middle - Danube Urnfield culture. According to David W. Anthony proto - Latins originated in today 's eastern Hungary, kurganized around 3100 BC by the Yamna culture, while Kristian Kristiansen associated the proto - villanovans with the Velatice - Baierdorf culture of Moravia and Austria.
Today the Romance languages, which comprise all languages that descended from Latin, are spoken by more than 800 million native speakers worldwide, mainly in the Americas, Europe, and Africa. Romance languages are either official, co-official, or significantly used in 72 countries around the globe.
Additionally, Latin had a great influence on both the grammar and the lexicon of West Germanic languages. Romance words make respectively 59 %, 20 % and 14 % of English, German and Dutch vocabularies. Those figures can rise dramatically when only non-compound and non-derived words are included. Accordingly, Romance words make roughly 35 % of the vocabulary of Dutch.
The Celts (/ ˈkɛlts /, occasionally / ˈsɛlts /, see pronunciation of Celtic) or Kelts were an ethnolinguistic group of tribal societies in Iron Age and Medieval Europe who spoke Celtic languages and had a similar culture, although the relationship between the ethnic, linguistic and cultural elements remains uncertain and controversial.
The earliest archaeological culture that may justifiably be considered Proto - Celtic is the Late Bronze Age Urnfield culture of Central Europe, which flourished from around 1200 BCE. Their fully Celtic descendants in central Europe were the people of the Iron Age Hallstatt culture (c. 800 -- 450 BCE) named for the rich grave finds in Hallstatt, Austria. By the later La Tène period (c. 450 BCE up to the Roman conquest), this Celtic culture had expanded by diffusion or migration to the British Isles (Insular Celts), France and The Low Countries (Gauls), Bohemia, Poland and much of Central Europe, the Iberian Peninsula (Celtiberians, Celtici and Gallaeci) and Italy (Golaseccans, Lepontii, Ligures and Cisalpine Gauls) and, following the Gallic invasion of the Balkans in 279 BCE, as far east as central Anatolia (Galatians).
The Celtic languages (usually pronounced / ˈkɛltɪk / but sometimes / ˈsɛltɪk /) are descended from Proto - Celtic, or "Common Celtic ''; a branch of the greater Indo - European language family. The term "Celtic '' was first used to describe this language group by Edward Lhuyd in 1707.
Modern Celtic languages are mostly spoken on the north - western edge of Europe, notably in Ireland, Scotland, Wales, Brittany, Cornwall, and the Isle of Man, and can be found spoken on Cape Breton Island. There are also a substantial number of Welsh speakers in the Patagonia area of Argentina. Some people speak Celtic languages in the other Celtic diaspora areas of the United States, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand. In all these areas, the Celtic languages are now only spoken by minorities though there are continuing efforts at revitalization. Welsh is the only Celtic language not classified as "endangered '' by UNESCO.
During the 1st millennium BCE, they were spoken across much of Europe, in the Iberian Peninsula, from the Atlantic and North Sea coastlines, up to the Rhine valley and down the Danube valley to the Black Sea, the northern Balkan Peninsula and in central Asia Minor. The spread to Cape Breton and Patagonia occurred in modern times. Celtic languages, particularly Irish, were spoken in Australia before federation in 1901 and are still used there to some extent.
The Balto - Slavic language group traditionally comprises the Baltic and Slavic languages, belonging to the Indo - European family of languages. Baltic and Slavic languages share several linguistic traits not found in any other Indo - European branch, which points to a period of common development. Most Indo - Europeanists classify Baltic and Slavic languages into a single branch, even though some details of the nature of their relationship remain in dispute in some circles, usually due to political controversies. Some linguists, however, have recently suggested that Balto - Slavic should be split into three equidistant nodes: Eastern Baltic, Western Baltic and Slavic.
A Proto - Balto - Slavic language is reconstructable by the comparative method, descending from Proto - Indo - European by means of well - defined sound laws, and out of which modern Slavic and Baltic languages descended. One particularly innovative dialect separated from the Balto - Slavic dialect continuum and became ancestral to the Proto - Slavic language, from which all Slavic languages descended.
The Balts or Baltic peoples (Lithuanian: baltai, Latvian: balti) are an Indo - European ethno - linguistic group who speak the Baltic languages, a branch of the Indo - European language family, which was originally spoken by tribes living in area east of Jutland peninsula in the west and Moscow, Oka and Volga rivers basins in the east. One of the features of Baltic languages is the number of conservative or archaic features retained. Among the Baltic peoples are modern Lithuanians, Latvians (including Latgalians) -- all Eastern Balts -- as well as the Old Prussians, Yotvingians and Galindians -- the Western Balts -- whose people also survived, but their languages and cultures are now extinct, and are now being assimilated into the Eastern Baltic community.
The Slavs are an Indo - European ethno - linguistic group living in Central Europe, Eastern Europe, Southeast Europe, North Asia and Central Asia, who speak the Indo - European Slavic languages, and share, to varying degrees, certain cultural traits and historical backgrounds. From the early 6th century they spread to inhabit most of Central and Eastern Europe and Southeast Europe. Slavic groups also ventured as far as Scandinavia, constituting elements amongst the Vikings; whilst at the other geographic extreme, Slavic mercenaries fighting for the Byzantines and Arabs settled Asia Minor and even as far as Syria. Later, East Slavs (specifically, Russians and Ukrainians) colonized Siberia and Central Asia. Every Slavic ethnicity has emigrated to other parts of the world. Over half of Europe 's territory is inhabited by Slavic - speaking communities.
Modern nations and ethnic groups called by the ethnonym Slavs are considerably diverse both genetically and culturally, and relations between them -- even within the individual ethnic groups themselves -- are varied, ranging from a sense of connection to mutual feelings of hostility.
Present - day Slavic people are classified into East Slavic (chiefly Belarusians, Russians and Ukrainians), West Slavic (chiefly Poles, Czechs, Slovaks, Wends and Sorbs), and South Slavic (chiefly Bosniaks, Bulgarians, Croats, Goranis, Macedonians, Montenegrins, Serbs and Slovenes). For a more comprehensive list, see the ethnocultural subdivisions.
The Thracian language was the Indo - European language spoken in Southeast Europe by the Thracians, the northern neighbors of the Greeks. Some authors group Thracian and Dacian into a southern Baltic linguistic family. The Thracians inhabited a large area in southeastern Europe, including parts of the ancient provinces of Thrace, Moesia, Macedonia, Dacia, Scythia Minor, Sarmatia, Bithynia, Mysia, Pannonia, and other regions of the Balkans and Anatolia. This area extended over most of the Balkans region, and the Getae north of the Danube as far as beyond the Bug and including Panonia in the west.
The origins of the Thracians remain obscure, in the absence of written historical records. Evidence of proto - Thracians in the prehistoric period depends on artifacts of material culture. Leo Klejn identifies proto - Thracians with the multi-cordoned ware culture that was pushed away from Ukraine by the advancing timber grave culture. It is generally proposed that a proto - Thracian people developed from a mixture of indigenous peoples and Indo - Europeans from the time of Proto - Indo - European expansion in the Early Bronze Age when the latter, around 1500 BCE, mixed with indigenous peoples. We speak of proto - Thracians from which during the Iron Age (about 1000 BCE) Dacians and Thracians begin developing.
The Dacians (/ ˈdeɪʃənz /; Latin: Daci, Ancient Greek: Δάκοι, Δάοι, Δάκαι) were an Indo - European people, part of or related to the Thracians. Dacians were the ancient inhabitants of Dacia, located in the area in and around the Carpathian Mountains and west of the Black Sea. This area includes the present - day countries of Romania and Moldova, as well as parts of Ukraine, Eastern Serbia, Northern Bulgaria, Slovakia, Hungary and Southern Poland.
The Dacians spoke the Dacian language, believed to have been closely related to Thracian, but were somewhat culturally influenced by the neighbouring Scythians and by the Celtic invaders of the 4th century BCE. The Dacians and Getae were always considered as Thracians by the ancients (Dio Cassius, Trogus Pompeius, Appian, Strabo and Pliny the Elder), and were both said to speak the same Thracian language.
Evidence of proto - Thracians or proto - Dacians in the prehistoric period depends on the remains of material culture. It is generally proposed that a proto - Dacian or proto - Thracian people developed from a mixture of indigenous peoples and Indo - Europeans from the time of Proto - Indo - European expansion in the Early Bronze Age (3,300 -- 3,000 BCE) when the latter, around 1500 BCE, conquered the indigenous peoples. The indigenous people were Danubian farmers, and the invading people of the 3rd millennium BCE were Kurgan warrior - herders from the Ukrainian and Russian steppes.
Indo - Europeanization was complete by the beginning of the Bronze Age. The people of that time are best described as proto - Thracians, which later developed in the Iron Age into Danubian - Carpathian Geto - Dacians as well as Thracians of the eastern Balkan Peninsula.
The Illyrians (Ancient Greek: Ἰλλυριοί, Illyrioi; Latin: Illyrii or Illyri) were a group of Indo - European tribes in antiquity, who inhabited part of the western Balkans and the south - eastern coasts of the Italian peninsula (Messapia). The territory the Illyrians inhabited came to be known as Illyria to Greek and Roman authors, who identified a territory that corresponds to the Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Slovenia, Montenegro, part of Serbia and most of Albania, between the Adriatic Sea in the west, the Drava river in the north, the Morava river in the east and the mouth of the Aoos river in the south. The first account of Illyrian peoples comes from the Periplus of Pseudo-Scylax, an ancient Greek text of the middle of the 4th century BC that describes coastal passages in the Mediterranean.
These tribes, or at least a number of tribes considered "Illyrians proper '', of which only small fragments are attested enough to classify as branches of Indo - European; were probably extinct by the 2nd century CE.
The name "Illyrians '', as applied by the ancient Greeks to their northern neighbors, may have referred to a broad, ill - defined group of peoples, and it is today unclear to what extent they were linguistically and culturally homogeneous. The Illyrian tribes never collectively regarded themselves as ' Illyrians ', and it is unlikely that they used any collective nomenclature for themselves. The name Illyrians seems to be the name applied to a specific Illyrian tribe, which was the first to come in contact with the ancient Greeks during the Bronze Age, causing the name Illyrians to be applied to all people of similar language and customs.
Albanian (shqip (ʃcip) or gjuha shqipe (ˈɟuha ˈʃcipɛ), meaning Albanian language) is an Indo - European language spoken by approximately 7.4 million people, primarily in Albania, Kosovo, the Republic of Macedonia and Greece, but also in other areas of the Balkans in which there is an Albanian population, including Montenegro and Serbia (Presevo Valley). Centuries - old communities speaking Albanian - based dialects can be found scattered in Greece, southern Italy, Sicily, and Ukraine. As a result of a modern diaspora, there are also Albanian speakers elsewhere in those countries and in other parts of the world, including Scandinavia, Switzerland, Germany, Austria and Hungary, United Kingdom, Turkey, Australia, New Zealand, Netherlands, Singapore, Brazil, Canada, and the United States.
The earliest written document that mentions the Albanian language is a late 13th - century crime report from Dubrovnik. The first audio recording of the Albanian language was made by Norbert Jokl on 4 April 1914 in Vienna.
The Armenian Highland lies in the highlands surrounding Mount Ararat, the highest peak of the region. In the Bronze Age, several states flourished in the area of Greater Armenia, including the Hittite Empire (at the height of its power), Mitanni (South - Western historical Armenia), and Hayasa - Azzi (1600 -- 1200 BCE). Soon after Hayasa - Azzi were the Nairi (1400 -- 1000 BCE) and the Kingdom of Urartu (1000 -- 600 BCE), who successively established their sovereignty over the Armenian Highland. Each of the aforementioned nations and tribes participated in the ethnogenesis of the Armenian people. Yerevan, the modern capital of Armenia, was founded in 782 BCE by king Argishti I.
A minority view also suggests that the Indo - European homeland may have been located in the Armenian Highland.
Hellenic is the branch of the Indo - European language family that includes Greek. In traditional classifications, Hellenic consists of Greek alone, but some linguists group Greek together with various ancient languages thought to have been closely related or distinguish varieties of Greek that are distinct enough to be considered separate languages.
The Proto - Greeks probably arrived at the area now called Greece, in the southern tip of the Balkan peninsula, at the 3rd millennium BCE, though a later migration by sea from eastern Anatolia (modern Armenia), has also been suggested. The sequence of migrations into the Greek mainland during the 2nd millennium BCE has to be reconstructed on the basis of the ancient Greek dialects, as they presented themselves centuries later and are therefore subject to some uncertainties. There were at least two migrations, the first being the Ionians and Aeolians, which resulted in Mycenaean Greece by the 16th century BCE, and the second, the Dorian invasion, around the 11th century BCE, displacing the Arcadocypriot dialects, which descended from the Mycenaean period. Both migrations occur at incisive periods, the Mycenaean at the transition to the Late Bronze Age and the Doric at the Bronze Age collapse.
In the 13th century BCE, at the end of the Bronze Age, seafaring invaders from Europe and the Aegean known as the Sea Peoples entered the Eastern Mediterranean, invading Anatolia, Syria, Canaan, Cyprus and Egypt. The invasions by the Sea Peoples ushered the Bronze Age Collapse, which resulted in the cultural collapse of Mycenean Greece, the Hittite Empire, the New Kingdom of Egypt and the civilizations of Canaan and Syria. The Sea Peoples are regarded as being composed of various groups of Indo - European peoples.
Groups of the Sea Peoples mentioned in Egyptian documents are the Ekwesh, a group of Bronze Age Greeks (Achaeans; Ahhiyawa in Hittite texts); Teresh, Tyrrhenians (Tyrsenoi), known to later Greeks as sailors and pirates from Anatolia, ancestors of the Etruscans; Luka, an Anatolians coastal people of western Anatolia, also known from Hittite sources (their name survives in classical Lycia on the southwest coast of Anatolia); Sherden, probably Sardinians (the Sherden acted as mercenaries of the Egyptians in the Battle of Kadesh, 1299 BCE); Shekelesh, probably identical with the Italic tribe called Siculi; and Peleset, generally believed to refer to the Philistines, who perhaps came from Crete and were the only major tribe of the Sea Peoples to settle permanently in Palestine.
The Phrygians (gr. Φρύγες, Phruges or Phryges) were an ancient Indo - European people. After the collapse of the Hittite Empire at the beginning of the twelfth century BCE, the political vacuum in central - western Anatolia was filled by a wave of Indo - European migrants and "Sea Peoples '', including the Phrygians, who established their kingdom with a capital eventually at Gordium. It is presently unknown whether the Phrygians were actively involved in the collapse of the Hittite capital Hattusa or whether they simply moved into the vacuum left by the collapse of Hittite hegemony.
The Phrygian language / ˈfrɪdʒiən / was the language spoken by the Phrygians in Asia Minor during Classical Antiquity (ca. 8th century BCE to 5th century CE). Phrygian is considered by some linguists to have been closely related to Greek. The similarity of some Phrygian words to Greek ones was observed by Plato in his Cratylus (410a). However, Eric P. Hamp suggests that Phrygian was related to Italo - Celtic in a hypothetical "Northwest Indo - European '' group.
According to Herodotus, the Phrygians were initially dwelling in the southern Balkans under the name of Bryges (Briges), changing it to Phruges after their final migration to Anatolia, via the Hellespont. Though the migration theory is still defended by many modern historians, most archaeologists have abandoned the migration hypothesis regarding the origin of the Phrygians due to a lack substantial archeological evidence, with the migration theory resting only on the accounts of Herodotus and Xanthus.
From tribal and village beginnings, the state of Phrygia arose in the eighth century BCE with its capital at Gordium. During this period, the Phrygians extended eastward and encroached upon the kingdom of Urartu, the descendants of the Hurrians, a former rival of the Hittites. Meanwhile, the Phrygian Kingdom was overwhelmed by Cimmerian invaders around 690 BCE, then briefly conquered by its neighbour Lydia, before it passed successively into the Persian Empire of Cyrus the Great and the empire of Alexander and his successors, was taken by the Attalids of Pergamon, and eventually became part of the Roman Empire. The last mention of the Phrygian language in literature dates to the fifth century CE and it was likely extinct by the seventh century.
Indo - Iranian peoples are a grouping of ethnic groups consisting of the Indo - Aryan, Iranian, Dardic and Nuristani peoples; that is, speakers of Indo - Iranian languages, a major branch of the Indo - European language family.
The Proto - Indo - Iranians are commonly identified with the Sintashta culture and the subsequent Andronovo culture within the broader Andronovo horizon, and their homeland with an area of the Eurasian steppe that borders the Ural River on the west, the Tian Shan on the east.
The Indo - Iranians interacted with the Bactria - Magiana Culture, also called "Bactria - Magiana Archaeological Complex ''. Proto - Indo - Iranian arose due to this influence. The Indo - Iranians also borrowed their distinctive religious beliefs and practices from this culture.
The Indo - Iranian migrations took place in two waves. The first wave consisted of the Indo - Aryan migration into the Levant, founding the Mittani kingdom, and a migration south - eastward of the Vedic people, over the Hindu Kush into northern India. The Indo - Aryans split - off around 1800 -- 1600 BCE from the Iranians, where - after they were defeated and split into two groups by the Iranians, who dominated the Central Eurasian steppe zone and "chased (the Indo - Aryans) to the extremities of Central Eurasia ''. One group were the Indo - Aryans who founded the Mitanni kingdom in northern Syria; (c. 1500 -- 1300 BCE) the other group were the Vedic people. Christopher I. Beckwith suggests that the Wusun, an Indo - European Caucasian people of Inner Asia in antiquity, were also of Indo - Aryan origin.
The second wave is interpreted as the Iranian wave, and took place in the third stage of the Indo - European migrations from 800 BCE onwards.
The Sintashta culture, also known as the Sintashta - Petrovka culture or Sintashta - Arkaim culture, is a Bronze Age archaeological culture of the northern Eurasian steppe on the borders of Eastern Europe and Central Asia, dated to the period 2100 -- 1800 BCE. It is probably the archaeological manifestation of the Indo - Iranian language group.
The Sintashta culture emerged from the interaction of two antecedent cultures. Its immediate predecessor in the Ural - Tobol steppe was the Poltavka culture, an offshoot of the cattle - herding Yamnaya horizon that moved east into the region between 2800 and 2600 BCE. Several Sintashta towns were built over older Poltavka settlements or close to Poltavka cemeteries, and Poltavka motifs are common on Sintashta pottery. Sintashta material culture also shows the influence of the late Abashevo culture, a collection of Corded Ware settlements in the forest steppe zone north of the Sintashta region that were also predominantly pastoralist. Allentoft et al. (2015) also found close autosomal genetic relationship between peoples of Corded Ware culture and Sintashta culture.
The earliest known chariots have been found in Sintashta burials, and the culture is considered a strong candidate for the origin of the technology, which spread throughout the Old World and played an important role in ancient warfare. Sintashta settlements are also remarkable for the intensity of copper mining and bronze metallurgy carried out there, which is unusual for a steppe culture.
Because of the difficulty of identifying the remains of Sintashta sites beneath those of later settlements, the culture was only recently distinguished from the Andronovo culture. It is now recognised as a separate entity forming part of the ' Andronovo horizon '.
The Andronovo culture is a collection of similar local Bronze Age Indo - Iranian cultures that flourished c. 1800 -- 900 BCE in western Siberia and the west Asiatic steppe. It is probably better termed an archaeological complex or archaeological horizon. The name derives from the village of Andronovo (55 ° 53 ′ N 55 ° 42 ′ E / 55.883 ° N 55.700 ° E / 55.883; 55.700), where in 1914, several graves were discovered, with skeletons in crouched positions, buried with richly decorated pottery. The older Sintashta culture (2100 -- 1800), formerly included within the Andronovo culture, is now considered separately, but regarded as its predecessor, and accepted as part of the wider Andronovo horizon. At least four sub-cultures of the Andronovo horizon have been distinguished, during which the culture expands towards the south and the east:
The geographical extent of the culture is vast and difficult to delineate exactly. On its western fringes, it overlaps with the approximately contemporaneous, but distinct, Srubna culture in the Volga - Ural interfluvial. To the east, it reaches into the Minusinsk depression, with some sites as far west as the southern Ural Mountains, overlapping with the area of the earlier Afanasevo culture. Additional sites are scattered as far south as the Koppet Dag (Turkmenistan), the Pamir (Tajikistan) and the Tian Shan (Kyrgyzstan). The northern boundary vaguely corresponds to the beginning of the Taiga. In the Volga basin, interaction with the Srubna culture was the most intense and prolonged, and Federovo style pottery is found as far west as Volgograd.
Most researchers associate the Andronovo horizon with early Indo - Iranian languages, though it may have overlapped the early Uralic - speaking area at its northern fringe.
The Bactria - Magiana Culture, also called "Bactria - Magiana Archaeological Complex '', was a non-Indo - European culture which influenced the Indo - European groups of the second stage of the Indo - European migrations. It was centered in what is nowadays northwestern Afghanistan and southern Turkmenistan, and had an elaborate trade - network reachings as far as the Indus civilisation, the Iranian plateau, and the Persian Gulf. Finds within BMAC sites include an Elamite - type cylinder seal and a Harappan seal stamped with an elephant and Indus script found at Gonur - depe.
Proto - Indo - Iranian arose due to this BMAC - influence. The Indo - Iranians also borrowed their distinctive religious beliefs and practices from this culture. According to Anthony, the Old Indic religion probably emerged among Indo - European immigrants in the contact zone between the Zeravshan River (present - day Uzbekistan) and (present - day) Iran. It was "a syncretic mixture of old Central Asian and new Indo - European elements '', which borrowed "distinctive religious beliefs and practices '' from the Bactria -- Margiana Culture. At least 383 non-Indo - European words were borrowed from this culture, including the god Indra and the ritual drink Soma.
Mitanni (Hittite cuneiform KUR Mi - ta - an - ni), also Mittani (Mi - it - ta - ni) or Hanigalbat (Assyrian Hanigalbat, Khanigalbat cuneiform Ḫa - ni - gal - bat) or Naharin in ancient Egyptian texts was an Hurrian - speaking state in northern Syria and south - east Anatolia from c. 1500 -- 1300 BCE. Founded by an Indo - Aryan ruling class governing a predominantly Hurrian population, Mitanni came to be a regional power after the Hittite destruction of Amorite Babylon and a series of ineffectual Assyrian kings created a power vacuum in Mesopotamia.
At the beginning of its history, Mitanni 's major rival was Egypt under the Thutmosids. However, with the ascent of the Hittite empire, Mitanni and Egypt made an alliance to protect their mutual interests from the threat of Hittite domination. At the height of its power, during the 14th century BCE, Mitanni had outposts centered around its capital, Washukanni, whose location has been determined by archaeologists to be on the headwaters of the Khabur River. Eventually, Mitanni succumbed to Hittite and later Assyrian attacks, and was reduced to the status of a province of the Middle Assyrian Empire.
Their sphere of influence is shown in Hurrian place names, personal names and the spread through Syria and the Levant of a distinct pottery type.
The Indo - Aryan peoples started to migrate into north - western India around 1500 BCE, as a slow diffusion during the Late Harappan period, establishing the Vedic religion during the Vedic period (c. 1500 -- 500 BCE).
The research on the Indo - Aryan migrations began with the study of the Rig Veda in the mid-19th century by Max Muller, and gradually evolved from a theory of a large scale invasion of a racially and technologically superior people to being a slow diffusion of small numbers of nomadic people that had a disproportionate societal impact on a large urban population. Contemporary claims of Indo - Aryan migrations are drawn from linguistic, archaeological, literary and cultural sources.
During the early part of the Vedic period, the Indo - Aryans settled into northern India, bringing with them their specific religious traditions. The associated culture was initially a tribal, pastoral society centred in the northwestern parts of the Indian subcontinent; it spread after 1200 BCE to the Ganges Plain, as it was shaped by increasing settled agriculture, a hierarchy of four social classes, and the emergence of monarchical, state - level polities.
The end of the Vedic period witnessed the rise of large, urbanized states as well as of shramana movements (including Jainism and Buddhism) which challenged the Vedic orthodoxy. Around the beginning of the Common Era, the Vedic tradition formed one of the main constituents of the so - called "Hindu synthesis ''
According to Christopher I. Beckwith the Wusun, an Indo - European Caucasian people of Inner Asia in antiquity, were also of Indo - Aryan origin. From the Chinese term Wusun, Beckwith reconstructs the Old Chinese * âswin, which he compares to the Old Indic aśvin "the horsemen '', the name of the Rigvedic twin equestrian gods. Beckwith suggests that the Wusun were an eastern remnant of the Indo - Aryans, who had been suddenly pushed to the extremeties of the Eurasian Steppe by the Iranian peoples in the 2nd millennium BCE.
The Wusun are first mentioned by Chinese sources as vassals in the Tarim Basin of the Yuezhi, another Indo - European Caucasian people of possible Tocharian stock. Around 175 BCE, the Yuezhi were utterly defeated by the Xiongnu, also former vassals of the Yuezhi. The Yuezhi subsequently attacked the Wusun and killed their king (Kunmo Chinese: 昆 彌 or Kunmi Chinese: 昆 莫) Nandoumi (Chinese: 難 兜 靡), capturing the Ili Valley from the Saka (Scythians) shortly afterwards. In return the Wusun settled in the former territories of the Yuezhi as vassals of the Xiongnu.
The son of Nandoumi was adopted by the Xiongnu king and made leader of the Wusun. Around 130 BCE he attacked and utterly defeated the Yuezhi, settling the Wusun in the Ili Valley.
After the Yuezhi were defeated by the Xiongnu, in the 2nd century BCE, a small group, known as the Little Yuezhi, fled to the south, while the majority migrated west to the Ili Valley, where they displaced the Sakas (Scythians). Driven from the Ili Valley shortly afterwards by the Wusun, the Yuezhi migrated to Sogdia and then Bactria, where they are often identified with the Tókharoi (Τοχάριοι) and Asioi of Classical sources. They then expanded into northern South Asia, where one branch of the Yuezhi founded the Kushan Empire. The Kushan empire stretched from Turfan in the Tarim Basin to Pataliputra on the Gangetic plain at its greatest extent, and played an important role in the development of the Silk Road and the transmission of Buddhism to China.
Soon after 130 BCE the Wusun became independent of the Xiongnu, becoming trusted vassals of the Han Dynasty and powerful force in the region for centuries. With the emerging steppe federations of the Rouran, the Wusun migrated into the Pamir Mountains in the 5th century CE. They are last mentioned in 938 when a Wusun chieftain paid tribute to the Liao dynasty.
The Indo - European eastward expansion in the 2nd millennium BCE had a significant influence on Chinese culture, introducing the chariot, horse burials, the domesticated horse, iron technology, and wheeled vehicles, fighting styles, head - and - hoof rituals, art motifs and myths.
The appearance of the Kassites in Mesopotamia in the 18th century BCE has been connected to the contemporary Indo - European expansion into the region at the time.
The Kassites gained control of Babylonia after the Hittite sack of the city in 1595 BCE (i.e. 1531 BCE per the short chronology), and established a dynasty based in Dur - Kurigalzu. The Kassites were members of a small military aristocracy but were efficient rulers and not locally unpopular. The horse, which the Kassites worshipped, first came into use in Babylonia at this time. The Kassites were polytheistic, and the name of some 30 gods are known.
The Kassite language has not been classified. However, several Kassite leaders bore Indo - European names, and the Kassites worshipped several Indo - Aryan gods, suggesting that the Kassites were under significant Indo - European influence. The reign of the Kassites laid the essential groundwork for the development of subsequent Babylonian culture.
The migration of the Hyksos from the Levant to Egypt in the 18th century BCE has been contected to the contemporary Indo - European expansion into the Middle East at the time.
Beginning around 1630 BCE, the Hyksos, possibly related to the Amorites, seized control of Egypt, establishing their Fifteenth Dynasty with its capital at Avaris. Although vilified in later Egyptian texts, the Hyksos became highly Egyptianized and ruled as pharaohs listed as legitimate kings in the Turin Papyrus. The Hyksos capital was seized around 1521 BCE by the Theban Ahmose, founder of the Eighteenth Dynasty, and the Hyksos were expelled. The Hyksos may have been related to the later Habiru, etymologically connected to the term Hebrew.
The Hyksos practiced horse burials, and their chief deity, their native storm god, became associated with the Egyptian storm and desert god, Seth. Although most Hyksos names seem Semitic, the Hyksos also included Hurrians, who, while speaking an isolated language, were under the rule and influence of Indo - Aryans.
The Hyksos brought several technical improvements to Egypt, as well as cultural infusions such as new musical instruments and foreign loan words. The changes introduced include new techniques of bronze working and pottery, new breeds of animals, and new crops. In warfare, they introduced the horse and chariot, the composite bow, improved battle axes, and advanced fortification techniques. Because of these cultural advances, Hyksos rule brought Egypt out of its technological backwardness and was decisive for Egypt 's later empire in the Middle East.
In the mid-2nd millennium BCE, control of the Levant was seized by people known as Maryannu in Akkadian texts. Many of these intruders had Indo - Aryan names. The Amarna letters show that in the early 14th century BCE, most of the important cities of Palestine and Syria were controlled by men of either Indo - Aryan or Hurrian (who were under Indo - Aryan rule and influence at the time) names. Among the Indo - Aryan rulers of Palestine mentioned in the Amarna letters we find Induruta as lord of Achshaph, Biridiya as lord of Megiddo, Widia as lord of Ashkelon, Shuwardata as lord of Hebron, Zatatna and Surata as lords of Acre, Biryawaza as lord of Damascus, and other places, while Abdu - Heba, lord of Jerusalem has a Hurrian name.
The Iranian peoples (also known as Iranic peoples) are an Indo - European ethno - linguistic group that comprise the speakers of Iranian languages. Their historical areas of settlement were on the Iranian plateau (mainly Iran, Azerbaijan and Afghanistan) and certain neighbouring areas of Asia (such as parts of the Caucasus, Eastern Turkey, Northeast Syria, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Bahrain, Oman, northern Iraq, Northwestern and Western Pakistan) reflecting changing geopolitical range of the Persian empires and the Iranian history.
The Medes, Parthians and Persians begin to appear on the western Iranian plateau from c. 800 BCE, after which they remained under Assyrian rule for several centuries, as it was with the rest of the peoples in the Near East. The Achaemenids replaced Median rule from 559 BCE. Around the first millennium CE, the Kambojas, the Pashtuns and the Baloch began to settle on the eastern edge of the Iranian plateau, on the mountainous frontier of northwestern and western Pakistan, displacing the earlier Indo - Aryans from the area.
Their current distribution spreads across the Iranian plateau, and stretches from the Caucasus in the north to the Persian Gulf in the south, and from the Indus River in the east to eastern Turkey in the west -- a region that is sometimes called the "Iranian cultural continent '', or Greater Iran by some scholars, and represents the extent of the Iranian languages and significant influence of the Iranian peoples, through the geopolitical reach of the Iranian empire.
The Iranians comprise the present day Persians, Lurs, Ossetians, Kurds, Pashtuns, Balochs, Tajiks and their sub-groups of the historic Medes, Massagetaes, Sarmatians, Scythians, Parthians, Alans, Bactrians, Soghdians and other people of Central Asia, the Caucasus and the Iranian plateau. Another possible group are the Cimmerians who are mostly supposed to have been related to either Iranian or Thracian speaking groups, or at least to have been ruled by an Iranian elite.
The first Iranians to reach the Black Sea may have been the Cimmerians in the 8th century BCE, although their linguistic affiliation is uncertain. They were followed by the Scythians, who would dominate the area, at their height, from the Carpathian Mountains in the west, to the eastern-most fringes of Central Asia in the east, including the Indo - Scythian Kingdom in India. For most of their existence, they were based in what is modern - day Ukraine and southern European Russia.
Sarmatian tribes, of whom the best known are the Roxolani (Rhoxolani), Iazyges (Jazyges) and the Alani (Alans), followed the Scythians westwards into Europe in the late centuries BCE and the 1st and 2nd centuries of the Common Era (The Age of Migrations). The populous Sarmatian tribe of the Massagetae, dwelling near the Caspian Sea, were known to the early rulers of Persia in the Achaemenid Period. In the east, the Saka occupied several areas in Xinjiang, from Khotan to Tumshuq.
In Central Asia, the Turkic languages have marginalized Iranian languages as a result of the Turkic expansion of the early centuries CE. In Eastern Europe, Slavic and Germanic peoples assimilated and absorbed the native Iranian languages (Scythian and Sarmatian) of the region. Extant major Iranian languages are Persian, Pashto, Kurdish, and Balochi, besides numerous smaller ones.
The Anatolian hypothesis proposes that the dispersal of Proto - Indo - Europeans originated in Neolithic Anatolia. The hypothesis suggests that the speakers of the Proto - Indo - European language (PIE) lived in Anatolia during the Neolithic era, and associates the distribution of historical Indo - European languages with the expansion during the Neolithic revolution during the 7th and 6th millennia BCE. The alternative and more academically favored view is the Kurgan hypothesis.
The main proponent of the Anatolian hypothesis was Colin Renfrew, who in 1987 suggested a peaceful Indo - Europeanization of Europe from Anatolia from around 7000 BCE with the advance of farming by demic diffusion ("wave of advance ''). Accordingly, most of the inhabitants of Neolithic Europe would have spoken Indo - European languages, and later migrations would at best have replaced these Indo - European varieties with other Indo - European varieties.
The main strength of the farming hypothesis lies in its linking of the spread of Indo - European languages with an archaeologically known event (the spread of farming) that is often assumed as involving significant population shifts.
The "Paleolithic Continuity Paradigm '' is a hypothesis suggesting that the Proto - Indo - European language (PIE) can be traced back to the Upper Paleolithic, several millennia earlier than the Chalcolithic or at the most Neolithic estimates in other scenarios of Proto - Indo - European origins. Its main proponents are Marcel Otte, Alexander Häusler, and Mario Alinei.
The PCT posits that the advent of Indo - European languages should be linked to the arrival of Homo sapiens in Europe and Asia from Africa in the Upper Paleolithic. Employing "lexical periodization '', Alinei arrives at a timeline deeper than even that of Colin Renfrew 's Anatolian hypothesis.
Since 2004, an informal workgroup of scholars who support the Paleolithic Continuity hypothesis has been held online. Apart from Alinei himself, its leading members (referred to as "Scientific Committee '' in the website) are linguists Xaverio Ballester (University of Valencia) and Francesco Benozzo (University of Bologna). Also included are prehistorian Marcel Otte (Université de Liège) and anthropologist Henry Harpending (University of Utah).
It is not listed by Mallory among the proposals for the origins of the Indo - European languages that are widely discussed and considered credible within academia.
The notion of Indigenous Aryans posits that speakers of Indo - Aryan languages are "indigenous '' to the Indian subcontinent. Scholars like Jim G. Shaffer and B.B. Lal note the absence of archaeological remains of an Aryan "conquest '', and the high degree of physical continuity between Harappan and Post-Harappan society. They support the controversial hypothesis that the Indo - Aryan civilization was not introduced by Aryan migrations, but originated in pre-Vedic India.
In recent years, the concept of "Indigenous Aryans '' has been increasingly conflated with an "Out of India '' origin of the Indo - European language family. This contrasts with the model of Indo - Aryan migration which posits that Indo - Aryan tribes migrated to India from Central Asia. Some furthermore claim that all Indo - European languages originated in India. These claims remain problematic.
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where did the bengal tiger get its name | Bengal tiger - wikipedia
The Bengal tiger (Panthera tigris tigris) is the most numerous tiger subspecies in Asia, and was estimated at fewer than 2,500 individuals by 2011. Since 2008, it is listed as Endangered on the IUCN Red List and is threatened by poaching, loss and fragmentation of habitat. None of the Tiger Conservation Landscapes within its range is considered large enough to support an effective population of more than 250 adult individuals.
The tiger arrived in the Indian subcontinent about 12,000 years ago. India 's tiger population was estimated at 1,706 -- 1,909 individuals in 2010. By 2014, the population had reputedly increased to an estimated 2,226 individuals. Around 440 tigers are estimated in Bangladesh, 163 -- 253 tigers in Nepal and 103 tigers in Bhutan.
The Bengal tiger ranks among the biggest wild cats alive today. It is therefore considered to belong to the world 's charismatic megafauna. It is the national animal of both India and Bangladesh.
The Bengal is the traditional type locality for the binomen Panthera tigris, to which the British taxonomist Reginald Innes Pocock subordinated the Bengal tiger in 1929 under the trinomen Panthera tigris tigris.
The validity of several tiger subspecies in continental Asia was questioned in 1999. Morphologically, tigers from different regions vary little, and gene flow between populations in those regions is considered to have been possible during the Pleistocene. Therefore, it was proposed to recognize only two subspecies as valid, namely P. t. tigris in mainland Asia, and P. t. sondaica in the Greater Sunda Islands and possibly in Sundaland. In 2017, the Cat Classification Task Force of the Cat Specialist Group revised felid taxonomy and now recognizes the extinct and living tiger populations in continental Asia as P. t. tigris.
The Bengal tiger is defined by three distinct mitochondrial nucleotide sites and 12 unique microsatellite alleles. The pattern of genetic variation in the Bengal tiger corresponds to the premise that it arrived in India approximately 12,000 years ago. This is consistent with the lack of tiger fossils from the Indian subcontinent prior to the late Pleistocene, and the absence of tigers from Sri Lanka, which was separated from the subcontinent by rising sea levels in the early Holocene.
The Bengal tiger 's coat is yellow to light orange, with stripes ranging from dark brown to black; the belly and the interior parts of the limbs are white, and the tail is orange with black rings. The white tiger is a recessive mutant of the tiger, which is reported in the wild from time to time in Assam, Bengal, Bihar, and especially from the former State of Rewa. However, it is not to be mistaken as an occurrence of albinism. In fact, there is only one fully authenticated case of a true albino tiger, and none of black tigers, with the possible exception of one dead specimen examined in Chittagong in 1846.
Males have an average total length of 270 to 310 cm (110 to 120 in) including the tail, while females measure 240 to 265 cm (94 to 104 in) on average. The tail is typically 85 to 110 cm (33 to 43 in) long, and on average, tigers are 90 to 110 cm (35 to 43 in) in height at the shoulders. The weight of males ranges from 180 to 258 kg (397 to 569 lb), while that of the females ranges from 100 to 160 kg (220 to 350 lb). The smallest recorded weights for Bengal tigers are from the Bangladesh Sundarbans, where adult females are 75 to 80 kg (165 to 176 lb).
The tiger has exceptionally stout teeth. Its canines are 7.5 to 10 cm (3.0 to 3.9 in) long and thus the longest among all cats. The greatest length of its skull is 332 to 376 mm (13.1 to 14.8 in).
Bengal tigers weigh up to 325 kg (717 lb), and reach a head and body length of 320 cm (130 in). Several scientists indicated that adult male Bengal tigers from the Terai in Nepal and Bhutan, and Assam, Uttarakhand and West Bengal in north India consistently attain more than 227 kg (500 lb) of body weight. Seven adult males captured in Chitwan National Park in the early 1970s had an average weight of 235 kg (518 lb) ranging from 200 to 261 kg (441 to 575 lb), and that of the females was 140 kg (310 lb) ranging from 116 to 164 kg (256 to 362 lb). Thus, the Bengal tiger rivals the Amur tiger in average weight.
Verifiable Sundarbans tiger weights are not found in any scientific literature. Forest Department records list weight measurements, but all are guesstimates and not verifiable. There are also reports of head and body lengths, some of which are listed as over 366 cm (144 in). More recently, researchers from the University of Minnesota and the Bangladesh Forest Department carried out a study for the US Fish and Wildlife Service and weighed three Sundarbans tigresses from Bangladesh. Two of them were captured and sedated for radio - collaring, the other one had been killed by local villagers. The two collared tigresses were weighed using 150 kg (330 lb) scales, and the tigress killed by villagers was weighed using a balance scale and weights. The three tigresses had a mean weight of 76.7 kg (169 lb). One of the two older female 's weight 75 kg (165 lb) weighed slightly less than the mean because of her old age and relatively poor condition at the time of capture. The teeth wear of the two radio - collared females indicated that they were between 12 and 14 years old. The tigress killed by the villagers was a young adult, probably between 3 and 4 years old, and she was likely a pre-territorial transient. Skulls and body weights of Sundarbans tigers were found to be distinct from tigers in other habitats, indicating that they may have adapted to the unique conditions of the mangrove habitat. Their small sizes are probably due to a combination of intense intraspecific competition and small size of prey available to tigers in the Sundarbans, compared to the larger deer and other prey available to tigers in other parts.
Two tigers shot in Kumaon and near Oude at the end of the 19th century allegedly measured more than 12 ft (366 cm). But at the time, sportsmen had not yet adopted a standard system of measurement; some measured ' between the pegs ' while others measured ' over the curves '.
In the beginning of the 20th century, a male tiger was shot in central India with a head and body length of 221 cm (87 in) between pegs, a chest girth of 150 cm (59 in), a shoulder height of 109 cm (43 in) and a tail length of 81 cm (32 in), which was perhaps bitten off by a rival male. This specimen could not be weighed, but it was calculated to weigh no less than 272 kg (600 lb). A heavy male weighing 570 lb (259 kg) was shot in northern India in the 1930s. In 1980 and 1984, scientists captured and tagged two male tigers in Chitwan National Park that weighed more than 270 kg (595 lb).
The heaviest wild tiger was disputably a huge male killed in 1967 by David Hassinger at the foothills of the Himalayas. It weighed 388.7 kg (857 lb) after eating a buffalo calf, and measured 323 cm (127 in) in total length between pegs, and 338 cm (133 in) over curves. Without eating the calf beforehand, it would have likely weighed at least 324.3 kilograms (715 lb). This specimen is on exhibition in the Mammals Hall of the Smithsonian Institution.
In 1982, a sub-fossil right middle phalanx was found in a prehistoric midden near Kuruwita in Sri Lanka, which is dated to about 16,500 ybp and tentatively considered to be of a tiger. Tigers appear to have arrived in Sri Lanka during a pluvial period, during which sea levels were depressed, evidently prior to the last glacial maximum about 20,000 years ago. In 1929, the British taxonomist Pocock assumed that tigers arrived in southern India too late to colonize Sri Lanka, which earlier had been connected to India by a land bridge.
Results of a phylogeographic study using 134 samples from tigers across the global range suggest that the historical northeastern distribution limit of the Bengal tiger is the region in the Chittagong Hills and Brahmaputra River basin, bordering the historical range of the Indochinese tiger.
In the Indian subcontinent, tigers inhabit tropical moist evergreen forests, tropical dry forests, tropical and subtropical moist deciduous forests, mangroves, subtropical and temperate upland forests, and alluvial grasslands. Latter habitat once covered a huge swath of grassland, riverine and moist semi-deciduous forests along the major river system of the Gangetic and Brahmaputra plains, but has now been largely converted to agricultural land or severely degraded. Today, the best examples of this habitat type are limited to a few blocks at the base of the outer foothills of the Himalayas including the Tiger Conservation Units (TCUs) Rajaji - Corbett, Bardia - Banke, and the transboundary TCUs Chitwan - Parsa - Valmiki, Dudhwa - Kailali and Shuklaphanta - Kishanpur. Tiger densities in these TCUs are high, in part because of the extraordinary biomass of ungulate prey.
The tigers in the Sundarbans in India and Bangladesh are the only ones in the world inhabiting mangrove forests. The population in the Indian Sundarbans is estimated as 70 tigers in total.
In the past, Indian censuses of wild tigers relied on the individual identification of footprints known as pug marks -- a method that has been criticised as deficient and inaccurate, though now camera traps are being used in many places.
Good tiger habitats in subtropical and temperate upland forests include the Tiger Conservation Units (TCUs) Manas - Namdapha. TCUs in tropical dry forest include Hazaribag Wildlife Sanctuary, Nagarjunsagar - Srisailam Tiger Reserve, Kanha - Indravati corridor, Orissa dry forests, Panna National Park, Melghat Tiger Reserve and Ratapani Tiger Reserve. The TCUs in tropical moist deciduous forest are probably some of the most productive habitats for tigers and their prey, and include Kaziranga - Meghalaya, Kanha - Pench, Simlipal and Indravati Tiger Reserves. The TCUs in tropical moist evergreen forests represent the less common tiger habitats, being largely limited to the upland areas and wetter parts of the Western Ghats, and include the tiger reserves of Periyar, Kalakad - Mundathurai, Bandipur and Parambikulam Wildlife Sanctuary.
During the tiger census of 2008, camera trap and sign surveys using GIS were employed to project site - specific densities of tigers, their co-predators and prey. Based on the result of these surveys, the total tiger population was estimated at 1,411 individuals ranging from 1,165 to 1,657 adult and sub-adult tigers of more than 1.5 years of age. Across India, six landscape complexes were surveyed that host tigers and have the potential to be connected. These landscapes comprise the following:
In May 2008, forest officials spotted 14 tiger cubs in Rajasthan 's Ranthambore National Park. In June 2008, a tiger from Ranthambore was relocated to Sariska Tiger Reserve, where all tigers had fallen victim to poachers and human encroachments since 2005.
As of 2014, adult and subadult tigers at 1.5 years or older are estimated to number 408 in Karnataka, 340 in Uttarakhand, 308 in Madhya Pradesh, 229 in Tamil Nadu, 190 in Maharashtra, 167 in Assam, 136 in Kerala, and 117 in Uttar Pradesh.
Tigers in Bangladesh are now relegated to the forests of the Sundarbans and the Chittagong Hill Tracts. The Chittagong forest is contiguous with tiger habitat in India and Myanmar, but the tiger population is of unknown status.
As of 2004, population estimates in Bangladesh ranged from 200 to 419, mostly in the Sundarbans. This region is the only mangrove habitat in this bioregion, where tigers survive, swimming between islands in the delta to hunt prey. Bangladesh 's Forest Department is raising mangrove plantations supplying forage for spotted deer. Since 2001, afforestation has continued on a small scale in newly accreted lands and islands of the Sundarbans. From October 2005 to January 2007, the first camera - trap survey was conducted across six sites in the Bangladesh Sundarbans to estimate tiger population density. The average of these six sites provided an estimate of 3.7 tigers per 100 km (39 sq mi). Since the Bangladesh Sundarbans is an area of 5,770 km (2,230 sq mi) it was inferred that the total tiger population comprised approximately 200 individuals. In another study, home ranges of adult female tigers were recorded comprising between 12 and 14 km (4.6 and 5.4 sq mi)., which would indicate an approximate carrying capacity of 150 adult females. The small home range of adult female tigers (and consequent high density of tigers) in this habitat type relative to other areas may be related to both the high density of prey and the small size of the Sundarbans tigers.
Since 2007 tiger monitoring surveys have been carried out every year by WildTeam in the Bangladesh Sundarbans to monitor changes in the Bangladesh tiger population and assess the effectiveness of conservation actions. This survey measures changes in the frequency of tiger track sets along the sides of tidal waterways as an index of relative tiger abundance across the Sundarbans landscape.
The population size for the Bangladesh Sundarbans was estimated as 100 -- 150 adult females or 335 -- 500 tigers overall. Female home ranges, recorded using Global Positioning System collars, were some of the smallest recorded for tigers, indicating that the Bangladesh Sundarbans could have one of the highest densities and largest populations of tigers anywhere in the world. They are isolated from the next tiger population by a distance of up to 300 km (190 mi). Information is lacking on many aspects of Sundarbans tiger ecology, including relative abundance, population status, spatial dynamics, habitat selection, life history characteristics, taxonomy, genetics, and disease. There is also no monitoring program in place to track changes in the tiger population over time, and therefore no way of measuring the response of the population to conservation activities or threats. Most studies have focused on the tiger - human conflict in the area, but two studies in the Sundarbans East Wildlife sanctuary documented habitat - use patterns of tigers, and abundances of tiger prey, and another study investigated tiger parasite load. Some major threats to tigers have been identified. The tigers living in the Sundarbans are threatened by habitat destruction, prey depletion, highly aggressive and rampant intraspecific competition, tiger - human conflict, and direct tiger loss.
The tiger population in the Terai of Nepal is split into three isolated subpopulations that are separated by cultivation and densely settled habitat. The largest population lives in Chitwan National Park and in the adjacent Parsa National Park encompassing an area of 2,543 km (982 sq mi) of prime lowland forest. To the west, the Chitwan population is isolated from the one in Bardia National Park and adjacent unprotected habitat farther west, extending to within 15 km (9.3 mi) of the Shuklaphanta Wildlife Reserve, which harbours the smallest population. The bottleneck between the Chitwan - Parsa and Bardia - Sukla Phanta metapopulations is situated just north of the town of Butwal.
As of 2009, an estimated 121 breeding tigers lived in Nepal. By 2010, the number of adult tigers had reached 155. A survey conducted from December 2009 to March 2010 indicates that 125 adult tigers live in Chitwan National Park and its border areas covering 1,261 km (487 sq mi). From February to June 2013, a camera trapping survey was carried out in the Terai Arc Landscape, covering an area of 4,841 km (1,869 sq mi) in 14 districts. The country 's tiger population was estimated at 163 -- 235 breeding adults comprising 102 -- 152 tigers in the Chitwan - Parsa protected areas, 48 -- 62 in the Bardia - Banke National Parks and 13 -- 21 in the Shuklaphanta Wildlife Reserve.
As of 2015, the population in Bhutan is estimated at 103 individuals. Tigers occur from an altitude of 200 m (660 ft) in the subtropical Himalayan foothills in the south along the border with India to over 3,000 m (9,800 ft) in the temperate forests in the north, and are known from 17 of 18 districts. Their stronghold appears to be the central belt of the country ranging in altitude between 2,000 and 3,500 m (6,600 and 11,500 ft), between the Mo River in the west and the Kulong River in the east. In 2010, camera traps recorded a pair of tigers at altitudes of 3,000 to 4,100 m (9,800 to 13,500 ft). The male was recorded scent - marking, and the female can also be seen to be lactating, confirming that the pair are living within their own territory, and strongly suggesting they are breeding at that altitude.
The basic social unit of the tiger is the elemental one of mother and offspring. Adult animals congregate only on an ad hoc and transitory basis when special conditions permit, such as plentiful supply of food. Otherwise they lead solitary lives, hunting individually for the dispersed forest and tall grassland animals, upon which they prey. They establish and maintain home ranges. Resident adults of either sex tend to confine their movements to a definite area of habitat within which they satisfy their needs, and in the case of tigresses, those of their growing cubs. Besides providing the requirements of an adequate food supply, sufficient water and shelter, and a modicum of peace and seclusion, this location must make it possible for the resident to maintain contact with other tigers, especially those of the opposite sex. Those sharing the same ground are well aware of each other 's movements and activities.
In the Panna Tiger Reserve an adult radio - collared male tiger moved 1.7 to 10.5 km (1.1 to 6.5 mi) between locations on successive days in winter, and 1 to 13.9 km (0.62 to 8.64 mi) in summer. His home range was about 200 km (77 sq mi) in summer and 110 km (42 sq mi) in winter. Included in his home range were the much smaller home ranges of two females, a tigress with cubs and a sub-adult tigress. They occupied home ranges of 16 to 31 km (6.2 to 12.0 sq mi).
The home ranges occupied by adult male residents tend to be mutually exclusive, even though one of these residents may tolerate a transient or sub-adult male at least for a time. A male tiger keeps a large territory in order to include the home ranges of several females within its bounds, so that he may maintain mating rights with them. Spacing among females is less complete. Typically there is partial overlap with neighboring female residents. They tend to have core areas, which are more exclusive, at least for most of the time. Home ranges of both males and females are not stable. The shift or alteration of a home range by one animal is correlated with a shift of another. Shifts from less suitable habitat to better ones are made by animals that are already resident. New animals become residents only as vacancies occur when a former resident moves out or dies. There are more places for resident females than for resident males.
During seven years of camera trapping, tracking, and observational data in Chitwan National Park, 6 to 9 breeding tigers, 2 to 16 non-breeding tigers, and 6 to 20 young tigers of less than one year of age were detected in the study area of 100 km (39 sq mi). One of the resident females left her territory to one of her female offspring and took over an adjoining area by displacing another female; and a displaced female managed to re-establish herself in a neighboring territory made vacant by the death of the resident. Of 11 resident females, 7 were still alive at the end of the study period, 2 disappeared after losing their territories to rivals, and 2 died. The initial loss of two resident males and subsequent take over of their home ranges by new males caused social instability for two years. Of 4 resident males, 1 was still alive and 3 were displaced by rivals. Five litters of cubs were killed by infanticide, 2 litters died because they were too young to fend for themselves when their mothers died. One juvenile tiger was presumed dead after being photographed with severe injuries from a deer snare. The remaining young lived long enough to reach dispersal age, 2 of them becoming residents in the study area.
The tiger is a carnivore. It prefers hunting large ungulates such as chital, sambar, gaur, and to a lesser extent also barasingha, water buffalo, nilgai, serow and takin. Among the medium - sized prey species it frequently kills wild boar, and occasionally hog deer, muntjac and grey langur. Small prey species such as porcupine, hares and peafowl form a very small part in its diet. Because of the encroachment of humans into tiger habitat, it also preys on domestic livestock. They rarely attack adult Indian elephant and Indian rhinoceros, but such extraordinarily rare events have been recorded. In Kaziranga National Park, tigers killed 20 rhinoceros in 2007.
Results of scat analyses indicate that the tigers in Nagarahole National Park preferred prey weighing more than 176 kg (388 lb) and that on average tiger prey weighed 91.5 kg (202 lb). The prey species included chital, sambar, wild pig and gaur. Gaur remains were found in 44.8 % of all tiger scat samples, sambar remains in 28.6 %, wild pig remains in 14.3 % and chital remains in 10.4 % of all scat samples. In Bandipur National Park, gaur and sambar together also constituted 73 % of tiger diet.
In most cases, tigers approach their victim from the side or behind from as close a distance as possible and grasp the prey 's throat to kill it. Then they drag the carcass into cover, occasionally over several hundred meters, to consume it. The nature of the tiger 's hunting method and prey availability results in a "feast or famine '' feeding style: they often consume 18 -- 40 kilograms (40 -- 88 lb) of meat at one time. If injured, old or weak, or regular prey species are becoming scarce, tigers also attack humans and become man - eaters.
Bengal tigers occasionally hunt and kill predators such as Indian leopard, Indian wolf, Indian jackal, fox, mugger crocodile, Asiatic black bear, sloth bear, and dhole.
Clashes between tigers and Asiatic lions have been reported, before humans extirpated either of them in a number of places. Currently, the Asiatic lion occurs in Gir Forest National Park, Gujarat. The closest Bengal tiger population lives at the border triangle of Gujarat, Maharashtra and Madhya Pradesh. The Gir Forest is in the same ecoregion as Ranthambore and Sariska National Parks: the Kathiawar - Gir dry deciduous forests. The Dangs ' Forest in southeastern Gujarat is potential tiger habitat. Before Indian independence, the Maharaja of Gwalior State introduced African lions in Madhya Pradesh.
The tiger in India has no definite mating and birth seasons. Most young are born in December and April. Young have also been found in March, May, October and November. In the 1960s, certain aspects of tiger behaviour at Kanha National Park indicated that the peak of sexual activity was from November to about February, with some mating probably occurring throughout the year.
Males reach maturity at 4 -- 5 years of age, and females at 3 -- 4 years. A Bengal comes into heat at intervals of about 3 -- 9 weeks, and is receptive for 3 -- 6 days. After a gestation period of 104 -- 106 days, 1 -- 4 cubs are born in a shelter situated in tall grass, thick bush or in caves. Newborn cubs weigh 780 to 1,600 g (1.72 to 3.53 lb) and they have a thick wooly fur that is shed after 3.5 -- 5 months. Their eyes and ears are closed. Their milk teeth start to erupt at about 2 -- 3 weeks after birth, and are slowly replaced by permanent dentition from 8.5 -- 9.5 weeks of age onwards. They suckle for 3 -- 6 months, and begin to eat small amounts of solid food at about 2 months of age. At this time, they follow their mother on her hunting expeditions and begin to take part in hunting at 5 -- 6 months of age. At the age of 2 -- 3 years, they slowly start to separate from the family group and become transient -- looking out for an area, where they can establish their own territory. Young males move further away from their mother 's territory than young females. Once the family group has split, the mother comes into heat again.
Over the past century tiger numbers have fallen dramatically, with a decreasing population trend. None of the Tiger Conservation Landscapes within the Bengal tiger range is large enough to support an effective population size of 250 individuals. Habitat losses and the extremely large - scale incidences of poaching are serious threats to the species ' survival.
The challenge in the Western Ghats forest complex in western South India, an area of 14,400 square miles (37,000 km) stretching across several protected areas is that people live within its borders. The Save the Tiger Fund Council estimates that 7,500 landless people live illegally inside the boundaries of the 386 - square - mile (1,000 km) Nagarhole National Park in southwestern India. A voluntary if controversial resettlement is underway with the aid of the Karnataka Tiger Conservation Project led by K. Ullas Karanth of the Wildlife Conservation Society.
A 2007 report by UNESCO, "Case Studies on Climate Change and World Heritage '' has stated that an anthropogenic 45 - cm rise in sea level, likely by the end of the 21st century, according to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, combined with other forms of anthropogenic stress on the Sundarbans, could lead to the destruction of 75 % of the Sundarbans mangroves. The Forest Rights Act passed by the Indian government in 2006 grants some of India 's most impoverished communities the right to own and live in the forests, which likely brings them into conflict with wildlife and under - resourced, under - trained, ill - equipped forest department staff. In the past, evidence showed that humans and tigers can not co-exist.
The most significant immediate threat to the existence of wild tiger populations is the illegal trade in poached skins and body parts between India, Nepal and China. The governments of these countries have failed to implement adequate enforcement response, and wildlife crime remained a low priority in terms of political commitment and investment for years. There are well - organised gangs of professional poachers, who move from place to place and set up camp in vulnerable areas. Skins are rough - cured in the field and handed over to dealers, who send them for further treatment to Indian tanning centres. Buyers choose the skins from dealers or tanneries and smuggle them through a complex interlinking network to markets outside India, mainly in China. Other factors contributing to their loss are urbanization and revenge killing. Farmers blame tigers for killing cattle and shoot them. Their skins and body parts may however become a part of the illegal trade. In Bangladesh, tigers are killed by professional poachers, local hunters, trappers, pirates and villagers. Each group of people has different motives for killing tigers, ranging from profit, excitement to safety concerns. All groups have access to the commercial trade in body parts.
The illicit demand for bones and body parts from wild tigers for use in Traditional Chinese medicine is the reason for the unrelenting poaching pressure on tigers on the Indian subcontinent. For at least a thousand years, tiger bones have been an ingredient in traditional medicines that are prescribed as a muscle strengthener and treatment for rheumatism and body pain.
Between 1994 and 2009, the Wildlife Protection Society of India has documented 893 cases of tigers killed in India, which is just a fraction of the actual poaching and trade in tiger parts during those years.
In 2006, India 's Sariska Tiger Reserve lost all of its 26 tigers, mostly to poaching. In 2007, police in Allahabad raided a meeting of suspected poachers, traders and couriers. One of the arrested persons was the biggest buyer of tiger parts in India who used to sell them off to the Chinese traditional medicinal market, using women from a nomadic tribe as couriers. In 2009, none of the 24 tigers residing in the Panna Tiger Reserve were left because of excessive poaching.
In November 2011, two tigers were found dead in Maharashtra: a male tiger was trapped and killed in a wire snare; a tigress died of electrocution after chewing at an electric cable supplying power to a water pump; another tigress was found dead in Kanha Tiger Reserve landscape -- poisoning is suspected to be the cause of her death.
The Indian subcontinent has served as a stage for intense human and tiger confrontations. The region affording habitat where tigers have achieved their highest densities is also one which has housed one of the most concentrated and rapidly expanding human populations. At the beginning of the 19th century tigers were so numerous it seemed to be a question as to whether man or tiger would survive. It became the official policy to encourage the killing of tigers as rapidly as possible, rewards being paid for their destruction in many localities. The United Provinces supported large numbers of tigers in the submontane Terai region, where man - eating had been uncommon. In the latter half of the 19th century, marauding tigers began to take a toll of human life. These animals were pushed into marginal habitat, where tigers had formerly not been known, or where they existed only in very low density, by an expanding population of more vigorous animals that occupied the prime habitat in the lowlands, where there was high prey density and good habitat for reproduction. The dispersers had nowhere else to go, since the prime habitat was bordered in the south by cultivation. They are thought to have followed back the herds of domestic livestock that wintered in the plains when they returned to the hills in the spring, and then being left without prey when the herds dispersed back to their respective villages. These tigers were the old, the young and the disabled. All suffered from some disability, mainly caused either by gunshot wounds or porcupine quills.
In the Sundarbans, 10 out of 13 man - eaters recorded in the 1970s were males, and they accounted for 86 % of the victims. These man - eaters have been grouped into the confirmed or dedicated ones who go hunting especially for human prey; and the opportunistic ones, who do not search for humans but will, if they encounter a man, attack, kill and devour him. In areas where opportunistic man - eaters were found, the killing of humans was correlated with their availability, most victims being claimed during the honey gathering season. Tigers in the Sunderbans presumably attacked humans who entered their territories in search of wood, honey or fish, thus causing them to defend their territories. The number of tiger attacks on humans may be higher outside suitable areas for tigers, where numerous humans are present but which contain little wild prey for tigers. Between 1999 and 2001, the highest concentration of tiger attacks on people occurred in the northern and western boundaries of the Bangladesh Sundarbans. Most people were attacked in the mornings while collecting fuel wood, timber, or other raw materials, or while fishing.
In Nepal, the incidence of man - eating tigers has been only sporadic. In Chitwan National Park no cases were recorded before 1980. In the following few years, 13 people have been killed and eaten in the park and its environs. In the majority of cases, man - eating appeared to have been related to an intra-specific competition among male tigers.
In December 2012, a tiger was shot by the Kerala Forest Department on a coffee plantation on the fringes of the Wayanad Wildlife Sanctuary. Chief Wildlife Warden of Kerala ordered the hunt for the animal after mass protests erupted as the tiger had been carrying away livestock. The Forest Department had constituted a special task force to capture the animal with the assistance of a 10 - member Special Tiger Protection Force and two trained elephants from the Bandipur Tiger Reserve in Karnataka.
An area of special interest lies in the "Terai Arc Landscape '' in the Himalayan foothills of northern India and southern Nepal, where 11 protected areas composed of dry forest foothills and tall - grass savannas harbor tigers in a 49,000 square kilometres (19,000 sq mi) landscape. The goals are to manage tigers as a single metapopulation, the dispersal of which between core refuges can help maintain genetic, demographic, and ecological integrity, and to ensure that species and habitat conservation becomes mainstreamed into the rural development agenda. In Nepal a community - based tourism model has been developed with a strong emphasis on sharing benefits with local people and on the regeneration of degraded forests. The approach has been successful in reducing poaching, restoring habitats, and creating a local constituency for conservation.
WWF partnered with Leonardo DiCaprio to form a global campaign, "Save Tigers Now '', with the ambitious goal of building political, financial and public support to double the wild tiger population by 2022. Save Tigers Now started its campaign in 12 different WWF Tiger priority landscapes, since May 2010.
In 1973, Project Tiger was launched aiming at ensuring a viable population of tigers in the country and preserving areas of biological importance as a natural heritage for the people. The project 's task force visualised these tiger reserves as breeding nuclei, from which surplus animals would emigrate to adjacent forests. The selection of areas for the reserves represented as close as possible the diversity of ecosystems across the tiger 's distribution in the country. Funds and commitment were mustered to support the intensive program of habitat protection and rehabilitation under the project. By the late 1980s, the initial nine reserves covering an area of 9,115 square kilometres (3,519 sq mi) had been increased to 15 reserves covering an area of 24,700 square kilometres (9,500 sq mi). More than 1100 tigers were estimated to inhabit the reserves by 1984.
Through this initiative the population decline was reversed initially, but has resumed in recent years; India 's tiger population decreased from 3,642 in the 1990s to just over 1,400 from 2002 to 2008.
The Indian Wildlife Protection Act of 1972 enables government agencies to take strict measures so as to ensure the conservation of the Bengal tigers. The Wildlife Institute of India estimates showed that tiger numbers had fallen in Madhya Pradesh by 61 %, Maharashtra by 57 %, and Rajasthan by 40 %. The government 's first tiger census, conducted under the Project Tiger initiative begun in 1973, counted 1,827 tigers in the country that year. Using that methodology, the government observed a steady population increase, reaching 3,700 tigers in 2002. However, the use of more reliable and independent censusing technology (including camera traps) for the 2007 -- 2008 all - India census has shown that the numbers were in fact less than half than originally claimed by the Forest Department.
Following the revelation that only 1,411 Bengal tigers existed in the wild in India, down from 3,600 in 2003, the Indian government set up eight new tiger reserves. Because of dwindling tiger numbers, the Indian government has pledged US $ 153 million to further fund the Project Tiger initiative, set up a Tiger Protection Force to combat poachers, and fund the relocation of up to 200,000 villagers to minimize human - tiger interaction. Tiger scientists in India, such as Raghu Chundawat and Ullas Karanth have called for use of technology in the conservation efforts.
George Schaller wrote:
India has to decide whether it wants to keep the tiger or not. It has to decide if it is worthwhile to keep its National Symbol, its icon, representing wildlife. It has to decide if it wants to keep its natural heritage for future generations, a heritage more important than the cultural one, whether we speak of its temples, the Taj Mahal, or others, because once destroyed it can not be replaced.
In January 2008, the Government of India launched a dedicated anti-poaching force composed of experts from Indian police, forest officials and various other environmental agencies. Indian officials successfully started a project to reintroduce the tigers into the Sariska reserve. The Ranthambore National Park is often cited as a major success by Indian officials against poaching. The population increased to 1,706 in 2011 and 2,226 in 2014. There are 48 tiger reserves in India
Kuno - Palpur in Madhya Pradesh was supposed receive Asiatic lions from Gujarat. Since no lion has been transferred from Gujarat to Madhya Pradesh so far, it may be used as a sanctuary for the tiger instead.
WildTeam is working with local communities and the Bangladesh Forest Department to reduce human - tiger conflict in the Bangladesh Sundarbans. For over 100 years people, tigers, and livestock have been injured and killed in the conflict; in recent decades up to 50 people, 80 livestock, and 3 tigers have been killed in a year. Now, through WildTeam 's work, there is a boat - based Tiger Response team that provides first aid, transport, and body retrieval support for people being killed in the forest by tigers. WildTeam has also set up 49 volunteer Village Response Teams that are trained to save tigers that have strayed into the village areas and would be otherwise killed. These village teams are made up of over 350 volunteers, who are also now supporting anti-poaching work and conservation education / awareness activities. WildTeam also works to empower local communities to access the government funds for compensating the loss / injury of livestock and people from the conflict. To monitor the conflict and assess the effectiveness of actions, WildTeam have also set up a human - tiger conflict data collection and reporting system.
The government aims at doubling the country 's tiger population by 2022, and in May 2010, decided to establish Banke National Park with a protected area of 550 square kilometres (210 sq mi), which bears good potential for tiger habitat. It is protected in Chitwan National Park, Bardiya National Park, Sukla Phanta Wildlife Reserve, etc.
Bengal tigers have been captive bred since 1880 and widely crossed with other tiger subspecies. Indian zoos have bred tigers for the first time at the Alipore Zoo in Kolkata. The 1997 International Tiger Studbook lists the global captive population of Bengal tigers at 210 individuals that are all kept in Indian zoos, except for one female in North America. Completion of the Indian Bengal Tiger Studbook is a necessary prerequisite to establishing a captive management program for tigers in India.
In July 1976, Billy Arjan Singh acquired a hand - reared tigress named Tara from Twycross Zoo in the United Kingdom, and reintroduced her to the wild in Dudhwa National Park with the permission of India 's then Prime Minister Indira Gandhi. In the 1990s, some tigers from this area were observed to have the typical appearance of Siberian tigers, namely a large head, pale fur, white complexion, and wide stripes, and were suspected to be Siberian -- Bengal tiger hybrids. Billy Arjan Singh sent hair samples of tigers from the national park to the Centre for Cellular and Molecular Biology in Hyderabad where the samples were analysed using mitochondrial sequence analysis. Results revealed that the tigers in question had an Indian tiger mitochondrial haplotype indicating that their mother was an Indian tiger. Skin, hair and blood samples from 71 tigers collected in various Indian zoos, in the National Museum in Kolkata and including two samples from Dudhwa National Park were prepared for microsatellite analysis that revealed that two tigers had alleles in two loci contributed by Bengal and Siberian tiger subspecies. However, samples of two hybrid specimens constituted a too small sample base to conclusively assume that Tara was the source of the Siberian tiger genes.
In 2000, the Bengal tiger re-wilding project Tiger Canyons was started by John Varty, who together with the zoologist Dave Salmoni trained captive - bred tiger cubs how to stalk, hunt, associate hunting with food and regain their predatory instincts. They claimed that once the tigers proved that they can sustain themselves in the wild, they would be released into a free - range sanctuary of South Africa to fend for themselves.
The project has received controversy after accusations by their investors and conservationists of manipulating the behaviour of the tigers for the purpose of a film production, Living with Tigers, with the tigers believed to be unable to hunt. Stuart Bray, who had originally invested a large sum of money in the project, claimed that he and his wife, Li Quan, watched the film crew "(chase) the prey up against the fence and into the path of the tigers just for the sake of dramatic footage. ''
The four tigers involved in this project have been confirmed to be crossbred Siberian -- Bengal tigers, which should neither be used for breeding nor being released into the Karoo. Tigers that are not genetically pure will not be able to participate in the tiger Species Survival Plan, as they are not used for breeding, and are not allowed to be released into the wild.
In October 2011, 18 Bengal tigers were among the exotic animals shot by the local sheriff 's department after the 2011 Ohio exotic animal release.
The tiger is one of the animals displayed on the Pashupati seal of the Indus Valley Civilisation. The tiger crest is the emblem on the Chola coins. The seals of several Chola copper coins show the tiger, the Pandya emblem fish and the Chera emblem bow, indicating that the Cholas had achieved political supremacy over the latter two dynasties. Gold coins found in Kavilayadavalli in the Nellore district of Andhra Pradesh have motifs of the tiger, bow and some indistinct marks.
Today, the tiger is the national animal of India. Bangladeshi banknotes feature a tiger. The political party Muslim League of Pakistan uses the tiger as its election symbol.
Tipu Sultan, who ruled Mysore in late 18th - century India, was also a great admirer of the animal. The famed 18th - century automaton, Tipu 's Tiger was also created for him. In India, tiger has also found a place of prestige even in Vedic literatures. It has been celebrated in Hindu consciousness from time immemorial as the divine vehicle of the Goddess of Power, Durga or Shakti. The animal has been chosen by the Reserve Bank of India as its emblem and Indian currency notes carry its portrait.
The Bengal tiger has continuously been used in various cultural fronts such as national symbolism, logo, sports, films and literature and has also been used as nicknames for famous personalities. Some of them are mentioned below:
Notable Bengal tigers include the man - eating Tiger of Segur, Tigers of Chowgarh, Tiger of Mundachipallam, Chuka man - eating tiger and Thak man - eater. The Bachelor of Powalgarh, also known as the Tiger of Powalgarh, was an unusually large Bengal tiger, and is said to have measured 3.23 m (10.6 ft) between pegs.
Apart from the above - mentioned uses of the Bengal tiger in culture, the fight between a tiger and a lion has, for a long time, been a popular topic of discussion by hunters, naturalists, artists, and poets, and continue to inspire the popular imagination to the present - day. There have been historical cases of fights between Bengal tigers and lions in captivity, and studies comparing or contrasting the two species have been undertaken.
The Seringapatam medal depicted the British lion overcoming a prostrate tiger, the tiger being the dynastic symbol of Tipu Sultan 's line. This was symbolic of the British domination in India. The iconography persisted and during the Indian Rebellion of 1857, Punch ran a political cartoon showing the Indian rebels as a tiger, attacking a victim, being defeated by the British forces shown by the larger figure of a lion.
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how many restaurants did gracie wexler end up owning by the end of the novel | The Westing game - wikipedia
The Westing Game is a mystery novel written by Ellen Raskin and published by Dutton in 1978. It won the Newbery Medal recognizing the year 's most distinguished contribution to American children 's literature. The story involves 16 seemingly unrelated heirs of reclusive businessman Sam Westing and his challenge to figure out the secret of his death. The heirs must figure out who killed Mr. Westing by clues in Mr. Westing 's will.
The Westing Game was ranked number nine among all - time children 's novels in a survey published by School Library Journal in 2012. It has been adapted as the 1997 feature film Get a Clue (also distributed as The Westing Game).
Sunset Towers is a new apartment building on Lake Michigan, north of Milwaukee and just down the shore from the mansion owned by reclusive self - made millionaire Samuel W. Westing. (Despite the name, Sunset Towers faces east -- into the sunrise.)
As the story opens, a man named Barney Northrup is selling apartments to a carefully selected group of tenants. It soon emerges that most of the tenants -- regardless of age or occupation -- are named as heirs in Westing 's will. The will is structured as a puzzle, with the 16 heirs challenged to find the solution. Each of the eight pairs, assigned seemingly at random, is given $10,000 cash and a different set of baffling clues. The pair that solves the mystery will inherit Westing 's entire $200 million fortune and control of his company.
Sam Westing was an extremely rich businessman who made his fortune in paper products. He was very patriotic and never smoked, drank, or gambled.
The epilogue of the story is told in the book 's last three chapters, which depicts the heirs growing older and more successful, many of them changing their lives as a result of the game.
This book breaks the stereotypes of what the typical mystery book is like as the investigators are the suspects. This book is sharp, clever and funny, and this highly original book will surely pique your interest as soon as you pick it up.
The Westing Game, adapted by Darian Lindle and directed by Terry Brino - Dean, was first produced at Prime Stage Theatre in Pittsburgh in 2009. The script is published by Dramatic Publishing.
Get a Clue, adapted by Dylan Kelsey Hadley and directed by Terence H. Winkless was produced for television in 1997.
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lana del rey from la to the moon setlist | LA to the Moon tour - wikipedia
The LA to the Moon Tour is the fourth headlining concert tour by American musician Lana Del Rey, in support of her fifth studio album and fourth major - label studio album, Lust for Life (2017). The tour began on January 5, 2018, at the Target Center in Minneapolis, and scheduled to visit cities across North America, South America, Oceania and Europe.
Del Rey 's fifth studio album, Lust for Life was officially released worldwide on July 21, 2017. During the months leading up to the album 's release, fans and press speculated whether or not Del Rey would embark on a headlining concert tour in support of the album, as she did not for her previous release, Honeymoon. In an interview for Beats 1 on July 12, 2017, Zane Lowe asked Del Rey if she planned to go on a world tour and she seemed unsure, but during the following months Del Rey began to announce various one - off promotional concerts across the United Kingdom and United States. The promotional tour took place from July to October 2017, and consisted of concerts at intimate venues in London, cities in California and New York City, as well as shows at the Echo Arena Liverpool and the SSE Hydro in the United Kingdom.
On August 19, 2017, Del Rey confirmed in a video via Instagram that she would be embarking on an official world tour in support of Lust for Life, as her first official headlining concert tour since The Endless Summer Tour in 2015, which was in support of Ultraviolence. Del Rey teased many details of the tour during the following weeks, she informed fans of what continents she would be visiting and how to purchase tickets through presale.
The first dates for the LA to the Moon Tour were eventually announced on September 27, 2017, with a leg of North American dates, and on the same day Del Rey announced that she would be appearing at various South American festivals. Tickets for the North American shows became available for presale on September 29, followed by general sale on October 2. The North American leg is supported by American singer Jhené Aiko and Colombian - American singer Kali Uchis. Australian and European dates for the tour were announced on October 16, 2017.
On January 16, 2018, it was announced that American singer Børns, whom Del Rey had recently collaborated with on two tracks for his second studio album Blue Madonna, would be joining Del Rey as the opening act for the Australian leg of the tour.
In an interview with MTV during October 2017, Del Rey stated that she was working to create a stage design for the tour that incorporates "lots of senses '', and beach themed projections with "beautiful structures that move in and out of the stage to give it a classic feeling ''. The stage design, designed by Jason Ardizzone - West, was revealed once the tour began on January 5, 2018. The stage features an array of beach - themed props and is backed by a large screen displaying visuals designed by Storme Whitby - Grubb. Terence Cawley of The Boston Globe described the set - up as a "microcosm of (Del Rey 's) beloved California '' with a display of rock formations, palm trees, and beach chairs. Reed Fischer of GoMN similarly described the stage as "pure Los Angeles '', suiting the title of the tour, "LA to the Moon '', with "projections of crashing waves, a fast - moving highway, and a sun - drenched swimming pool danced on the stage floor throughout the night ''.
This set list is representative of the show on January 5, 2018 in Minneapolis, Minnesota. It does not represent all dates throughout the tour.
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what is the name for a 12 sided polygon | Dodecagon - wikipedia
In geometry, a dodecagon or 12 - gon is any twelve - sided polygon.
A regular dodecagon is a figure with sides of the same length and internal angles of the same size. It has twelve lines of reflective symmetry and rotational symmetry of order 12. A regular dodecagon is represented by the Schläfli symbol (12) and can be constructed as a truncated hexagon, t (6), or a twice - truncated triangle, tt (3). The internal angle at each vertex of a regular dodecagon is 150 °.
The area of a regular dodecagon of side length a is given by:
And in terms of the apothem r (see also inscribed figure), the area is:
In terms of the circumradius R, the area is:
The span of the dodecagon is the distance between two parallel sides and is equal to twice the apothem. A simple formula for area (given side length and span) is:
This can be verified with the trigonometric relationship:
The perimeter of a regular dodecagon in terms of circumradius is:
The perimeter in terms of apothem is:
This coefficient is double the coefficient found in the apothem equation for area.
As 12 = 2 × 3, regular dodecagon is constructible using compass - and - straightedge construction:
Coxeter states that every zonogon (a 2m - gon whose opposite sides are parallel and of equal length) can be dissected into m (m - 1) / 2 parallelograms. In particular this is true for regular polygons with evenly many sides, in which case the parallelograms are all rhombi. For the regular dodecagon, m = 6, and it can be divided into 15: 3 squares, 6 wide 30 ° rhombs and 6 narrow 15 ° rhombs. This decomposition is based on a Petrie polygon projection of a 6 - cube, with 15 of 240 faces. The sequence OEIS sequence A006245 defines the number of solutions as 908, including up to 12-fold rotations and chiral forms in reflection.
One of the ways the mathematical manipulative pattern blocks are used is in creating a number of different dodecagons. They are related to the rhombic dissections, with 3 60 ° rhombi merged into hexagons, half - hexagon trapezoids, or divided into 2 equilateral triangles.
The regular dodecagon has Dih symmetry, order 24. There are 15 distinct subgroup dihedral and cyclic symmetries. Each subgroup symmetry allows one or more degrees of freedom for irregular forms. Only the g12 subgroup has no degrees of freedom but can seen as directed edges.
A regular dodecagon can fill a plane vertex with other regular polygons in 4 ways:
Here are 3 example periodic plane tilings that use regular dodecagons, defined by their vertex configuration:
A skew dodecagon is a skew polygon with 12 vertices and edges but not existing on the same plane. The interior of such an dodecagon is not generally defined. A skew zig - zag dodecagon has vertices alternating between two parallel planes.
A regular skew dodecagon is vertex - transitive with equal edge lengths. In 3 - dimensions it will be a zig - zag skew dodecagon and can be seen in the vertices and side edges of a hexagonal antiprism with the same D, (2, 10) symmetry, order 20. The dodecagrammic antiprism, s (2, 24 / 5) and dodecagrammic crossed - antiprism, s (2, 24 / 7) also have regular skew dodecagons.
The regular dodecagon is the Petrie polygon for many higher - dimensional polytopes, seen as orthogonal projections in Coxeter planes. Examples in 4 dimensionare the 24 - cell, snub 24 - cell, 6 - 6 duoprism, 6 - 6 duopyramid. In 6 dimensions 6 - cube, 6 - orthoplex, 2, 1. It is also the Petrie polygon for the grand 120 - cell and great stellated 120 - cell.
A dodecagram is a 12 - sided star polygon, represented by symbol (12 / n). There is one regular star polygon: (12 / 5), using the same vertices, but connecting every fifth point. There are also three compounds: (12 / 2) is reduced to 2 (6) as two hexagons, and (12 / 3) is reduced to 3 (4) as three squares, (12 / 4) is reduced to 4 (3) as four triangles, and (12 / 6) is reduced to 6 (2) as six degenerate digons.
Deeper truncations of the regular dodecagon and dodecagrams can produce isogonal (vertex - transitive) intermediate star polygon forms with equal spaced vertices and two edge lengths. A truncated hexagon is a dodecagon, t (6) = (12). A quasitruncated hexagon, inverted as (6 / 5), is a dodecagram: t (6 / 5) = (12 / 5).
In block capitals, the letters E, H and X (and I in a slab serif font) have dodecagonal outlines. A cross is a dodecagon, as is the logo for the Chevrolet automobile division.
The regular dodecagon features prominently in many buildings. The Torre del Oro is a dodecagonal military watchtower in Seville, southern Spain, built by the Almohad dynasty. The early thirteenth century Vera Cruz church in Segovia, Spain is dodecagonal. Another example is the Porta di Venere (Venus ' Gate), in Spello, Italy, built in the 1st century BC has two dodecagonal towers, called "Propertius ' Towers ''.
Regular dodecagonal coins include:
In the Philippines, in local carnivals (peryahan), ferris wheels usually with 12 seats or gondolas
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no strings attached music from the motion picture | No Strings Attached: Music from the Motion Picture - wikipedia
No Strings Attached: Music from the Motion Picture is soundtrack to the film of the same name. It was released on February 15, 2011 by Lakeshore Records.
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what type of music is popular in the netherlands | Music of the Netherlands - wikipedia
The Netherlands has multiple musical traditions. Contemporary Dutch popular music (Nederpop) is heavily influenced by music styles that emerged in the 1950s, in the United Kingdom and United States. The style is sung in both Dutch and English. Some of the latter exponents, such as Golden Earring and Shocking Blue, have attained worldwide fame.
Another popular genre of Dutch music is known as "Levenslied '', meaning "Song of / about life ''. These songs have catchy, simple rhythms and melodies, and are always built up on couplets and refrains. Themes are often sentimental and include love, death and loneliness. Traditional Dutch musical instruments such as the accordion and the barrel organ are essential to levenslied, though in recent years many levenslied artists also use synthesizers and guitars. Artists in this genre include Koos Alberts and the late André Hazes and Willy Alberti.
Dutch techno, hardstyle, gabber, trance and other styles in electronic dance music conquered the world. Most of the best - known DJs in the EDM scene (and the world) hail from the Netherlands, including Tiësto, Don Diablo, Armin van Buuren, Ferry Corsten, Sander van Doorn, Fedde le Grand, Hardwell, Showtek, Afrojack, Oliver Heldens, Ran - D and Martin Garrix all of whom consistently rank high in the DJ Mag Top 100 DJs and other rankings. The Amsterdam dance event (ADE) is the world 's leading electronic music conference and the biggest club festival for the many electronic subgenres on the planet. These artists also contribute significantly to the mainstream pop music played over the airwaves all around the world, as they frequently collaborate and produce for many notable artists.
Also hip - hop in the Dutch language (nederhop) is very popular in the Netherlands and Belgium.
Jan Pieterszoon Sweelinck (May 1562 -- October 16, 1621) was a Dutch composer, organist, and pedagogue whose work straddled the end of the Renaissance and beginning of the Baroque eras. Sweelinck was a master improviser, and acquired the informal title of the "Orpheus of Amsterdam ''. Over 70 keyboard works of his have survived, and many of them may be similar to the improvisations that residents of Amsterdam around 1600 were likely to have heard. Even his vocal music, which is more conservative than his keyboard writing, shows a striking rhythmic complexity and an unusual richness of contrapuntal devices.
His influence was international. Some of his music appears in the Fitzwilliam Virginal Book, which otherwise mainly contains the work of English composers. Sweelinck wrote variations on John Dowland 's internationally famous Lachrimae Pavane, and John Bull, the English keyboard composer, wrote a set of variations on a theme of Sweelinck, indicating the close connection between the different schools of composition across the North Sea.
Jacob van Eyck (ca. 1590 -- 1657) was a blind recorder and organ virtuoso, who composed a unique collection of flute music.
Unico Wilhelm van Wassenaer (1692 -- 1766) was an accomplished baroque composer, whose work Concerti Armonici erroneously was attributed to Giovanni Battista Pergolesi. Igor Stravinsky used Unico 's music for Pulcinella.
Alphons Diepenbrock (September 2, 1862 in Amsterdam - April 5, 1921). He created a musical idiom which, in a highly personal manner, combined 16th - century polyphony with Wagnerian chromaticism, to which in later years was added the impressionistic refinement that he encountered in Debussy 's music.
Willem Pijper (1894 -- 1947) is generally considered one of the most important figures in modern Dutch music. Between 1918 and 1922 he grew into one of the more advanced composers in Europe. In each successive work he went a step further and, from 1919, Pijper 's music can be described as atonal. However, Pijper remained a composer of strong emotional character, to which his Third Symphony (1926) bears witness. In Pijper 's later works the harmonic expression seems at times to approach monotonality. As a teacher Pijper had a great influence on modern Dutch music, teaching many prominent Dutch composers of the 1950s, 60s, and 70s. He was senior master of instrumentation in the Amsterdam Conservatoire, and from 1930 until his death in 1947 he was Head of the Rotterdam Conservatoire.
Ton de Leeuw (born Rotterdam, 16 November 1926 - died Paris, 31 May 1996) is known for his experiments with microtonality. He wrote one opera, Antigone (1990 -- 1991).
Lex van Delden (1919 -- 1988) was an important composer.
Louis Andriessen (born Utrecht: June 6, 1939) is a composer whose early works show experimentation with various contemporary trends: post war serialism (Series, 1958), pastiche (Anachronie I, 1966 -- 67), and tape (Il Duce, 1973). Andriessen 's mature music combines the influences of Stravinsky and American minimalism. His harmonic writing eschews the consonant modality of much minimalism, preferring post war European dissonance, often crystallised into large blocks of sound. Large - scale pieces such as De Staat (' Republic ') (1972 -- 76), for example, are influenced by the energy of the big band music of Count Basie and Stan Kenton and the repetitive procedures of Steve Reich, both combined with bright, clashing dissonances. Andriessen 's music is thus anti-Germanic and anti-Romantic, and marks a departure from post war European serialism and its offshoots. He has also played a role in providing alternatives to traditional performance practice techniques, often specifying forceful, rhythmic articulations, and amplified, non-vibrato, singing. Other notable works include Workers Union (1975), a melodically indeterminate piece "for any loud sounding group of instruments ''; Mausoleum (1979) for 2 baritones and large ensemble; De Tijd (' Time ') (1979 -- 81) for female singers and ensemble; De Snelheid (' Velocity ') (1982 - 3), for 3 amplified ensembles; De Materie (' Matter ') (1984 -- 88) a large four part work for voices and ensemble; collaborations with filmmaker and librettist Peter Greenaway on the film M is for Man, Music, Mozart and the operas Rosa: A Horse Drama (1994) and Writing to Vermeer (1998); and the recent La Passione (2000 -- 02) for female voice and ensemble.
Significant composers after Andriessen include Klaas de Vries (b. 1944), Jacob Ter Veldhuis, a.k.a. JacobTV (b. 1951), Guus Janssen (b. 1951) and Cornelis de Bondt (b. 1953).
Dutch folk music, is characterized by simple straightforward bass motives heavily supplemented with fast, often happy, melody. (Click here for an example.) Uncommon among other European folk, in Dutch music the bass line, not the melody, is the musical line that is danced to. This means that though the music itself may sound fast, the dances are usually quite moderate to slow in tempo. The dances themselves are mainly group dances rather than individual or dual dances. Clogs are often worn during dances; however, Dutch clog dancing is very different from its more modern counterpart. It is virtually impossible to perform highly active dances with Dutch clogs (which are entirely made from wood, not just the sole) and hence the clogs function as additional percussion, by stamping rhythmically.
In the early 19th century, rural Dutch folk began moving to cities like Amsterdam and Rotterdam, bringing with them folk traditions. Many of their songs and dances, however, began to dwindle in popularity. In the early part of the 20th century, however, a number of urban intellectuals travelled to the countrysides to record with local musicians, a process paralleled in other European countries, such as Spain.
In the 1970s, the Netherlands underwent a roots revival, led by artists like Gerard van Maasakkers, Jos Koning, Dommelvolk and RK Veulpoepers BV, Fungus and Wolverlei. Many of the folk songs performed by these musicians was collected by Cobi Schreijer and Ate Doornbosch, the latter of whom broadcast them on his radio program Onder de groene linde (Under the green lime).
It was in about 1974 that the Dutch folk revival peaked, a year marked by the first recording of Fungus and the birth of Wargaren from the band Pitchwheel.
The mainstream popularity of the Dutch roots revival was short - lived, but it continued in Friesland, where a handful of groups, starting with Irolt in the mid-1970s, sang in the West Frisian language. Frisian folk music has survived thus, aided in part by the Aaipop Festival in Nylân and annual festival in Joure. At Joure 's festival, established in 1955, participants dress in 19th century - style clothes and perform traditional music and dance like the skotsploech ensembles.
Modern revivalists include the Groningen band Törf, Folkcorn, Pekel and Twee Violen en een Bas, Lirio, Dubius, Mus, Matzko, Wè - nun Henk.
Moluccan - Dutch musicians like Tala Mena Siwa and the Moluccan Moods Orchestra have had some success with pop - based Moluccan music, while kaseko, a style from the former Dutch colony of Suriname, has also seen mainstream popularity, primarily due to musicians like William Souvenir and Carlo Jones.
The North Sea Jazz Festival attracts artists from international acclaim.
Misha Mengelberg (born June 5, 1935) is a jazz pianist and composer. He was the pianist on Eric Dolphy 's last album, Last Date (1964). Also featuring on that record was the drummer Han Bennink, and together with Piet Noordijk they formed a quartet which had a number of different bassists. They played at the Newport Jazz Festival in 1966. In 1967 he co-founded the Instant Composers Pool, an organisation which promoted avant garde Dutch jazz performances and recordings, with Han Bennink and Willem Breuker.
Mengelberg has played with a large variety of musicians. He has often performed in a duo with compatriot Bennink, and with other musicians including Derek Bailey, Peter Brötzmann, Evan Parker, Anthony Braxton.
Han Bennink (born April 17, 1942) is a jazz drummer, percussionist and multi-instrumentalist. Through the 1960s he drummed with a number of American musicians visiting the Netherlands, including Dexter Gordon, Sonny Rollins and Eric Dolphy. He subsequently became a central figure in the emerging European free improvisation (or free jazz) scene. From the late 1960s he played in a trio with saxophonist Peter Brötzmann and Belgian pianist Fred Van Hove, which became a duo after Van Hove 's departure in 1976. Through much of the 1990s he played in Clusone 3 (also known as the Clusone Trio), a trio with saxophonist and clarinetist Michael Moore and cellist Ernst Reijseger. He has often played duos with Mengelberg and collaborated with him alongside other musicians.
As well as playing with these long - standing groups, Bennink has performed and recorded solo (such as Tempo Comodo (1982)) and played with many free improvisation and free jazz luminaries including Derek Bailey, Conny Bauer, Don Cherry and Alexander von Schlippenbach, as well as more conventional jazz musicians.
Willem Breuker (November 4, 1944 -- July 23, 2010) was a jazz bandleader, composer, arranger, saxophonist, and bass clarinetist. Since 1974 he led the 10 - piece Willem Breuker Kollektief, which performed jazz in a theatrical and often unconventional manner, drawing elements from theater and vaudeville.
Many Dutch artists have become popular by singing songs in their own language. It started with Peter Koelewijn in the late 1950s, the first to sing Rock and Roll in Dutch. In the 1960s it was mainly Boudewijn de Groot - to this day extremely popular. In the 1970s there were many performers, of which Rob de Nijs stood out. The 1980s were for André Hazes and less Koos Alberts. The 1990s were dominated by Marco Borsato. Other well - known names throughout the years were Jan Smit, Frans Bauer, Gerard Joling, Gordon, Guus Meeuwis and René Froger. Another notable Dutch band is Tambourine.
In addition, there is a great number of bands that compose and perform pop and rock songs in the Dutch language. That started in the 1970s with Polle Eduard, Bots and Normaal - which sang in dialect. Late 70s and early 80s there was a big boom of bands that used the Dutch - speaking songs. Well known representatives from that period: Doe Maar, Het Goede Doel, Frank Boeijen Groep and Toontje Lager, and during the late 80s De Dijk, The Scene and Tröckener Kecks. In the 90s there was a second boom Acda en de Munnik, Bløf, Van Dik Hout and IOS.
Pioneers of Dutch rock were the so - called Indorock bands from the late 1950s, like The Tielman Brothers and the Blue Diamonds. They played rock guitar instrumentals when most of the Dutch youth had hardly heard of rock ' n ' roll. They stemmed from the Indo community in The Hague and were pivotal in earning that city the title of Beatstad (' Beat city ') in later years. With 60s bands like Golden Earring and Shocking Blue, and Kane and Anouk in the 1990s, The Hague became synonymous for mainstream rock.
More progressive music emerged in the 1960s in Amsterdam. In 1964 (see 1964 in music), The Outsiders were the first Dutch psychedelic rock band to become successful. Well known was the ' Haagse Scene ' - many of the popular bands of the 60s came from The Hague, such as Shocking Blue, which topped the US charts in 1970 with "Venus '', Golden Earring, Q65, The Motions, Earth & Fire. Other representatives from this period: the Cats, Tee Set, Bintangs, Sandy Coast, Cuby & the Blizzards and Brainbox. George Baker acquired international fame with the songs Little Green Bag (1969), and "Una Paloma Blanca '' (1975).
From the late 1960s the post war generation gained political influence. Many state subsidized rock venues opened all over the country. These clubs, like Amsterdam 's Paradiso and Melkweg, were stepping stones for many alternative rock bands on their first European tour and the Dutch crowd stayed well informed about new British and American acts.
Dutch band Teach - In, best known for winning Eurovision Song Contest 1975 with the song "Ding - A-Dong ''. The band was founded in 1969 and parted in 1980. Throughout this time there were several changes in lineup.
In the 1970s some artists stood out. Herman Brood became the ultimate Rock ' n Roll icon. He even scored a hit in the US with Saturday Night. He became the epitome of the "rock'n'roll junkie '' he sang about. As an artist he was in the media until his suicide in 2001. Other bands from the 70s: Pussycat (lead singer Toni Willé) whose song Mississippi hit the charts at number 1 in Netherlands in 1975 and many other countries including UK in 1976, Gruppo Sportivo, Massada, Vitesse, Solution, the Nits, Focus and still Golden Earring with their greatest hit ever: "Radar Love '', also Top 10 in the US.
The late 70s and early 80s gave many one hit wonders and some bands that lasted longer. Girl groups Luv ' and Dolly Dots but also disco bands Spargo and Time Bandits were most successful. Together with the Golden Earring, which scored some of their biggest hits with "Radar Love '', "Twilight Zone ' and "When The Lady Smiles ''. The Nits developed a large audience outside the Netherlands, including Finland, Switzerland, Germany, France, Belgium, Greece and Canada and in 1989 were the first Dutch band to play in the (then still) Soviet Union. Urban Dance Squad was a cross-over band, combining hip - hop with funk and rock. The band 's minor American success proved to be influential. Their music style (rapcore) influenced bands like Rage Against the Machine. Van Halen was created by Edward Van Halen who was of Dutch heritage.
The 1990s made international hits by 2 Unlimited, 2 Brothers On The 4th Floor, and Vengaboys. However, the 1990s was also the start of the DJ - era. Ferry Corsten, DJ Tiësto, Armin van Buuren, DJ Jean and Bart Claessen started their careers in the 1990s and became the stars of their era.
Dutch bands in the 2000s are Intwine, The Sheer, Naked Shepherd, Krezip, Di - rect and Johan.
Current pop acts include Esmee Denters, Anouk, Sharon Doorson, Nielson Eva Simons, Ilse De Lange, Toni Willé (Pussycat), Celine Cairo and DJ acts Don Diablo.
Brothers and founding members of Van Halen, lead guitarist Edward Van Halen and drummer Alex Van Halen, are from the Netherlands, having been born in Nijmegen in the mid-50's before eventually moving to the United States in 1962.
Ivy Green was among the first punk bands, originating from Hazerswoude.
Tedje en de Flikkers, a group of homosexuals ("flikkers '' is Dutch for "faggots '') from Nijmegen, was one of the most infamous punk formation of the Netherlands. They sprang from the left wing and gay movements that thrived in Nijmegen during the 1970s and 1980s. Their provocative performances (politically more than musically) often literally resulted in orgies of sex, drugs and noise. They existed only for three years (1977 -- 1980).
The Ex is an Amsterdam group of musicians making something that could be called punk. De Heideroosjes is also a well - known Dutch punk rock group, singing in Dutch, English, German and Limburgish.
Some bands create a kind of rock music sometimes called "Boerenrock '' (' farmers rock '). These bands mix rock and pop music with regional influences, sometimes sung in one of the regional dialects, and lyrics influenced by life in rural areas. Examples include BZB (Band Zonder Banaan) and WC Experience from North Brabant, Normaal and Jovink en de Voederbietels from Gelderland who sing in Dutch Low Saxon, Rowwen Hèze and Neet Oét Lottum from Limburg who sing in Limburgish, Mooi Wark from Drenthe who also sing in Dutch Low Saxon and Jitiizer from Friesland who sing in West - Frisian.
Musically, the music played by such bands can be described as a rowdy, straightforward style of rock music, inspired by bands such as ZZ Top, Motörhead, AC / DC and Creedence Clearwater Revival. At other times, influences from pop music and folk music (for instance the case with Rowwen Hèze) can be heard.
Not rarely, these bands display a lot of humorous elements in their repertoire, lyrics and live performances. An example is the repertoire of the WC Experience, which contains cover songs from bands such as Queen, Guns N ' Roses and Madness, only the lyrics are replaced by different, rather silly lyrics in their own dialect. Also, the name of ' Band Zonder Banaan ' means "Band without a Banana '', and is a humorous play on the name of a famous Dutch pop - band, BZN (Band Zonder Naam, or ' Band Without a Name '). The name "Jovink en de Voederbietels '' is a contraction of the names of the two founding band members (Hendrik Jan Lovink en Gijs Jolink), and "voederbietel '' is a humorous contraction of the Dutch Low Saxon word for sugar beets (used as food for horses) and the name of the world - famous British popband The Beatles, of which they used a number of songs in which they replaced the lyrics for Achterhooks ones.
Boerenrock bands tend to perform at local festivities and concerts in big tents in rural areas, rather than in concert halls in bigger cities. An event where a lot of Boerenrock music can be heard, and a famous event amongst Boerenrock bands and fans, is the annual Zwarte Cross Festival (' Black Motocross '), which is organized by members of ' Jovink en de Voederbietels '. The event is a mixture of several motocross related activities and a rock festival.
In the 1990s indie rock band Bettie Serveert was formed and independent record label Excelsior Recordings released albums of Dutch indie rock bands like Caesar, Ghost Trucker, Alamo Race Track, Johan, Spinvis, Gem, Bauer, Daryll - Ann, zZz and many others. After 2000 Voicst was formed and became popular after a beer commercial hit single for Heineken. After leaving Zoppo and forming Avec - A musician Yuri Landman received international attention as an experimental luthier for famous experimental rock bands. Dutch noise rock acts are The Ex, Gone Bald, The Moi Non Plus, Adept, Bonne Aparte, Feverdream. Post rock: We vs Death, Electropunk: Aux Raus. In the Netherlands the indie music scene is mainly present in Amsterdam, Rotterdam, The Hague, Groningen and Utrecht. A cross media platform called Subbacultcha! hosts nights in venues where many international touring avant garde rockbands like Health, Enon, Miracle Fortress, Mahjongg, These Are Powers, Pre perform as well as local indie and noise rock acts like The Moi Non Plus, Bonne Aparte, Adept, Hospital Bombers, Pfaff. Subbacultcha! also publishes a musical magazine with in depth interviews with the touring bands and arranges instant recording sessions in a studio in the Vondelpark with those bands. In The Hague a yearly festival State - X New Forms happens in Paard van Troje.
The Netherlands are also known for symphonic metal bands such as Within Temptation, The Gathering, Stream of Passion, After Forever, Delain and Epica. They became successful in the late 1990s and in the beginning of the new millennium. However, bands like Supersister and Kayak (who had a hit with Ruthless Queen) were already internationally successful in the 1970s. In the 1980s Vandenberg was internationally successful.
Unique progressive metal music is composed by Arjen Anthony Lucassen. From long list of his projects, Ayreon is the famost. Arjens music is characteristic by distinct vocals, storyline concept and wide spectrum of used music instruments.
Similarly, in the last decade of the previous century a more extreme variety of metal, death metal, has had some success. Starting in the late 80 's and early 90 's, bands like Pestilence, Sinister, Asphyx, Altar, Gorefest, and God Dethroned gained popularity both inside and outside of Europe, though the latter three have split up. At the present, bands like Pyaemia, Disavowed, Prostitute Disfigurement, Hail of Bullets, The Monolith Deathcult, Inhume, Callenish Circle, Rompeprop, Legion of the Damned, MaYaN and Severe Torture enjoy a similar status.
Several black metal bands have risen to prominence from the Netherlands recently. Carach Angren, Cirith Gorgor, Israthoum, Dodecahedron, Ordo Draconis, Funeral Winds, Lugubre, Slechtvalk and Urfaust are some of the best - known. Israeli group Melechesh have also made the Netherlands their permanent base of operations. Viking / folk metal band Heidevolk are also gaining popularity.
Dutch doom metal bands include Officium Triste, Deinonychus, The Gathering and to a certain extent Asphyx.
The Dutch musical culture has a small experimental music scene with a few artists that tour international such as Machinefabriek, solo projects of members of The Ex, Toktek, Gijs Gieskes, Knalpot, Yuri Landman, Jaap Blonk, Wessel Westerveld, Wouter van Veldhoven, Michiel van de Weerthof, Bram Stadhouders, his brother Jasper Stadhouders, Lukas Simonis and Michel Banabila. Also Pierre Bastien lives and works in The Netherlands, although not strongly connected to the Dutch scene. Venues like WORM in Rotterdam, Extrapool in Nijmegen and STEIM, OT301 and Mediamatic in Amsterdam are the main venues for this musical niche.
In the early 1990s, Dutch DJ 's developed a style of electronic dance music called gabber. The style was developed in reaction to the commercialization of house music and was heavily influenced by early hardcore from Frankfurt and New York City. The DJs stripped the music of what they perceived as excess sounds, songs were reduced to a high - speed monotonous beat, of sometimes over 260 beats per minute. The first ever record to be labeled gabber was ' Amsterdam waar lech dat dan? ' by Rotterdam - based ' The Euromasters ' as a reaction to the media always focusing on Amsterdam. It has to be said that Amsterdam - based D - Shake was probably to be the first to use the term gabber in a 1990 Dutch TV program. Important gabber groups and DJs are the Rotterdam Terror Corps, The Dark Raver and Neophyte. Gabbers distinguish themselves through hair (bald heads) and clothes (Australian and Cavello). Now, gabber is usually called early hardcore. Gabber also spawned happy hardcore, an offshoot of gabber and Breakbeat Hardcore, a genre of dance music that originated in England. Important groups and DJs in happy hardcore include Charly Lownoise and Mental Theo, Party Animals and Flamman & Abraxas.
The Netherlands has also spawned many Eurodance acts, such as 2 Unlimited, Alice Deejay, the Venga Boys, the Two Brothers on the 4th Floor and Twenty Four Seven. Many of the world 's top trance DJs are Dutch, such as Armin van Buuren, Ferry Corsten and DJ Tiësto. The DJ Magazine Top 10 has been dominated by the Dutch for many years. In 2012 five of the 10 DJ 's were Dutch. DJ Tiesto has been awarded best Dj for three times in a row by DJ Magazine and is still present in the top 10. Armin van Buuren (also Dutch) has taken over his first place, doing this for four years in a row. Many foreign DJs live in and operate from the Netherlands. Drum and bass is also popular in the Netherlands, artists including Noisia and Black Sun Empire. The Netherlands is home to many of the largest trance events on earth, including Sensation and Trance Energy.
Other popular DJ 's from the Netherlands are Afrojack, Hardwell, Laidback Luke, Fedde le Grand, Nicky Romero, Wildstylez, Headhunterz, Brennan Heart, Sander van Doorn, W&W, Yellow Claw, Tiësto, Ran - D and Martin Garrix.
The Dutch have through the years also made quite a reputation for themselves with their booming underground scene. A multitude of small independent recordlabels, event organizations and artists have cropped up through the years. Artists such as Speedy J, the Acid Junkies, Orlando Voorn, Miss Djax, Unit Moebius, and I-F all gained international recognition, paving the way for several new electronic artists from the Lowlands.
Several Dutch groups have played an important role in the development of rap and hiphop in the Netherlands. The Urban Dance Squad, led by Rude Boy (who later also played with Junkie XL), produced an original mix of rock and rap, laying the foundation for the nu metal hype of the late 1990s and early 2000s. Def La Desh and the Fresh Witness, led by Wendy Wright, brought rap with vocals to the forefront, with groups like TLC following. The Osdorp Posse were the founders of Dutch rap or nederhop. Their frontman, Def P (Pascal Griffioen), switched from English to Dutch in 1988, which made him one of the first to rap in Dutch commercially. That year, Def P, IJsblok, King and Seda formed the Osdorp Posse. Over the years, they explored all sides of hiphop, from poetic hiphop to politically engaged hiphop. They introduced several Anglicisms in the Dutch language, such as moederneuker ("motherfucker ''). But before Osdorp Posse, Rotterdam - based rapper Def Rhymz and other members of Bad Boys Posse already used the Dutch language for raps during underground concerts. Other important Dutch rappers are The Opposites, De Jeugd van Tegenwoordig, Pete Philly & Perquisite, Extince (Peter Kops), Kempi, Brainpower (Gert - Jan Mulder), Opgezwolle, Spookrijders, Polderkartel, Typhoon (rapper), and Def Rhymz (Dennis Bouman). Currently, Nicolay is one of the leading hip hop producers to come out of the region.
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in the cno cycle which of the following acts as a catalyst | CNO cycle - wikipedia
The CNO cycle (for carbon -- nitrogen -- oxygen) is one of the two known sets of fusion reactions by which stars convert hydrogen to helium, the other being the proton -- proton chain reaction. Unlike the latter, the CNO cycle is a catalytic cycle. It is dominant in stars that are more than 1.3 times as massive as the Sun.
In the CNO cycle, four protons fuse, using carbon, nitrogen and oxygen isotopes as catalysts, to produce one alpha particle, two positrons and two electron neutrinos. Although there are various paths and catalysts involved in the CNO cycles, all these cycles have the same net result:
The positrons will almost instantly annihilate with electrons, releasing energy in the form of gamma rays. The neutrinos escape from the star carrying away some energy. One nucleus goes to become carbon, nitrogen, and oxygen isotopes through a number of transformations in an endless loop.
Theoretical models suggest that the CNO cycle is the dominant source of energy in stars whose mass is greater than about 1.3 times that of the Sun. The proton -- proton chain is more prominent in stars the mass of the Sun or less. This difference stems from temperature dependency differences between the two reactions; pp - chain reaction starts at temperatures around 7006400000000000000 ♠ 4 × 10 K (4 megakelvins), making it the dominant energy source in smaller stars. A self - maintaining CNO chain starts at approximately 7007150000000000000 ♠ 15 × 10 K, but its energy output rises much more rapidly with increasing temperatures. At approximately 7007170000000000000 ♠ 17 × 10 K, the CNO cycle starts becoming the dominant source of energy. The Sun has a core temperature of around 7007157000000000000 ♠ 15.7 × 10 K, and only 7000170000000000000 ♠ 1.7 % of 4 He nuclei produced in the Sun are born in the CNO cycle. The CNO - I process was independently proposed by Carl von Weizsäcker and Hans Bethe in 1938 and 1939, respectively.
Under typical conditions found in stars, catalytic hydrogen burning by the CNO cycles is limited by proton captures. Specifically, the timescale for beta decay of the radioactive nuclei produced is faster than the timescale for fusion. Because of the long timescales involved, the cold CNO cycles convert hydrogen to helium slowly, allowing them to power stars in quiescent equilibrium for many years.
The first proposed catalytic cycle for the conversion of hydrogen into helium was initially called the carbon -- nitrogen cycle (CN cycle), also honorarily referred to as the Bethe -- Weizsäcker cycle, because it does not involve a stable isotope of oxygen. Bethe 's original calculations suggested the CN - cycle was the Sun 's primary source of energy, owing to the belief at the time that the Sun 's composition was 10 % nitrogen; the solar abundance of nitrogen is now known to be less than half a percent. This cycle is now recognized as the first part of the larger CNO nuclear burning network. The main reactions of the CNO - I cycle are 12 6C → 13 7N → 13 6C → 14 7N → 15 8O → 15 7N → 12 6C:
where the carbon - 12 nucleus used in the first reaction is regenerated in the last reaction. After the two positrons emitted annihilate with two ambient electrons producing an additional 2.04 MeV, the total energy released in one cycle is 26.73 MeV; it should be noted that in some texts, authors are erroneously including the positron annihilation energy in with the beta - decay Q - value and then neglecting the equal amount of energy released by annihilation, leading to possible confusion. All values are calculated with reference to the Atomic Mass Evaluation 2003.
The limiting (slowest) reaction in the CNO - I cycle is the proton capture on 14 7N. In 2006 it was experimentally measured down to stellar energies, revising the calculated age of globular clusters by around 1 billion years.
The neutrinos emitted in beta decay will have a spectrum of energy ranges, because although momentum is conserved, the momentum can be shared in any way between the positron and neutrino, with either emitted at rest and the other taking away the full energy, or anything in between, so long as all the energy from the Q - value is used. The total momentum received by the electron and the neutrino is not great enough to cause a significant recoil of the much heavier daughter nucleus and hence, its contribution to kinetic energy of the products, for the precision of values given here, can be neglected. Thus the neutrino emitted during the decay of nitrogen - 13 can have an energy from zero up to 1.20 MeV, and the neutrino emitted during the decay of oxygen - 15 can have an energy from zero up to 1.73 MeV. On average, about 1.7 MeV of the total energy output is taken away by neutrinos for each loop of the cycle, leaving about 25 MeV available for producing luminosity.
In a minor branch of the above reaction, occurring in the Sun 's core 0.04 % of the time, the final reaction involving 15 7N shown above does not produce carbon - 12 and an alpha particle, but instead produces oxygen - 16 and a photon and continues 15 7N → 16 8O → 17 9F → 17 8O → 14 7N → 15 8O → 15 7N:
Like the carbon, nitrogen, and oxygen involved in the main branch, the fluorine produced in the minor branch is merely an intermediate product and at steady state, does not accumulate in the star.
This subdominant branch is significant only for massive stars. The reactions are started when one of the reactions in CNO - II results in fluorine - 18 and gamma instead of nitrogen - 14 and alpha, and continues 17 8O → 18 9F → 18 8O → 15 7N → 16 8O → 17 9F → 17 8O:
Like the CNO - III, this branch is also only significant in massive stars. The reactions are started when one of the reactions in CNO - III results in fluorine - 19 and gamma instead of nitrogen - 15 and alpha, and continues 19 9F → 16 8O → 17 9F → 17 8O → 18 9F → 18 8O → 19 9F:
Under conditions of higher temperature and pressure, such as those found in novae and x-ray bursts, the rate of proton captures exceeds the rate of beta - decay, pushing the burning to the proton drip line. The essential idea is that a radioactive species will capture a proton before it can beta decay, opening new nuclear burning pathways that are otherwise inaccessible. Because of the higher temperatures involved, these catalytic cycles are typically referred to as the hot CNO cycles; because the timescales are limited by beta decays instead of proton captures, they are also called the beta - limited CNO cycles.
The difference between the CNO - I cycle and the HCNO - I cycle is that 13 7N captures a proton instead of decaying, leading to the total sequence 12 6C → 13 7N → 14 8O → 14 7N → 15 8O → 15 7N → 12 6C:
The notable difference between the CNO - II cycle and the HCNO - II cycle is that 17 9F captures a proton instead of decaying, and neon is produced in a subsequent reaction on 18 9F, leading to the total sequence 15 7N → 16 8O → 17 9F → 18 10 Ne → 18 9F → 15 8O → 15 7N:
An alternative to the HCNO - II cycle is that 18 9F captures a proton moving towards higher mass and using the same helium production mechanism as the CNO - IV cycle as 18 9F → 19 10 Ne → 19 9F → 16 8O → 17 9F → 18 10 Ne → 18 9F:
While the total number of "catalytic '' nuclei are conserved in the cycle, in stellar evolution the relative proportions of the nuclei are altered. When the cycle is run to equilibrium, the ratio of the carbon - 12 / carbon - 13 nuclei is driven to 3.5, and nitrogen - 14 becomes the most numerous nucleus, regardless of initial composition. During a star 's evolution, convective mixing episodes moves material, within which the CNO cycle has operated, from the star 's interior to the surface, altering the observed composition of the star. Red giant stars are observed to have lower carbon - 12 / carbon - 13 and carbon - 12 / nitrogen - 14 ratios than do main sequence stars, which is considered to be convincing evidence for the operation of the CNO cycle.
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characters in the hobbit and lord of the rings | List of the Hobbit characters - wikipedia
This article describes all named characters appearing in J.R.R. Tolkien 's book The Hobbit. Creatures as collectives are not included. Characters are categorized by race. Spelling and point of view are given as from The Hobbit; details from sources outside The Hobbit are given only where important to understanding the character within the tale, and with the source noted.
Thorin 's company consisted of the following 13 dwarves; their quest in The Hobbit is the main impetus of the plot. Their quest was joined by Bilbo Baggins (a hobbit) and occasionally by the wizard Gandalf.
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who eliminated in telugu bigg boss this week | Bigg Boss Telugu 2 - wikipedia
Bigg Boss Telugu 2 is the second season of the Telugu - language version of the reality TV show Bigg Boss broadcast in India. The season premiered on June 10, 2018 on Star Maa. Nani hosts the show and it is the second longest season for 112 days in Indian versions of Bigg Boss.
Unlike the first season, this season featured general public along with celebrities as housemates.
For this season of Bigg Boss, a lavish house set has been constructed in Backlots of Annapurna Studios 7 Acres, Jubilee Hills, Hyderabad.
The season was extended by one week (112 days) instead of the actual 105 days format of the show.
Among the five finalists, Kaushal Manda emerged as the winner with highest number of public votes, followed by Geetha Madhuri as runner - up, Tanish Alladi, Deepti Nallamothu and Samrat Reddy as third, fourth and fifth respectively.
The participants in the order they entered the house are:
Then two contestants entered the activity room to compete in a task to join the King 's Team. → Winners of Mud Pit tasks given by BIGG BOSS joined King 's Team and remaining housemates became villagers who work for the princess. → King 's Team members are Amit, Samrat, Babu Gogineni, Ganesh, Bhanu, and Kireeti. → Princess Team members are Deepthi Sunaina, Tejaswi, Roll Rida, Syamala, Tanish, and Kaushal.
BIGG BOSS placed one diamond in the living area which gives housemates more points to win Round two. → The losing team 's leader will be locked in jail by the winning team 's leader. Raju Gari Malla is a task which hosted by Geetha. In this task, two teams have to get as many flowers from the pool in the garden area to make a garland. Princess Team won the task with 96 flowers. Raja Simhasanam is a task which hosted by Geetha. Nandhini (Princess) sits on a chair and two teams have to pull the chair to win. King 's Team won by pulling the chair to their side. BIGG BOSS announced Princess Team as the winner of round two and ordered Nandhini (Princess) to lock Nutan Naidu (King), and Deepti Nallamothu (Queen) in jail.
Amit Tiwari won week 3 Captaincy
Bigg Boss house became a sugar cane factory. In this task, there are two teams and one quality - check manager. Yellow team owner is Kaushal, Green team owner is Kireeti Damaraju and the quality - check manager and chancellor of the task is Bhanu Sree. Two teams have to complete the sugar cane juice bottles order given by Bigg Boss by using sugar cane juice machines placed in the garden area and save Bigg Boss money to win. The Quality - check manager should check the quality and accept or reject the bottles.
→ Order One given by Bigg Boss 25 juice bottles for both teams. Green team won with 25 bottles. → Order Two given by Bigg Boss 50 bottles. Both teams failed to complete the order. → Order Three given by Bigg Boss 100 bottles. Bigg Boss canceled the order because the green team cheated by mixing water with sugar cane juice in bottles.
Yellow team are with 73,000 of Bigg Boss money worker (Tejaswi) and 15,000 with owner after giving wages to workers while the green team lost with 53,000 of Bigg Boss money worker (Ganesh) and 0 money with owner after giving wages to workers. And 31,000 Bigg boss money with quality - check manager (Bhanu Sree). Kaushal and Tejaswi awarded with special vote power by Bigg Boss for winning luxury budget task.
Contenders: - Ganesh, Kireeti Damaraju, Roll Rida.
In this task, contenders had to eat as much biryani as they could before the buzzer sounded. Roll Rida won week 4 captaincy by eating 13 servings of biryani.
Babu Gogineni Tejaswi Madivada Geetha Madhuri Kaushal Deepti Nallamothu Ganesh Nandhini Rai Syamala
In this luxury budget task there are two teams Manchivallu Team and Cheddavallu Team.
Manchi team had to clean things in the house and they had to cook for all housemates. Chedu team tried to make the house dirty. Manchi team had to protect three lotus flowers and red apples to not lose points and chedu team had to destroy those flowers and protect black apples to gain points. The apple tree was in garden area it contains red and black apples. While chedu team won the task Bigg Boss gave 2600 amazon.in luxury budget points for good performances by both the teams and 200 points were deducted due to tejaswi destroyed the cleaning mop therefore housemates won 2400 amazon.in luxury budget points to buy luxury items.
Contenders are: Geetha Madhuri, Deepthi Sunaina
Two contenders had to prepare their own campaigns on what reforms they are making and propagate to each housemate and they should clarify housemates ' doubts. After propagations, Bigg Boss conducted an election and all housemates had to drop their votes in ballot box arranged in the garden area. Geetha Madhuri won Week 6 captaincy with 11 votes.
In this luxury budget task, housemates have to shoot a film. Amit as Director, Deepti nallamothu as Assistant director (A.D), Roll Rida as Director of photography (DOP), Tejaswi madivada as choreographer, makeup man and Stylist. Level one: - Director, Assistant Director and DOP have to prepare a story and its characters. The film should be in the order like Beginning, Romance, Action, and climax. Level Two: - Auditions has to be conducted by Amit (Director), Deepti Nallamothu (A.D), and Roll Rida (DOP) in the Activity Room. The remaining housemates had to audition to be selected to be a character for the film. Rejected housemates became helping crew in the film and were not eligible for the next captaincy task.
Team one won this task and they awarded with luxury items available under the cap of the body spray bottle collected by them.
Team one won this luxury budget task by surviving three hours on planks as survivors.
In this Captaincy Task, housemates are asked to dance for the song, only one housemate to contend for each song, total of five songs. And the DJ with the most housemates dancing to their song is a New Captain.
Mahilalu team has 325 coins. Purushulu team won this luxury budget task with 330 gold coins.
Team Kaushal: Samrat, Syamala, Kaushal, Deepti Nallamothu, Nuthan Naidu, Amit Tiwari Team Tanish: Roll Rida, Geetha Madhuri, Deepthi Sunaina, Tanish, Pooja Ramachandran, Ganesh Call center executives have to patiently listen to their customers ' complaints and should respond politely and make them disconnect the call to gain one point. Customers have to irritate the executives and make them disconnect the call to gain one point. Team One members are call center executives and Team Two members are customers on Day 1. Roles are reversed on Day 2. Kaushal team won the task with 10 points and they were awarded with 2400 Luxury Budget points to buy luxury items.
List of orders given by Bigg Boss:
There are three sand containers in the garden area. Roll Rida, Geetha Madhuri, and Kaushal have to protect their respective sand container, while Deepti Nallamothu, Tanish, and Samrat have to empty or destroy their sand containers after start buzzer sounded. At the end buzzer the contestant with more amount of sand becomes eligible for the level two. The roles get reversed subsequently to decide the second qualifier for the level two. Roll Rida and Samrat qualified for level two.
There are two egg bowls for one each. Samrat and Roll Rida have to protect their respective egg bowls to win the task. Remaining housemates can try to brake their eggs. Contenders can hide anywhere in house except washrooms. Samrat won the task and gained immunity from week 's eviction and became a first finalist of the season.
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who were the sudetens and where was the sudetenland | Sudetenland - wikipedia
The Sudetenland (/ suːˈdeɪtənlænd / (listen); German: (zuˈdeːtn̩ˌlant); Czech and Slovak: Sudety; Polish: Kraj Sudecki) is the historical German name for the northern, southern, and western areas of former Czechoslovakia which were inhabited primarily by Sudeten Germans. These German speakers had predominated in the border districts of Bohemia, Moravia, and Czech Silesia from the time of the Austrian Empire.
The word "Sudetenland '' did not come into existence until the early 20th century and did not come to prominence until after the First World War, when the German - dominated Austria - Hungary was dismembered and the Sudeten Germans found themselves living in the new country of Czechoslovakia. The Sudeten crisis of 1938 was provoked by the Pan-Germanist demands of Germany that the Sudetenland be annexed to Germany, which happened after the later infamous Munich Agreement. When Czechoslovakia was reconstituted after the Second World War, the Sudeten Germans were ethnicly cleansed, and the region today is inhabited almost exclusively by Czech speakers.
The word Sudetenland is a German compound of Land, meaning "country '', and Sudeten, the name of the Sudeten Mountains, which run along the northern Czech border and Lower Silesia (now in Poland). The Sudetenland encompassed areas well beyond those mountains, however.
Parts of the now Czech regions of Karlovy Vary, Liberec, Olomouc, Moravia - Silesia, and Ústí nad Labem are within the area called Sudetenland.
The areas later known as the Sudetenland never formed a single historical region, which makes it difficult to distinguish the history of the Sudetenland apart from that of Bohemia, until the advent of nationalism in the 19th century.
The Celtic and Boii tribes settled there and the region was first mentioned on the map of Ptolemaios in the 2nd century AD. The Germanic tribe of the Marcomanni dominated the entire core of the region in later centuries. Those tribes already built cities like Brno, but moved west during the Migration Period. In the 7th century AD Slavic people moved in and were united under Samo 's realm. Later in the High Middle Ages Germans settled into the less populated border region.
In the Middle Ages the regions situated on the mountainous border of the Duchy and the Kingdom of Bohemia had since the Migration Period been settled mainly by western Slavic Czechs. Along the Bohemian Forest in the west, the Czech lands bordered on the German Slavic tribes (German Sorbs) stem duchies of Bavaria and Franconia; marches of the medieval German kingdom had also been established in the adjacent Austrian lands south of the Bohemian - Moravian Highlands and the northern Meissen region beyond the Ore Mountains. In the course of the Ostsiedlung (settlement of the east) German settlement from the 13th century onwards continued to move into the Upper Lusatia region and the duchies of Silesia north of the Sudetes mountain range.
From as early as the second half of the 13th century onwards these Bohemian border regions were settled by ethnic Germans, who were invited by the Přemyslid Bohemian kings -- especially by Ottokar II (1253 -- 1278) and Wenceslaus II (1278 -- 1305). After the extinction of the Přemyslid dynasty in 1306, the Bohemian nobility backed John of Luxembourg as king against his rival Duke Henry of Carinthia. In 1322 King John of Bohemia acquired (for the third time) the formerly Imperial Egerland region in the west and was able to vassalize most of the Piast Silesian duchies, acknowledged by King Casimir III of Poland by the 1335 Treaty of Trentschin. His son, Bohemian King Charles IV, was elected King of the Romans in 1346 and crowned Holy Roman Emperor in 1355. He added the Lusatias to the Lands of the Bohemian Crown, which then comprised large territories with a significant German population.
In the hilly border regions German settlers established major manufactures of forest glass. The situation of the German population was aggravated by the Hussite Wars (1419 -- 1434), though there were also some Germans among the Hussite insurgents.
By then Germans largely settled the hilly Bohemian border regions as well as the cities of the lowlands; mainly people of Bavarian descent in the South Bohemian and South Moravian Region, in Brno, Jihlava, České Budějovice and the West Bohemian Plzeň Region; Franconian people in Žatec; Upper Saxons in adjacent North Bohemia, where the border with the Saxon Electorate was fixed by the 1459 Peace of Eger; Germanic Silesians in the adjacent Sudetes region with the County of Kladsko, in the Moravian -- Silesian Region, in Svitavy and Olomouc. The city of Prague had a German - speaking majority from the last third of the 17th century until 1860, but after 1910 the proportion of German speakers had decreased to 6.7 % of the population.
From the Luxembourgs, the rule over Bohemia passed through George of Podiebrad to the Jagiellon dynasty and finally to the House of Habsburg in 1526. Both Czech and German Bohemians suffered heavily in the Thirty Years War. Bohemia lost 70 % of its population. From the defeat of the Bohemian Revolt that collapsed at the 1620 Battle of White Mountain, the Habsburgs gradually integrated the Kingdom of Bohemia into their monarchy. During the subsequent Counter-Reformation, less populated areas were resettled with Catholic Germans from the Austrian lands. From 1627 the Habsburgs enforced the so - called Verneuerte Landesordnung ("Renewed Land 's Constitution '') and one of its consequences was that German according to mother tongue gradually became the primary and official language while Czech declined to a secondary role in the Empire. Also in 1749 Austrian Empire enforced German as the official language again. Emperor Joseph II in 1780 renounced the coronation ceremony as Bohemian king and unsuccessfully tried to push German through as sole official language in all Habsburg lands (including Hungary). Nevertheless, German cultural influence grew stronger during the Age of Enlightenment and Weimar Classicism.
On the other hand, in the course of the Romanticism movement national tensions arose, both in the form of the Austroslavism ideology developed by Czech politicians like František Palacký and Pan-Germanist activist raising the German question. Conflicts between Czech and German nationalists emerged in the 19th century, for instance in the Revolutions of 1848: while the German - speaking population of Bohemia and Moravia wanted to participate in the building of a German nation state, the Czech - speaking population insisted on keeping Bohemia out of such plans. The Bohemian Kingdom remained a part of the Austrian Empire and Austria - Hungary until its dismemberment after the First World War.
In the wake of growing nationalism, the name "Sudetendeutsche '' (Sudeten Germans) emerged by the early 20th century. It originally constituted part of a larger classification of three groupings of Germans within the Austro - Hungarian Empire, which also included "Alpine Deutschen '' (English: Alpine Germans) in what later became the Republic of Austria and "Balkandeutsche '' (English: Balkan Germans) in Hungary and the regions east of it. Of these three terms, only the term "Sudetendeutsche '' survived, because of the ethnic and cultural conflicts within Bohemia.
During World War I, what would later be known as the Sudetenland experienced a rate of war deaths higher than most other German - speaking areas of Austria - Hungary and exceeded only by German South Moravia and Carinthia. Thirty - four of each 1,000 inhabitants were killed.
Austria - Hungary broke apart at the end of World War I. Late in October 1918, an independent Czechoslovak state, consisting of the lands of the Bohemian kingdom and areas belonging to the Kingdom of Hungary, was proclaimed. The German deputies of Bohemia, Moravia, and Silesia in the Imperial Council (Reichsrat) referred to the Fourteen Points of U.S. President Woodrow Wilson and the right proposed therein to self - determination, and attempted to negotiate the union of the German - speaking territories with the new Republic of German Austria, which itself aimed at joining Weimar Germany.
The German - speaking parts of the former Lands of the Bohemian Crown remained in a newly created Czechoslovakia, a multi-ethnic state of several nations: Czechs, Germans, Slovaks, Hungarians, Poles and Ruthenians. On 20 September 1918, the Prague government asked the United States 's opinion for the Sudetenland. President Woodrow Wilson sent Ambassador Archibald Coolidge into Czechoslovakia. After Coolidge became witness of German Bohemian demonstrations, Coolidge suggested the possibility of ceding certain German - speaking parts of Bohemia to Germany (Cheb) and Austria (South Moravia and South Bohemia). He also insisted that the German - inhabited regions of West and North Bohemia remain within Czechoslovakia. The American delegation at the Paris talks, with Allen Dulles as the American 's chief diplomat in the Czechoslovak Commission who emphasized preserving the unity of the Czech lands, decided not to follow Coolidge 's proposal.
Four regional governmental units were established:
The U.S. commission to the Paris Peace Conference issued a declaration which gave unanimous support for "unity of Czech lands ''. In particular the declaration stated:
The Commission was... unanimous in its recommendation that the separation of all areas inhabited by the German - Bohemians would not only expose Czechoslovakia to great dangers but equally create great difficulties for the Germans themselves. The only practicable solution was to incorporate these Germans into Czechoslovakia.
Several German minorities according to their mother tongue in Moravia -- including German - speaking populations in Brno, Jihlava, and Olomouc -- also attempted to proclaim their union with German Austria, but failed. The Czechs thus rejected the aspirations of the German Bohemians and demanded the inclusion of the lands inhabited by ethnic Germans in their state, despite the presence of more than 90 % (as of 1921) ethnic Germans (which led to the presence of 23.4 % of Germans in all of Czechoslovakia), on the grounds they had always been part of lands of the Bohemian Crown. The Treaty of Saint - Germain in 1919 affirmed the inclusion of the German - speaking territories within Czechoslovakia. Over the next two decades, some Germans in the Sudetenland continued to strive for a separation of the German - inhabited regions from Czechoslovakia.
According to the February 1921 census, 3,123,000 native German speakers lived in Czechoslovakia -- 23.4 % of the total population. The controversies between the Czechs and the German - speaking minority lingered on throughout the 1920s, and intensified in the 1930s.
During the Great Depression the mostly mountainous regions populated by the German minority, together with other peripheral regions of Czechoslovakia, were hurt by the economic depression more than the interior of the country. Unlike the less developed regions (Ruthenia, Moravian Wallachia), the Sudetenland had a high concentration of vulnerable export - dependent industries (such as glass works, textile industry, paper - making, and toy - making industry). Sixty percent of the bijouterie and glass - making industry were located in the Sudetenland, 69 % of employees in this sector were Germans speaking according to mother tongue, and 95 % of bijouterie and 78 % of other glassware was produced for export. The glass - making sector was affected by decreased spending power and also by protective measures in other countries and many German workers lost their work.
The high unemployment, as well as the imposition of Czech in schools and all public spaces, made people more open to populist and extremist movements such as fascism, communism, and German irredentism. In these years, the parties of German nationalists and later the Nazi Sudeten German National Socialist Party (SdP) with its radical demands gained immense popularity among Germans in Czechoslovakia.
The increasing aggressiveness of Hitler prompted the Czechoslovak military to build extensive border fortifications starting in 1936 to defend the troubled border region. Immediately after the Anschluß of Austria into the Third Reich in March 1938, Hitler made himself the advocate of ethnic Germans living in Czechoslovakia, triggering the "Sudeten Crisis ''. The following month, Sudeten Nazis, led by Konrad Henlein, agitated for autonomy. On 24 April 1938 the SdP proclaimed the Karlsbader Programm (de), which demanded in eight points the complete equality between the Sudeten Germans and the Czech people. The government accepted these claims on 30 June 1938.
In August, British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain sent Lord Runciman on a Mission to Czechoslovakia in order to see if he could obtain a settlement between the Czechoslovak government and the Germans in the Sudetenland. Lord Runciman 's first day included meetings with President Beneš and Prime Minister Milan Hodža as well as a direct meeting with the Sudeten Germans from Henlein 's SdP. On the next day he met with Dr and Mme Beneš and later met non-Nazi Germans in his hotel.
A full account of his report -- including summaries of the conclusions of his meetings with the various parties -- which he made in person to the Cabinet on his return to Britain is found in the Document CC 39 (38). Lord Runciman expressed sadness that he could not bring about agreement with the various parties, but he agreed with Lord Halifax that the time gained was important. He reported on the situation of the Sudeten Germans, and he gave details of four plans which had been proposed to deal with the crisis, each of which had points which, he reported, made it unacceptable to the other parties to the negotiations.
The four were: Transfer of the Sudetenland to the Reich; hold a plebiscite on the transfer of the Sudetenland to the Reich, organize a Four Power Conference on the matter, create a federal Czechoslovakia. At the meeting, he said that he was very reluctant to offer his own solution; he had not seen this as his task. The most that he said was that the great centres of opposition were in Eger and Asch, in the northwestern corner of Bohemia, which contained about 800,000 Germans and very few others.
He did say that the transfer of these areas to Germany would almost certainly be a good thing; he added that the Czechoslovak army would certainly oppose this very strongly, and that Beneš had said that they would fight rather than accept it.
British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain met with Adolf Hitler in Berchtesgaden on 15 September and agreed to the cession of the Sudetenland; three days later, French Prime Minister Édouard Daladier did the same. No Czechoslovak representative was invited to these discussions. Germany was now able to walk into the Sudetenland without firing a shot.
Chamberlain met Hitler in Godesberg on 22 September to confirm the agreements. Hitler, aiming to use the crisis as a pretext for war, now demanded not only the annexation of the Sudetenland but the immediate military occupation of the territories, giving the Czechoslovak army no time to adapt their defence measures to the new borders. To achieve a solution, Italian dictator Benito Mussolini suggested a conference of the major powers in Munich and on 29 September, Hitler, Daladier and Chamberlain met and agreed to Mussolini 's proposal (actually prepared by Hermann Göring) and signed the Munich Agreement, accepting the immediate occupation of the Sudetenland. The Czechoslovak government, though not party to the talks, submitted to compulsion and promised to abide by the agreement on 30 September.
The Sudetenland was relegated to Germany between 1 October and 10 October 1938. The Czech part of Czechoslovakia was subsequently invaded by Germany in March 1939, with a portion being annexed and the remainder turned into the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia. The Slovak part declared its independence from Czechoslovakia, becoming the Slovak Republic (Slovak State), a satellite state and ally of Nazi Germany. (The Ruthenian part -- Subcarpathian Rus -- made also an attempt to declare its sovereignty as Carpatho - Ukraine but only with ephemeral success. This area was annexed by Hungary.)
Part of the borderland was also invaded and annexed by Poland.
The Catholic Requiem of fallen Czech policemen and security officials killed in a skirmish by Sudeten German Freecorps members, at Falkenau an der Eger (Czech: Sokolov) in the Egerland
Ethnic Germans in the city of Eger (Czech: Cheb) greeting Hitler with the Nazi salute after he crossed the border into the formerly Czechoslovak Sudetenland on 3 October 1938
Volunteers of the Sudeten German Free Corps (German: Sudetendeutsches Freikorps) receiving refreshments from the local population in the city of Eger (Czech: Cheb)
Adolf Hitler drives through the crowd in Eger, 3 October 1938
The Sudetenland was initially put under military administration, with General Wilhelm Keitel as military governor. On 21 October 1938, the annexed territories were divided, with the southern parts being incorporated into the neighbouring Reichsgaue Niederdonau, Oberdonau and Bayerische Ostmark.
The northern and western parts were reorganized as the Reichsgau Sudetenland, with the city of Reichenberg (present - day Liberec) established as its capital. Konrad Henlein (now openly a NSDAP member) administered the district first as Reichskommissar (until 1 May 1939) and then as Reichsstatthalter (1 May 1939 -- 4 May 1945). The Sudetenland consisted of three administrative districts (Regierungsbezirke): Eger (with Karlsbad as capital), Aussig (Aussig) and Troppau (Troppau).
Shortly after the annexation, the Jews living in the Sudetenland were widely persecuted. Only a few weeks afterwards, the Kristallnacht occurred. As elsewhere in Germany, many synagogues were set on fire and numerous leading Jews were sent to concentration camps. In later years, the Nazis transported up to 300,000 Czech and Slovak Jews to concentration camps, where many of them were killed or died. Jews and Czechs were not the only afflicted peoples; German socialists, communists and pacifists were widely persecuted as well. Some of the German socialists fled the Sudetenland via Prague and London to other countries. The Gleichschaltung would permanently alter the community in the Sudetenland.
Despite this, on 4 December 1938 there were elections in Reichsgau Sudetenland, in which 97.32 % of the adult population voted for NSDAP. About a half million Sudeten Germans joined the Nazi Party which was 17.34 % of the total German population in the Sudetenland (the average NSDAP membership participation in Nazi Germany was merely 7.85 % in 1944). This means the Sudetenland was one of the most pro-Nazi regions of the Third Reich. Because of their knowledge of the Czech language, many Sudeten Germans were employed in the administration of the ethnic Czech Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia as well as in Nazi organizations (Gestapo, etc.). The most notable was Karl Hermann Frank: the SS and Police general and Secretary of State in the Protectorate.
Shortly after the liberation of Czechoslovakia in May 1945, the use of the term Sudety (Sudetenland) in official communications was banned and replaced by the term pohraniční území (border territory).
After World War II in summer 1945 the Potsdam Conference decided that Sudeten Germans would have to leave Czechoslovakia (see Expulsion of Germans after World War II). As a consequence of the immense hostility against all Germans that had grown within Czechoslovakia due to Nazi behavior, the overwhelming majority of Germans were expelled (while the relevant Czechoslovak legislation provided for the remaining Germans who were able to prove their anti-Nazi affiliation).
The number of expelled Germans in the early phase (spring -- summer 1945) is estimated to be around 500,000 people. Following the Beneš decrees and starting in 1946, the majority of the Germans were expelled and in 1950 only 159,938 (from 3,149,820 in 1930) still lived in the Czech Republic. The remaining Germans, proven anti-fascists and skilled laborers, were allowed to stay in Czechoslovakia, but were later forcefully dispersed within the country. Some German refugees from Czechoslovakia are represented by the Sudetendeutsche Landsmannschaft.
Many of the Germans who stayed in Czechoslovakia later emigrated to West Germany (more than 100,000). As the German population was transferred out of the country, the former Sudetenland was resettled, mostly by Czechs but also by other nationalities of Czechoslovakia: Slovaks, Greeks (arriving in the wake of the Greek Civil War 1946 -- 49), Carpathian Ruthenians, Romani people and Jews who had survived the Holocaust, and Hungarians (though the Hungarians were forced into this and later returned home -- see Hungarians in Slovakia: Population exchanges).
Some areas -- such as part of Czech Silesian - Moravian borderland, southwestern Bohemia (Šumava National Park), western and northern parts of Bohemia -- remained depopulated for several strategic reasons (extensive mining and military interests) or are now protected national parks and landscapes. Moreover, before the establishment of the Iron Curtain in 1952 -- 55, the so - called "forbidden zone '' was established (by means of engineer equipment) up to 2 km (1.2 mi) from the border in which no civilians could reside. A wider region, or "border zone '' existed, up to 12 km from the border, in which no "disloyal '' or "suspect '' civilians could reside or work. Thus, the entire Aš - Bulge fell within the border zone; this status remained until the Velvet Revolution in 1989.
There remained areas with noticeable German minorities in the westernmost borderland around Cheb, where skilled ethnic German miners and workers continued in mining and industry until 1955, sanctioned under the Yalta Conference protocols; in the Egerland, German minority organizations continue to exist. Also, the small town of Kravaře (German: Deutsch Krawarn) in the multiethnic Hlučín Region of Czech Silesia has an ethnic German majority (2006), including an ethnic German mayor.
In the 2001 census, approximately 40,000 people in the Czech Republic claimed German ethnicity.
ČSR; boundaries and government established by the 1920 constitution. Annexed by Nazi Germany. ČSR; included the autonomous regions of Slovakia and Carpathian Ruthenia. Annexed by Hungary (1939 -- 1945).
ČSR; declared a "people 's democracy '' (without formal name change) under the Ninth - of - May Constitution following the 1948 coup. ČSSR; from 1969, after the Prague Spring, consisted of the Czech Socialist Republic (ČSR) and Slovak Socialist Republic (SSR). Oblast of the Ukrainian SSR. Oblast of Ukraine.
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when did the 8 hour work day start in australia | Eight - hour day - wikipedia
The eight - hour day movement or 40 - hour week movement, also known as the short - time movement, was a social movement to regulate the length of a working day, preventing excesses and abuses. It had its origins in the Industrial Revolution in Britain, where industrial production in large factories transformed working life. The use of child labour was common. The working day could range from 10 to 16 hours, and the work week was typically six days a week.
Robert Owen had raised the demand for a ten - hour day in 1810, and instituted it in his socialist enterprise at New Lanark. By 1817 he had formulated the goal of the eight - hour day and coined the slogan: "Eight hours ' labour, Eight hours ' recreation, Eight hours ' rest ''. Women and children in England were granted the ten - hour day in 1847. French workers won the 12 - hour day after the February Revolution of 1848. A shorter working day and improved working conditions were part of the general protests and agitation for Chartist reforms and the early organisation of trade unions.
The International Workingmen 's Association took up the demand for an eight - hour day at its Congress in Geneva in 1866, declaring "The legal limitation of the working day is a preliminary condition without which all further attempts at improvements and emancipation of the working class must prove abortive '', and "The Congress proposes eight hours as the legal limit of the working day. ''
Karl Marx saw it as of vital importance to the workers ' health, writing in Das Kapital (1867): "By extending the working day, therefore, capitalist production... not only produces a deterioration of human labour power by robbing it of its normal moral and physical conditions of development and activity, but also produces the premature exhaustion and death of this labour power itself. ''
The first country to adopt eight - hour working day was Uruguay. The eight - hour day was introduced on November 17, 1915, in the government of José Batlle y Ordóñez.
The first international treaty to mention it was the Treaty of Versailles in the annex of its thirteen part establishing the International Labour Office, now the International Labour Organization.
The eight - hour day was the first topic discussed by the International Labour Organization which resulted in the Hours of Work (Industry) Convention, 1919 ratified by 52 countries as of 2016.
Although there were initial successes in achieving an eight - hour day in New Zealand and by the Australian labour movement for skilled workers in the 1840s and 1850s, most employed people had to wait to the early and mid twentieth century for the condition to be widely achieved through the industrialised world through legislative action.
The eight - hour day movement forms part of the early history for the celebration of Labour Day, and May Day in many nations and cultures.
In Iran in 1918, the work of reorganizing the trade unions began in earnest in Tehran during the closure of the Iranian constitutional parliament Majles. The printers ' union, established in 1906 by Mohammad Parvaneh as the first trade union, in the Koucheki print shop on Nasserieh Avenue in Tehran, reorganized their union under leadership of Russian - educated Seyed Mohammad Dehgan, a newspaper editor and an avowed Communist. In 1918, the newly organised union staged a 14 - day strike and succeeded in reaching a collective agreement with employers to institute the eight - hours day, overtime pay, and medical care. The success of the printers ' union encouraged other trades to organize. In 1919 the bakers and textile - shop clerks formed their own trade unions.
However the eight - hours day only became as code by a limited governor 's decree on 1923 by the governor of Kerman, Sistan and Balochistan, which controlled the working conditions and working hours for workers of carpet workshops in the province. In 1946 the council of ministers issued the first labor law for Iran, which recognized the eight - hour day.
The first company to introduce an eight - hour working day in Japan was the Kawasaki Dockyards in Kobe (now the Kawasaki Shipbuilding Corporation). An eight - hour day was one of the demands presented by the workers during pay negotiations in September 1919. After the company resisted the demands, a slowdown campaign was commenced by the workers on 18 September. After ten days of industrial action, company president Kōjirō Matsukata agreed to the eight - hour day and wage increases on 27 September, which became effective from October. The effects of the action were felt nationwide and inspired further industrial action at the Kawasaki and Mitsubishi shipyards in 1921.
The eight - hour day did not become law in Japan until the passing of the Labor Standards Act in April 1947. Article 32 (1) of the Act specifies a 40 - hour week and paragraph (2) specifies an eight - hour day, excluding rest periods.
In Indonesia, the first policy regarding working time regulated in Law No. 13 of 2003 about employment. In the law, it stated that a worker should work for 7 hours a day for 6 days a week or 8 hours a day for 7 days a week, excluding rest periods.
The 8 - hour work day was introduced in Belgium on September 9, 1924.
The 8 - hour work day was first introduced in 1907. Within the next few decades, the 8 - hour system spread gradually across technically all branches of work. A worker receives 150 % payment from the first two extra hours, and 200 % salary if the work day exceeds 10 hours.
The eight - hour day was enacted in France by Georges Clemenceau, as a way to avoid unemployment and diminish communist support. It was succeeded by a strong French support of it during the writing of the International Labour Organization Convention of 1919.
The first German company to introduce the eight - hour day was Degussa. The eight - hour day was signed into law during the German Revolution of 1918.
In Poland, the eight - hour day was introduced November 23, 1918 by decree of the gabinet of the Prime Minister Jędrzej Moraczewski.
In Portugal a vast wave of strikes occurred in 1919, supported by the National Workers ' Union, the biggest labour union organisation at the time. The workers achieved important objectives, including the historic victory of an eight - hour day.
In Russia, the eight - hour day was introduced in 1917, four days after the October Revolution, by a Decree of the Soviet government.
In the region of Alcoy, Spain, a workers strike in 1873 for the eight - hour day followed much agitation from the anarchists. In 1919 in Barcelona, Catalonia, after a 44 - day general strike with over 100,000 participants had effectively crippled the Catalan economy, the Government settled the strike by granting all the striking workers demands that included an eight - hour day, union recognition, and the rehiring of fired workers.
The Factory Act of 1833 limited the work day for children in factories. Those aged 9 -- 13 could work only eight hours, 14 -- 18 12 hours. Children under 9 were required to attend school.
In 1884, Tom Mann joined the Social Democratic Federation (SDF) and published a pamphlet calling for the working day to be limited to eight hours. Mann formed an organisation, the Eight Hour League, which successfully pressured the Trades Union Congress to adopt the eight - hour day as a key goal. The British socialist economist Sidney Webb and the scholar Harold Cox co-wrote a book supporting the "Eight Hours Movement '' in Britain.
The labour movement in Canada tracked progress in the US and UK. In 1890, the Federation of Labour took up this issue, hoping to organise participation in May Day.
The Mexican Revolution of 1910 -- 1920 produced the Constitution of 1917, which contained Article 123 that gave workers the right to organise labour unions and to strike. It also provided protection for women and children, the eight - hour day, and a living wage. See Mexican labour law.
In the United States, Philadelphia carpenters went on strike in 1791 for the ten - hour day. By the 1830s, this had become a general demand. In 1835, workers in Philadelphia organised the first general strike in North America, led by Irish coal heavers. Their banners read, From 6 to 6, ten hours work and two hours for meals. Labour movement publications called for an eight - hour day as early as 1836. Boston ship carpenters, although not unionised, achieved an eight - hour day in 1842.
In 1864, the eight - hour day quickly became a central demand of the Chicago labour movement. The Illinois legislature passed a law in early 1867 granting an eight - hour day but had so many loopholes that it was largely ineffective. A citywide strike that began on 1 May 1867 shut down the city 's economy for a week before collapsing.
On 25 June 1868, Congress passed an eight - hour law for federal employees which was also of limited effectiveness. It established an eight - hour workday for labourers and mechanics employed by the Federal Government. President Andrew Johnson had vetoed the act but it was passed over his veto. Johnson told a Workingmen 's party delegation that he could n't directly commit himself to an eight - hour day, he nevertheless told the same delegation that he greatly favoured the "shortest number of hours consistent with the interests of all. '' According to Richard F. Selcer, however, the intentions behind the law were "immediately frustrated '' as wages were cut by 20 %.
On 19 May 1869, President Ulysses Grant issued a National Eight Hour Law Proclamation.
In August 1866, the National Labor Union at Baltimore passed a resolution that said, "The first and great necessity of the present to free labour of this country from capitalist slavery, is the passing of a law by which eight hours shall be the normal working day in all States of the American Union. We are resolved to put forth all our strength until this glorious result is achieved. ''
During the 1870s, eight hours became a central demand, especially among labour organisers, with a network of Eight - Hour Leagues which held rallies and parades. A hundred thousand workers in New York City struck and won the eight - hour day in 1872, mostly for building trades workers. In Chicago, Albert Parsons became recording secretary of the Chicago Eight - Hour League in 1878, and was appointed a member of a national eight - hour committee in 1880.
At its convention in Chicago in 1884, the Federation of Organized Trades and Labor Unions resolved that "eight hours shall constitute a legal day 's labour from and after May 1, 1886, and that we recommend to labour organisations throughout this jurisdiction that they so direct their laws as to conform to this resolution by the time named. ''
The leadership of the Knights of Labor, under Terence V. Powderly, rejected appeals to join the movement as a whole, but many local Knights assemblies joined the strike call including Chicago, Cincinnati and Milwaukee. On 1 May 1886, Albert Parsons, head of the Chicago Knights of Labor, with his wife Lucy Parsons and two children, led 80,000 people down Michigan Avenue, Chicago, in what is regarded as the first modern May Day Parade, with the cry, "Eight - hour day with no cut in pay. '' In support of the eight - hour day. In the next few days they were joined nationwide by 350,000 workers who went on strike at 1,200 factories, including 70,000 in Chicago, 45,000 in New York, 32,000 in Cincinnati, and additional thousands in other cities. Some workers gained shorter hours (eight or nine) with no reduction in pay; others accepted pay cuts with the reduction in hours.
On 3 May 1886, August Spies, editor of the Arbeiter - Zeitung (Workers Newspaper), spoke at a meeting of 6,000 workers, and afterwards many of them moved down the street to harass strikebreakers at the McCormick plant in Chicago. The police arrived, opened fire, and killed four people, wounding many more. At a subsequent rally on 4 May to protest this violence, a bomb exploded at the Haymarket Square. Hundreds of labour activists were rounded up and the prominent labour leaders arrested, tried, convicted, and executed giving the movement its first martyrs. On 26 June 1893 Illinois Governor John Peter Altgeld set the remaining leader free, and granted full pardons to all those tried claiming they were innocent of the crime for which they had been tried and the hanged men had been the victims of "hysteria, packed juries and a biased judge ''.
The American Federation of Labor, meeting in St Louis in December 1888, set 1 May 1890 as the day that American workers should work no more than eight hours. The International Workingmen 's Association (Second International), meeting in Paris in 1889, endorsed the date for international demonstrations, thus starting the international tradition of May Day.
The United Mine Workers won an eight - hour day in 1898.
The Building Trades Council (BTC) of San Francisco, under the leadership of P.H. McCarthy, won the eight - hour day in 1900 when the BTC unilaterally declared that its members would work only eight hours a day for $3 a day. When the mill resisted, the BTC began organising mill workers; the employers responded by locking out 8,000 employees throughout the Bay Area. The BTC, in return, established a union planing mill from which construction employers could obtain supplies -- or face boycotts and sympathy strikes if they did not. The mill owners went to arbitration, where the union won the eight - hour day, a closed shop for all skilled workers, and an arbitration panel to resolve future disputes. In return, the union agreed to refuse to work with material produced by non-union planing mills or those that paid less than the Bay Area employers.
By 1905, the eight - hour day was widely installed in the printing trades -- see International Typographical Union (section) -- but the vast majority of Americans worked 12 - to 14 - hour days.
In the 1912 Presidential Election Teddy Roosevelts Progressive Party campaign platform included the eight - hour work day.
On 5 January 1914, the Ford Motor Company took the radical step of doubling pay to $5 a day and cut shifts from nine hours to eight, moves that were not popular with rival companies, although seeing the increase in Ford 's productivity, and a significant increase in profit margin (from $30 million to $60 million in two years), most soon followed suit.
In the summer of 1915, amid increased labour demand for World War I, a series of strikes demanding the eight - hour day began in Bridgeport, Connecticut. They were so successful that they spread throughout the Northeast.
The United States Adamson Act in 1916 established an eight - hour day, with additional pay for overtime, for railroad workers. This was the first federal law that regulated the hours of workers in private companies. The United States Supreme Court upheld the constitutionality of the Act in Wilson v. New, 243 U.S. 332 (1917).
The eight - hour day might have been realised for many working people in the US in 1937, when what became the Fair Labor Standards Act (29 U.S. Code Chapter 8) was first proposed under the New Deal. As enacted, the act applied to industries whose combined employment represented about twenty percent of the US labour force. In those industries, it set the maximum workweek at 40 hours, but provided that employees working beyond 40 hours a week would receive additional overtime bonus salaries.
In Puerto Rico in May 1899, while under US administration, General George W. Davis acceded to Island demands and decreed freedom of assembly, speech, press, religion and an eight - hour day for government employees.
The Australian gold rushes attracted many skilled tradesmen to Australia. Some of them had been active in the chartism movement, and subsequently became prominent in the campaign for better working conditions in the Australian colonies. The eight - hour day began in 1856 in the month of May.
The Stonemasons ' Society in Sydney issued an ultimatum to employers on 18 August 1855 saying that after six months masons would work only an eight - hour day. Due to the rapid increase in population caused by the gold rushes, many buildings were being constructed, so skilled labour was scarce. Stonemasons working on the Holy Trinity Church and the Mariners ' Church (an evangelical mission to seafarers), decided not to wait and pre-emptively went on strike, thus winning the eight - hour day. They celebrated with a victory dinner on 1 October 1855 which to this day is celebrated as a Labour Day holiday in the state of New South Wales. When the six - month ultimatum expired in February 1856, stonemasons generally agitated for a reduction of hours. Although opposed by employers, a two - week strike on the construction of Tooth 's Brewery on Parramatta Road proved effective, and stonemasons won an eight - hour day by early March 1856, but with a reduction in wages to match.
Agitation was also occurring in Melbourne where the craft unions were more militant. Stonemasons working on Melbourne University organised to down tools on 21 April 1856 and march to Parliament House with other members of the building trade. The movement in Melbourne was led by veteran chartists and mason James Stephens, T.W. Vine and James Galloway. The government agreed that workers employed on public works should enjoy an eight - hour day with no loss of pay and Stonemasons celebrated with a holiday and procession on Monday 12 May 1856, when about 700 people marched with 19 trades involved. By 1858 the eight - hour day was firmly established in the building industry and by 1860 the eight - hour day was fairly widely worked in Victoria. From 1879 the eight - hour day was a public holiday in Victoria. The initial success in Melbourne led to the decision to organise a movement, to actively spread the eight - hour idea, and secure the condition generally.
In 1903 veteran socialist Tom Mann spoke to a crowd of a thousand people at the unveiling of the Eight Hour Day monument, funded by public subscription, on the south side of Parliament House on Spring St. It was relocated in 1923 to the corner of Victoria and Russell Streets outside Melbourne Trades Hall.
It took further campaigning and struggles by trade unions to extend the reduction in hours to all workers in Australia. In 1916 the Victoria Eight Hours Act was passed granting the eight - hour day to all workers in the state. The eight - hour day was not achieved nationally until the 1920s. The Commonwealth Arbitration Court gave approval of the 40 - hour five - day working week nationally beginning on 1 January 1948. The achievement of the eight - hour day has been described by historian Rowan Cahill as "one of the great successes of the Australian working class during the nineteenth century, demonstrating to Australian workers that it was possible to successfully organise, mobilise, agitate, and exercise significant control over working conditions and quality of life. The Australian trade union movement grew out of eight - hour campaigning and the movement that developed to promote the principle. ''
The intertwined numbers 888 soon adorned the pediment of many union buildings around Australia. The Eight Hour March, which began on 21 April 1856, continued each year until 1951 in Melbourne, when the conservative Victorian Trades Hall Council decided to forgo the tradition for the Moomba festival on the Labour Day weekend. In capital cities and towns across Australia, Eight Hour day marches became a regular social event each year, with early marches often restricted to those workers who had won an eight - hour day.
Promoted by Samuel Duncan Parnell as early as 1840, when carpenter Samuel Parnell refused to work more than eight hours a day when erecting a store for merchant George Hunter. He successfully negotiated this working condition and campaigned for its extension in the infant Wellington community. A meeting of Wellington carpenters in October 1840 pledged "to maintain the eight - hour working day, and that anyone offending should be ducked into the harbour ''.
Parnell is reported to have said: "There are twenty - four hours per day given us; eight of these should be for work, eight for sleep, and the remaining eight for recreation and in which for men to do what little things they want for themselves. '' With tradesmen in short supply the employer was forced to accept Parnell 's terms. Parnell later wrote, "the first strike for eight hours a day the world has ever seen, was settled on the spot ''.
Emigrants to the new settlement of Dunedin, Otago, while onboard ship decided on a reduction of working hours. When the resident agent of the New Zealand Company, Captain Cargill, attempted to enforce a ten - hour day in January 1849 in Dunedin, he was unable to overcome the resistance of trades people under the leadership of house painter and plumber, Samuel Shaw. Building trades in Auckland achieved the eight - hour day on 1 September 1857 after agitation led by Chartist painter, William Griffin. For many years the eight - hour day was confined to craft tradesmen and unionised workers. Labour Day, which commemorates the introduction of the eight - hour day, became a national public holiday in 1899.
A strike for the eight - hour day was held in May 1919 in Peru. In Uruguay, the eight - hour day was put in place in 1915 of several reforms implemented during the second term of president José Batlle y Ordóñez. It was introduced in Chile on 8 September 1924 at the demand of then - general Luis Altamirano as part of the Ruido de sables that culminated in the September Junta.
New Zealand
United States of America
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world heritage sites in india mentioned on wikipedia | List of World Heritage sites in India - wikipedia
This articles lists World Heritage Sites located in India, as designated by UNESCO. As of 2018, India has 36 heritage sites, the sixth most of any country.
Manas Wildlife Sanctuary was listed as being danger (since 1992), but removed in 2011 following significant improvements. Hampi was added to the danger list in 1999, but removed in 2006 following successful conservation efforts.
No.
Kumbh Mela which is organised in every 12 year in for different holy places in India Allahabad in Uttar Pradesh, Ujjain in Madhya Pradesh, Haridwar in Uttarakhand and Nashik, Maharashtra is selected in UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage Lists in 2017. UNESCO names Kumbh Mela in list of Intangible Cultural Heritage.
The list shows the number of the heritage sites statewise.
Apart from the 36 sites inscribed on the World Heritage list, India has also maintained a list of tentative sites for recognition which has been submitted to UNESCO Committee for evaluation and acceptance. This procedure of prelisting is a prerequisite for the nominations for the World Heritage list to be accepted. Bhutan, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Thailand, the Philippines, and Nepal have expressed their support in inscribing more sites from India.
No.
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our house is a very fine house tv show | Our House (Crosby, Stills, Nash & Young song) - wikipedia
"Our House '' is a song written by British singer - songwriter Graham Nash and recorded by Crosby, Stills, Nash & Young on their album Déjà Vu (1970). The single reached # 30 on the U.S. Billboard Hot 100 and # 20 on the Cash Box Top 100. The song, "an ode to countercultural domestic bliss '', was written while Nash was living with Joni Mitchell, recording both Crosby, Stills & Nash and Déjà Vu.
The song originates in a domestic event that took place while Graham Nash was living with Joni Mitchell (and her two cats) in her house on Laurel Canyon (Los Angeles), after they had gone out for breakfast and had bought an inexpensive vase on Ventura Boulevard. Nash wrote the song in an hour, on Mitchell 's piano.
In October 2013, in an interview with Terry Gross on NPR 's "Fresh Air '', Nash elaborated:
Well, it 's an ordinary moment. What happened is that Joni (Mitchell) and I -- I do n't know whether you know anything about Los Angeles, but on Ventura Boulevard in the Valley, there 's a very famous deli called Art 's Deli. And we 'd been to breakfast there. We 're going to get into Joan 's car, and we pass an antique store. And we 're looking in the window, and she saw a very beautiful vase that she wanted to buy... I persuaded her to buy this vase. It was n't very expensive, and we took it home. It was a very grey, kind of sleety, drizzly L.A. morning. And we got to the house in Laurel Canyon, and I said -- got through the front door and I said, you know what? I 'll light a fire. Why do n't you put some flowers in that vase that you just bought? Well, she was in the garden getting flowers. That meant she was not at her piano, but I was... And an hour later ' Our House ' was born, out of an incredibly ordinary moment that many, many people have experienced.
In the same interview, Nash was asked about the harmonies in the song: "It 's me and David (Crosby) and Stephen (Stills) doing our best. That 's all we ever do. You know, we 're lucky enough to be able to do, you know, anything that we want to do, musically. And, you know, these two guys are incredible musicians. Crosby is one of the most unique musicians I know, and Stephen Stills has got this blues - based, South American kind of feeling to his music. And I 'm this, you know, Henry VIII guy from England... You know, it 's not supposed to work, but it does, somehow ''.
Graham Nash once admitted that he was "bored with ' Our House ' the day after (he) recorded it '', but will play it occasionally "because it does mean so much to so many people ''. It is praised for its "innocent elegance '', though Barney Hoskyns called it a "trite ditty '' and wondered what Neil Young, whose protest song "Ohio '' was recorded and released by CSNY in June 1970, would have thought of it: "the journey from ' Ohio ' back to ' Our House ' seemed to sum up a general failure of nerve in the LA music scene ''.
The song has been covered by a number of artists, including Helen Reddy, The Onyx, Phantom Planet, Sheena Easton, Kidsongs and Sharon, Lois & Bram.
It was also used as a commercial jingle for Eckrich sausage in the 1980s, and has appeared in various television shows and films, most notably in the 1996 Only Fools and Horses Christmas special, "Time on Our Hands '', which was watched by 24.3 million viewers when it was broadcast in the United Kingdom. It was also used in an advert for Halifax Building Society in the 1990s.
A portion of the song 's lyrics were spoken in The Simpsons episode "Bart After Dark '', by Reverend Lovejoy. The song was featured in the fifth season of How I Met Your Mother, in an episode called "Home Wreckers ''. It also appeared as a cover in a Target commercial from 2013, for its "Threshold '' brand for house and home. It was also featured as the closing song on The Blacklist, season 3 episode 2 ("Marvin Gerard ''), which aired on October 9, 2015. An episode of ' Cheers ' had Frasier and Lilith singing it in honor of their new apartment, only to very abruptly stop when Diane chimed in.
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city a has very little variation in temperature over the year | Diurnal temperature variation - wikipedia
In meteorology, diurnal temperature variation is the variation between a high temperature and a low temperature that occurs during the same day.
Temperature lag is an important factor in diurnal temperature variation: peak daily temperature generally occurs after noon, as air keeps net absorbing heat even after noon, and similarly minimum daily temperature generally occurs substantially after midnight, indeed occurring during early morning in the hour around dawn, since heat is lost all night long. The analogous annual phenomenon is seasonal lag.
As solar energy strikes the earth 's surface each morning, a shallow 1 -- 3 - centimetre (0.39 -- 1.18 in) layer of air directly above the ground is heated by conduction. Heat exchange between this shallow layer of warm air and the cooler air above is very inefficient. On a warm summer 's day, for example, air temperatures may vary by 16.5 ° C (30 ° F) from just above the ground to waist height. Incoming solar radiation exceeds outgoing heat energy for many hours after noon and equilibrium is usually reached from 3 -- 5 p.m. but this may be affected by a variety of different things such as large bodies of water, soil type and cover, wind, cloud cover / water vapor, and moisture on the ground.
Diurnal temperature variations are greatest very near Earth 's surface.
High desert regions typically have the greatest diurnal - temperature variations, while low - lying humid areas typically have the least. This explains why an area like the Snake River Plain can have high temperatures of 38 ° C (100 ° F) during a summer day, and then have lows of 5 -- 10 ° C (41 -- 50 ° F). At the same time, Washington D.C., which is much more humid, has temperature variations of only 8 ° C (14 ° F); urban Hong Kong has a diurnal temperature range of little more than 4 ° C (7.2 ° F).
While the National Park Service claimed that the world record is a variation of 102 ° F (56.7 ° C) (from 46 ° F or 7.8 ° C to − 56 ° F or − 48.9 ° C) in Browning, Montana in 1916, the Montana Department of Environmental Quality claimed that Loma, Montana also had a variation of 102 ° F (56.7 ° C) (from − 54 ° F or − 47.8 ° C to 48 ° F or 8.9 ° C) in 1972.
Diurnal temperature variation is of particular importance in viticulture. Wine regions situated in areas of high altitude experience the most dramatic swing in temperature variation during the course of a day. In grapes, this variation has the effect of producing high acid and high sugar content as the grapes ' exposure to sunlight increases the ripening qualities while the sudden drop in temperature at night preserves the balance of natural acids in the grape.
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which state has the largest number of seats in lok sabha | List of constituencies of the Lok Sabha - wikipedia
The Lok Sabha, the lower house of the Parliament of India, is made up of Members of Parliament (MPs). Each MP, represents a single geographic constituency. There are currently 543 constituencies.
The maximum size of the Lok Sabha as outlined in the Constitution of India is 552 members made up of up to 530 members representing people of the states of India and up to 20 members representing people from the Union Territories on the basis of their population and 2 Anglo - Indians are nominated by President.
Under the Delimitation Act of 2002, the Delimitation Commission of India has redefined the list of parliamentary constituencies, their constituent assembly segments and reservation status (whether reserved for Scheduled castes (SC) candidates or Scheduled tribes (ST) candidates or unreserved). Karnataka Legislative Assembly election, 2008, which took place in May 2008, was the first state election to use newly demarcated assembly constituencies. Consequently, all assembly elections scheduled in 2008, viz. in the states of Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh, NCT of Delhi, Mizoram and Rajasthan are based on newly defined assembly constituencies.
The size and shape of the Parliamentary and Assembly Constituencies are determined, according to section 4 of the Representation of the People Act, 1950, by an independent Delimitation Commission. Under a constitutional amendment of 1976, delimitation was suspended until after the census of 2001. However, certain amendments to the Constitution made in 2001 and 2003 have, while putting a freeze on the total number of existing seats as allocated to various States in the House of People and the State Legislative Assemblies on the basis of 1971 census until the first census to be taken after the year 2026, provided that each State shall be delimited into territorial Parliamentary and Assembly Constituencies on the basis of 2001 census and the extent of such constituencies as delimited shall remain frozen until the first census to be taken after the year 2026. The number of seats to be reserved for SC / ST shall be re-worked out on the basis of 2001 census. The constituency shall be delimited in a manner that the population of each Parliamentary and Assembly Constituency in a State so far as practicable be the same throughout the State.
Constituencies 1 to 17 fall under the State of Telangana and therefore, have been omitted in this table.
(SC / ST / None)
Constituencies of Andaman and Nicobar Islands
Constituencies of Chandigarh
Constituencies of Dadra and Nagar Haveli
Constituencies of Daman and Diu
Constituencies of Lakshadweep
Constituencies of National Capital Territory of Delhi
Constituencies of Puducherry
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was the electoral college part of the original constitution | Twelfth Amendment to the United states Constitution - wikipedia
The Twelfth Amendment (Amendment XII) to the United States Constitution provides... the procedure for electing the President and Vice President. It replaced the procedure provided in Article II, Section 1, Clause 3, by which the Electoral College originally functioned. Problems with the original procedure arose in the elections of 1796 and 1800. The Twelfth Amendment refined the process whereby a President and a Vice President are elected by the Electoral College. The amendment was proposed by the Congress on December 9, 1803, and was ratified by the requisite three - fourths of state legislatures on June 15, 1804.
The Electors shall meet in their respective states, and vote by ballot for President and Vice-President, one of whom, at least, shall not be an inhabitant of the same state with themselves; they shall name in their ballots the person voted for as President, and in distinct ballots the person voted for as Vice-President, and they shall make distinct lists of all persons voted for as President, and all persons voted for as Vice-President and of the number of votes for each, which lists they shall sign and certify, and transmit sealed to the seat of the government of the United States, directed to the President of the Senate;
The President of the Senate shall, in the presence of the Senate and House of Representatives, open all the certificates and the votes shall then be counted;
The person having the greatest number of votes for President, shall be the President, if such number be a majority of the whole number of Electors appointed; and if no person have such majority, then from the persons having the highest numbers not exceeding three on the list of those voted for as President, the House of Representatives shall choose immediately, by ballot, the President. But in choosing the President, the votes shall be taken by states, the representation from each state having one vote; a quorum for this purpose shall consist of a member or members from two - thirds of the states, and a majority of all the states shall be necessary to a choice. And if the House of Representatives shall not choose a President whenever the right of choice shall devolve upon them, before the fourth day of March next following, then the Vice-President shall act as President, as in the case of the death or other constitutional disability of the President.
The person having the greatest number of votes as Vice-President, shall be the Vice-President, if such number be a majority of the whole number of Electors appointed, and if no person have a majority, then from the two highest numbers on the list, the Senate shall choose the Vice-President; a quorum for the purpose shall consist of two - thirds of the whole number of Senators, and a majority of the whole number shall be necessary to a choice. But no person constitutionally ineligible to the office of President shall be eligible to that of Vice-President of the United States.
Under the original procedure for the Electoral College, as provided in Article II, Section 1, Clause 3, each elector could vote for two persons. The two people chosen by the elector could not both inhabit the same state as that elector. This prohibition was designed to keep electors from voting for two "favorite sons '' of their respective states. The person receiving the greatest number of votes, provided that number equaled a majority of the electors, was elected President.
If there were more than one individual who received the same number of votes, and such number equaled a majority of the electors, the House of Representatives would choose one of them to be President. If no individual had a majority, then the House of Representatives would choose from the five individuals with the greatest number of electoral votes. In either case, a majority of state delegations in the House was necessary for a candidate to be chosen to be President.
Selecting the Vice President was a simpler process. Whichever candidate received the second greatest number of votes became Vice President. The Vice President, unlike the President, was not required to receive votes from a majority of the electors. In the event of a tie for second place, the Senate would choose who would be Vice President from those tied, with each Senator casting one vote. It was not specified in the Constitution whether the sitting Vice President could cast a tie - breaking vote for Vice President under the original formula.
The original electoral system worked adequately for the first two presidential elections because on both occasions George Washington was the unanimous choice of the electors for President - the only real contest was the election for Vice President for which an overall majority was not required. George Washington 's decision not to seek a third term and the emergence of partisan political activity exposed problems with the original procedure.
In the 1796 election, John Adams, the Federalist Party presidential candidate, received a majority of the electoral votes. However, the Federalist electors scattered their second votes, resulting in the Democratic - Republican Party presidential candidate, Thomas Jefferson, receiving the second highest number of electoral votes and thus being elected Vice President. It soon became apparent that having a Vice President and a President unwilling to work together effectively was going to be a more significant problem than was originally realized. The most significant problem was that with the French Revolutionary Wars raging in Europe, it was immediately apparent that President Adams was going to pursue a pro-British foreign policy, much to the disgust of the strongly pro-French Vice President Jefferson.
Both major parties decided to attempt an extra-constitutional remedy to the situation, specifically, by having the President and Vice President elected on a party ticket. This solution significantly enhanced the likelihood of having political allies serving as President and Vice President, but raised a different flaw in the arrangements.
On January 6, 1797, Federalist Representative William L. Smith of South Carolina responded to the 1796 result by presenting a resolution on the floor of the House of Representatives for an amendment to the Constitution requiring each elector to cast one vote for President and another for Vice President. However, no action was taken on his proposal, setting the stage for the deadlocked election of 1800.
The 1800 election exposed a defect in the original formula in that if each member of the Electoral College followed party tickets, there could be a tie between the two candidates from the most popular ticket. Both parties planned to prevent this by having one of their electors abstain from voting for the vice presidential candidate to ensure a clear result. Jefferson managed to secure a majority of pledged electors, but the margin like in 1796 was so slim that there was little margin for error if the Democratic - Republicans were to avoid repeating the Federalists ' miscues of 1796. Given the technical limitations of 18th century communications, Democratic - Republicans electors in all states were left to assume that an elector in another state was the one responsible for casting the one abstention necessary to ensure the election of unofficial Vice Presidential nominee Aaron Burr to that office. All Democratic - Republicans electors in each state were so reluctant to be seen that the one responsible for causing outgoing President Adams to be re-elected as Vice President that every Democratic - Republican elector cast a vote for both Jefferson and Burr, resulting in a tie.
The Federalist - controlled state delegations in the House of Representatives decided to give their votes to Aaron Burr for President. Their aim was to prevent Jefferson, who in addition to being pro-French was influential and rich in new visions, from becoming President at any cost. With help from Alexander Hamilton, the gridlock was finally broken on the thirty - sixth vote and Jefferson was elected President on February 17, 1801. The events in the House, combined with the increasing Democratic - Republican majorities in the House and Senate, prompted the Democratic - Republicans to call for a Constitutional amendment requiring separate votes for President and Vice President in the Electoral College. By doing this, the Democratic - Republicans could dash the Federalists ' hopes of having any impact on the Presidential election of 1804.
In March 1801, weeks after the election of 1800 was resolved, two amendments were proposed in the New York state legislature that would form the skeleton of the Twelfth Amendment. Governor John Jay submitted an amendment to the state legislature that would require a district election of electors in each state. Assemblyman Jedediah Peck submitted an amendment to adopt designations for the votes for President and Vice President. The two amendments were not considered until early 1802 because the state legislature took a break for the summer and winter. New York state senator DeWitt Clinton moved for the adoption of the amendment in January 1802. Shortly thereafter, Clinton won a vacant seat in the U.S. Senate, where he was instrumental in bringing the designation amendment to Congress. The process continued in New York on February 15 when Representative Benjamin Walker of New York proposed the designation and district election amendments to the House. Debate on the amendments began in May. The Republicans wanted to decide on the amendment quickly, but the Federalists argued that the ideas needed more time than the current session allowed. Federalist Samuel W. Dana of Connecticut wanted to examine the necessity of a Vice President. The amendment ultimately failed in the New York State Senate, but DeWitt Clinton brought the amendment discussion to the House of Representatives.
Congress was ready to debate the presented amendment, but the Democratic - Republicans decided to wait for the 8th Congress. The 8th Congress would allow the Democratic - Republicans a better chance of meeting the two - third vote requirement for submitting a proposed Constitutional amendment.
On its first day, the 8th Congress considered the designation amendment. The first formulation of the amendment had the five highest electoral vote earners on the ballot in the House if no one candidate had a majority of the electoral votes. Republican John Clopton of Virginia, the largest state in the Union, argued that having five names on the list for a contingency election took the power from the people, so he proposed that there be only two names on the list. On October 20, the House appointed a seventeen - member committee (one Representative from each state) to fine - tune the amendment.
The original proposal starting in the New York state legislature was a dual - amendment that, along with designation, put forward the idea of district election of electors that Treasury Secretary Gallatin had supported. Shortly after the committee was formed, Federalist Benjamin Huger attempted to add a provision regarding district elections to the proposed amendment. The committee ignored him and district election disappeared.
The committee then submitted an updated version of the designation amendment to the House on October 23 that changed the number of candidates in a contingency election from five to three and allowed the Senate to choose the Vice President if there were a tie in that race. Small Federalist states disliked the change from five to three, because it made it far less likely that a small - state candidate would make it to a contingency election. Huger and New York Federalist Gaylord Griswold argued that the Constitution was a compromise between large and small states and the method chosen by the Framers is supposed to check the influence of the larger states. Huger even asserted that the Constitution itself was not a union of people, but a union of large and small states in order to justify the original framework for electing the President. Designation, argued Griswold and Huger, would violate the spirit of the Constitution by taking away a check on the power of the large states.
Next up for the Federalists was Seth Hastings of Massachusetts, who submitted the argument that the designation amendment rendered the Vice Presidency useless and advocated for the elimination of the three - fifths clause. John C. Smith asked the inflammatory question of whether or not the proposed amendment was to help the reelection of Jefferson. Speaker Nathaniel Macon called this inappropriate. After Matthew Lyon of Kentucky denounced any reference to the three - fifths clause as mere provocation, the House easily passed the resolution 88 - 39 on October 28.
By October 28, the Senate had already been discussing the designation amendment. Republican DeWitt Clinton expected that the Senate, with a 24 - 9 Republican majority would quickly passing the amendment. Federalist Jonathan Dayton proposed that the office of the Vice President should be eliminated and his colleague, Uriah Tracy, seconded it. On the other side, Wilson Cary Nicholas was simply worried that Congress would not submit the amendment in time for the states to ratify it before the 1804 election. Despite Nicholas ' concern, the Senate would not seriously deal with the amendment again until November 23.
Much as it had in the House, debate centered around the number of candidates in a contingency election and the philosophical underpinnings of the Constitution. Again, small Federalist states vehemently argued that three candidates gave too much power to large states to pick presidents. Senator Pierce Butler of South Carolina argued that the issues with the election of 1800 were unlikely to happen again and he would not advocate changing the Constitution simply to stop a Federalist Vice President. John Quincy Adams argued that the change from five to three gave an advantage to the people that violated the federative principle of the Constitution. Rather than have the office of the President balanced between the states and the people, Adams felt designation of President and Vice President would tip that scale in favor of the people.
Federalist Senators argued for retaining the original procedure for the Electoral College. Senator Samuel White of Delaware claimed that the original procedure had not been given "a fair experiment '' and criticized the proposed amendment for entrenching the two - party system that had taken over presidential elections.
In response, the Republicans appealed to democratic principles. Samuel Smith of Maryland argued that the presidency ought to be as closely accountable to the people as possible. As such, having three candidates in a contingency election is far better than having five, because it is possible to have the fifth best candidate become President otherwise. Also, designation itself would drastically cut down the number of elections that would reach the house, and the President is then much more likely to be the people 's choice. Another of Smith 's arguments was simply the election of 1800. William Cocke of Tennessee took a different approach when he argued that the entire small state argument of the Federalists was simply out of self - interest.
One last order of business for the amendment was to deal with the possibility that the House would fail to choose a President by March 4. It was the least controversial portion of the Twelfth Amendment and John Taylor proposed that the Vice President would take over as President in that peculiar occurrence, "as in case of the death or other Constitutional disability of the President. ''
It seemed clear all along that the Republican dominance would render this a no - contest and the Republicans were just waiting for all of their votes to be present, but the Federalists had one last defense. A marathon session of debate, lasting from 11 A.M. to 10 P.M., was the order of the day on December 2, 1803. Most notably, Uriah Tracy of Connecticut argued in a similar vein as Adams when he invoked the federative principle of the Constitution. Tracy claimed the original procedure was formulated to give the small states a chance to elect the Vice President, who would be a check on the President 's powers. In essence, the states balanced the power of the people. However, this only works if you make it partisan, as Georgia (for example) was a Republican small state.
The Twelfth Amendment was proposed by the 8th Congress on December 9, 1803, when it was approved by the House of Representatives by vote of 83 -- 42, having been previously passed by the Senate, 22 -- 10, on December 2. The amendment was officially submitted to the states on December 12, 1803, and was ratified by the legislatures of the following states:
Having been ratified by the requisite three - fourths of the several states, there being 17 states in the Union at the time, the ratification of the Twelfth Amendment was completed. It was subsequently ratified by:
The amendment was rejected by:
On September 25, 1804, in a circular letter to the governors of the states, Secretary of State Madison declared the amendment ratified by three - fourths of the states.
While the Twelfth Amendment did not change the composition of the Electoral College or the duties of the electors, it did change the process whereby a President and a Vice President are elected. The new electoral process was first used for the 1804 election. Each presidential election since has been conducted under the terms of the Twelfth Amendment.
The Twelfth Amendment stipulates that each elector must cast distinct votes for President and Vice President, instead of two votes for President. Additionally, electors may not vote for presidential and vice-presidential candidates who both reside in the elector 's state -- at least one of them must be an inhabitant of another state.
If no candidate for President has a majority of the total votes, the House of Representatives, voting by states and with the same quorum requirements as under the original procedure, chooses the President. The Twelfth Amendment requires the House to choose from the three highest receivers of electoral votes, compared to five under the original procedure.
The Twelfth Amendment requires a person to receive a majority of the electoral votes for Vice President for that person to be elected Vice President by the Electoral College. If no candidate for Vice President has a majority of the total votes, the Senate, with each Senator having one vote, chooses the Vice President. The Twelfth Amendment requires the Senate to choose between the candidates with the "two highest numbers '' of electoral votes. If multiple individuals are tied for second place, the Senate may consider all of them, in addition to the individual with the greatest number of votes. The Twelfth Amendment introduced a quorum requirement of two - thirds of the whole number of Senators for the conduct of balloting. Furthermore, the Twelfth Amendment requires the Senate to choose a Vice President by way of the affirmative votes of "a majority of the whole number '' of Senators.
To prevent deadlocks from keeping the nation leaderless, the Twelfth Amendment provided that if the House did not choose a President before March 4 (then the first day of a Presidential term), the individual elected Vice President would "act as President, as in the case of the death or other constitutional disability of the President. '' The Twelfth Amendment did not state for how long the Vice President would act as President or if the House could still choose a President after March 4. Section 3 of the Twentieth Amendment, adopted in 1933, supersedes that provision of the Twelfth Amendment by changing the date upon which a new presidential term commences to January 20, clarifying that the Vice President - elect would only "act as President '' if the House has not chosen a President by January 20, and permitting Congress to statutorily provide "who shall then act as President, or the manner in which one who is to act shall be selected '' if there is no President - elect or Vice President - elect by January 20. It also clarifies that if there is no President - elect on January 20, whoever acts as President does so until a person "qualified '' to occupy the Presidency is elected to be President.
The Twelfth Amendment explicitly states the constitutional requirements as provided for the President also apply to being Vice President. It is unclear whether a two - term president could later serve as Vice President. Some argue that the Twenty - second Amendment and Twelfth Amendment both bar any two - term president from later serving as Vice President as well as from succeeding to the presidency from any point in the United States presidential line of succession. Others contend that the Twelfth Amendment concerns qualification for service, while the Twenty - second Amendment concerns qualifications for election, and thus a former two - term president is still eligible to serve as Vice President. The applicability of this distinction has not been tested, as no former president has ever sought the vice presidency, and thus the courts have never been required to make a judgment regarding the matter. During Hillary Clinton 's 2016 candidacy, she said that she had considered naming Bill Clinton as her Vice President, but was advised it would be unconstitutional.
Starting with the election of 1804, each Presidential election has been conducted under the Twelfth Amendment.
Only once since then has the House of Representatives chosen the President: In 1824, Andrew Jackson received 99 electoral votes, John Quincy Adams (son of John Adams) 84, William H. Crawford 41 and Henry Clay 37. All of the candidates were members of the Democratic - Republican Party (though there were significant political differences among them), and each had fallen short of the 131 votes necessary to win. Because the House could only consider the top three candidates, Clay could not become President. Crawford 's poor health following a stroke made his election by the House unlikely. Andrew Jackson expected the House to vote for him, as he had won a plurality of the popular and electoral votes. Instead, the House elected Adams on the first ballot with thirteen states, followed by Jackson with seven and Crawford with four. Clay had endorsed Adams for the Presidency; the endorsement carried additional weight because Clay was the Speaker of the House. When Adams later appointed Clay his Secretary of State, many -- particularly Jackson and his supporters -- accused the pair of making a "Corrupt Bargain ''. In the less contested election for vice president, John C. Calhoun received 182 electoral votes and was elected outright.
In 1836, the Whig Party nominated different candidates in different regions in the hopes of splintering the electoral vote and denying Martin Van Buren, the Democratic candidate, a majority in the Electoral College, thereby throwing the election into the Whig - controlled House. However, this strategy failed with Van Buren winning majorities of both the popular and electoral vote. In that same election no candidate for Vice President secured a majority in the electoral college as Democratic Vice Presidential nominee Richard Mentor Johnson did not receive the electoral votes of Democratic electors from Virginia, because of his relationship with a former slave. As a result, Johnson received 147 electoral votes, one vote short of a majority; to be followed by Francis Granger with 77, John Tyler with 47 and William Smith with 23. This caused the Senate to choose whether Johnson or Granger would be the new Vice President. Johnson won with 33 votes, with Granger receiving 16.
Since 1836, no major U.S. party has nominated multiple regional presidential or vice presidential candidates in an election. However, since the Civil War there have been two serious attempts by Southern - based parties to run regional candidates in hopes of denying either of the two major candidates an electoral college majority. Both attempts (in 1948 and 1968) failed, but not by much -- in both cases a shift in the result of two close states would have forced the respective elections into the House.
In modern elections, a running mate is often selected in order to appeal to a different set of voters. A Habitation Clause issue arose during the 2000 presidential election contested by George W. Bush (running - mate Dick Cheney) and Al Gore (running - mate Joe Lieberman), because it was alleged that Bush and Cheney were both inhabitants of Texas and that the Texas electors therefore violated the Twelfth Amendment in casting their ballots for both. Bush 's residency was unquestioned, as he was Governor of Texas at the time. Cheney and his wife had moved to Dallas five years earlier when he assumed the role of chief executive at Halliburton. Cheney grew up in Wyoming and had represented it in Congress. A few months before the election, he switched his voter registration and driver 's license to Wyoming and put his home in Dallas up for sale. Three Texas voters challenged the election in a federal court in Dallas and then appealed the decision to the United States Court of Appeals for the Fifth Circuit, where it was dismissed.
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who had the idea of the nobel peace prize | Nobel Prize - Wikipedia
The Nobel Prize (/ ˈnoʊbɛl /, Swedish pronunciation: (nʊˈbɛl); Swedish definite form, singular: Nobelpriset; Norwegian: Nobelprisen) is a set of five annual international awards bestowed in several categories by Swedish and Norwegian institutions in recognition of academic, cultural, or scientific advances.
The will of the Swedish scientist Alfred Nobel established the prizes in 1895. The prizes in Chemistry, Literature, Peace, Physics and Physiology or Medicine were first awarded in 1901. In 1968, Sveriges Riksbank (Sweden 's central bank) established the Sveriges Riksbank Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel, which has been commonly known as the Nobel Prize in Economics. The Nobel Prize is widely regarded as the most prestigious award available in the fields of literature, medicine, physics, chemistry, economics and activism for peace.
The Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences awards the Nobel Prize in Physics, the Nobel Prize in Chemistry, and the Sveriges Riksbank Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel; the Nobel Assembly at Karolinska Institutet awards the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine; the Swedish Academy grants the Nobel Prize in Literature; and the Nobel Peace Prize is awarded not by a Swedish organization but by the Norwegian Nobel Committee.
Between 1901 and 2017, the Nobel Prizes including the Economic Prizes were awarded 585 times to 923 people and organizations. With some receiving the Nobel Prize more than once, this makes a total of 24 organizations, and 892 individuals. The prize ceremonies take place annually in Stockholm, Sweden (with the exception of the peace prize, which is held in Oslo, Norway). Each recipient, or laureate, receives a gold medal, a diploma, and a sum of money that has been decided by the Nobel Foundation. (As of 2017, each prize is worth SEK 9,000,000 or about US $1,110,000, € 944,000, £ 836,000 or INR 72,693,900) Medals made before 1980 were struck in 23 carat gold, and later in 18 carat green gold plated with a 24 carat gold coating.
The prize is not awarded posthumously; however, if a person is awarded a prize and dies before receiving it, the prize may still be presented. Though the average number of laureates per prize increased substantially during the 20th century, a prize may not be shared among more than three people, although the Nobel Peace Prize can be awarded to organizations of more than three people.
Alfred Nobel (listen (help info)) was born on 21 October 1833 in Stockholm, Sweden, into a family of engineers. He was a chemist, engineer, and inventor. In 1894, Nobel purchased the Bofors iron and steel mill, which he made into a major armaments manufacturer. Nobel also invented ballistite. This invention was a precursor to many smokeless military explosives, especially the British smokeless powder cordite. As a consequence of his patent claims, Nobel was eventually involved in a patent infringement lawsuit over cordite. Nobel amassed a fortune during his lifetime, with most of his wealth from his 355 inventions, of which dynamite is the most famous.
In 1888, Nobel was astonished to read his own obituary, titled The merchant of death is dead, in a French newspaper. As it was Alfred 's brother Ludvig who had died, the obituary was eight years premature. The article disconcerted Nobel and made him apprehensive about how he would be remembered. This inspired him to change his will. On 10 December 1896, Alfred Nobel died in his villa in San Remo, Italy, from a cerebral haemorrhage. He was 63 years old.
Nobel wrote several wills during his lifetime. He composed the last over a year before he died, signing it at the Swedish -- Norwegian Club in Paris on 27 November 1895. To widespread astonishment, Nobel 's last will specified that his fortune be used to create a series of prizes for those who confer the "greatest benefit on mankind '' in physics, chemistry, physiology or medicine, literature, and peace. Nobel bequeathed 94 % of his total assets, 31 million SEK (c. US $186 million, € 150 million in 2008), to establish the five Nobel Prizes. Because of skepticism surrounding the will, it was not until 26 April 1897 that it was approved by the Storting in Norway. The executors of Nobel 's will, Ragnar Sohlman and Rudolf Lilljequist, formed the Nobel Foundation to take care of Nobel 's fortune and organised the award of prizes.
Nobel 's instructions named a Norwegian Nobel Committee to award the Peace Prize, the members of whom were appointed shortly after the will was approved in April 1897. Soon thereafter, the other prize - awarding organizations were designated or established. These were Karolinska Institutet on 7 June, the Swedish Academy on 9 June, and the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences on 11 June. The Nobel Foundation reached an agreement on guidelines for how the prizes should be awarded; and, in 1900, the Nobel Foundation 's newly created statutes were promulgated by King Oscar II. In 1905, the personal union between Sweden and Norway was dissolved.
In the 19th century the Nobel family who were known for their innovations to the oil industry in Azerbaijan was the leading representative of foreign capital in Baku. Robert Nobel was the first foreign investor in oil sector in Baku. In 1875 R. Nobel bought a small refinery to Baku, thus the foundation of "The Nobel Brothers Company '' that was nationalized by the Baku Council of People 's Commissars the Company in 1918 was laid.
In 1920 the Company was nationalized by the government of Azerbaijan Soviet Socialist Republic. Even the Nobel Brothers Petroleum Company ` s symbol was created by taking inspiration from the Fire Temple (Ateshgah) in Surakhani and their oil tankers were given some religious and philosophical names such as Zoroaster, Muhammad, Buddha, Brahma, Socrates, Spinoza and Darwin.
According to the Alfred Nobel 's will and testament read in Stockholm on 30th December 1896, a foundation established by Alfred Nobel would reward those who serve humanity.
The Nobel Prize was funded by Alfred Nobel 's personal fortune. According to the official sources, Alfred Nobel bequeathed from the shares 94 % of his fortune to the Nobel Foundation that now forms the economic base of the Nobel Prize.
The Nobel Foundation was founded as a private organization on 29 June 1900. Its function is to manage the finances and administration of the Nobel Prizes. In accordance with Nobel 's will, the primary task of the Foundation is to manage the fortune Nobel left. Robert and Ludvig Nobel were involved in the oil business in Azerbaijan, and according to Swedish historian E. Bargengren, who accessed the Nobel family archives, it was this "decision to allow withdrawal of Alfred 's money from Baku that became the decisive factor that enabled the Nobel Prizes to be established ''. Another important task of the Nobel Foundation is to market the prizes internationally and to oversee informal administration related to the prizes. The Foundation is not involved in the process of selecting the Nobel laureates. In many ways, the Nobel Foundation is similar to an investment company, in that it invests Nobel 's money to create a solid funding base for the prizes and the administrative activities. The Nobel Foundation is exempt from all taxes in Sweden (since 1946) and from investment taxes in the United States (since 1953). Since the 1980s, the Foundation 's investments have become more profitable and as of 31 December 2007, the assets controlled by the Nobel Foundation amounted to 3.628 billion Swedish kronor (c. US $560 million).
According to the statutes, the Foundation consists of a board of five Swedish or Norwegian citizens, with its seat in Stockholm. The Chairman of the Board is appointed by the Swedish King in Council, with the other four members appointed by the trustees of the prize - awarding institutions. An Executive Director is chosen from among the board members, a Deputy Director is appointed by the King in Council, and two deputies are appointed by the trustees. However, since 1995, all the members of the board have been chosen by the trustees, and the Executive Director and the Deputy Director appointed by the board itself. As well as the board, the Nobel Foundation is made up of the prize - awarding institutions (the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences, the Nobel Assembly at Karolinska Institute, the Swedish Academy, and the Norwegian Nobel Committee), the trustees of these institutions, and auditors.
Once the Nobel Foundation and its guidelines were in place, the Nobel Committees began collecting nominations for the inaugural prizes. Subsequently, they sent a list of preliminary candidates to the prize - awarding institutions.
The Nobel Committee 's Physics Prize shortlist cited Wilhelm Röntgen 's discovery of X-rays and Philipp Lenard 's work on cathode rays. The Academy of Sciences selected Röntgen for the prize. In the last decades of the 19th century, many chemists had made significant contributions. Thus, with the Chemistry Prize, the Academy "was chiefly faced with merely deciding the order in which these scientists should be awarded the prize. '' The Academy received 20 nominations, eleven of them for Jacobus van ' t Hoff. Van ' t Hoff was awarded the prize for his contributions in chemical thermodynamics.
The Swedish Academy chose the poet Sully Prudhomme for the first Nobel Prize in Literature. A group including 42 Swedish writers, artists, and literary critics protested against this decision, having expected Leo Tolstoy to be awarded. Some, including Burton Feldman, have criticised this prize because they consider Prudhomme a mediocre poet. Feldman 's explanation is that most of the Academy members preferred Victorian literature and thus selected a Victorian poet. The first Physiology or Medicine Prize went to the German physiologist and microbiologist Emil von Behring. During the 1890s, von Behring developed an antitoxin to treat diphtheria, which until then was causing thousands of deaths each year.
The first Nobel Peace Prize went to the Swiss Jean Henri Dunant for his role in founding the International Red Cross Movement and initiating the Geneva Convention, and jointly given to French pacifist Frédéric Passy, founder of the Peace League and active with Dunant in the Alliance for Order and Civilization.
In 1938 and 1939, Adolf Hitler 's Third Reich forbade three laureates from Germany (Richard Kuhn, Adolf Friedrich Johann Butenandt, and Gerhard Domagk) from accepting their prizes. Each man was later able to receive the diploma and medal. Even though Sweden was officially neutral during the Second World War, the prizes were awarded irregularly. In 1939, the Peace Prize was not awarded. No prize was awarded in any category from 1940 -- 42, due to the occupation of Norway by Germany. In the subsequent year, all prizes were awarded except those for literature and peace.
During the occupation of Norway, three members of the Norwegian Nobel Committee fled into exile. The remaining members escaped persecution from the Germans when the Nobel Foundation stated that the Committee building in Oslo was Swedish property. Thus it was a safe haven from the German military, which was not at war with Sweden. These members kept the work of the Committee going, but did not award any prizes. In 1944, the Nobel Foundation, together with the three members in exile, made sure that nominations were submitted for the Peace Prize and that the prize could be awarded once again.
In 1968, Sveriges Riksbank (Swedish National Bank) celebrated its 300th anniversary by donating a large sum of money to the Nobel Foundation to be used to set up a prize in honor of Nobel. The following year, the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences was awarded for the first time. The Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences became responsible for selecting laureates. The first laureates for the Economics Prize were Jan Tinbergen and Ragnar Frisch "for having developed and applied dynamic models for the analysis of economic processes. '' The Board of the Nobel Foundation decided that after this addition, it would allow no further new prizes.
The award process is similar for all of the Nobel Prizes; the main difference is in who can make nominations for each of them.
Nomination forms are sent by the Nobel Committee to about 3,000 individuals, usually in September the year before the prizes are awarded. These individuals are generally prominent academics working in a relevant area. Regarding the Peace Prize, inquiries are also sent to governments, former Peace Prize laureates, and current or former members of the Norwegian Nobel Committee. The deadline for the return of the nomination forms is 31 January of the year of the award. The Nobel Committee nominates about 300 potential laureates from these forms and additional names. The nominees are not publicly named, nor are they told that they are being considered for the prize. All nomination records for a prize are sealed for 50 years from the awarding of the prize.
The Nobel Committee then prepares a report reflecting the advice of experts in the relevant fields. This, along with the list of preliminary candidates, is submitted to the prize - awarding institutions. The institutions meet to choose the laureate or laureates in each field by a majority vote. Their decision, which can not be appealed, is announced immediately after the vote. A maximum of three laureates and two different works may be selected per award. Except for the Peace Prize, which can be awarded to institutions, the awards can only be given to individuals.
Although posthumous nominations are not presently permitted, individuals who died in the months between their nomination and the decision of the prize committee were originally eligible to receive the prize. This has occurred twice: the 1931 Literature Prize awarded to Erik Axel Karlfeldt, and the 1961 Peace Prize awarded to UN Secretary General Dag Hammarskjöld. Since 1974, laureates must be thought alive at the time of the October announcement. There has been one laureate, William Vickrey, who in 1996 died after the prize (in Economics) was announced but before it could be presented. On 3 October 2011, the laureates for the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine were announced; however, the committee was not aware that one of the laureates, Ralph M. Steinman, had died three days earlier. The committee was debating about Steinman 's prize, since the rule is that the prize is not awarded posthumously. The committee later decided that as the decision to award Steinman the prize "was made in good faith '', it would remain unchanged.
Nobel 's will provided for prizes to be awarded in recognition of discoveries made "during the preceding year ''. Early on, the awards usually recognised recent discoveries. However, some of those early discoveries were later discredited. For example, Johannes Fibiger was awarded the 1926 Prize in Physiology or Medicine for his purported discovery of a parasite that caused cancer. To avoid repeating this embarrassment, the awards increasingly recognised scientific discoveries that had withstood the test of time. According to Ralf Pettersson, former chairman of the Nobel Prize Committee for Physiology or Medicine, "the criterion ' the previous year ' is interpreted by the Nobel Assembly as the year when the full impact of the discovery has become evident. ''
The interval between the award and the accomplishment it recognises varies from discipline to discipline. The Literature Prize is typically awarded to recognise a cumulative lifetime body of work rather than a single achievement. The Peace Prize can also be awarded for a lifetime body of work. For example, 2008 laureate Martti Ahtisaari was awarded for his work to resolve international conflicts. However, they can also be awarded for specific recent events. For instance, Kofi Annan was awarded the 2001 Peace Prize just four years after becoming the Secretary - General of the United Nations. Similarly Yasser Arafat, Yitzhak Rabin, and Shimon Peres received the 1994 award, about a year after they successfully concluded the Oslo Accords.
Awards for physics, chemistry, and medicine are typically awarded once the achievement has been widely accepted. Sometimes, this takes decades -- for example, Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar shared the 1983 Physics Prize for his 1930s work on stellar structure and evolution. Not all scientists live long enough for their work to be recognised. Some discoveries can never be considered for a prize if their impact is realised after the discoverers have died.
Except for the Peace Prize, the Nobel Prizes are presented in Stockholm, Sweden, at the annual Prize Award Ceremony on 10 December, the anniversary of Nobel 's death. The recipients ' lectures are normally held in the days prior to the award ceremony. The Peace Prize and its recipients ' lectures are presented at the annual Prize Award Ceremony in Oslo, Norway, usually on 10 December. The award ceremonies and the associated banquets are typically major international events. The Prizes awarded in Sweden 's ceremonies ' are held at the Stockholm Concert Hall, with the Nobel banquet following immediately at Stockholm City Hall. The Nobel Peace Prize ceremony has been held at the Norwegian Nobel Institute (1905 -- 1946), at the auditorium of the University of Oslo (1947 -- 1989), and at Oslo City Hall (1990 -- present).
The highlight of the Nobel Prize Award Ceremony in Stockholm occurs when each Nobel laureate steps forward to receive the prize from the hands of the King of Sweden. In Oslo, the Chairman of the Norwegian Nobel Committee presents the Nobel Peace Prize in the presence of the King of Norway. At first, King Oscar II did not approve of awarding grand prizes to foreigners. It is said that he changed his mind once his attention had been drawn to the publicity value of the prizes for Sweden.
After the award ceremony in Sweden, a banquet is held in the Blue Hall at the Stockholm City Hall, which is attended by the Swedish Royal Family and around 1,300 guests.
The Nobel Peace Prize banquet is held in Norway at the Oslo Grand Hotel after the award ceremony. Apart from the laureate, guests include the President of the Storting, the Prime Minister, and, since 2006, the King and Queen of Norway. In total, about 250 guests attend.
According to the statutes of the Nobel Foundation, each laureate is required to give a public lecture on a subject related to the topic of their prize. The Nobel lecture as a rhetorical genre took decades to reach its current format. These lectures normally occur during Nobel Week (the week leading up to the award ceremony and banquet, which begins with the laureates arriving in Stockholm and normally ends with the Nobel banquet), but this is not mandatory. The laureate is only obliged to give the lecture within six months of receiving the prize. Some have happened even later. For example, US President Theodore Roosevelt received the Peace Prize in 1906 but gave his lecture in 1910, after his term in office. The lectures are organized by the same association which selected the laureates.
It was announced on 30 May 2012 that the Nobel Foundation had awarded the contract for the production of the five (Swedish) Nobel Prize medals to Svenska Medalj AB. Formerly, the Nobel Prize medals were minted by Myntverket (the Swedish Mint) from 1902 to 2010. Myntverket, Sweden 's oldest company, ceased operations in 2011 after 1,017 years. In 2011, the Mint of Norway, located in Kongsberg, made the medals. The Nobel Prize medals are registered trademarks of the Nobel Foundation. Each medal features an image of Alfred Nobel in left profile on the obverse. The medals for physics, chemistry, physiology or medicine, and literature have identical obverses, showing the image of Alfred Nobel and the years of his birth and death. Nobel 's portrait also appears on the obverse of the Peace Prize medal and the medal for the Economics Prize, but with a slightly different design. For instance, the laureate 's name is engraved on the rim of the Economics medal. The image on the reverse of a medal varies according to the institution awarding the prize. The reverse sides of the medals for chemistry and physics share the same design.
All medals made before 1980 were struck in 23 carat gold. Since then, they have been struck in 18 carat green gold plated with 24 carat gold. The weight of each medal varies with the value of gold, but averages about 175 grams (0.386 lb) for each medal. The diameter is 66 millimetres (2.6 in) and the thickness varies between 5.2 millimetres (0.20 in) and 2.4 millimetres (0.094 in). Because of the high value of their gold content and tendency to be on public display, Nobel medals are subject to medal theft. During World War II, the medals of German scientists Max von Laue and James Franck were sent to Copenhagen for safekeeping. When Germany invaded Denmark, Hungarian chemist (and Nobel laureate himself) George de Hevesy dissolved them in aqua regia (nitro - hydrochloric acid), to prevent confiscation by Nazi Germany and to prevent legal problems for the holders. After the war, the gold was recovered from solution, and the medals re-cast.
Nobel laureates receive a diploma directly from the hands of the King of Sweden, or in the case of the peace prize, the Chairman of the Norwegian Nobel Committee. Each diploma is uniquely designed by the prize - awarding institutions for the laureates that receive them. The diploma contains a picture and text in Swedish which states the name of the laureate and normally a citation of why they received the prize. None of the Nobel Peace Prize laureates has ever had a citation on their diplomas.
The laureates are given a sum of money when they receive their prizes, in the form of a document confirming the amount awarded. The amount of prize money depends upon how much money the Nobel Foundation can award each year. The purse has increased since the 1980s, when the prize money was 880 000 SEK (c. 2.6 million SEK, US $350 000 today) per prize. In 2009, the monetary award was 10 million SEK (US $1.4 million). In June 2012, it was lowered to 8 million SEK. If there are two laureates in a particular category, the award grant is divided equally between the recipients. If there are three, the awarding committee has the option of dividing the grant equally, or awarding one - half to one recipient and one - quarter to each of the others. It is common for recipients to donate prize money to benefit scientific, cultural, or humanitarian causes.
Among other criticisms, the Nobel Committees have been accused of having a political agenda, and of omitting more deserving candidates. They have also been accused of Eurocentrism, especially for the Literature Prize.
Among the most criticised Nobel Peace Prizes was the one awarded to Henry Kissinger and Lê Đức Thọ. This led to the resignation of two Norwegian Nobel Committee members. Kissinger and Thọ were awarded the prize for negotiating a ceasefire between North Vietnam and the United States in January 1973. However, when the award was announced, both sides were still engaging in hostilities. Critics sympathetic to the North announced that Kissinger was not a peace - maker but the opposite, responsible for widening the war. Those hostile to the North and what they considered its deceptive practices during negotiations were deprived of a chance to criticise Lê Đức Thọ, as he declined the award.
Yasser Arafat, Shimon Peres, and Yitzhak Rabin received the Peace Prize in 1994 for their efforts in making peace between Israel and Palestine. Immediately after the award was announced, one of the five Norwegian Nobel Committee members denounced Arafat as a terrorist and resigned. Additional misgivings about Arafat were widely expressed in various newspapers.
Another controversial Peace Prize was that awarded to Barack Obama in 2009. Nominations had closed only eleven days after Obama took office as President of the United States, but the actual evaluation occurred over the next eight months. Obama himself stated that he did not feel deserving of the award, or worthy of the company it would place him in. Past Peace Prize laureates were divided, some saying that Obama deserved the award, and others saying he had not secured the achievements to yet merit such an accolade. Obama 's award, along with the previous Peace Prizes for Jimmy Carter and Al Gore, also prompted accusations of a left - wing bias.
The award of the 2004 Literature Prize to Elfriede Jelinek drew a protest from a member of the Swedish Academy, Knut Ahnlund. Ahnlund resigned, alleging that the selection of Jelinek had caused "irreparable damage to all progressive forces, it has also confused the general view of literature as an art. '' He alleged that Jelinek 's works were "a mass of text shovelled together without artistic structure. '' The 2009 Literature Prize to Herta Müller also generated criticism. According to The Washington Post, many US literary critics and professors were ignorant of her work. This made those critics feel the prizes were too Eurocentric.
In 1949, the neurologist António Egas Moniz received the Physiology or Medicine Prize for his development of the prefrontal leucotomy. The previous year, Dr. Walter Freeman had developed a version of the procedure which was faster and easier to carry out. Due in part to the publicity surrounding the original procedure, Freeman 's procedure was prescribed without due consideration or regard for modern medical ethics. Endorsed by such influential publications as The New England Journal of Medicine, leucotomy or "lobotomy '' became so popular that about 5,000 lobotomies were performed in the United States in the three years immediately following Moniz 's receipt of the Prize.
The Norwegian Nobel Committee confirmed that Mahatma Gandhi was nominated for the Peace Prize in 1937 -- 39, 1947, and a few days before he was assassinated in January 1948. Later, members of the Norwegian Nobel Committee expressed regret that he was not given the prize. Geir Lundestad, Secretary of Norwegian Nobel Committee in 2006, said, "The greatest omission in our 106 year history is undoubtedly that Mahatma Gandhi never received the Nobel Peace prize. Gandhi could do without the Nobel Peace prize. Whether Nobel committee can do without Gandhi is the question ''. In 1948, the year of Gandhi 's death, the Nobel Committee declined to award a prize on the grounds that "there was no suitable living candidate '' that year. Later, when the 14th Dalai Lama was awarded the Peace Prize in 1989, the chairman of the committee said that this was "in part a tribute to the memory of Mahatma Gandhi. '' Other high - profile individuals with widely recognised contributions to peace have been missed out. Foreign Policy lists Eleanor Roosevelt, Václav Havel, Ken Saro - Wiwa, Sari Nusseibeh, and Corazon Aquino as people who "never won the prize, but should have. ''
In 1965, UN Secretary General U Thant was informed by the Norwegian Permanent Representative to the UN that he would be awarded that year 's prize and asked whether or not he would accept. He consulted staff and later replied that he would. At the same time, Chairman Gunnar Jahn of the Nobel Peace prize committee, lobbied heavily against giving U Thant the prize and the prize was at the last minute awarded to UNICEF. The rest of the committee all wanted the prize to go to U Thant, for his work in defusing the Cuban Missile Crisis, ending the war in the Congo, and his ongoing work to mediate an end to the Vietnam War. The disagreement lasted three years and in 1966 and 1967 no prize was given, with Gunnar Jahn effectively vetoing an award to U Thant.
The Literature Prize also has controversial omissions. Adam Kirsch has suggested that many notable writers have missed out on the award for political or extra-literary reasons. The heavy focus on European and Swedish authors has been a subject of criticism. The Eurocentric nature of the award was acknowledged by Peter Englund, the 2009 Permanent Secretary of the Swedish Academy, as a problem with the award and was attributed to the tendency for the academy to relate more to European authors. This tendency towards European authors still leaves some European writers on a list of notable writers that have been overlooked for the Literature Prize, including Europe 's Leo Tolstoy, Anton Chekhov, J.R.R. Tolkien, Émile Zola, Marcel Proust, Vladimir Nabokov, James Joyce, August Strindberg, Simon Vestdijk, Karel Čapek, the New World 's Jorge Luis Borges, Ezra Pound, John Updike, Arthur Miller, Mark Twain, and Africa 's Chinua Achebe.
Candidates can receive multiple nominations the same year. Gaston Ramon received a total of 155 nominations in physiology or medicine from 1930 to 1953, the last year with public nomination data for that award as of 2016. He died in 1963 without being awarded. Pierre Paul Émile Roux received 115 nominations in physiology or medicine, and Arnold Sommerfeld received 84 in physics. These are the three most nominated scientists without awards in the data published as of 2016. Otto Stern received 79 nominations in physics 1925 -- 43 before being awarded in 1943.
The strict rule against awarding a prize to more than three people is also controversial. When a prize is awarded to recognise an achievement by a team of more than three collaborators, one or more will miss out. For example, in 2002, the prize was awarded to Koichi Tanaka and John Fenn for the development of mass spectrometry in protein chemistry, an award that did not recognise the achievements of Franz Hillenkamp and Michael Karas of the Institute for Physical and Theoretical Chemistry at the University of Frankfurt. According to one of the nominees for the prize in physics, the three person limit deprived him and two other members of his team of the honor in 2013: the team of Carl Hagen, Gerald Guralnik, and Tom Kibble published a paper in 1964 that gave answers to how the cosmos began, but did not share the 2013 Physics Prize awarded to Peter Higgs and François Englert, who had also published papers in 1964 concerning the subject. All five physicists arrived at the same conclusion, albeit from different angles. Hagen contends that an equitable solution is to either abandon the three limit restriction, or expand the time period of recognition for a given achievement to two years.
Similarly, the prohibition of posthumous awards fails to recognise achievements by an individual or collaborator who dies before the prize is awarded. The Economics Prize was not awarded to Fischer Black, who died in 1995, when his co-author Myron Scholes received the honor in 1997 for their landmark work on option pricing along with Robert C. Merton, another pioneer in the development of valuation of stock options. In the announcement of the award that year, the Nobel committee prominently mentioned Black 's key role.
Political subterfuge may also deny proper recognition. Lise Meitner and Fritz Strassmann, who co-discovered nuclear fission along with Otto Hahn, may have been denied a share of Hahn 's 1944 Nobel Chemistry Award due to having fled Germany when the Nazis came to power. The Meitner and Strassmann roles in the research was not fully recognised until years later, when they joined Hahn in receiving the 1966 Enrico Fermi Award.
Alfred Nobel left his fortune to finance annual prizes to be awarded "to those who, during the preceding year, shall have conferred the greatest benefit on mankind. '' He stated that the Nobel Prizes in Physics should be given "to the person who shall have made the most important ' discovery ' or ' invention ' within the field of physics. '' Nobel did not emphasise discoveries, but they have historically been held in higher respect by the Nobel Prize Committee than inventions: 77 % of the Physics Prizes have been given to discoveries, compared with only 23 % to inventions. Christoph Bartneck and Matthias Rauterberg, in papers published in Nature and Technoetic Arts, have argued this emphasis on discoveries has moved the Nobel Prize away from its original intention of rewarding the greatest contribution to society.
In terms of the most prestigious awards in STEM fields, only a small proportion have been awarded to women. Out of 199 laureates in Physics, 169 in Chemistry and 207 in Medicine, there were only two female laureates in physics, four in chemistry and 11 in medicine between 1901 and 2014.
Four people have received two Nobel Prizes. Marie Curie received the Physics Prize in 1903 for her work on radioactivity and the Chemistry Prize in 1911 for the isolation of pure radium, making her the only person to be awarded a Nobel Prize in two different sciences. Linus Pauling was awarded the 1954 Chemistry Prize for his research into the chemical bond and its application to the structure of complex substances. Pauling was also awarded the Peace Prize in 1962 for his activism against nuclear weapons, making him the only laureate of two unshared prizes. John Bardeen received the Physics Prize twice: in 1956 for the invention of the transistor and in 1972 for the theory of superconductivity. Frederick Sanger received the prize twice in Chemistry: in 1958 for determining the structure of the insulin molecule and in 1980 for inventing a method of determining base sequences in DNA.
Two organizations have received the Peace Prize multiple times. The International Committee of the Red Cross received it three times: in 1917 and 1944 for its work during the world wars; and in 1963 during the year of its centenary. The United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees has been awarded the Peace Prize twice for assisting refugees: in 1954 and 1981.
The Curie family has received the most prizes, with four prizes awarded to five individual laureates. Marie Curie received the prizes in Physics (in 1903) and Chemistry (in 1911). Her husband, Pierre Curie, shared the 1903 Physics prize with her. Their daughter, Irène Joliot - Curie, received the Chemistry Prize in 1935 together with her husband Frédéric Joliot - Curie. In addition, the husband of Marie Curie 's second daughter, Henry Labouisse, was the director of UNICEF when it was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1965.
Although no family matches the Curie family 's record, there have been several with two laureates. The husband - and - wife team of Gerty Cori and Carl Ferdinand Cori shared the 1947 Prize in Physiology or Medicine as did the husband - and - wife team of May - Britt Moser and Edvard Moser in 2014 (along with John O'Keefe). J.J. Thomson was awarded the Physics Prize in 1906 for showing that electrons are particles. His son, George Paget Thomson, received the same prize in 1937 for showing that they also have the properties of waves. William Henry Bragg and his son, William Lawrence Bragg, shared the Physics Prize in 1915 for inventing the X-ray spectrometer. Niels Bohr was awarded the Physics prize in 1922, as did his son, Aage Bohr, in 1975. Manne Siegbahn, who received the Physics Prize in 1924, was the father of Kai Siegbahn, who received the Physics Prize in 1981. Hans von Euler - Chelpin, who received the Chemistry Prize in 1929, was the father of Ulf von Euler, who was awarded the Physiology or Medicine Prize in 1970. C.V. Raman was awarded the Physics Prize in 1930 and was the uncle of Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar, who was awarded the same prize in 1983. Arthur Kornberg received the Physiology or Medicine Prize in 1959; Kornberg 's son, Roger later received the Chemistry Prize in 2006. Jan Tinbergen, who was awarded the first Economics Prize in 1969, was the brother of Nikolaas Tinbergen, who received the 1973 Physiology or Medicine Prize. Alva Myrdal, Peace Prize laureate in 1982, was the wife of Gunnar Myrdal who was awarded the Economics Prize in 1974. Economics laureates Paul Samuelson and Kenneth Arrow were brothers - in - law. Frits Zernike, who was awarded the 1953 Physics Prize, is the great - uncle of 1999 Physics laureate Gerard ' t Hooft.
Being a symbol of scientific or literary achievement that 's recognisable worldwide, the Nobel Prize is often depicted in fiction. This includes films like The Prize and Nobel Son about fictional Nobel laureates as well as fictionalised accounts of stories surrounding real prizes such as Nobel Chor, a film based on the unsolved theft of Rabindranath Tagore 's prize.
Two laureates have voluntarily declined the Nobel Prize. In 1964, Jean - Paul Sartre was awarded the Literature Prize but refused, stating, "A writer must refuse to allow himself to be transformed into an institution, even if it takes place in the most honourable form. '' Lê Đức Thọ, chosen for the 1973 Peace Prize for his role in the Paris Peace Accords, declined, stating that there was no actual peace in Vietnam.
During the Third Reich, Adolf Hitler hindered Richard Kuhn, Adolf Butenandt, and Gerhard Domagk from accepting their prizes. All of them were awarded their diplomas and gold medals after World War II. In 1958, Boris Pasternak declined his prize for literature due to fear of what the Soviet Union government might do if he travelled to Stockholm to accept his prize. In return, the Swedish Academy refused his refusal, saying "this refusal, of course, in no way alters the validity of the award. '' The Academy announced with regret that the presentation of the Literature Prize could not take place that year, holding it until 1989 when Pasternak 's son accepted the prize on his behalf. Aung San Suu Kyi was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1991, but her children accepted the prize because she had been placed under house arrest in Burma; Suu Kyi delivered her speech two decades later, in 2012. Liu Xiaobo was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 2010 while he and his wife were under house arrest in China as political prisoners, and he was unable to accept the prize in his lifetime.
The memorial symbol "Planet of Alfred Nobel '' was opened in Dnipropetrovsk University of Economics and Law in 2008. On the globe, there are 802 Nobel laureates ' reliefs made of a composite alloy obtained when disposing of military strategic missiles.
This article incorporates text from a free content work. Licensed under CC - BY - SA IGO 3.0 License statement: A Complex Formula: Girls and Women in Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics in Asia, 23, UNESCO, UNESCO. UNESCO. To learn how to add open license text to Wikipedia articles, please see Wikipedia: Adding open license text to Wikipedia. For information on reusing text from Wikipedia, please see the terms of use.
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the princess bride i am inigo montoya quote | Inigo Montoya - wikipedia
Inigo Montoya is a fictional character in William Goldman 's 1973 novel The Princess Bride. In Rob Reiner 's 1987 film adaptation, he was portrayed by Mandy Patinkin. In both the book and the movie, he was originally from Spain and resided in the fictional country of Florin.
In The Princess Bride, Inigo Montoya is portrayed as a Spanish fencer and henchman to the Sicilian criminal Vizzini. Inigo 's father Domingo was a great swordcrafter, but he remained obscure because he disliked dealing with the stupid rich and privileged. When Count Rugen, a nobleman with a six - fingered right hand, asked him to forge a sword to accommodate his unusual grip, Domingo labored over the sword for a year. When Rugen returned, he reneged on his promised price. Thus, Domingo refused to sell him the sword, not as a matter of money, but because Count Rugen could not appreciate the great work of the sword. He proclaimed that the sword would now belong to Inigo. Rugen then promptly killed Domingo. Eleven - year - old Inigo witnessed the crime and challenged Rugen to a fight, wherein Rugen disarmed Inigo in under a minute, but was genuinely disconcerted by the boy 's skill at fencing; recognizing Inigo 's talent, Rugen spared his life and allowed him to keep the sword, but gave him two scars, one on each cheek.
Inigo then went to live with his father 's friend and fellow swordmaker Yeste for two years; devastated by the loss, he devoted himself to becoming a great swordsman to be able to avenge his father. His training included tutelage under the most skilled fencing masters of his time. In the 30th anniversary version of "The Princess Bride '', it is revealed that, while training for his revenge against Count Rugen, Inigo falls in love with a servant girl, Giulietta. He woos her, and she reveals that she is a Countess and is in love with him as well. The two dance, and it is implied that Inigo leaves the next day. After ten years of training, Inigo becomes the greatest swordsman of his generation and the only living man to hold the rank of "wizard '' (a fictional fencing rank above "master '').
Unable to find his father 's killer and fearing that he would never fulfill his quest, Inigo sinks into depression and alcoholism before the criminal Vizzini finds him. Vizzini, Inigo, and a Turk named Fezzik are hired by an unknown man to kidnap and kill the "princess bride '', Buttercup. Subsequent events lead to Inigo 's duel with the "Man in Black '' (Westley), an extended sequence in both the book and the movie, in which both contestants begin fencing left - handed and eventually convert to their dominant right hands as the contest intensifies.
Westley eventually bests Inigo in the battle, but spares his life (knocking Inigo unconscious instead) out of respect for his abilities. When Inigo regains consciousness, he enters the Thieves ' Quarter of Florin City, falls into depression, and becomes a useless drunkard once more. Eventually, Fezzik finds him and helps him regain his health. They eventually rescue Westley from Rugen 's torture chamber but find, to their chagrin, that he appears to be dead. In desperation, they take him to Miracle Max, the king 's former "miracle man '', who tells them that Westley is only "mostly dead ''. Inigo persuades Max to help by appealing to Max 's hatred of Prince Humperdinck, who had fired him, and they bring Westley back to life.
That night, Inigo joins Westley to fight Humperdinck, and finally confronts his father 's killer with the words he had waited half his life to say: "Hello. My name is Inigo Montoya. You killed my father. Prepare to die. '' Rugen runs away. Inigo chases him throughout the castle until Rugen suddenly throws a knife at him and seriously wounds him, mocking his quest as he prepares to deliver the fatal blow. At the last second, Inigo recovers his strength and duels his father 's murderer, repeating his fateful words as he corners Rugen, inflicting on him the same dueling scars. Rugen begs for his life and offers to give Inigo anything he wants before trying to attack him again; Inigo replies, "I want my father back, you son of a bitch '', and kills him. This scene from the film was ranked # 86 by IGN in their list of "Top 100 Movie Moments ''. Mandy Patinkin has said that his inspiration for the scene was the real - life loss of his father to cancer and the feeling that his character killing Rugen would bring him back. At the end of the film, having avenged his father and thus no longer in "the revenge business '', Inigo ponders what he will do with the rest of his life. In response, Westley offers Inigo a position as successor to "The Dread Pirate Roberts ''. The novel ends with Inigo 's wounds reopening while he is on the run from the Brute Squad, leaving his future in doubt.
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office of the secretary to the governor general canada | Secretary to the Governor General of Canada - wikipedia
The Secretary to the Governor General is the administrative head of the Office of the Secretary to the Governor General of Canada and is based at Rideau Hall, Ottawa. The position is one of the oldest public service appointments in Canada and holds the courtesy rank of deputy minister within the Public Service of Canada. Since Confederation, every office holder has been appointed by order - in - council. The first post-Confederation incumbent, Dennis Godley, initially assumed his post in 1861 and would continue on into the post-Confederation period, departing in November 1868. The current secretary is Stephen Wallace, appointed in 2011.
The Secretary to the Governor General holds a number of ex officio positions. Since the establishment of the Order of Canada in 1967, the secretary has served as secretary general of the Order of Canada. The secretary also serves as secretary general of the Order of Military Merit and the Order of Merit of the Police Forces. Following the creation of the Canadian Heraldic Authority in 1988, the secretary became Herald Chancellor of Canada.
Jackson, Michael, ed. (2014). "Chapter 13: Confidant and Chief of Staff: the Governor 's Secretary ''. Canada and the Crown. McGill - Queen 's University Press. pp. 100 -- 110. ISBN 978 - 1 - 5533 - 9204 - 0.
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who wrote the song stay just a little bit longer | Stay (Maurice Williams song) - wikipedia
"Stay '' is a doo - wop song written by Maurice Williams and first recorded in 1960 by Williams with his group the Zodiacs. Commercially successful versions were later also issued by The Hollies, The Four Seasons and Jackson Browne.
The song was written by Williams in 1953 when he was 15 years old. He had been trying to convince his date not to go home at 10 o'clock as she was supposed to. He lost the argument, but as he was to relate years later, "Like a flood, the words just came to me. ''
In 1960, the song was put on a demo by Williams and his band, the Zodiacs, but it attracted no interest until a ten - year - old heard it and impressed the band members with her positive reaction to the tune. The band 's producers took it along with some other demos to New York City and played them for all the major record producers that they could access. Finally, Al Silver of Herald Records became interested, but insisted that the song be re-recorded as the demo 's recording levels were too low. They also said that one line, "Let 's have another smoke '' would have to be removed in order for the song to be played on commercial radio. After the group recorded the tune again, it was released by Herald Records and was picked up by CKLW. It entered the U.S. Billboard Hot 100 on October 9, 1960 and reached the number one spot on November 21, 1960. It was dislodged a week later by Elvis Presley 's "Are You Lonesome Tonight? ''. On the Herald recording, Williams sang lead and Henry Gaston sang the falsetto counter-verse.
The original recording of "Stay '' remains the shortest single ever to reach the top of the American record charts, at 1 minute 36 seconds in length. By 1990, it had sold more than 8 million copies. It received a new lease of popularity after being featured on the Dirty Dancing soundtrack.
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who asserted that man is product of earth surface | Ellen Churchill Semple - wikipedia
Ellen Churchill Semple (January 8, 1863 -- May 8, 1932) was an American geographer and the first female president of the Association of American Geographers. She contributed significantly to the early development of the discipline of geography in the United States, particularly studies of human geography. She is most closely associated with work in anthropogeography and environmentalism, and the debate about "environmental determinism ''.
Semple was born in Louisville, Kentucky, the youngest of five children by Alexander Bonner Semple and Emerine Price.
Semple graduated in 1882 with a BA in History from Vassar College at the age of 19, and continued on at Vassar to earn an MA in History in (1891). She became interested in geography while visiting London, where she encountered the works of Friedrich Ratzel. She went to Germany to seek out Ratzel and study with him at the University of Leipzig. As a woman, she was prohibited from matriculating, but she was able to gain permission to attend Ratzel 's lectures, the only woman in a class of five hundred male students. She continued to work with Ratzel and produced several academic papers in American and European journals, but was never conferred a degree.
Semple was the first woman to become president of the Association for American Geographers. Semple was a pioneer in American geography, helping to broaden the discipline 's focus beyond physical features of the earth and bringing attention to human aspects of geography. Her innovative approach and theories influenced the development of human geography as a significant subfield and influenced the social sciences across disciplines, including history and anthropology.
Semple taught at the University of Chicago from 1906 to 1920, but her first permanent academic position was offered to her in 1922 at Clark University. She was the first female faculty member, teaching graduate students in geography for the next decade, but her salary was always significantly less than her male colleagues. She also lectured at the University of Oxford in 1912 and 1922.
Her first book, American History and its Geographic Conditions (1903) and her second, Influences of Geographic Environment (1911), were widely - used textbooks for students of geography and history in the United States at the start of the 20th century.
Semple was a founding member of the Association of American Geographers (AAG). She was elected AAG 's first female President in 1921, and remains only one of six women to hold that office since the organization 's founding in 1904.
Semple was a key figure in the theory of environmental determinism, along with Ellsworth Huntington and Griffith Taylor. Influenced by the works of Charles Darwin and inspired by her mentor Freidrich Ratzel, Semple theorized that human activity was primarily determined by the physical environment. Although environmental determinism is today heavily critiqued and has lost favor in social theory, it was widely accepted in academia in the late 19th - early 20th centuries. Still, Semple 's influence can be seen in the works of many modern - day geographers, including Jared Diamond.
In a series of books and papers she communicated certain aspects of the work of German geographer Friedrich Ratzel to the Anglophone community. Standard disciplinary accounts often attribute to Semple a prevailing interest in environmental determinism, a theory that the physical environment, rather than social conditions, determines culture; however her later work emphasized environmental influences as opposed to the environment 's deterministic effect on culture, reflecting broader academic discontent with environmental determinism after the First World War.
In her work Influences of Geographic Environment on the Basis of Ratzel 's System of Anthropo - Geography (1911), she describes people and their associated landscapes, dividing the world into key environmental types. Semple identifies four key ways that the physical environment: 1) direct physical effects (climate, altitude); 2) psychical effects (culture, art, religion); 3) economic and social development (resources and livelihoods); 4) movement of people (natural barriers and routes, such as mountains and rivers).
Semple 's work also reflects discussions and conflicts within geography and social theory about determinism and race. Indeed, in some works she challenges popular ideas of her time about race determining social and cultural differences, suggesting that environment was a more important factor in cultural development. Semple 's theories of environmental determinism have been criticized as overly simplistic and often replicating the same themes of racial determination through "nature ''. However, Semple 's work has more recently been revisited for its early examination of issues which are now central to political ecology.
Semple believed that mankind originated in the tropics but gained full maturity in the temperate regions of the world. "where man has remained in the tropics, with few exceptions, he has suffered arrested development. His nursery has kept him a child. ''
Semple conducted fieldwork for her research in Kentucky and the Mediterranean, an innovative practice that was uncommon in geography at the time. She took notes on human - environment relations, cultural features of the landscape, and made detailed observations of housing, structures, livelihoods, and daily life.
Semple continued to teach geography until her death in 1932. She died in West Palm Beach, Florida, and is buried in the Cave Hill National Cemetery in Louisville.
In 1914 Semple received the Cullum Geographic Medal from the American Geographical Society, "in recognition of her distinguished contributions to the science of anthropogeography ''. She was President of the Association of American Geographers (now the American Association of Geographers) from 1921 to 1922 and was awarded the Helen Culver Gold Medal by the Geographic Society of Chicago, in recognition of her leadership in American Geography.
Semple Elementary School in Semple 's hometown of Louisville was named in her honor.
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who won last year's march madness 2017 | 2017 NCAA Division I men 's basketball tournament - wikipedia
The 2017 NCAA Division I Men 's Basketball Tournament involved 68 teams playing in a single - elimination tournament to determine the men 's National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) Division I college basketball national champion for the 2016 -- 17 season. The 79th edition of the tournament began on March 14, 2017, and concluded with the championship game on April 3 at University of Phoenix Stadium in Glendale, Arizona. The championship game was the first to be contested in a Western state since 1995 when Seattle was the host of the Final Four for that year.
In the Final Four, North Carolina beat Oregon (making their first Final Four appearance since 1939) while Gonzaga defeated South Carolina (both making their first ever Final Four appearance). North Carolina then defeated Gonzaga 71 -- 65 to win the national championship.
A total of 68 teams entered the 2017 tournament, with all 32 conference tournament winners receiving an automatic bid. The Ivy League, which previously granted its automatic tournament bid to its regular season champion, hosted a postseason tournament to determine a conference champion for the first time. In previous years, had the Ivy League had two schools tied for first in the standings, a one - game playoff (or series as was the case in the 2002 season) determined the automatic bid. On March 10, 2016, the Ivy League 's council of presidents approved a four - team tournament where the top four teams in the regular season would play on March 11 and 12 at Philadelphia 's Palestra.
The remaining 36 teams received "at - large '' bids which are extended by the NCAA Selection Committee. On January 24, 2016, the NCAA announced that the Selection Committee would, for the first time, unveil in - season rankings of the top four teams in each division on February 11, 2017.
Eight teams -- the four lowest - seeded automatic qualifiers and the four lowest - seeded at - large teams -- played in the First Four (the successor to what had been known as "play - in games '' through the 2010 tournament). The winners of these games advanced to the main draw of the tournament.
The Selection Committee also seeded the entire field from 1 to 68.
The committee 's selections resulted in two historic milestones. The Northwestern Wildcats of the Big Ten Conference made their first - ever NCAA Tournament in school history, officially becoming the last "power conference '' school to make the tournament. (This fact is ironic considering that Northwestern hosted the first - ever NCAA Tournament in 1939). The Wildcats ' First Round opponent, the Vanderbilt Commodores of the Southeastern Conference, also made history: with a record of 19 - 15, they set the mark for the most ever losses for an at - large team in tournament history.
Four conference champions also made their first NCAA appearances: North Dakota (Big Sky Conference), UC Davis (Big West Conference), Jacksonville State (Ohio Valley Conference), and first - year Division I school Northern Kentucky (Horizon League).
The following sites were selected to host each round of the 2017 tournament
First Four
First and Second Rounds
Regional Semifinals and Finals (Sweet Sixteen and Elite Eight)
National Semifinals and Championship (Final Four and Championship)
The city of Glendale, a Phoenix suburb, became the 30th host city, and the University of Phoenix Stadium became the 39th host venue, to host a Final Four. For the second straight year, no regional games were held in domed stadiums, a move dictated in 2013 by the NCAA to limit use of the stadiums for the regional rounds. The tournament featured two new arenas in previously visited markets. For the first time the tournament was held at the Bankers Life Fieldhouse, the home of the Indiana Pacers. This marks the first time since 1982 that a venue other than the RCA Dome or Lucas Oil Stadium hosted games within the city of Indianapolis. It also became the fifth venue within the city to host games, temporarily tying Indianapolis with Houston for the most different venues used within a city; Houston will add a sixth venue when the Toyota Center hosts games in the 2020 tournament. The tournament also returned to Sacramento, moving to the brand new Golden 1 Center, home of the Sacramento Kings, replacing Sleep Train Arena as the city 's primary indoor sports venue. The 2017 tournament marked the last time that the Bradley Center will be used for tournament games, as it is being replaced by the Wisconsin Entertainment and Sports Center in late 2018. The WESC is scheduled to host the tournament in 2022.
The tournament also saw a shift in location of first round games from Greensboro, North Carolina to Greenville, South Carolina. Greensboro originally was awarded First and Second Round games, but the games were relocated due to NCAA objections over North Carolina 's passage of HB2. This was also the first time a South Carolina venue hosted the tournament in 15 years, after the state removed the Confederate battle flag from the South Carolina State House grounds in July 2015 and the NCAA implemented a policy of not hosting championship games in the state in response to the display in 2002.
Eight teams, out of 351 in Division I, were ineligible to participate in the 2017 tournament due to failing to meet APR requirements, self - imposed postseason bans, or reclassification from a lower division. Hawaii had previously been banned from entering the tournament as a penalty for infractions, but the NCAA later reversed its ban.
The following 32 teams were automatic qualifiers for the 2017 NCAA field by virtue of winning their conference 's automatic bid.
* See First Four
All times are listed as Eastern Daylight Time (UTC − 4) * -- Denotes overtime period
During the Final Four round, regardless of the seeds of the participating teams, the champion of the top overall top seed 's region (Villanova 's East Region) plays against the champion of the fourth - ranked top seed 's region (Gonzaga 's West Region), and the champion of the second overall top seed 's region (Kansas 's Midwest Region) plays against the champion of the third - ranked top seed 's region (North Carolina 's South Region).
CBS Sports and Turner Sports held joint U.S. television broadcast rights to the Tournament under the NCAA March Madness brand. As part of a cycle beginning in 2016, CBS held rights to the Final Four and championship game. As CBS did not want its audience to be diffused across multiple outlets, there were no localized "Team Stream '' telecasts of the Final Four or championship games on Turner channels as in previous years.
Following criticism of the two - hour format of the 2016 edition, the Selection Sunday broadcast was shortened to 90 minutes. CBS Sports executive Harold Bryant promised that the unveiling of the bracket would be conducted in an "efficient '' manner, and leave more time to discuss and preview the tournament.
Westwood One had exclusive radio rights to the entire tournament. For the first time in the history of the tournament, broadcasts of the Final Four and championship game were available in Spanish.
Live video of games was available for streaming through the following means:
Live audio of games was available for streaming through the following means:
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yes i admit i got a drinking problem song | Thinkin ' Problem (song) - wikipedia
"Thinkin ' Problem '' is a song co-written and recorded by American country music singer David Ball. Ball co-wrote the song with Allen Shamblin and Stuart Ziff. It was released in March 1994 as the lead - off single and title track from his album Thinkin ' Problem. The song reached number 2 on the Hot Country Singles & Tracks (now Hot Country Songs) chart, and number 1 on Canada 's RPM country chart.
"Thinkin ' Problem '' is a moderate up - tempo with electric guitar, pedal steel guitar, and fiddle flourishes. In it, the male narrator states that he has a "thinkin ' problem '' (meant as a play on the term "drinking problem '') because he is constantly thinking about his former significant other despite numerous attempts to quit. The song begins with the famous phrase "Yes I admit, I 've got a thinkin ' problem '', with the final syllable of the word "admit '' drawn out.
The music video was directed by O Pictures and premiered in early 1994.
Rick Cohoon of Allmusic gave the song a mixed review, saying that it "is the fuel that ignited Ball 's launch into stardom '' but that "he tends to over-nasalize to the point of annoyance. '' Deborah Evans Price, of Billboard magazine reviewed the song favorably calling it a "perfect combination of retro sensibility and ' 90s production, and a pure honky - tonk delight. ''
Cledus T. Judd, a country music parodist, parodied the song as "Stinkin ' Problem '' on his 1995 debut album Cledus T. Judd (No Relation).
"Thinkin ' Problem '' debuted at number 72 on the U.S. Billboard Hot Country Singles & Tracks for the week of April 16, 1994.
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when were bill of rights added to constitution | United States Bill of Rights - wikipedia
The Bill of Rights is the first ten amendments to the United States Constitution. Proposed following the often bitter 1787 -- 88 battle over ratification of the U.S. Constitution, and crafted to address the objections raised by Anti-Federalists, the Bill of Rights amendments add to the Constitution specific guarantees of personal freedoms and rights, clear limitations on the government 's power in judicial and other proceedings, and explicit declarations that all powers not specifically delegated to Congress by the Constitution are reserved for the states or the people. The concepts codified in these amendments are built upon those found in several earlier documents, including the Virginia Declaration of Rights and the English Bill of Rights 1689, along with earlier documents such as Magna Carta (1215). In practice, the amendments had little impact on judgments by the courts for the first 150 years after ratification.
On June 8, 1789, Representative James Madison introduced nine amendments to the Constitution in the House of Representatives. Among his recommendations Madison proposed opening up the Constitution and inserting specific rights limiting the power of Congress in Article One, Section 9. Seven of these limitations would become part of the ten ratified Bill of Rights amendments. Ultimately, on September 25, 1789, Congress approved twelve articles of amendment to the Constitution, each consisting of one one - sentence paragraph, and submitted them to the states for ratification. Contrary to Madison 's original proposal that the articles be incorporated into the main body of the Constitution, they were proposed as supplemental additions (codicils) to it. Articles Three through Twelve were ratified as additions to the Constitution on December 15, 1791, and became Amendments One through Ten of the Constitution. Article Two became part of the Constitution on May 5, 1992, as the Twenty - seventh Amendment. Article One is technically still pending before the states.
Although Madison 's proposed amendments included a provision to extend the protection of some of the Bill of Rights to the states, the amendments that were finally submitted for ratification applied only to the federal government. The door for their application upon state governments was opened in the 1860s, following ratification of the Fourteenth Amendment. Since the early 20th century both federal and state courts have used the Fourteenth Amendment to apply portions of the Bill of Rights to state and local governments. The process is known as incorporation.
There are several original engrossed copies of the Bill of Rights still in existence. One of these is on permanent public display at the National Archives in Washington, D.C.
Prior to the ratification and implementation of the United States Constitution, the thirteen sovereign states followed the Articles of Confederation, created by the Second Continental Congress and ratified in 1781. However, the national government that operated under the Articles of Confederation was too weak to adequately regulate the various conflicts that arose between the states. The Philadelphia Convention set out to correct weaknesses of the Articles that had been apparent even before the American Revolutionary War had been successfully concluded.
The convention took place from May 14 to September 17, 1787, in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Although the Convention was purportedly intended only to revise the Articles, the intention of many of its proponents, chief among them James Madison of Virginia and Alexander Hamilton of New York, was to create a new government rather than fix the existing one. The convention convened in the Pennsylvania State House, and George Washington of Virginia was unanimously elected as president of the convention. The 55 delegates who drafted the Constitution are among the men known as the Founding Fathers of the new nation. Thomas Jefferson, who was Minister to France during the convention, characterized the delegates as an assembly of "demi - gods. '' Rhode Island refused to send delegates to the convention.
On September 12, George Mason of Virginia suggested the addition of a Bill of Rights to the Constitution modeled on previous state declarations, and Elbridge Gerry of Massachusetts made it a formal motion. However, the motion was defeated by a unanimous vote of the state delegations after only a brief discussion. Madison, then an opponent of a Bill of Rights, later explained the vote by calling the state bills of rights "parchment barriers '' that offered only an illusion of protection against tyranny. Another delegate, James Wilson of Pennsylvania, later argued that the act of enumerating the rights of the people would have been dangerous, because it would imply that rights not explicitly mentioned did not exist; Hamilton echoed this point in Federalist No. 84. Because Mason and Gerry had emerged as opponents of the proposed new Constitution, their motion -- introduced five days before the end of the convention -- may also have been seen by other delegates as a delaying tactic. The quick rejection of this motion, however, later endangered the entire ratification process. Author David O. Stewart characterizes the omission of a Bill of Rights in the original Constitution as "a political blunder of the first magnitude '' while historian Jack N. Rakove calls it "the one serious miscalculation the framers made as they looked ahead to the struggle over ratification ''.
Thirty - nine delegates signed the finalized Constitution. Thirteen delegates left before it was completed, and three who remained at the convention until the end refused to sign it: Mason, Gerry, and Edmund Randolph of Virginia. Afterward, the Constitution was presented to the Articles of Confederation Congress with the request that it afterwards be submitted to a convention of delegates, chosen in each State by the people, for their assent and ratification.
Following the Philadelphia Convention, some leading revolutionary figures such as Patrick Henry, Samuel Adams, and Richard Henry Lee publicly opposed the new frame of government, a position known as "Anti-Federalism ''. Elbridge Gerry wrote the most popular Anti-Federalist tract, "Hon. Mr. Gerry 's Objections '', which went through 46 printings; the essay particularly focused on the lack of a bill of rights in the proposed constitution. Many were concerned that a strong national government was a threat to individual rights and that the president would become a king. Jefferson wrote to Madison advocating a Bill of Rights: "Half a loaf is better than no bread. If we can not secure all our rights, let us secure what we can. '' The pseudonymous Anti-Federalist "Brutus '' wrote,
We find they have, in the ninth section of the first article declared, that the writ of habeas corpus shall not be suspended, unless in cases of rebellion -- that no bill of attainder, or ex post facto law, shall be passed -- that no title of nobility shall be granted by the United States, etc. If every thing which is not given is reserved, what propriety is there in these exceptions? Does this Constitution any where grant the power of suspending the habeas corpus, to make ex post facto laws, pass bills of attainder, or grant titles of nobility? It certainly does not in express terms. The only answer that can be given is, that these are implied in the general powers granted. With equal truth it may be said, that all the powers which the bills of rights guard against the abuse of, are contained or implied in the general ones granted by this Constitution.
He continued with this observation:
Ought not a government, vested with such extensive and indefinite authority, to have been restricted by a declaration of rights? It certainly ought. So clear a point is this, that I can not help suspecting that persons who attempt to persuade people that such reservations were less necessary under this Constitution than under those of the States, are wilfully endeavoring to deceive, and to lead you into an absolute state of vassalage.
Supporters of the Constitution, known as Federalists, opposed a bill of rights for much of the ratification period, in part due to the procedural uncertainties it would create. Madison argued against such an inclusion, suggesting that state governments were sufficient guarantors of personal liberty, in No. 46 of The Federalist Papers, a series of essays promoting the Federalist position. Hamilton opposed a bill of rights in The Federalist No. 84, stating that "the constitution is itself in every rational sense, and to every useful purpose, a bill of rights. He stated that ratification did not mean the American people were surrendering their rights, making protections unnecessary: "Here, in strictness, the people surrender nothing, and as they retain everything, they have no need of particular reservations. '' Patrick Henry criticized the federalist point of view, writing that the legislature must be firmly informed "of the extent of the rights retained by the people... being in a state of uncertainty, they will assume rather than give up powers by implication. '' Other anti-federalists pointed out that earlier political documents, in particular the Magna Carta had protected specific rights. In response, Hamilton argued that the Constitution was inherently different:
Bills of rights are in their origin, stipulations between kings and their subjects, abridgments of prerogative in favor of privilege, reservations of rights not surrendered to the prince. Such was the Magna Charta, obtained by the Barons, swords in hand, from King John.
In December 1787 and January 1788, five states -- Delaware, Pennsylvania, New Jersey, Georgia, and Connecticut -- ratified the Constitution with relative ease, though the bitter minority report of the Pennsylvania opposition was widely circulated. In contrast to its predecessors, the Massachusetts convention was angry and contentious, at one point erupting into a fistfight between Federalist delegate Francis Dana and Anti-Federalist Elbridge Gerry when the latter was not allowed to speak. The impasse was resolved only when revolutionary heroes and leading Anti-Federalists Samuel Adams and John Hancock agreed to ratification on the condition that the convention also propose amendments. The convention 's proposed amendments included a requirement for grand jury indictment in capital cases, which would form part of the Fifth Amendment, and an amendment reserving powers to the states not expressly given to the federal government, which would later form the basis for the Tenth Amendment.
Following Massachusetts ' lead, the Federalist minorities in both Virginia and New York were able to obtain ratification in convention by linking ratification to recommended amendments. A committee of the Virginia convention headed by law professor George Wythe forwarded forty recommended amendments to Congress, twenty of which enumerated individual rights and another twenty of which enumerated states ' rights. The latter amendments included limitations on federal powers to levy taxes and regulate trade.
A minority of the Constitution 's critics, such as Maryland 's Luther Martin, continued to oppose ratification. However, Martin 's allies, such as New York 's John Lansing, Jr., dropped moves to obstruct the Convention 's process. They began to take exception to the Constitution "as it was, '' seeking amendments. Several conventions saw supporters for "amendments before '' shift to a position of "amendments after '' for the sake of staying in the Union. The New York Anti-Federalist "circular letter '' was sent to each state legislature proposing a second constitutional convention for "amendments before '', but it failed in the state legislatures. Ultimately, only North Carolina and Rhode Island waited for amendments from Congress before ratifying.
Article Seven of the proposed Constitution set the terms by which the new frame of government would be established. The new Constitution would become operational when ratified by at least nine states. Only then would it replace the existing government under the Articles of Confederation and would apply only to those states that ratified it.
Following contentious battles in several states, the proposed Constitution reached that nine state ratification plateau in June 1788. On September 13, 1788, the Articles of Confederation Congress certified that the new Constitution had been ratified by more than enough states for the new system to be implemented and directed the new government to meet in New York City on the first Wednesday in March the following year. On March 4, 1789, the new frame of government came into force with eleven of the thirteen states participating.
The 1st United States Congress, which met in New York City 's Federal Hall, was a triumph for the Federalists. The Senate of eleven states contained 20 Federalists with only two Anti-Federalists, both from Virginia. The House included 48 Federalists to 11 Anti-Federalists, the latter of whom were from only four states: Massachusetts, New York, Virginia and South Carolina. Among the Virginia delegation to the House was James Madison, Patrick Henry 's chief opponent in the Virginia ratification battle. In retaliation for Madison 's victory in that battle at Virginia 's ratification convention, Henry and other Anti-Federalists, who controlled the Virginia House of Delegates had gerrymandered a hostile district for Madison 's planned congressional run and recruited Madison 's future presidential successor, James Monroe, to oppose him. Madison defeated Monroe after offering a campaign pledge that he would introduce constitutional amendments comprising a Bill of Rights at the First Congress.
Originally opposed to the inclusion of a bill of rights in the Constitution, he had gradually come to understand the importance of doing so during the often contentious ratification debates. By taking the initiative to propose amendments himself through the Congress, he hoped to preempt a second constitutional convention that might, it was feared, undo the difficult compromises of 1787, and open the entire Constitution to reconsideration, thus risking the dissolution of the new federal government. Writing to Jefferson, he stated, "The friends of the Constitution, some from an approbation of particular amendments, others from a spirit of conciliation, are generally agreed that the System should be revised. But they wish the revisal to be carried no farther than to supply additional guards for liberty. '' He also felt that amendments guaranteeing personal liberties would "give to the Government its due popularity and stability ''. Finally, he hoped that the amendments "would acquire by degrees the character of fundamental maxims of free government, and as they become incorporated with the national sentiment, counteract the impulses of interest and passion ''. Historians continue to debate the degree to which Madison considered the amendments of the Bill of Rights necessary, and to what degree he considered them politically expedient; in the outline of his address, he wrote, "Bill of Rights -- useful -- not essential -- ''.
On the occasion of his April 30, 1789 inauguration as the nation 's first president, George Washington addressed the subject of amending the Constitution. He urged the legislators,
whilst you carefully avoid every alteration which might endanger the benefits of an united and effective government, or which ought to await the future lessons of experience; a reverence for the characteristic rights of freemen, and a regard for public harmony, will sufficiently influence your deliberations on the question, how far the former can be impregnably fortified or the latter be safely and advantageously promoted.
James Madison introduced a series of Constitutional amendments in the House of Representatives for consideration. Among his proposals was one that would have added introductory language stressing natural rights to the preamble. Another would apply parts of the Bill of Rights to the states as well as the federal government. Several sought to protect individual personal rights by limiting various Constitutional powers of Congress. Like Washington, Madison urged Congress to keep the revision to the Constitution "a moderate one '', limited to protecting individual rights.
Madison was deeply read in the history of government and used a range of sources in composing the amendments. The English Magna Carta of 1215 inspired the right to petition and to trial by jury, for example, while the English Bill of Rights of 1689 provided an early precedent for the right to keep and bear arms (although this applied only to Protestants) and prohibited cruel and unusual punishment.
The greatest influence on Madison 's text, however, was existing state constitutions. Many of his amendments, including his proposed new preamble, were based on the Virginia Declaration of Rights drafted by Anti-Federalist George Mason in 1776. To reduce future opposition to ratification, Madison also looked for recommendations shared by many states. He did provide one, however, that no state had requested: "No state shall violate the equal rights of conscience, or the freedom of the press, or the trial by jury in criminal cases. '' He did not include an amendment that every state had asked for, one that would have made tax assessments voluntary instead of contributions.
First. That there be prefixed to the constitution a declaration that all power is originally vested in, and consequently derived from the people. That government is instituted, and ought to be exercised for the benefit of the people; which consists in the enjoyment of life and liberty, with the right of acquiring and using property, and generally of pursuing and obtaining happiness and safety. That the people have an indubitable, unalienable, and indefeasible right to reform or change their government, whenever it be found adverse or inadequate to the purposes of its institution. Secondly. That in article 1st, section 2, clause 3, these words be struck out, to wit: "The number of Representatives shall not exceed one for every thirty thousand, but each State shall have at least one Representative, and until such enumeration shall be made; '' and in place thereof be inserted these words, to wit: "After the first actual enumeration, there shall be one Representative for every thirty thousand, until the number amounts to --, after which the proportion shall be so regulated by Congress, that the number shall never be less than --, nor more than --, but each State shall, after the first enumeration, have at least two Representatives; and prior thereto. '' Thirdly. That in article 2nd, section 6, clause 1, there be added to the end of the first sentence, these words, to wit, "But no law varying the compensation last ascertained shall operate before the next ensuing election of representatives. '' Fourthly. That in article 2nd, section 9, between clauses 3 and 4, be inserted these clauses, to wit, The civil rights of none shall be abridged on account of religious belief or worship, nor shall any national religion be established, nor shall the full and equal rights of conscience by in any manner, or on any pretext infringed. The people shall not be deprived or abridged of their right to speak, to write, or to publish their sentiments; and the freedom of the press, as one of the great bulwarks of liberty, shall be inviolable. The people shall not be restrained from peaceably assembling and consulting for their common good, nor from applying to the legislature by petitions, or remonstrances for redress of their grievances. The right of the people to keep and bear arms shall not be infringed; a well armed, and well regulated militia being the best security of a free country: but no person religiously scrupulous of bearing arms, shall be compelled to render military service in person. No soldier shall in time of peace be quartered in any house without the consent of the owner; nor at any time, but in a manner warranted by law. No person shall be subject, except in cases of impeachment, to more than one punishment, or one trial for the same office; nor shall be compelled to be a witness against himself; nor be deprived of life, liberty, or property without due process of law; nor be obliged to relinquish his property, where it may be necessary for public use, without a just compensation. Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines imposed, nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted. The rights of the people to be secured in their persons, their houses, their papers, and their other property from all unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be violated by warrants issued without probable cause, supported by oath or affirmation, or not particularly describing the places to be searched, or the persons or things to be seized. In all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall enjoy the right to a speedy and public trial, to be informed of the cause and nature of the accusation, to be confronted with his accusers, and the witnesses against him; to have a compulsory process for obtaining witnesses in his favor; and to have the assistance of counsel for his defense. The exceptions here or elsewhere in the constitution, made in favor of particular rights, shall not be so construed as to diminish the just importance of other rights retained by the people; or as to enlarge the powers delegated by the constitution; but either as actual limitations of such powers, or as inserted merely for greater caution. Fifthly. That in article 2nd, section 10, between clauses 1 and 2, be inserted this clause, to wit: No state shall violate the equal rights of conscience, or the freedom of the press, or the trial by jury in criminal cases Sixthly. That article 3rd, section 2, be annexed to the end of clause 2nd, these words to wit: but no appeal to such court shall be allowed where the value in controversy shall not amount to -- dollars: nor shall any fact triable by jury, according to the course of common law, be otherwise re-examinable than may consist with the principles of common law. Seventhly. That in article 3rd, section 2, the third clause be struck out, and in its place be inserted the classes following, to wit: The trial of all crimes (except in cases of impeachments, and cases arising in the land or naval forces, or the militia when on actual service in time of war or public danger) shall be by an impartial jury of freeholders of the vicinage, with the requisite of unanimity for conviction, of the right of challenge, and other accustomed requisites; and in all crimes punishable with loss of life or member, presentment or indictment by a grand jury shall be an essential preliminary, provided that in cases of crimes committed within any county which may be in possession of an enemy, or in which a general insurrection may prevail, the trial may by law be authorized in some other county of the same State, as near as may be to the seat of the offence. In cases of crimes committed not within any county, the trial may by law be in such county as the laws shall have prescribed. In suits at common law, between man and man, the trial by jury, as one of the best securities to the rights of the people, ought to remain inviolate. Eighthly. That immediately after article 6th, be inserted, as article 7th, the clauses following, to wit: The powers delegated by this constitution, are appropriated to the departments to which they are respectively distributed: so that the legislative department shall never exercise the powers vested in the executive or judicial; nor the executive exercise the powers vested in the legislative or judicial; nor the judicial exercise the powers vested in the legislative or executive departments. The powers not delegated by this constitution, nor prohibited by it to the states, are reserved to the States respectively. Ninthly. That article 7th, be numbered as article 8th.
Federalist representatives were quick to attack Madison 's proposal, fearing that any move to amend the new Constitution so soon after its implementation would create an appearance of instability in the government. The House, unlike the Senate, was open to the public, and members such as Fisher Ames warned that a prolonged "dissection of the constitution '' before the galleries could shake public confidence. A procedural battle followed, and after initially forwarding the amendments to a select committee for revision, the House agreed to take Madison 's proposal up as a full body beginning on July 21, 1789.
The eleven - member committee made some significant changes to Madison 's nine proposed amendments, including eliminating most of his preamble and adding the phrase "freedom of speech, and of the press ''. The House debated the amendments for eleven days. Roger Sherman of Connecticut persuaded the House to place the amendments at the Constitution 's end so that the document would "remain inviolate '', rather than adding them throughout, as Madison had proposed. The amendments, revised and condensed from twenty to seventeen, were approved and forwarded to the Senate on August 24, 1789.
The Senate edited these amendments still further, making 26 changes of its own. Madison 's proposal to apply parts of the Bill of Rights to the states as well as the federal government was eliminated, and the seventeen amendments were condensed to twelve, which were approved on September 9, 1789. The Senate also eliminated the last of Madison 's proposed changes to the preamble.
On September 21, 1789, a House -- Senate Conference Committee convened to resolve the numerous differences between the two Bill of Rights proposals. On September 24, 1789, the committee issued this report, which finalized 12 Constitutional Amendments for House and Senate to consider. This final version was approved by joint resolution of Congress on September 25, 1789, to be forwarded to the states on September 28.
By the time the debates and legislative maneuvering that went into crafting the Bill of Rights amendments was done, many personal opinions had shifted. A number of Federalists came out in support, thus silencing the Anti-Federalists ' most effective critique. Many Anti-Federalists, in contrast, were now opposed, realizing that Congressional approval of these amendments would greatly lessen the chances of a second constitutional convention. Anti-Federalists such as Richard Henry Lee also argued that the Bill left the most objectionable portions of the Constitution, such as the federal judiciary and direct taxation, intact.
Madison remained active in the progress of the amendments throughout the legislative process. Historian Gordon S. Wood writes that "there is no question that it was Madison 's personal prestige and his dogged persistence that saw the amendments through the Congress. There might have been a federal Constitution without Madison but certainly no Bill of Rights. ''
The twelve articles of amendment approved by congress were officially submitted to the Legislatures of the several States for consideration on September 28, 1789. The following states ratified some or all of the amendments:
Having been approved by the requisite three - fourths of the several states, there being 14 States in the Union at the time (as Vermont had been admitted into the Union on March 4, 1791), the ratification of Articles Three through Twelve was completed and they became Amendments 1 through 10 of the Constitution. President Washington informed Congress of this on December 30, 1791.
As they had not yet been approved by 11 of the 14 states, the ratification of Article One (ratified by 10) and Article Two (ratified by 6) remained incomplete. The ratification plateau they needed to reach soon rose to 12 of 15 states when Kentucky joined the Union (June 1, 1792). On June 27, 1792, the Kentucky General Assembly ratified all 12 amendments, however this action did not come to light until 1996.
Article One came within one state of the number needed to become adopted into the Constitution on two occasions between 1789 and 1803. Despite coming close to ratification early on, it has never received the approval of enough states to become part of the Constitution. As Congress did not attach a ratification time limit to the article, it is still technically pending before the states. Since no state has approved it since 1792, ratification by an additional 27 states would now be necessary for the article to be adopted.
Article Two, initially ratified by seven states through 1792 (including Kentucky), was not ratified by another state for eighty years. The Ohio General Assembly ratified it on May 6, 1873 in protest of an unpopular Congressional pay raise. A century later, on March 6, 1978, the Wyoming Legislature also ratified the article. Gregory Watson, a University of Texas at Austin undergraduate student, started a new push for the article 's ratification with a letter - writing campaign to state legislatures. As a result, by May 1992, enough states had approved Article Two (38 of the 50 states in the Union) for it to become the Twenty - seventh Amendment to the United States Constitution. The amendment 's adoption was certified by Archivist of the United States Don W. Wilson and subsequently affirmed by a vote of Congress on May 20, 1992.
Three states did not complete action on the twelve articles of amendment when they were initially put before the states. Georgia found a Bill of Rights unnecessary and so refused to ratify. Both chambers of the Massachusetts General Court ratified a number of the amendments (the Senate adopted 10 of 12 and the House 9 of 12), but failed to reconcile their two lists or to send official notice to the Secretary of State of the ones they did agree upon. Both houses of the Connecticut General Assembly voted to ratify Articles Three through Twelve but failed to reconcile their bills after disagreeing over whether to ratify Articles One and Two. All three later ratified the Constitutional amendments originally known as Articles Three through Twelve as part of the 1939 commemoration of the Bill of Rights ' sesquicentennial: Massachusetts on March 2, Georgia on March 18, and Connecticut on April 19. Connecticut and Georgia would also later ratify Article Two, on May 13, 1987 and February 2, 1988 respectively.
The Bill of Rights had little judicial impact for the first 150 years of its existence; in the words of Gordon S. Wood, "After ratification, most Americans promptly forgot about the first ten amendments to the Constitution. '' The Court made no important decisions protecting free speech rights, for example, until 1931. Historian Richard Labunski attributes the Bill 's long legal dormancy to three factors: first, it took time for a "culture of tolerance '' to develop that would support the Bill 's provisions with judicial and popular will; second, the Supreme Court spent much of the 19th century focused on issues relating to intergovernmental balances of power; and third, the Bill initially only applied to the federal government, a restriction affirmed by Barron v. Baltimore (1833). In the twentieth century, however, most of the Bill 's provisions were applied to the states via the Fourteenth Amendment -- a process known as incorporation -- beginning with the freedom of speech clause, in Gitlow v. New York (1925). In Talton v. Mayes (1896), the Court ruled that Constitutional protections, including the provisions of the Bill of Rights, do not apply to the actions of American Indian tribal governments. Through the incorporation process the United States Supreme Court succeeded in extending to the States almost all of the protections in the Bill of Rights, as well as other, unenumerated rights. The Bill of Rights thus imposes legal limits on the powers of governments and acts as an anti-majoritarian / minoritarian safeguard by providing deeply entrenched legal protection for various civil liberties and fundamental rights. The Supreme Court for example concluded in the West Virginia State Board of Education v. Barnette (1943) case that the founders intended the Bill of Rights to put some rights out of reach from majorities, ensuring that some liberties would endure beyond political majorities. As the Court noted the idea of the Bill of Rights "was to withdraw certain subjects from the vicissitudes of political controversy, to place them beyond the reach of majorities and officials and to establish them as legal principles to be applied by the courts. '' This is why "fundamental rights may not be submitted to a vote; they depend on the outcome of no elections. ''
Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press; or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the Government for a redress of grievances.
The First Amendment prohibits the making of any law respecting an establishment of religion, impeding the free exercise of religion, abridging the freedom of speech, infringing on the freedom of the press, interfering with the right to peaceably assemble or prohibiting the petitioning for a governmental redress of grievances. Initially, the First Amendment applied only to laws enacted by Congress, and many of its provisions were interpreted more narrowly than they are today.
In Everson v. Board of Education (1947), the Court drew on Thomas Jefferson 's correspondence to call for "a wall of separation between church and State '', though the precise boundary of this separation remains in dispute. Speech rights were expanded significantly in a series of 20th - and 21st - century court decisions that protected various forms of political speech, anonymous speech, campaign financing, pornography, and school speech; these rulings also defined a series of exceptions to First Amendment protections. The Supreme Court overturned English common law precedent to increase the burden of proof for libel suits, most notably in New York Times Co. v. Sullivan (1964). Commercial speech is less protected by the First Amendment than political speech, and is therefore subject to greater regulation.
The Free Press Clause protects publication of information and opinions, and applies to a wide variety of media. In Near v. Minnesota (1931) and New York Times v. United States (1971), the Supreme Court ruled that the First Amendment protected against prior restraint -- pre-publication censorship -- in almost all cases. The Petition Clause protects the right to petition all branches and agencies of government for action. In addition to the right of assembly guaranteed by this clause, the Court has also ruled that the amendment implicitly protects freedom of association.
A well regulated Militia, being necessary to the security of a free State, the right of the people to keep and bear Arms, shall not be infringed.
The Second Amendment protects the individual right to keep and bear arms. The concept of such a right existed within English common law long before the enactment of the Bill of Rights. First codified in the English Bill of Rights of 1689 (but there only applying to Protestants), this right was enshrined in fundamental laws of several American states during the Revolutionary era, including the 1776 Virginia Declaration of Rights and the Pennsylvania Constitution of 1776. Long a controversial issue in American political, legal, and social discourse, the Second Amendment has been at the heart of several Supreme Court decisions.
No Soldier shall, in time of peace be quartered in any house, without the consent of the Owner, nor in time of war, but in a manner to be prescribed by law.
The Third Amendment restricts the quartering of soldiers in private homes, in response to Quartering Acts passed by the British parliament during the Revolutionary War. The amendment is one of the least controversial of the Constitution, and, as of 2016, has never been the primary basis of a Supreme Court decision.
The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be violated, and no Warrants shall issue, but upon probable cause, supported by Oath or affirmation, and particularly describing the place to be searched, and the persons or things to be seized.
The Fourth Amendment guards against unreasonable searches and seizures, along with requiring any warrant to be judicially sanctioned and supported by probable cause. It was adopted as a response to the abuse of the writ of assistance, which is a type of general search warrant, in the American Revolution. Search and seizure (including arrest) must be limited in scope according to specific information supplied to the issuing court, usually by a law enforcement officer who has sworn by it. The amendment is the basis for the exclusionary rule, which mandates that evidence obtained illegally can not be introduced into a criminal trial. The amendment 's interpretation has varied over time; its protections expanded under left - leaning courts such as that headed by Earl Warren and contracted under right - leaning courts such as that of William Rehnquist.
No person shall be held to answer for a capital, or otherwise infamous crime, unless on a presentment or indictment of a Grand Jury, except in cases arising in the land or naval forces, or in the Militia, when in actual service in time of War or public danger; nor shall any person be subject for the same offence to be twice put in jeopardy of life or limb; nor shall be compelled in any criminal case to be a witness against himself, nor be deprived of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor shall private property be taken for public use, without just compensation.
The Fifth Amendment protects against double jeopardy and self - incrimination and guarantees the rights to due process, grand jury screening of criminal indictments, and compensation for the seizure of private property under eminent domain. The amendment was the basis for the court 's decision in Miranda v. Arizona (1966), which established that defendants must be informed of their rights to an attorney and against self - incrimination prior to interrogation by police.
In all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall enjoy the right to a speedy and public trial, by an impartial jury of the State and district wherein the crime shall have been committed, which district shall have been previously ascertained by law, and to be informed of the nature and cause of the accusation; to be confronted with the witnesses against him; to have compulsory process for obtaining witnesses in his favor, and to have the Assistance of Counsel for his defence.
The Sixth Amendment establishes a number of rights of the defendant in a criminal trial:
In Gideon v. Wainwright (1963), the Court ruled that the amendment guaranteed the right to legal representation in all felony prosecutions in both state and federal courts.
In suits at common law, where the value in controversy shall exceed twenty dollars, the right of trial by jury shall be preserved, and no fact tried by a jury, shall be otherwise re-examined in any court of the United States, than according to the rules of the common law.
The Seventh Amendment guarantees jury trials in federal civil cases that deal with claims of more than twenty dollars. It also prohibits judges from overruling findings of fact by juries in federal civil trials. In Colgrove v. Battin (1973), the Court ruled that the amendment 's requirements could be fulfilled by a jury with a minimum of six members. The Seventh is one of the few parts of the Bill of Rights not to be incorporated (applied to the states).
Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines imposed, nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted.
The Eighth Amendment forbids the imposition of excessive bails or fines, though it leaves the term "excessive '' open to interpretation. The most frequently litigated clause of the amendment is the last, which forbids cruel and unusual punishment. This clause was only occasionally applied by the Supreme Court prior to the 1970s, generally in cases dealing with means of execution. In Furman v. Georgia (1972), some members of the Court found capital punishment itself in violation of the amendment, arguing that the clause could reflect "evolving standards of decency '' as public opinion changed; others found certain practices in capital trials to be unacceptably arbitrary, resulting in a majority decision that effectively halted executions in the United States for several years. Executions resumed following Gregg v. Georgia (1976), which found capital punishment to be constitutional if the jury was directed by concrete sentencing guidelines. The Court has also found that some poor prison conditions constitute cruel and unusual punishment, as in Estelle v. Gamble (1976) and Brown v. Plata (2011).
The enumeration in the Constitution, of certain rights, shall not be construed to deny or disparage others retained by the people.
The Ninth Amendment declares that there are additional fundamental rights that exist outside the Constitution. The rights enumerated in the Constitution are not an explicit and exhaustive list of individual rights. It was rarely mentioned in Supreme Court decisions before the second half of the 20th century, when it was cited by several of the justices in Griswold v. Connecticut (1965). The Court in that case voided a statute prohibiting use of contraceptives as an infringement of the right of marital privacy. This right was, in turn, the foundation upon which the Supreme Court built decisions in several landmark cases, including, Roe v. Wade (1973), which overturned a Texas law making it a crime to assist a woman to get an abortion, and Planned Parenthood v. Casey (1992), which invalidated a Pennsylvania law that required spousal awareness prior to obtaining an abortion.
The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the States respectively, or to the people.
The Tenth Amendment reinforces the principles of separation of powers and federalism by providing that powers not granted to the federal government by the Constitution, nor prohibited to the states, are reserved to the states or the people. The amendment provides no new powers or rights to the states, but rather preserves their authority in all matters not specifically granted to the federal government.
Congress has sometimes gotten around the Tenth Amendment by invoking the Commerce Clause in Article One or by threatening to withhold funding for a federal program from noncooperative States, as in South Dakota v. Dole (1987).
George Washington had fourteen handwritten copies of the Bill of Rights made, one for Congress and one for each of the original thirteen states. The copies for Georgia, Maryland, New York, and Pennsylvania went missing. The New York copy is thought to have been destroyed in a fire. Two unidentified copies of the missing four (thought to be the Georgia and Maryland copies) survive; one is in the National Archives, and the other is in the New York Public Library. North Carolina 's copy was stolen from the State Capitol by a Union soldier following the Civil War. In an FBI sting operation, it was recovered in 2003. The copy retained by the First Congress has been on display (along with the Constitution and the Declaration of Independence) in the Rotunda for the Charters of Freedom room at the National Archives Building in Washington, D.C. since December 13, 1952.
After fifty years on display, signs of deterioration in the casing were noted, while the documents themselves appeared to be well preserved. Accordingly, the casing was updated and the Rotunda rededicated on September 17, 2003. In his dedicatory remarks, President George W. Bush stated, "The true (American) revolution was not to defy one earthly power, but to declare principles that stand above every earthly power -- the equality of each person before God, and the responsibility of government to secure the rights of all. ''
In 1941, President Franklin D. Roosevelt declared December 15 to be Bill of Rights Day, commemorating the 150th anniversary of the ratification of the Bill of Rights. In 1991, the Virginia copy of the Bill of Rights toured the country in honor of its bicentennial, visiting the capitals of all fifty states.
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what is it called when your afraid of heights | Acrophobia - wikipedia
Acrophobia is an extreme or irrational fear or phobia of heights, especially when one is not particularly high up. It belongs to a category of specific phobias, called space and motion discomfort, that share both similar causes and options for treatment.
Most people experience a degree of natural fear when exposed to heights, known as the fear of falling. On the other hand, those who have little fear of such exposure are said to have a head for heights. A head for heights is advantageous for those hiking or climbing in mountainous terrain and also in certain jobs e.g. steeplejacks or wind turbine mechanics.
People with acrophobia can experience a panic attack in high places and become too agitated to get themselves down safely. Approximately 2 -- 5 % of the general population has acrophobia, with twice as many women affected as men. The term is from the Greek: ἄκρον, ákron, meaning "peak, summit, edge '' and φόβος, phóbos, "fear ''.
Traditionally, acrophobia has been attributed, like other phobias, to conditioning or a traumatic experience. Recent studies have cast doubt on this explanation; a fear of falling, along with a fear of loud noises, is one of the most commonly suggested inborn or "non-associative '' fears. The newer non-association theory is that a fear of heights is an evolved adaptation to a world where falls posed a significant danger. The degree of fear varies and the term phobia is reserved for those at the extreme end of the spectrum. Researchers have argued that a fear of heights is an instinct found in many mammals, including domestic animals and humans. Experiments using visual cliffs have shown human infants and toddlers, as well as other animals of various ages, to be reluctant in venturing onto a glass floor with a view of a few meters of apparent fall - space below it. While an innate cautiousness around heights is helpful for survival, an extreme fear can interfere with the activities of everyday life, such as standing on a ladder or chair, or even walking up a flight of stairs.
A possible contributing factor is a dysfunction in maintaining balance. In this case the anxiety is both well founded and secondary. The human balance system integrates proprioceptive, vestibular and nearby visual cues to reckon position and motion. As height increases, visual cues recede and balance becomes poorer even in normal people. However, most people respond by shifting to more reliance on the proprioceptive and vestibular branches of the equilibrium system.
An acrophobic, however, continues to over-rely on visual signals whether because of inadequate vestibular function or incorrect strategy. Locomotion at a high elevation requires more than normal visual processing. The visual cortex becomes overloaded resulting in confusion. Some proponents of the alternative view of acrophobia warn that it may be ill - advised to encourage acrophobics to expose themselves to height without first resolving the vestibular issues. Research is underway at several clinics.
"Vertigo '' is often used (incorrectly) to describe a fear of heights, but it is more accurately a spinning sensation that occurs when one is not actually spinning. It can be triggered by looking down from a high place, by looking straight up at a high place or tall object, or even by watching something (i.e. a car or a bird) go past at high speed, but this alone does not describe vertigo. True vertigo can be triggered by almost any type of movement (e.g. standing up, sitting down, walking) or change in visual perspective (e.g. squatting down, walking up or down stairs, looking out of the window of a moving car or train). Vertigo is called height vertigo when the sensation of vertigo is triggered by heights.
There have been a number of studies into using virtual reality therapy for acrophobia.
Many different types of medications are used in the treatment of phobias like fear of heights, including traditional anti-anxiety drugs such as benzodiazepines, and newer options like antidepressants and beta - blockers.
Some desensitization treatments produce short - term improvements in symptoms. Long - term treatment success has been elusive.
True acrophobia is uncommon.
A related, milder form of visually triggered fear or anxiety is called visual height intolerance. Up to one - third of people may have some level of visual height intolerance.
In the Alfred Hitchcock film Vertigo, John "Scottie '' Ferguson, played by James Stewart, has to resign from the police force after an incident which causes him to develop both acrophobia and vertigo. The word "vertigo '' is only mentioned once, while "acrophobia '' is mentioned several times. Early on in the film, Ferguson faints while climbing a stepladder. There are numerous references throughout the film to fear of heights and falling.
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when did bojack horseman season 4 come out | BoJack Horseman - wikipedia
BoJack Horseman is an American adult animated black comedy - drama series created by Raphael Bob - Waksberg. The series stars Will Arnett as the title character. The supporting cast includes Amy Sedaris, Alison Brie, Paul F. Tompkins, and Aaron Paul. The series ' first season premiered on August 22, 2014, on Netflix, with a Christmas special premiering on December 19. The show is designed by the cartoonist Lisa Hanawalt, who had previously worked with Bob - Waksberg on the webcomic Tip Me Over, Pour Me Out.
While BoJack Horseman may have a satirical take on current events, politics, and show business, the show is lauded for its realistic take on dealing with depression, trauma, addiction, and self - destructive behavior.
Despite mixed reviews upon its debut, critics were notably more positive towards the second half of the first season, before universally acclaiming the subsequent seasons. The series was renewed for a fourth season which premiered on September 8, 2017. On September 21, 2017, the series was renewed for a fifth season.
The series takes place mostly in the Los Angeles area, specifically, in Hollywood (later known as "Hollywoo '' after the ' D ' in the Hollywood Sign is stolen in a romantic gesture). In an alternate world where humans and tailless anthropomorphic animals live side by side, BoJack Horseman, the washed - up star of the 1990s Horsin ' Around, plans his big return to celebrity relevance with a tell - all autobiography that he dictates to his ghostwriter Diane Nguyen. BoJack also has to contend with the demands of his agent and on - again - off - again girlfriend Princess Carolyn, the misguided antics of his freeloading roommate Todd Chavez, and his frenemy Mr. Peanutbutter, who is also Nguyen 's boyfriend (and, later, her husband). The series satirizes Hollywood, celebrity culture, drug abuse, anxiety, depression and the effects of the entertainment industry in contemporary culture.
The main title theme was composed by Patrick Carney, drummer for the blues - rock duo The Black Keys with his uncle Ralph Carney. The main sound, starting at the beginning, is a Roland Jupiter - 4 analog synthesizer triggered with a click track in ProTools.
The ending credits theme "Back in the 90s (BoJack 's Theme) '' was performed by the indie - pop act Grouplove. Jesse Novak composed the incidental music.
In addition, the show featured Lyla Foy 's song "Impossible '' in the end credits of the seventh episode of the first season, the Death Grips song "No Love '' in the eleventh episode of the first season, and the Rolling Stones song "Wild Horses '' and Tegan and Sara 's "Closer '' in the season finale. The Courtney Barnett song "Avant Gardener '' plays during the second season finale, and Nina Simone 's cover of Janis Ian 's "Stars '' closed out the last episode of the third season. The show also features Oberhofer 's song "Sea of Dreams '' on the fourth episode of the third season, "Fish out of Water '', Magic Sword 's "Infinite '' on the fifth episode of the fourth season, and Jenny Owen Youngs 's Wake Up on the twelfth episode of the fourth season. Princess Carolyn 's hold music is the song "Jellicle Songs for Jellicle Cats '' from the musical Cats.
The soundtrack for BoJack Horseman was released on Lakeshore Records on September 8, 2017, to coincide with the release of season 4. It includes several songs, amongst them the full version of the main theme, Patrick Carney and Michelle Branch 's version of America 's "A Horse with No Name '', Sextina Aquafina 's "Get Dat Fetus, Kill Dat Fetus '', the themes from Horsin ' Around and Mr. Peanutbutter 's House, and the entire score for the episode "Fish Out of Water ''.
On the review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes the first season has an approval rating of 60 %, based on 20 reviews. On Metacritic, the season received a score of 59 out of 100, based on 13 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews ''. Erik Adams ' review of the first six episodes gave the series a C+ grade; in the review, Adams wrote that the show "spoofs the emptiness of celebrity, but does so without any novelty or true insight ''. At Slate, Willa Paskin was more enthused. "(It) is perhaps a little more clever than it is uproariously funny, but it is often very clever, and, moreover, well - tuned to the ludicrousness of the sort of low - level fame that surrounds BoJack ''. She likened it to 30 Rock in its ability to "(present) big ideas without having to commit to them ''. Chris Mitchell from Popzara was equally optimistic about the show 's future, saying that "Fans of FX 's Archer or Fox 's Bob 's Burgers will definitely want to check this one out, as its rapid - fire delivery is always consciously spot - on ''. The New York Times described the show as "hilarious and ribald ''. Margaret Lyons of Vulture gave a positive review, describing it as "radically sad. I love it. ''
The second half of the season, however, received much more positive reviews. Ben Travers of IndieWire believed one possible reason for mixed reviews of the show was critics reviewing only the first half of the season, with the second half changing drastically in tone and developing a darker and deeper meaning. This change was so drastic it resulted in IndieWire changing its policy to only review entire seasons of shows on Netflix, instead of just the first six episodes, which would have boosted BoJack Horseman 's C+ grade.
The second season of the show received universal acclaim; on Rotten Tomatoes the second season holds an approval rating of 100 %, based on 17 critics, whilst on Metacritic, the season has a score of 90 out of 100, based on 7 critics. Vox commented the show had "found its footing beautifully in season two, earning the title of not just the streaming service 's best show, but of one of television 's best shows ''. Indiewire gave the series an A -, praising the depth of the show 's storyline, the voice cast and the superior comedy in comparison to the first season. The A.V. Club also gave the series an A -, commenting that "for the most part, it 's an entirely unique, funny, and melancholic exploration into the heart and mind of someone struggling to put his life back on track after a series of dark turns ''. Slant Magazine awarded the series 4 - and - a-half stars out of 5, commenting that "BoJack Horseman 's second season is an even more confident blend of the various tones it experimentally donned last year, as it 's simultaneously melancholic, angry, goofy, playful, and often uproariously funny in a distinctively ineffable what - the - fuck fashion ''. Entertainment Weekly gave the series a B rating, stating it was "one of TV 's best meta - skewers of Hollywood ''.
The third season of the show received universal acclaim; Rotten Tomatoes gives the third season an approval rating of 100 %, based on 23 reviews., whilst on Metacritic, the season received a score of 89 out of 100, based on 12 reviews. The Hollywood Reporter lauded the series, commenting that the show "evolved from frothy talking - animal Hollywood satire to character - rich treatise on depression in its first season, deepened and darkened into one of TV 's best shows in its second season and gallops into its third season with a profound confidence. '' Entertainment Weekly gave the series an A rating, stating the season is "more digressive than the show 's first two years, and much more open - ended, sending core characters in different directions '' and that it "builds to one of the funniest, weirdest, and most profound moments ever seen in a television show. '' The A.V. Club awarded the series an A -, commenting that "Netflix has taken it upon itself to add BoJack to the line of TV 's famous antiheroes '' and praising the show for improving with each series. Collider gave the show 4 / 5 stars, stating "BoJack Horseman ends up becoming a thrilling, rueful study of the psychological games and uniquely vain, notably capitalistic decision - making that powers the entertainment industry ''. They went on to praise the show 's humor; "through its venomous jokes and unrelenting, uproarious gags, the series also recognizes how charming, joyful, and galvanizing entertainment for entertainment sake can be, no matter how stupid or silly it may seem. ''
The fourth season of the show has received universal acclaim; Rotten Tomatoes gives the season an approval rating of 96 %, based on 24 reviews, while Metacritc awards the show a score of 87, based on 5 reviews. Indiewire gave the series an A grade, commenting that "by the end of the season, we know these characters, and this show, far better than ever before. BoJack 's signature tropes -- the background visual jokes, the animal puns, the brutal moments of sadness -- remain reliably consistent, but turns the focus largely inward, ensuring that some of the more outlandish plots support and highlight the more emotional storylines ''. The Washington Post lauded the series, praising the installment as "moving and unexpected '' and that "it offers hope but never ignores the sorrows that are inevitable in real life ''. The New York Times also gave a positive review, commenting that the "material has the snap and the poignancy we 've grown accustomed to '' and that "while nothing matches the adventurousness of Season 3 's underwater awards show episode, Season 4 's ninth episode -- narrated from the future by a distant descendant of Princess Carolyn 's -- is a devastating example of what "BoJack '' can do at its best ".
Writer Raphael Bob - Waksberg has cited the cynical humor in the Canadian show The Newsroom as a large influence on BoJack Horseman. He also praised The Simpsons as an influence for being able to tell sad stories without sacrificing humor.
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where is nuclear power used successfully in the world | Nuclear power by country - wikipedia
Nuclear power plants currently operate in 31 countries. Most are in Europe, North America, East Asia and South Asia. The United States is the largest producer of nuclear power, while France has the largest share of electricity generated by nuclear power. In 2010, before the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster, it was reported that an average of about 10 nuclear reactors were expected to become operational per year, although according to the World Nuclear Association, of the 17 civilian reactors planned to become operational between 2007 and 2009, only five actually came on stream. Global nuclear electricity generation in 2012 was at its lowest level since 1999.
China has the fastest growing nuclear power program with 28 new reactors under construction, and a considerable number of new reactors are also being built in India, Russia and South Korea. At the same time, at least 100 older and smaller reactors will "most probably be closed over the next 10 -- 15 years ''.
Some countries operated nuclear reactors in the past but have currently no operating nuclear plants. Among them, Italy closed all of its nuclear stations by 1990 and nuclear power has since been declared illegal in a referendum. Lithuania, Kazakhstan and Armenia are planning to reintroduce nuclear power in the future.
Several countries are currently operating nuclear power plants but are planning a nuclear power phase - out. These are Belgium, Germany, Spain, and Switzerland. Other countries, like Netherlands, Sweden, and Taiwan are also considering a phase - out. Austria never started to use its first nuclear plant that was completely built.
Due to financial, political and technical reasons, Cuba, Libya, North Korea, and Poland never completed the construction of their first nuclear plants, and Australia, Azerbaijan, Georgia, Ghana, Ireland, Kuwait, Oman, Peru, Singapore, and Venezuela never built their planned first nuclear plants.
Of the 31 countries in which nuclear power plants operate, only France, Slovakia, Ukraine, Belgium, and Hungary use them as the source for a majority of the country 's electricity supply. Other countries have significant amounts of nuclear power generation capacity. By far the largest nuclear electricity producers are the United States with 805 647 GWh of nuclear electricity in 2017, followed by France with 381 846 GWh. As of December 2017 448 reactors with
net capacity of 391 721 MWe are operational and 59 reactors with net capacity of 60 460 MWe are under construction, of those 18 reactors with 19 016 MWe in China.
The first nuclear reactor, known as Chicago Pile - 1, was built in the United States and achieved criticality on December 2, 1942. The reactor was part of the Manhattan Project to create the atomic bomb. The United Kingdom, Canada, and the USSR proceeded to research and develop nuclear industries over the course of the late 1940s and early 1950s.
Electricity was generated for the first time by a nuclear reactor on December 20, 1951, at the EBR - I experimental station near Arco, Idaho, which initially produced about 100 kW.
On June 27, 1954, the USSR 's Obninsk Nuclear Power Plant became the world 's first nuclear power plant to generate electricity for a power grid, and produced around 5 megawatts of electric power. Later in 1954, Lewis Strauss, then chairman of the United States Atomic Energy Commission (U.S. AEC, forerunner of the U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission and the United States Department of Energy) spoke of electricity in the future being "too cheap to meter ''. Strauss was very likely referring to hydrogen fusion -- which was secretly being developed as part of Project Sherwood at the time -- but Strauss 's statement was interpreted as a promise of very cheap energy from nuclear fission. The U.S. AEC itself had issued far more realistic testimony regarding nuclear fission to the U.S. Congress only months before, projecting that "costs can be brought down... (to)... about the same as the cost of electricity from conventional sources... ''
Only the commercial reactors registered with the International Atomic Energy Agency (as of October 2017) are listed below.
References:
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when was the first google self driving car invented | Waymo - Wikipedia
Waymo is an autonomous car development company spun out of Google 's parent company, Alphabet Inc., in December 2016. It then took over the self - driving car project which Google had begun in 2009. Alphabet describes Waymo as "a self - driving tech company with a mission to make it safe and easy for people and things to move around ''. The new company, which will be headed by long - time automotive executive John Krafcik, is working towards making self - driving cars available to the public soon. From the company 's FAQ:
Our next step will be to let people trial fully self - driving cars to do everyday things like run errands or commute to work.
Google 's self driving car project was formerly led by Sebastian Thrun, former director of the Stanford Artificial Intelligence Laboratory and co-inventor of Google Street View. Thrun 's team at Stanford created the robotic vehicle Stanley which won the 2005 DARPA Grand Challenge and its US $2 million prize from the United States Department of Defense. The team developing the system consisted of 15 engineers working for Google, including Chris Urmson, Mike Montemerlo, and Anthony Levandowski who had worked on the DARPA Grand and Urban Challenges.
In October 2010, an attorney for the California Department of Motor Vehicles raised concerns that "(t) he technology is ahead of the law in many areas '', citing state laws that "all presume to have a human being operating the vehicle ''.
According to a May 2011 article in The New York Times, policy makers and regulators have argued that new laws will be required if driverless vehicles are to become a reality because "the technology is now advancing so quickly that it is in danger of outstripping existing law, some of which dates back to the era of horse - drawn carriages ''.
Nevada passed a law in June 2011 concerning the operation of autonomous cars in Nevada, which went into effect on March 1, 2012. A Toyota Prius modified with Google 's experimental driverless technology was licensed by the Nevada Department of Motor Vehicles (DMV) in May 2012. This was the first license issue in the United States for a self - driven car. License plates issued in Nevada for autonomous cars will have a red background and feature an infinity symbol (∞) on the left side because, according to the DMV Director, "... using the infinity symbol was the best way to represent the ' car of the future ' ''. Nevada 's regulations require a person behind the wheel and one in the passenger 's seat during tests.
In late May 2014, Google revealed a new prototype of its driverless car, which had no steering wheel, gas pedal, or brake pedal, being 100 % autonomous. and unveiled a fully functioning prototype in December of that year that they planned to test on San Francisco Bay Area roads beginning in 2015.
In 2015, Nathaniel Fairfield, Waymo 's Principal Engineer, provided "the world 's first fully driverless ride on public roads '' to an old friend of his, who is legally blind. Steve Mahan, former CEO of the Santa Clara Valley Blind Center, was the recipient of the first self - driving ride on public roads, in Austin, Texas. In 2015, the project completed its first driverless ride on public roads, giving a ride to a sole blind man in Austin, Texas.
It was the first driverless ride that was on a public road and was not accompanied by a test driver or police escort. The car had no steering wheel or floor pedals.
In December 2016, the unit was renamed Waymo, and spun off as its own separate division. Waymo is derived from its mission, "a new way forward in mobility ''.
A court filing in Waymo 's ongoing lawsuit against Uber revealed Google has spent over $1.1 Billion on the project between 2009 and 2015, to be compared with the $1 billion acquisition of Cruise Automation by General Motors in March 2016, the same investment by Ford in a joint venture with Argo AI in February 2017, or the $680 million for Otto shelled out by Uber in August 2016.
The project team has equipped a number of different types of cars with the self - driving equipment, including the Toyota Prius, Audi TT, and Lexus RX450h, Google has also developed their own custom vehicle, which is assembled by Roush Enterprises and uses equipment from Bosch, ZF Lenksysteme, LG, and Continental. In May 2016, Google and Fiat Chrysler Automobiles announced an order of 100 Pacifica hybrid minivans to test the technology on.
Google 's robotic cars have about $150,000 in equipment including a $70,000 LIDAR system. The range finder mounted on the top is a Velodyne 64 - beam laser. This laser allows the vehicle to generate a detailed 3D map of its environment. The car then takes these generated maps and combines them with high - resolution maps of the world, producing different types of data models that allow it to drive itself.
As of June 2014, the system works with a very high definition inch - precision map of the area the vehicle is expected to use, including how high the traffic lights are; in addition to on - board systems, some computation is performed on remote computer farms.
In August 2016 alone, their cars traveled a "total of 170,000 miles; of those, 126,000 miles were driven autonomously (i.e. the car was fully in control) ''.
As of June 2016, Google had test driven their fleet of vehicles, in autonomous mode, a total of 1,725,911 mi (2,777,585 km).
Beginning of 2017, Waymo reported to California DMV a total of 636,868 miles covered by the fleet in autonomous mode, and the associated 124 disengagements, for the period from December 1, 2015 through November 30, 2016.
In 2012, the test group of vehicles included six Toyota Prius, an Audi TT, and three Lexus RX450h, each accompanied in the driver 's seat by one of a dozen drivers with unblemished driving records and in the passenger seat by one of Google 's engineers. By May 2015, that fleet consisted solely of 23 Lexus SUVs.
Google 's vehicles have traversed San Francisco 's Lombard Street, famed for its steep hairpin turns, and through city traffic. The vehicles have driven over the Golden Gate Bridge and around Lake Tahoe. The system drives at the speed limit it has stored on its maps and maintains its distance from other vehicles using its system of sensors. The system provides an override that allows a human driver to take control of the car by stepping on the brake or turning the wheel, similar to cruise control systems already found in many cars today.
On March 28, 2012, Google posted a video showing Steve Mahan, a resident of Morgan Hill, California, being taken on a ride in Google 's self - driving Toyota Prius. In the video, Mahan states "Ninety - five percent of my vision is gone, I 'm well past legally blind ''. In the description of the video, it is noted that the carefully programmed route takes him from his home to a drive - through restaurant, then to the dry cleaning shop, and finally back home.
In August 2012, the team announced that they have completed over 300,000 autonomous - driving miles (500,000 km) accident - free, typically having about a dozen cars on the road at any given time, and are starting to test them with single drivers instead of in pairs. Four U.S. states have passed laws permitting autonomous cars as of December 2013: Nevada, Florida, California, and Michigan. A law proposed in Texas would establish criteria for allowing "autonomous motor vehicles ''.
In April 2014, the team announced that their vehicles have now logged nearly 700,000 autonomous miles (1.1 million km).
In June 2015, the team announced that their vehicles have now driven over 1,000,000 mi (1,600,000 km), stating that this was "the equivalent of 75 years of typical U.S. adult driving '', and that in the process they had encountered 200,000 stop signs, 600,000 traffic lights, and 180 million other vehicles. Google also announced its prototype vehicles were being road tested in Mountain View, California. During testing, the prototypes ' speed will not exceed 25 mph (40 km / h) and will have safety drivers aboard the entire time. As a consequence, one of the vehicles was stopped by police for impeding traffic flow.
Google has expanded its road - testing to the state of Texas, where regulations do not prohibit cars without pedals and a steering wheel. Bills were introduced by interested parties to similarly change the legislation in California.
Google expected the California Department of Motor Vehicles (DMV) to release precedent - setting regulations regarding driverless cars in January 2015, allowing the company to give public access to the prototypes. As of October 2016, the CA DMV just issued draft regulations so is waiting for public comments.
Based on Google 's own accident reports, their test cars have been involved in 14 collisions, of which human drivers were at fault 13 times. It was not until 2016 that the car 's software caused a crash.
As of July 2015, Google 's 23 self - driving cars have been involved in 14 minor collisions on public roads, but Google maintains that, in all cases other than the February 2016 incident, the vehicle itself was not at fault because the cars were either being manually driven or the driver of another vehicle was at fault.
In June 2015, Google founder Sergey Brin confirmed that there had been 12 collisions as of that date, eight of which involved being rear - ended at a stop sign or traffic light, two in which the vehicle was side - swiped by another driver, one of which involved another driver rolling through a stop sign, and one where a Google employee was manually driving the car. In July 2015, three Google employees suffered minor injuries when the self - driving car they were riding in was rear - ended by a car whose driver failed to brake at a traffic light. This was the first time that a self - driving car collision resulted in injuries.
On February 14, 2016 a Google self - driving car attempted to avoid sandbags blocking its path. During the maneuver it struck a bus. Google addressed the crash, saying "In this case, we clearly bear some responsibility, because if our car had n't moved there would n't have been a collision ''. Some incomplete video footage of the crash is available. Google characterized the crash as a misunderstanding and a learning experience. The company also stated "This type of misunderstanding happens between human drivers on the road every day ''.
Additionally, Google maintains monthly reports that include any traffic incidents that their self - driving cars have been involved in.
Google is required by the California DMV to report the number of incidents during testing where the human driver took control. Some of these incidents are not reported by Google when simulations indicate the car should have coped on its own. There is some controversy concerning this distinction between driver - initiated disengagements that Google reports and those that it does not report.
As of 28 August 2014, according to Computer World Google 's self - driving cars were in fact unable to use about 99 % of US roads. As of the same date, the latest prototype had not been tested in heavy rain or snow due to safety concerns. Because the cars rely primarily on pre-programmed route data, they do not obey temporary traffic lights and, in some situations, revert to a slower "extra cautious '' mode in complex unmapped intersections. The vehicle has difficulty identifying when objects, such as trash and light debris, are harmless, causing the vehicle to veer unnecessarily. Additionally, the lidar technology can not spot some potholes or discern when humans, such as a police officer, are signaling the car to stop. Google projects plan on having these issues fixed by 2020.
In 2012, Google founder Sergey Brin stated that Google Self - Driving car will be available for the general public in 2017, and in 2014 this schedule was updated by project director Chris Urmson to indicate a possible release from 2017 to 2020. Google has partnered with suppliers including Bosch, ZF Lenksysteme, LG, Continental, and Roush, and has contacted manufacturers including General Motors, Ford, Toyota (including Lexus), Daimler and Volkswagen.
In August 2013, news reports surfaced about Robo - Taxi, a proposed driverless vehicle taxicab service from Google. These reports re-appeared again in early 2014, following the granting of a patent to Google for an advertising fee funded transportation service which included autonomous vehicles as a method of transport. Paid Google consultant Larry Burns says self - driving, taxi - like vehicles "should be viewed as a new form of public transportation ''.
In a December 2016 blog post, CEO John Krafcik stated: "We can see our technology being useful in personal vehicles, ridesharing, logistics, or solving last mile problems for public transport '' but also that "Our next step as Waymo will be to let people use our vehicles to do everyday things like run errands, commute to work, or get safely home after a night on the town ''. Temporary use of vehicles is known as Transportation as a Service.
Legislation has been passed in four U.S. states and Washington, D.C. allowing driverless cars. The state of Nevada passed a law on June 29, 2011, permitting the operation of autonomous cars in Nevada, after Google had been lobbying in that state for robotic car laws. The Nevada law went into effect on March 1, 2012, and the Nevada Department of Motor Vehicles issued the first license for an autonomous car in May 2012, to a Toyota Prius modified with Google 's experimental driverless technology. In April 2012, Florida became the second state to allow the testing of autonomous cars on public roads, and California became the third when Governor Jerry Brown signed the bill into law at Google Headquarters in Mountain View. In December 2013, Michigan became the fourth state to allow testing of driverless cars on public roads. In July 2014, the city of Coeur d'Alene, Idaho adopted a robotics ordinance that includes provisions to allow for self - driving cars.
In December 2015, the California Department of Motor Vehicles issued long - anticipated proposed regulations governing autonomous vehicles, and invited public comments on the draft regulations at meetings in Sacramento on January 28, 2016, and in Los Angeles on February 2, 2016. If adopted, the regulations would require self - driving cars to have a steering wheel and pedals, and a human driver onboard who holds an "autonomous vehicle operator certificate. '' They would also hold the occupant responsible for accidents and violations of traffic laws, regardless of whether or not they were at the wheel. The DMV summarized its perspective by stating, "Given the potential risks associated with deployment of such a new technology, (we believe) that manufacturers need to obtain more experience in testing driverless vehicles on public roads prior to making this technology available to the general public ''. Lobbying by project manager Chris Urmson from Google in the US Senate is underway to change this.
In February 2017, Waymo sued Uber and its subsidiary self - driving trucking company, Otto, for allegedly stealing Waymo 's trade secrets and infringing upon its patents. The company claimed that three ex-Google employees including Anthony Levandowski stole trade secrets and joined Uber. The infringement is related to Waymo 's proprietary LiDAR technology.
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how is a plaster of paris impression produced | Plaster mold casting - wikipedia
Plaster mould casting is a metalworking casting process similar to sand casting except the molding material is plaster of Paris instead of sand. Like sand casting, plaster mold casting is an expendable mold process, however it can only be used with non-ferrous materials. It is used for castings as small as 30 g (1 oz) to as large as 45 kg (99 lb). Generally, the form takes less than a week to prepare. Production rates of 1 -- 10 units / hr can be achieved with plaster molds.
Parts that are typically made by plaster casting are lock components, gears, valves, fittings, tooling, and ornaments.
The plaster is not pure plaster of Paris, but rather has additives to improve green strength, dry strength, permeability, and castability. For instance, talc or magnesium oxide are added to prevent cracking and reduce setting time; lime and cement limit expansion during baking; glass fibers increase strength; sand can be used as a filler. The ratio of ingredients is 70 -- 80 % gypsum and 20 -- 30 % additives.
The pattern is usually made from metal, however rubber molds may be used for complex geometry; these molds are called Rubber plaster mold s. For example, if the casting includes reentrant angles or complex angular surfaces then the rubber is flexible enough to be removed, unlike metal. These molds are also inexpensive, reusable, more accurate than steel molds, fast to produce, and easy to change.
Typical tolerances are 0.1 mm (0.0039 in) for the first 50 mm (2.0 in) and 0.02 mm per additional centimeter (0.002 in per additional inch). A draft of 0.5 to 1 degree is required. Standard surface finishes that are attainable are 1.3 to 4 micrometers (50 -- 125 μin).
First, the plaster is mixed and the pattern is sprayed with a thin film of parting compound to prevent the plaster from sticking to the pattern. The plaster is then poured over the pattern and the unit shaken so that the plaster fills any small features. The plaster sets, usually in about 15 minutes, and the pattern is removed. The mold is then baked, between 120 ° C (248 ° F) and 260 ° C (500 ° F), to remove any excess water. The dried mold is then assembled, preheated, and the metal poured. Finally, after the metal has solidified, the plaster is broken from the cast part. The used plaster can not be reused.
Plaster mold casting is used when an excellent surface finish and good dimensional accuracy is required. Because the plaster has a low thermal conductivity and heat capacity, the metal cools more slowly than in a sand mold, which allows the metal to fill thin cross-sections; the minimum possible cross-section is 0.6 mm (0.024 in). This results in a near net shape casting, which can be a cost advantage on complex parts. It also produces minimal scrap material.
The major disadvantage of the process is that it can only be used with lower melting temperature non-ferrous materials, such as aluminium, copper, magnesium, and zinc. The most commonly used materials are aluminium and copper. The maximum working temperature of plaster is 1,200 ° C (2,200 ° F), so higher melting temperature materials would melt the plaster mold. Also, the sulfur in the gypsum reacts with iron, making it unsuitable for casting ferrous materials.
Another disadvantage is that its long cooling times restrict production volume.
Plaster is not as stable as sand, so it is dependent on several factors, including the consistency of the plaster composition, pouring procedures, and curing techniques. If these factors are not closely monitored the mold can be distorted, shrink upon drying, have a poor surface finish, or fail completely.
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sarukani (the monkey and the crab) | The crab and the monkey - wikipedia
The Crab and the Monkey, also known as Monkey - Crab Battle (さる か に 合戦, saru kani gassen) or The Quarrel of the Monkey and the Crab, is a Japanese folktale. In the story, a sly monkey kills a crab, and is later killed in revenge by the crab 's offspring. Retributive justice is the main theme of the story.
Rev. David Thomson 's translation, The Battle of the Monkey and the Crab, was published as the third volume of Hasegawa Takejirō 's Japanese Fairy Tale Series in 1885. Andrew Lang included a somewhat bowdlerized version in The Crimson Fairy Book (1903) and Yei Theodora Ozaki included it in her Japanese Fairy Tales (1908).
While out walking, a crab finds a rice ball. A sly monkey persuades the crab to trade the rice ball for a persimmon seed. The crab is at first upset, but when she plants and tends the seed a tree grows that supplies abundant fruit. The monkey agrees to climb the tree to pick the fruit for the crab, but gorges himself on the fruit rather than sharing it with the crab. When the crab protests, the monkey hurls hard, unripe fruit at her. The shock of being attacked causes the crab to end up giving birth just before she dies.
The crab 's offspring seek revenge on the monkey. With the help of several allies -- a chestnut, a cow dung, a bee, and an usu (large heavy mortar) -- they go to the monkey 's house. The chestnut hides himself on the monkey 's hearth, the bee in the water pail, the cow dung on the floor, and the usu on the roof. When the monkey returns home, he tries to warm himself on the hearth, but the chestnut strikes the monkey so that he burns himself. When the monkey tries to cool himself from the burn at the water bucket, the bee stings him. He tries to run out of the house, but the cow dung makes him slip and the usu falls down from the roof, killing the monkey.
The name of the story, the list of allies, and the details of the attacks vary in different parts of Japan. For example, in Kansai one of the allies is a quantity of oil. In a version of the story published in a Japanese textbook in 1887, an egg appears in place of the chestnut and a piece of kelp replaces the cow dung. The egg attacks the monkey by exploding and the kelp slips from under his foot.
In the version of the story published by Andrew Lang, the crab gathers the unripe fruit and is not killed, but the monkey leaves her for dead.
Modern versions of the story often tone down the violence. The title "The Crab and the Monkey '' or "The Story of the Monkey and the Crab '' similarly reduce the violence apparent in the older "Monkey - Crab Battle '' name.
Twentieth - century Japanese novelist Ryunosuke Akutagawa wrote a short story based on the folktale in which, after avenging their mother 's death by attacking the monkey, the crab children are arrested and face the death penalty.
In a completely different version of the story, when the monkey climbs the tree and takes all the persimmons the crab advises him to hang his basket of fruit from a branch. When the monkey hangs his basket on a thin branch, the branch breaks and the basket of fruit falls. The crab quickly carries the fruit off and crawls down a hole. The monkey decides to defecate on the crab, and sticks his buttocks down the hole. The crab quickly shaves the monkey 's bottom, which is why to this day monkeys have hairless bottoms and hair grows on crabs ' claws.
Similar stories involving a crab and a monkey, or a monkey and a toad, or other creatures seeking vengeance are found in China, Korea, and Mongolia, and among the Ainu.
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which composer was not considered to be part of the netherlands school | Franco - Flemish School - wikipedia
The designation Franco - Flemish School or Netherlandish School refers, somewhat imprecisely, to the style of polyphonic vocal music composition originating from the Burgundian Netherlands in the 15th and 16th centuries, and to the composers who wrote it. The diffusion of their technique, especially after the revolutionary development of printing, produced the first true international style since the unification of Gregorian chant in the 9th century. Franco - Flemish composers mainly wrote sacred music, primarily masses, motets and hymns.
Several generations of Renaissance composers from the region loosely known as the "Low Countries '' -- i.e. present - day Northern France, Belgium and the Southern Netherlands -- are grouped under "Franco - Flemish School '', though a teacher - student - relationship between them rarely existed. Most of these musicians were born in the thriving Burgundian provinces of Flanders, Brabant, Hainaut, or Limburg. During periods of political and economic stability, the courts of the Burgundian dukes were a centre of cultural activity in Europe.
Franco - Flemish composers had their origins in ecclesiastical choir schools such as at the cathedrals and collegiate churches of Liège, Tournai, Cambrai, Mons, Antwerp, Bruges, and Gent, although they were famous for working elsewhere. Numerous musicians moved to the European courts in Italy where they were called "I fiamminghi '' or Oltremontani ("those from over the Alps '') and Spain -- notably in the Flemish chapel (capilla flamenca) of the Habsburgs, or to towns in Germany and France, and other parts of Europe -- Poland, the Czech lands, Austria, Hungary, England, Sweden, Denmark, Saxony -- carrying their styles with them. The exact centres shifted during this time, and by the end of the sixteenth century the focal point of the Western musical world had moved from the Low Countries to Italy.
Following are five groups, or generations, that are sometimes distinguished in the Franco - Flemish / Netherlandish school. Development of this musical style was continuous, and these generations only provide useful reference points.
Composed between 1450 and 1520, these motets were typically written for four voices, with all voices being equal. They often exhibit thick, dark textures, with an extended low range. The most notable composers of this style include Ockeghem and Josquin, whose De profundis clamavi ad te, composed between 1500 and 1521, provides a good example.
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discuss the causes of poverty in sub saharan african countries | Poverty in Africa - wikipedia
Poverty in Africa refers to the lack of basic human needs faced by certain people in African society. African nations typically fall toward the bottom of any list measuring small size economic activity, such as income per capita or GDP per capita, despite a wealth of natural resources. In 2009, 22 of 24 nations identified as having "Low Human Development '' on the United Nations ' (UN) Human Development Index were in Sub-Saharan Africa. In 2006, 34 of the 50 nations on the UN list of least developed countries are in Africa. In many nations, GDP per capita is less than US $5200 per year, with the vast majority of the population living on much less (according to World Bank data, by 2016 the island nation of Seychelles was the only African country with a GDP per capita above US $10,000 per year). In addition, Africa 's share of income has been consistently dropping over the past century by any measure. In 1820, the average European worker earned about three times what the average African did. Now, the average European earns twenty times what the average African does. Although GDP per capita incomes in Africa have also been steadily growing, measures are still far better in other parts of the world.
Despite large amounts of arable land south of the Sahara Desert, small, individual land holdings are rare. In many nations, land is subject to tribal ownership and in others, most of the land is often in the hands of descendants of European settlers of the late 19th and early 20th centuries. For example, according to a 2005 IRIN report, about 82 % of the arable land in South Africa is owned by those of European descent. Many nations lack a system of freehold landowning. In others, the laws prevent people from disadvantaged groups from owning land at all. Although often these laws are ignored, and land sales to disadvantaged groups occur, legal title to the land is not assured. As such, rural Africans rarely have clear title to their own land, and have to survive as farm laborers. Unused land is plentiful, but is often private property. Most African nations have very poor land registration systems, making squatting and landtheft common occurrences. This makes it difficult to get a mortgage or similar loan, as ownership of the property often can not be established to the satisfaction of financiers.
This system often gives an advantage to one native African group over another, and is not just Europeans over Africans. For example, it was hoped that land reform in Zimbabwe would transfer land from European land owners to family farmers. Instead, it simply substituted native Africans with ties to the government for Europeans, leaving much of the population disadvantaged. Because of this abuse, foreign aid that was destined for land purchases was withdrawn. (See Land reform in Zimbabwe)
It is estimated that a family of four can be made self - sufficient for about $300 (U.S.) -- the cost of an Ox, a few hectares of land, and starter seeds. Historically, such programs have been few and far between, with much foreign aid being concentrated on the raising of cash crops and large plantations rather than family farms.
There is no consensus on what the optimal strategy for land use in Africa may be. Studies by the National Academy of Sciences have suggested great promise in relying on native crops as a means to improving Africa 's food security. A report by Future Harvest suggests that traditionally used forage plants show the same promise. Supporting a different viewpoint is an article appearing in AgBioForum which suggests that smallhold farmers benefited substantially by planting a genetically modified variety of maize. In a similar vein is an article discussing the use of nontraditional crops for export published as part of the proceedings of a Purdue University symposium.
Over $500 billion (U.S.) has been sent to African nations in the form of direct aid. The consensus is that the money has had little long - term effect.
In addition, most African nations have owed substantial sums of money. However, a large percentage of the money was either invested in weapons (money that was spent back in developed nations, and provided little or no benefit to the native population) or was directly misappropriated by corrupt governments. As such, many newly democratic nations in Africa are saddled with debt run up by totalitarian regimes. Large debts usually result in little being spent on social services, such as education, pensions, or medical care. In addition, most of the debt currently owed (approximately $321 billion (U.S.) in 1996) represents only the interest portion on the debt, and far exceeds the amounts that were actually borrowed (although this is true of large debts in developed nations as well). Most African nations are pushing for debt relief, as they are effectively unable to maintain payments on debt without extending the debt payments indefinitely. However, most plans to forgive debt affect only the smallest nations, and large debtor nations, like Nigeria, are often excluded from such plans.
What large sums of money that are in Africa are often used to develop mega-projects when the need is for smaller scale projects. For example, Ghana was the richest country in Africa when it obtained independence. However, a few years later, it had no foreign reserves of any consequence. The money was spent on large projects that turned out to be a waste of resources:
Another example of misspent money is the Aswan High Dam. The dam was supposed to have modernized Egypt and Sudan immediately. Instead, the block of the natural flow of the Nile River meant that the Nile 's natural supply of nitrate fertilizer and organic material was blocked. Now, about one - third of the dam 's electric output goes directly into fertilizer production for what was previously the most fertile area on the planet. Moreover, the dam is silting up and may cease to serve any useful purpose within the next few centuries. In addition, the Mediterranean Sea is slowly becoming more saline as the Nile River previously provided it with most of its new fresh water influx.
Corruption is also a major problem in the region, although it is certainly not universal or limited to Africa. Many native groups in Africa believe family relationships are more important than national identity, and people in authority often use nepotism and bribery for the benefit of their extended family group at the expense of their nations. To be fair, many corrupt governments often do better than authoritarian ones that replace them. Ethiopia is a good case study. Under Haile Selassie, corruption was rife and poverty rampant. However, after his overthrow, corruption was lessened, but then famine and military aggressiveness came to the fore. In any event, corruption both diverts aid money and foreign investment (which is usually sent to offshore banks outside of Africa), and puts a heavy burden on native populations forced to pay bribes to get basic government services.
In the end, foreign aid may not even be helpful in the long run to many African nations. It often encourages them not to tax internal economic activities of multinational corporations within their borders to attract foreign investment. In addition, most African nations have at least some wealthy nationals, and foreign aid often allows them to avoid paying more than negligible taxes. As such, wealth redistribution and capital controls are often seen as a more appropriate way for African nations to stabilize funding for their government budgets and smooth out the boom and bust cycles that can often arise in a developing economy. However, this sort of strategy often leads to internal political dissent and capital flight.
Widespread availability of cheap labor has often perpetuated policies that encourage inefficient agricultural and industrial practices, leaving Africa further impoverished. For example, author P.J. O'Rourke noted on his trip to Tanzania for his book Eat the Rich that gravel was produced with manual labor (by pounding rocks with tools), where in almost everywhere else in the world machines did the same work far more cheaply and efficiently. He used Tanzania as an example of a nation with superb natural resources that nevertheless was among the poorest nations in the world.
Education is also a major problem, even in the wealthier nations. Illiteracy rates are high although a good proportion of Africans speak at least two languages and a number speak three (generally their native language, a neighbouring or trade language, and a European language). Higher education is almost unheard of, although certain universities in Egypt and South Africa have excellent reputations. However, some African nations have a paucity of persons with university degrees, and advanced degrees are rare in most areas. As such, the continent, for the most part, lacks scientists, engineers and even teachers. The seeming parody of aid workers attempting to teach trilingual people English is not entirely untrue.
South Africa under apartheid is an excellent example of how an adverse situation can further degrade. The largely black population earlier wished to learn English (black South Africans saw it as a way to unite themselves as they speak several different native languages).
The greatest mortality in Africa arises from preventable water - borne diseases, which affect infants and young children greater than any other group. The principal cause of these diseases is the regional water crisis, or lack of safe drinking water primarily stemming from mixing sewage and drinking water supplies.
Much attention has been given to the prevalence of AIDS in Africa. 3,000 Africans die each day of AIDS and an additional 11,000 are infected. Less than one percent are actually treated. However, even with the widespread prevalence of AIDS (where infection rates can approach 30 % among the sexually active population), and fatal infections such as the Ebola virus, other diseases are far more problematic. In fact, the situation with AIDS is improving in some nations as infection rates drop, and deaths from Ebola are rare. On the other hand, diseases once common but now almost unknown in most of the industrialized world, like malaria, tuberculosis, tapeworm and dysentery often claim far more victims, particularly among the young. Polio has made a comeback recently due to misinformation spread by anti-American Islamic groups in Nigeria. Diseases native to Africa, such as sleeping sickness, also resist attempts at elimination too.
Clean potable water is rare in most of Africa (even those parts outside the sub-Saharan region) despite the fact that the continent is crossed by several major rivers and contains some of the largest freshwater lakes in the world. However, many of the major population centres are coastal, and few major cities have adequate sewage treatment systems. Although boiling water is a possibility, fuel for boiling is scarce as well. The problem is worst in Africa 's rapidly growing cities, such as Cairo, Lagos and Kinshasa.
Colonialism concentrated on joining the coast with internal territories. As such, nearly none of Africa 's roads and railways connect with each other in any meaningful way. Joining Africa 's extensive railway network has recently become a priority for African nations outside of southwest Africa, which has an integrated network. Transportation between neighbouring coastal settlements is nearly always by sea, no matter the topography of the land in between them. Even basic services like telecommunications are often treated the same way. For example, phone calls between Ghana and neighbouring Côte d'Ivoire once had to be routed through Britain and France. Although Africa had numerous pre-European overland trade routes, few are suitable for modern transport such as trucks or railways, especially when they cross old European colonial borders.
Despite other hot spots for war, Africa consistently remains among the top places for ongoing conflicts, consisting of both long standing civil wars (e.g. Somalia) and conflicts between countries (e.g. Ethiopia and Eritrea 's border wars after the latter 's independence from the former). Despite a lack of basic social services or even the basic necessities of life, military forces are often well - financed and well - equipped.
As a result, Africa is full of refugees, who are often deliberately displaced by military forces during a conflict, rather than just having fled from war torn areas. Although many refugees emigrate to open countries such as Germany, Canada, and the United States, the ones who do emigrate are often the most educated and skilled. The remainder often become a burden on neighbouring African nations that, while peaceful, are generally unable to deal with the logistical problems refugees pose.
Civil war usually has the result of totally shutting down all government services. However, any conflict generally disrupts what trade or economy there is. Sierra Leone, which depends on diamonds for much of its economic activity, not only faces disruption in production (which reduces the supply), but a thriving black market in conflict diamonds, which drives down the price for what diamonds are produced.
The link between climate change and poverty has been examined. Climate change is likely to increase the size, frequency and unpredictability of natural hazards. However, there is nothing natural about the transformation of natural hazards into disasters. The severity of a disaster 's impact is dependent on existing levels of vulnerability, extent of exposure to disaster event and nature of hazard. A communities ' risk to disaster is dynamic and will change over space and time. It is heavily influenced by the interplay between economic, socio - cultural and demographic factors, as well as skewed development, such as rapid and unplanned urbanisation.
The level of poverty is a key determinant of disaster risk. Poverty increases propensity and severity of disasters and reduces peoples ' capacity to recover and reconstruct. However, vulnerability is not just shaped to poverty, but linked to wider social, political and institutional factors, that govern entitlements and capabilities.
Africa 's economic malaise is self - perpetuating, as it engenders more of the disease, warfare, misgovernment, and corruption that created it in the first place. Other effects of poverty have similar consequences. The most direct consequence of low GDP is Africa 's low standard of living and quality of life. Except for a wealthy elite and the more prosperous peoples of South Africa and the Maghreb, Africans have very few consumer goods. Quality of life does not correlate exactly with a nation 's wealth. Angola, for instance, reaps large sums annually from its diamond mines, but after years of civil war, conditions there remain poor. Radios, televisions, and automobiles are rare luxuries. Most Africans are on the far side of the digital divide and are cut off from communications technology and the Internet, however use of mobile phones has been growing dramatically in recent years with 65 % of Africans having access to a mobile phone as of 2011. Quality of life and human development are also low. African nations dominate the lower reaches of the UN Human Development Index. Infant mortality is high, while life expectancy, literacy, and education are all low. The UN also lowers the ranking of African states because the continent sees greater inequality than any other region. The best educated often choose to leave the continent for the West or the Persian Gulf to seek a better life; in the case of some nations like South Africa, many Caucasians have fled due to employment bias.
Catastrophes cause deadly periods of great shortages. The most damaging are the famines that have regularly hit the continent, especially the Horn of Africa. These have been caused by disruptions due to warfare, years of drought, and plagues of locusts.
An average African faced annual inflation of over 60 % from 1990 until 2002 in those few countries that account for inflation. At the high end, Angola and the Democratic Republic of the Congo both saw triple - digit inflation throughout the period. Most African nations saw inflation of approximately 10 % per year.
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a list of gifts of the holy spirit | Spiritual gift - wikipedia
In Christianity, a spiritual gift or charism (plural: charisms or charismata; in Greek singular: χάρισμα charisma, plural: χαρίσματα charismata) is an endowment which is given by the Holy Spirit. These are the supernatural graces which individual Christians need (or needed in the days of the Apostles) to fulfill the mission of the Church. In the narrowest sense, it is a theological term for the extraordinary graces given to individual Christians for the good of others and is distinguished from the graces given for personal sanctification, such as the Seven Gifts of the Holy Spirit and the fruit of the Holy Spirit.
These extraordinary spiritual gifts, often termed "charismatic gifts '', are the word of wisdom, the word of knowledge, increased faith, the gifts of healing, the gift of miracles, prophecy, the discernment of spirits, diverse kinds of tongues, interpretation of tongues. To these are added the gifts of apostles, prophets, teachers, helps (connected to service of the poor and sick), and governments (or leadership ability) which are connected with certain offices in the Church. These gifts are given by the Holy Spirit to individuals, but their purpose is to build up the entire Church. They are described in the New Testament, primarily in 1 Corinthians 12, Romans 12, and Ephesians 4. 1 Peter 4 also touches on the spiritual gifts.
The gifts are related to both seemingly "natural '' abilities and seemingly more "miraculous '' abilities, empowered by the Holy Spirit. The two major opposing theological positions on their nature is that they ceased long ago or that they continue (Cessationism versus Continuationism).
The New Testament contains several lists of spiritual gifts, most authored by St. Paul. While each list is unique, there is overlap.
Christians believe that the charismata were foretold by the Prophet Joel (2: 28) and promised by Christ (Gospel of Mark 16: 17 -- 18). This promise was fulfilled on the Day of Pentecost and elsewhere as the church spread. In order to correct abuses concerning the spiritual gifts at Corinth, Paul devoted much attention to spiritual gifts in his First Epistle to the Corinthians (chapters 12 -- 14).
In 1 Corinthians 12, two Greek terms are translated as "spiritual gifts ''. In verse 1, the word pneumatika ("spirituals '' or "things of the Spirit '') is used. In verse 4, charisma is used. This word is derived from the word charis, which means "grace ''. In verses 5 and 6, the words diakonia (translated "administrations '', "ministries '', or "service '') and energemata ("operations '' or "inworkings '') are used in describing the nature of the spiritual gifts. In verse 7, the term "manifestation (phanerosis) of the Spirit '' is used.
From these scriptural passages, Christians understand the spiritual gifts to be enablements or capacities that are divinely bestowed upon individuals. Because they are freely given by God, these can not be earned or merited. Though worked through individuals, these are operations or manifestations of the Holy Spirit -- not of the gifted person. They are to be used for the benefit of others, and in a sense they are granted to the church as a whole more than they are given to individuals. There is diversity in their distribution -- an individual will not possess all of the gifts. The purpose of the spiritual gifts is to edify (build up), exhort (encourage), and comfort the church.
It is generally acknowledged that Paul did not list all of the gifts of the Spirit, and many believe that there are as many gifts as there are needs in the body of Christ. The gifts have at times been organized into distinct categories based on their similarities and differences to other gifts. Some divide them into three categories using Old Testament offices. "Prophetic '' gifts include any gift involving teaching, encouraging, or rebuking others. "Priestly '' gifts include showing mercy and care for the needy or involve intercession before God. "Kingly '' gifts are those involving church administration or government. Others categorize them into "gifts of knowledge '' (word of wisdom, word of knowledge, distinguishing between spirits), "gifts of speech '' (tongues, interpretation, prophecy), and "gifts of power '' (faith, healing, miracles). The gifts have also been categorized as those that promote the inner growth of the church (apostle, prophecy, distinguishing between spirits, teaching, word of wisdom / knowledge, helps, and administration) and those that promote the church 's outer development (faith, miracles, healing, tongues, interpretation of tongues).
Proponents of cessationism distinguish between the "extraordinary '', "miraculous '', or "sign '' gifts (such as prophecy, tongues, and healing) and the other gifts. Cessationism is held by some Protestants, especially from the Calvinist tradition, who believe that miraculous gifts and their operations were limited to early Christianity and "ceased '' afterward. Other Protestants, including Lutheran, Methodist, Pentecostals and charismatics, adhere to the continuationist position, believing that all the spiritual gifts are distributed among Christians by the Holy Spirit and that they are normative in contemporary Christianity. In addition, Roman Catholicism and Eastern Orthodoxy also continue to believe in and make use of all of the spiritual gifts.
Apostle: The title apostle comes from the Greek word apostolos which means "a messenger, one sent forth with orders ''. It refers to one who has been delegated authority by another in a foreign land. Apostles were the first leaders of the Church; they were commissioned by Jesus to initiate and direct the preaching of the gospel. While many Christians agree that the title of apostle is reserved for those among the first generation of Christians, many Christian denominations continue in one way or another to recognize a continuing apostolic ministry. Many churches, such as the Roman Catholic Church and the Eastern Orthodox Churches, believe in the doctrine of apostolic succession, which holds that properly ordained bishops are the successors to the apostles. Other Christian groups, such as classical Pentecostals, consider the role of a missionary to be fulfilling an apostolic ministry. There are some Christians, however, who advocate restoring the Fivefold ministry, including the formal recognition of the office of apostle. Others would say that the office no longer exists.
Prophet: In the New Testament, the office of prophet is to equip the saints for the work of service through exhortation, edification, and consolation (1 Corinthians 12: 28; 1 Corinthians 14: 3 Ephesians 4: 11). The prophet 's corresponding gift is prophecy. Prophecy is "reporting something that God spontaneously brings to your mind ''. Many, particularly Pentecostals and charismatics, distinguish between the "office of prophet '' and the "gift of prophecy '', believing that a Christian can possess the gift of prophecy without holding the prophetic office.
Evangelist: An evangelist is one who devotes himself to preaching the gospel. In the New Testament, evangelists preached from city to city, church to church.
Pastor: This term derives from a Greek word for "shepherd ''. In theory pastors are gifted to lead, guide, and set an example for other Christians. The grammatical structure of Ephesians 4: 11 leads many to conclude that teacher and pastor should be considered one term (pastor - teacher). Even so, the two terms are not interchangeable; while all pastors are teachers, not all teachers are pastors. Pastoral Gifts include integrity and compassion.
Teacher: Someone who devotes his or her life to preaching and teaching the Christian faith. When teaching is provided for the Church by God, two gifts are actually given -- to the Church is given a teacher and along with the teacher comes a divine capacity to teach.
Service: The word translated as "ministry '' is diakonia, which can also be translated "service ''. Since there are many types of ministries and service to the Church, this then describes a broad array of gifts rather than a single gift.
Exhortation: The ability to motivate Christians "to patient endurance, brotherly love, and good works ''.
Giving: Those with this gift share their own possessions with others with extraordinary generosity. While all Christians should be givers, those possessing this gift will go beyond this normal giving.
Leading: This gift speaks to the various leadership roles found in the Church. While many think of roles such as administration, management of funds, strategy planning, etc. as functions outside of the supernatural realm, in reality individuals in these positions are just as in need of supernatural empowerment as are ministers of the gospel. Some writers consider the gifts of governments and leading to be the same gift, but others consider them closely related yet different.
Mercy: Possibly identical to the gift of helps, the mercy - shower possesses a ministry of visitation, prayer, and compassion to the poor and sick.
Word of wisdom: An utterance or message of wisdom supernaturally granted to an individual. For Paul, wisdom refers to "the knowledge of the great Christian mysteries: the Incarnation, Passion, and Resurrection of Christ, and the indwelling in the believer of the Spirit of God (1 Corinthians 2; Ephesians 1: 17) ''.
Word of knowledge: The knowledge referred to is often said to relate to understanding Christian doctrine or scriptural truth. It is sometimes said to be connected with the ministry of teachers.
Faith: This refers to that strong or special faith "which removes mountains, casts out devils (Matthew 17: 19 -- 20), and faces the most cruel martyrdom without flinching ''. It is distinguished from the "saving '' and "normal '' Christian faith.
Gifts of healings: The ability to supernaturally minister healing to others. The plural indicates the variety of sickness healed and the many forms the gift takes, such as healing by anointing with oil, by the laying on of hands, by saying the name of Jesus or by the sign of the cross.
Working of miracles: The performance of deeds beyond ordinary human ability by the power of the Holy Spirit.
Visions. An outpouring of this gift is prophesied in Joel 2: 28 and Acts 2: 17 shows that early Christians believed this prophecy was fulfilled on the day of Pentecost. Visions tend to be more private experiences than the other gifts. Some researchers expand the definition of visions to include a strongly felt presence.
Discerning of spirits: The capacity to discern, distinguish, or to discriminate the source of a spiritual manifestation -- whether it emanates from a good or evil spirit. It seemed to have been particularly associated with prophecy as it would be necessary to know whether a prophetic utterance was truly inspired by God.
Tongues: The supernatural ability of speaking an unlearned language. Paul seems to have distinguished between the public use of the gift (which must always be interpreted) and the private use which was for the spiritual strengthening of oneself. Currently among Christians there is a dispute as to whether tongues were / are always xenoglossy (speaking an unlearned human language) or whether it also included / includes glossolalia (speaking an unlearned and allegedly non-human language of heavenly or angelic origin).
Interpretation of tongues: This gift always follows the public exercise of the gift of tongues. In 1 Corinthians 14, the Apostle Paul required that all speech in Christian worship should be intelligible. This required that speech given in an unknown tongue be interpreted in the common language of the gathered Christians.
Helps: This gift has to do with service to the sick and the poor. Possessor of this gift has a "spiritual burden and a God - given love for the needy and afflicted ''.
Administration: Also called the gift of governing, the Greek word translated "governments '' is kubernesis, the verb form of which means "to steer '' or "to be a helmsman ''. This gift then refers to the God - given capacity to lead or guide the Church through storms and difficult seas.
While not specifically defined as spiritual gifts in the Bible, other abilities and capacities have been considered as spiritual gifts by some Christians. Some are found in the New Testament such as:
Others are found in the Old Testament such as:
The word is also used in secular circumstances within social psychology. In that context, charism is defined as personal influence on other people individually or as a group.
Religious orders (including Anglican, Catholic, Lutheran and Methodist) use the word "charism '' to describe their spiritual orientation and any special characteristics of their mission or values that might be exhibited as a result of the vows that they have taken and the orientation of the order to which they belong. An example might be the works of a teaching order compared to that of a missionary order or one devoted to the care of the poor or the sick and those in need of help.
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who are the members of the group america | America (band) - wikipedia
America is a British - American rock band formed in England in 1970 by Dewey Bunnell, Dan Peek, and Gerry Beckley. The trio met as sons of US Air Force personnel stationed in London, where they began performing live.
Achieving significant popularity in the 1970s, the trio was famous for their close vocal harmonies and light acoustic folk rock sound. The band released a string of hit albums and singles, many of which found airplay on pop / soft rock stations.
The band came together shortly after the members ' graduation from high school, and a record deal with Warner Bros. Records followed. Their debut 1971 album, America, included the transatlantic hits "A Horse with No Name '' and "I Need You ''; Homecoming (1972) included the single "Ventura Highway ''; and Hat Trick (1973), a modest success on the charts which fared poorly in sales, included one minor hit song "Muskrat Love ''. 1974 's Holiday featured the hits "Tin Man '' and "Lonely People ''; and 1975 's Hearts generated the number one single "Sister Golden Hair '' alongside "Daisy Jane. '' History: America 's Greatest Hits, a compilation of hit singles, was released the same year and was certified multi-platinum in the United States and Australia. Peek left the group in 1977, and their commercial fortunes declined, despite a brief return to the top in 1982 with the single "You Can Do Magic ''.
The group continues to record material and tour with regularity. Their 2007 album Here & Now was a collaboration with a new generation of musicians who credited the band as an influence. America won a Grammy Award for Best New Artist at the 15th Annual Grammy Awards. The group has been inducted into the Vocal Group Hall of Fame and received a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame.
While their fathers were stationed at the United States Air Force base at RAF South Ruislip near London in the mid-1960s, Beckley, Bunnell and Peek attended London Central High School at Bushey Hall where they met while playing in two different bands.
Peek left for the United States for an abortive attempt at college during 1969. Soon after his return to the UK the following year, the three began making music together. Starting out with borrowed acoustic guitars, they developed a style which incorporated three - part vocal harmony with the style of contemporary folk - rock acts such as Crosby, Stills & Nash.
Eventually, the trio dubbed themselves America, chosen because they did not want anyone to think they were British musicians trying to sound American. They played their first gigs in the London area, including some highlights at the Roundhouse, Chalk Farm. Through Ian Samwell and Jeff Dexter 's efforts they were eventually contracted to Kinney Records (UK) in March 1971 by Ian Ralfini and assigned to the UK Warner Brothers label.
Their first album America (1971) was recorded at Trident Studios in London and produced by Ian Samwell, best known for being Cliff Richard 's lead guitarist as well as writing Richard 's 1958 breakthrough hit "Move It ''. Jeff Dexter, Ian 's roommate, co-produced the album and became the trio 's manager. Dexter also gave them their first major gig, 20 December 1970, at "Implosion '' at the Roundhouse, Chalk Farm, as the opening act for The Who, Elton John, Patto and The Chalk Farm Salvation Army Band & Choir for a Christmas charity event. Although the trio initially planned to record the album in a similar manner to The Beatles ' Sgt. Pepper 's Lonely Hearts Club Band, Samwell convinced them to perfect their acoustic style instead.
The debut album America was released in 1971 to only moderate success, although it sold well in the Netherlands, where Dexter had taken them as a training ground to practice their craft. Samwell and Dexter subsequently brought the trio to Morgan Studios to record several additional songs. One of them was a Bunnell composition called "Desert Song '', which Dexter previously demoed during studio rehearsals in Puddletown, Dorset at the home of Arthur Brown. The song had its public debut at The Harrogate Festival, four days later, to great audience response. After several performances and a TV show, it was re-titled "A Horse with No Name ''. The song became a major worldwide hit in early 1972. It sold over one million copies, and was awarded a gold disc by the R.I.A.A. in March 1972. America 's debut album was re-released with the hit song added and quickly went platinum. The album resulted in a second major chart success with Beckley 's "I Need You '', which peaked at No. 9 on the US charts.
After their initial success, the trio decided to dismiss Samwell and Dexter and relocate to Los Angeles, California. The recording of a second album was delayed by the relocation as well as an injury to Peek 's arm. Deciding not to replace Samwell, the group opted to produce the album by themselves. The trio began their move away from a mainly acoustic style to a more rock - music - oriented style with the help of Hal Blaine on drums and Joe Osborn on bass. Peek began to play lead electric guitar on more tracks and the group expanded from an acoustic trio to embrace a fuller live sound, adding Dave Dickey on bass and Dave Atwood (who 'd played as a session musician on their debut album) on drums. By the beginning of 1973, Atwood had been replaced by Dickey 's friend, Willie Leacox, who, like Dickey, was formerly of the group Captain.
America 's second album, Homecoming, was released in November 1972. Awarded a gold disc in December 1972, the million sales figure was confirmed by the R.I.A.A. in 1975. The group reached the top 10 again with Bunnell 's "Ventura Highway ''. Other singles, including Peek 's "Do n't Cross the River '' and Beckley 's "Only in Your Heart '', were only modestly successful, but the group still won a Grammy Award for Best New Artist of 1972.
The group 's output grew increasingly ambitious. Their third offering, Hat Trick, was released in October 1973 following several months of recording at the Record Plant Studios in Los Angeles. Again self - produced, the album featured strings, harmonicas, an eight - minute title track, and tap dancing. Beckley, Bunnell and Peek were once again joined by Blaine on drums, while Osborn was replaced by their touring bassist, David Dickey. The album was not as successful as Homecoming (1972), featuring only one modestly successful single, "Muskrat Love '' (No. 67 in the US), penned by Texas folk singer Willis Alan Ramsey. A Captain & Tennille version of the song would reach the top 10 in late 1976.
After the disappointing commercial performance of the album Hat Trick (1973), America chose to enlist an outside producer for their next album. They were able to secure the services of producer George Martin and recording engineer Geoff Emerick, who played a major role in shaping the sound of The Beatles. Sessions took place at AIR Studios in London.
The resulting album, Holiday, was released in June 1974 (by this time the group had consciously begun naming their albums with titles starting with the letter "H ''). With Martin 's guidance, the album 's style was very different from America 's first three efforts, as he enhanced America 's acoustic sound with strings and brass.
During an early 1975 tour of Europe, bassist Calvin "Fuzzy '' Samuels (formerly of Crosby, Stills, Nash & Young and Manassas) was called to fill in for Dickey, who was not available.
The trio soon found themselves in the Top Ten once again with the first single from Holiday, the Bunnell - penned "Tin Man '', which reached No. 4, featuring cryptic lyrics set to a Wizard of Oz theme. "Lonely People '' (a song written by the newly wed Dan and Catherine Peek) followed "Tin Man '' into the top ten in early 1975, becoming Dan Peek 's only credited song to reach there, peaking at No. 5.
Martin worked with the trio again for their next LP, Hearts, recorded in Sausalito, California and released in March 1975. America scored its second chart topping success with Beckley 's "Sister Golden Hair '' in mid-1975, a song which featured a memorable opening guitar riff admittedly inspired by George Harrison 's "My Sweet Lord '' and frank relationship lyrics inspired by Jackson Browne. The follow - up single, Beckley 's ballad "Daisy Jane '', also scored among the Top Twenty shortly after. Peek 's reggae - influenced "Woman Tonight '' was a third success (number 44 in the US) from the album towards the end of the year.
Warner Bros. released a compilation of America 's best - known tracks in December 1975, History: America 's Greatest Hits, which went platinum. Martin, who produced the album, remixed those tracks which were culled from the group 's first three albums.
During early 1976, the group recorded its sixth studio album at Caribou Ranch near Nederland, Colorado, inspiring the album 's title, Hideaway, which Martin produced. Released during April 1976, it saw the band 's popularity severely faltering, as the two singles, "Today 's the Day '' and "Amber Cascades '', only managed to reach number 23 and 75 (respectively) in the Billboard charts. Songs like "Jet Boy Blue '' and "Do n't Let It Get You Down '' received a lot of airplay on FM Stations.
Martin 's implementation of more complex instrumentation on America 's albums proved somewhat overwhelming to the band on stage, often compelling them to switch from instrument to instrument during songs. For their 1976 tour, the group expanded their stage line - up to include Jim Calire on keyboards and sax and Tom Walsh on percussion so that they could more comfortably perform Martin 's arrangements.
Martin and the trio went to Hawaii during late 1976 to work on the group 's seventh studio album. The album was recorded in a beach house on the island of Kauai. The album, Harbor, released in February 1977, continued the trend of decreasing sales for the group. It was their first album that failed to score either platinum or gold, and all three of its singles failed to chart.
In May 1977 Dan Peek left the band. Peek recently had renewed his Christian faith after years of recreational drug use and had begun to seek a different artistic direction from Beckley or Bunnell; the break with the band was amicable.
Peek contracted with Pat Boone 's Lamb & Lion Records and issued his first solo album, All Things Are Possible, in 1978. The album, produced by Chris Christian, was successful and Peek became a pioneering artist in the emerging Christian popular music genre. The title track entered the Billboard pop charts during the autumn of 1979, peaking at number 78.
Meanwhile, Beckley and Bunnell decided to continue as America, ending their contract with Warner Bros. with the release of their first concert LP, Live, during October 1977. Recorded at the Greek Theater in Los Angeles, the performance featured a backing orchestra conducted by Elmer Bernstein. The concert was recorded shortly after Peek left the group. The album was only mildly successful on the popular charts; whereas all of their previous albums, even Harbor, had at least made the Top 30, Live just barely inched into the top 130.
After more than two years without new studio material, Beckley and Bunnell presented the group 's new style with a cover of The Mamas & the Papas ' "California Dreamin ' '' in March 1979. It was featured on the soundtrack for the 1979 movie California Dreaming. Although the movie was unsuccessful and the soundtrack was issued by an obscure distributor known as American International, the single reached No. 56 on the charts.
America 's first studio album without Peek, Silent Letter, was released in June 1979 on their new label, Capitol Records. The album, once again produced by George Martin, was recorded in Montserrat in the West Indies with the members of the live band: David Dickey, Willie Leacox, Michael Woods, Jim Calire and Tom Walsh. The group began to use songs from other songwriters as they sought to increase their commercial success. The album scored no higher than No. 110 on the charts, leading Bunnell sarcastically to dub the album Silent Record. During the latter part of 1979, Calire and Walsh were dropped from the on - stage line - up. Session bassist Bryan Garafalo replaced Dickey in 1980 and Bradley Palmer took over from Garafalo in 1981.
America continued to evolve as the 1980s began. For their next album, Alibi, released in August 1980, Beckley and Bunnell sought fresh personnel in the form of producers Matthew McCauley and Fred Mollin. They also employed players from the West Coast, such as the Eagles ' Timothy B. Schmit, Leland Sklar and Steve Lukather, to help improve their sound. Alibi eschewed the strings and brass of a typical George Martin project in favour of a more popular - rock style. It also became the third studio album in a row without a successful single in the United States, although Beckley 's "Survival '' scored the top of the charts in Italy. The album 's sales maximised at No. 142.
America 's next album, View from the Ground, released in July 1982, saw the group finally score another commercial success. The album, recorded under the working title Two Car Garage, featured a number of songs produced by the duo themselves. As with Alibi (1980), Beckley and Bunnell brought in a number of high - profile musicians, including the Beach Boys ' Carl Wilson, Toto 's Jeff Porcaro, Christopher Cross and Dean Parks. But it was former Argent guitarist Russ Ballard who had the greatest effect on the group 's fortunes. Ballard produced and played all of the instruments and sang most of the background vocals on a song he crafted especially for the band, called "You Can Do Magic ''. The song rose quickly through the pop charts, and scored as high as No. 8 on the Billboard pop singles chart for a number of weeks during October 1982, the band 's first major success in seven years. Following "Magic '' was the single "Right Before Your Eyes '', an homage to silent movie actors better known to listeners as "Rudolph Valentino '' due to its memorable refrain. Written by Ian Thomas (brother of comedian Dave Thomas of Strange Brew fame), and produced by Bobby Colomby, the single barely missed a spot in the Top Forty during early 1983. Although View from the Ground failed to achieve gold - rated sales, it scored as high as No. 41 on the album charts, a significant improvement over the previous few releases.
Having had success with Ballard, Beckley and Bunnell asked the former Argent performer produce their next album, Your Move, in its entirety. In the end, Ballard wrote most of the songs and performed most of the instruments in addition to his production duties. For the most part, Beckley and Bunnell were singers on an album that Ballard had crafted for them, although they did contribute some material of their own. On one track, Bunnell decided to rewrite Ballard 's lyrics, and the successful song "The Border '' was the result. Set to the backing of the Royal Philharmonic Orchestra and the saxophone work of Raphael Ravenscroft, the single scored No. 33 on the charts in August 1983. "The Border '' was much more successful on the adult contemporary charts, where it scored No. 4 (even besting "You Can Do Magic ''). It also made No. 24 on the Dutch Top 40. A second single, Ballard 's "Cast the Spirit '', failed to chart. The album itself, released in June 1983, was reasonably successful at No. 81, but something of a disappointment, when compared to its predecessor.
America 's work was also featured on several soundtracks during this period. Beckley and Bunnell provided vocals to several Jimmy Webb compositions for the film The Last Unicorn in 1982. The soundtrack became popular in Germany, and the group frequently plays its title track, when touring in that country. America also recorded "Love Comes Without Warning '' for the 1984 Steve Martin comedy The Lonely Guy.
Dan Peek emerged from several years of musical obscurity during May 1984, releasing his second solo Christian album, Doer of the Word, on Home Sweet Home Records. Once again produced by Chris Christian, the album 's title track featured Beckley on backing vocals. Peek would issue two more solo albums over the next few years: Electro Voice (1986) and Crossover (1987).
Meanwhile, America opted for a decidedly different style from its previous offerings for its twelfth studio album, Perspective, released in September 1984. Ballard was out, and synthesizers and drum machines were in. Several different producers, including Richie Zito, Matthew McCauley, and Richard James Burgess, helped create an electronic popular style, that was very common during the 1980s, but drastically different from America 's usual style. "Special Girl '', the album 's first single, was culled from hired songwriters and failed to make the charts. The next single, "Ca n't Fall Asleep to a Lullaby '', was co-written by Bunnell, Journey 's Steve Perry, Robert Haimer, and Bill Mumy, the latter of Lost in Space and Babylon 5 fame. Although neither track was played on popular radio, both did achieve minor success on the adult contemporary charts. The album peaked at No. 185 during a three - week stint on the charts in October 1984.
Their mainstream commercial success over, Beckley and Bunnell ended their Capitol contract with In Concert, released in July 1985. The concert was recorded at the Arlington Theater in Santa Barbara, California, on 1 June 1985. In Concert became the first America album to miss the charts entirely.
Beckley and Bunnell spent the latter half of the 1980s focusing on their live show, performing well over 100 times a year around the world. While America remained a hot ticket on the touring circuit, they were unable to land a recording contract in the years after they left the Capitol label.
By the early 1990s, the development of compact discs led to the reissuing of many older popular albums, providing acts like America with revived sales. During 1991, America was able to offer four new tracks as part of a collection issued by Rhino Records called Encore: More Greatest Hits, which was designed to complement the group 's original 1975 retrospective.
America 's resurgence caught the eye of Chip Davis of American Gramaphone Records, who signed the group to his label. In May 1994, America released its first new studio album in a decade, Hourglass. Produced primarily by Beckley and Bunnell, with help from Hank Linderman and Steve Levine, the album featured an eclectic group of songs. Despite garnering generally positive reviews, the album was a commercial failure.
During 1995 Beckley delivered his debut solo album. Entitled Van Go Gan, the album experimented with various styles and sounds. Comedian Phil Hartman (who during his career as a graphic artist had designed several America album covers) was featured as the voice of a televangelist preacher on "Playing God ''. Although it was named as one of the Top Ten Music CDs of the year in Japan in 1995, the album was n't released outside Japan until four years later.
America fans were also treated to a concert album in 1995. Released by the King Biscuit Flower Hour Records, Inc., the concert was actually taken from a 1982 instalment of the King Biscuit Flower Hour radio show. Known as In Concert (not to be confused with the 1985 Capitol release of the same name), King Biscuit experienced modest success with the album (though America themselves did not: it failed to break the charts).
This success resulted in a new record deal with King Biscuit 's subsidiary label, Oxygen Records. After rumours that Steely Dan producer Gary Katz would produce the project came and went, the album eventually reached stores in September 1998. The new album, entitled Human Nature after the name of Beckley 's home recording studio, was accompanied by a modest commercial blitz. The first single, Beckley 's "From a Moving Train '', featured a strongly acoustic style. The track received considerable airplay and moderate success in adult contemporary formats. Reports claimed that the song was a major success in the popular charts in Spain. A second attempt at a single in "Wednesday Morning '' was somewhat less successful. The album failed to garner the sales that Oxygen was expecting, and America was once again without a record deal.
The next few years saw the group 's catalogue expand with a number of side projects, reissues of older albums on CD, and several major retrospective releases. In July 2000, Rhino released Highway: 30 Years of America, a three - CD box set which included 64 remastered tracks spanning the group 's career. Included were a handful of alternative mixes and demos such as an early take of a stripped - down "Ventura Highway ''.
A year later, in August 2001, Rhino released a trimmed - down single disc compilation, The Complete Greatest Hits, which assembled all of the group 's 17 charting Billboard singles. The disc also included two newly recorded songs, "World of Light '' and "Paradise ''. Peaking at No. 152 on the Billboard album charts in October 2001, The Complete Greatest Hits was America 's first charting album since Perspective in 1984.
On the solo front, in February 2000 Beckley released Go Man Go, an album of remixed tracks from Van Go Gan. The original Van Go Gan finally saw domestic release that July with bonus tracks. June saw the roll - out of another Beckley side project, Like A Brother, recorded with Robert Lamm and Carl Wilson under the name Beckley - Lamm - Wilson. Dan Peek resurfaced in 1999 with a new website and his first solo release in many years, Bodden Town.
As part of a contemporary trend of recycling oldies recordings to create new hits, Janet Jackson 's 2001 single "Someone to Call My Lover '' sampled the "Ventura Highway '' guitar riff and rose to No. 3 on the Billboard pop charts.
In October 2002, the group released its first Christmas album, Holiday Harmony. Produced by Andrew Gold, the album received positive reviews for its imaginative blending of elements of classic America tunes into familiar holiday standards. Included were three new tracks, including a Bunnell - penned ode to "Ventura Highway '' called "Christmas in California '', featuring Beckley on lead vocals. One month later, America released a live album, The Grand Cayman Concert. Recorded the previous April in the Cayman Islands, the concert featured just Beckley and Bunnell on acoustic guitars, a throwback to the earliest days of their career. Included were their most familiar songs along with a few which were almost never performed live, such as "Wind Wave '' and "Pigeon Song ''. Both albums failed to chart.
After this, the band ceased recording and concentrated on their consistently lucrative touring schedule.
In early 2003 Bradley Palmer left the touring band after twenty two years and was replaced, first by Chas Frichtell, then by Trent Stroh, until Richard Campbell (formerly toured with Three Dog Night, Natalie Cole and Dave Mason) came in permanently.
Record labels occasionally offered new DVDs, such as a re-release of America 's 1979 concert film, Live in Central Park, a 2004 concert at the Sydney Opera House, and a 2005 show at the Ventura, California Concert Theater joined with Stephen Bishop and Andrew Gold directed by Sheldon Osmond. Also in 2005, America appeared on the PBS concert series SoundStage with long - time friend Christopher Cross, and a guest appearance by rock photographer Henry Diltz on banjo.
In April 2006, after a few solo concerts, Beckley released his third solo album, Horizontal Fall, which was largely ignored by both critics and buyers. His 2011 follow - up, Unfortunate Casino, met a similar fate.
As the second half of the first decade of the 2000s began, the group remained very much active and popular in the nostalgia concert circuit. Though the group had occasionally issued new material on minor labels, their offerings had been largely ignored by the greater commercial music industry and record - buying public.
However, a fateful connection would provide a sudden and unexpected change in fortune for the group. Around 2005, Beckley began correspondence with Adam Schlesinger of the independent rock music group Fountains of Wayne. Beckley had been a fan of the 2003 Fountains of Wayne album Welcome Interstate Managers, and Schlesinger turned out to be a fan of America 's work. The exchange of songs between the two resulted in them recording a few tracks together. The recordings came to the attention of SonyBMG 's new Burgundy Records label, which was impressed both by the quality of the material and by the possibility of pairing America with other independent artists. The company contracted America to record a new album with Schlesinger and his musical partner, James Iha, formerly of The Smashing Pumpkins, at the production helm. Entitled Here & Now (2007), it would be America 's first major - label studio album since Perspective in 1984.
The recording sessions at Stratosphere sound in New York City, which ran through July, attracted a number of notable guest musicians, including Ryan Adams, Ben Kweller, Stephen Bishop, Rusty Young, and members of the groups Nada Surf and My Morning Jacket.
In an effort to aim the album toward both younger and older audiences, the label decided to bundle the new album with a second disc comprising live performances of every track from History: America 's Greatest Hits, previously recorded at XM Radio as part of XM 's Then Again... Live series, recorded with longtime America drummer Wil Leacox, guitarist Michael Woods and bassist Richard Campbell. In the run - up to the album 's scheduled release on 16 January 2007, America attracted publicity unknown to it since the early 1980s. The release itself was well received by critics, and Here & Now went all the way to number 52 in the Billboard charts.
In addition to receiving growing support from a new generation of musicians, America finally began to receive acclamation from the entertainment industry. In 2006 America was inducted into the Vocal Group Hall of Fame. On 6 February 2012, the group was given a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame for their contributions to music at 6752 Hollywood Boulevard. As of late as 2009, America performed over 100 shows per year.
America 's follow - up to Here & Now (2007) was released on 26 July 2011. Entitled Back Pages, the album was a collection of twelve tracks covering songs from artists ranging from Bob Dylan and Joni Mitchell to Adam Schlesinger and the Gin Blossoms. Released on the E1 Music label, the album was produced by Fred Mollin, who had originally worked with America 31 years before on Alibi. The album was recorded in Nashville, Tennessee with the help of a number of studio musicians. The release of Back Pages was briefly overshadowed by the publicity surrounding the sudden death of founding member Dan Peek on 24 July 2011.
In February 2014 lead guitarist and background vocalist Michael Woods (Woodz), who had been with the touring band since the fall of 1977, announced his retirement from the band, due to ill health. His replacement was Nashville musician Bill Worrell.
In March 2014 long - time Beach Boys and Brian Wilson vocalist / guitarist Jeff Foskett subbed for Beckley at some concerts and long - time drummer Wil Leacox retired from the band in July 2014, after an almost 42 year tenure, and was replaced by former Reel Big Fish drummer Ryland Steen.
In November 2014, America recorded a live performance at Infinity Hall in Hartford, CT for Connecticut Public Television that was subsequently aired nationwide in June 2015, and afterwards streamed online.
During the late summer of 2015, guitarist / keyboardist Andy Barr, from the group Cobra Starship, came in for Worrell, who had a broken wrist. After healing, Worrell returned to the group until leaving for a solo career in October 2016. Barr then joined America permanently.
Long time America bassist David Dickey died on December 3, 2016 at his home in Sweetwater, Texas.
From the time Dan Peek left the group in May 1977, and up until his death in July 2011, speculation abounded as to whether he could or would return to the fold. On Peek 's 1978 solo debut album, All Things Are Possible, Beckley and Bunnell sang back - up vocals on the track "Love Was Just Another Word ''. According to Peek and Bunnell, in June 1983, Peek even joined the group onstage to perform a few songs during a concert at the Greek Theater in Los Angeles. On Peek 's 1984 follow - up album, Doer of the Word, Beckley provided prominent backing vocals on the title track. In November 1999, credible rumours began to spread, that unreleased demo recordings from the early 1980s featuring Beckley and Bunnell collaborating with Peek would be released on CD sometime in early 2000. No such recordings have been released to date.
The questions about a possible reunion of the original trio began not long after Peek left the group. When asked about the prospects for a reunion in the early 1980s, Beckley and Bunnell stated, that they were happy for Peek in that he had found a new life and a new direction, but that it was unlikely there would be a reunion. "All things are possible, like (Dan) says '', Beckley told radio host Lew Irwin in 1982, but "it just does n't seem in the cards. '' Within a few years, however, Peek had begun to entertain just such thoughts publicly. "Like they said and like I said, all things are possible '', Peek told interviewer Steve Orchard in 1985. "I really have my fingers crossed. I would love to get back together (with them) and do some things. ''
Although Beckley and Bunnell had over the years become increasingly firm in their position, that a reunion with Peek was unlikely, and could in fact be counterproductive, record companies tried to persuade them to change their minds. Bunnell noted to Steve Orchard in 1998, that "(w) e had a few labels say that they would be interested in recording us if we would bring Dan back or if we could put together the original trio. '' Beckley and Bunnell chose to maintain their decision to remain a duo.
In 2000, Peek began posting a number of weekly "episodes '' to his website relating to his experiences prior to and during his years in America. Peek raised a few eyebrows both for his candid discussion of his experiences with drugs and religion and for his observations of Beckley and Bunnell. Eventually, Peek compiled the material into a book entitled An American Band, which was released in late 2004.
Certain sources have suggested erroneously that a reunion with Peek actually did occur. A Rolling Stone rock music discography book, printed during the mid-1990s, contained an apocryphal entry for America stating, that Dan Peek had reunited with Beckley and Bunnell for a tour in 1993 with the Beach Boys. This misinformation has been so widely disseminated, that the Australian rock journalist and historian Glenn A. Baker erroneously assumed this to be true in an interview question posed to Beckley and Bunnell on the Live at the Sydney Opera House DVD.
Furthermore, during an interview airing on 7 June 2010 on the Steel Pier Radio Show with Ed Hurst airing on WIBG Radio, Peek was asked about the reunion prospects and more or less ruled them out. The last song Peek recorded was "Kiss Me on the Waves '' (2011) with the Spanish band Etcetera, as guest singer. The song was written by Guillermo Albelo and included in the album Steps on the Water.
Continuous speculations of Peek reuniting with America finally came to an end when Peek died in his home in Farmington, Missouri of fibrinous pericarditis on 24 July 2011, at the age of 60.
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when was the last ncaa football game made | NCAA Football (series) - wikipedia
NCAA Football was an American football video game series developed by EA Sports in which players control and compete against current Division I FBS college teams. The series is a younger brother to the Madden NFL series.
In July 2014, the NCAA announced that it would not renew its licensing contract with Electronic Arts because of an ongoing legal dispute regarding the use of player likenesses in the games. However, this contract only covers the use of the NCAA name and related logos, not those of individual schools and conferences, which are negotiated individually or through the Collegiate Licensing Company. The CLC concurrently announced that it would extend its existing licensing deal with EA through 2017, ensuring that EA Sports could continue the series without the NCAA branding. However, the series was placed on hiatus in September 2013, following three major conferences pulling their trademark licenses from EA, and uncertainties surrounding the results of lawsuits involving the use of player likenesses in - game.
Bill Walsh College Football was released in June 1993 on 4th generation video game consoles, such as the Sega Genesis.
Bill Walsh College Football featured the top 24 college football teams from 1992 and 24 of the all - time greatest teams since 1978. While no actual players were named and no official team logos used, colleges were listed by city and players identified by number. Play modes include exhibition, playoffs, and all - time playoffs. Sixty - eight classic college plays were available, including the triple option, student body, and wishbone.
Other options and features include automatic or manual - pass catch mode, audibles, reverse angle replay, onside kicks, four weather conditions (fair, windy, rain, and snow), three different quarter lengths (5, 10, and 15 minutes), and a hurry - up offense.
The Bill Walsh endorsement was meant to parallel John Madden 's endorsement of NFL Football.
Bill Walsh College Football ' 95 was the second installment of the college football franchise and the first to have a year.
The game featured 36 Division I-A teams, a windowless passing mode, customizable seasons from one to sixteen weeks, and complete statistical tracking throughout the season. Players could choose either a playoff system or bowl games with fictional names: Maple Bowl, Palm Bowl, Pecan Bowl, and Redwood Bowl.
Bill Walsh College Football 95 also provided 36 new plays and formations including the Wishbone, Veer, Tee Offense, and 4 - 4 D.
The series was renamed College Football USA 96, and was the first version to feature all (108 at the time) Division l-A teams. It was also the first in the series to feature real bowl games (Orange, Sugar, Fiesta, and Rose). Players could play an entire 11 - game season (or shorter if desired) before advancing to one of the bowl games.
There were 400 plays from which to choose, and a new passing mode allowed players to select from five receivers on every play. Other new features and options included the following: four - player mode, three different game lengths, substitutions, injuries, audibles, fake snaps, spins, hurdles, dives, blocked kicks, interceptions, and laterals
College Football USA 96 would mark the first and only time that the Southwest Conference would appear in a video game. It also marked the only time that the University of Pacific Tigers would appear in a video game, as they dropped their football program after the 1995 season to save money.
The game was well received by critics. GamePro called it "the most authentic and in - depth Genesis college football cart yet '', citing the challenging A.I., the huge selection of teams, and the many new features and gameplay elements brought to the series. The two sports reviewers of Electronic Gaming Monthly gave it scores of 8.5 and 8 out of 10. They likewise praised the selection of teams and the new gameplay elements, and remarked that the game "brings another level in football gaming. ''
College Football USA 97 was the fourth installment of the series. The game featured University of Nebraska quarterback Tommie Frazier on the cover.
The game added a new "create player '' feature (up to 28 players) and custom schedules, new animations and all 111 Division I-A teams. Players could also compete in a customized Tournament with support for up to 16 players in a single - elimination or round robin format.
Players were also able to adjust penalties, set weather type, enter user records, perform substitutions, set audibles, toggle injuries, and change game length, as well as difficulty level. Authentic playbooks (with plays like the Wishbone), a USA Today / CNN Coaches Poll, and the Sears National Championship Trophy were also available.
NCAA Football 98 was released on July 31, 1997. The game featured University of Florida quarterback and Heisman Trophy winner Danny Wuerffel on the cover.
This was the first game in the series to feature a multi-season Dynasty Mode, allowing players to take control of a team for four seasons and recruit players to fill out roster vacancies at the completion of each season. Additionally, it was EA 's first college football game to carry the name and logo of the NCAA. Its ability to use the NCAA 's brands in the game were the result of a licensing deal intended primarily for EA 's NCAA March Madness basketball games (first released in February 1998) and its incorporation of the Men 's Division I Basketball Championship.
NCAA Football 99 was the sixth edition of the game. The game featured University of Michigan cornerback and Heisman Trophy winner Charles Woodson on the cover. Its tagline read Desire + Pride = Victory!.
The game featured all 112 Division I-A teams at the time and also featured 3D, polygon - rendered players for the first time in the franchise 's history. Additional features included the ability to create players, edit player names, sixty fight songs and crowd chants. Over eighty historical teams were added to the game, as well. The Heisman Memorial Trophy replaces the ' EA Sports MVP '' trophy and other awards are given out. Recruiting is simple and done in a serpentine draft system. The Rose Bowl, Cotton Bowl, Fiesta Bowl and Sugar Bowl are now playable, and the other Bowls played have EA Sports as the sponsor. Created players from this game can be imported to the title Madden NFL 99. It featured no commentary by booth announcers; instead a PA announcer provides the commentary. Unlike the current games in this franchise, NCAA 99 featured an optional 16 team playoff at the end of the season in dynasty mode.
PC Gamer US nominated NCAA Football 99 as the best sports game of 1998, although it lost to NBA Live 99. They wrote that NCAA Football 99 "turned out to be the year 's finest pigskin offering, despite a healthy challenge from EA Sports ' own Madden NFL 99. ''
NCAA Football 2000, released only for the PlayStation, featured University of Texas running back and Heisman Trophy winner Ricky Williams being tackled by a Texas A&M University defense on the cover.
The game included all 114 Division I-A schools and 26 from Division I - AA. It also featured new 3D polygon - rendered players, which are fully displayed in multiple camera angles during gameplay.
Other notable additions include coaching tips, 23 bowls (up from four), the ability to edit new plays, and the official Heisman Trophy award.
NCAA Football 2001, released only for the PlayStation, featured University of Alabama running back Shaun Alexander on the cover.
This version included Create - a-player, Create - a-school, Custom League (up to eight teams, double round - robin, plus playoff), Custom Tournament (up to 16 teams, double elimination), as well as fully customizable Season / Dynasty schedules. This was also the final installment which offered a playoff at the end of the season in dynasty mode (24 teams).
NCAA Football 2002, released only for the PlayStation 2, featured Florida State quarterback and Heisman Trophy winner Chris Weinke on the cover.
This was the first version released for PlayStation 2; it lacked features (such as Custom League, Custom Tournament, and Create - a-school) that were present in the previous PlayStation edition (2001).
The game featured a new Campus Cards rewards system, which allowed players to unlock special features in the game such as historical teams or special stadiums.
NCAA Football 2003, released for the PlayStation 2, Nintendo GameCube, and Xbox, featured University of Oregon quarterback Joey Harrington on the cover.
New features in this version included over 200 licensed fight songs, 3D cheerleaders and 144 different schools.
Dynasty mode was enhanced with the ability to redshirt a player and schedule non-conference games before each season. Trophies and awards, modeled after real - life college football awards, was another feature new to this version. Players could win trophies by playing games and could add them to a personal collection which is shown off in a trophy room. These awards include the Heisman, Coach of the Year and Bowl - specific trophies. The game featured 23 different rivalry trophies that were created to represent their real - life counterparts.
Create - A-School mode returned in this edition of the game after being absent from the previous year. The game also featured a customizable interface for the first time. A player could choose his or her favorite team and the game interface would be based around that team 's fight song, mascot, logos and school colors.
NCAA Football 2004, released for the PlayStation 2, Nintendo GameCube, and Xbox, featured University of Southern California quarterback and Heisman Trophy winner Carson Palmer on the cover.
This edition featured the return of gameplay modes seen in previous versions such as Dynasty Mode.
The College Classics mode was introduced in this version and allowed players to replay classic games in college football history. New tackling animations and more realistic zone defenses were also included.
NCAA Football 2005, the last game in the series to have the full year on the cover and released for the PlayStation 2, Nintendo GameCube, and Xbox, featured University of Pittsburgh wide receiver Larry Fitzgerald on the cover.
This version introduced more fan interaction in the game. The home team 's defense can incite the crowd to make noise, making it difficult for the offense to hear the quarterback 's audibles. This feature, dubbed "home field advantage '', allowed stadium influence and energy to swing a game 's momentum if strong enough. The game ranked the "Top 25 Toughest Places to Play '', which included famous stadiums such as Florida 's "Swamp '' and LSU 's "Death Valley '', where this feature would be felt more strongly.
The new "Match - Up Stick '' feature allowed players to match up more experienced and skilled players on younger, less - talented ones to exploit matchup problems.
All Division I-A schools were included in the game along with more than 70 I - AA schools. Signature fan celebrations, such as the "Gator Chomp '' and "Texas Hook ' Em Horns '' were included.
NCAA Football 2006 has features that include the Dynasty mode, wherein the player act as a team 's head coach, both on and off the field. Aside from weekly games, the player also controls recruiting freshman for the next year 's season; new to the 2006 version is in - season recruiting.
Another new feature in the 2006 game is the Race for the Heisman mode, in which the player takes on the role of a single player attempting to win the Heisman Trophy. Race for the Heisman begins with the user selecting which position they want their character to be. The player then completes a workout for college scouts and you are offered scholarships to three different schools. The quality of football programs that offer scholarships depends on how well the player did in the workout. The player can either choose to accept one of the scholarships or walk on at any Division I school. After selecting what school to play for the player is automatically placed in the starting line up. Year after year the player 's attributes increase depending on the previous seasons performance with the ultimate goal of winning the Heisman trophy.
Desmond Howard, a Heisman - winning player from the University of Michigan, is on the cover. This is a slight break in tradition as the NCAA Football series traditionally featured an NFL rookie on the cover of the game, with an action shot of him wearing his college jersey from the previous year. The game was released for the PlayStation 2 and Xbox.
NCAA Football 07 was released on July 18, 2006, and was the series ' first release on both the Xbox 360 and PSP. University of Southern California running back and Heisman Trophy winner Reggie Bush is featured on the game 's cover. FCS teams were not featured on next gen consoles, but were available still on previous gen consoles.
This version of the game utilized a feature called Turn the Tide, which consisted of a momentum meter on the score graphic at the top or bottom of the screen. A boost in momentum for a team would increase the performance of all players and boost their attributes by a varying amount.
This version also included spring drills, an update to the Race for the Heisman mode called Campus Legend (which plays more like NFL Superstar mode in Madden), ESPN integration, and a spring game in Dynasty and Campus Legend modes.
NCAA Football 08 was released on July 17, 2007. The cover athlete is Boise State University quarterback Jared Zabransky.
Some of the new features for this version include Leadership Control, which allows players who perform well to "lead by example '' and control the action on the field and increase their sphere of influence by improving their players ' personal ratings on each big play. The game also features a new and deeper recruiting system and an all - new Campus Legend mode. This was the first version of the game released on the PlayStation 3.
NCAA Football 09 was released July 15, 2008. It was released on all next generation consoles, including, for the first and only time, the Wii. The covers featured the following college football figures:
NCAA Football 10 was released on July 14, 2009. The covers feature the following former college players:
NCAA Football 11 was released on July 13, 2010. It was released on all next generation consoles, with the exception of the Wii. The cover athlete for all three versions is former Florida quarterback Tim Tebow.
This was the last version of the game released for the PlayStation 2, and the only version released for iOS.
NCAA Football 12 was released on July 12, 2011 on PS3 and Xbox 360. The cover athlete was Mark Ingram Jr. of the University of Alabama.
NCAA Football 13 was released on July 10, 2012. The game 's cover features Heisman Trophy winner Robert Griffin III of Baylor, along with another Heisman winner (Barry Sanders from Oklahoma State), who was decided by fan voting. Sanders was picked over Marcus Allen, Doug Flutie, Desmond Howard, Charlie Ward, Andre Ware, Eddie George, and Herschel Walker during the voting process.
NCAA Football 14, the final installment in the series, was released on July 9, 2013. The game 's cover features former Michigan quarterback Denard Robinson, who was decided by fan voting. Robinson was picked over Eddie Lacy, Kenjon Barner, Jarvis Jones, EJ Manuel, Ryan Swope, John Simon, and Tyler Eifert during the voting process.
Due to recent legal disputes between the association, Electronic Arts, college athletes, and others regarding the usage of college athletes ' likenesses in video games (which is currently barred by the NCAA because of the concept of sport amateurism), they would not renew their licensing deal with EA. However, the expiration of the license only affects the use of the NCAA 's trademarks in the games; teams and other events are licensed from schools individually or through organizations such as the Collegiate Licensing Company -- who announced on the same day that they would extend its own licensing deal with EA through 2017. As such, EA ensured that with these existing deals in place, it would still be able to produce future versions of the franchise without the NCAA license (as it did prior to 1997); EA Sports ' executive vice president Andrew Wilson announced that the next edition of the franchise was already in development, and would "(still) feature the college teams, leagues, and all the innovation fans expect from EA Sports. ''
However, after the SEC, Big Ten, and Pac - 12 conferences announced that they would not license their trademarks to EA, the company announced on September 26, 2013 that it would not make a college football game for 2014.
Players ' real names and exact likenesses are not used in the game. While the Madden NFL series uses real player names and likenesses, those players are compensated for the use of their image. Due to NCAA restrictions on the amateur status of athletes, names are not allowed. Additionally, current college players can not be used as cover athletes. Instead, each cover features a player whose college eligibility ended the season before the game 's release, wearing his former college uniform. The only two exceptions have been the Wii version of NCAA Football 09, which featured Sparty, the mascot of Michigan State University, on the cover, and NCAA Football 06 when Desmond Howard was featured on the cover striking the Heisman Trophy pose during his career at Michigan, despite not having played for Michigan for more than 15 years.
Although EA Sports does not claim that the players in the game represent real life players, the jersey number, position, height, weight, home state, and ethnicity are aligned with the real players. Fans of any particular team are sure to recognize their favorite players (for example, in NCAA Football 14, Florida State QB # 5 would correspond to Jameis Winston). Actual usage of a player 's real name would be in violation of the NCAA 's policy regarding student athletes. Amateur "roster makers '' will often manually associate player names and will upload a roster file to the built - in roster sharing system. As of NCAA Football 09, EA has put in the EA Locker feature which allows remote roster sharing online through either Xbox Live or PlayStation Network depending on the console. In certain game modes, real players are given fake names. For instance, in NCAA Football 14, Ohio State QB Braxton Miller is referred to as Matthew Carrington.
Prior to the release of NCAA Football 06, the only music featured in the game were fight songs of most FBS and FCS colleges featured in the game. These would play at random, however the user - selected "favorite team '' would always have their fight song played first whenever the game was first started.
NCAA Football 06 was the first and only entry in the series to include licensed music to keep the series in uniform with other EA Sports releases of the time, such as Madden NFL and the NHL series.
NCAA Football 07 returned to the fight song only format. NCAA Football 08 added a cinematic theme song to the main menu, with fight songs playing during Dynasty Mode.
NCAA Football 09 allows a new custom stadium sounds feature allowing users to edit what sounds are heard at specific stadiums during events within the game, such as a touchdown, field goal, or timeout. Fans of the teams can now create an authentic experience in each stadium by using copyrighted songs that EA is not allowed to put into the game.
NCAA Football 10 plays Tick Tick Boom by The Hives in the introduction only.
NCAA Football 11 uses the music that is used in ESPN College Football coverage.
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the only country to feature the bible on its flag | Flag of the Dominican Republic - wikipedia
The flag of the Dominican Republic represents the Dominican Republic and, together with the coat of arms and the national anthem, has the status of national symbol. The blue on the flag stands for liberty, the white for salvation, and the red for the blood of heroes. The civil ensign follows the same design, but without the charge in the center. The flag was designed by Juan Pablo Duarte.
As described by Article 21 of the Dominican Constitution, the flag features a centered white cross that extends to the edges and divides the flag into four rectangles; the top ones are blue (hoist side) and red, and the bottom ones are red (hoist side) and blue. The national coat of arms, featuring a shield with the flag design and supported by a bay laurel branch (left) and a palm frond (right), is at the center of the cross. Above the shield, a blue ribbon displays the national motto Dios, Patria, Libertad (English: God, Fatherland, Liberty). Below the shield, the words República Dominicana appear on a red ribbon (this red ribbon is depicted in more recent versions as having its tips pointing upward). In the center of the shield, flanked by three spears (two of them holding Dominican banners) on each side, is a Bible with a small cross above it and said to be opened to the Gospel of John, chapter 8, verse 32, which reads Y la verdad os hará libres (And the truth shall make you free).
The flag of the Dominican Republic is similar to the flag of Perm Krai, a federal subject of Russia
Media related to Flags of the Dominican Republic at Wikimedia Commons
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where are the dna samples inserted into the gel | Gel electrophoresis of nucleic acids - wikipedia
Nucleic acid electrophoresis is an analytical technique used to separate DNA or RNA fragments by size and reactivity. Nucleic acid molecules which are to be analyzed are set upon a viscous medium, the gel, where an electric field induces the nucleic acids (which are negatively charged due to their sugar - phosphate backbone) to migrate toward the anode (which is positively charged because this is an electrolytic rather than galvanic cell). The separation of these fragments is accomplished by exploiting the mobilities with which different sized molecules are able to pass through the gel. Longer molecules migrate more slowly because they experience more resistance within the gel. Because the size of the molecule affects its mobility, smaller fragments end up nearer to the anode than longer ones in a given period. After some time, the voltage is removed and the fragmentation gradient is analyzed. For larger separations between similar sized fragments, either the voltage or run time can be increased. Extended runs across a low voltage gel yield the most accurate resolution. Voltage is, however, not the sole factor in determining electrophoresis of nucleic acids.
The nucleic acid to be separated can be prepared in several ways before separation by electrophoresis. In the case of large DNA molecules, the DNA is frequently cut into smaller fragments using a DNA restriction endonuclease (or restriction enzyme). In other instances, such as PCR amplified samples, enzymes present in the sample that might affect the separation of the molecules are removed through various means before analysis. Once the nucleic acid is properly prepared, the samples of the nucleic acid solution are placed in the wells of the gel and a voltage is applied across the gel for a specified amount of time.
The DNA fragments of different lengths are visualized using a fluorescent dye specific for DNA, such as ethidium bromide. The gel shows bands corresponding to different nucleic acid molecules populations with different molecular weight. Fragment size is usually reported in "nucleotides '', "base pairs '' or "kb '' (for thousands of base pairs) depending upon whether single - or double - stranded nucleic acid has been separated. Fragment size determination is typically done by comparison to commercially available DNA markers containing linear DNA fragments of known length.
The types of gel most commonly used for nucleic acid electrophoresis are agarose (for relatively long DNA molecules) and polyacrylamide (for high resolution of short DNA molecules, for example in DNA sequencing). Gels have conventionally been run in a "slab '' format such as that shown in the figure, but capillary electrophoresis has become important for applications such as high - throughput DNA sequencing. Electrophoresis techniques used in the assessment of DNA damage include alkaline gel electrophoresis and pulsed field gel electrophoresis.
For short DNA segments such as 20 to 60 bp double stranded DNA, running them in Polyacrylamide gel (PAGE) will give better resolution (native condition). Similarly, RNA and single stranded DNA can be run and visualised by PAGE gels containing denaturing agents such as Urea. PAGE gels are widely used in techniques such as DNA foot printing, EMSA and other DNA - protein interaction techniques.
The measurement and analysis are mostly done with a specialized gel analysis software. Capillary electrophoresis results are typically displayed in a trace view called an electropherogram.
A number of factors can affect the migration of nucleic acids: the dimension of the gel pores, the voltage used, the ionic strength of the buffer, and the concentration intercalating dye such as ethidium bromide if used during electrophoresis.
The gel sieves the DNA by the size of the DNA molecule whereby smaller molecules travel faster. Double - stranded DNA moves at a rate that is approximately inversely proportional to the logarithm of the number of base pairs. This relationship however breaks down with very large DNA fragments and it is not possible to separate them using standard agarose gel electrophoresis. The limit of resolution depends on gel composition and field strength. and the mobility of larger circular DNA may be more strongly affected than linear DNA by the pore size of the gel. Separation of very large DNA fragments requires pulse field gel electrophoresis (PFGE). In field inversion gel electrophoresis (FIGE, a kind of PFGE), it is possible to have "band inversion '' - where large molecules may move faster than small molecules.
The conformation of the DNA molecule can significantly affect the movement of the DNA, for example, supercoiled DNA usually moves faster than relaxed DNA because it is tightly coiled and hence more compact. In a normal plasmid DNA preparation, multiple forms of DNA may be present, and gel from the electrophoresis of the plasmids would normally show a main band which would be the negatively supercoiled form, while other forms of DNA may appear as minor fainter bands. These minor bands may be nicked DNA (open circular form) and the relaxed closed circular form which normally run slower than supercoiled DNA, and the single - stranded form (which can sometimes appear depending on the preparation methods) may move ahead of the supercoiled DNA. The rate at which the various forms move however can change using different electrophoresis conditions, for example linear DNA may run faster or slower than supercoiled DNA depending on conditions, and the mobility of larger circular DNA may be more strongly affected than linear DNA by the pore size of the gel. Unless supercoiled DNA markers are used, the size of a circular DNA like plasmid therefore may be more accurately gauged after it has been linearized by restriction digest.
DNA damage due to increased cross-linking will also reduce electrophoretic DNA migration in a dose - dependent way.
Circular DNA are more strongly affected by ethidium bromide concentration than linear DNA if ethidium bromide is present in the gel during electrophoresis. All naturally occurring DNA circles are underwound, but ethidium bromide which intercalates into circular DNA can change the charge, length, as well as the superhelicity of the DNA molecule, therefore its presence during electrophoresis can affect its movement in gel. Increasing ethidium bromide intercalated into the DNA can change it from a negatively supercoiled molecule into a fully relaxed form, then to positively coiled superhelix at maximum intercalation. Agarose gel electrophoresis can be used to resolve circular DNA with different supercoiling topology.
The concentration of the gel determines the pore size of the gel which affect the migration of DNA. The resolution of the DNA changes with the percentage concentration of the gel. Increasing the agarose concentration of a gel reduces the migration speed and improves separation of smaller DNA molecules, while lowering gel concentration permits large DNA molecules to be separated. For a standard agarose gel electrophoresis, a 0.7 % gives good separation or resolution of large 5 -- 10kb DNA fragments, while 2 % gel gives good resolution for small 0.2 -- 1kb fragments. Up to 3 % can be used for separating very tiny fragments but a vertical polyacrylamide gel would be more appropriate for resolving small fragments. High concentrations gel however requires longer run times (sometimes days) and high percentage gels are often brittle and may not set evenly. High percentage agarose gels should be run with PFGE or FIGE. Low percentage gels (0.1 − 0.2 %) are fragile and may break. 1 % gels are common for many applications.
At low voltages, the rate of migration of the DNA is proportional to the voltage applied, i.e. the higher the voltage, the faster the DNA moves. However, in increasing electric field strength, the mobility of high - molecular - weight DNA fragments increases differentially, and the effective range of separation decreases and resolution therefore is lower at high voltage. For optimal resolution of DNA greater than 2kb in size in standard gel electrophoresis, 5 to 8 V / cm is recommended. Voltage is also limited by the fact that it heats the gel and may cause the gel to melt if a gel is run at high voltage for a prolonged period, particularly for low - melting point agarose gel.
The mobility of DNA however may change in an unsteady field. In a field that is periodically reversed, the mobility of DNA of a particular size may drop significantly at a particular cycling frequency. This phenomenon can result in band inversion whereby larger DNA fragments move faster than smaller ones in PFGE.
The negative charge of its phosphate backbone moves the DNA towards the positively charged anode during electrophoresis. However, the migration of DNA molecules in solution, in the absence of a gel matrix, is independent of molecular weight during electrophoresis, i.e. there is no separation by size without a gel matrix. Hydrodynamic interaction between different parts of the DNA are cut off by streaming counterions moving in the opposite direction, so no mechanism exists to generate a dependence of velocity on length on a scale larger than screening length of about 10 nm. This makes it different from other processes such as sedimentation or diffusion where long - ranged hydrodynamic interaction are important.
The gel matrix is therefore responsible for the separation of DNA by size during electrophoresis, however the precise mechanism responsible the separation is not entirely clear. A number of models exists for the mechanism of separation of biomolecules in gel matrix, a widely accepted one is the Ogston model which treats the polymer matrix as a sieve consisting of randomly distributed network of inter-connected pores. A globular protein or a random coil DNA moves through the connected pores large enough to accommodate its passage, and the movement of larger molecules is more likely to be impeded and slowed down by collisions with the gel matrix, and the molecules of different sizes can therefore be separated in this process of sieving.
The Ogston model however breaks down for large molecules whereby the pores are significantly smaller than size of the molecule. For DNA molecules of size greater than 1 kb, a reptation model (or its variants) is most commonly used. This model assumes that the DNA can crawl in a "snake - like '' fashion (hence "reptation '') through the pores as an elongated molecule. At higher electric field strength, this turned into a biased reptation model, whereby the leading end of the molecule become strongly biased in the forward direction, and this leading edge pulls the rest of the molecule along. In the fully biased mode, the mobility reached a saturation point and DNA beyond a certain size can not be separated. Perfect parallel alignment of the chain with the field however is not observed in practice as that would mean the same mobility for long and short molecules. Further refinement of the biased reptation model takes into account of the internal fluctuations of the chain.
The biased reptation model has also been used to explain the mobility of DNA in PFGE. The orientation of the DNA is progressively built up by reptation after the onset of a field, and the time it reached the steady state velocity is dependent on the size of the molecule. When the field is changed, larger molecules take longer to reorientate, it is therefore possible to discriminate between the long chains that can not reach its steady state velocity from the short ones that travel most of the time in steady velocity. Other models, however, also exist.
Real - time fluorescence microscopy of stained molecules showed more subtle dynamics during electrophoresis, with the DNA showing considerable elasticity as it alternately stretching in the direction of the applied field and then contracting into a ball, or becoming hooked into a U-shape when it gets caught on the polymer fibres. This observation may be termed the "caterpillar '' model. Other model proposes that the DNA gets entangled with the polymer matrix, and the larger the molecule, the more likely it is to become entangled and its movement impeded.
The most common dye used to make DNA or RNA bands visible for agarose gel electrophoresis is ethidium bromide, usually abbreviated as EtBr. It fluoresces under UV light when intercalated into the major groove of DNA (or RNA). By running DNA through an EtBr - treated gel and visualizing it with UV light, any band containing more than ~ 20 ng DNA becomes distinctly visible. EtBr is a known mutagen, and safer alternatives are available, such as GelRed, produced by Biotium, which binds to the minor groove.
SYBR Green I is another dsDNA stain, produced by Invitrogen. It is more expensive, but 25 times more sensitive, and possibly safer than EtBr, though there is no data addressing its mutagenicity or toxicity in humans.
SYBR Safe is a variant of SYBR Green that has been shown to have low enough levels of mutagenicity and toxicity to be deemed nonhazardous waste under U.S. Federal regulations. It has similar sensitivity levels to EtBr, but, like SYBR Green, is significantly more expensive. In countries where safe disposal of hazardous waste is mandatory, the costs of EtBr disposal can easily outstrip the initial price difference, however.
Since EtBr stained DNA is not visible in natural light, scientists mix DNA with negatively charged loading buffers before adding the mixture to the gel. Loading buffers are useful because they are visible in natural light (as opposed to UV light for EtBr stained DNA), and they co-sediment with DNA (meaning they move at the same speed as DNA of a certain length). Xylene cyanol and Bromophenol blue are common dyes found in loading buffers; they run about the same speed as DNA fragments that are 5000 bp and 300 bp in length respectively, but the precise position varies with percentage of the gel. Other less frequently used progress markers are Cresol Red and Orange G which run at about 125 bp and 50 bp, respectively.
Visualization can also be achieved by transferring DNA after SDS - PAGE to a nitrocellulose membrane followed by exposure to a hybridization probe. This process is termed Southern blotting.
For fluorescent dyes, after electrophoresis the gel is illuminated with an ultraviolet lamp (usually by placing it on a light box, while using protective gear to limit exposure to ultraviolet radiation). The illuminator apparatus mostly also contains imaging apparatus that takes an image of the gel, after illumination with UV radiation. The ethidium bromide fluoresces reddish - orange in the presence of DNA, since it has intercalated with the DNA. The DNA band can also be cut out of the gel, and can then be dissolved to retrieve the purified DNA. The gel can then be photographed usually with a digital or polaroid camera. Although the stained nucleic acid fluoresces reddish - orange, images are usually shown in black and white (see figures). UV damage to the DNA sample can reduce the efficiency of subsequent manipulation of the sample, such as ligation and cloning. Shorter wavelength UV radiations (302 or 312 nm) cause greater damage, for example exposure for as little as 45 seconds can significantly reduce transformation efficiency. Therefore if the DNA is to be use for downstream procedures, exposure to a shorter wavelength UV radiations should be limited, instead higher - wavelength UV radiation (365 nm) which cause less damage should be used. Higher wavelength radiations however produces weaker fluorescence, therefore if it is necessary to capture the gel image, a shorter wavelength UV light can be used a short time. Addition of Cytidine or guanosine to the electrophoresis buffer at 1 mM concentration may protect the DNA from damage. Alternatively, a blue light excitation source with a blue - excitable stain such as SYBR Green or GelGreen may be used.
Gel electrophoresis research often takes advantage of software - based image analysis tools, such as ImageJ.
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who paid for the new forth road bridge | Queensferry Crossing - Wikipedia
The Queensferry Crossing (formerly the Forth Replacement Crossing) is a road bridge in Scotland. It was built alongside the existing Forth Road Bridge and carries the M90 motorway across the Firth of Forth between Edinburgh, at South Queensferry, and Fife, at North Queensferry.
Proposals for a second Forth Road crossing were first put forward in the 1990s. But no action was taken until structural issues were discovered in 2004. In 2006 - 2007 Transport Scotland carried out a study to examine the options and in December 2007, the decision was made to proceed with a replacement bridge. The following year it was announced that the existing bridge would be retained as a public transport link. The Forth Crossing Act received Royal Assent in January 2011. In April 2011, the Forth Crossing Bridge Constructors Consortium were awarded the contact and constructed began in late Summer / Autumn of 2011.
The Queensferry Crossing is a three - tower cable - stayed bridge, with an overall length of 2.7 kilometres (1.7 miles). Around 4 kilometres (2.5 miles) of new connecting roads were built, including new and upgraded junctions at Ferrytoll in Fife, South Queensferry and Junction 1A on the M9.
The bridge was first due to be completed by December 2016, but this deadline was extended to August 2017 after several delays. It is the third bridge across the Forth at Queensferry, alongside the Forth Road Bridge completed in 1964, and the Forth Bridge completed in 1890. Following a public vote, it was formally named on 26 June 2013 and opened to traffic on 30 August 2017. The official opening was carried out on 4 September 2017 by Queen Elizabeth II, fifty - three years to the day after she opened the adjacent Forth Road Bridge.
A crossing route over the Forth had existed at the site since the eleventh century, when the queen of Scotland, Margaret, founded a free ferry to take pilgrims north to St Andrews. The site of the ferry crossing became the location of the Forth Road Bridge, which opened in 1964. Proposals for an additional road crossing at Queensferry were drawn up in the early 1990s, as part of the "Setting Forth '' consultation document prepared by the Scottish Office. The plans met stiff opposition from environmentalists and from the City of Edinburgh Council on the grounds of the increased traffic. Following the Labour victory in the 1997 general election, the proposals were shelved.
The existing bridge had a planned design life of 120 years, but by the early years of the 21st century the planned theoretical capacity for the bridge was being routinely exceeded. It was designed for up to 11 million vehicles per year, but this had risen steadily to 23 million vehicles in 2006. Between 2003 and 2005, an inspection programme found that the main suspension cables had suffered an estimated 8 -- 10 % loss of strength as a result of corrosion. Projections highlighted the likelihood of an accelerating loss of strength, with traffic restrictions to limit loading required in 2014 in the worst - case scenario.
The strategic transport importance of the road bridge -- and the threat of closure by 2019 if major structural work was not successful -- led to fears of serious economic consequences, especially as work on a new crossing was estimated to take up to 11 years. Scottish Transport Minister Nicol Stephen commissioned a new study, which priced a second Forth Road Bridge at £ 300 million, in 2003. The Forth Estuary Transport Authority voiced support for a new bridge in 2005, and in 2006 the UK Transport Secretary, Alistair Darling, spoke in favour of the idea.
In 2007, the Forth Replacement Crossing Study was commissioned by Transport Scotland to examine various options for new bridges or tunnels across the Forth. The report recommended adoption of a cable - stayed bridge, located to the west of the Forth Road Bridge, as the preferred solution. The study concluded that this option was significantly cheaper than a tunnel, would take less time to construct, and would represent better value for money, though it was noted that a tunnel would have fewer environmental impacts. In December 2007 finance secretary John Swinney announced that a new cable - stayed bridge would be constructed, with an estimated cost of between £ 3.25 billion and £ 4.22 billion. He claimed it would be "the largest construction project in a generation in Scotland ''.
There was opposition to the project on environmental, traffic and cost grounds. The ForthRight Alliance, an umbrella group including Friends of the Earth, the Scottish Green Party, the RSPB, sustainable transport groups and other local organisations, opposed the scheme as being "both unwelcome and unnecessary ''. Another group, Forth Tunnel Action Group, campaigned for a tunnel as the solution with lowest costs and fewest long - term environmental impacts.
It was initially suggested that the new bridge would be funded via the Scottish Futures Trust, an alternative to public - private partnership funding for major public - sector schemes. However, the Scottish Government announced in December 2008 that public funding would be used. As part of the Scottish Government 's Strategic Transport Projects Review, the new Forth crossing was priced at between £ 1.72 billion and £ 2.34 billion. Under the revised scheme, the existing bridge will be retained for public transport, cyclists and pedestrians, and the new bridge was to be operational by 2016.
A joint venture between consultancies Arup and Jacobs was appointed as project manager, and in February 2008 environmental and technical studies were begun, continuing through 2009. Public consultations were held, and some changes to the scheme were made in response to the comments received. An environmental statement was published in November 2009, coinciding with the introduction of the Forth Crossing Bill into the Scottish Parliament by John Swinney. A majority of MSPs voted in favour of the new legislation on 16 December 2010, and the Forth Crossing Act received Royal Assent in January 2011.
In 2009, Transport Scotland solicited for tenders to construct the proposed bridge. Although Transport Scotland received 39 expressions of interest, concerns over the risks associated with the fixed - price contract resulted in only two consortia of large construction companies bidding. Due to the bidders ' concerns that the bidding process itself would prove to be an expensive proposition, the Scottish Government allocated £ 10 million to defray the bidders ' costs during the full bidding process, should the project be abandoned.
The two consortia were Forthspan, which included Morgan Sindall, BAM Nuttall and Balfour Beatty; and Forth Crossing Bridge Constructors (FCBC), which consists of Dragados, Hochtief, American Bridge, and Morrison Construction. Bids for the main contract, priced at between £ 900m and £ 1.2 bn, and including design and construction of the bridge and approach roads, were submitted in January 2011. In March 2011 the Scottish Government announced FCBC as preferred bidder, with a bid of £ 790 million. Ramboll is leading the Design Joint Venture which includes Sweco and Leonhardt Andra and Partners.
In addition to the main contract, two smaller contracts form part of the scheme. The contract to implement the Intelligent Transport System (ITS) traffic management system in Fife was awarded to John Graham (Dromore) Ltd, with a tender of £ 12.9 million, while the upgrade of M9 Junction 1a was awarded to a joint venture between John Sisk and Roadbridge, with a tender of £ 25.6 million. As with the main contract, the tenders received were below the original estimated budgets. Naeem Hussain, Global Bridge Design Practice Leader at Arup, was the lead design engineer for the project.
Preparatory works for the new bridge began in September 2011 with works beginning at the southern end of the M90 to build the northern approach roads. 149 segments of bridge deck, each of which is 12 metres (39 ft) long and 40 metres (130 ft) wide, were constructed in China and Spain, then delivered by sea in October 2013. The approach steel bridge sections were manufactured by Cleveland Bridge UK in Darlington.
The towers reached 160 metres (525 ft) in height in August 2015, making it the UK 's tallest bridge. The completed towers stand at 207 metres (679 ft).
On 28 April 2016, one construction worker was killed and another injured in an accident involving a crane. Work on the bridge was halted to allow an investigation to take place.
The bridge was due to be completed by December 2016, but that date was put back to May 2017 due to weather delays slowing construction, with 25 days lost due to high winds during April and May 2016. An additional delay was announced in March 2017 again due to weather (more specifically, high winds) and an estimation period of six weeks in July / August 2017 was proposed.
The bridge opened on 30 August 2017 and formally opened by the Queen on 4 September 2017.
The new bridge is a cable - stayed structure, with three towers each 207 metres (679 ft) high. Including approaches, the overall length of the bridge is 2.7 kilometres (1.7 miles); at opening, it is the longest triple tower cable - stayed bridge in the world. The bridge carries motor - cycles, cars and heavy goods vehicles, while public transport, cyclists and pedestrians use the existing bridge. Wind shielding has been built into the design, to enable use of the bridge in high winds, which regularly led to restrictions on the existing bridge.
The bridge is the third crossing of the Forth at Queensferry, alongside the Forth Road Bridge, completed in 1964, and the Forth Bridge, a railway bridge completed in 1890. It is sited west of the road bridge, with the northern landfall at St Margaret 's Hope, between Rosyth Dockyard and North Queensferry and the southern landfall just west of Port Edgar in South Queensferry. The central tower was constructed on the Beamer Rock, a small islet in the Forth. The project was known as the Forth Replacement Crossing, and a name for the new bridge was selected in a public vote in 2013 after a panel of independent advisers provided a shortlist of possible names. A short - list of five names were selected, these were Caledonia Bridge, Firth of Forth Crossing, Queensferry Crossing, Saltire Crossing and St Margaret 's Crossing. A public vote was held up until 7 June 2013 and the Queensferry Crossing name received the most votes, with 12,039 (of 37,000) votes (32 %) in a public poll.
Several new and upgraded roads will connect the bridge into the existing road network with around 4 kilometres (2.5 miles) of new roads to be constructed. These new roads will join the M9 and M90 motorways together for the first time, with the Queensferry Crossing being built to motorway standard in order to carry the M90 across the Forth. The M90 motorway terminates at Admiralty Junction, around 3 kilometres (1.9 miles) north of the current Forth Road Bridge, with the road continuing as all - purpose dual carriageway across the existing bridge and joining the M9 via the M9 Spur.
Admiralty Junction, the present Junction 1 of the M90 motorway will be unaltered, with the exception of a bus lane to be added on the southbound carriageway. The junction will be renumbered to Junction 1C of the M90 when the Queensferry Crossing opens.
Ferrytoll Junction will be redesigned to give access to the new crossing and to maintain public transport access to the Forth Road Bridge. The design of the new junction requires the realignment of the B981 road to North Queensferry. Ferrytoll Junction will be numbered Junction 1B of the M90 following completion of the Queensferry Crossing.
The M90 will be extended west from the current bridge access at Ferry Muir, wrapping around South Queensferry to the southern landfall of the new crossing. A grade - separated junction will be built on the A904 just west of Echline, at the south - west edge. The existing access from the Forth Road Bridge to the A90 will remain open to public transport. South Queensferry Junction will become Junction 1A of the M90 when the Queensferry Crossing opens.
Junction 1a provides access from the M9 to the Forth Road Bridge via the M9 Spur. Originally, only east - facing connections were provided to the M9, forcing traffic heading west from the bridge onto the A904 through the village of Newton in West Lothian. The upgrade of the junction included new west - facing slip roads, enabling direct access onto the M9 from the Forth Road Bridge and the new crossing, as well as widening of the existing connections to assist the flow of traffic at peak times. The improvements were completed in February 2013 at a cost of £ 25.6 m. The M9 Spur will become the M90 upon completion of the Queensferry Crossing, the junction connecting the A90 coming from the Forth Road Bridge with the A90 towards Edinburgh city centre and the M9 Spur will be named the Scotstoun Junction and will be numbered as Junction 1 of the M90.
An "Intelligent transportation system '' (ITS) will be installed between Halbeath on the M90, and the M9, covering the whole scheme. The ITS is a Active traffic management, enabling variable speed restrictions and lane closures to be displayed on overhead gantries.
During routine archaeological excavations by Headland Archaeology in advance of work on the new bridge archaeological deposits from the Mesolithic were found on both sides of the Forth.
On the northern side two post built structures and their surrounding pits and were dated to the mid to late Mesolithic period.
On the south bank in a field at Echline the remnants of a sunken floor structure with in situ floor deposits was found. The structure, based around an oval pit approximately 7 metres (23 ft) in length, contained the remains of a hearth, stone tools, and bone from a variety of animals. Radio - carbon analysis returned a date of c. 8300, approximately 1000 years older than the northern site, making it the earliest known dwelling in Scotland. Additionally three isolated Neolithic pits and a Bronze Age pit group and pit alignment were identified.
http://www.raeng.org.uk/news/news-releases/2012/June/visionary-bridge-designer-naeem-hussain
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what are the indications for use of sulphonamides | Sulfonamide (medicine) - wikipedia
Sulfonamide (also called sulphonamide, sulfa drugs or sulpha drugs) is the basis of several groups of drugs. The original antibacterial sulfonamides are synthetic antimicrobial agents that contain the sulfonamide group. Some sulfonamides are also devoid of antibacterial activity, e.g., the anticonvulsant sultiame. The sulfonylureas and thiazide diuretics are newer drug groups based on the antibacterial sulfonamides.
Allergies to sulfonamide are common. According to data the overall incidence of adverse drug reactions to sulfa antibiotics is approximately 3 %, close to penicillin; hence medications containing sulfonamides are prescribed carefully. It is important to make a distinction between sulfa drugs and other sulfur - containing drugs and additives, such as sulfates and sulfites, which are chemically unrelated to the sulfonamide group, and do not cause the same hypersensitivity reactions seen in the sulfonamides.
In bacteria, antibacterial sulfonamides act as competitive inhibitors of the enzyme dihydropteroate synthase (DHPS), an enzyme involved in folate synthesis. Sulfonamides are therefore bacteriostatic and inhibit growth and multiplication of bacteria, but do not kill them. Humans, in contrast to bacteria, acquire folate (vitamin B) through the diet.
Sulfonamides are used to treat allergies and cough, as well as antifungal and antimalarial functions. The moiety is also present in other medications that are not antimicrobials, including thiazide diuretics (including hydrochlorothiazide, metolazone, and indapamide, among others), loop diuretics (including furosemide, bumetanide, and torsemide), acetazolamide, sulfonylureas (including glipizide, glyburide, among others), and some COX - 2 inhibitors (e.g., celecoxib).
Sulfasalazine, in addition to its use as an antibiotic, is also used in the treatment of inflammatory bowel disease.
Sulfonamide drugs were the first antibiotics to be used systemically, and paved the way for the antibiotic revolution in medicine. The first sulfonamide, trade - named Prontosil, was a prodrug. Experiments with Prontosil began in 1932 in the laboratories of Bayer AG, at that time a component of the huge German chemical trust IG Farben. The Bayer team believed that coal - tar dyes which are able to bind preferentially to bacteria and parasites might be used to attack harmful organisms in the body. After years of fruitless trial - and - error work on hundreds of dyes, a team led by physician / researcher Gerhard Domagk (working under the general direction of Farben executive Heinrich Hörlein) finally found one that worked: a red dye synthesized by Bayer chemist Josef Klarer that had remarkable effects on stopping some bacterial infections in mice. The first official communication about the breakthrough discovery was not published until 1935, more than two years after the drug was patented by Klarer and his research partner Fritz Mietzsch.
Prontosil, as Bayer named the new drug, was the first medicine ever discovered that could effectively treat a range of bacterial infections inside the body. It had a strong protective action against infections caused by streptococci, including blood infections, childbed fever, and erysipelas, and a lesser effect on infections caused by other cocci. However, it had no effect at all in the test tube, exerting its antibacterial action only in live animals. Later, it was discovered by Bovet, Federico Nitti and J. and Th. Jacques Tréfouël, a French research team led by Ernest Fourneau at the Pasteur Institute, that the drug was metabolized into two pieces inside the body, releasing from the inactive dye portion a smaller, colorless, active compound called sulfanilamide. The discovery helped establish the concept of "bioactivation '' and dashed the German corporation 's dreams of enormous profit; the active molecule sulfanilamide (or sulfa) had first been synthesized in 1906 and was widely used in the dye - making industry; its patent had since expired and the drug was available to anyone.
The result was a sulfa craze. For several years in the late 1930s, hundreds of manufacturers produced tens of thousands of tons of myriad forms of sulfa. This and nonexistent testing requirements led to the elixir sulfanilamide disaster in the fall of 1937, during which at least 100 people were poisoned with diethylene glycol. This led to the passage of the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act in 1938 in the United States. As the first and only effective antibiotic available in the years before penicillin, sulfa drugs continued to thrive through the early years of World War II. They are credited with saving the lives of tens of thousands of patients, including Franklin Delano Roosevelt Jr. (son of US President Franklin Delano Roosevelt) and Winston Churchill. Sulfa had a central role in preventing wound infections during the war. American soldiers were issued a first - aid kit containing sulfa pills and powder, and were told to sprinkle it on any open wound.
The sulfanilamide compound is more active in the protonated form. The drug has very low solubility and sometimes can crystallize in the kidneys, due to its first pK of around 10. This is a very painful experience, so patients are told to take the medication with copious amounts of water. Newer analogous compounds prevent this complication because they have a lower pK, around 5 -- 6, making them more likely to remain in a soluble form.
Many thousands of molecules containing the sulfanilamide structure have been created since its discovery (by one account, over 5,400 permutations by 1945), yielding improved formulations with greater effectiveness and less toxicity. Sulfa drugs are still widely used for conditions such as acne and urinary tract infections, and are receiving renewed interest for the treatment of infections caused by bacteria resistant to other antibiotics.
Sulfonamides are prepared by the reaction of a sulfonyl chloride with ammonia or an amine. Certain sulfonamides (sulfadiazine or sulfamethoxazole) are sometimes mixed with the drug trimethoprim, which acts against dihydrofolate reductase. As of 2013, the Republic of Ireland is the largest exporter worldwide of Sulfonamides, accounting for approximately 32 % of total exports.
Sulfonamides have the potential to cause a variety of untoward reactions, including urinary tract disorders, haemopoietic disorders, porphyria, and hypersensitivity reactions. When used in large doses, they may cause a strong allergic reaction. Two of the most serious are Stevens -- Johnson syndrome and toxic epidermal necrolysis (also known as Lyell syndrome).
Approximately 3 % of the general population have adverse reactions when treated with sulfonamide antimicrobials. Of note is the observation that patients with HIV have a much higher prevalence, at about 60 %.
Hypersensitivity reactions are less common in nonantibiotic sulfonamides, and, though controversial, the available evidence suggests those with hypersensitivity to sulfonamide antibiotics do not have an increased risk of hypersensitivity reaction to the nonantibiotic agents. A key component to the allergic response to sulfonamide antibiotics is the arylamine group at N4, found in sulfamethoxazole, sulfasalazine, sulfadiazine, and the anti-retrovirals amprenavir and fosamprenavir. Other sulfonamide drugs do not contain this arylamine group; available evidence suggests that patients who are allergic to arylamine sulfonamides do not cross-react to sulfonamides that lack the arylamine group, and may therefore safely take non-arylamine sulfonamides. It has therefore been argued that the terms ' sulfonamide allergy ' or ' sulfa allergy ' are misleading, and should be replaced by a reference to a specific drug (e.g. ' cotrimoxazole allergy ').
Two regions of the sulfonamide antibiotic chemical structure are implicated in the hypersensitivity reactions associated with the class.
The nonantibiotic sulfonamides lack both of these structures.
The most common manifestations of a hypersensitivity reaction to sulfa drugs are rash and hives. However, there are several life - threatening manifestations of hypersensitivity to sulfa drugs, including Stevens -- Johnson syndrome, toxic epidermal necrolysis, agranulocytosis, hemolytic anemia, thrombocytopenia, fulminant hepatic necrosis, and acute pancreatitis, among others.
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on the record off the record on background | Source (journalism) - wikipedia
In journalism, a source is a person, publication, or other record or document that gives timely information. Outside journalism, sources are sometimes known as "news sources ''. Examples of sources include official records, publications or broadcasts, officials in government or business, organizations or corporations, witnesses of crime, accidents or other events, and people involved with or affected by a news event or issue.
According to Shoemaker (1996) and McQuail (1994), there are a multitude of factors that tend to condition the acceptance of sources as bona fide by investigative journalists. Reporters are expected to develop and cultivate sources, especially if they regularly cover a specific topic, known as a "beat ''. Beat reporters must, however, be cautious of becoming too close to their sources. Reporters often, but not always, give greater leeway to sources with little experience. For example, sometimes a person will say they do n't want to talk, and then proceed to talk; if that person is not a public figure, reporters are less likely to use that information. Journalists are also encouraged to be skeptical without being cynical as per the saying "If your mother says she loves you, check it out. '' popularized by the City News Bureau of Chicago. As a rule of thumb, but especially when reporting on controversy, reporters are expected to use multiple sources.
Off - the - record material is often valuable and reporters may be eager to use it, so sources wishing to ensure the confidentiality of certain information are generally advised to discuss the "terms of use '' before actually disclosing the information, if possible. Some journalists and news organizations have policies against accepting information "off the record '' because they believe it interferes with their ability to report truthfully, or because they suspect it may be intended to mislead them or the public.
Even if they can not report certain information directly, journalists can use "off the record '' information to uncover related facts, or to find other sources that are willing to speak on the record. This is especially useful in investigative journalism. Information about a surprise event or breaking news, whether on or off the record, is known as a "tip - off ''. Information that leads to the uncovering of more interesting information is called a "lead ''.
The identity of anonymous sources is sometimes revealed to senior editors or a news organization 's lawyers, who would be considered bound by the same confidentiality. (Lawyers are generally protected from subpoena in these cases by attorney -- client privilege.) Legal staff may need to give counsel about whether it is advisable to publish certain information, or about court proceedings that may attempt to learn confidential information. Senior editors are in the loop to prevent reporters from fabricating non-existent anonymous sources and to provide a second opinion about how to use the information obtained, how or how not to identify sources, and whether other options should be pursued.
The use of anonymous sources has always been controversial. Some news outlets insist that anonymous sources are the only way to obtain certain information, while others hold strict prohibitions against the use of unnamed sources at all times. News organizations may impose safeguards, such as requiring that information from an anonymous source be corroborated by a second source before it can be printed.
Nonetheless, prominent reports based on anonymous sources have sometimes proven to be incorrect. For instance, much of the O.J. Simpson reporting from unnamed sources was later deemed inaccurate. Newsweek retracted a story about a Qur'an being flushed down a toilet that led to riots in the Middle East; the Qur'an desecration controversy of 2005 was based upon one unnamed military source. The Los Angeles Times retracted an article that implicated Sean "Diddy '' Combs in the beating of Tupac Shakur. The original article was based on documents and several unnamed sources. When reporting on the original story, the Associated Press noted that "(n) one of the sources was named ''.
After the embarrassment, a news organization will often "clamp down '' on the guidelines for using unnamed sources, but those guidelines are often forgotten after the scandal dies down. One study found that large newspapers ' use of anonymous sources dropped dramatically between 2003 and 2004. The Project for Excellence in Journalism, a research group found use of anonymous sources dropped from 29 percent of all articles in 2003 to just 7 percent in 2004.
Whether in a formal, sit - down interview setting or an impromptu meeting on the street, some sources request that all or part of the encounter not be captured in an audio or video recording ("tape ''), but continue speaking to the reporter. As long as the interview is not confidential, the reporter may report the information given by the source, even repeating direct quotes (perhaps scribbled on a notepad or recalled from memory). This often shows up in broadcasts as "John Brown declined to be interviewed on camera, but said '' or simply "a spokesperson said ''.
Some interview subjects are simply uncomfortable being recorded. Some are afraid that they will be inarticulate and make fools of themselves when the interview is broadcast. Others might be uncooperative or distrust the motives or competence of the journalist, and wish to prevent them from being able to broadcast an unflattering sound bite or part of the interview out of context. Professional public relations officers know that having the reporter repeat their words, rather than being on the air themselves, will blunt the impact of their words. The audience need not see or hear them being uncomfortable (if they have unpleasant news), and not being on air also allows them to be anonymous or identified only by title.
In journalism, attribution is the identification of the source of reported information. Journalists ' ethical codes normally address the issue of attribution, which is sensitive because in the course of their work journalists may receive information from sources who wish to remain anonymous. In investigative journalism important news stories often depend on such information. For example, the Watergate scandal that led to the downfall of U.S. president Richard Nixon was in part exposed by information revealed by an anonymous source ("Deep Throat '') to investigative reporters Bob Woodward and Carl Bernstein.
Divulging the identity of a confidential source is frowned upon by groups representing journalists in many democracies. In many countries, journalists enjoy the same protection under the law as all other citizens, and as such may be required to divulge their sources in the course of a criminal investigation as any other citizen would be. Even in jurisdictions which grant journalists special legal protections, journalists are typically required to testify if they bear witness to a crime.
Journalists defend the use of anonymous sources for a variety of reasons:
However, the use of anonymous sources is also criticized by some journalists and government officials:
There are several categories of "speaking terms '' (agreements concerning attribution) that cover information conveyed in conversations with journalists. In the UK the following conventions are generally accepted:
However, confusion over the precise meaning of "unattributable '' and "off - the - record '' has led to more detailed formulations:
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who played phil in phil of the future | Raviv Ullman - wikipedia
Raviv Ullman (Hebrew: רביב אולמן ; born January 24, 1986), is an Israeli - American actor and musician. He is best known for playing Phil Diffy, the main character in the Disney Channel series Phil of the Future. The actor was credited as Ricky Ullman from 1997 until 2006.
Ullman was born in Eilat, Israel, to American parents Laura (née Ehrenkranz), a teacher, and Brian Ullman, a printer. He has a younger sister and younger brother named Tali and Nadav, respectively. After his first birthday, his family left their kibbutz in Israel for Norwalk, Connecticut, USA, and then to Fairfield, Connecticut the following year. When Ullman was younger, his father worked as a clown. While attending summer camp, he played Peter Pan, which helped him discover his talents in acting, singing, dancing, and reading drama novels.
Ullman was raised in the Conservative and Orthodox denominations of Judaism. His maternal grandfather, Joseph Ehrenkranz, was an Orthodox rabbi in Stamford, Connecticut. Ullman is a first cousin, twice removed, of Connecticut Senator Joe Lieberman. Lieberman 's mother and Ullman 's matrilineal great - grandmother were sisters.
Ullman taught himself how to play the trombone. Ullman was selected to attend the Hugh O'Brian Youth Leadership Foundation (HOBY) youth leadership program of Connecticut in March 2002 where he was selected as the "outstanding ambassador '' enabling him to attend the HOBY World Leadership Congress in the summer of 2002. He went to Hillel Academy and is a graduate of Fairfield Warde High School. He was active in National Conference of Synagogue Youth.
Ullman 's first professional role was as Louis in the national touring company of The King and I along with Jesse McCartney. Other productions he worked on include Peter Pan at the Polka Dot Playhouse, The Music Man with the New England Repertory Company, and Just People at the Long Wharf Theatre. He received a 1998 -- 1999 Best Actor nomination from the Connecticut Critics ' Awards for his character Stanley in Stamford Theater Work 's A Rosen by Any Other Name. He had small roles in film and television shows, notably portraying Christopher Knight in the 2000 movie Growing Up Brady.
Ullman is best known for his starring role as Phil Diffy, a teen from the year 2121 on Disney Channel 's Phil of the Future, a series that debuted June 2004. He also starred as Roscoe in Disney 's made - for - television film Pixel Perfect. During this period, Ullman appeared in other Disney Channel programming like and was an identified member of the Disney Channel Circle of Stars, and appeared with other members of the Circle in the music video for "A Dream is a Wish Your Heart Makes, '' where he sang as well as played the drums.
In 2004, Ullman starred as Sam in ABC Family 's television film Searching for David 's Heart. He appeared in a string of independent films including The Big Bad Swim and Driftwood (2006), Normal Adolescent Behavior (2007), and Prom Wars (2008). During this period, he guest - starred in TV shows like Big Love and Law & Order: Special Victims Unit.
Ullman was cast as Kip in the Lifetime sitcom Rita Rocks, which premiered in 2009. His character was the drummer in the titular character 's band and her daughter 's boyfriend. The show was canceled after two seasons.
While Ullman previously went by the stage name Ricky, he started using his real name in 2006 when he guest - starred on an episode of House and continued to use Raviv on all projects since.
In June 2006, Ullman and a few of his friends created parody hip - hop music videos under the name the Webee Boys. In December 2006, Ullman met actor Douglas Smith of Big Love fame and together they formed a band called Goodbye Ian. The group expanded to as many as seven people and later changed its name to His Orchestra. Ullman plays drums and glockenspiel in the band, which released its debut album, Field Guide to the Wilds, on February 24, 2009.
After completing Rita Rocks in 2009, Ullman had some small roles in short films, television, and film but began to focus his career on theater acting, starring in Off - Broadway and regional theater productions.
From January 2012 to March 24, 2012, Ullman starred as the character Alex in the New Group 's production of Russian Transport Off - Broadway in New York. On April 30, 2012, it was announced that Ullman joined the cast of Alena Smith 's new Off - Broadway play The Bad Guys. It began performances on May 22 at the McGinn / Cazale Theater on the Upper West Side in New York City. In 2014, Ullman acted opposite of Holly Hunter and Richard Chamberlain in the first revival of Sticks and Bones. Sticks and Bones opened November 6, 2014 and closed December 14, 2014.
Ullman 's last professional acting credit was in 2015. However, he has acted since, starring in the 2017 benefit play Right Before I Go at The Town Hall.
Ullman is an accomplished musician and plays drums and guitar. He has worked as a touring musician, notably with Soko on her 2012 tour. Ullman was a member of the band Reputante, which released their 2013 debut on Julian Casablancas ' record label Cult Records. He departed the band sometime in 2015. With Reputante members James Levy and Jimmy Giannopoulos, Ullman helped form the band Lolawolf with actress Zoë Kravitz. They released their self - titled debut EP on February 4, 2014. He left Lolawolf before the release of their first full - length record, Come Down, in October 2014.
In October 2016, Ullman announced his project Standing Ground, a documentary that explores the Standing Rock Sioux Nation, the North Dakota Access Pipeline and the fossil fuels industry. Production of the film took place throughout 2017.
Ullman also directs music videos.
Ullman speaks fluent Hebrew and keeps a kosher kitchen. Ullman is an environmentalist and has called himself "a fourth generation activist ''. He works with TAP (Teens AIDS Prevention).
Ullman lives in Brooklyn, New York.
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asme boiler and pressure vessel code rules section viii division 1 | ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code - wikipedia
The ASME Boiler & Pressure Vessel Code (BPVC) is an American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) standard that regulates the design and construction of boilers and pressure vessels. The document is written and maintained by volunteers chosen for their technical expertise. The American Society of Mechanical Engineers works as an Accreditation Body and entitles independent third parties such as verification, testing and certification agencies to inspect and ensure compliance to the BPVC.
The BPVC was created in response to public outcry after several serious explosions in the state of Massachusetts. A fire - tube boiler exploded at the Grover Shoe Factory in Brockton, Massachusetts, on March 20, 1905, which resulted in the deaths of 58 people and injured 150. Then on December 6, 1906, a boiler in the factory of the P.J. Harney Shoe Company exploded in Lynn, Massachusetts. As a result, the state of Massachusetts enacted the first legal code based on ASME 's rules for the construction of steam boilers in 1907.
ASME convened the Board of Boiler Rules before it became the ASME Boiler Code Committee which was formed in 1911. This committee put in the form work for the first edition of the ASME Boiler Code - Rules for the Construction of Stationary Boilers and for the Allowable Working Pressures, which was issued in 1914 and published in 1915.
The first edition of the Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, known as the 1914 edition, was a single 114 - page volume. It developed over time into the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel code, which today has over 92,000 copies in use, in over 100 countries around the world. As of March 2011 the document consisted of 16,000 pages in 28 volumes.
After the first edition of the Code, the verifications that the manufacture was to the Code was performed by independent inspectors, which resulted in a wide range of interpretations. Hence in February 1919, the National Board of Boiler and Pressure Vessel Inspectors was formed.
LIST OF SECTIONS
ADDENDA
Addenda, which include additions and revisions to the individual Sections of the Code, are issued accordingly for a particular edition of the code up until the next edition. Addenda is no more in use since Code Edition 2013. It has been replaced by two years edition period.
INTERPRETATIONS
ASME 's interpretations to submitted technical queries relevant to a particular Section of the Code are issued accordingly. Interpretations are also available through the internet.
CODES CASES
Code Cases provide rules that permit the use of materials and alternative methods of construction that are not covered by existing BPVC rules. For those Cases that have been adopted will appear in the appropriate Code Cases book: "Boilers and Pressure Vessels '' and "Nuclear Components. ''
Codes Cases are usually intended to be incorporated in the Code in a later edition. When it is used, the Code Case specifies mandatory requirements which must be met as it would be with the Code. There are some jurisdictions that do not automatically accept Code Cases.
The section of the ASME BPVC consists of 4 parts.
Part A - Ferrous Material Specifications
This Part is a supplementary book referenced by other sections of the Code. It provides material specifications for ferrous materials which are suitable for use in the construction of pressure vessels.
The specifications contained in this Part specify the mechanical properties, heat treatment, heat and product chemical composition and analysis, test specimens, and methodologies of testing. The designation of the specifications start with ' SA ' and a number which is taken from the ASTM ' A ' specifications.
Part B - Nonferrous Material Specifications
This Part is a supplementary book referenced by other sections of the Code. It provides material specifications for nonferrous materials which are suitable for use in the construction of pressure vessels.
The specifications contained in this Part specify the mechanical properties, heat treatment, heat and product chemical composition and analysis, test specimens, and methodologies of testing. The designation of the specifications start with ' SB ' and a number which is taken from the ASTM ' B ' specifications.
Part C - Specifications for Welding Rods, Electrodes, and Filler Metals
This Part is a supplementary book referenced by other sections of the Code. It provides mechanical properties, heat treatment, heat and product chemical composition and analysis, test specimens, and methodologies of testing for welding rods, filler metals and electrodes used in the construction of pressure vessels.
The specifications contained in this Part are designated with ' SFA ' and a number which is taken from the American Welding Society (AWS) specifications.
Part D - Properties (Customary / Metric)
This Part is a supplementary book referenced by other sections of the Code. It provides tables for the design stress values, tensile and yield stress values as well as tables for material properties (Modulus of Elasticity, Coefficient of heat transfer et al.)
Section III of the ASME Code Address the rules for construction of nuclear facility components and supports. The components and supports covered by section III are intended to be installed in a nuclear power system that serves the purpose of producing and controlling the output of thermal energy from nuclear fuel and those associated systems essential to safety of nuclear power system. Section III provides requirements for new construction of nuclear power system considering mechanical and thermal stresses due to cyclic operation. Deterioration, which may occur in service as result of radiation effects, corrosion, or instability of the material, is typically not addressed.
The section of the ASME BPVC contains the requirements for nondestructive examinations which are referred and required by other sections of the Code.
The section also covers the suppliers examination responsibilities, requirements of the authorized inspectors (AI) as well as the requirements for the qualification of personnel, inspection and examinations.
The section of the ASME BPVC consists of 3 divisions.
This division covers the mandatory requirements, specific prohibitions and nonmandatory guidance for materials, design, fabrication, inspection and testing, markings and reports, overpressure protection and certification of pressure vessels having an internal or external pressure which exceeds 15 psi (100 kPa).
The pressure vessel can be either fired or unfired. The pressure may be from external sources, or by the application of heating from an indirect or direct source, or any combination thereof.
The Division is not numbered in the traditional method (Part 1, Part 2 etc.) but is structured with Subsections and Parts which consist of letters followed by a number. The structure is as follows:
This division covers the mandatory requirements, specific prohibitions and nonmandatory guidance for materials, design, fabrication, inspection and testing, markings and reports, overpressure protection and certification of pressure vessels having an internal or external pressure which exceeds 3000 psi (20700 kPa) but less than 10,000 psi.
The pressure vessel can be either fired or unfired. The pressure may be from external sources, or by the application of heating from an indirect or direct source as a result of a process, or any combination of the two.
The rules contained in this section can be used as an alternative to the minimum requirements specified in Division 1. Generally the Division 2 rules are more onerous than in Division 1 with respect to materials, design and nondestructive examinations but higher design stress intensity values are allowed. Division 2 has also provisions for the use of finite element analysis to determine expected stress in pressure equipment, in addition to the traditional approach of design by formula (Part 5: "Design by Analysis requirements '').
This division covers the mandatory requirements, specific prohibitions and nonmandatory guidance for materials, design, fabrication, inspection and testing, markings and reports, overpressure protection and certification of pressure vessels having an internal or external pressure which exceeds 10,000 psi (70,000 kPa) in India.
The pressure vessel can be either fired or unfired. The pressure may be from external sources, by the application of heating from an indirect or direct source, process reaction or any combination thereof.
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who does jackie end up with season 8 | That ' 70s show (season 8) - wikipedia
The eighth and final season of the American comedy television series That ' 70s Show premiered November 2, 2005 on Fox in the United States. The season ended on May 18, 2006 with an hour - long series finale. The eighth season was the only season without the show 's star Topher Grace who portrayed Eric Forman, the central character, since he left the series at the end of the previous season. Eric was often mentioned throughout the season, even being an important off - stage character central to an episode 's plot upon occasion. Topher Grace returned as Eric for the final episode, although his role was brief and uncredited.
This season also marked a major change in the series, as a new character was introduced to take Eric 's place named Randy Pearson (portrayed by new cast member Josh Meyers) and the departure of Michael Kelso, who was portrayed by Ashton Kutcher. Kutcher had quit the show at the end of season seven but remained on the series for five episodes during the eighth season. He appeared in the first four episodes to give closure to Kelso and he appeared again in the final episode titled "That ' 70s Finale ''. Also, Leo (Tommy Chong) returned as a main character since his return to the series in the seventh season (in a special guest role).
Many plots of the season involved Donna 's new relationship with Randy, Jackie falling in love with Fez, Hyde getting married to a stripper named Samantha, Kelso getting a new job and moving to Chicago, and the Formans adjusting to an empty nest which is too empty for Kitty and not empty enough for Red due to the kids ' presence despite Eric 's absence.
This season is set entirely in 1979, with the final seconds of the series being the final seconds of the decade. The very last seconds of the series show the license plate of Eric 's Vista Cruiser for the final time, now featuring a tag with the year "80 '' on it, signaling that the 1980s have begun.
All episodes of season 8, except the finale, are named after songs by Queen.
The region 1 DVD was released on April 1, 2008.
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who started the great fire of new york 1776 | Great fire of New York (1776) - wikipedia
The Great Fire of New York was a devastating fire that burned through the night of September 20, 1776, and into the morning of September 21, on the West Side of what then constituted New York City at the southern end of the island of Manhattan. It broke out in the early days of the military occupation of the city by British forces during the American Revolutionary War.
The fire destroyed about one third of the city, while some unaffected parts of the city were plundered. Many people believed or assumed that one or more people deliberately started the fire, for a variety of different reasons. British leaders accused revolutionaries acting within the city and state, and many residents assumed that one side or the other had started it. The fire had long - term effects on the British occupation of the city, which did not end until 1783.
The American Revolutionary War broke out in April 1775. The city of New York was already an important center of business but had not yet become a sprawling metropolis. It occupied only the lower portion of the island of Manhattan and had a population of approximately 25,000. Before the war began, the Province of New York was politically divided, with active Patriot organizations and a colonial assembly that was strongly Loyalist. After the battles of Lexington and Concord, Patriots seized control of the city and began arresting and expelling Loyalists.
Early in the summer of 1776, when the war was still in its early stages, British General William Howe embarked on a campaign to gain control of the city and its militarily important harbor. After occupying Staten Island in July, he launched a successful attack on Long Island in late August, assisted by naval forces under the command of his brother, Admiral Lord Richard Howe. American General George Washington recognized the inevitability of the capture of New York City, and withdrew the bulk of his army about 10 miles (16 km) north to Harlem Heights. Several people, including General Nathanael Greene and New York 's John Jay advocated burning the city down to deny its benefits to the British. Washington laid the question before the Second Continental Congress, which rejected the idea: "it should in no event be damaged. ''
On September 15, 1776, British forces under Howe landed on Manhattan. The next morning, some British troops marched toward Harlem, where the two armies clashed again, while others marched into the city.
A civilian exodus from the city had begun well before the British fleet arrived in the harbor. The arrival the previous February of the first Continental Army troops in the city had prompted some people to pack up and leave, including Loyalists who were specifically targeted by the army and Patriots. The capture of Long Island only accelerated the abandonment of the city. During the Continental Army 's occupation of the city, many abandoned buildings were appropriated for the army 's use. When the British arrived in the city, the property of Patriots was confiscated for the British army 's use. Despite this, housing and other demands of the military occupation significantly strained the city 's available building stock.
According to the eyewitness account of John Joseph Henry, an American prisoner aboard the HMS Pearl, the fire began in the Fighting Cocks Tavern, near Whitehall Slip. Abetted by dry weather and strong winds, the flames spread north and west, moving rapidly among tightly packed homes and businesses. Residents poured into the streets, clutching what possessions they could and found refuge on the grassy town commons (today, City Hall Park). The fire crossed Broadway near Beaver Street and then burned most of the city between Broadway and the Hudson River. The fire raged into the daylight hours and was stopped by changes in wind direction as much as by the actions of some of the citizenry and British marines sent, according to Henry, "in aid of the inhabitants. '' It may also have been stopped by the relatively undeveloped property of King 's College, located at the northern end of the fire - damaged area. Estimates for the number of buildings destroyed range from 400 to 1,000, representing between 10 and 25 percent of the 4,000 city buildings in existence at the time. Among the buildings destroyed was Trinity Church; St. Paul 's Chapel survived.
Howe 's report to London implied that the fire was deliberately set: "a most horrid attempt was made by a number of wretches to burn the town. '' Royal Governor William Tryon suspected that Washington was responsible, writing that "many circumstances lead to conjecture that Mr. Washington was privy to this villainous act '' and that "some officers of his army were found concealed in the city. '' Many Americans also assumed that the fire was the work of Patriot arsonists. John Joseph Henry recorded accounts of marines returning to the Pearl after fighting the fire in which men were "caught in the act of firing the houses. ''
Some Americans accused the British of setting the fire so that the city might be plundered. A Hessian major noted that some who fought the blaze managed to "pay themselves well by plundering other houses near by that were not on fire. ''
Washington wrote to John Hancock on September 22, specifically denying knowledge of the fire 's cause. In a letter to his cousin Lund, Washington wrote, "Providence -- or some good honest fellow, has done more for us than we were disposed to do for ourselves ''.
According to historian Barnet Schecter, no accusation of arson has withstood scrutiny. The strongest circumstantial evidence in favor of arson theories is the fact that the fire appeared to start in multiple places. However, contemporary accounts explain that burning debris from wooden roof shingles spread the fire. One diarist wrote that, "the flames were communicated to several houses '' by the debris "carried by the wind to some distance. ''
The British interrogated more than 200 suspects, but no charges were ever filed. Coincidentally, Nathan Hale, an American captain engaged in spying for Washington, was arrested in Queens the day the fire started. Rumors attempting to link him to the fires have never been substantiated; there is nothing indicating that he was arrested (and eventually hanged) for anything other than espionage.
Major General James Robertson confiscated surviving uninhabited homes of known Patriots and assigned them to British officers. Churches, other than the state churches (Church of England) were converted into prisons, infirmaries, or barracks. Some of the common soldiers were billeted with civilian families. There was a great influx of Loyalist refugees into the city resulting in further overcrowding, and many of these returning and additional Loyalists from Patriot - controlled areas encamped in squalid tent cities on the charred ruins. The fire convinced the British to put the city under martial law rather than returning it to civilian authorities. Crime and poor sanitation were persistent problems during the British occupation, which did not end until they evacuated the city on November 25, 1783.
Coordinates: 40 ° 42 ′ 24 '' N 74 ° 01 ′ 00 '' W / 40.706689 ° N 74.016623 ° W / 40.706689; - 74.016623 (Great Fire of New York)
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when did carnival start in trinidad and tobago | Trinidad and Tobago Carnival - wikipedia
The Trinidad and Tobago Carnival is an annual event held on the Monday and Tuesday before Ash Wednesday in Trinidad and Tobago. The event is well known for participants ' colorful costumes and exuberant celebrations. There are numerous cultural events such as "band launch fetes '' running in the lead up to the street parade on Carnival Monday and Tuesday. It is said that if the islanders are not celebrating it, then they are preparing for it, while reminiscing about the past year 's festival. Traditionally, the festival is associated with calypso music; however, recently Soca music has replaced calypso as the most celebrated type of music. Costumes (sometimes called "mas ''), stick - fighting and limbo competitions are also important components of the festival.
Carnival as it is celebrated in Trinidad and Tobago is also celebrated in cities worldwide. These including Toronto 's Caribana, Miami 's Miami Carnival, Houston Carifest, London 's Notting Hill Carnival, as well as New York City 's Labor Day Carnival.
The Cedula of Population of 1783 laid the foundation and growth of the population of Trinidad. The Spanish who were in possession of the island, contributed little towards advancements, with El Dorado the focus, Trinidad was perfect due to its geographical location. French planters with their slaves, free coloureds and mulattos from neighbouring islands of Martinique, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, Grenada, Guadeloupe, and Dominica migrated to the Trinidad during the French Revolution. The Spanish also gave many incentives to lure settlers to the island, including exemption from taxes for ten years and land grants in accordance to the terms set out in the Cedula. These new immigrants establishing local communities of Blanchisseuse, Champs Fleurs, Cascade, Carenage and Laventille. Trinidad 's population jumped to over 15,000 by the end of 1789, from just under 1,400 in 1777. In 1797, Trinidad became a British crown colony, with a French - speaking population. This exodus was encouraged due to the French Revolution.
Beginning in 1845, major influxes of indentured immigrants from India and other parts of the world dramatically changed the ethnic composition of the islands. These indentured servants brought their own folk music, primarily from Uttar Pradesh and Bihar, to the creole mix, resulting in chutney music. In addition to Indians, Syrians, Portuguese, Chinese and Africans came to the islands in waves between 1845 and 1917, and even after.
The Mas tradition started in the late 18th century with French plantation owners organizing masquerades (mas) and balls before enduring the fasting of Lent. The slaves, who could not take part in Carnival, formed their own, parallel celebration called "Canboulay ''. Canboulay (from the French cannes brulées, meaning burnt cane) is a precursor to Trinidad and Tobago Carnival, and has played an important role in the development of the music of Trinidad and Tobago.
Calypso music was developed in Trinidad in the 17th century from the West African Kaiso and canboulay music brought by African slaves imported to that Caribbean island to work on sugar plantations. These slaves, brought to toil on sugar plantations, were stripped of all connections to their homeland and family and not allowed to talk to each other. They used calypso to mock the slave masters and to communicate with each other. Many early calypsos were sung in French Creole by an individual called a griot. As calypso developed, the role of the griot became known as a chantuelle and eventually, calypsonian.
Steelpan
Stick fighting and African percussion music were banned in 1881, in response to the Canboulay Riots. They were replaced by bamboo "Bamboo - Tamboo '' sticks beaten together, which were themselves banned in turn. In 1937 they reappeared, transformed as an orchestra of frying pans, dustbin lids and oil drums. These steelpans (or pans) are now a major part of the Trinidadian music scene and are a popular section of the Canboulay music contests. In 1941, the United States Navy arrived on Trinidad, and the panmen, who were associated with lawlessness and violence, helped to popularize steel pan music among soldiers, which began its international popularization.
J'Ouvert
J'Ouvert (translated from French as "break of day ''), symbolizes the start of the official two days of Carnival. Beginning early Monday, revellers parade through town in the tradition of the Canboulay celebrations. Jouvay, as it is commonly known, features a variety of homemade or satirical costumes. Some participants even douse themselves in oil, mud and powder in stark contrast to the attractive and more formal costumes that are donned later in the day on Carnival Monday and on Tuesday.
The table shows a list of Trinidad and Tobago Carnival dates from 2009 to 2020.
Today musical competitions make up a large part of formal Carnival; groups and win large amount of money. To be named Calypso Monarch is one of the country 's greatest honours, the competition which is called Dimanche Gras is aired on television. Along with the honour comes an enormous trophy, a car, TT $2,000,000 (approx.) and possible endorsements and other contracts. Other prestigious titles are the King and Queen of the Bands; the International Soca Monarch (both Groovy and Power); the Carnival Road March; and Panorama (for steelpan). For the latter, the 2011 prize was TT $2 million. There are also other competitions that are involved in the Calypso Monarch.
Traditionally, musicians use drums, claves, and the steelpan, created in Trinidad and reported to be the only non-electrical instrument invented in the 20th century, that has been hammered down in different areas to create a wide range of different notes. A group of performers practise weeks in advance on these pans to compete.
Trinidad and Tobago is multicultural (Amerindian, European, African, Indian, Chinese and Middle Eastern), and all of its groups have contributed musical influences to the sounds of Carnival. These cultures have combined to create a music vastly different from that of Carnival in Spain, Venice, or New Orleans.
As with other Carnivals, many participants wear elaborate costumes, often decorated with feathers and sequins. Carnival bands are organized groups made up of participants who pay for costumes fashioned by a designer and assembled by teams of volunteers. The costumed participants dance through the streets to the sounds of a steel band, a soca band or a d.j. -- this is called "playing mas ' ''. A unique feature of this parade is that locals and tourists alike participate in the parade of bands. Each band is led by a King and Queen, who wear extremely large costumes, often requiring extensions and wheels to assist the masquerader to carry it through the streets. Each year on Dimanche Gras (Carnival Sunday), a competition is held to award the King and Queen of Carnival title to two of these masqueraders.
On Carnival Monday and Tuesday, the bands are in competition to win the Band of the Year title. Small monetary prizes are associated with these titles, though they do not cover the full amount of producing the band 's music or the King 's or Queen 's costumes. Participation occurs at all levels of society; three - time calypso monarch David Rudder described it as "from bourgeois to grassroots. '' Children participate from as early as parents can get them into costume; sometime even strollers are decorated.
Children can extend their fun by participating in smaller "Kiddies ' Carnival '' shows, competitions and parades as early as 4 weeks before the culmination of the festival. For weeks ahead, several preliminary rounds of competitions and parties (or fêtes) take place. As Carnival is part of the national curriculum, several programmes take place at schools across the country. Regional authorities handle smaller Carnival celebrations in smaller towns and villages.
Main Article: List of Trinidad Carnival Character Costumes
A few specific characters have evolved during the history of Trinidad and Tobago 's Carnival. Among these characters are:
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what songs did tommy james and the shondells sing | Tommy James and the Shondells - wikipedia
Tommy James and the Shondells are an American rock band, formed in Niles, Michigan in 1964. They had two No. 1 singles in the U.S., "Hanky Panky '' (July 1966, their only RIAA Certified Gold record) and "Crimson and Clover '' (February 1969), and also charted twelve other Top 40 hits, including five in the Hot 100 's top ten: "I Think We 're Alone Now '', "Mirage '', "Mony Mony '', "Sweet Cherry Wine '', and "Crystal Blue Persuasion ''.
The band The Echoes formed in 1959 in Niles, Michigan, then evolved into Tom and the Tornadoes, with 12 - year - old Tommy James (then known as Tommy Jackson) as lead singer. The group released its first single, "Long Pony Tail '', in 1962. In 1964 James renamed the band the Shondells because the name "sounded good '' and in honor of singer Troy Shondell, famous for his 1961 release "This Time. '' At this time, the band included Tommy James (vocals and guitar), Larry Coverdale (lead guitar), Larry Wright (bass), Craig Villeneuve (keyboards) and Jim Payne (drums). In February 1964 the band recorded the Jeff Barry -- Ellie Greenwich song "Hanky Panky '' (originally a B - side by the Raindrops). Released by Snap Records, a local label, James 's version sold respectably in Michigan, Indiana and Illinois, but Snap Records had no national distribution. The band toured the eastern Midwest, but no other market took to the song. The single failed to chart nationally, and the Shondells disbanded in 1965 after its members graduated from high school.
After first considering taking a job outside of music, James decided to form a new band, the Koachmen, with Shondells guitarist Larry Coverdale and members of a rival group called the Spinners (not the hit - making group from Detroit). The Koachmen played a circuit of clubs in the Midwest through the summer and fall of 1965 but returned to Niles in February 1966, after the gigs dried up, to plot their next move.
Meanwhile, in 1965, Pittsburgh dance promoter Bob Mack had unearthed the forgotten single "Hanky Panky '', playing it at various dance parties, and radio stations there touted it as an "exclusive ''. Listener response encouraged regular play, and demand soared. Bootleggers responded by printing 80,000 black market copies of the recording, which were sold in Pennsylvania stores.
James first learned of all this activity in April 1966 after getting a telephone call from Pittsburgh disc jockey "Mad Mike '' Metro to come and perform the song. James attempted to contact other members of the Shondells, but they had all moved away, joined the service or gotten married and left the music business altogether.
In April 1966, James went by himself to make promotional appearances for the Pittsburgh radio station in nightclubs and on local television. He recruited a quintet from Latrobe, Pennsylvania, at the Thunderbird Lounge in Greensburg called the Raconteurs -- Joe Kessler (guitar), Ron Rosman (keyboards), George Magura (saxophone), Mike Vale (bass), and Vinnie Pietropaoli (drums) -- as the new Shondells. "I had no group, and I had to put one together really fast, '' recalled James. "I was in a Greensburg, P.A. club one night, and I walked up to a group that was playing that I thought was pretty good and asked them if they wanted to be the Shondells. They said yes, and off we went. ''
With a touring group to promote the single, James went to New York City, where he sold the master of "Hanky Panky '' to Roulette Records, at which time he changed his last name to James. With national promotion, the single became a No. 1 hit in July 1966. Before long, Kessler and Pietropaoli were forced to leave after a dispute when planned monies were not paid to them by Roulette. They were replaced by Eddie Gray (guitar) and Peter Lucia (drums); Magura departed as well.
At first, Tommy James and His Shondells played straightforward rock and roll, but soon became involved in the budding bubblegum music movement. In early 1967 songwriter Ritchie Cordell gave them the No. 4 hit "I Think We 're Alone Now '' and the No. 10 hit "Mirage ''. In 1968, James had a No. 3 hit with "Mony Mony ''. Co-written by James, Cordell, Cordell 's writing partner Bo Gentry, and Bobby Bloom, "Mony Mony '' reached No. 3 in the US and was a British No. 1 in 1968. The title was inspired by a flashing sign for Mutual Of New York visible from James 's apartment balcony in New York. He followed it with the song "Do Something to Me ''. However, James was labeled as a bubblegum pop artist, which he hated. Therefore, he changed his style to psychedelic rock.
From late 1968, the group began writing their own songs, with James and Lucia penning the psychedelic tinged classic "Crimson and Clover ''. The song was recorded and mixed by Bruce Staple, with James tackling vocal duties and playing many of the instruments himself, and featured the creative use of studio effects such as delay and tremolo. The group had toured with Vice President Hubert Humphrey during his presidential campaign. Humphrey showed his appreciation by writing the liner notes for the Crimson and Clover album.
Further hits included "Sweet Cherry Wine '', "Crystal Blue Persuasion '', and "Ball of Fire '', all from 1969. They also produced "Sugar on Sunday '', later covered by the Clique. As the band embraced the sounds of psychedelia, they were invited to perform at the Woodstock concert but declined.
The group continued until 1970. At a concert in Birmingham, Alabama in March of that year, an exhausted James collapsed after coming off stage from a reaction to drugs and was actually pronounced dead. He recovered and decided to move to the country to rest and recuperate, and left the band. His four bandmates carried on for a short while under the name of "Hog Heaven '', releasing two albums, but disbanded soon afterwards.
In a 1970 side project, James wrote and produced the No. 7 hit single "Tighter, Tighter '' for the group Alive N Kickin '. James launched a solo career in 1970 that yielded two notable hits over a 10 - year span, "Draggin ' the Line '' (1971) and "Three Times in Love '' (1980).
During the 1980s, the group 's songbook produced major hits for three other artists: Joan Jett & The Blackhearts ' version of "Crimson And Clover '' (No. 7 in 1982), Tiffany 's "I Think We 're Alone Now '' and Billy Idol 's "Mony Mony '' (back - to - back No. 1 singles in November 1987). Other Shondells covers have been performed by acts as disparate as psychobilly ravers the Cramps, new wave singer Lene Lovich, country music veteran Dolly Parton and the Boston Pops orchestra.
In the mid-1980s, Tommy James began touring in oldies packages with other acts from the 1960s sometimes billed as Tommy James & the Shondells, although he is the group 's only original member. A Greenwich Village nightclub appearance was filmed and released as Tommy James & the Shondells: Live! At The Bitter End. On January 6, 1987, original drummer Peter P. Lucia Jr. died of a heart attack while playing golf at the age of 39.
In 2009 James and the surviving Shondells, Gray, Vale and Rosman, reunited to record music for a soundtrack of a proposed film based on James ' autobiography, Me, the Mob, and the Music, released in February 2010. The group still gets together from time to time for special video / TV events and nostalgia shows.
In March 2011 the Tommy James song "I 'm Alive '' (co-written with Peter Lucia) became a top 20 hit in the Netherlands for UK singer Don Fardon after his version had been used in a Vodafone commercial. The song originally appeared on the Crimson and Clover LP.
In 2012 "Crystal Blue Persuasion '' was used in the eighth episode of the fifth season of Breaking Bad, "Gliding Over All '', during a montage depicting the process involved to bring main character Walter White 's methamphetamine operation and its signature blue crystal meth to an international level.
In 2015 Gray, Vale and Rosman decided to reunite and form their new group, The Crystal Blue Band. They recruited their longtime friend and drummer Mike Wilps to replace the late Peter Lucia.
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what is a key difference between the senate and the house | United States Congress - wikipedia
535 voting members
The United States Congress is the bicameral legislature of the federal government of the United States consisting of two chambers: the Senate and the House of Representatives.
The Congress meets in the United States Capitol in Washington, D.C. Both senators and representatives are chosen through direct election, though vacancies in the Senate may be filled by a gubernatorial appointment. Congress has 535 voting members: 435 Representatives and 100 Senators. The House of Representatives has six non-voting members representing Puerto Rico, American Samoa, Guam, the Northern Mariana Islands, the U.S. Virgin Islands, and Washington, D.C. in addition to its 435 voting members. Although they can not vote, these members can sit on congressional committees and introduce legislation.
The members of the House of Representatives serve two - year terms representing the people of a single constituency, known as a "district ''. Congressional districts are apportioned to states by population using the United States Census results, provided that each state has at least one congressional representative. Each state, regardless of population or size, has two senators. Currently, there are 100 senators representing the 50 states. Each senator is elected at - large in their state for a six - year term, with terms staggered, so every two years approximately one - third of the Senate is up for election.
To be eligible for election, a candidate must be aged at least 25 (House) or 30 (Senate), have been a citizen of the United States for seven (House) or nine (Senate) years, and be an inhabitant of the state of which they represent.
The Congress was created by the Constitution of the United States and first met in 1789, replacing in its legislative function the Congress of the Confederation. Although not constitutionally mandated, in practice since the 19th century, Congress members are typically affiliated to the Republican Party or to the Democratic Party and only rarely to a third party or as independents.
Article One of the United States Constitution states, "All legislative Powers herein granted shall be vested in a Congress of the United States, which shall consist of a Senate and House of Representatives. '' The House and Senate are equal partners in the legislative process -- legislation can not be enacted without the consent of both chambers. However, the Constitution grants each chamber some unique powers. The Senate ratifies treaties and approves presidential appointments while the House initiates revenue - raising bills. The House initiates impeachment cases, while the Senate decides impeachment cases. A two - thirds vote of the Senate is required before an impeached person can be forcibly removed from office.
The term Congress can also refer to a particular meeting of the legislature. A Congress covers two years; the current one, the 115th Congress, began on January 3, 2017, and will end on January 3, 2019. The Congress starts and ends on the third day of January of every odd - numbered year. Members of the Senate are referred to as senators; members of the House of Representatives are referred to as representatives, congressmen, or congresswomen.
Scholar and representative Lee H. Hamilton asserted that the "historic mission of Congress has been to maintain freedom '' and insisted it was a "driving force in American government '' and a "remarkably resilient institution ''. Congress is the "heart and soul of our democracy '', according to this view, even though legislators rarely achieve the prestige or name recognition of presidents or Supreme Court justices; one wrote that "legislators remain ghosts in America 's historical imagination ''. One analyst argues that it is not a solely reactive institution but has played an active role in shaping government policy and is extraordinarily sensitive to public pressure. Several academics described Congress:
Congress reflects us in all our strengths and all our weaknesses. It reflects our regional idiosyncrasies, our ethnic, religious, and racial diversity, our multitude of professions, and our shadings of opinion on everything from the value of war to the war over values. Congress is the government 's most representative body... Congress is essentially charged with reconciling our many points of view on the great public policy issues of the day.
Congress is constantly changing and is constantly in flux. In recent times, the American south and west have gained House seats according to demographic changes recorded by the census and includes more minorities and women although both groups are still underrepresented, according to one view. While power balances among the different parts of government continue to change, the internal structure of Congress is important to understand along with its interactions with so - called intermediary institutions such as political parties, civic associations, interest groups, and the mass media.
The Congress of the United States serves two distinct purposes that overlap: local representation to the federal government of a congressional district by representatives and a state 's at - large representation to the federal government by senators.
Most incumbents seek re-election, and their historical likelihood of winning subsequent elections exceeds 90 percent.
The historical records of the House of Representatives and the Senate are maintained by the Center for Legislative Archives, which is a part of the National Archives and Records Administration.
Congress is directly responsible for the governing of the District of Columbia, the current seat of the federal government.
The First Continental Congress was a gathering of representatives from twelve of the thirteen British Colonies in North America. On July 4, 1776, the Second Continental Congress adopted the Declaration of Independence, referring to the new nation as the "United States of America ''. The Articles of Confederation in 1781 created the Congress of the Confederation, a unicameral body with equal representation among the states in which each state had a veto over most decisions. Congress had executive but not legislative authority, and the federal judiciary was confined to admiralty. and lacked authority to collect taxes, regulate commerce, or enforce laws.
Government powerlessness led to the Convention of 1787 which proposed a revised constitution with a two -- chamber or bicameral congress. Smaller states argued for equal representation for each state. The two - chamber structure had functioned well in state governments. A compromise plan was adopted with representatives chosen by population (benefiting larger states) and exactly two senators chosen by state governments (benefiting smaller states). The ratified constitution created a federal structure with two overlapping power centers so that each citizen as an individual was subjected to both the power of state government and the national government. To protect against abuse of power, each branch of government -- executive, legislative, and judicial -- had a separate sphere of authority and could check other branches according to the principle of the separation of powers. Furthermore, there were checks and balances within the legislature since there were two separate chambers. The new government became active in 1789.
Political scientist Julian E. Zelizer suggested there were four main congressional eras, with considerable overlap, and included the formative era (1780s -- 1820s), the partisan era (1830s -- 1900s), the committee era (1910s -- 1960s), and the contemporary era (1970s -- today).
Federalists and anti-federalists jostled for power in the early years as political parties became pronounced, surprising the Constitution 's Founding Fathers of the United States. With the passage of the Constitution and the Bill of Rights, the Anti-Federalist movement was exhausted. Some activists joined the Anti-Administration Party that James Madison and Thomas Jefferson were forming about 1790 -- 91 to oppose policies of Treasury Secretary Alexander Hamilton; it soon became the Democratic - Republican Party or the Jeffersonian Democrat Party and began the era of the First Party System. Thomas Jefferson 's election to the presidency marked a peaceful transition of power between the parties in 1800. John Marshall, 4th Chief Justice of the Supreme Court empowered the courts by establishing the principle of judicial review in law in the landmark case Marbury v. Madison in 1803, effectively giving the Supreme Court a power to nullify congressional legislation.
These years were marked by growth in the power of political parties. The watershed event was the Civil War which resolved the slavery issue and unified the nation under federal authority, but weakened the power of states rights. The Gilded Age (1877 -- 1901) was marked by Republican dominance of Congress. During this time, lobbying activity became more intense, particularly during the administration of President Ulysses S. Grant in which influential lobbies advocated for railroad subsidies and tariffs on wool. Immigration and high birth rates swelled the ranks of citizens and the nation grew at a rapid pace. The Progressive Era was characterized by strong party leadership in both houses of Congress as well as calls for reform; sometimes reformers would attack lobbyists as corrupting politics. The position of Speaker of the House became extremely powerful under leaders such as Thomas Reed in 1890 and Joseph Gurney Cannon. The Senate was effectively controlled by a half dozen men.
A system of seniority -- in which long - time Members of Congress gained more and more power -- encouraged politicians of both parties to serve for long terms. Committee chairmen remained influential in both houses until the reforms of the 1970s.
Important structural changes included the direct election of senators by popular election according to the Seventeenth Amendment, ratified in April 8, 1913, with positive effects (senators more sensitive to public opinion) and negative effects (undermining the authority of state governments). Supreme Court decisions based on the Constitution 's commerce clause expanded congressional power to regulate the economy. One effect of popular election of senators was to reduce the difference between the House and Senate in terms of their link to the electorate. Lame duck reforms according to the Twentieth Amendment ended the power of defeated and retiring members of Congress to wield influence despite their lack of accountability.
The Great Depression ushered in President Franklin Roosevelt and strong control by Democrats and historic New Deal policies. Roosevelt 's election in 1932 marked a shift in government power towards the executive branch. Numerous New Deal initiatives came from the White House rather than being initiated by Congress. The Democratic Party controlled both houses of Congress for many years. During this time, Republicans and conservative southern Democrats formed the Conservative Coalition. Democrats maintained control of Congress during World War II. Congress struggled with efficiency in the postwar era partly by reducing the number of standing congressional committees. Southern Democrats became a powerful force in many influential committees although political power alternated between Republicans and Democrats during these years. More complex issues required greater specialization and expertise, such as space flight and atomic energy policy. Senator Joseph McCarthy exploited the fear of communism and conducted televised hearings. In 1960, Democratic candidate John F. Kennedy narrowly won the presidency and power shifted again to the Democrats who dominated both houses of Congress until 1994.
Congress enacted Johnson 's Great Society program to fight poverty and hunger. The Watergate Scandal had a powerful effect of waking up a somewhat dormant Congress which investigated presidential wrongdoing and coverups; the scandal "substantially reshaped '' relations between the branches of government, suggested political scientist Bruce J. Schulman. Partisanship returned, particularly after 1994; one analyst attributes partisan infighting to slim congressional majorities which discouraged friendly social gatherings in meeting rooms such as the Board of Education. Congress began reasserting its authority. Lobbying became a big factor despite the 1971 Federal Election Campaign Act. Political action committees or PACs could make substantive donations to congressional candidates via such means as soft money contributions. While soft money funds were not given to specific campaigns for candidates, the money often benefited candidates substantially in an indirect way and helped reelect candidates. Reforms such as the 2002 McCain - Feingold act limited campaign donations but did not limit soft money contributions. One source suggests post-Watergate laws amended in 1974 meant to reduce the "influence of wealthy contributors and end payoffs '' instead "legitimized PACs '' since they "enabled individuals to band together in support of candidates ''. From 1974 to 1984, PACs grew from 608 to 3,803 and donations leaped from $12.5 million to $120 million along with concern over PAC influence in Congress. In 2009, there were 4,600 business, labor and special - interest PACs including ones for lawyers, electricians, and real estate brokers. From 2007 to 2008, 175 members of Congress received "half or more of their campaign cash '' from PACs.
From 1970 to 2009, the House expanded delegates, along with their powers and privileges representing U.S. citizens in non-state areas, beginning with representation on committees for Puerto Rico 's Resident Commissioner in 1970. In 1971, a delegate for the District of Columbia was authorized, and in 1972 new delegate positions were established for U.S. Virgin Islands and Guam. 1978 saw an additional delegate for American Samoa, and another for the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands began in 2009. These six Members of Congress enjoy floor privileges to introduce bills and resolutions, and in recent congresses they vote in permanent and select committees, in party caucuses and in joint conferences with the Senate. They have Capitol Hill offices, staff and two annual appointments to each of the four military academies. While their votes are constitutional when Congress authorizes their House Committee of the Whole votes, recent Congresses have not allowed for that, and they can not vote when the House is meeting as the House of Representatives.
In the late 20th century, the media became more important in Congress 's work. Analyst Michael Schudson suggested that greater publicity undermined the power of political parties and caused "more roads to open up in Congress for individual representatives to influence decisions ''. Norman Ornstein suggested that media prominence led to a greater emphasis on the negative and sensational side of Congress, and referred to this as the tabloidization of media coverage. Others saw pressure to squeeze a political position into a thirty - second soundbite. A report characterized Congress in 2013 as being unproductive, gridlocked, and "setting records for futility ''. In October 2013, with Congress unable to compromise, the government was shut down for several weeks and risked a serious default on debt payments, causing 60 % of the public to say they would "fire every member of Congress '' including their own representative. One report suggested Congress posed the "biggest risk to the US economy '' because of its brinksmanship, "down - to - the - wire budget and debt crises '' and "indiscriminate spending cuts '', resulting in slowed economic activity and keeping up to two million people unemployed. There has been increasing public dissatisfaction with Congress, with extremely low approval ratings which dropped to 5 % in October 2013.
Article I of the Constitution creates and sets forth the structure and most of the powers of Congress. Sections One through Six describe how Congress is elected and gives each House the power to create its own structure. Section Seven lays out the process for creating laws, and Section Eight enumerates numerous powers. Section Nine is a list of powers Congress does not have, and Section Ten enumerates powers of the state, some of which may only be granted by Congress. Constitutional amendments have granted Congress additional powers. Congress also has implied powers derived from the Constitution 's Necessary and Proper Clause.
Congress has authority over financial and budgetary policy through the enumerated power to "lay and collect Taxes, Duties, Imposts and Excises, to pay the Debts and provide for the common Defence and general Welfare of the United States ''. There is vast authority over budgets, although analyst Eric Patashnik suggested that much of Congress 's power to manage the budget has been lost when the welfare state expanded since "entitlements were institutionally detached from Congress 's ordinary legislative routine and rhythm ''. Another factor leading to less control over the budget was a Keynesian belief that balanced budgets were unnecessary.
The Sixteenth Amendment in 1913 extended congressional power of taxation to include income taxes without apportionment among the several States, and without regard to any census or enumeration. The Constitution also grants Congress the exclusive power to appropriate funds, and this power of the purse is one of Congress 's primary checks on the executive branch. Congress can borrow money on the credit of the United States, regulate commerce with foreign nations and among the states, and coin money. Generally, both the Senate and the House of Representatives have equal legislative authority, although only the House may originate revenue and appropriation bills.
Congress has an important role in national defense, including the exclusive power to declare war, to raise and maintain the armed forces, and to make rules for the military. Some critics charge that the executive branch has usurped Congress 's constitutionally defined task of declaring war. While historically presidents initiated the process for going to war, they asked for and received formal war declarations from Congress for the War of 1812, the Mexican -- American War, the Spanish -- American War, World War I, and World War II, although President Theodore Roosevelt 's military move into Panama in 1903 did not get congressional approval. In the early days after the North Korean invasion of 1950, President Truman described the American response as a "police action ''. According to Time magazine in 1970, "U.S. presidents (had) ordered troops into position or action without a formal congressional declaration a total of 149 times. '' In 1993, Michael Kinsley wrote that "Congress 's war power has become the most flagrantly disregarded provision in the Constitution, '' and that the "real erosion (of Congress 's war power) began after World War II. '' Disagreement about the extent of congressional versus presidential power regarding war has been present periodically throughout the nation 's history. ''
Congress can establish post offices and post roads, issue patents and copyrights, fix standards of weights and measures, establish Courts inferior to the Supreme Court, and "make all Laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying into Execution the foregoing Powers, and all other Powers vested by this Constitution in the Government of the United States, or in any Department or Officer thereof. '' Article Four gives Congress the power to admit new states into the Union.
One of Congress 's foremost non-legislative functions is the power to investigate and oversee the executive branch. Congressional oversight is usually delegated to committees and is facilitated by Congress 's subpoena power. Some critics have charged that Congress has in some instances failed to do an adequate job of overseeing the other branches of government. In the Plame affair, critics including Representative Henry A. Waxman charged that Congress was not doing an adequate job of oversight in this case. There have been concerns about congressional oversight of executive actions such as warrantless wiretapping, although others respond that Congress did investigate the legality of presidential decisions. Political scientists Ornstein and Mann suggested that oversight functions do not help members of Congress win reelection. Congress also has the exclusive power of removal, allowing impeachment and removal of the president, federal judges and other federal officers. There have been charges that presidents acting under the doctrine of the unitary executive have assumed important legislative and budgetary powers that should belong to Congress. So - called signing statements are one way in which a president can "tip the balance of power between Congress and the White House a little more in favor of the executive branch, '' according to one account. Past presidents, including Ronald Reagan, George H.W. Bush, Bill Clinton, and George W. Bush have made public statements when signing congressional legislation about how they understand a bill or plan to execute it, and commentators including the American Bar Association have described this practice as against the spirit of the Constitution. There have been concerns that presidential authority to cope with financial crises is eclipsing the power of Congress. In 2008, George F. Will called the Capitol building a "tomb for the antiquated idea that the legislative branch matters. ''
The Constitution enumerates the powers of Congress in detail. In addition, other congressional powers have been granted, or confirmed, by constitutional amendments. The Thirteenth (1865), Fourteenth (1868), and Fifteenth Amendments (1870) gave Congress authority to enact legislation to enforce rights of African Americans, including voting rights, due process, and equal protection under the law. Generally militia forces are controlled by state governments, not Congress.
Congress also has implied powers deriving from the Constitution 's Necessary and Proper Clause which permit Congress to "make all Laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying into Execution the foregoing Powers, and all other Powers vested by this Constitution in the Government of the United States, or in any Department or Officer thereof. '' Broad interpretations of this clause and of the Commerce Clause, the enumerated power to regulate commerce, in rulings such as McCulloch v Maryland, have effectively widened the scope of Congress 's legislative authority far beyond that prescribed in Section 8.
Constitutional responsibility for the oversight of Washington, D.C., the federal district and national capital and the U.S. territories of Guam, American Samoa, Puerto Rico, the U.S. Virgin Islands, and the Northern Mariana Islands rests with Congress. The republican form of government in territories is devolved by Congressional statute to the respective territories including direct election of governors, the D.C. mayor and locally elective territorial legislatures.
Each territory and Washington, D.C. elect a non-voting delegate to the U.S. House of Representatives as they have throughout Congressional history. They "possess the same powers as other members of the House, except that they may not vote when the House is meeting as the House of Representatives. '' They are assigned offices and allowances for staff, participate in debate, and appoint constituents to the four military service academies for the Army, Navy, Air Force and Coast Guard.
Washington, D.C. citizens alone among U.S. territories have the right to directly vote for the President of the United States, although the Democratic and Republican political parties nominate their presidential candidates at national conventions which include delegates from the five major territories.
Representative Lee H. Hamilton explained how Congress functions within the federal government:
To me the key to understanding it is balance. The founders went to great lengths to balance institutions against each other -- balancing powers among the three branches: Congress, the president, and the Supreme Court; between the House of Representatives and the Senate; between the federal government and the states; among states of different sizes and regions with different interests; between the powers of government and the rights of citizens, as spelled out in the Bill of Rights... No one part of government dominates the other.
The Constitution provides checks and balances among the three branches of the federal government. Its authors expected the greater power to lie with Congress as described in Article One.
The influence of Congress on the presidency has varied from period to period depending on factors such as congressional leadership, presidential political influence, historical circumstances such as war, and individual initiative by members of Congress. The impeachment of Andrew Johnson made the presidency less powerful than Congress for a considerable period afterwards. The 20th and 21st centuries have seen the rise of presidential power under politicians such as Theodore Roosevelt, Woodrow Wilson, Franklin D. Roosevelt, Richard Nixon, Ronald Reagan, and George W. Bush. However, in recent years, Congress has restricted presidential power with laws such as the Congressional Budget and Impoundment Control Act of 1974 and the War Powers Resolution. Nevertheless, the Presidency remains considerably more powerful today than during the 19th century. Executive branch officials are often loath to reveal sensitive information to members of Congress because of concern that information could not be kept secret; in return, knowing they may be in the dark about executive branch activity, congressional officials are more likely to distrust their counterparts in executive agencies. Many government actions require fast coordinated effort by many agencies, and this is a task that Congress is ill - suited for. Congress is slow, open, divided, and not well matched to handle more rapid executive action or do a good job of overseeing such activity, according to one analysis.
The Constitution concentrates removal powers in the Congress by empowering and obligating the House of Representatives to impeach both executive and judicial officials for "Treason, Bribery, or other high Crimes and Misdemeanors. '' Impeachment is a formal accusation of unlawful activity by a civil officer or government official. The Senate is constitutionally empowered and obligated to try all impeachments. A simple majority in the House is required to impeach an official; however, a two - thirds majority in the Senate is required for conviction. A convicted official is automatically removed from office; in addition, the Senate may stipulate that the defendant be banned from holding office in the future. Impeachment proceedings may not inflict more than this; however, a convicted party may face criminal penalties in a normal court of law. In the history of the United States, the House of Representatives has impeached sixteen officials, of whom seven were convicted. Another resigned before the Senate could complete the trial. Only two presidents have ever been impeached: Andrew Johnson in 1868 and Bill Clinton in 1999. Both trials ended in acquittal; in Johnson 's case, the Senate fell one vote short of the two - thirds majority required for conviction. In 1974, Richard Nixon resigned from office after impeachment proceedings in the House Judiciary Committee indicated he would eventually be removed from office.
The Senate has an important check on the executive power by confirming Cabinet officials, judges, and other high officers "by and with the Advice and Consent of the Senate. '' It confirms most presidential nominees but rejections are not uncommon. Furthermore, treaties negotiated by the President must be ratified by a two - thirds majority vote in the Senate to take effect. As a result, presidential arm - twisting of senators can happen before a key vote; for example, President Obama 's secretary of state, Hillary Clinton, urged her former senate colleagues to approve a nuclear arms treaty with Russia in 2010. The House of Representatives has no formal role in either the ratification of treaties or the appointment of federal officials, other than in filling a vacancy in the office of the vice president; in such a case, a majority vote in each House is required to confirm a president 's nomination of a vice president.
In 1803, the Supreme Court established judicial review of federal legislation in Marbury v. Madison, holding, however, that Congress could not grant unconstitutional power to the Court itself. The Constitution does not explicitly state that the courts may exercise judicial review; however, the notion that courts could declare laws unconstitutional was envisioned by the founding fathers. Alexander Hamilton, for example, mentioned and expounded upon the doctrine in Federalist No. 78. Originalists on the Supreme Court have argued that if the constitution does not say something explicitly it is unconstitutional to infer what it should, might or could have said. Judicial review means that the Supreme Court can nullify a congressional law. It is a huge check by the courts on the legislative authority and limits congressional power substantially. In 1857, for example, the Supreme Court struck down provisions of a congressional act of 1820 in its Dred Scott decision. At the same time, the Supreme Court can extend congressional power through its constitutional interpretations.
Investigations are conducted to gather information on the need for future legislation, to test the effectiveness of laws already passed, and to inquire into the qualifications and performance of members and officials of the other branches. Committees may hold hearings, and, if necessary, compel individuals to testify when investigating issues over which it has the power to legislate by issuing subpoenas. Witnesses who refuse to testify may be cited for contempt of Congress, and those who testify falsely may be charged with perjury. Most committee hearings are open to the public (the House and Senate intelligence committees are the exception); important hearings are widely reported in the mass media and transcripts published a few months afterwards. Congress, in the course of studying possible laws and investigating matters, generates an incredible amount of information in various forms, and can be described as a publisher. Indeed, it publishes House and Senate reports and maintains databases which are updated irregularly with publications in a variety of electronic formats.
Congress also plays a role in presidential elections. Both Houses meet in joint session on the sixth day of January following a presidential election to count the electoral votes, and there are procedures to follow if no candidate wins a majority.
The main result of congressional activity is the creation of laws, most of which are contained in the United States Code, arranged by subject matter alphabetically under fifty title headings to present the laws "in a concise and usable form ''.
Congress is split into two chambers -- House and Senate -- and manages the task of writing national legislation by dividing work into separate committees which specialize in different areas. Some members of Congress are elected by their peers to be officers of these committees. Further, Congress has ancillary organizations such as the Government Accountability Office and the Library of Congress to help provide it with information, and members of Congress have staff and offices to assist them as well. In addition, a vast industry of lobbyists helps members write legislation on behalf of diverse corporate and labor interests.
The committee structure permits members of Congress to study a particular subject intensely. It is neither expected nor possible that a member be an expert on all subject areas before Congress. As time goes by, members develop expertise in particular subjects and their legal aspects. Committees investigate specialized subjects and advise the entire Congress about choices and trade - offs. The choice of specialty may be influenced by the member 's constituency, important regional issues, prior background and experience. Senators often choose a different specialty from that of the other senator from their state to prevent overlap. Some committees specialize in running the business of other committees and exert a powerful influence over all legislation; for example, the House Ways and Means Committee has considerable influence over House affairs.
Committees write legislation. While procedures such as the House discharge petition process can introduce bills to the House floor and effectively bypass committee input, they are exceedingly difficult to implement without committee action. Committees have power and have been called independent fiefdoms. Legislative, oversight, and internal administrative tasks are divided among about two hundred committees and subcommittees which gather information, evaluate alternatives, and identify problems. They propose solutions for consideration by the full chamber. In addition, they perform the function of oversight by monitoring the executive branch and investigating wrongdoing.
At the start of each two - year session the House elects a speaker who does not normally preside over debates but serves as the majority party 's leader. In the Senate, the Vice President is the ex officio president of the Senate. In addition, the Senate elects an officer called the President pro tempore. Pro tempore means for the time being and this office is usually held by the most senior member of the Senate 's majority party and customarily keeps this position until there 's a change in party control. Accordingly, the Senate does not necessarily elect a new president pro tempore at the beginning of a new Congress. In both the House and Senate, the actual presiding officer is generally a junior member of the majority party who is appointed so that new members become acquainted with the rules of the chamber.
The Library of Congress was established by an act of Congress in 1800. It is primarily housed in three buildings on Capitol Hill, but also includes several other sites: the National Library Service for the Blind and Physically Handicapped in Washington, D.C.; the National Audio - Visual Conservation Center in Culpeper, Virginia; a large book storage facility located at Ft. Meade, Maryland; and multiple overseas offices. The Library had mostly law books when it was burned by a British raiding party during the War of 1812, but the library 's collections were restored and expanded when Congress authorized the purchase of Thomas Jefferson 's private library. One of the Library 's missions is to serve the Congress and its staff as well as the American public. It is the largest library in the world with nearly 150 million items including books, films, maps, photographs, music, manuscripts, graphics, and materials in 470 languages.
The Congressional Research Service provides detailed, up - to - date and non-partisan research for senators, representatives, and their staff to help them carry out their official duties. It provides ideas for legislation, helps members analyze a bill, facilitates public hearings, makes reports, consults on matters such as parliamentary procedure, and helps the two chambers resolve disagreements. It has been called the "House 's think tank '' and has a staff of about 900 employees.
The Congressional Budget Office or CBO is a federal agency which provides economic data to Congress.
It was created as an independent nonpartisan agency by the Congressional Budget and Impoundment Control Act of 1974. It helps Congress estimate revenue inflows from taxes and helps the budgeting process. It makes projections about such matters as the national debt as well as likely costs of legislation. It prepares an annual Economic and Budget Outlook with a mid-year update and writes An Analysis of the President 's Budgetary Proposals for the Senate 's Appropriations Committee. The Speaker of the House and the Senate 's President pro tempore jointly appoint the CBO Director for a four - year term.
Lobbyists represent diverse interests and often seek to influence congressional decisions to reflect their clients ' needs. Lobby groups and their members sometimes write legislation and whip bills. In 2007 there were approximately 17,000 federal lobbyists in Washington. They explain to legislators the goals of their organizations. Some lobbyists represent non-profit organizations and work pro bono for issues in which they are personally interested.
Congress has alternated between periods of constructive cooperation and compromise between parties known as bipartisanship and periods of deep political polarization and fierce infighting known as partisanship. The period after the Civil War was marked by partisanship as is the case today. It is generally easier for committees to reach accord on issues when compromise is possible. Some political scientists speculate that a prolonged period marked by narrow majorities in both chambers of Congress has intensified partisanship in the last few decades but that an alternation of control of Congress between Democrats and Republicans may lead to greater flexibility in policies as well as pragmatism and civility within the institution.
A term of Congress is divided into two "sessions '', one for each year; Congress has occasionally been called into an extra or special session. A new session commences on January 3 each year unless Congress decides differently. The Constitution requires Congress meet at least once each year and forbids either house from meeting outside the Capitol without the consent of the other house.
Joint Sessions of the United States Congress occur on special occasions that require a concurrent resolution from both House and Senate. These sessions include counting electoral votes after a presidential election and the president 's State of the Union address. The constitutionally - mandated report, normally given as an annual speech, is modeled on Britain 's Speech from the Throne, was written by most presidents after Jefferson but personally delivered as a spoken oration beginning with Wilson in 1913. Joint Sessions and Joint Meetings are traditionally presided over by the Speaker of the House except when counting presidential electoral votes when the Vice President (acting as the President of the Senate) presides.
Ideas for legislation can come from members, lobbyists, state legislatures, constituents, legislative counsel, or executive agencies. Anyone can write a bill, but only members of Congress may introduce bills. Most bills are not written by Congress members, but originate from the Executive branch; interest groups often draft bills as well. The usual next step is for the proposal to be passed to a committee for review. A proposal is usually in one of these forms:
Representatives introduce a bill while the House is in session by placing it in the hopper on the Clerk 's desk. It 's assigned a number and referred to a committee which studies each bill intensely at this stage. Drafting statutes requires "great skill, knowledge, and experience '' and sometimes take a year or more. Sometimes lobbyists write legislation and submit it to a member for introduction. Joint resolutions are the normal way to propose a constitutional amendment or declare war. On the other hand, concurrent resolutions (passed by both houses) and simple resolutions (passed by only one house) do not have the force of law but express the opinion of Congress or regulate procedure. Bills may be introduced by any member of either house. However, the Constitution states, "All Bills for raising Revenue shall originate in the House of Representatives. '' While the Senate can not originate revenue and appropriation bills, it has power to amend or reject them. Congress has sought ways to establish appropriate spending levels.
Each chamber determines its own internal rules of operation unless specified in the Constitution or prescribed by law. In the House, a Rules Committee guides legislation; in the Senate, a Standing Rules committee is in charge. Each branch has its own traditions; for example, the Senate relies heavily on the practice of getting "unanimous consent '' for noncontroversial matters. House and Senate rules can be complex, sometimes requiring a hundred specific steps before becoming a law. Members sometimes use experts such as Walter Oleszek, a senior specialist in American national government at the Congressional Research Service, to learn about proper procedures.
Each bill goes through several stages in each house including consideration by a committee and advice from the Government Accountability Office. Most legislation is considered by standing committees which have jurisdiction over a particular subject such as Agriculture or Appropriations. The House has twenty standing committees; the Senate has sixteen. Standing committees meet at least once each month. Almost all standing committee meetings for transacting business must be open to the public unless the committee votes, publicly, to close the meeting. A committee might call for public hearings on important bills. Each committee is led by a chair who belongs to the majority party and a ranking member of the minority party. Witnesses and experts can present their case for or against a bill. Then, a bill may go to what 's called a mark - up session where committee members debate the bill 's merits and may offer amendments or revisions. Committees may also amend the bill, but the full house holds the power to accept or reject committee amendments. After debate, the committee votes whether it wishes to report the measure to the full house. If a bill is tabled then it is rejected. If amendments are extensive, sometimes a new bill with amendments built in will be submitted as a so - called clean bill with a new number. Both houses have procedures under which committees can be bypassed or overruled but they are rarely used. Generally, members who have been in Congress longer have greater seniority and therefore greater power.
A bill which reaches the floor of the full house can be simple or complex and begins with an enacting formula such as "Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America in Congress assembled. '' Consideration of a bill requires, itself, a rule which is a simple resolution specifying the particulars of debate -- time limits, possibility of further amendments, and such. Each side has equal time and members can yield to other members who wish to speak. Sometimes opponents seek to recommit a bill which means to change part of it. Generally, discussion requires a quorum, usually half of the total number of representatives, before discussion can begin, although there are exceptions. The house may debate and amend the bill; the precise procedures used by the House and Senate differ. A final vote on the bill follows.
Once a bill is approved by one house, it is sent to the other which may pass, reject, or amend it. For the bill to become law, both houses must agree to identical versions of the bill. If the second house amends the bill, then the differences between the two versions must be reconciled in a conference committee, an ad hoc committee that includes both senators and representatives sometimes by using a reconciliation process to limit budget bills. Both houses use a budget enforcement mechanism informally known as pay - as - you - go or paygo which discourages members from considering acts which increase budget deficits. If both houses agree to the version reported by the conference committee, the bill passes, otherwise it fails.
The Constitution specifies that a majority of members known as a quorum be present before doing business in each house. However, the rules of each house assume that a quorum is present unless a quorum call demonstrates the contrary. Since representatives and senators who are present rarely demand quorum calls, debate often continues despite the lack of a majority.
Voting within Congress can take many forms, including systems using lights and bells and electronic voting. Both houses use voice voting to decide most matters in which members shout "aye '' or "no '' and the presiding officer announces the result. The Constitution, however, requires a recorded vote if demanded by one - fifth of the members present. If the voice vote is unclear or if the matter is controversial, a recorded vote usually happens. The Senate uses roll - call voting, in which a clerk calls out the names of all the senators, each senator stating "aye '' or "no '' when their name is announced. In the Senate, the vice president may cast the tie - breaking vote if present.
The House reserves roll - call votes for the most formal matters, as a roll call of all 435 representatives takes quite some time; normally, members vote by using an electronic device. In the case of a tie, the motion in question fails. Most votes in the House are done electronically, allowing members to vote yea or nay or present or open. Members insert a voting ID card and can change their votes during the last five minutes if they choose; in addition, paper ballots are used on some occasions -- yea indicated by green and nay by red. One member can not cast a proxy vote for another. Congressional votes are recorded on an online database.
After passage by both houses, a bill is enrolled and sent to the president for approval. The president may sign it making it law or veto it, perhaps returning it to Congress with their objections. A vetoed bill can still become law if each house of Congress votes to override the veto with a two - thirds majority. Finally, the president may do nothing -- neither signing nor vetoing the bill -- and then the bill becomes law automatically after ten days (not counting Sundays) according to the Constitution. But if Congress is adjourned during this period, presidents may veto legislation passed at the end of a congressional session simply by ignoring it; the maneuver is known as a pocket veto, and can not be overridden by the adjourned Congress.
Senators face reelection every six years, and representatives every two. Reelections encourage candidates to focus their publicity efforts at their home states or districts. Running for reelection can be a grueling process of distant travel and fund - raising which distracts senators and representatives from paying attention to governing, according to some critics although others respond that the process is necessary to keep members of Congress in touch with voters.
Nevertheless, incumbent members of Congress running for reelection have strong advantages over challengers. They raise more money because donors expect incumbents to win, they give their funds to them rather than challengers, and donations are vital for winning elections. One critic compared being elected to Congress to receiving life tenure at a university. Another advantage for representatives is the practice of gerrymandering. After each ten - year census, states are allocated representatives based on population, and officials in power can choose how to draw the congressional district boundaries to support candidates from their party. As a result, reelection rates of members of Congress hover around 90 percent, causing some critics to accuse them of being a privileged class. Academics such as Princeton 's Stephen Macedo have proposed solutions to fix gerrymandering. Both senators and representatives enjoy free mailing privileges called franking privileges.
In 1971, the cost of running for congress in Utah was $70,000 but costs have climbed. The biggest expense is television ads. Today 's races cost more than a million dollars for a House seat, and six million or more for a Senate seat. Since fundraising is vital, "members of Congress are forced to spend ever - increasing hours raising money for their re-election. ''
Nevertheless, the Supreme Court has treated campaign contributions as a free speech issue. Some see money as a good influence in politics since it "enables candidates to communicate with voters. '' Few members retire from Congress without complaining about how much it costs to campaign for reelection. Critics contend that members of Congress are more likely to attend to the needs of heavy campaign contributors than to ordinary citizens.
Elections are influenced by many variables. Some political scientists speculate there is a coattail effect (when a popular president or party position has the effect of reelecting incumbents who win by "riding on the president 's coattails ''), although there is some evidence that the coattail effect is irregular and possibly declining since the 1950s. Some districts are so heavily Democratic or Republican that they are called a safe seat; any candidate winning the primary will almost always be elected, and these candidates do not need to spend money on advertising. But some races can be competitive when there is no incumbent. If a seat becomes vacant in an open district, then both parties may spend heavily on advertising in these races; in California in 1992, only four of twenty races for House seats were considered highly competitive.
Since members of Congress must advertise heavily on television, this usually involves negative advertising, which smears an opponent 's character without focusing on the issues. Negative advertising is seen as effective because "the messages tend to stick. '' However, these ads sour the public on the political process in general as most members of Congress seek to avoid blame. One wrong decision or one damaging television image can mean defeat at the next election, which leads to a culture of risk avoidance, a need to make policy decisions behind closed doors, and concentrating publicity efforts in the members ' home districts.
Prominent Founding Fathers writing in The Federalist Papers felt that elections were essential to liberty, and that a bond between the people and the representatives was particularly essential and that "frequent elections are unquestionably the only policy by which this dependence and sympathy can be effectually secured. '' In 2009, however, few Americans were familiar with leaders of Congress. The percentage of Americans eligible to vote who did, in fact, vote was 63 % in 1960, but has been falling since, although there was a slight upward trend in the 2008 election. Public opinion polls asking people if they approve of the job Congress is doing have, in the last few decades, hovered around 25 % with some variation. Scholar Julian Zeliger suggested that the "size, messiness, virtues, and vices that make Congress so interesting also create enormous barriers to our understanding the institution... Unlike the presidency, Congress is difficult to conceptualize. '' Other scholars suggest that despite the criticism, "Congress is a remarkably resilient institution... its place in the political process is not threatened... it is rich in resources '' and that most members behave ethically. They contend that "Congress is easy to dislike and often difficult to defend '' and this perception is exacerbated because many challengers running for Congress run against Congress, which is an "old form of American politics '' that further undermines Congress 's reputation with the public:
The rough - and - tumble world of legislating is not orderly and civil, human frailties too often taint its membership, and legislative outcomes are often frustrating and ineffective... Still, we are not exaggerating when we say that Congress is essential to American democracy. We would not have survived as a nation without a Congress that represented the diverse interests of our society, conducted a public debate on the major issues, found compromises to resolve conflicts peacefully, and limited the power of our executive, military, and judicial institutions... The popularity of Congress ebbs and flows with the public 's confidence in government generally... the legislative process is easy to dislike -- it often generates political posturing and grandstanding, it necessarily involves compromise, and it often leaves broken promises in its trail. Also, members of Congress often appear self - serving as they pursue their political careers and represent interests and reflect values that are controversial. Scandals, even when they involve a single member, add to the public 's frustration with Congress and have contributed to the institution 's low ratings in opinion polls. -- Smith, Roberts & Wielen
An additional factor that confounds public perceptions of Congress is that congressional issues are becoming more technical and complex and require expertise in subjects such as science, engineering and economics. As a result, Congress often cedes authority to experts at the executive branch.
Since 2006, Congress has dropped 10 points in the Gallup confidence poll with only 9 % having "a great deal '' or "quite a lot '' of confidence in their legislators. Since 2011, Gallup poll has reported Congress 's approval rating among Americans at 10 % or below three times. Public opinion of Congress plummeted further to 5 % in October 2013 after parts of the U.S. government deemed ' nonessential government ' shut down.
When the Constitution was ratified in 1787, the ratio of the populations of large states to small states was roughly twelve to one. The Connecticut Compromise gave every state, large and small, an equal vote in the Senate. Since each state has two senators, residents of smaller states have more clout in the Senate than residents of larger states. But since 1787, the population disparity between large and small states has grown; in 2006, for example, California had seventy times the population of Wyoming. Critics such as constitutional scholar Sanford Levinson have suggested that the population disparity works against residents of large states and causes a steady redistribution of resources from "large states to small states. '' However, others argue that the Connecticut compromise was deliberately intended by the Framers to construct the Senate so that each state had equal footing not based on population, and contend that the result works well on balance.
A major role for members of Congress is providing services to constituents. Constituents request assistance with problems. Providing services helps members of Congress win votes and elections and can make a difference in close races. Congressional staff can help citizens navigate government bureaucracies. One academic described the complex intertwined relation between lawmakers and constituents as home style.
One way to categorize lawmakers, according to political scientist Richard Fenno, is by their general motivation:
Members of Congress enjoy parliamentary privilege, including freedom from arrest in all cases except for treason, felony, and breach of the peace and freedom of speech in debate. This constitutionally derived immunity applies to members during sessions and when traveling to and from sessions. The term arrest has been interpreted broadly, and includes any detention or delay in the course of law enforcement, including court summons and subpoenas. The rules of the House strictly guard this privilege; a member may not waive the privilege on their own, but must seek the permission of the whole house to do so. Senate rules, however, are less strict and permit individual senators to waive the privilege as they choose.
The Constitution guarantees absolute freedom of debate in both houses, providing in the Speech or Debate Clause of the Constitution that "for any Speech or Debate in either House, they shall not be questioned in any other Place. '' Accordingly, a member of Congress may not be sued in court for slander because of remarks made in either house, although each house has its own rules restricting offensive speeches, and may punish members who transgress.
Obstructing the work of Congress is a crime under federal law and is known as contempt of Congress. Each branch has the power to cite individuals for contempt but can only issue a contempt citation -- the judicial system pursues the matter like a normal criminal case. If convicted in court, an individual found guilty of contempt of Congress may be imprisoned for up to one year.
The franking privilege allows members of Congress to send official mail to constituents at government expense. Though they are not permitted to send election materials, borderline material is often sent, especially in the run - up to an election by those in close races. Indeed, some academics consider free mailings as giving incumbents a big advantage over challengers.
From 1789 to 1815, members of Congress received only a daily payment of $6 while in session. Members received an annual salary of $1,500 per year from 1815 to 1817, then a per diem salary of $8 from 1818 to 1855; since then they have received an annual salary, first pegged in 1855 at $3,000. In 1907, salaries were raised to $7,500 per year, the equivalent of $173,000 in 2010. In 2006, members of Congress received a yearly salary of $165,200. Congressional leaders were paid $183,500 per year. The Speaker of the House of Representatives earns $212,100 annually. The salary of the President pro tempore for 2006 was $183,500, equal to that of the majority and minority leaders of the House and Senate. Privileges include having an office and paid staff. In 2008, non-officer members of Congress earned $169,300 annually. Some critics complain congressional pay is high compared with a median American income of $45,113 for men and $35,102 for women. Others have countered that congressional pay is consistent with other branches of government. In January 2014, it was reported that for the first time over half of the members of Congress were millionaires. Congress has been criticized for trying to conceal pay raises by slipping them into a large bill at the last minute. Others have criticized the wealth of members of Congress. Representative Jim Cooper of Tennessee told Harvard professor Lawrence Lessig that a chief problem with Congress was that members focused on lucrative careers as lobbyists after serving -- -- that Congress was a "Farm League for K Street '' -- -- instead of on public service.
Members elected since 1984 are covered by the Federal Employees Retirement System (FERS). Like other federal employees, congressional retirement is funded through taxes and participants ' contributions. Members of Congress under FERS contribute 1.3 % of their salary into the FERS retirement plan and pay 6.2 % of their salary in Social Security taxes. And like Federal employees, members contribute one - third of the cost of health insurance with the government covering the other two - thirds.
The size of a congressional pension depends on the years of service and the average of the highest three years of their salary. By law, the starting amount of a member 's retirement annuity may not exceed 80 % of their final salary. In 2006, the average annual pension for retired senators and representatives under the Civil Service Retirement System (CSRS) was $60,972, while those who retired under FERS, or in combination with CSRS, was $35,952.
Members of Congress make fact - finding missions to learn about other countries and stay informed, but these outings can cause controversy if the trip is deemed excessive or unconnected with the task of governing. For example, the Wall Street Journal reported in 2009 that lawmaker trips abroad at taxpayer expense had included spas, $300 - per - night extra unused rooms, and shopping excursions. Lawmakers respond that "traveling with spouses compensates for being away from them a lot in Washington '' and justify the trips as a way to meet officials in other nations.
1 (1789) 2 (1791) 3 (1793) 4 (1795) 5 (1797) 6 (1799) 7 (1801) 8 (1803) 9 (1805) 10 (1807)
11 (1809) 12 (1811) 13 (1813) 14 (1815) 15 (1817) 16 (1819) 17 (1821) 18 (1823) 19 (1825) 20 (1827)
21 (1829) 22 (1831) 23 (1833) 24 (1835) 25 (1837) 26 (1839) 27 (1841) 28 (1843) 29 (1845) 30 (1847)
31 (1849) 32 (1851) 33 (1853) 34 (1855) 35 (1857) 36 (1859) 37 (1861) 38 (1863) 39 (1865) 40 (1867)
41 (1869) 42 (1871) 43 (1873) 44 (1875) 45 (1877) 46 (1879) 47 (1881) 48 (1883) 49 (1885) 50 (1887)
51 (1889) 52 (1891) 53 (1893) 54 (1895) 55 (1897) 56 (1899) 57 (1901) 58 (1903) 59 (1905) 60 (1907)
61 (1909) 62 (1911) 63 (1913) 64 (1915) 65 (1917) 66 (1919) 67 (1921) 68 (1923) 69 (1925) 70 (1927)
71 (1929) 72 (1931) 73 (1933) 74 (1935) 75 (1937) 76 (1939) 77 (1941) 78 (1943) 79 (1945) 80 (1947)
81 (1949) 82 (1951) 83 (1953) 84 (1955) 85 (1957) 86 (1959) 87 (1961) 88 (1963) 89 (1965) 90 (1967)
91 (1969) 92 (1971) 93 (1973) 94 (1975) 95 (1977) 96 (1979) 97 (1981) 98 (1983) 99 (1985) 100 (1987)
101 (1989) 102 (1991) 103 (1993) 104 (1995) 105 (1997) 106 (1999) 107 (2001) 108 (2003) 109 (2005) 110 (2007)
111 (2009) 112 (2011) 113 (2013) 114 (2015) 115 (2017) 116 (2019)
Coordinates: 38 ° 53 ′ 23 '' N 77 ° 0 ′ 32 '' W / 38.88972 ° N 77.00889 ° W / 38.88972; - 77.00889
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who led the american league in home runs | List of Major League Baseball annual home run Leaders - wikipedia
In baseball, a home run is scored when the ball is hit so far that the batter is able to circle all the bases ending at home plate, scoring himself plus any runners already on base, with no errors by the defensive team on the play. An automatic home run is achieved by hitting the ball on the fly over the outfield fence in fair territory. More rarely, an inside - the - park home run occurs when the hitter reaches home plate while the baseball remains in play on the field. In Major League Baseball (MLB), a player in each league wins the home run title each season by hitting the most home runs that year. Only home runs hit in a particular league count towards that league 's seasonal lead. Mark McGwire, for example, hit 58 home runs in 1997, more than any other player that year. However, McGwire was traded from the American League 's (AL) Oakland Athletics to the National League 's (NL) St. Louis Cardinals midway through the season and his individual AL and NL home run totals (34 and 24, respectively) did not qualify to lead either league.
The first home run champion in the National League was George Hall. In the league 's inaugural 1876 season, Hall hit five home runs for the short - lived National League Philadelphia Athletics. In 1901, the American League was established and Hall of Fame second baseman Nap Lajoie led it with 14 home runs for the American League Philadelphia Athletics. Over the course of his 22 - season career, Babe Ruth led the American League in home runs 12 times. Mike Schmidt and Ralph Kiner have the second and third most home run titles respectively, Schmidt with eight and Kiner with seven, all won in the National League. Kiner 's seven consecutive titles from 1946 to 1952 are also the most consecutive home run titles by any player. The most recent champions (2016) are Mark Trumbo with 47 home runs in the American League, and Nolan Arenado and Chris Carter tied with 41 in the National League.
Ruth set the Major League Baseball single - season home run record four times, first at 29 (1919), then 54 (1920), 59 (1921), and finally 60 (1927). Ruth 's 1920 and 1921 seasons are tied for the widest margin of victory for a home run champion as he topped the next highest total by 35 home runs in each season. The single season mark of 60 stood for 34 years until Roger Maris hit 61 home runs in 1961. Maris ' mark was broken 37 years later by both Mark McGwire and Sammy Sosa during the 1998 home run record chase, with McGwire ultimately setting the mark at 70. Barry Bonds, who also has the most career home runs, set the current single season record of 73 in 2001. The 1998 and 2001 seasons each had 4 players hit 50 or more home runs -- Greg Vaughn, Ken Griffey, Jr., Sosa, and McGwire in 1998 and Alex Rodriguez, Luis Gonzalez, Sosa, and Bonds in 2001. A player has hit 50 or more home runs 42 times, 25 times since 1990. The lowest home run total to lead a major league was four, recorded in the NL by Lip Pike in 1877 and Paul Hines in 1878.
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historical development of central bank in west africa | Central bank of West African States - Wikipedia
The Central Bank of West African States (French: Banque Centrale des États de l'Afrique de l'Ouest, BCEAO) is a central bank serving the eight west African countries which share the common West African CFA franc currency and comprise the West African Economic and Monetary Union (UEMOA):
The Bank is active in developing financial inclusion policy and is a member of the Alliance for Financial Inclusion.
Its predecessor, the Institut d'Emission de l'Afrique Occidentale Française et du Togo, was created in 1955 and was transformed into BCEAO in 1959. The treaty establishing the West African Monetary Union (UMOA), signed on May 12, 1962, gave BCEAO the exclusive right to issue the currency as the common central bank for the then seven member countries:
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who sang the song bang bang in kill bill | Bang Bang (My Baby Shot Me Down) - wikipedia
"Bang Bang (My Baby Shot Me Down) '' is the second single by American singer - actress Cher from her second album, The Sonny Side of Chér. Written by her then - husband Sonny Bono and released in 1966, the song reached No. 3 in the UK Singles Chart and No. 2 on the Billboard Hot 100 for a single week (behind "(You 're My) Soul and Inspiration '' by The Righteous Brothers), eventually becoming one of Cher 's biggest - selling singles of the 1960s.
The single proved successful, charting high in several countries worldwide. It became Cher 's first million - selling single and her first top 3 hit in the UK (and her last until "The Shoop - Shoop Song '' reached No. 1 in 1991). Critic Tim Sendra, in his album review of The Sonny Side of Cher, gave the song a mixed review: "The only track that has any real zest is the Bono - written novelty ' Bang Bang (My Baby Shot Me Down), ' the kind of dramatic song Cher could knock out in her sleep but also a song with no real heart. ''
In 1987, Cher recorded a rock version of the song for her 1987 Platinum - certified comeback album Cher. Produced by Jon Bon Jovi, Richie Sambora, and Desmond Child, the song featured backing vocals by Jon Bon Jovi and Michael Bolton, among others, and was released as a promotional single in 1988. Cher performed this version on her Heart of Stone Tour and on Living Proof: The Farewell Tour, and it was played instrumentally on the Dressed to Kill Tour in 2014.
Nancy Sinatra recorded one of the best - known covers of the song, for her 1966 album How Does That Grab You? Her version features tremolo guitar, played by her arranger, Billy Strange; and had a resurgence in popularity when it was used in the opening credits of the 2003 Quentin Tarantino film Kill Bill Volume 1. In the sequence preceding the credits, Tarantino creates a literal, bloody interpretation of the song 's chorus and the third verse, about a wedding day. Her version also was the theme for BBC coverage of the 2005 Wimbledon tennis championships, and has been sampled on several hip - hop recordings, including the Audio Bullys (featuring Nancy Sinatra) top 3 UK hit "Shot You Down '' in 2005.
Besides Sinatra, artists who covered the song in 1966 include Stevie Wonder on his album Down to Earth, The Beau Brummels on Beau Brummels ' 66; Petula Clark on her album I Could n't Live Without Your Love; and Gábor Szabó on his album Spellbinder. Sheila 's version (with French lyrics) became a big hit in France in the summer of 1966; Claire Lepage 's French - language cover was released in Canada (as "Bang! Bang! '') The song was also very popular in Italy in the ' 60s and was covered in Italian by Dalida, Mina, and the psychedelic bands Equipe 84 and I Corvi.
Other notable cover versions include the following:
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which factor will not affect the strength of a solenoid | Solenoid - wikipedia
A solenoid (/ ˈsolə. nɔɪd /) (from the French solénoïde, derived in turn from the Greek solen ("pipe, channel '') and eidos ("form, shape '')) is a coil wound into a tightly packed helix. The term was invented by French physicist André - Marie Ampère to designate a helical coil.
In physics, the term refers to a coil whose length is substantially greater than its diameter, often wrapped around a metallic core, which produces a uniform magnetic field in a volume of space (where some experiment might be carried out) when an electric current is passed through it. A solenoid is a type of electromagnet whose purpose is to generate a controlled magnetic field. If the purpose of the solenoid is instead to impede changes in the electric current, a solenoid can be more specifically classified as an inductor rather than an electromagnet. Not all electromagnets and inductors are solenoids; for example, the first electromagnet, invented in 1824, had a horseshoe rather than a cylindrical solenoid shape.
In engineering, the term may also refer to a variety of transducer devices that convert energy into linear motion. The term is also often used to refer to a solenoid valve, which is an integrated device containing an electromechanical solenoid which actuates either a pneumatic or hydraulic valve, or a solenoid switch, which is a specific type of relay that internally uses an electromechanical solenoid to operate an electrical switch; for example, an automobile starter solenoid, or a linear solenoid, which is an electromechanical solenoid. Solenoid bolts, a type of electronic - mechanical locking mechanism, also exist.
An infinite solenoid is a solenoid with infinite length but finite diameter. Continuous means that the solenoid is not formed by discrete finite - width coils but by infinitely many infinitely - thin coils with no space between them; in this abstraction, the solenoid is often viewed as a cylindrical sheet of conductive material.
The magnetic field inside an infinitely long solenoid is homogeneous and its strength neither depends on the distance from the axis, nor on the solenoid 's cross-sectional area.
This is a derivation of the magnetic flux density around a solenoid that is long enough so that fringe effects can be ignored. In Figure 1, we immediately know that the flux density vector points in the positive z direction inside the solenoid, and in the negative z direction outside the solenoid. We confirm this by applying the right hand grip rule for the field around a wire. If we wrap our right hand around a wire with the thumb pointing in the direction of the current, the curl of the fingers shows how the field behaves. Since we are dealing with a long solenoid, all of the components of the magnetic field not pointing upwards cancel out by symmetry. Outside, a similar cancellation occurs, and the field is only pointing downwards.
Now consider the imaginary loop c that is located inside the solenoid. By Ampère 's law, we know that the line integral of B (the magnetic flux density vector) around this loop is zero, since it encloses no electrical currents (it can be also assumed that the circuital electric field passing through the loop is constant under such conditions: a constant or constantly changing current through the solenoid). We have shown above that the field is pointing upwards inside the solenoid, so the horizontal portions of loop c do not contribute anything to the integral. Thus the integral of the up side 1 is equal to the integral of the down side 2. Since we can arbitrarily change the dimensions of the loop and get the same result, the only physical explanation is that the integrands are actually equal, that is, the magnetic field inside the solenoid is radially uniform. Note, though, that nothing prohibits it from varying longitudinally, which in fact it does.
A similar argument can be applied to the loop a to conclude that the field outside the solenoid is radially uniform or constant. This last result, which holds strictly true only near the centre of the solenoid where the field lines are parallel to its length, is important as it shows that the flux density outside is practically zero since the radii of the field outside the solenoid will tend to infinity.
An intuitive argument can also be used to show that the flux density outside the solenoid is actually zero. Magnetic field lines only exist as loops, they can not diverge from or converge to a point like electric field lines can (see Gauss 's law for magnetism). The magnetic field lines follow the longitudinal path of the solenoid inside, so they must go in the opposite direction outside of the solenoid so that the lines can form a loop. However, the volume outside the solenoid is much greater than the volume inside, so the density of magnetic field lines outside is greatly reduced. Now recall that the field outside is constant. In order for the total number of field lines to be conserved, the field outside must go to zero as the solenoid gets longer.
Of course, if the solenoid is constructed as a wire spiral (as often done in practice), then it emanates an outside field the same way as a single wire, due to the current flowing overall down the length of the solenoid.
Now we can consider the imaginary loop b. Take the line integral of B (the magnetic flux density vector) around the loop of length l. The horizontal components vanish, and the field outside is practically zero, so Ampère 's Law gives us
where μ 0 (\ displaystyle \ mu _ (0)) is the magnetic constant, N (\ displaystyle N) the number of turns, and I (\ displaystyle I) the current. From this we get
This equation is valid for a solenoid in free space, which means the permeability of the magnetic path is the same as permeability of free space, μ.
If the solenoid is immersed in a material with relative permeability μ, then the field is increased by that amount:
In most solenoids, the solenoid is not immersed in a higher permeability material, but rather some portion of the space around the solenoid has the higher permeability material and some is just air (which behaves much like free space). In that scenario, the full effect of the high permeability material is not seen, but there will be an effective (or apparent) permeability μ such that 1 ≤ μ ≤ μ.
The inclusion of a ferromagnetic core, such as iron, increases the magnitude of the magnetic flux density in the solenoid and raises the effective permeability of the magnetic path. This is expressed by the formula
where μ is the effective or apparent permeability of the core. The effective permeability is a function of the geometric properties of the core and its relative permeability. The terms relative permeability (a property of just the material) and effective permeability (a property of the whole structure) are often confused; they can differ by many orders of magnitude.
For an open magnetic structure, the relationship between the effective permeability and relative permeability is given as follows:
where k is the demagnetization factor of the core.
A finite solenoid is a solenoid with finite length. Continuous means that the solenoid is not formed by discrete coils but by a sheet of conductive material. We assume the current is uniformly distributed on the surface of the solenoid, with a surface current density K; in cylindrical coordinates:
The magnetic field can be found using the vector potential, which for a finite solenoid with radius a and length L in cylindrical coordinates (ρ, φ, z) (\ displaystyle (\ rho, \ phi, z)) is
where
Here, K (m) (\ displaystyle K (m)), E (m) (\ displaystyle E (m)), and Π (n, m) (\ displaystyle \ Pi (n, m)) are complete elliptic integrals of the first, second, and third kind.
Using
the magnetic flux density is obtained as
As shown above, the magnetic flux density B (\ displaystyle B) within the coil is practically constant and given by
where μ is the magnetic constant, N (\ displaystyle N) the number of turns, i (\ displaystyle i) the current and l (\ displaystyle l) the length of the coil. Ignoring end effects, the total magnetic flux through the coil is obtained by multiplying the flux density B (\ displaystyle B) by the cross-section area A (\ displaystyle A):
Combining this with the definition of inductance
the inductance of a solenoid follows as
A table of inductance for short solenoids of various diameter to length ratios has been calculated by Dellinger, Whittmore, and Ould.
This, and the inductance of more complicated shapes, can be derived from Maxwell 's equations. For rigid air - core coils, inductance is a function of coil geometry and number of turns, and is independent of current.
Similar analysis applies to a solenoid with a magnetic core, but only if the length of the coil is much greater than the product of the relative permeability of the magnetic core and the diameter. That limits the simple analysis to low - permeability cores, or extremely long thin solenoids. The presence of a core can be taken into account in the above equations by replacing the magnetic constant μ with μ or μ μ, where μ represents permeability and μ relative permeability. Note that since the permeability of ferromagnetic materials changes with applied magnetic flux, the inductance of a coil with a ferromagnetic core will generally vary with current.
Electromechanical solenoids consist of an electromagnetically inductive coil, wound around a movable steel or iron slug (termed the armature). The coil is shaped such that the armature can be moved in and out of the center, altering the coil 's inductance and thereby becoming an electromagnet. The armature is used to provide a mechanical force to some mechanism (such as controlling a pneumatic valve). Although typically weak over anything but very short distances, solenoids may be controlled directly by a controller circuit, and thus have very quick reaction times.
The force applied to the armature is proportional to the change in inductance of the coil with respect to the change in position of the armature, and the current flowing through the coil (see Faraday 's law of induction). The force applied to the armature will always move the armature in a direction that increases the coil 's inductance.
Electromechanical solenoids are commonly seen in electronic paintball markers, pinball machines, dot matrix printers and fuel injectors. Some residential doorbells use electromechanical solenoids to hit metal chime bars.
Proportional Solenoid - Included in this category of solenoids are the uniquely designed magnetic circuits that effect analog positioning of the solenoid plunger or armature as a function of coil current. These solenoids, whether axial or rotary, employ a flux carrying geometry that both produces a high starting force (torque), and has a section that quickly begins to saturate magnetically. The resulting force (torque) profile as the solenoid progresses through its operational stroke is nearly flat or descends from a high to a lower value. The solenoid can be useful for positioning, stopping mid-stroke, or for low velocity actuation; especially in a closed loop control system. A uni-directional solenoid would actuate against an opposing force or a dual solenoid system would be self cycling. The proportional concept is more fully described in SAE publication 860759 (1986).
Proportional Solenoid Principles - Focusing of the magnetic field and its attendant flux metering, as illustrated in the SAE paper, is required to produce a high starting force at the start of the solenoid stroke and to maintain a level or declining force as the solenoid moves thru its displacement range. This is quite contrary to that experienced with normal diminishing air gap types of solenoids. The focusing of the magnetic field to the working air gap initially produces a high mmf (ampere turns) and relatively low flux level across the air gap. This high product of mmf x flux (read energy) produces a high starting force. As the plunger is incremented (ds) the energy of motion, F ∙ ds, is extracted from the air gap energy. Inherent with the plunger increment of motion, the air gap permeance increases slightly, the magnetic flux increases, the mmf across the air gap decreases slightly; all of which results in maintaining a high product of mmf x flux. Because of the increased flux level a rise in ampere - turns drops elsewhere in the ferrous circuit (predominately in the pole geometry) causes the reduction of air gap ampere - turns and, therefore, the reduced potential energy of the field at the air gap. Further incrementing of the plunger causes a continuing decrease of the solenoid force thus creating an ideal condition for motion control as controlled by the current to the solenoid coil. The aforementioned pole geometry, having a linearly changing path area, produces a nearly linear change in force. An opposing spring force or a dual ended solenoid (two coils) allows over and back motion control. Closed loop control improves the linearity and stiffness of the system.
The rotary solenoid is an electromechanical device used to rotate a ratcheting mechanism when power is applied. These were used in the 1950s for rotary snap - switch automation in electromechanical controls. Repeated actuation of the rotary solenoid advances the snap - switch forward one position. Two rotary actuators on opposite ends of the rotary snap - switch shaft, can advance or reverse the switch position.
The rotary solenoid has a similar appearance to a linear solenoid, except that the core is mounted in the center of a large flat disk, with two or three inclined grooves cut into the underside of the disk. These grooves align with slots on the solenoid body, with ball bearings in the grooves.
When the solenoid is activated, the core is drawn into the coil, and the disk rotates on the ball bearings in the grooves as it moves towards the coil body. When power is removed, a spring on the disk rotates it back to its starting position, also pulling the core out of the coil.
The rotary solenoid was invented in 1944 by George H. Leland, of Dayton, Ohio, to provide a more reliable and shock / vibration tolerant release mechanism for air - dropped bombs. Previously used linear (axial) solenoids were prone to inadvertent releases. U.S. Patent number 2,496,880 describes the electromagnet and inclined raceways that are the basis of the invention. Leland 's engineer, Earl W. Kerman, was instrumental in developing a compatible bomb release shackle that incorporated the rotary solenoid. Bomb shackles of this type are found in a B - 29 aircraft fuselage on display at the National Museum of the USAF in Dayton, Ohio. Solenoids of this variety continue to be used in countless modern applications, and are still manufactured under Leland 's original brand "Ledex '', now owned by Johnson Electric.
A rotary voice coil is a rotational version of a solenoid. Typically the fixed magnet is on the outside, and the coil part moves in an arc controlled by the current flow through the coils. Rotary voice coils are widely employed in devices such as disk drives. The working part of a moving coil meter is also a type of rotary voice coil that pivots around the pointer axis, a hairspring is usually used to provide a weak nearly linear restoring force.
A pneumatic solenoid valve is a switch for routing air to any pneumatic device, usually an actuator, allowing a relatively small signal to control a large device. It is also the interface between electronic controllers and pneumatic systems.
Hydraulic solenoid valves are in general similar to pneumatic solenoid valves except that they control the flow of hydraulic fluid (oil), often at around 3000 psi (210 bar, 21 MPa, 21 MN / m2). Hydraulic machinery uses solenoids to control the flow of oil to rams or actuators. Solenoid - controlled valves are often used in irrigation systems, where a relatively weak solenoid opens and closes a small pilot valve, which in turn activates the main valve by applying fluid pressure to a piston or diaphragm that is mechanically coupled to the main valve. Solenoids are also in everyday household items such as washing machines to control the flow and amount of water into the drum.
Transmission solenoids control fluid flow through an automatic transmission and are typically installed in the transmission valve body.
In a car or truck, the starter solenoid is part of an automobile starting system. The starter solenoid receives a large electric current from the car battery and a small electric current from the ignition switch. When the ignition switch is turned on (i.e. when the key is turned to start the car), the small electric current forces the starter solenoid to close a pair of heavy contacts, thus relaying the large electric current to the starter motor.
Starter solenoids can also be built into the starter itself, often visible on the outside of the starter. If a starter solenoid receives insufficient power from the battery, it will fail to start the motor, and may produce a rapid ' clicking ' or ' clacking ' sound. This can be caused by a low or dead battery, by corroded or loose connections in the cable, or by a broken or damaged positive (red) cable from the battery. Any of these will result in some power to the solenoid, but not enough to hold the heavy contacts closed, so the starter motor itself never spins, and the engine does n't start.
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famous in love season 1 how many episodes | Famous in Love - wikipedia
Famous in Love is an American drama television series that premiered on Freeform on April 18, 2017, and is based on the novel of the same name by Rebecca Serle. The series stars Bella Thorne, Charlie DePew, Georgie Flores, Carter Jenkins, Niki Koss, Keith Powers, Pepi Sonuga, and Perrey Reeves.
Paige Townsen, an ordinary college student, gets her big break after auditioning for the starring role in a Hollywood blockbuster and must now navigate her new star - studded life and undeniable chemistry with her co-lead and her best friend.
Freeform, then known as ABC Family, had picked up the pilot for fast - track development on March 19, 2015. The pilot was shot in November 2015; Freeform greenlit the pilot on April 7, 2016, and shooting began on July 13, 2016, and wrapped up on October 18, 2016. On November 18, 2016, Freeform announced that the series would premiere on April 18, 2017. Freeform also released the entire season for viewing online on April 18, 2017. The series is based on the novel of the same name, written by Rebecca Serle. Serle worked with I. Marlene King to develop the novel into a television series. Freeform renewed the series for a second season on August 3, 2017.
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norman the moderate rise and tragic fall of a new york fixer | Norman: the Moderate Rise and Tragic Fall of a New York Fixer - Wikipedia
Norman: The Moderate Rise and Tragic Fall of a New York Fixer (Hebrew:, נורמן: עלייתו המתונה ונפילתו התלולה של מאכער אמריקאי ) (previously titled Oppenheimer Strategies) is a 2016 American - Israeli political drama film directed and written by Joseph Cedar. The film stars Richard Gere and Lior Ashkenazi. Filming began on February 8, 2015 in New York City. The film played at the 2016 Telluride Film Festival and the 2016 Toronto International Film Festival.
Norman Oppenheimer 's life dramatically changes after the young politician he befriended three years ago becomes Prime Minister of Israel.
On November 14, 2014, Richard Gere was set to star in the political thriller Oppenheimer Strategies, written by Joseph Cedar who would also direct the film. On January 14, 2015, Charlotte Gainsbourg was added to the cast to play the female lead. On February 6, Michael Sheen, Steve Buscemi and Josh Charles were added to the cast to star along with Dan Stevens, Isaach de Bankolé and Lior Ashkenazi.
Filming was originally set to begin on January 12, 2015 in New York City, but it began on February 8, 2015. On February 12, filming was taken place around 93rd Street and Amsterdam Ave in Manhattan. Gere and Stevens were spotted on the set in Central Park.
The film played at the Telluride Film Festival in September 2016, and then had its international premiere at the Toronto International Film Festival. Prior to, Sony Pictures Classics acquired distribution rights in North America, Benelux, Scandinavia, Eastern Europe, and Asia (excluding Korea) to the film and it was then the previous title changed from Oppenheimer Strategies to Norman: The Moderate Rise and Tragic Fall of a New York Fixer.
The US theatrical release was on April 14, 2017.
At Metacritic, which assigns a weighted average score out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics, the film received an average score of 75 based on six reviews. Richard Gere was praised by both Variety and The Guardian for his "strong performance '' portraying a "Court Jew '' archetype. Indeed, Cedar 's fictional character ' Norman Oppenheimer ' was inspired in part by the real life court Jew Joseph Süß Oppenheimer, whose life in turn inspired the 1934 British film Jew Süss, as well as the 1940 Nazi propaganda film Jud Süß.
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