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who got the first star on hollywood walk of fame | Hollywood Walk of Fame - wikipedia
The Hollywood Walk of Fame comprises more than 2,600 five - pointed terrazzo and brass stars embedded in the sidewalks along 15 blocks of Hollywood Boulevard and three blocks of Vine Street in Hollywood, California. The stars are permanent public monuments to achievement in the entertainment industry, bearing the names of a mix of actors, musicians, directors, producers, musical and theatrical groups, fictional characters, and others. The Walk of Fame is administered by the Hollywood Chamber of Commerce and maintained by the self - financing Hollywood Historic Trust. It is a popular tourist destination, with a reported 10 million visitors in 2003.
The Walk of Fame runs 1.3 miles (2.1 km) east to west on Hollywood Boulevard from Gower Street to La Brea Avenue, plus a short segment of Marshfield Way that runs diagonally between Hollywood and La Brea; and 0.4 miles (0.64 km) north to south on Vine Street between Yucca Street and Sunset Boulevard. According to a 2003 report by the market research firm NPO Plog Research, the Walk attracts about 10 million visitors annually -- more than Sunset Strip, TCL Chinese Theatre (formerly Grauman 's), the Queen Mary, and the Los Angeles County Museum of Art -- and has played an important role in making tourism the largest industry in Los Angeles County.
As of 2017, the Walk of Fame comprises over 2,600 stars, spaced at 6 - foot (1.8 m) intervals. The monuments are coral - pink terrazzo five - point stars rimmed with brass (not bronze, an oft - repeated inaccuracy) inlaid into a charcoal - colored terrazzo background. In the upper portion of each star field the name of the honoree is inlaid in brass block letters. Below the inscription, in the lower half of the star field, a round inlaid brass emblem indicates the category of the honoree 's contributions. The emblems symbolize five categories within the entertainment industry:
Of all the stars on the Walk to date, 47 % have been awarded in the motion pictures category, 24 % in television, 17 % in audio recording, 10 % in radio, and less than 2 % in the live performance category. Approximately 20 new stars are added to the Walk each year.
Special category stars recognize various contributions by corporate entities, service organizations, and special honorees, and display emblems unique to those honorees. For example, former Los Angeles mayor Tom Bradley 's star displays the Seal of the City of Los Angeles; the Los Angeles Police Department (LAPD) star emblem is a replica of a Hollywood Division badge; and stars representing corporations, such as Victoria 's Secret and the Los Angeles Dodgers, display the honoree 's corporate logo. The "Friends of the Walk of Fame '' monuments are charcoal terrazzo squares rimmed by miniature pink terrazzo stars displaying the five standard category emblems, along with the sponsor 's corporate logo, with the sponsor 's name and contribution in inlaid brass block lettering. Special stars and Friends monuments are granted by the Hollywood Chamber of Commerce or the Hollywood Historic Trust, but are not part of the Walk of Fame proper and are located nearby on private property.
The monuments for the Apollo 11 mission to the Moon are uniquely shaped: Four identical circular moons, bearing the names of the three astronauts (Neil A. Armstrong, Edwin E. Aldrin Jr., Michael Collins) the date of the first Moon landing ("7 / 20 / 69 ''), and the words "Apollo XI '', are set on each of the four corners of the intersection of Hollywood and Vine. The moons are silver and grey terrazzo circles rimmed in brass on a square pink terrazzo background, with the television emblem inlaid at the top of each circle.
The Hollywood Chamber of Commerce credits E.M. Stuart, its volunteer president in 1953, with the original idea for creating a Walk of Fame. Stuart reportedly proposed the Walk as a means to "maintain the glory of a community whose name means glamour and excitement in the four corners of the world. '' Harry Sugarman, another Chamber member and president of the Hollywood Improvement Association, receives credit in an independent account. A committee was formed to flesh out the idea, and an architectural firm was retained to develop specific proposals. By 1955 the basic concept and general design had been agreed upon, and plans were submitted to the Los Angeles City Council.
Multiple accounts exist for the origin of the star concept. According to one, the historic Hollywood Hotel -- which stood for more than 50 years on Hollywood Boulevard at the site now occupied by the Hollywood and Highland complex and the Dolby (formerly Kodak) Theatre -- displayed stars on its dining room ceiling above the tables favored by its most famous celebrity patrons, and that may have served as an early inspiration. By another account, the stars were "inspired... by Sugarman 's (Tropics Restaurant) drinks menu, which featured celebrity photos framed in gold stars. ''
In February 1956 a prototype was unveiled featuring a caricature of an example honoree (John Wayne, by some accounts) inside a blue star on a brown background. However, caricatures proved too expensive and difficult to execute in brass with the technology available at the time; and the brown and blue motif was vetoed by Charles E. Toberman, the legendary real estate developer known as "Mr. Hollywood '', because the colors clashed with a new building he was erecting on Hollywood Boulevard.
By March 1956 the final design and coral - and - charcoal color scheme had been approved, and between the spring of 1956 and the fall of 1957, 1,558 honorees were selected by committees representing the four major branches of the entertainment industry at that time: motion pictures, television, audio recording, and radio. The committees met at the Brown Derby restaurant, and included such prominent names as Cecil B. DeMille, Samuel Goldwyn, Jesse L. Lasky, Walt Disney, Hal Roach, Mack Sennett, and Walter Lantz.
A requirement stipulated by the original audio recording committee (and later rescinded) specified minimum sales of one million records or 250,000 albums for all music category nominees. The committee soon realized that many important recording artists would be excluded from the Walk by that requirement. As a result, the National Academy of Recording Arts and Sciences was formed for the purpose of creating a separate award system for the music business. The first Grammy Awards were presented in Beverly Hills in 1959.
Construction of the Walk began in 1958 but two lawsuits delayed completion. The first was filed by local property owners challenging the legality of the $ 1.25 million tax assessment levied upon them to pay for the Walk, along with new street lighting and trees. In October 1959 the assessment was ruled legal. The second lawsuit, filed by Charles Chaplin, Jr., sought damages for the exclusion of his father, whose nomination had been withdrawn due to pressure from multiple quarters (see Controversial additions). Chaplin 's suit was dismissed in 1960, paving the way for completion of the project.
While Joanne Woodward is often singled out as the first to receive a star on the Walk of Fame, in fact there was no "first '' recipient; the original stars were installed as a continuous project, with no individual ceremonies. Woodward 's name was one of eight drawn at random from the original 1,558 and inscribed on eight prototype stars that were built while litigation was still holding up permanent construction. The eight prototypes were installed temporarily on the northwest corner of Hollywood Boulevard and Highland Avenue in August 1958 to generate publicity and to demonstrate how the Walk would eventually look. The other seven names were Olive Borden, Ronald Colman, Louise Fazenda, Preston Foster, Burt Lancaster, Edward Sedgwick, and Ernest Torrence. Official groundbreaking took place on February 8, 1960. On March 28, 1960, the first permanent star, director Stanley Kramer 's, was completed on the easternmost end of the new Walk near the intersection of Hollywood and Gower. The Joanne Woodward legend may have originated, according to one source, because she was the first to pose with her star for photographers.
Though the Walk was originally conceived in part to encourage redevelopment of Hollywood Boulevard, the 1960s and 1970s were periods of protracted urban decay in the Hollywood area as residents moved to suburbs. After the initial installation of approximately 1,500 stars in 1960 and 1961, eight years passed without the addition of a new star. In 1962 the Los Angeles City Council passed an ordinance naming the Hollywood Chamber of Commerce "the agent to advise the City '' about adding names to the Walk, and the Chamber, over the following six years, devised rules, procedures, and financing methods to do so. In December 1968, Richard D. Zanuck was awarded the first star in eight years in a presentation ceremony hosted by Danny Thomas. In July 1978 the City of Los Angeles designated the Hollywood Walk of Fame a Los Angeles Historic - Cultural Monument.
Radio personality, television producer and Chamber member Johnny Grant is generally credited with implementing the changes that resuscitated the Walk and established it as a significant tourist attraction. Beginning in 1968, he stimulated publicity and encouraged international press coverage by requiring that each recipient personally attend his or her star 's unveiling ceremony. Grant later recalled that "it was tough to get people to come accept a star '' until the neighborhood finally began its recovery in the 1980s. In 1980 he instituted a fee of $2,500, payable by the person or entity nominating the recipient, to fund the Walk of Fame 's upkeep and minimize further taxpayer burden. The fee has increased incrementally over time; by 2002 it had reached $15,000, and stood at $30,000 in 2012. The current (2017) fee is $40,000.
Grant was awarded a star in 1980 for his television work. In 2002, he received a second star in the "special '' category to acknowledge his pivotal role in improving and popularizing the Walk. He was also named chairman of the Selection Committee and Honorary Mayor of Hollywood (a ceremonial position previously held by Art Linkletter and Monty Hall, among others). He remained in both offices from 1980 until his death in 2008 and hosted the great majority of unveiling ceremonies during that period. His unique special - category star, with its emblem depicting a stylized "Great Seal of the City of Hollywood '', is located at the entrance to the Dolby Theatre adjacent to Johnny Grant Way.
In 1984 a fifth category, Live Theatre, was added to permit acknowledgment of contributions from the live performance branch of the entertainment industry, and a second row of stars was created on each sidewalk to alternate with the existing stars.
In 1994 the Walk of Fame was extended one block to the west on Hollywood Boulevard, from Sycamore Avenue to North LaBrea Avenue (plus the short segment of Marshfield Way that connects Hollywood and La Brea), where it now ends at the silver "Four Ladies of Hollywood '' gazebo and the special "Walk of Fame '' star. At the same time, Sophia Loren was honored with the 2,000 th star on the Walk.
During construction of tunnels for the Los Angeles subway system in 1996 the Metropolitan Transportation Authority removed and stored more than 300 stars. Controversy arose when the MTA proposed a money - saving measure of jackhammering the 3 - by - 3 - foot terrazzo pads, preserving only the brass lettering, surrounds, and medallions, then pouring new terrazzo after the tunnels were completed; but the Cultural Heritage Commission ruled that the star pads were to be removed intact.
In 2008 a long - term restoration project began with an evaluation of all 2,365 stars on the Walk at the time, each receiving a letter grade of A, B, C, D, or F. Honorees whose stars received F grades, indicating the most severe damage, were Joan Collins, Peter Frampton, Dick Van Patten, Paul Douglas, Andrew L. Stone, Willard Waterman, Richard Boleslavsky, Ellen Drew, Frank Crumit, and Bobby Sherwood. Fifty celebrities ' stars received "D '' grades. The damage ranged from minor cosmetic flaws caused by normal weathering to holes and fissures severe enough to constitute a walking hazard. At least 778 stars will eventually be repaired or replaced during the ongoing project at an estimated cost of $4 million to $4.2 million.
The restoration is a collaboration among the Hollywood Chamber of Commerce and various Los Angeles city and county governmental offices, along with the MTA, which operates the Metro Red Line that runs beneath the Walk, since earth movement due to the presence of the subway line is thought to be partly responsible for the damage.
To encourage supplemental funding for the project by corporate sponsors, the "Friends of Walk of Fame '' program was inaugurated. Absolut Vodka became the first Friend with a donation of $1 million, followed by L'Oréal. Friends are recognized with honorary plaques adjacent to the Walk of Fame in front of the Dolby Theatre. The program received some criticism. Alana Semuels of the Los Angeles Times described it as "just the latest corporate attempt to buy some good buzz, '' and, quoting an area brand strategist, "I think Johnny Grant would roll over in his grave. '' Karen Fondu, President of L'Oréal Paris, countered that the association was "a natural affinity. ''
The original selection committees chose to recognize some entertainers ' contributions in multiple categories with multiple stars. Gene Autry is the only honoree with stars in all five categories. Bob Hope, Mickey Rooney, Roy Rogers, and Tony Martin each have stars in four categories -- Rooney has three of his own and a fourth with his eighth and final wife, Jan, while Rogers also has three of his own, and a fourth with his band, Sons of the Pioneers. Thirty - three people, including Bing Crosby, Frank Sinatra, Jo Stafford, Dean Martin, Dinah Shore, Gale Storm, Danny Kaye, Douglas Fairbanks Jr., and Jack Benny, have stars in three categories.
Seven recording artists have two stars in the same category for distinct achievements: Michael Jackson, as a soloist and as a member of The Jackson 5; Diana Ross, as a member of The Supremes and for her solo work; Smokey Robinson, as a solo artist and as a member of The Miracles; and John Lennon, Ringo Starr, George Harrison, and Paul McCartney as individuals and as members of The Beatles. Cher forfeited her opportunity by declining to schedule the mandatory personal appearance when she was selected in 1983. She did attend the unveiling of the Sonny & Cher star in 1998 as a tribute to her recently deceased ex-husband, Sonny Bono.
George Eastman is the only honoree with two stars in the same category for the same achievement, the invention of roll film.
In 1977, country singer Loretta Lynn was the first of her genre to receive a star on the Walk of Fame.
Charlie Chaplin is the only honoree to be selected twice for the same star on the Walk. He was unanimously voted into the initial group of 500 in 1956 but the Selection Committee ultimately excluded him, ostensibly due to questions regarding his morals (he had been charged with violating the Mann Act -- and exonerated -- during the White Slavery hysteria of the 1940s), but more likely due to his left - leaning political views. The rebuke prompted an unsuccessful lawsuit by his son, Charles Chaplin Jr. His star was finally added to the Walk in 1972, the same year he received his Academy Award; but even then, 16 years later, the Chamber of Commerce received angry letters from across the country protesting its decision to include him.
The committee 's Chaplin difficulties reportedly contributed to its decision in 1978 against awarding a star to Paul Robeson, a controversial opera singer, actor, athlete, writer, lawyer, and social activist. The resulting outcry from the entertainment industry, civic circles, local and national politicians, and many other quarters was so intense that the decision was reversed and Robeson was awarded a star in 1979.
Following sexual assault allegations involving comedian Bill Cosby, actor Kevin Spacey and producer - director Brett Ratner, the Hollywood Chamber of Commerce released a statement regarding inquiries as to the removal of stars:
The Hollywood Chamber of Commerce has received inquiries asking whether we are planning to remove the stars of Walk of Famers because of alleged misconduct. The answer is no... The Hollywood Walk of Fame is a registered historic landmark. Once a star has been added to the Walk, it is considered a part of the historic fabric of the Hollywood Walk of Fame. Because of this, we have never removed a star from the Walk.
As of 2015, this has been the Hollywood Chamber of Commerce 's only statement regarding the removal of stars.
Two pairs of stars share identical names representing different people. There are two Harrison Ford stars, honoring the silent film actor (at 6665 Hollywood Boulevard), and the present - day actor (in front of the Dolby Theatre at 6801 Hollywood Boulevard). Two Michael Jackson stars represent the singer / dancer / songwriter (at 6927 Hollywood Boulevard), and the radio personality (at 1597 Vine Street). When the recording artist Jackson died in 2009, fans mistakenly began leaving flowers, candles, and other tributes at the Vine Street star. Upon learning of this, the radio host wrote on his website, "I am willingly loan (ing) it to him and, if it would bring him back, he can have it. ''
The most common surname, with sixteen stars, is Williams: Andy Williams, Bill Williams, Billy Dee Williams, Cindy Williams, Earle Williams, Esther Williams, Guy Williams, Hank Williams, Joe Williams, Kathlyn Williams, Paul Williams, Pharrell Williams, Robin Williams, Roger Williams, Tex Williams and Vanessa Williams. There are fourteen stars with the surname Moore, twelve with Jones, and seven with Smith.
The largest collection of stars honoring one group of blood relatives is the widely scattered set of seven representing the Barrymore family: John Barrymore, his brother Lionel (who has two), and sister Ethel, their uncle Sidney Drew, John 's son John Drew Barrymore, and John Drew 's daughter Drew Barrymore.
Walk of Fame rules prohibit consideration of nominees whose contributions fall outside the five major entertainment categories, but the selection committee has been known to conjure some interesting rule interpretations to justify a selection. The Walk 's four round Moon landing monuments at the corners of Hollywood and Vine, for example, officially recognize the Apollo 11 astronauts for "contributions to the television industry ''. Johnny Grant acknowledged, in 2005, that classifying the first Moon landing as a television entertainment event was "a bit of a stretch ''. Magic Johnson 's considerable basketball skills had no direct connection to movies, music, TV, radio, or theater, but the committee added him to the motion picture category, based on his ownership of the Magic Johnson Theatre chain, citing as precedent Sid Grauman, builder of Grauman 's (now TCL) Chinese Theatre. "(Now) people want Orville Redenbacher, '' Grant quipped in the 2005 interview, "because his popcorn is in all the theaters. ''
Muhammad Ali 's star was granted after the committee decided that boxing could be considered a form of "live performance ''. Its placement, on a wall of the Dolby Theatre, makes it the only star mounted on a vertical surface, acceding to Ali 's request that his name not be walked upon.
All living honorees have been required since 1968 to personally attend their star 's unveiling, and approximately 40 have declined the honor due to this condition. The only recipient to date who failed to appear after agreeing to do so was Barbra Streisand, in 1976. Her star was unveiled anyway, near the intersection of Hollywood and Highland. Streisand did attend when her husband, James Brolin, unveiled his star in 1998 two blocks to the east.
Fifteen stars are identified with a one - word stage name: Cantinflas, Houdini, Liberace, Mako, Meiklejohn, Paderewski, Parkyakarkus, Roseanne, RuPaul, Sabu, Shakira, Slash, Sting, Thalía, and Usher.
The largest group of individuals represented by a single star is the estimated 122 adults and 12 children collectively known as the Munchkins, from the landmark 1939 film The Wizard of Oz.
Clayton Moore is so inextricably linked with his Lone Ranger character, even though he played other roles during his career, that he is one of only two actors to have his character 's name alongside his own on his star. The other is Tommy Riggs, whose star reads, "Tommy Riggs & Betty Lou. ''
For more than 40 years, singer Jimmy Boyd was the youngest star recipient at age 20, but he lost that distinction in 2004 to 18 - year - old twins Mary - Kate and Ashley Olsen. Their joint star (the only one shared by twins) is outside the Dolby Theatre, near the Hollywood and Highland Center.
The Westmores received the first star honoring contributions in theatrical make - up. Other make - up artists on the walk are Max Factor, John Chambers and Rick Baker. Three stars recognize experts in special effects: Ray Harryhausen, Dennis Muren, and Stan Winston. Only one costume designer has received a star, eight - time Academy Award winner Edith Head.
Sidney Sheldon is one of two novelists with a star, which he earned for writing screenplays such as The Bachelor and the Bobby - Soxer before turning to novels. The other is Ray Bradbury, whose books and stories have formed the basis of dozens of movies and television programs over a nearly 60 - year period.
Ten inventors have stars on the Walk: George Eastman (as mentioned); Thomas Edison, inventor of the first true film projector and holder of numerous patents related to motion - picture technology; Lee de Forest, inventor of the vacuum tube, which made radio and TV possible, and Phonofilm, which made sound movies possible; Merian C. Cooper, co-inventor of the Cinerama process; Herbert Kalmus, inventor of Technicolor; Auguste and Louis Lumière, inventors of important components of the motion picture camera; Mark Serrurier, inventor of the technology used for film editing; Hedy Lamarr, co-inventor of a frequency - hopping radio guidance system that was a precursor to Wi - Fi networks and cellular telephone systems; and Ray Dolby, co-developer of the video tape recorder and inventor of the Dolby noise reduction system.
A few star recipients moved on after their entertainment careers to political notability. Two US presidents, Ronald Reagan and Donald Trump, have stars on the Walk. Reagan is also one of two Governors of California with a star; the other is Arnold Schwarzenegger. One U.S. senator (George Murphy) and two members of the U.S. House of Representatives (Helen Gahagan and Sonny Bono) have stars. Ignacy Paderewski, who served as Prime Minister of Poland between the World Wars, is the only European head of government represented. Film and stage actor Albert Dekker served one term in the California State Assembly during the 1940s, which was notable for his outspoken public criticism of Senator Joseph McCarthy 's anti-communism demagoguery, leading to his blacklisting.
On its 50th anniversary in 2005, Disneyland received a star adjacent to the Walk of Fame near Disney 's Soda Fountain on Hollywood Boulevard. While not technically part of the Hollywood Walk of Fame (a city ordinance prohibits putting corporate names on sidewalks), the star was installed adjacent to the Walk of Fame, and was thought of by Johnny Grant, the proverbial "Mayor of Hollywood. '' Roger Ebert said of the star "If you stop to think about what Disneyland has achieved and what a revolutionary idea it was to begin with, of course it deserve (s) a star. '' In lieu of the traditional icon indicating the specific achievement (s) of the honoree, Disneyland 's star has an icon of Sleeping Beauty Castle, and a plaque beneath the star reading: "Award of Excellence Special achievement for 50 years of magical entertainment Hollywood Historic Trust July 14, 2005. Johnny Grant, Chairman. ''
In 1978, in honor of his 50th anniversary, Mickey Mouse became the first animated character to receive a star. Other animated recipients are Bugs Bunny, Donald Duck, Minnie Mouse, Woody Woodpecker, Snow White, Tinker Bell, Winnie the Pooh, Shrek, The Simpsons, the Rugrats, and Snoopy. The star inscribed Charlie Tuna honors not the animated advertising mascot, but Art Ferguson, the long - time radio personality and game show announcer.
Other fictional characters on the Walk include the Munchkins (as mentioned), two individual Muppets (Kermit the Frog and Big Bird) and the Muppets as a group, one monster (Godzilla), and three non-animated canine characters (Strongheart, Lassie, and Rin Tin Tin).
Ten stars recognize cartoonists and animators: Walt Disney, Chuck Jones, Friz Freleng, Walter Lantz, Hanna -- Barbera, Charles M. Schulz, Jay Ward, Dr. Seuss, Matt Groening and John Lasseter. Two puppeteers have stars: Jim Henson and Shari Lewis, as does Fran Allison, who appeared with Burr Tillstrom 's puppets on the TV show Kukla, Fran and Ollie.
Locations of individual stars are not necessarily random or arbitrary. Stars of most legendary and world - famous celebrities -- the so - called "show business royalty '' -- are found in front of TCL (formerly Grauman 's) Chinese Theatre. Oscar - winners ' stars are usually placed near the Dolby Theatre, site of the annual Academy Awards presentations. Decisions are occasionally made with a dollop of whimsy: Mike Myers 's star, for example, lies in front of an adult store called the International Love Boutique, an association with his Austin Powers roles; Roger Moore 's star is located at 7007 Hollywood Boulevard in recognition of his seven James Bond 007 films; Ed O'Neill 's star is located outside a shoe store in reference to his character 's occupation on the TV show Married... with Children; and the last star, at the very end of the westernmost portion of the Walk, belongs to The Dead End Kids.
Honorees may request a specific location for their star, although final decisions remain with the Chamber. Jay Leno, for example, requested a spot near the corner of Hollywood Blvd. and Highland Ave. because he was twice picked up at that location by police for vagrancy (though never actually charged) shortly after his arrival in Hollywood. George Carlin chose to have his star placed in front of the KDAY radio station near the corner of Sunset Blvd. and Vine St., where he first gained national recognition. Carol Burnett explained her choice in her 1986 memoir: While working as an usherette at the historic Warner Brothers Theatre (now the Hollywood Pacific Theatre) during the 1951 run of Alfred Hitchcock 's film Strangers on a Train, she took it upon herself to advise a couple arriving during the final few minutes of a showing to wait for the next showing, to avoid seeing (and spoiling) the ending. The theater manager fired her on the spot for "insubordination '' and humiliated her by stripping the epaulets from her uniform in the theater lobby. Twenty - six years later, at her request, Burnett 's star was placed at the corner of Hollywood and Wilcox -- in front of the theater.
In 2010, Julia Louis - Dreyfus 's star was constructed with the name "Julia Luis Dreyfus ''. The actress was reportedly amused, and the error was corrected. A similar mistake was made on Dick Van Dyke 's star in 1993 ("Vandyke ''), and rectified.
Film and television actor Don Haggerty 's star originally displayed the first name "Dan ''. The mistake was fixed, but years later the television actor Dan Haggerty (of Grizzly Adams fame, no relation to Don) also received a star. The confusion eventually sprouted an urban legend that Dan Haggerty was the only honoree to have a star removed from the Walk of Fame.
For 28 years, the star intended to honor Mauritz Stiller, the Helsinki - born pioneer of Swedish film who brought Greta Garbo to the United States, read "Maurice Diller '', possibly due to mistranscription of verbal dictation. The star was finally remade with the correct name in 1988.
Three stars remain misspelled: opera diva Lotte Lehmann 's first name is spelled "Lottie ''; Cinerama co-inventor and King Kong creator, director, and producer Merian C. Cooper 's first name is spelled "Meriam ''; and cinematography pioneer Auguste Lumière 's first name is listed as "August ''.
Monty Woolley, the veteran film and stage actor best known for The Man Who Came to Dinner (1942) and the classic line "Time flies when you 're having fun '', is officially listed in the motion picture category, but his star on the Walk of Fame bears the television emblem. Woolley did appear on the small screen late in his career, but his TV contributions were eclipsed by his extensive stage, film, and radio work. Similarly, the star of film actress Carmen Miranda bears the TV emblem, although her official category is motion pictures. Radio and television talk show host Larry King is officially a television honoree, but his star displays a film camera.
The Los Angeles Times, which documented and photographed the Walk as part of its Hollywood Star Walk project, reported that it could not find two stars, honoring Richard Crooks and the film career of Geraldine Farrar. (Farrar 's music star is located on the 1700 block of Vine Street.)
Acts of vandalism occur on the Walk on a regular basis, ranging from profanity and political statements written on stars with markers to attempted removal of brass emblems with chisels. Closed circuit surveillance cameras have been installed on the stretch of Hollywood Boulevard between La Brea Avenue and Vine Street in an effort to discourage mischievous activities.
Four of the stars, which weigh about 300 pounds (140 kg) each, have been stolen from the Walk of Fame. In 2000, James Stewart 's and Kirk Douglas 's stars disappeared from their locations near the intersection of Hollywood and Vine, where they had been temporarily removed for a construction project. Police recovered them in the suburban community of South Gate when they arrested a man involved in an incident there and searched his house. The suspect was a construction worker employed on the Hollywood and Vine project. The stars had been badly damaged, and had to be remade. One of Gene Autry 's five stars (it is not clear which one) was also stolen from a construction area. Johnny Grant later received an anonymous phone tip that the missing star was in Iowa, but it was never found. "Someday, it will end up on eBay, '' Grant once joked. The most brazen and ambitious theft occurred in 2005 when thieves used a concrete saw to remove Gregory Peck 's star from its Hollywood Boulevard site at the intersection of North El Centro Avenue, near North Gower. The star was replaced almost immediately, but the original was never recovered and the perpetrators never caught.
In late 2009, rumors circulated widely on media outlets and the Internet that John Lennon 's star had been stolen, but it was merely being relocated farther south on Vine Street to an area near the circular Capitol Records Building, adjacent to the stars of bandmates George Harrison and Ringo Starr. Paul McCartney 's star was installed in the same location in 2012.
Donald Trump 's star -- received as host of The Apprentice television series -- was repeatedly defaced during the 2016 presidential campaign. In late October, near the end of the race, a man named Jamie Otis (who claimed to be an heir to the Otis Elevator fortune) used a sledge hammer and a pickaxe to destroy all of the star 's brass inlays. He readily admitted to the vandalism, which he described as "civil disobedience '' and "freedom of expression '', and told reporters that he originally planned to remove the entire star and auction it to raise money for the women who accused Trump of sexually assaulting them. Otis was arrested three weeks after the incident, charged with one count of felony vandalism, and sentenced to three years ' probation plus $3400 in restitution payments. The star itself was repaired, and has since been the site of pro-Trump demonstrations.
The Four Ladies of Hollywood gazebo -- known officially as the Hollywood and La Brea Gateway -- stands upon a small triangular island formed by the confluence of Hollywood Boulevard, Marshfield Way, and North La Brea Avenue at the westernmost extension of the Walk of Fame. It was commissioned in 1993 by the Los Angeles Community Redevelopment Agency Art Program and created by the architect, production designer, and film director Catherine Hardwicke as a tribute to the multi-ethnic women of Hollywood. The gazebo is a stainless steel stylized Art Deco lattice structure. The roof is an arched square supporting a circular dome, which is topped by a central obelisk with descending neon block letters spelling "Hollywood '' on each of its four sides. Atop the obelisk is a small gilded weathervane - style sculpture of Marilyn Monroe in her iconic billowing skirt pose from The Seven Year Itch. The domed structure is held aloft by four caryatids sculpted by Harl West to represent the African - American actress Dorothy Dandridge, Asian - American actress Anna May Wong, Mexican actress Dolores del Río, and the multi-ethnic, Brooklyn - born actress Mae West.
The gazebo was dedicated on February 1, 1994, to a mixed reception. Los Angeles Times art critic Christopher Knight called it "the most depressingly awful work of public art in recent years '', representing the opposite of Hardwicke 's intended tribute to women. "Sex, as a woman 's historic gateway to Hollywood '', he wrote, "could n't be more explicitly described ''. Independent writer and film producer Gail Choice called it a fitting tribute to a group of pioneering and courageous women who "carried a tremendous burden on their feminine shoulders. Never in my wildest dreams did I believe I 'd ever see women of color immortalized in such a creative and wonderful fashion. '' Hardwicke contended that critics had missed the "humor and symbolism '' of the structure, which "embraces and pokes fun at the glamour, the polished metallic male form of the Oscar, and the pastiche of styles and dreams that pervades Tinseltown. ''
Each year an average of 200 nominations are submitted to the Hollywood Chamber of Commerce Walk of Fame Selection Committee. Anyone, including fans, can nominate anyone active in the field of entertainment as long as the nominee or his or her management approves the nomination (a letter of agreement from the nominated celebrity or representative must accompany the application). Nominees must have a minimum of five years ' experience in the category for which they are nominated and a history of "charitable contributions ''. Posthumous nominees must have been deceased at least five years. At a meeting each June, the committee selects approximately 20 celebrities to receive stars on the Walk of Fame during the following year. One posthumous award is given each year as well. The nominations of those not selected are rolled over to the following year for reconsideration; those not selected two years in a row are dropped, and must be renominated to receive further consideration. Living recipients must agree to personally attend a presentation ceremony within five years of selection. A relative of deceased recipients must attend posthumous presentations. Presentation ceremonies are open to the public.
A fee of $40,000 (as of 2018), payable at time of selection, is collected to pay for the creation and installation of the star, as well as general maintenance of the Walk of Fame. The fee is usually paid by the nominating organization, which may be a fan club, or a film studio, record company, broadcaster, or other sponsor involved with the prospective honoree. The Starz cable network, for example, paid for Dennis Hopper 's star as part of the promotion for its series Crash. It was unveiled in March 2010 shortly before Hopper 's death.
Numerous major entertainment figures and legendary show business acts are not included on the Walk of Fame for a variety of reasons. Some, such as Julia Roberts and Clint Eastwood, have declined to participate; nominations can not proceed without the nominee 's consent. Others, such as George Clooney and John Denver, were nominated, but would not agree to the mandatory personal appearance at the unveiling ceremony; however, Denver received a posthumous star in late 2014. Others have simply never been nominated, or do not have a nominator willing or able to pay the selection fee, or have less than the required five years ' minimum involvement in their designated field. Others are merely victims of selection constraints and probability; only about 10 % of nominees are selected each year.
Traditionally, the identities of selection committee members, other than its chairman, have not been made public in order to minimize conflicts of interest and to discourage lobbying by celebrities and their representatives (a significant problem during the original selections in the late 1950s). However, in 1999, in response to intensifying charges of secrecy in the selection process, the Chamber disclosed the members ' names: Johnny Grant, the longtime chair and representative of the television category; Earl Lestz, president of Paramount Studio Group (motion pictures); Stan Spero, retired manager with broadcast stations KMPC and KABC (radio); Kate Nelson, owner of the Palace Theatre (live performance); and Mary Lou Dudas, vice president of A&M Records (recording industry). Since that 1999 announcement the Chamber has revealed only that Lestz (who received his own star in 2004) became chairman after Grant died in 2008. Their current official position is that "each of the five categories is represented by someone with expertise in that field ''.
In 2010, Lestz was replaced as chairman by John Pavlik, former Director of Communications for the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences. While no public announcement was made to that effect, he was identified as chairman in the Chamber 's press release announcing the 2011 star recipients. The current chair, according to the Chamber 's 2016 selection announcement, is film producer Maureen Schultz.
Some fans show respect for star recipients both living and dead by laying flowers or other symbolic tributes at their stars. Others show their support in other ways; the star awarded to Julio Iglesias, for example, is kept in "pristine condition (by) a devoted band of elderly women (who) scrub and polish it once a month ''.
The Hollywood Chamber of Commerce has adopted the tradition of placing flower wreaths at the stars of newly deceased awardees; for example Bette Davis in 1989, Katharine Hepburn in 2003, and Jackie Cooper in 2011. The stars of other deceased celebrities, such as Elizabeth Taylor, Richard Pryor, Ricardo Montalbán, James Doohan, Frank Sinatra, Robin Williams, Joan Rivers and George Harrison have become impromptu memorial and vigil sites as well, and some continue to receive anniversary remembrances.
Route map: Google
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where is hart of dixie filmed in alabama | Hart of Dixie - wikipedia
Hart of Dixie is an American comedy - drama television series that aired on The CW from September 26, 2011 to March 27, 2015. The series, created by Leila Gerstein, stars Rachel Bilson as Dr. Zoe Hart, a New Yorker who, after her dreams of becoming a heart surgeon fall apart, accepts an offer to work as a general practitioner in the fictional Gulf Coast town of Bluebell, Alabama. The show also stars a pet alligator named Burt Reynolds.
On September 26, 2011, Hart of Dixie premiered. The show was scheduled to move back to Mondays in the fall for its third season having been paired with Beauty & the Beast. The show 's third season premiered on October 7, 2013.
On May 8, 2014, the CW renewed the show for its fourth season. On July 18, 2014, CW president Mark Pedowitz announced that Hart of Dixie would have ten episodes for its fourth season, which premiered on December 15, 2014. On March 14, 2015, Leila Gerstein revealed that season four of Hart of Dixie would be its last. The CW officially cancelled the show on May 7, 2015.
The first season mostly revolves around Zoe Hart adjusting to life in the small town of Bluebell, Alabama and the practice she inherited from the father she never knew, with whom Zoe 's mother had an affair while she was engaged to the man Zoe knew as her dad. She struggles to bring in 30 % of the patients to her practice, a clause she needs to adhere to if she wishes to keep half of the practice from Brick Breeland. She finds this difficult, as she is at odds with most of the local residents due to her city persona. Zoe also struggles with her growing feelings towards local attorney George Tucker, feelings of which his fiancée, Lemon Breeland is fully aware, leading her to make it her mission to ensure Zoe leaves Bluebell. Other storylines include Wade 's feelings for Zoe (which may or may not be returned); Zoe 's friendship with the mayor, Lavon, and his past with Lemon; and Zoe 's unresolved issues regarding her family.
The season begins with Zoe confused with her feelings for both George and Wade (she slept with Wade the night of George and Lemon 's aborted wedding at the end of season one). She later decides that George is n't ready for another relationship yet and decides to see Wade. Lavon 's former high school sweetheart Ruby Jeffries (played by Golden Brooks) returns to Bluebell and reveals she is opposing for mayor. George begins dating again, first seeing newcomer Shelby Sinclair; however, he later dumps her, and Shelby begins dating Brick Breeland. George later starts a relationship with Wade 's ex-wife, Tansy Truitt. As the season progresses, Ruby leaves after Lemon 's jealousy destroys her and Lavon. Wade and Zoe continue to date, though they face their share of setbacks. At the end of the season, Zoe is faced deciding between a summer in New York working at a hospital at her dream job - only to have confessed his feelings for her, and she unable to return them. Meanwhile, Annabeth begins having feelings for Lavon, and later the two sleep together, leaving Lemon devastated by her best friend 's betrayal.
The season begins with Zoe returning to Bluebell after a summer in NYC - along with her new boyfriend Joel (played by Josh Cooke). George struggles to rebuild his life following his break up with Tansy but finds love with Lavon 's younger cousin. Lemon finds herself in a scandalous relationship, while Annabeth hopes her relationship with Lavon will grow into something more. Zoe learns more about her family roots in Bluebell, breaks up with Joel, and reunites with Wade.
The final season deals with Zoe 's pregnancy and her relationship with Wade. George, Lemon, Lavon, and Annabeth enter a tumultuous love affair, while Brick has to deal with his past in order to move forward as Lemon and Magnolia meet their half - sister from their estranged mother who left the family. In the end, George and Annabeth move in together, George changes careers to become a music manager, Zoe and Wade get married (in a rushed ceremony, due to Zoe 's inhibitions about marriage and having gone into labor - they recite their vows while rushing towards the delivery room - delivering a baby boy), Lemon and Lavon get married.
The final scene shows the town in harmony in the town square, Wade and Zoe with their son - and an old love triangle re-fueled between 3 elderly members of the community; Zoe asks if all small towns are like Bluebell, to which Wade answers that they probably are n't. Zoe agrees, and they get up to walk their son and join their friends.
On February 1, 2011, it was announced that The CW had ordered a pilot for Hart of Dixie. On May 17, 2011, the network officially picked up Hart of Dixie to series, set to air in fall 2011. The series marks the second time executive producer, Josh Schwartz, and series star, Rachel Bilson, have worked together on television. The first time the duo worked together was on the Fox teen drama The O.C., created by Schwartz. The show 's executive producer, Josh Schwartz, compared the show to The WB classics such as Felicity, Everwood, and Gilmore Girls.
With the reveal of The CW 's fall 2011 schedule, it was announced that Hart of Dixie would air on Monday at 9: 00 pm Eastern / 8: 00 pm Central, following Gossip Girl. It premiered on Monday, September 26, 2011. On October 12, 2011 the series was picked up for a full season, which will consist of twenty - two episodes. Along with pick - up for all other CW dramas, Mark Pedowitz said "We believe in the creative strength of these dramas, and by giving them back nine orders we can give our audience the chance to enjoy complete seasons of all three of them. '' On May 11, 2012, The CW renewed the show for a second season, which premiered on October 2, 2012. The CW renewed the show for a third season on April 26, 2013.
On February 8, 2011, TVLine reported that Rachel Bilson was nearing a deal to star in the series. Her role was later confirmed by The CW in a press release. Soon after, Wilson Bethel joined the cast as Wade Kinsella, Zoe 's "gorgeous bad - boy '' neighbor. Scott Porter was later cast as good - looking lawyer George Tucker, a potential love - interest for Bilson 's character.
On May 20, 2011, it was announced that Nancy Travis would not continue with the series due to her commitments with the 20th Century Fox - produced ABC sitcom Last Man Standing. Travis was written out after the first two episodes. Meredith Monroe appeared in one episode as Lemon 's estranged mother. JoBeth Williams appeared in three episodes as Candice Hart, the mother of Bilson 's character. On July 26, 2013, it was announced that Kaitlyn Black was upgraded to series regular status for season three.
Hart of Dixie 's first season has received mixed reviews, scoring a 43 out of 100 on the review aggregator Metacritic.
TVGuide.com described the show as "Southern Exposure '' and, in a later review, stated that the actors are better than the "cutesy '' material, although Bilson is not convincing as a heart surgeon. Both TVGuide.com and Robert Bianco of USA Today stated that the show is potentially offensive to the South. Bianco also wrote that the show is shallow and far - fetched, with Bilson giving an unconvincing performance, such as acting surprised when calling herself a doctor. Tim Goodman of The Hollywood Reporter stated that the series is predictable and superficial, but "surprisingly touching ''. Goodman and Brian Lowry of Variety stated that Bilson does not look like a doctor, with Goodman writing that she looked too much "like a high - priced call girl '' and Lowry writing that she looked like she belonged in "Barbie 's medical dream house. ''
Writing for The New York Times, critic Neil Genzlinger wrote, "... the premiere, at least, does n't find a convincing way to balance the clashing strands: the city - mouse disorientation, the medical emergencies, the girlfights, the daddy issues, the young - pretty - and - available stuff. '' Los Angeles Times reviewer Mary McNamara described the show as, "a stack of familiar scenarios stitched together to form a pretty if not terribly substantial quilt. '' TVLine described the show as "Everwood-esque ''. TVLine later said: "Beautifully filmed with warm, cozy tones, the Southern setting utterly envelops the glowing Bilson '', adding that Porter 's appearance "wins us over and makes you forget that clunky intro '' and despite the "rom - coms clichés, the pilot is super-efficient at introducing us to those who will be the key players in Zoe 's story, laying the framework for storytelling places to go. '' Tv Times magazine gave Hart of Dixie its lowest score of 2011 -- 2012: 12 out of 100.
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when does seventeen magazine come out every month | Seventeen (American magazine) - wikipedia
Seventeen is an American magazine for teenagers. The magazine 's reader base is 13 - to - 19 - year - old females. It began as a publication geared towards inspiring teen girls to become model workers and citizens. Soon after its debut, Seventeen took a more fashion and romance - oriented approach in presenting its material while promoting self - confidence in young women. It was first published in September 1944 by Walter Annenberg 's Triangle Publications.
The first editor of Seventeen, Helen Valentine, provided teenage girls with working woman role models and information about their development. Seventeen enhanced the role of teenagers as consumers of popular culture. The concept of "teenager '' as a distinct demographic originated in that era. In July 1944, King Features Syndicate began running the comic strip Teena, created by cartoonist Hilda Terry, in which a typical teenager 's life was examined. Teena ran internationally in newspapers for twenty years.
After Seventeen was launched in September 1944, Estelle Ellis Rubenstein, the magazine 's promotion director, introduced advertisers to the life of teenage girls through Teena, selling advertising in Seventeen at the same time. From 1945 to 1946, the magazine surveyed teen girls in order to better understand the magazine 's audience. The magazine became an important source of information to manufacturers seeking guidance on how to satisfy consumer demand among teenagers. Today, the magazine entertains as well as promotes self - confidence in young women.
Sylvia Plath submitted nearly fifty pieces to Seventeen before her first short story, "And Summer Will Not Come Again '', was accepted and published in the August 1950 issue.
Joyce Walker became the first black model to be featured on the cover of Seventeen magazine in July 1971. In the early 1980s, Whitney Houston was also featured on the cover of the magazine.
News Corporation bought Triangle in 1988 and sold Seventeen to K - III Communications (later Primedia) in 1991. Primedia sold the magazine to Hearst in 2003. Seventeen remains popular on newsstands today despite greater competition.
In 2010, writer Jamie Keiles conducted "The Seventeen Magazine Project '', an experiment in which she followed the advice of Seventeen magazine for thirty days.
In 2012, in response to reader protests against the magazine 's airbrushing its models ' photos, Seventeen ended its practice of using digital photo manipulation to enhance published photographs. (See more below under Controversy).
In August 2016, Michelle Tan was fired from her position as Editor in Chief while she was on maternity leave. It was announced shortly thereafter that Michele Promaulayko, who was appointed Editor in Chief of Cosmopolitan, would also serve as Seventeen 's editorial director. Starting with their Dec / Jan 2017 issue, the magazine was to start publishing only six issues a year instead of ten, to focus on their online presence to appeal to the Generation Z market.
Seventeen has also published books for teens, addressing such topics as beauty, style, college, health and fitness.
Seventeen was a sponsor of America 's Next Top Model. The winners of America 's Next Top Model from seasons 7 through 14 have each graced a cover of Seventeen magazine, including CariDee English, Jaslene Gonzalez, Sal Stowers, Whitney Thompson, McKey Sullivan, Teyona Anderson, Nicole Fox, and Krista White. Originally, the magazine only planned on sponsoring the show from cycles 7 through 10; however, with such a high success rate and a great opportunity the magazine provided for these women, the magazine sponsored the cycles until the show decided to move the winners to Vogue Italia.
In 2011, Seventeen worked together with ABC Family to make a film about a girl who gets bullied online called Cyberbu / / y. The point was to raise awareness of cyber bullying and to "delete digital drama ''. The film premiered July 17, 2011 on ABC Family.
In April 2012, 14 - year - old Julia Bluhm from Waterville, Maine created a petition on Change.org titled "Seventeen Magazine: Give Girls Images of Real Girls! ' advocating for the magazine publication to vow to print at least one unaltered and Photoshop - FREE monthly photo spread ''. As a self - proclaimed "SPARK Summit Activist '', Bluhm petitioned for an end to digital photo manipulation.
In May 2012 Bluhm, her mother, and a group of fellow "SPARK Summit '' members were invited to the New York headquarters of Seventeen by editor - in - chief Ann Shoket.
On 3 July 2012, Bluhm announced that her petition had "won '' after receiving almost 85,000 signatures online, resulting in Seventeen 's editorial staff pledging to always feature one photo spread per month without the use of digital photo manipulation. Furthermore, Seventeen 's editor - in - chief Shoket published an editorial praising The Body Peace Treaty in the August 2012 Seventeen issue, offering the push against digital photo manuipulation as an extension of the magazine 's ongoing Body Peace Project.
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an example of lysogenic conversion by a temperate phage is | Lysogenic cycle - wikipedia
Lysogeny, or the lysogenic cycle, is one of two cycles of viral reproduction (the lytic cycle being the other). Lysogeny is characterized by integration of the bacteriophage nucleic acid into the host bacterium 's genome or formations of a circular replicon in the bacterial cytoplasm. In this condition the bacterium continues to live and reproduce normally. The genetic material of the bacteriophage, called a prophage, can be transmitted to daughter cells at each subsequent cell division, and at later events (such as UV radiation or the presence of certain chemicals) can release it, causing proliferation of new phages via the lytic cycle. Lysogenic cycles can also occur in eukaryotes, although the method of DNA incorporation is not fully understood.
The difference between lysogenic and lytic cycles is that, in lysogenic cycles, the spread of the viral DNA occurs through the usual prokaryotic reproduction, whereas a lytic cycle is more immediate in that it results in many copies of the virus being created very quickly and the cell is destroyed. One key difference between the lytic cycle and the lysogenic cycle is that the lysogenic cycle does not lyse the host cell straight away. Phages that replicate only via the lytic cycle are known as virulent phages while phages that replicate using both lytic and lysogenic cycles are known as temperate phages.
In the lysogenic cycle, the phage DNA first integrates into the bacterial chromosome to produce the prophage. When the bacterium reproduces, the prophage is also copied and is present in each of the daughter cells. The daughter cells can continue to replicate with the prophage present or the prophage can exit the bacterial chromosome to initiate the lytic cycle.
Bacteriophages are viruses that infect and replicate within a bacterium. Temperate phages (such as lambda phage) can reproduce using both the lytic and the lysogenic cycle. Via the lysogenic cycle, the bacteriophage 's genome is not expressed and is instead integrated into the bacteria 's genome to form the prophage. Since the bacteriophage 's genetic information is incorporated into the bacteria 's genetic information as a prophage, the bacteriophage replicates passively as the bacterium divides to form daughter bacteria cells. In this scenario, the daughter bacteria cells contain prophage and are known as lysogens. Lysogens can remain in the lysogenic cycle for many generations but can switch to the lytic cycle at any time via a process known as induction. During induction, prophage DNA is excised from the bacterial genome and is transcribed and translated to make coat proteins for the virus and regulate lytic growth.
The model organism for studying lysogeny is lambda phage. Prophage integration, maintenance of lysogeny, induction, and control of phage genome excision in induction is described in detail in the lambda phage article.
Bacteriophages are parasitic because they infect their hosts, use bacterial machinery to replicate, and ultimately lyse the bacteria. Temperate phages can lead to both advantages and disadvantages for their hosts via the lysogenic cycle. During the lysogenic cycle, the virus genome is incorporated as prophage and a repressor prevents viral replication. Nonetheless, a temperate phage can escape repression to replicate, produce viral particles, and lyse the bacteria. The temperate phage escaping repression would be a disadvantage for the bacteria. On the other hand, the prophage may transfer genes that enhance host virulence and resistance to the immune system. Also, the repressor produced by the prophage that prevents prophage genes from being expressed confers an immunity for the host bacteria from lytic infection by related viruses.
In some interactions between lysogenic phages and bacteria, lysogenic conversion may occur, which can also be called phage conversion. It is when a temperate phage induces a change in the phenotype of the infected bacteria that is not part of a usual phage cycle. Changes can often involve the external membrane of the cell by making it impervious to other phages or even by increasing the pathogenic capability of the bacteria for a host. In this way, temperate bacteriophages also play a role in the spread of virulence factors, such as exotoxins and exoenzymes, amongst bacteria. This change then stays in the genome of the infected bacteria and is copied and passed down to daughter cells.
Lysogenic conversion has shown to enable biofilm formation in Bacillus anthracis Strains of B. anthracis cured of all phage were unable to form biofilms, which are surface - adhered bacterial communities that enable bacteria to better access nutrients and survive environmental stresses. In addition to biofilm formation in B. anthracis, lysogenic conversion of Bacillus subtilis, Bacillus thuringiensis, and Bacillus cereus has shown an enhanced rate or extent of sporulation. Sporulation produces endospores, which are metabolically dormant forms of the bacteria that are highly resistant to temperature, ionizing radiation, desiccation, antibiotics, and disinfectants.
Non-virulent bacteria have also been shown to transform into highly virulent pathogens through lysogenic conversion with the virulence factors carried on the lysogenic prophage. Virulence genes carried within prophages as discrete autonomous genetic elements, known as morons, confer an advantage to the bacteria that indirectly benefits the virus through enhanced lysogen survival.
Examples:
Strategies to combat certain bacterial infections by blocking prophage induction (the transition from the lysogenic to the lytic cycle) by eliminating in vivo induction agents have been proposed. Reactive oxygen species (ROS), such as hydrogen peroxide, are strong oxidizing agents that can decompose into free radicals and cause DNA damage to bacteria, which leads to prophage induction. One potential strategy to combat prophage induction is through the use of glutathione, a strong antioxidant that can remove free radical intermediates. Another approach could be to cause an overexpression of CI repressor since prophage induction only occurs when the concentration of CI repressor is too low.
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who has the most receptions in nfl history | List of National Football League career receptions leaders - wikipedia
The 1,000 Catch Club is a group of 14 National Football League players with at least 1,000 career receptions. The list consists of 12 wide receivers and 2 tight ends.
Through end of 2017 season.
Oakland Raiders
Seattle Seahawks
Atlanta Falcons
Minnesota Vikings
Miami Dolphins
Tampa Bay Buccaneers
Philadelphia Eagles
Dallas Cowboys
Buffalo Bills
Cincinnati Bengals
Baltimore Ravens
San Francisco 49ers
Detroit Lions
Indianapolis Colts
Tennessee Titans
Baltimore Ravens
San Francisco 49ers
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which of the following body regulates securities trading in india | Securities and Exchange Board of India - Wikipedia
The Securities and Exchange Board of India (SEBI) is the regulator for the securities market in India. It was established in 1988 and given statutory powers on 30 January 1992 through the SEBI Act, 1992.
Securities and exchange Board of India (SEBI) was first established in the year 1988 AQF as a non-statutory body for regulating the, securities market. It became an autonomous body by The Government of India on 12 May 1992 and given statutory powers in 1992 with SEBI Act 1992 being passed by the Indian Parliament. SEBI has its headquarters at the business district of Bandra Kurla Complex in Mumbai, and has Northern, Eastern, Southern and Western Regional Offices in New Delhi, Kolkata, Chennai and Ahmedabad respectively. It has opened local offices at Jaipur and Bangalore and is planning to open offices at Guwahati, Bhubaneshwar, Patna, Kochi and Chandigarh in Financial Year 2013 - 2014.
Controller of Capital Issues was the regulatory authority before SEBI came into existence; it derived authority from the Capital Issues (Control) Act, 1947.
Initially SEBI was a non statutory body without any statutory power. However, in 1992, the SEBI was given additional statutory power by the Government of India through an amendment to the Securities and Exchange Board of India Act, 1992. In April 1988 the SEBI was constituted as the regulator of capital markets in India under a resolution of the Government of India. The SEBI is managed by its members, which consists of following:
The chairman who is nominated by Union Government of India. Two members, i.e., Officers from Union Finance Ministry. One member from the Reserve Bank of India. The remaining five members are nominated by Union Government of India, out of them at least three shall be whole - time members.
After amendment of 1999, collective investment scheme brought under SEBI except NIDHI, chit fund and cooperatives.
Ajay Tyagi was appointed chairman on 10 January 2017, replacing UK Sinha, and took charge of the chairman office on 1 March 2017.
The board comprises:
List of Chairmen:
The Preamble of the Securities and Exchange Board of India describes the basic functions of the Securities and Exchange Board of India as "... to protect the interests of investors in securities and to promote the development of, and to regulate the securities market and for matters connected there with or incidental there to ''.
SEBI has to be responsive to the needs of three groups, which constitute the market:
SEBI has three functions rolled into one body: quasi-legislative, quasi-judicial and quasi-executive. It drafts regulations in its legislative capacity, it conducts investigation and enforcement action in its executive function and it passes rulings and orders in its judicial capacity. Though this makes it very powerful, there is an appeal process to create accountability. There is a Securities Appellate Tribunal which is a three - member tribunal and is headed by Justice JP Devadhar, of the Bombay High Court. A second appeal lies directly to the Supreme Court. SEBI has taken a very proactive role in streamlining disclosure requirements to international standards.
For the discharge of its functions efficiently, SEBI has been vested with the following powers:
There are two types of brokers:
SEBI committees
Technical Advisory Committee
Eliminate map practices in security market
SEBI has enjoyed success as a regulator by pushing systematic reforms aggressively and successively. SEBI is credited for quick movement towards making the markets electronic and paperless by introducing T + 5 rolling cycle from July 2001 and T + 3 in April 2002 and further to T + 2 in April 2003. The rolling cycle of T + 2 means, Settlement is done in 2 days after Trade date. SEBI has been active in setting up the regulations as required under law. SEBI did away with physical certificates that were prone to postal delays, theft and forgery, apart from making the settlement process slow and cumbersome by passing Depositories Act, 1996.
SEBI has also been instrumental in taking quick and effective steps in light of the global meltdown and the Satyam fiasco. In October 2011, it increased the extent and quantity of disclosures to be made by Indian corporate promoters. In light of the global meltdown, it liberalised the takeover code to facilitate investments by removing regulatory structures. In one such move, SEBI has increased the application limit for retail investors to ₹ 2 lakh, from ₹ 1 lakh at present.
Supreme Court of India heard a Public Interest Litigation (PIL) filed by India Rejuvenation Initiative that had challenged the procedure for key appointments adopted by Govt of India. The petition alleged that, "The constitution of the search - cum - selection committee for recommending the name of chairman and every whole - time members of SEBI for appointment has been altered, which directly impacted its balance and could compromise the role of the SEBI as a watchdog. '' On 21 November 2011, the court allowed petitioners to withdraw the petition and file a fresh petition pointing out constitutional issues regarding appointments of regulators and their independence. The Chief Justice of India refused the finance ministry 's request to dismiss the PIL and said that the court was well aware of what was going on in SEBI. Hearing a similar petition filed by Bengaluru - based advocate Anil Kumar Agarwal, a two judge Supreme Court bench of Justice SS Nijjar and Justice HL Gokhale issued a notice to the Govt of India, SEBI chief UK Sinha and Omita Paul, Secretary to the President of India.
Further, it came into light that Dr KM Abraham (the then whole time member of SEBI Board) had written to the Prime Minister about malaise in SEBI. He said, "The regulatory institution is under duress and under severe attack from powerful corporate interests operating concertedly to undermine SEBI ''. He specifically said that Finance Minister 's office, and especially his advisor Omita Paul, were trying to influence many cases before SEBI, including those relating to Sahara Group, Reliance, Bank of Rajasthan and MCX.
SEBI in its circular dated May 30, 2012 gave exit - guidelines for Securities exchanges. This was mainly due to illiquid nature of trade on many of 20 + regional Securities exchanges. It had asked many of these exchanges to either meet the required criteria or take a graceful exit. SEBI 's new norms for Securities exchanges mandates that it should have minimum net - worth of Rs. 100 crore and an annual trading of Rs. 1,000 crore. The Indian Securities market regulator SEBI had given the recognized Securities exchanges two years to comply or exit the business.
Following is an excerpts from the circular:
1. Exchanges may seek exit through voluntary surrender of recognition.
2. Securities where the annual trading turnover on its own platform is less than Rs 1000 Crore can apply to SEBI for voluntary surrender of recognition and exit, at any time before the expiry of two years from the date of issuance of this Circular.
3. If the Securities exchange is not able to achieve the prescribed turnover of Rs 1000 Crores on continuous basis or does not apply for voluntary surrender of recognition and exit before the expiry of two years from the date of this Circular, SEBI shall proceed with compulsory de-recognition and exit of such Securities exchanges, in terms of the conditions as may be specified by SEBI.
4. Securities Exchanges which are already de-recognised as on date, shall make an application for exit within two months from the date of this circular. Upon failure to do so, the de-recognized exchange shall be subject to compulsory exit process.
SEBI regulates Indian financial market through its 20 departments.
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maximum length of a probation order in canada | Criminal sentencing in Canada - wikipedia
In Canada, the criminal law is governed by the Criminal Code, a federal statute. The Criminal Code includes the principles and powers in relation to criminal sentences.
A judge sentences a person after they have been found guilty of a crime. After a determination is made about the facts being relied on for sentencing, and hearing from both the Crown and the defence about what the appropriate sentence should be, the judge must pick from a number of different sentencing options found in the Criminal Code, based on a number of factors. Some offences have a minimum sentence, and there may also be a maximum sentence depending on the nature of the offence.
The maximum determinate sentence is a life sentence with a 25 - year parole ineligibility period. For offences committed prior to December 2, 2011 all life sentences and related parole ineligibility periods are served concurrently (at the same time). In cases of multiple murder, where the offence occurred after December 2, 2011 (the date new legislation came into force), a court may, after considering any jury recommendation, order consecutive parole ineligibility periods for each murder. There are also options for an indeterminate sentence. There is no death penalty in Canada.
When a person is found guilty of a crime, a finding has been made that all essential elements of the offence have been met (either by admission through a guilty plea or after the elements have been proven beyond a reasonable doubt in a trial). However, there may be facts that did not have to be determined for the defendant 's guilt to be decided (i.e. severity of a victim 's injuries, motivation for the crime, etc.). If the guilty verdict was determined by a jury, the judge may have to determine what facts the jury relied on to reach their verdict (since jury deliberations are confidential in Canada).
When the additional facts are in dispute, the party relying on the fact has the burden to prove it. The general standard of proof at a sentencing hearing is a "balance of probabilities ''. If the Crown, however, is relying on an aggravating fact or a prior conviction, the burden of proof is "beyond a reasonable doubt ''.
There are a number of exceptions to the normal rules of evidence. For example, the judge may permit hearsay evidence. A probation officer can interview the defendant and other people associated with the defendant and file a report. A victim impact statement may be filed with the court (with the option of having it read out by the victim). The defendant is also given an opportunity to personally speak to the court.
Either the Crown or the accused may appeal against a sentence. An appellant must demonstrate that either the sentence imposed was "demonstrably unfit '' or the court "erred in principle '', for example by placing undue emphasis on a particular sentence principle. Except for an appeal against a finding that the accused is a dangerous or long - term offender, the court upon allowing an appeal must then determine a fit sentence and may not remit the matter back to the court of first instance. The court of appeal considers the sentence anew and the sentence may be more or less severe than the sentence imposed, regardless of who appealed; this is referred to as the "Hill Principle ''
There are some additional considerations taken into account at an appeal. Given the high stakes for both the accused and the safety of the public, fresh evidence of post-sentence conduct is routinely admitted. Where the appellant was granted bail pending appeal and has presented fresh evidence indicating that reincarceration would be unduly harsh, the court of appeal may reduce a sentence despite the absence of a reviewable error. Where the Crown appeals against the sentence and the court of appeal determines that a longer period of incarceration is warranted, the court will often stay the order if the accused has been out of custody for a lengthy period of time or has fully complied with the terms of a non-carceral sentence. The court of appeal will only order the reincarceration of the accused in cases where the facts support it or where the additional period of incarceration is substantial. Accused persons will also be given credit for complying with the terms of a non-carceral sentence.
Under the Criminal Code and the Youth Criminal Justice Act the original sentencing judge retains jurisdiction to vary a sentence imposed under a very limited number of circumstances. A probation order can be varied at the request of the accused, probation officer or the prosecution. Under s. 732.2 (3) of the Criminal Code a court that sentenced the accused (or a court to which the probation order is transferred under s. 733 (1)) may modify the conditions, relieve compliance of a condition or decrease the duration of the probation order. The length of probation can not be increased since this would infringe section 11 (h) of the Charter. There is virtually no case law on the constitutionality of variations rendering the probation order more onerous, such as adding terms and conditions. Conditional sentences may be varied in a similar matter except the duration can not be varied.
Where the court imposes a driving prohibition over 5 years, the National Parole Board may decrease the period of prohibition after 5 years where the court - imposed prohibition is less than life or after 10 years where the court imposed prohibition was life.
Where the court imposes a fine and specifies a required time period to pay the fine, the accused may apply to the court for an extension of the period to pay a fine. Courts will usually only grant the variation, however, if the accused has made a reasonable attempt to pay the fine or has a reasonable excuse for failure to do so.
Section 718 of the Criminal Code sets out the purposes of sentencing:
There are a number of sentencing principles found in sections 718.1 and 718.2 of the Criminal Code:
Under s. 718.2 (e) the court is required to consider all reasonable alternatives to imprisonment for all offenders, with particular attention to the circumstances of Aboriginal offenders. This section was initially interpreted narrowly as requiring particular attention only to on - reserve Aboriginal offenders. Application of this section was clarified in R. v. Gladue where the Supreme Court of Canada held that it applied to Aboriginal offenders generally, not only to those living on reserve. The court found as a matter of judicial notice that the Aboriginal peoples have a long - standing disadvantage in Canadian society and the effects are felt for generations.
Aboriginal heritage is not a "get out of jail free card. '' Rather it requires the court to place a higher emphasis on alternatives to incarceration that are based on traditional Aboriginal justice principles such as restorative justice, where community members and the victim will be involved in the process. However, where the crime is more serious in nature, Aboriginal heritage plays a lesser role as courts will place a higher emphasis on protection of the public, denunciation and general deterrence. Moreover s. 718.2 (e) is not a substantive power which allows a court to impose a sentence outside the legally acceptable range. For instance, where an offender faces a 4 - year minimum sentence, the court can not sentence below that.
There are a number of aggravating factors a judge is required to consider both at common law and by statute. Common - law factors include whether or not the victim was a vulnerable victim (children, taxi drivers, late - night clerks, etc.).
General statutory aggravating factors are found in section 718.2 of the Criminal Code. They are:
There are also specific aggravating factors for organizations found guilty of an offence. In addition, some offences have their own specific aggravating factors. For example, section 255.1 of the Criminal Code makes it an aggravating factor if a person commits a drinking and driving offence when their blood alcohol concentration is in excess of 0.160.
The court is allowed to take into account prior findings of guilt when determining the appropriate sentence.
For some offences, a prior finding of guilt will create a higher minimum sentence. However, the court can not rely on the higher minimum sentence unless the Crown notified the defendant prior to defendant 's plea. Even if the defendant was not notified, or the Crown chooses not to file the notice with the court, the court can still rely on the prior finding of guilt as an aggravating factor.
If a defendant spent time in custody while awaiting his trial (that is, he was not released on bail), the judge is allowed to take that into account when determining the sentence. There used to be no specific formula, and historically judges generally gave a "2 for 1 '' credit for pre-trial custody. This was subsequently changed by legislation.
In 2009, the Parliament of Canada passed the Truth in Sentencing Act which mostly eliminated a judge 's discretion to give credit for pre-trial custody beyond one day for every day served. The bill received Royal Assent on October 23, 2009 and came into force on February 22, 2010. The new law came into effect on March 1, 2010, but the new law does not apply to accused persons taken into custody before that date.
The new rules are as follows:
Pre-trial custody can be used to reduce a minimum sentence.
There is no specific sentencing option called "time served ''. If credit for pre-trial custody is equal to or greater than what the appropriate sentence would be, the trial judge will either suspend the sentence (discuss in more detail below), or sentence the person to one day (which will have the practical effect of just requiring the person to report once in person to the prison).
Pre-trial custody has no effect on a life sentence, and does not affect when a person can apply for parole. It is sometimes referred to as "dead time ''.
If it is in the best interests of the accused, and not contrary to the public interest, a judge may discharge an accused after a finding of guilt. A discharge is only possible if there is no minimum sentence for the offence, and the offence is not punishable by 14 years of imprisonment or a life sentence. When the court grants a discharge, the accused is not considered to have been convicted of the crime, notwithstanding the finding of guilt.
A discharge may be absolute or conditional. If conditional, the defendant will have to comply with terms under a probation order (described in more detail below). If the accused breaches the terms of the conditional discharge, the court which made the order can revoke the conditional discharge and sentence the accused for the offence.
The effect of a discharge is that it will not be considered a criminal record. An absolute discharge is purged after one year. A conditional discharge is purged after three years.
While a discharge does not result in a criminal conviction, there is a finding of guilt. This finding can be used in civil proceedings and may result in refusal of entry into the United States which does not currently recognize discharges or pardons.
Probation may be ordered in combination with other sentencing options, or if there is no minimum sentence, on its own as a suspended sentence. Probation can not be ordered in combination with a term of imprisonment of more than two years, and it can not be in combination of both a fine and imprisonment. If an individual is subject to a probation order and subsequently convicted of a different offence and receives a sentence which results in imprisonment for over two years, the probation order is not voided.
The maximum length of a probation order is 3 years.
A probation order will require the defendant to comply with a number of conditions. Some of the conditions are mandatory: "keep the peace and be of good behaviour '', appear in court when required to do so, and notify the court and probation officer of any change of address or employment. There are also a number of optional terms, which include reporting conditions, non-consumption conditions, non-possession conditions, non-attendance conditions, non-association / communication conditions, and treatment conditions. Community service can be part of a probation order, with a maximum of 240 hours, over a maximum period of 18 months.
Failure to comply with a probation order is a criminal offence. Committing an offence while bound by a probation order means the offender failed to comply with the order, due to the mandatory condition of "keep the peace and be of good behaviour ''.
Where the court sentences the accused to a suspended sentence, the accused is placed on probation for a period of up to three years. During this time the accused must comply with these conditions. A suspended sentence is not considered a final sentence, since an accused who is convicted of breaching the conditions of the probation order may in addition to being sentenced for the offence of breach of probation, may also have the suspended sentence revoked. Once a suspended sentence is revoked, the court which originally sentenced the accused may re-sentence the accused. This has been held not to be a case of double jeopardy since a suspended sentence is not a final order.
A fine can be ordered on its own or in addition to probation or imprisonment. It can not be ordered in combination of both probation and imprisonment.
If the offence is a summary conviction offence (or a hybrid offence where the Crown elects to proceed summarily), the maximum fine is $5,000, unless otherwise stated in the statute.
Before a court imposes a fine, it must inquire into the ability to pay the fine.
Failure to pay the fine by the time required in the order can result in the person being found in default. A number of remedies exist, including imprisonment. In the past a court that imposed a fine would also impose a hypothetical sentence in the event of default. This led to gross inconsistencies so in 1995 Parliament created a fixed formula for determining the number of days of imprisonment. This formula is determined by taking the unpaid amount and any costs associated with incarcerating the accused as the numerator and eight times the provincial minimum wage as the denominator. For example, an unpaid fine of $640 in a jurisdiction with a minimum wage of $8 hourly would be approximately 10 days.
In addition, unless waived by the court, the defendant is required to pay a victim fine surcharge in addition to whatever else the judge imposes as sentence. The surcharge is 30 % of the fine imposed or, if no fine is imposed, $100 for an indictable offence and $50 for an offence punishable on summary conviction. This amount may be increased or decreased depending on the discretion of the court.
Restitution can be ordered by the court for any property damage, lost or stolen property, or any physical or psychological injuries suffered by a victim.
A conditional sentence is a sentence of imprisonment which is served in the community, usually under very onerous conditions. The common vernacular for this type of sentence is "house arrest. '' Since its introduction in 1997, its availability has greatly narrowed. Originally a conditional sentence was available when the following conditions were met: (1) Court finds imprisonment under two years appropriate; (2) permitting the offender to serve his sentence in the community would not endanger the public; and (3) the imposition of a conditional sentence is consistent with the fundamental principles of sentencing. It was not available where for offences carrying a mandatory minimum sentence of imprisonment.
In 2008 additional restrictions were added. A conditional sentence is not available for offences which are considered "serious personal injury offences. '' The current law bars the use of a conditional sentence for additional offences, such as sex offences, theft over $5000, terrorism offences and any offence which carries a maximum term of imprisonment of fourteen years or life.
If the offence is a summary conviction offence (or a hybrid offence where the Crown elects to proceed summarily), the maximum sentence of imprisonment is 6 months, unless otherwise stated by statute,.
If the offence is an indictable offence (or a hybrid offence where the Crown elects to proceed by indictment), the maximum sentence of imprisonment is 5 years, unless otherwise stated by statute.
Generally, a judge has the discretion to order a sentence to be served concurrently (at the same time) or consecutively (one after the other) with any other sentence a defendant is serving, or any other sentence arising out of the same transaction.
If the total sentence is two years or more or one of life imprisonment, the defendant will serve their sentence in a federal penitentiary. If the total sentence is less than two years, the defendant will serve their sentence in a provincial jail.
A sentencing judge also has the power to delay the time before a defendant is allowed to apply for parole. The maximum parole ineligibility period is half of the sentence or ten years, whichever comes first, unless the defendant is sentenced to life imprisonment.
Life imprisonment is the mandatory sentence in all cases of high treason or murder. Life imprisonment is also a possible maximum penalty for a range of other offences, but the sentence is only mandatory in cases of high treason or murder. When an accused is sentenced to life imprisonment for murder or high treason, then the following parole ineligibility periods apply (which includes youths sentenced as an adult):
When a jury convicts a person of second - degree murder, they can recommend to the judge a parole ineligibility period, but the judge is not bound by the jury 's recommendation.
In cases of multiple murder, after considering the jury 's recommendation (if there is one), a court may also order that the parole inelibility period be served consecutively to the one being served. Amendments to the Criminal Code in 2011 permit the judge to impose consecutive parole ineligibility periods for first or second - degree murders committed as part of the same "transaction '' (or as part of the same series of offences). One of the first cases where the new sentencing provisions were used was a multiple murder in Edmonton, Alberta of three armoured car guards by one of their co-workers. The perpetrator in that case was sentenced to life in prison with no chance of parole for 40 years - 25 years for one first degree murder conviction, ordered to be served consecutively to two concurrent 15 - year parole ineligibility periods for two second - degree murder convictions as part of the same series of offences. Subsequent to this sentence Justin Bourque, convicted of the first - degree murders of three RCMP officers in Moncton New Brunswick in 2014, was sentenced to life in prison with no chance of parole for 75 years. Consecutive parole ineligibility periods were also imposed in the case of serial killer John Paul Ostamas in June 2016, who was sentenced to life in prison with no chance of parole for 75 years for the second - degree murders of three homeless men in Winnipeg, Manitoba.
An accused person serving a sentence of less than two years is eligible for remission against the sentence at a maximum rate of 1 day for every 2 days served, provided the accused is of good behaviour and obeys the rules of the institution. Remission credits abate the actual sentence and effectively most accused serve two - thirds of the sentence imposed (e.g. an accused sentenced to 12 months ' imprisonment will be deemed to have completed the full term after serving 8 months). While the sentence may deemed to be served for some purposes, for other purposes, remission is irrelevant. For instance, the delay period for an application for a criminal record suspension (formerly called a pardon) disregards any remission earned.
An accused person serving a determinate sentence, other than life imprisonment, is eligible for statutory release after serving two - thirds of the sentence. Unlike remission, the sentence is not abated; rather the accused person will be released on parole and will be subject to conditions for the last one - third of the sentence. The National Parole Board may refuse statutory release for certain accused persons or for certain offences, and as such, many accused persons end up serving their entire sentence in custody and are only released on their warrant expiry date.
Any accused person sentenced to a term of imprisonment greater than six months may apply for parole after serving one - third of the sentence. (Until 2011, where an offender was sentenced to a term of 2 years or more, the offence was non-violent, and the offence was included in the list of eligible offences under the Corrections and Conditional Release Act, the accused person was eligible for release after serving one - sixth of the sentence or six months, whichever was greater. However, this possibility was removed as a result of legislation that was passed by Parliament in 2011).
An accused person granted parole is still legally subject to a warrant of committal and is deemed to be "in custody. '' This will be the case until the expiry of the term of imprisonment; if the accused is sentenced to a life sentence or an indeterminate sentence, the accused will be subject to the jurisdiction of the National Parole Board for the rest of their life.
If a person is convicted for their third or more offence found in section 752 of the Criminal Code, the Crown can apply for the person to be declared a long term offender. The Crown can only make such applications with the personal consent of the Attorney General.
A long term offender is a person where there is a substantial risk the offender will re-offend and be a danger to the community, but there is a reasonable possibility of eventually controlling the risk in the community.
When sentenced as a long term offender, the defendant must first serve their prison sentence, and then be placed on a long - term supervision order in the community for a maximum of 10 years.
If a person is convicted for their third or more offence found in section 752 of the Criminal Code, the Crown can apply for the person to be declared a dangerous offender. The Crown can only make such applications with the personal consent of the Attorney General.
A dangerous offender is a person where there is a substantial risk the person will re-offend and be a danger to the community, and there is no reasonable possibility of eventually controlling the risk in the community.
When sentenced as a dangerous offender, the defendant is placed on an indefinite sentence, where the accused may apply for parole after 7 years and every 2 years thereafter. Even if a dangerous offender is granted parole (which is rare), the offender is subject to indefinite supervision by the National Parole Board.
A number of additional orders may be made by a judge at the time of sentencing - either optional or mandatory. These include weapon prohibitions, driving prohibitions, forfeiture of crime - related property, DNA orders, and sex offender registry orders.
Youth are sentenced under a different regime found in the Youth Criminal Justice Act (YCJA). The YCJA also dictates how and when a court can order a youth sentenced under the adult regime.
There are a number of constitutional rights guaranteed in the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms that can affect criminal sentencing:
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who's winning the game between duke and carolina | Carolina -- Duke rivalry - wikipedia
The North Carolina -- Duke rivalry refers to the rivalry between the University of North Carolina - Chapel Hill Tar Heels (Carolina) and Duke University Blue Devils (Duke). It most often refers to the athletic rivalries between the Duke Blue Devils and North Carolina Tar Heels athletic teams. The North Carolina -- Duke rivalry is fierce, particularly in men 's college basketball. It is considered one of the most intense rivalries in all of US - sports: a poll conducted by ESPN in 2000 ranked the basketball rivalry as the third greatest North American sports rivalry, and Sports Illustrated on Campus named it the # 1 "Hottest Rivalry '' in college basketball and the # 2 rivalry overall in its November 18, 2003 issue. The intensity of the rivalry is augmented by the proximity of the two universities -- they are located only ten miles apart along U.S. Highway 15 -- 501 (also known as Tobacco Road) or eight miles apart in straight - line distance. In addition, both Duke and North Carolina are considered highly prestigious universities, which, coupled with their vastly different funding structures and cultures -- North Carolina is a public school while Duke is private -- contributes to the ferocity of the rivalry. A recent funny anecdote reported on ESPN quoted one Duke fan as having won a large tournament pool in 2016 because he correctly picked UNC as the National Champion; but the fan then went on to say "It was n't worth it ''.
Duke and North Carolina battled it out for the first time on January 24, 1920. The two teams have met at least twice a year since then. The games frequently determine the Atlantic Coast Conference (ACC) champion; since the ACC 's founding in 1953, Duke and North Carolina have combined to win or share 49 ACC regular season titles (77.7 % of the total) and 38 tournament titles (59.4 % of the total), including 14 of 15 from 1996 to 2011. The final game of the regular season for both schools alternates between Chapel Hill and Durham and has been played in Cameron Indoor Stadium since 1940 and the Dean E. Smith Center since 1986.
Much like the Alabama - Auburn football rivalry, the North Carolina -- Duke rivalry is all the more intense because the two schools have consistently been among the nation 's elite men 's basketball teams for most of the last 30 years. Both schools are also two of the most victorious programs in NCAA men 's basketball history; North Carolina is # 3 on the list of all - time winningest programs in Division I Men 's Basketball and Duke is # 4. Duke has won five NCAA championships and has appeared in sixteen Final Fours, while North Carolina has won six NCAA championships and appeared in a record twenty Final Fours. Additionally, North Carolina was also retroactively awarded a national championship by the Helms Athletic Foundation in 1942 for their undefeated 1924 season.
Combining for ten national championships over the last 36 years, Duke and North Carolina have captured 28 % of the national championships, or greater than one every four years. Over the past 18 years, one of the two teams has been the AP pre-season # 1 ranked team in the country 8 times (44 % of the time). Since 1977 -- 78, Duke or North Carolina has been in the pre-season top three 28 times (70 %). Over the entirety of the AP poll (the past 69 years), the teams have been in the pre-season top four 69 % of the time. Over this same period, one has been # 1 18 times, making it an almost 3 in 10 chance that Duke or North Carolina starts the year at # 1 in the last 50 + years.
Though the two schools had always had the great emotion born of familiarity and proximity, some of the earliest roots of the modern basketball rivalry occurred in the early 1960s when Duke star and eventual national player of the year Art Heyman got into a brawl on the court with North Carolina 's Larry Brown which resulted in suspensions for both players. The rivalry reached unprecedented heights in the mid-1980s under head coaches Dean Smith of North Carolina and Mike Krzyzewski of Duke, thanks to the emergence of cable channels such as ESPN and the increasing coverage of the ACC in national broadcasts by the three major networks, giving a vast national audience more opportunities to witness the two teams and their coaches. Indeed, the two teams have been fixtures on national television since the early 1980s, and their final regular season clash has been nationally televised for most of the last 30 years.
When Smith retired after the 1997 season, he held the record for most wins by an NCAA Division I men 's head coach, with 879 wins against only 254 losses. In 1982, with players Michael Jordan, Sam Perkins and James Worthy, he won his first national championship and second overall for UNC that year. In 1991 Duke won its first ever national championship and then with most of their team returning won another national championship in 1992.
North Carolina then won the championship the next year in 1993. Since then, Duke won the national championship in 2001, 2010 and 2015 while North Carolina won national championships in 2005, 2009, and 2017. In 2011, Krzyzewski became the new holder of the record for most career wins by a D-I men 's coach, surpassing his mentor Bob Knight (who had surpassed Smith in 2007). On January 25, 2015, Krzyzewski also became the first NCAA Men 's Division 1 Basketball head coach to reach 1,000 career wins after Duke defeated St Johns in Madison Square Garden 77 -- 68.
After Smith 's retirement in 1997, North Carolina suffered through three coaching changes (from Dean Smith to Bill Guthridge to Matt Doherty to Roy Williams) between 1997 and 2003. The six seasons between Bill Guthridge and Matt Doherty from 1997 to 2003 Duke won 13 of 17 games against North Carolina and some said that the rivalry was on the decline. However, with the arrival of North Carolina 's alumnus Roy Williams as head coach in 2003, North Carolina won six regular season titles in seven years (2005, 2007, 2008, 2009, 2011, 2012), won the ACC tournament in back to back years in 2007 and 2008 and won its fourth, fifth, and sixth NCAA championships in 2005, 2009, and 2017 respectively. North Carolina also won 6 of 8 games against Duke from 2005 to 2009. Erik Spanberg of The Christian Science Monitor even argued in 2008 that the rivalry has tilted towards North Carolina in recent years. However, since 2009 and as of March 11, 2017 Duke has won 13 of the past 18 games against North Carolina including 3 season sweeps over North Carolina in 2010, 2013 and 2015 and Duke has won 2 national championships since then in 2010 and 2015. During the 2009 -- 2010 season, Duke won the regular season finale by 32 points, which was the second largest Duke win in series history.
Following that game, Duke went on to win a fourth National title in 2010.
Former Esquire editor and author (and North Carolina graduate) Will Blythe argues that the rivalry 's passion can be attributed greatly to class and culture in the South.
The rivalry has been the subject of various books and articles, including To Hate Like This Is to Be Happy Forever by Blythe and Blue Blood by Art Chansky.
Further illustrating the intensity of the rivalry, U.S. Representative Brad Miller, a die - hard Carolina fan, told an Associated Press writer in 2012, "I have said very publicly that if Duke was playing against the Taliban, then I 'd have to pull for the Taliban. ''
The two teams have never met in the NCAA Tournament, though they have met once in the 1971 National Invitation Tournament, with North Carolina winning 73 -- 67 in the semifinals at Madison Square Garden.
In 1991, the teams came within one game of playing each other for the national championship, as both advanced to that year 's Final Four at the Hoosier Dome in Indianapolis. Chansky writes in Blue Blood that Carolina fans chanted "0 - for - 4! '' at the Duke fans, while Duke responded with "Long time, no see! '' In the first semifinal, North Carolina was upset 79 -- 73 by a Kansas team coached by Roy Williams, who would later return to Chapel Hill to take the head coaching job. Some Duke fans had already arrived for their team 's game by the time Dean Smith was ejected for arguing with the officials, and Chansky writes that they were ecstatic at the ejection, waving their hands and yelling, "See ya! '' as they normally did at Cameron for a player or coach who was ejected or in foul trouble.
Below, in the Duke locker room, the Blue Devils were preparing for a rematch of the 1990 title game with UNLV in their semifinal. UNLV had won that game by 30 points and had come in undefeated in 1991, with many wondering if they were the best college basketball team ever. When the Carolina - Kansas result news got through, Mike Krzyzewski asked the team if they felt it was okay to lose since that meant they would do no worse than the Tar Heels, and some nodded. Krzyzewski understood but then added, "Flush it. Let 's go kick their ass. '' Duke then stunned the sports world by defeating UNLV 79 -- 77 and then went one better by beating Kansas 72 -- 65 in the championship game to win its first national title. Chansky writes that one UNC athletic department staffer in Indianapolis was so distraught that he did not leave his hotel room the day after the national championship game, while when Duke arrived back in Durham, Krzyzewski is said to have asked the team at a turnoff to Chapel Hill if the team wanted to cruise down Franklin Street. In the wake of the Final Four, when talking about how close the two rivals came to meeting for the national championship, Krzyzewski said that he never wanted to see it happen because regardless of who won, the pain of losing that game would be unbearable for the defeated school and its fans.
Duke defeated North Carolina 87 -- 86 in triple overtime at Duke Indoor Stadium (later renamed Cameron Indoor Stadium) when seldom used Duke junior Fred Lind erupted for 16 points, 9 rebounds, and 3 blocks after having only scored 21 points total in his entire career. When Duke All - American center Mike Lewis picked up his third foul in the first half (and Warren Chapman, his backup, had a knee injury), Duke coach Vic Bubas called on Lind to fill the void against UNC greats Rusty Clark and Bill Bunting. Lewis returned in the second half, but fouled out (four Blue Devils and one Tar Heel fouled out of the game) with about five minutes left in regulation when Duke was down by five, and Lind returned to the court. Lind went on to carry the Blue Devils in the three overtimes, blocking North Carolina 's shot attempt at the end of regulation, making two free throws at the end of the first overtime, and knocking down a 15 - foot jumper at the buzzer to send it into a third overtime. At the conclusion of the game, the students carried Lind to Duke 's main quad.
8 Points in 17 Seconds. Duke led UNC 86 -- 78 with 17 seconds left. Despite the deficit and despite the fact that the game took place prior to the implementation of the three - point shot, Carolina rallied with a pair of free throws by Bobby Jones, then baskets by John Kuester and Jones after a steal by Walter Davis and a turnover on inbounds attempts. After Duke 's Pete Kramer missed the front end of a one - and - one, UNC tied the score on Davis ' 30 - foot bank shot as time expired. The game went into overtime, where UNC prevailed, 96 -- 92. To this day, many regard this comeback as the greatest in college basketball history.
In a Big Four Tournament matchup between North Carolina and Duke, the two teams played a see - saw game until a 10 -- 0 Duke run in the second half made the score 64 -- 56. North Carolina eventually tied the score at 70 -- 70 with four minutes to go. Duke went back up by four with 1: 41 to go, but a driving layup by Phil Ford with eight seconds to go in regulation tied the score at 82 and extended the game to overtime. The Blue Devils got quick baskets from Kevin Billerman and Bob Fleischer to open the overtime but the Tar Heels answered and eventually took the lead, 89 -- 88, on two Ford free throws with two minutes to go. Duke answered with four straight points and North Carolina came back to tie the score at 92, and then Tate Armstrong converted a three - point play to put the Blue Devils ahead for good. The teams combined for eight points in the final 20 seconds of the game, but Duke 's free throw shooting gave them the 99 -- 96 win. Fleischer led Duke with 26 points and Phil Ford scored 22 for North Carolina.
Jim Spanarkel 's Senior Day game turned into one of the strangest afternoons in ACC basketball history as Duke held Carolina scoreless for a half before knocking off the No. 4 - ranked Tar Heels 47 -- 40. Dean Smith resorted to the four corners offense and the Tar Heels held the ball throughout the first half, but Duke led 7 -- 0 as Spanarkel forced two turnovers, assisted on a basket to Mike Gminski and scored the last bucket of the half on a short jumper. (Smith later said, "It should have been 2 -- 0, or something like that, at the half. '') Carolina 's only two shots of the first half were air balls, that resulted in the first - ever chants of "Air ball... Air ball! '' from the Cameron Crazies. Spanarkel added 15 points in the second half and finished with a game - high 17, hitting 8 - of - 9 field goal attempts. The win allowed Duke to tie North Carolina for the ACC regular season title.
Duke coach Bill Foster was n't amused by Smith 's tactics in the first half and the next day said, "I 've been doing this a long time, but during the first half last night I began to think maybe I 've been doing it for too long. '' He then added this infamous dig: "I thought Naismith invented basketball, not Deansmith. ''
Carolina led by as many as 11 in the first half of the Big Four Tournament contest before Duke trimmed the lead to five at halftime. Carolina played much of the second half shorthanded as Al Wood and Sam Perkins got into foul trouble; Perkins would foul out with 7: 55 to go. James Worthy did his best to pick up the slack, leading the Tar Heels with 26 points and hitting eight straight shots at one point in the second half. Nevertheless, Gene Banks was able to give Duke only its second lead of the game, 73 -- 71, with 2: 36 left. Carolina came back to tie it at 76. Future Tar Heel head coach Matt Doherty, a freshman at the time, was then fouled, and hit a free throw with 12 seconds remaining to provide the winning margin. A Jimmy Braddock free throw in the final second gave Carolina the 78 -- 76 victory.
Duke struggled in its first season under Coach Mike Krzyzewski, going 17 -- 13 overall and 6 -- 8 in the ACC. However, the Blue Devils ' regular - season finale was one to remember. On Senior Night, Duke 's Gene Banks put on a tuxedo and threw roses to the crowd at Cameron Indoor Stadium before the game. Carolina controlled the game early, then went scoreless over a four - minute stretch of the second half to allow Duke to take a 46 -- 45 lead late in regulation. The Tar Heels fought back to go up 50 -- 49, and the teams traded baskets until two Sam Perkins free throws gave Carolina a 58 -- 56 lead with two seconds to play. Duke inbounded to midcourt and called time out with one second left. Banks took the inbounds pass and nailed a jumper at the buzzer to force overtime. The Blue Devils took a 62 -- 59 lead early in the extra session, but Carolina rallied to take a 65 -- 64 lead on the strength of an Al Wood jumper and two free throws by Mike Pepper. Duke 's Vince Taylor misfired on a short jumper, but Banks rebounded and banked home the game - winner with 19 seconds left. Banks led Duke with 25 points, while Perkins scored 24 for Carolina. Perkins also had 10 assists.
The final home game for Matt Doherty, Michael Jordan, and Sam Perkins was a memorable one for Tar Heels fans. Carolina looked to be finished when Duke 's Mark Alarie converted a three - point play with 20 seconds to go in regulation and the Tar Heels missed a jumper that would have tied the game. However, after the Blue Devils missed the front end of a one - and - one, Matt Doherty took the inbounds pass the length of the court and hit a 15 - footer with one second left to force overtime. The teams traded baskets during the first overtime and headed for the second extra session tied at 79. Michael Jordan opened the second overtime with an ally oop and a free throw, but Johnny Dawkins cut the North Carolina lead to 82 -- 81 with a short jumper. Duke would get only one more basket as Jordan and Sam Perkins carried the Tar Heels to the 96 -- 83 final, and Carolina became the first ACC team in 10 years to go undefeated in conference play (14 -- 0). Alarie led all scorers with 28 points, while Jordan topped Carolina with 25.
After losing two close games to Carolina in the regular season, Duke finally upset the Tar Heels in the semifinals of the ACC Tournament. Johnny Dawkins and Tommy Amaker led the Blue Devils to a 40 -- 32 halftime advantage. Nevertheless, Carolina went on a 12 -- 2 run to open the second half, tying the score at 44 in a game that was close the rest of the way. David Henderson hit four late free throws to keep Duke in the lead, but Michael Jordan closed the gap to 77 -- 75. Carolina regained possession with three seconds left in the game, but the Tar Heels comeback bid ended with Matt Doherty 's errant inbounds pass. Jordan led all scorers with 22 points, while Doherty scored 20 and grabbed 10 rebounds.
The number 1 ranked Tar Heels opened the brand new Dean Smith Center against the number 3 ranked Blue Devils with the winner possibly becoming the number 1 ranked team in the nation. In one of the closet games in the rivalry, North Carolina survived a late Blue Devil rally to win 95 - 92.
Duke opened the game with an 11 -- 2 run and eventually led 29 -- 15, but Carolina cut the lead to three before the Blue Devils took a 44 -- 39 halftime lead. Carolina still trailed 55 -- 44 with 12: 53 left when J.R. Reid took over the game. Reid scored 14 of Carolina 's final 16 points to help the Tar Heels tie the score at 69 with 1: 24 to go. A Danny Ferry free throw with 52 seconds remaining provided the winning margin for Duke, but not before Carolina forced a turnover and failed to convert on four field goal attempts in the final 30 seconds. Kevin Strickland scored 22 points and Ferry added 19 for Duke, while Reid dropped in 27 for the Tar Heels. This would become the first of three Duke victories in a season sweep over Carolina in 1988, including the ACC Tournament.
In one of the most intense games in the rivalry 's history, Carolina defeated Duke 77 -- 74 in the ACC Tournament final at the Omni in Atlanta to secure the Heels ' first ACC Tournament title in seven seasons. The teams had split the two regular season meetings; Carolina defeating top ranked and then undefeated Duke 91 -- 71 in Cameron in January (a game notable for the infamous "J.R. Ca n't Reid '' placard displayed by some Duke fans) then Duke returned the favor in Chapel Hill in the season finale, knocking off Carolina 88 -- 86. Tensions between coaches Dean Smith and Mike Krzyzewski boiled over during Tournament week, stemming from the Reid sign in Durham in January, and by the time the two teams met in the conference championship, the game had developed the atmosphere of a heavyweight title fight. Carolina led for much of the game, including a 39 -- 35 halftime lead, but never could pull away. Carolina 's J.R. Reid, however, outplayed Duke 's Naismith Award - finalist and ACC Tournament MVP Danny Ferry. The game saw an incredible 49 fouls called between the two squads, and Carolina prevailed, but only when Ferry 's 3 / 4 court shot rimmed out as time expired.
In a rough game between the Blue Devils and Tar Heels that featured blood and broken bones, Duke used an early 9 -- 0 run to take a 16 -- 11 lead with 12: 55 to go in the first half. Hubert Davis ' three - point play capped off a Carolina run to give the Tar Heels a 20 -- 19 lead. The teams exchanged the lead 10 times before a Thomas Hill baseline jumper gave the Blue Devils a 39 -- 38 halftime lead. The Tar Heels opened the second half with a 10 -- 0 spurt, but then saw its offense disappear. Duke went five minutes before scoring a second - half basket but fought back with tough defense, holding Carolina without a field goal over the last 91⁄2 minutes of the game. Carolina hit 12 of 14 free throws during that stretch; including two by Derrick Phelps with 44.5 seconds remaining to give the Tar Heels a 75 -- 73 lead. Christian Laettner had two shots to tie the game in the final 24 seconds, but missed both. However, the lasting image from this game had to be Carolina 's Eric Montross who took a couple of rough elbows to the face and looked more like a boxer than a center as he sank two late free throws with blood streaming down his face. Bobby Hurley broke his foot during the game, but continued playing. Brian Davis led Duke with 16 points, while Davis scored 16 for Carolina.
With Mike Krzyzewski on leave of absence for the year, the Blue Devils suffered through their worst season in well over a decade. They seemed out - manned on their home court from the opening tip, falling behind 26 -- 9 in the first half, highlighted by alley - oops by Carolina 's Rasheed Wallace and a reverse jam by Jerry Stackhouse over two Blue Devils. However, Duke rallied in the second half and led by as much as 12, before North Carolina staged a rally of its own. The two squads exchanged leads four times at the end of regulation before heading into overtime. With three seconds left in the first overtime, Carolina led 95 -- 92 and sent Serge Zwikker to the foul line with the chance to ice the game for the heavily favored Tar Heels. However Zwikker missed both free throws, setting up Duke 's Jeff Capel for a running, 37 - foot heave that tied the game as the buzzer sounded, sending Cameron into a state of euphoria. With the game still tied late in the second overtime, Donald Williams scored for the Heels and Jeff McInnis stole the inbounds pass for an easy layup, putting Carolina up 102 -- 98. Duke answered with a basket of their own and after stopping the Tar Heels, had a chance to force a third overtime or win the game outright. Nevertheless, Steve Wojciechowski 's jumper missed and Greg Newton 's putback drew nothing but air, preserving Carolina 's 102 -- 100 victory.
Duke took a 42 -- 30 advantage into the locker room at halftime, and led 37 -- 20 over Carolina with less than five minutes to go in the first half. Carolina managed to close the gap to 44 -- 42 with 14: 14 left in the game, but the Blue Devils stretched the lead back to 11 with 8: 44 left. The Tar Heels fought back and pulled within one behind scoring from six different players over the next few minutes. Steve Wojciechowski hit a three - pointer to give Duke a 72 -- 68 lead with 1: 13 to go. Shammond Williams answered with a three to cut the Duke lead to one with 58 seconds left, and Carolina forced a turnover on the ensuing inbounds pass. Jeff McInnis drove the lane and fed Serge Zwikker, whose shot was blocked by Greg Newton, but Dante Calabria was there for the tip - in and a 73 -- 72 Carolina lead. Duke 's Ricky Price could not connect on a jumper at the buzzer, and the Tar Heels escaped.
Just two months removed from a broken foot that most assumed would sideline him for the season, Duke freshman Elton Brand rallied the Blue Devils from a 64 -- 47 second - half deficit with 12 minutes remaining to a 77 -- 75 victory over Carolina. The victory earned Duke the ACC regular - season championship and Coach Mike Krzyzewski his 500th victory in the most memorable game of the college season. Duke tied the game at 75 on a slashing floater by sophomore Chris Carrawell with 2: 00 remaining and took the lead for the first time on a driving basket by Roshown McLeod one minute later as the Carolina offense lapsed into a series of turnovers and errant shots. Both point guard Ed Cota and freshman center Brendan Haywood had a chance to tie the game from the free - throw line in the waning seconds, but both missed the first of two free throws, and the Tar Heels were unable to turn intentional misses on the second attempts into points.
The Tar Heels were unranked coming into the game for the first time since 1990. Shane Battier scored 14 first - half points for Duke and Carolina turned the ball over 14 times to give the Blue Devils a 17 - point halftime lead. Duke eventually took a 19 - point lead early in the second half. Carolina then turned the tide down the stretch, scoring on 19 of its final 22 possessions, including a three - pointer by Joseph Forte with 5.2 seconds left to send the game to the extra period at 73. The Blue Devils scored on their first six possessions in overtime and got seven points from Carlos Boozer in the extra frame to hold on for the 90 -- 86 victory.
In the first game in the Carolina -- Duke rivalry pitting Mike Krzyzewski against new UNC head coach Roy Williams, Chris Duhon 's reverse layup with 6.5 seconds left in overtime gave Duke its 16th straight victory overall and fifth victory in the last six years on Carolina 's home court. Duke turned up the defense late in regulation and went on a 10 -- 0 run, taking a 72 -- 69 lead on two free throws by Luol Deng with 1: 06 left. Sean May scored on a rebound with 53 seconds to go, but J.J. Redick restored the three - point lead on a drive with 38 seconds left. After a Carolina timeout, Jawad Williams hit a game - tying three - pointer with 18 seconds to go and Daniel Ewing missed a potential game - winner for Duke with 3 seconds left. In overtime, Shelden Williams had two blocks and his defense forced Carolina into a 35 - second shot clock violation with 22 seconds left. Redick then made two free throws to make it 81 -- 78 and Rashad McCants drilled the game - tying three that set the stage for Duhon 's heroics.
On Senior Day in Chapel Hill, before the largest crowd to see a college game on - campus in the state of North Carolina (22,125), the Tar Heels had a chance to win their first outright ACC regular - season title since 1993. However, they trailed Duke 73 -- 64 with 3: 07 left after Duke 's Lee Melchionni made a 3. Offensive rebounds and subsequent put - backs by Carolina 's Jawad Williams and Marvin Williams, the latter set up by a Duke turnover, cut the lead to five with two minutes to go. Duke 's DeMarcus Nelson then missed the front end of a one - and - one. Sean May then rebounded a miss of his own, and was fouled on the put back; he hit the free throw to make it 73 -- 71 with 1: 44 left. Misses by Melchionni and J.J. Redick gave the ball back to the Tar Heels, but Duke 's Shelden Williams came up with a huge block to regain possession for the Blue Devils with less than a minute to go. Duke inbounded the ball and looked to move it quickly up court, but Carolina 's David Noel chased down Daniel Ewing from behind and knocked the ball away before he could get a pass off. Raymond Felton came up with the loose ball in a scrum and called for time, setting up a game - tying possession for the Tar Heels -- an eerily similar scenario to the game a month earlier at Cameron Indoor Stadium. This time, he took the ball to the hoop and got fouled with 19.4 seconds left. Felton hit the first, but missed the second. However, he redeemed himself for his failure at Cameron, and managed to tip the board to Marvin Williams, who took it straight back up, was fouled with 17 seconds left and banked it in, giving the Tar Heels the lead and blowing the roof off the Smith Center in the process. The free throw made it 75 -- 73; Duke called time to set up one final play. Duke 's sharpshooter, Redick, got the ball, but his 3 - pointer rimmed out with 6.7 seconds left. Ewing 's desperation jumper with 4 seconds left was an airball; May grabbed the rebound to run out the clock and seal the 75 -- 73 comeback win.
Coming into the game ranked # 1 in both polls, Duke hosted senior night, honoring the National Player of the Year and all - time ACC leading scorer J.J. Redick and two - time National Defensive Player of the Year Shelden Williams. North Carolina, the defending national champions, had lost the whole core of the team that won it all the year before, but came into the game on a 7 - game winning streak. Freshmen Tyler Hansbrough and Danny Green led Carolina as well as veterans Reyshawn Terry and David Noel. ESPN broadcast the game on all three of its channels as part of its first ESPN Full Circle coverage, showing a marathon of past games hours before tipoff. Duke led early 13 -- 2 as Redick caught fire and hit his first five shots. The Tar Heels fought back, cutting the deficit to one by halftime. The Tar Heels stormed out to a 72 -- 62 lead as Hansbrough and Terry starting hitting their shots in the second half. After a timeout, Duke 's Williams hook shot pulled Duke back within eight, but Hansbrough recovered a loose ball 25 feet from the hoop answered with a three - pointer to beat the shot clock. DeMarcus Nelson then hit 3 - pointers on 3 successive possessions to put the Devils back to within 3 with 1: 31 left. However, that was as close as it would get. The Heels hit their free throws down the stretch, Redick missed 15 of his last 16 shots, and DeMarcus Nelson shot an air ball that resulted in a shot clock violation that prevented a late Duke rally, leading to a final score of 83 -- 76. The game was watched by 3.78 million households on ESPN and ESPN2.
Carolina beat Duke at the Dean Smith Center 86 -- 72, completing the season sweep of the Blue Devils. The most memorable part of this game was a combative foul by Gerald Henderson when his elbow contacted Tyler Hansbrough 's nose on a hard foul attempt with 14.5 seconds on the clock and the result of the game clearly determined. The contact broke Hansbrough 's nose, drawing blood. The officials charged Henderson with a combative foul and ejected him from the game. After the foul, Hansbrough jumped up with blood streaming from his nose, but was calmed by his teammate Dewey Burke, before heading to the locker room for medical attention. Since then, both Hansbrough and Henderson have stated the foul was unintentional. To protect his broken nose, Hansbrough wore a face mask throughout the ACC tournament, and into the second round of the NCAA tournament.
UNC held a lead of 10 points or more for most of the second half and were leading by 10 points until 2: 09 when Duke 's Tyler Thornton hit a 3 - point shot quickly followed by another 3 by Seth Curry to close the margin to 4. With just 14 seconds left in the game, Tyler Zeller accidentally tipped the ball into the Duke basket on a Duke 3 - point shot by Ryan Kelly. Duke was awarded 2 points on the tip in by Zeller leaving Carolina with a 1 - point lead. Duke 's Tyler Thornton fouled Zeller who made his first shot but missed his second leaving Carolina with a 2 - point lead. Duke brought the ball up court following the defensive rebound off Zeller 's missed free throw and Duke guard Austin Rivers hit the game - winning 3 as time expired. Rivers finished the game with a career high 29 points, including six three - pointers.
Rameses, UNC 's famed live mascot, died the next day. Ann Leonard, Rameses ' owner, said the 8 - year - old ram died peacefully, most likely of old age.
Entering the game at Duke 's Cameron Indoor Stadium with the passing of North Carolina 's legendary coach Dean Smith a couple of days before, both Duke and UNC coaches, players and staff all gathered at center court and held a moment of silence for Smith. Once the game started Duke jumped right out of the gate with an 18 - 6 lead early in the game thanks to hot shooting. UNC would respond by outscoring Duke 30 - 22 over the next several minutes of the 1st half to cut Duke 's lead down to 40 - 36 with around 4 minutes left in the 1st half. Duke then went on a 9 - 0 run over the next 2 minutes to get their largest lead of the game at 49 - 36 with 2 minutes left in the half. UNC would score the last 6 points of the half to cut Duke 's lead down to 49 - 42 at halftime. In the 2nd half almost everything went UNC 's way as UNC started dominating the post and eventually built their largest lead of the game 77 - 67 over Duke with 4 minutes left in regulation to complete a 41 - 18 run over Duke in an 18 - minute span. With Duke still trailing UNC 79 - 72 with around 2 1 / 2 minutes left in regulation Duke 's Tyus Jones would help Duke finish regulation on a 9 - 2 run over UNC to tie the game at 81 points apiece to send it to overtime. In overtime, the game was filled with missed free throws, missed shots, fouls, turnovers, lead changes and ties with Duke eventually winning the game 92 - 90.
On senior night in Chapel Hill, UNC had already locked up the number one seed in the ACC with Louisville 's loss to Notre Dame, but Duke still had to win to clinch a double - bye in the ACC Tournament. Joel Berry II, who came off the bench so seniors could start, and Luke Kennard led the way for their respective teams and would score 28 points each. Berry made each of his five attempted three - pointers in the first half to supplement Isaiah Hicks 's success in the post for UNC, while Duke 's Kennard, Grayson Allen, and Jayson Tatum enjoyed success from outside the arc, including a bank shot for Kennard and a four - point play for Allen. Neither team led by more than four points in the first half, which ended with a 48 - 46 lead for UNC. In the second half, UNC stayed in front or tied until Frank Jackson would give Duke the lead on a free throw with fifteen minutes left in the regulation. In a game that ultimately featured 24 lead changes and 14 ties, Justin Jackson put UNC up 74 - 71 on a straightaway three - pointer after missing his first six attempts from outside the arc. After Jackson 's shot, Duke would get as close as down by one but Berry scored seven straight points to keep UNC ahead. Allen uncharacteristically missed three consecutive free throws for Duke in the final minutes and UNC emerged victorious 90 - 83.
Six days after North Carolina avenged their earlier loss at Duke in February with a 90 - 83 victory at the Dean Dome, the two teams would face off in the semifinals of the ACC Tournament, this time in Brooklyn, New York in the Barclays Center. This game was only the fifth time that Duke and North Carolina had played each other outside of the state of North Carolina. North Carolina controlled the first half by outscoring Duke in the paint 32 - 10, with North Carolina 's Kennedy Meeks leading the charge. North Carolina led by as many as 13 points and threatened to turn the game into a blowout, but Duke 's Grayson Allen made four 3 - pointers to get Duke within 7 points at the half, with North Carolina leading 49 - 42. In the second half, with North Carolina leading Duke 56 - 48 with 15: 04 left, North Carolina 's Joel Berry II picked up his fourth foul, which forced North Carolina to take him out of the game. Though North Carolina led by 13 points at 61 - 48 with 13: 53 remaining, Duke used a 20 - 4 run over the next five minutes, thanks to steals and three - pointers from Duke 's Jayson Tatum and Luke Kennard, to put Duke up 68 - 65 over North Carolina with 8: 24 left. Duke then pulled away and won 93 - 83 to complete a 45 - 22 run over North Carolina in the final 14 minutes of the game.
In order to get standing room in the annual Duke - UNC game in Cameron Indoor Stadium, Duke students set up tents and sleep outside in a grassy area outside of the stadium known as Krzyzewskiville and named after head coach Mike Krzyzewski. The process of lining up for tickets can last up to two months depending on the level of tenting the students choose to do and whether the game in Cameron Indoor is the first or second meeting of the teams during the season. Tenting, as it is called, is regulated by an elaborate set of rules that many Duke students could recite by heart. The rules are enforced by a set of students known as Line Monitors who regulate the tents and serve as leaders for the student section during the games.
Duke students who regularly camp in Krzyweskiville are known for their methodical preparedness, bringing headlamps, portable chargers, shoe bins, and many layers of clothing to endure the North Carolina winters (games are typically played in February or March, when the average low in Durham is 29.5 and 37 degrees Fahrenheit, respectively). In the hours leading up to the game, students play music and put on dark blue and white paint (Duke 's colors).
After the game, dependent on a win by the Duke Blue Devils, students rush out to their main residential quads (only a short distance from Cameron Indoor Stadium), and burn benches. Many residential communities at Duke traditionally build and paint benches for day - to - day use in the hopes of burning them in celebration of a win over Carolina. The students then rebuild benches shortly after in hopes of being able to burn them again the next year.
At Carolina, a win over Duke typically results in students "rushing '' Franklin Street, the main thoroughfare just north of UNC 's campus and the commercial heart of Chapel Hill. Police block off the street before the game in anticipation of thousands of students celebrating the win. Bonfires are a feature of these celebrations, often using Duke gear as fuel.
Ranking of the team at the time of the game by the AP poll is shown in parenthesis next to the team name (failure to list AP ranking does not necessarily mean the team was not ranked at the time of the game).
* This was the last year of a balanced regular season schedule (each team played a home - and - away series with every other conference foe). In subsequent years, this was not possible due to conference expansion.
The football rivalry is also intense, although not as intense as the basketball rivalry. While both schools agree that Carolina holds a large lead in the series, the two schools disagree on an 1889 game in which both teams thought they were supposed to be the home team. Carolina claims a 58 -- 36 -- 4 lead; Duke claims UNC leads 57 -- 37 -- 4. (Two of UNC 's wins, in 2008 and 2009, have been vacated and is awaiting final NCAA adjudication stemming from 20 years of academic fraud.) On 10 / 20 / 12, Duke beat UNC in football for the first time since 2003. On 11 / 30 / 13, Duke beat UNC in football for the second straight year, 27 -- 25, winning back to back games in the series for the first time since 1989. That year, Duke won its seventh ACC Championship, while UNC has won five times. The 2013 win also gave Duke the outright Coastal Division championship and sent Duke to the Dr. Pepper ACC Championship Game for the first time since its 2005 inception and became the first Coastal Division representative other than Virginia Tech or Georgia Tech. Duke is the last university in the North Carolina Triangle region to win an ACC football championship. The two game win streak by Duke was snapped in 2014 on a nationally televised Thursday game when the Tar Heels beat Duke 45 -- 20 at Wallace Wade Stadium. The upset loss took the Blue Devils out of a second ACC Championship game and allowed Georgia Tech to win the Coastal Division.
Nonetheless, there is some tradition behind the football rivalry. The two teams first met in 1888, and the rivalry has been renewed every year since 1922. In the 1920s Duke began appearing as the last game of the Carolina football season with some regularity, Virginia being the other team with that spot. The Tar Heels - Blue Devils matchup would be the last regular season game for both teams for all but a few years from the 1930s until the ACC split into two divisions in 2005. Now the schedules are less predictable. The matchups at Wallace Wade Stadium in 2014 and 2016 took place on Thursday night and were televised on ESPN, adding national exposure to the rivalry.
The rivalry between Duke and Carolina has spilled over into other arenas. From 2001 until 2011, the rivalry was strengthened by the awarding of the Carlyle Cup. This cup was given each year to the school that had the most combined head - to - head wins against the other school in all of the shared varsity sports. UNC claimed the cup 7 times, winning in 2002, 2005, 2006, 2008, 2009, 2010, and 2011. Duke won the cup 3 times, in 2001, 2003, and 2004. UNC and Duke tied for the cup in 2007.
Duke and Carolina have also developed a strong women 's college basketball rivalry since the 1990s as Duke and Carolina field two of the strongest women 's basketball teams in the nation. Duke made four Women 's Final Four appearances in 1999, 2002, 2003, and 2006. Carolina made three Women 's Final Four appearances in 1994 (winning its only NCAA Women 's Division I Basketball Championship), 2006, and 2007.
In 1992 North Carolina defeated Duke by a 9 -- 1 score in the NCAA championship game in women 's soccer in a game played in Chapel Hill 's Fetzer Field, a decided home advantage for the Tar Heels. UNC was led by future Team USA legends Kristine Lilly and Mia Hamm. This is the only time the two schools have ever met for a national championship in any sport. In 2007, 2008, and 2010, Duke and North Carolina played each other in the NCAA Lacrosse Quarterfinals, with Duke winning each time. Duke has won national championships in men 's lacrosse in 2010, 2013, and 2014.
Twenty four students from the two schools got together from January 14 -- 16, 2006 in order to attempt to break the world record for the longest continuous game of basketball ever recorded. The game set a new world record at 57 hours, 17 minutes and 41 seconds with Duke winning the game 3699 -- 3444. All $60,000 raised from the marathon benefited the Hoop Dreams Basketball Academy, an organization which helps children with life - threatening illnesses develop successful life skills through basketball.
As a tradition, one day prior to a Duke - Carolina basketball game, The Chronicle, Duke 's student newspaper, publishes a spoof cover page for the day 's edition with the title The Daily Tar Hole. Contained within are fake news stories poking fun at The Daily Tar Heel and the North Carolina Tar Heels. The Daily Tar Heel typically publishes former columnist Ian Williams ' "Insider 's guide to hating Duke '' for the two basketball match - ups each year. There is a longstanding agreement that if Duke wins the first matchup, The Daily Tar Heel 's masthead is printed in Duke blue, and if Carolina wins the first matchup, The Chronicle 's masthead is painted Carolina blue. The losing school 's paper also has to put the other school 's logo in a conspicuous location and claim that the winning school is "still the best. ''
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where is day of the dead most celebrated | Day of the Dead - wikipedia
The Day of the Dead (Spanish: Día de Muertos) is a Mexican holiday celebrated throughout Mexico, in particular the Central and South regions, and by people of Mexican heritage elsewhere. The multi-day holiday focuses on gatherings of family and friends to pray for and remember friends and family members who have died, and help support their spiritual journey. In 2008, the tradition was inscribed in the Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity by UNESCO.
The holiday is sometimes called Día de los Muertos in Anglophone countries, a back - translation of its original name, Día de Muertos. It is particularly celebrated in Mexico where the day is a public holiday. Prior to Spanish colonization in the 16th century, the celebration took place at the beginning of summer. Gradually, it was associated with October 31, November 1, and November 2 to coincide with the Western Christianity triduum of Allhallowtide: All Saints ' Eve, All Saints ' Day, and All Souls ' Day. Traditions connected with the holiday include building private altars called ofrendas, honoring the deceased using calaveras, aztec marigolds, and the favorite foods and beverages of the departed, and visiting graves with these as gifts. Visitors also leave possessions of the deceased at the graves.
Scholars trace the origins of the modern Mexican holiday to indigenous observances dating back hundreds of years and to an Aztec festival dedicated to the goddess Mictecacihuatl. The holiday has spread throughout the world, being absorbed into other deep traditions in honor of the dead. It has become a national symbol and as such is taught (for educational purposes) in the nation 's schools. Many families celebrate a traditional "All Saints ' Day '' associated with the Catholic Church.
Originally, the Day of the Dead as such was not celebrated in northern Mexico, where it was unknown until the 20th century because its indigenous people had different traditions. The people and the church rejected it as a day related to syncretizing pagan elements with Catholic Christianity. They held the traditional ' All Saints ' Day ' in the same way as other Christians in the world. There was limited Mesoamerican influence in this region, and relatively few indigenous inhabitants from the regions of Southern Mexico, where the holiday was celebrated. In the early 21st century in northern Mexico, Día de Muertos is observed because the Mexican government made it a national holiday based on educational policies from the 1960s; it has introduced this holiday as a unifying national tradition based on indigenous traditions.
The Mexican Day of the Dead celebration is similar to other societies ' observances of a time to honor the dead. The Spanish tradition, for instance, includes festivals and parades, as well as gatherings of families at cemeteries to pray for their deceased loved ones at the end of the day.
The Day of the Dead celebrations in Mexico developed from ancient traditions among its pre-Columbian cultures. Rituals celebrating the deaths of ancestors had been observed by these civilizations perhaps for as long as 2,500 -- 3,000 years. The festival that developed into the modern Day of the Dead fell in the ninth month of the Aztec calendar, about the beginning of August, and was celebrated for an entire month. The festivities were dedicated to the goddess known as the "Lady of the Dead '', corresponding to the modern La Calavera Catrina.
By the late 20th century in most regions of Mexico, practices had developed to honor dead children and infants on November 1, and to honor deceased adults on November 2. November 1 is generally referred to as Día de los Inocentes ("Day of the Innocents '') but also as Día de los Angelitos ("Day of the Little Angels ''); November 2 is referred to as Día de los Muertos or Día de los Difuntos ("Day of the Dead '').
Frances Ann Day summarizes the three - day celebration, the Day of the Dead:
People go to cemeteries to be with the souls of the departed and build private altars containing the favorite foods and beverages, as well as photos and memorabilia, of the departed. The intent is to encourage visits by the souls, so the souls will hear the prayers and the comments of the living directed to them. Celebrations can take a humorous tone, as celebrants remember funny events and anecdotes about the departed.
Plans for the day are made throughout the year, including gathering the goods to be offered to the dead. During the three - day period families usually clean and decorate graves; most visit the cemeteries where their loved ones are buried and decorate their graves with ofrendas (altars), which often include orange Mexican marigolds (Tagetes erecta) called cempasúchil (originally named cempoaxochitl, Nāhuatl for "twenty flowers ''). In modern Mexico the marigold is sometimes called Flor de Muerto (Flower of Dead). These flowers are thought to attract souls of the dead to the offerings. It is also believed the bright petals with a strong scent can guide the souls from cemeteries to their family homes.
Toys are brought for dead children (los angelitos, or "the little angels ''), and bottles of tequila, mezcal or pulque or jars of atole for adults. Families will also offer trinkets or the deceased 's favorite candies on the grave. Some families have ofrendas in homes, usually with foods such as candied pumpkin, pan de muerto ("bread of dead ''), and sugar skulls; and beverages such as atole. The ofrendas are left out in the homes as a welcoming gesture for the deceased. Some people believe the spirits of the dead eat the "spiritual essence '' of the ofrendas food, so though the celebrators eat the food after the festivities, they believe it lacks nutritional value. Pillows and blankets are left out so the deceased can rest after their long journey. In some parts of Mexico, such as the towns of Mixquic, Pátzcuaro and Janitzio, people spend all night beside the graves of their relatives. In many places, people have picnics at the grave site, as well.
Some families build altars or small shrines in their homes; these sometimes feature a Christian cross, statues or pictures of the Blessed Virgin Mary, pictures of deceased relatives and other people, scores of candles, and an ofrenda. Traditionally, families spend some time around the altar, praying and telling anecdotes about the deceased. In some locations, celebrants wear shells on their clothing, so when they dance, the noise will wake up the dead; some will also dress up as the deceased.
Public schools at all levels build altars with ofrendas, usually omitting the religious symbols. Government offices usually have at least a small altar, as this holiday is seen as important to the Mexican heritage.
Those with a distinctive talent for writing sometimes create short poems, called calaveras (skulls), mocking epitaphs of friends, describing interesting habits and attitudes or funny anecdotes. This custom originated in the 18th or 19th century after a newspaper published a poem narrating a dream of a cemetery in the future, "and all of us were dead '', proceeding to read the tombstones. Newspapers dedicate calaveras to public figures, with cartoons of skeletons in the style of the famous calaveras of José Guadalupe Posada, a Mexican illustrator. Theatrical presentations of Don Juan Tenorio by José Zorrilla (1817 -- 1893) are also traditional on this day.
José Guadalupe Posada created a famous print of a figure he called La Calavera Catrina ("The Elegant Skull '') as a parody of a Mexican upper - class female. Posada 's striking image of a costumed female with a skeleton face has become associated with the Day of the Dead, and Catrina figures often are a prominent part of modern Day of the Dead observances.
A common symbol of the holiday is the skull (in Spanish calavera), which celebrants represent in masks, called calacas (colloquial term for skeleton), and foods such as sugar or chocolate skulls, which are inscribed with the name of the recipient on the forehead. Sugar skulls can be given as gifts to both the living and the dead. Other holiday foods include pan de muerto, a sweet egg bread made in various shapes from plain rounds to skulls and rabbits, often decorated with white frosting to look like twisted bones.
The traditions and activities that take place in celebration of the Day of the Dead are not universal, often varying from town to town. For example, in the town of Pátzcuaro on the Lago de Pátzcuaro in Michoacán, the tradition is very different if the deceased is a child rather than an adult. On November 1 of the year after a child 's death, the godparents set a table in the parents ' home with sweets, fruits, pan de muerto, a cross, a rosary (used to ask the Virgin Mary to pray for them) and candles. This is meant to celebrate the child 's life, in respect and appreciation for the parents. There is also dancing with colorful costumes, often with skull - shaped masks and devil masks in the plaza or garden of the town. At midnight on November 2, the people light candles and ride winged boats called mariposas (butterflies) to Janitzio, an island in the middle of the lake where there is a cemetery, to honor and celebrate the lives of the dead there.
In contrast, the town of Ocotepec, north of Cuernavaca in the State of Morelos, opens its doors to visitors in exchange for veladoras (small wax candles) to show respect for the recently deceased. In return the visitors receive tamales and atole. This is done only by the owners of the house where someone in the household has died in the previous year. Many people of the surrounding areas arrive early to eat for free and enjoy the elaborate altars set up to receive the visitors.
In some parts of the country (especially the cities, where in recent years other customs have been displaced) children in costumes roam the streets, knocking on people 's doors for a calaverita, a small gift of candies or money; they also ask passersby for it. This relatively recent custom is similar to that of Halloween 's trick - or - treating in the United States. Another peculiar tradition involving kids is La Danza de los Viejitos (the dance of the old men) when boy and young men dressed as granpas crouch and then jump in an energetic dance.
Some people believe possessing Day of the Dead items can bring good luck. Many people get tattoos or have dolls of the dead to carry with them. They also clean their houses and prepare the favorite dishes of their deceased loved ones to place upon their altar or ofrenda.
During Day of the Dead festivities, food is both eaten by living people and given to the spirits of their departed ancestors as ofrendas ("offerings ''). Tamales are one of the most common dishes prepared for this day for both purposes.
Pan de muerto and calaveras are associated specifically with Day of the Dead. Pan de muerto is a type of sweet roll shaped like a bun, topped with sugar, and often decorated with bone - shaped phalanges pieces. Calaveras, or sugar skulls, display colorful designs to represent the vitality and individual personality of the departed.
In addition to food, drink is also important to the tradition of Day of the Dead. Historically, the main alcoholic drink was pulque while today families will commonly drink the favorite beverage of their deceased ancestors. Other drinks associated with the holiday are atole and champurrado, warm, thick, non-alcoholic masa drinks.
Jamaican iced tea is a popular herbal tea made of the flowers and leaves of the Jamaican hibiscus plant (Hibiscus sabdariffa), known as flor de Jamaica in Mexico. It is served cold and quite sweet with a lot of ice. The ruby - red beverage is called hibiscus tea in English - speaking countries and called agua de Jamaica (water of Jamaica) in Spanish.
In Belize, Day of the Dead is practiced by people of the Yucatec Maya ethnicity. The celebration is known as Hanal Pixan which means "food for the souls '' in their language. Altars are constructed and decorated with food, drinks, candies, and candles put on them.
Día de las Ñatitas ("Day of the Skulls '') is a festival celebrated in La Paz, Bolivia, on May 5. In pre-Columbian times indigenous Andeans had a tradition of sharing a day with the bones of their ancestors on the third year after burial. Today families keep only the skulls for such rituals. Traditionally, the skulls of family members are kept at home to watch over the family and protect them during the year. On November 9, the family crowns the skulls with fresh flowers, sometimes also dressing them in various garments, and making offerings of cigarettes, coca leaves, alcohol, and various other items in thanks for the year 's protection. The skulls are also sometimes taken to the central cemetery in La Paz for a special Mass and blessing.
The Brazilian public holiday of Finados (Day of the Dead) is celebrated on November 2. Similar to other Day of the Dead celebrations, people go to cemeteries and churches with flowers and candles and offer prayers. The celebration is intended as a positive honoring of the dead. Memorializing the dead draws from indigenous, African and European Catholic origins.
Guatemalan celebrations of the Day of the Dead, on November 1, are highlighted by the construction and flying of giant kites in addition to the traditional visits to grave sites of ancestors. A big event also is the consumption of fiambre, which is made only for this day during the year.
In Ecuador the Day of the Dead is observed to some extent by all parts of society, though it is especially important to the indigenous Kichwa peoples, who make up an estimated quarter of the population. Indigena families gather together in the community cemetery with offerings of food for a day - long remembrance of their ancestors and lost loved ones. Ceremonial foods include colada morada, a spiced fruit porridge that derives its deep purple color from the Andean blackberry and purple maize. This is typically consumed with guagua de pan, a bread shaped like a swaddled infant, though variations include many pigs -- the latter being traditional to the city of Loja. The bread, which is wheat flour - based today, but was made with masa in the pre-Columbian era, can be made savory with cheese inside or sweet with a filling of guava paste. These traditions have permeated mainstream society, as well, where food establishments add both colada morada and gaugua de pan to their menus for the season. Many non-indigenous Ecuadorians visit the graves of the deceased, cleaning and bringing flowers, or preparing the traditional foods, too.
Usually people visit the cemetery and bring flowers to decorate the graves of dead relatives. Sometimes people play music at the cemetery.
In many American communities with Mexican residents, Day of the Dead celebrations are very similar to those held in Mexico. In some of these communities, in states such as Texas, New Mexico, and Arizona, the celebrations tend to be mostly traditional. The All Souls Procession has been an annual Tucson, Arizona event since 1990. The event combines elements of traditional Day of the Dead celebrations with those of pagan harvest festivals. People wearing masks carry signs honoring the dead and an urn in which people can place slips of paper with prayers on them to be burned. Likewise, Old Town San Diego, California annually hosts a traditional two - day celebration culminating in a candlelight procession to the historic El Campo Santo Cemetery.
In Missoula, Montana, celebrants wearing skeleton costumes and walking on stilts, riding novelty bicycles, and traveling on skis parade through town.
The festival also is held annually at historic Forest Hills Cemetery in Boston 's Jamaica Plain neighborhood. Sponsored by Forest Hills Educational Trust and the folkloric performance group La Piñata, the Day of the Dead festivities celebrate the cycle of life and death. People bring offerings of flowers, photos, mementos, and food for their departed loved ones, which they place at an elaborately and colorfully decorated altar. A program of traditional music and dance also accompanies the community event.
The Smithsonian Institution, in collaboration with the University of Texas at El Paso and Second Life, have created a Smithsonian Latino Virtual Museum and accompanying multimedia e-book: Día de los Muertos: Day of the Dead. The project 's website contains some of the text and images which explain the origins of some of the customary core practices related to the Day of the Dead, such as the background beliefs and the offrenda (the special altar commemorating one 's deceased loved one). The Made For iTunes multimedia e-book version provides additional content, such as further details; additional photo galleries; pop - up profiles of influential Latino artists and cultural figures over the decades; and video clips of interviews with artists who make Dia de Muertos - themed artwork, explanations and performances of Aztec and other traditional dances, an animation short that explains the customs to children, virtual poetry readings in English and Spanish.
Santa Ana, California is said to hold the "largest event in Southern California '' honoring Día de Muertos, called the annual Noche de Altares, which began in 2002. The celebration of the Day of the Dead in Santa Ana has grown to two large events with the creation of an event held at the Santa Ana Regional Transportation Center for the first time on November 1, 2015.
In other communities, interactions between Mexican traditions and American culture are resulting in celebrations in which Mexican traditions are being extended to make artistic or sometimes political statements. For example, in Los Angeles, California, the Self Help Graphics & Art Mexican - American cultural center presents an annual Day of the Dead celebration that includes both traditional and political elements, such as altars to honor the victims of the Iraq War, highlighting the high casualty rate among Latino soldiers. An updated, intercultural version of the Day of the Dead is also evolving at Hollywood Forever Cemetery. There, in a mixture of Native Californian art, Mexican traditions and Hollywood hip, conventional altars are set up side - by - side with altars to Jayne Mansfield and Johnny Ramone. Colorful native dancers and music intermix with performance artists, while sly pranksters play on traditional themes.
Similar traditional and intercultural updating of Mexican celebrations are held in San Francisco. For example, the Galería de la Raza, SomArts Cultural Center, Mission Cultural Center, de Young Museum and altars at Garfield Square by the Marigold Project. Oakland is home to Corazon Del Pueblo in the Fruitvale district. Corazon Del Pueblo has a shop offering handcrafted Mexican gifts and a museum devoted to Day of the Dead artifacts. Also, the Fruitvale district in Oakland serves as the hub of the Dia de Muertos annual festival which occurs the last weekend of October. Here, a mix of several Mexican traditions come together with traditional Aztec dancers, regional Mexican music, and other Mexican artisans to celebrate the day.
As part of a promotion by the Mexican embassy in Prague, Czech Republic, since the late 20th century, some local citizens join in a Mexican - style Day of the Dead. A theatre group produces events featuring masks, candles, and sugar skulls.
Mexican - style Day of the Dead celebrations occur in major cities in Australia, Fiji, and Indonesia. Additionally, prominent celebrations are held in Wellington, New Zealand, complete with altars celebrating the deceased with flowers and gifts. In the Philippines "Undás '', "Araw ng mga Yumao '' (Tagalog, Day of those who have passed away), coincides with the Roman Catholic 's celebration of All Saint 's Day and continues on to the following day of All Soul 's Day. Filipinos traditionally observe this day by visiting the family dead to clean and repair their tombs. Offerings of prayers, flowers, candles, and even food, while Chinese Filipinos additionally burn joss sticks and kim. Many also spend the day and ensuing night holding reunions at the cemetery, having feasts and merriment.
Disneyland Resorts ' annual "Halloween Time '' celebrates the art and traditions of Dias de los Muertos located at Frontierland.
The 1998 Grim Fandango video game features Mexican Day of the Dead iconography with Aztec and Egyptian influences.
The 1993 Taylor Hackford film Blood In Blood Out (also known as Bound by Honor) features a major plot point involving the annual Dia de los Muertos celebration during the film.
The 2014 The Book of Life film follows a bullfighter who, on the Day of the Dead, embarks on an afterlife adventure.
In the 2015 James Bond film, Spectre, the opening sequence features a Day of the Dead parade in Mexico City. At the time, no such parade took place in Mexico City; one year later, due to the interest in the film and the government desire to promote the pre-Hispanic Mexican culture, the federal and local authorities decided to organize an actual "Día de Muertos '' parade through Paseo de la Reforma and Centro Historico on October 29, 2016, which was attended by 250,000 people.
The 2016 Elena of Avalor season one episode "A Night to Remember '' focused on Dias de los Muertos.
The 2017 Pixar film Coco features the Dia de los Muertos holiday as a major element in its plot.
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who won series 17 of hell's kitchen | Hell 's Kitchen (U.S. season 17) - wikipedia
The seventeenth season of the reality series Hell 's Kitchen (officially known as Hell 's Kitchen All Stars) began airing on September 29, 2017 on Fox. This season is the first in Hell 's Kitchen history to have an all star edition as sixteen former contestants return to compete once again, and the winner of this season will receive the position as head chef at the first - ever Gordon Ramsay Hell 's Kitchen Restaurant at Caesars Palace in Las Vegas, Nevada. All of the returning chefs made it onto the Black Team in their respective seasons. Gordon Ramsay returns as host and head chef, Season 10 winner (and Season 15 sous - chef) Christina Wilson returns as the Red Team 's sous - chef replaced Andi Van Willigan - Cutspec, who was pregnant at the time of filming, and British MasterChef judge James "Jocky '' Petrie makes his Hell 's Kitchen debut as the Blue Team 's sous - chef replaced Aaron Mitrano. Marino Monferrato returns as the maître d '.
This was the first season since Season 14 and second since Season 9 to feature only one team reassignment. It was the fourth season overall, and second in three, to feature both a chef eliminated from the winning team and another chef eliminated during service, as well as two eliminated by Ramsay 's nomination and three eliminated without participating in a dinner service. It was also the first season ever where one team (red) sent only one chef to the black jacket round. It was also the first time since Season 13 that both teams won the same dinner service. This was the first time since season 13 that the finale did not feature two women. In addition, this is the first time since Season 9 to feature a sole female at the top 4. Also, this is the first season to feature three chefs in the finale. The red team won only two out of nine services outright, with one joint win and one joint loss. In four of the other five, they were thrown out of the kitchen. The team that won the challenge only lost two of the subsequent dinner services, a record fewest for a season.
This is the fifth season in a row to feature a female winner (last season to feature a male winner was in season 12, by Scott Commings). The winner is Michelle Tribble, who previously landed in third place in Season 14.
Ramsay uses his telekinesis to destroy Hell 's Kitchen while leaving the building as the intro ends with the title card featuring him and the all stars. This is the first season that does n't list contestants individually in the intro.
16 returning chefs competed in Season 17.
Ramsay calls up 16 chefs from previous seasons and invites them back to compete again in Hell 's Kitchen. When they arrive, they are welcomed by fans, and their sous - chefs Christina and Jocky are introduced. Ramsay then reveals that the winner of this season will be the head chef of the new Hell 's Kitchen restaurant in Las Vegas.
Team challenge / signature dish: Unlike previous seasons, Ramsay gives the chefs each different ingredients which they will use to create new signature dishes in 45 minutes, and go head to head on main proteins. The scoring system is the same 1 -- 5 ranking. On the duck dishes, both Ashley and Jared scored a 4, while on the chicken dishes, Barbie scored a 3, while Ben scored 2. Both Giovanni and Jennifer score 3 on their lamb dishes while on the scallop dishes, Michelle scored 4 over Nick 's 3. In the pork chop dishes, Milly scored 4, while Manda scored 3. In the filet dishes, Dana scored 4 over Josh 's 2, but both Van and Elise scored a perfect 5 on their lobster dishes. Finally, on the salmon dishes, Benjamin also scores a perfect 5, while Robyn scores a measly 1. The men triumph 28 -- 27.
Rewards / punishment: The men went to Downtown Los Angeles to slide down the Skyslide at the U.S. Bank Tower and to celebrate their win with Marino. Afterwards, they had dinner with Ramsay at WP24 where they had their food cooked and served by Wolfgang Puck. The women, meanwhile, were forced to clean up the risers and confetti outside. While the women were angry at Robyn for costing them the challenge and puzzled at her demonstration of a fortune - telling rock (Elise even suggested that the rock could have told Robyn when to cook the salmon), they were even more annoyed at Elise for not helping out with the risers outside of Hell 's Kitchen.
Challenge -- part 2: Continuing from the last episode, Chef Ramsay announces this year Hell 's Kitchen will offer a special bar menu; they are to create a bar menu item; whoever has the best item will be featured throughout the whole season and the winning chef from this challenge is also safe from tonight 's elimination. The time limit is 40 minutes. The sous chefs will sample each dish and then select four from each team. Out of these dishes, Ramsay will pick the top four, which turned out to be Michelle, Milly, Elise, and Van. Milly 's hand - cut French fries topped with a lobster cheese sauce won him immunity for tonight 's service. Michelle, who came second, later expressed disappointment at this, as she felt her dish had been more adventurous whereas Milly 's had been something he had made numerous times before.
After the challenge, Ben starts to feel unwell, and admits to his teammates that he was recently diagnosed with diabetes. With 30 minutes to dinner service, Ben goes to see the medic, who takes his vitals as he continues to worry about his diabetes and at this point needs to decide if he is going to take the chance or if he is "out ''. Ultimately, he decides to stay.
Service: A Hell 's Kitchen first featured chef 's table on opening night with Jordin Sparks in the red kitchen and Joe Mantegna in the blue kitchen. French Stewart, Keith Sweat and Kirstin Maldonado also attended as guests. Dana and Milly served tableside shrimp and pasta. For the men, Josh served perfect cold appetizers but took too long on them, irritating Ramsay. Jared and Ben served up a raw salmon. Ben took the blame for the blunder and suddenly became unbalanced, forcing Jared to catch him before he fell. They then serve an acceptable salmon. After that, however, the men had an almost perfect service, thanks to Nick and Giovanni serving perfect meat. For the women, Ashley served a soupy carbonara, but quickly served another one. Despite Robyn 's strong performance on meat, Elise served up first raw and then overcooked New York Strip, causing Chef Ramsey to send the women to the dining room to apologize. When the women return, Chef Ramsay calls over Giovanni to help Elise with the meat. With Giovanni 's help, the women 's entrees finally reach the dining room. However, Manda serves up raw salmon, then burns the skin on the refire for the chef 's tables, leading to Ramsay kicking the women out of the kitchen with the men finishing opening night on a strong note.
Elimination: Manda was quickly agreed on as the women 's first nominee, and despite Elise and Barbie trying to persuade the other women that Robyn should be nominated for not doing enough to help Elise on the meat station, Elise herself was named as the second nominee. The women are then asked by Ramsay who they would send home. Ashley, Jennifer, Barbie and Michelle pick Manda while Robyn and Dana choose Elise. To the shock of everyone, Ramsay sent Manda and Elise back in line and called Ben down, revealing that he would be the one eliminated as Ramsay felt his health problems would make him a liability and unable to effectively continue. This made Ben the eighth chef to be eliminated despite being on the winning team.
Ramsay 's comment: "Big Ben? More like big liability. He clearly was n't going to be able to keep up, so I had to let him down. ''
After elimination -- continued: Robyn and Elise have a heated argument over service which is only stopped when Manda drags Robyn to the other room. Prior to the next challenge, Josh threw up after eating vitamins and chimichanga for breakfast.
Team challenge: Before the next challenge begins, Ramsay demonstrated how effective a chef 's hands are by having a kid over to play speed stacking. Michelle and Jared then competed in a cup stacking competition, with Michelle easily winning in just 18 seconds, and Jared taking over a minute longer. The women gained a 30 second head start for the real challenge: to recreate a seafood tower with four tiers as different pairs of chefs replicated one part of the tower to Ramsay 's approval. Despite the disadvantage, the men won the challenge by a matter of seconds, with the women losing their advantage after Michelle and Elise had major problems putting together the second part of the tower.
Rewards / punishment: The men were sent to Ocean Club in Malibu where they ate a seafood lunch with Jocky and Marino. They later played soccer with U.S. soccer Olympians Alyssa Naeher and Julie Johnston. The women in the meantime were forced to take in deliveries of seafood, prep it for service, and forced to eat a disgusting fish dish, causing Barbie to vomit over Dana and Robyn 's graphic descriptions of the dish. Elise tries to weasel out of the dish, but Sous - Chef Christina forces her to eat it. As they were unloading the deliveries, Barbie annoyed her teammates by telling them what to do.
Service: Philadelphia Eagles tight end Zach Ertz, professional golfer Jon Rahm, and the aforementioned Alyssa Naeher and Julie Johnston were guests in the dining room. Michelle and Giovanni served a seafood appetizer tableside. The men continued their winning streak with a near perfect service thanks to Milly 's leadership with the only problems being Josh briefly getting confused on orders until Jared helped him out, and Van momentarily delaying a ticket by not having the salmon quite ready in time. While the women had a good start on appetizers, they soon fell apart on entrees. Despite Barbie cooking perfect meat, she openly argued with and criticized Robyn, who sent up raw salmon. Ashley was kicked out of the kitchen temporarily for being distracted by her watch, and Manda again struggled on garnishes. After Robyn served an overcooked piece of salmon and Barbie ruined three pieces of meat, Ramsey gave them one more chance. However, when an overcooked lobster wellington and raw halibut comes up the pass, an angry Ramsay threw the women out for the second time in a row and had the men finish service.
Elimination: Ramsay called the women 's performance even worse than the previous one, and ordered them to nominate two people. Barbie and Robyn were agreed on as the nominees due to Barbie 's poor performance on meat and communication and Robyn for her poor performance on fish; Barbie argued that Ashley and Manda should be up as well due both of them struggling on their stations. Ramsay agreed and brought up the four women, ultimately eliminating Ashley for not doing much in service and believing she had no fight back left.
Team challenge: Ramsay brought everyone together for a game of chance. Both teams took turns in picking ingredients which started with a letter. As soon as a member could not think of an ingredient, the other team won the choice of an ingredient that had been said and were allowed to give the other team a bad ingredient. Each team member had to cook an individual dish using all of the ingredients on their team 's list. The women chose mushrooms, snap peas, asparagus and rice and were given cantaloupe, peanut butter and blueberries, while the men won cauliflower, portabella mushrooms and bacon and were given maraschino cherries, syrup, artichoke and raisins. Barbie scored 4 (although she was unable to taste her own sauce as she was allergic to peanuts), Manda scored 2, Dana scored a perfect 5 but Robyn again scored a 1. Elise and Michelle also scored 5 while Jennifer scored 4. Milly scored 4, Van scored 3, Benjamin scored 5 and Jared scored 1. Nick scored 5, Josh scored 3 and Giovanni scored 4, giving the women their first challenge victory, 26 - 25.
Rewards / punishment: The women flew in a private plane to Santa Barbara to stay at the Belmond El Encanto resort. The men dealt with a delivery of potatoes and then sifted through garbage to find what was recyclable. During the punishment, the men became infuriated with Josh after he revealed he was a celebrity caterer who only worked three hours a day.
Service: Shannon Tweed dined in the red kitchen and Paige VanZant in the blue. Both kitchens had to prepare for a twelve - top table for a guest celebrating his 30th birthday. Ramsay had both kitchens coordinate their dishes in sync with one another for the appetizers and the entrees. Throughout the service, the red team had an almost flawless performance, as Michelle and Jennifer both managed to properly coordinate the kitchens so the twelve - top could be served. Their only real problems came with Michelle adding too much garlic to a risotto and Barbie temporarily struggling on garnishes, though even then, both quickly recovered. The blue team 's service was much more rocky; Josh slowed the team on appetizers and then twice sent up far too many orders of risotto, with Ramsay making him eat the leftovers with the VIP guests. Giovanni sent up a burnt order of pork alongside a well - cooked one, and Benjamin and Jared sent up a raw order of duck for the twelve - top table, forcing Jennifer to step in and rescue the table. When Benjamin sent up a cold beef wellington, Ramsay threw the blue team out, having the red team finish their service and asking them to come up with two nominees.
Team challenge: Bringing everybody outside, Ramsay explains that some chefs use wood planks to cook fish on, which will be their next challenge. Both teams will have three pairs of two and one lone chef cook their fish and produce over a fire pit on top of cedar wood or hickory wood. Ramsay is then joined by Chef Ben Ford (Harrison Ford 's son) in the judging. During the challenge, Josh smothered the Red Team 's fire causing frustration between him and the team. Both teams tie at 3 -- 3, but Ramsay and Ford deem Robyn and Nick 's dish the best of the chefs, giving the blue team the win.
Rewards / punishment: The blue team heads down to Apex Farm and enjoys a horseback ride. The red team also go to Apex Farm, but are forced to clean horse manure in a pen.
Service: Actor Shaun Brown was in attendance for this service. A tableside appetizer of smoked salmon rillette is served by Van and Barbie. In the blue kitchen, Benjamin uses oil on a non-stick pan for scallops but recovers, though he irritates his teammates by responding to Ramsay in French, though ironically, Ramsay did n't seem to mind. Robyn accidentally drops an order of chicken and serves a raw Beef Wellington, and Milly has trouble communicating with Nick on garnish. Otherwise, the blue team had a decent service. On the red team, Josh was slow on the fish and chips for the bar menu, leading Manda to repeatedly take over his station, frustrating him. After he serves salty spinach and liquid mashed potatoes, Ramsay catches him handling cold garnishes with his bare hands when the entree it goes with is already at the pass. A frustrated Ramsay kicks Josh out of service, much to the relief of the red team who perform much better afterward, though Elise earned some of the other chefs ' ire by standing around and doing nothing.
Automatic elimination: After a while, Josh decides to come back to the kitchen and fight his way back in. Ramsay, however, takes him into the back room and eliminates him from Hell 's Kitchen due to his poor performances, stubbornness, and failure to improve upon his past mistakes, although he acknowledges Josh 's big heart and talent. Josh takes his jacket off and leaves through the front door, making him the eighth person to be eliminated during service, the second after switching teams (after Lacey in Season 5), and the second who was asked to use the front door (after Gabriel in Season 12). Ramsay does n't give an explanation for Josh 's elimination, and his jacket is not hung up, nor is his picture burned.
After Josh 's elimination and the post-service meeting, Chef Ramsay told the chefs to all get some rest, as big changes were coming. Everyone was relieved that Josh was gone, with Milly specifically stating that every remaining contestant hated Josh and that he was not at any of their levels, in terms of overall skill. They all sat around drinking and talking about each other 's sex lives, making fun of who they thought was "vanilla, '' and who might be a freak in the bed. Suddenly, Van fell into the hot tub.
Team challenge: The challenge was to create and bake a pizza at the DeSano Pizzeria and Bakery. Each pizza would consist of ingredients inspired by a country selected by a random spin of a wheel, and each chef from one team would go head - to - head against a chef from the other team to create the better pizza as judged by Ramsay, Marino, and Chef Steve Samson. Barbie scored the first point for the red team against Robyn with her pizza inspired by India, with all three judges voting in her favor. Milly scored the first point for the blue team against Jennifer with his pizza inspired by Morocco, with Ramsay and Marino voting in favor of him, but Samson voting in favor of Jennifer. Manda scored the second point for the red team against Van with her pizza inspired by Vietnam, with all three judges voting in her favor. Nick scored the second point for the blue team against Dana with his pizza inspired by Greece, with all three judges voting in his favor. Neither Elise nor Jared managed to score a point for their teams with their pizzas inspired by South Korea, as Elise 's pizza was badly misshapen and Jared had served raw cabbage, thinking it was kimchi. But Michelle scored the third and winning point for the red team against Giovanni with her pizza inspired by France. Because the blue team had an extra member, Benjamin 's pizza, also inspired by France, was omitted in favor of Giovanni 's, although the blue team ultimately regretted this decision due to Giovanni 's pizza being burnt.
Rewards / punishment: The red team headed to The Magic Castle after a tour of Hollywood on a double - decker bus where they were entertained by Joel Ward. The blue team was forced to prepare the entire dining room for the upcoming Italian Night in Hell 's Kitchen.
Service: Chef 's tables were featured for Italian night as actress Melissa Fumero sat in the red kitchen while the blue team had a pair of VIP guests in their respective kitchen which includes 2012 Miss Universe Olivia Culpo and Victoria 's Secret model Devon Windsor. A tableside Italian entrée was served by Nick and Elise. In the blue kitchen, Benjamin caused confusion by not communicating with Robyn in terms of when to drop scallops for their first appetizer. When the entrées rolled around, Van and Giovanni sent up a raw serving of lamb, which made Ramsay force the entire team into the pantry. Worse still, after returning to the kitchen, Van and Giovanni took too long in delivering the lamb, and when Van laughed at Ramsay 's admonishment of Giovanni, Ramsay forced him back into the pantry to deride him some more. Later, Jared miscommunicated with his team and eventually lied to them about when his garnish would be ready (due to him being overwhelmed by how many different garnishes he was cooking at once). Unable to take being called out for it by the whole team, he faked a medical emergency by saying he had a cut on his finger that turned out not to be there (although he insisted that it was), which left him room to leave the kitchen to see the medic (who would later confirm that there was, in fact, no cut). The final straw came when Robyn overcooked two orders of salmon, and Giovanni overcooked two orders of veal. Fed up with their mistakes, Ramsay chastised the blue team for not performing as strongly as they had on opening night, and then kicked them out of the kitchen, giving them the loss. Conversely, on the red team, Manda, due to having Celiac Disease, could not taste any of the pasta for the team 's first appetizer and instead had to rely on Michelle to determine whether or not it had been cooked properly. Michelle mistakenly told her that it had been, but Ramsay sent it back when he revealed that it had actually been undercooked. She nearly misinformed Manda a second time, but thanks to Elise taking over tasting duty, Manda was able to deliver a perfectly - cooked pasta. Michelle then suffered a fall while trying to cook an order of lamb for one of the team 's entrées (something that Manda considered to be karma for her pasta error), but still managed to cook it properly. Elise also tried much too hard to be a team player and annoyed her teammates in trying to assist them on their stations when they did not need her help. Besides these mishaps, the red team had a strong, solid service and were given the victory.
Elimination: After a long, heated debate back in the dorms that put Van, Giovanni, Jared, and Robyn in the crosshairs, the blue team nominated Jared for his "medical emergency '' that disrupted the garnish station, and Robyn for her errors with the scallops and the salmon. Jared continued to insist that he truly had cut himself, while Robyn went as far as to plead with Ramsay to send her back to the red team since it had become clear that she was just not bonding with the blue team. In the end, Ramsay shocked everyone on both teams when he eliminated Jared for faking being injured and inconsistent performances. Jared exited while continuing to insist that his cut had been real, despite contradictory testimony from the medic.
Challenge: For their next challenge, both teams are to cook six of the most popular dishes in Hell 's Kitchen (Beef Wellington, Salmon, Halibut, Rack of Lamb, Duck Breast, and Double Bone Pork Chop) in 25 minutes. However, Ramsay asks in different intervals for each team to kick out one team member each which in the end, leaves Nick and Michelle the only ones left on their respective teams until everyone is called back in during the last 3 minutes. In the end, the blue team won 5 -- 3 because the red team served raw lamb and pork.
Rewards / punishment: The blue team went to a world class rock climbing gym and ate at the Bourbon Steak at Americana and are joined by Sous Chefs Christina and Jocky. The red team had to work with Marino in cleaning the dining room and kitchen along with polishing Marino 's shoes and prepping for next service.
Cook For Your Life Challenge: Instead of a service, Ramsay announced that tonight is a Cook For Your Life Challenge and asks Michelle and Nick who they think are the three weakest chefs on their respective teams. Michelle nominated Barbie, Elise, and Manda while Nick nominated Giovanni, Milly, and Robyn. The six chefs were tasked with recreating Ramsay 's Champagne and Oysters in 30 minutes.
Elimination: Milly was sent to safety first (despite preparing only five oysters instead of six as required), followed by Manda, Barbie, and Elise, leaving Giovanni and Robyn behind. In the end, Robyn was sent up to safety last, leaving Giovanni to be eliminated for putting too much pasta and not enough sauce on each oyster, though Ramsay wished him and his family luck.
Team challenge: For their next challenge, Ramsay announced that both teams would be cooking with three of the earliest meat hunted by man; boar, venison, and elk. Both teams had 3 minutes to hunt 5 ingredients for each of their protein and had 45 minutes to cook their dishes. Both teams had two pairs cooking with a similar meat, minus Nick who is the lone blue chef to cook with venison. Ramsay brought in chefs Vinny Dotolo and Jon Shook (who previously helped judge a challenge in Seasons 13 and 14) to help him with the judging. Van scored a point on his boar dish while Elise scored a point on her venison making it a 1 -- 1 tie. In a big surprise, Robyn 's elk dish broke the tie in favor of the blue team and they won the challenge 2 -- 1. Ramsay even welcomed Robyn back after a string of poor performances.
Reward / punishment: The blue team went on an exclusive mountain retreat at Hummingbird Nest Ranch, while indulging in caviar provided by Chef Alex Ageneau. The red team had to clean out the dorm rooms and had to clean the waiting staff 's aprons. During punishment, Michelle tried to apologize to Elise for putting her up in the Cook For Your Life Challenge, but Elise rudely rejected her apology.
Service: A caviar bellini appetizer special was included on the main menu. Later that night, Ramsay received a last - minute VIP booking from Goo Goo Dolls frontman John Rzeznik where he was seated in the red kitchen. The blue team had a perfect service with all five of them communicating well and none of their dishes were cooked incorrectly. Ramsay praised this, only needing to lecture Robyn when she kept calling her teammates "baby ''. For the red team, it was the opposite story. Elise was slow on the caviar appetizer dish and needed Jennifer 's help in the preparation. Things soon fell apart on the entree 's when Manda did n't hear an order of pork for one table which slowed the momentum, and Barbie served raw duck. Things got worse when Barbie later sent up a raw chicken that Michelle thought was cooked. After Barbie sent up a raw duck again and Manda gave a raw pork to the pass, Ramsay called the blue team over and told them he needed them to finish their last ticket as the red team, who Ramsay declared had their worst service yet, was kicked out for the third time this season. The blue team later had the red team 's tickets finished.
Elimination: After an awful service by the Red Team, Ramsay ordered the Red Team to come up with two nominees for Elimination. After a long discussion, The Red team nominated Manda and Barbie, although Elise suggested that Michelle should have been put up for Elimination. Despite Barbie 's horrendous performance on the meat station, Ramsay sent her back in line and eliminated Manda for being the main reason for the red team 's defeat, but praised her for her hard work and determination.
Challenge: The remaining chefs participated in a fishing challenge where the chefs had to waddle through a lake. They must hook lures containing different ingredients to their fish 's mouth and then throw it to their teammates. Each ingredient they fish out will go a certain fish -- Dover sole, red snapper, grouper, arctic char, or cod. Afterwards, they had 30 minutes to cook their fish with the ingredients they fished out from the lake. Michael Cimarusti served as a guest judge. Jennifer scored over Nick in the battle of the cod, while Robyn scored over Michelle with the grouper. Milly scored over Elise with the red snapper, mainly because Elise was only able to fish three ingredients for her snapper. Benjamin and Dana both scored a point with their arctic char. Finally, Van scored over Barbie in the Dover sole, giving the blue team a 4 -- 2 victory.
Reward / punishment: The blue team headed out to Las Vegas in a private plane to stay overnight at Caesars Palace. They also went on the world 's tallest Ferris Wheel with Christina. The red team had to bring in several hundreds of pounds of fish, then descale and fillet them. In addition, they were served a disgusting protein shake. Barbie tried to throw away her entire shake, only to get caught. As a result, Jocky forces the rest of the team to finish their serving of shake. This caused Dana, Elise, and Michelle to vomit.
Service: This service included an Asian fusion menu. Guests in attendance included Aleks Paunovic and E -- 40 in addition to the chef 's tables, which hosted Cheryl Burke and Dan Bucatinsky in the red and blue kitchen respectively. Barbie and Robyn each spent excessive amounts of time fraternizing with the chef 's table guests, earning the ire of Elise and Nick, respectively. Elise and Barbie fought for control over the pass, earning a warning from Chef Christina. Raw chicken sent to the pass prompted Ramsay to send the entire red team into the pantry. Later, Cheryl informed Barbie that the duck was slightly raw and Barbie offered to prepare another, but the guests declined. Despite Elise 's objections, Barbie insisted on a fresh serving of duck. When Barbie asked Elise to prepare a duck garnish, Elise refused, an argument ensued, and Ramsay pulled both back into the pantry and demanded they sort out their differences before reentering. This prompted Elise to call Barbie "cuckoo '' before exiting the pantry. In the blue kitchen, Milly brought up raw New York strip but recovered. Van failed to respond when Ramsay asked for time on the salmon, and proceeded to bring up an overcooked portion. He was also able to bounce back, but not before Ramsay threatened to throw him out. Even though both teams completed service with no ejections, Ramsay declared both teams losers, the only service this season since seasons 2 & 14 that both teams lost, and asked for two nominees per team for elimination.
Elimination: The blue team considered nominating Van for his struggles on fish and Milly for raw steak, but are interrupted by the red team arguing from across the hall. Ramsay first asks the blue team for nominations and Nick replies with Robyn and Milly. Ramsay calls down Van as well and gives all three 30 seconds to plead their cases. After this, he sends Robyn and Milly back in line, and shocks some members of the red team when he eliminates Van for his lack of communication on the fish station, but encourages him to keep his head up. Next, he calls for the red team 's nominations and Dana replies with Elise and Barbie. Barbie states that she will not repeat the mistakes from tonight 's service and that her team has rejected her attempts to get along with them, while Elise points to her stronger performances on challenges than Barbie (ironically she put herself at a major disadvantage for this week 's challenge). But Ramsay simply sends both back in line and warns the remaining chefs to correct their mistakes, or else.
Challenge: Ramsay announced that the annual Blind Taste Test was the next challenge, and for this season, they would be tasting herbs and spices mixed into a mashed potato puree. While one chef tastes the ingredients, a member of their team would be in a chair and would get splattered with mashed potatoes and gravy if the taster got multiple incorrect answers. Robyn scored 3 while Dana failed to score any points, resulting in Michelle getting messy. This was a complete reversal from Season 10 when Dana got 2 and laughed at Robyn who did n't get any. Nick scored 2 while Jennifer also failed to score any points (resulting in Dana getting messy), and Benjamin scores 3 while Barbie scores 2. With the (planned) second - to - final pair of Elise and Milly up, Ramsay warned the red team that if Elise did not catch up to the blue team, the challenge was over. Elise failed to score her three taste tests, and the blue team won the challenge 8 -- 2 without having to go to a fifth and final pairing (Michelle did not taste). This is first time since Season 15 that the Blind Taste Test did not have to go to the final ingredient and the first one ever that was won before the final round. This contrasts with recent seasons 13, 14 and 16 that all needed to go to sudden death. Ramsay complimented the Blue team for not having any of their members have gravy dumped on them (which happens with three incorrect guesses).
Reward / punishment: The blue team went to Roy Yamaguchi 's Hawaiian Fusion Restaurant for lunch and received Vitamix Blenders while at the restaurant. The red team had to clean up the dining room and separate peppercorn while grinding them by hand. During punishment, sous - chef Christina noticed some animosity in the red team and asked them if they could promise a good dinner service, but Dana refused to do so as she did not have faith in Barbie.
Service: For one night only, Hell 's Kitchen hosted a private dinner service for two charities with the blue team cooking for Shane 's Inspiration, and the red team cooking for the Leukemia & Lymphoma Society. Both charities featured notable guests in attendance which include Mindy Sterling and Tyler Posey in the red table, and David Koechner, Jill Wagner and Shane 's Inspiration founder Scott Williams in the blue table. Each team would have one chef lead a section, though Nick had to lead both the scallop appetizer and the passion fruit souffle dessert for the blue team, which was a member down. Michelle and Nick were able to get their dishes out with few problems, with Michelle noticing that she was missing three scallops and Milly was overcooking scallops for Nick 's dishes. Jennifer had no problems with her Lobster Spaghetti dishes but Robyn was caught serving more pasta than needed. On the Striped Bass dish, Milly led the blue team strongly and got his dishes out with no problems, but in the red kitchen, most of the bass were burnt and Elise accused her team of sabotaging her, despite her not checking them before serving them. For the Beef filet Rossini, it was the same story as Benjamin led his team well while in the red kitchen, Barbie 's aggressive leadership had her screaming at Michelle on garnish and their potatoes were burnt. Dana and Nick had no issues with their desserts, but Ramsay called the red team 's performance the "worst charity dinner ever in the entire competition '' before tasking them to come up with two nominees.
Elimination: Barbie and Elise were nominated. Ramsay eliminated Barbie for her aggressive leadership at service along with not bouncing back quicker, but praised her for her heart. He then remarked that the blue team 's remaining four members would likely make up for the final four.
Before the challenge began, Jennifer made a pact with her Season 9 archrival Elise to knock out Dana and Michelle, whom they believed weaker and to be in their own clique.
Challenge: Before heading off to bed, Ramsay announced a pasta challenge tomorrow where the chefs had to create three portions a gourmet pasta dish with a $20 budget at a local grocery store. Joining Ramsay in the judging is Lachlan Mackinnon - Patterson, Chef and Co-Owner of Frasca Food and Wine in Boulder, CO and Bruce Kalman, Chef and Owner of Union in Pasadena, CA. Each judge gave points based on how much they would pay for the dish. Michelle and Elise earned Ramsay 's suspicion when they announced they were making a dumpling soup and paella, respectively, as Ramsay was expecting Italian dishes for this challenge. Despite this, the red team won the challenge $320 to $313, as Michelle and Elise 's outside - the - box dishes hit big and Milly 's chicken meatball pasta did not. It was the first time they won a challenge since Episode 6.
Reward / punishment: The red team went go - karting and had an incredible lunch. In addition, Michelle 's Asian inspired Tortellini Soup (which was the best dish of the day) was added in tonight 's menu. The blue team were tasked in cleaning the kitchen shelves.
Service: Tyler Hilton, Sebastian Roche, and Keesha Sharp were in attendance for this service. Both teams got off to strong starts on appetizers, but had struggles on entrees with their respective meat stations. In the red kitchen, Dana scorched her initial wellingtons and sent up raw lamb to the pass. In the blue kitchen, Robyn was slow on one of her wellingtons, mis - remembered a ticket order, and had trouble communicating with Benjamin on the garnish station, earning a trip to the storeroom with Ramsay. Despite that, both teams pushed entrees out, and with three tickets left each, Ramsay told both teams that the first team to finish up was the winner. Despite making it to their last ticket, Dana served overcooked and undercooked wellingtons, and Ramsay threw the red team out for the fourth time this season as the blue team finished their own tickets.
Elimination: Despite being told to nominate two people, the red team had a three way tie between Dana, Michelle and Elise due to the alliance between Jennifer and Elise. So Ramsay called all three of them down. Ramsay sent Michelle and Elise back in line, eliminating Dana for her lack of leadership and poor performance on meat. As Dana was the only returning chef who had never been nominated, she was eliminated the first time she was on the chopping block.
Ramsay announced that today was a black jackets challenge where only five of the seven chefs would get black jackets, while two of them would be sent home.
Challenge 1: For their first challenge, it was the classic Taste It Now Make It Challenge as Ramsay gave the chefs 45 minutes to taste his dish and recreate it. Everyone got the protein correct: sea bass. In the end, Milly was the only one to get both purees correct (white asparagus and romanesco), and Nick 's hash came the closest of everyone 's. They won the first black jackets and spent the rest of the day at the Black Jackets VIP Lounge.
Challenge 2: For their second challenge, Ramsay had 5 domes with limited ingredients, and when he rings the bell, the chefs had to race and grab whatever ingredient they wanted. They then had to cook a dish in 30 minutes using those ingredients. Jennifer and Elise were disqualified for undercooking potatoes and leaving the gonads on a lobster, respectively. Michelle 's veal chops and Benjamin 's filet mignon were the best two dishes, and they received their black jackets. They then joined Milly and Nick in the Lounge area. Before their final challenge, Jennifer urged Robyn to beat Elise.
Challenge 3: For their final challenge, Ramsay gave the three chefs 30 minutes to cook whatever they wanted and had full range of ingredients in the kitchen. The black jacket chefs watched the challenge on a live video feed, but it cut out after the challenge ended. Robyn made a seared lamb loin with potato and corn hash (despite having initially selected halibut for her primary protein), Elise made a filet mignon with potato puree and rainbow chard, and Jennifer made scallops and shrimp with corn succotash.
Elimination: After tasting the dishes, Ramsay eliminated Elise for having the weakest dish of the three, but told her to keep her jacket and urged her to keep her head up high. To decide between Jennifer and Robyn, who were crying and hugging each other, Ramsay had Jockey and Christina taste the dishes. In the end, Robyn received the final black jacket and Jennifer was sent home due to her scallops being slightly undercooked. Before leaving, Ramsay allowed Jennifer to keep her jacket as well and praised her for improving since the last time she competed. Before leaving Jennifer wished Robyn good luck and was happy to have beaten Elise, who betrayed her on their previous season. After Robyn got to the Black Jacket Lounge, Ramsay and the sous chefs brought champagne to the lounge and congratulated the remaining chefs for being in the final five.
Challenge: For their first black jackets challenge, the chefs had to teach sports all stars (Milly cooking with NFL 's Ricky Williams, Michelle cooking with the winner of the WNBA championship Candace Parker, Benjamin cooking with NFL "Light 's Out '' Shawne Merriman, Nick cooking with Olympic gold medalist gymnast Jordyn Wieber, and Robyn cooking with 5 - time NBA All - Star Reggie Miller) how to cook their signature dishes that they originally planned on making at the start of the season in 45 minutes. Once finished, Ramsay will then judge the dishes and have one person on the winners seat, but they could be dethroned if Ramsay found the next dish better. Michelle won the challenge by beating Milly, who had beaten Robyn and Nick, and then beating Benjamin.
Reward / punishment: Michelle went on a tour to see all the breath - taking views of Los Angeles from her very own helicopter; after that, she ate at 71 Above and took Nick with her. The remaining chefs had to participate in deep cleaning day. During punishment, Robyn got annoyed when Milly was seen not helping much and eating the leftover food from the challenge.
Service: Rapper and Musician Wyclef Jean was seated at the chefs table. Former 2 Broke Girls actors Jonathan Kite and Matthew Moy were in attendance in addition to Janina Gavankar. Milly was disorganized on the appetizers and had a pan catch on fire but recovered. Benjamin was not communicating with everyone else from the meat station, and annoyed everyone with his constant "Oui Chef '' reply. Robyn sent up bland couscous and got lectured by Ramsay when she sent up burnt Brussels sprouts and that she said that she did not want to send them up, and Nick sent up a rare New York Strip, but recovered. Despite the speed bumps, the team sent their tickets out with no problems and Ramsay was relatively pleased by it. After service, Ramsay named Michelle the "Best of the Best '' as she was the only one not to have any major problems and told her to nominate two people.
Elimination: Michelle nominated Robyn and Milly for elimination. During the elimination process, Robyn argued with Milly over how little work she felt he did during punishment and service. Ramsay eliminated Robyn for being the weakest of the black jackets but praised her for improving a lot after her poor start and allowed her to keep her jacket.
While the chefs are leaving, Ramsay calls Milly over and tells him he is talented and that the fighting and conflict is not necessary. Milly acknowledges this in an interview and apologizes. Before the next challenge, Ramsay revealed that he invited the final four 's loved ones (Michelle 's sister and nephews, Nick 's husband and mom, Benjamin 's wife and daughters, and Milly 's girlfriend and infant son) for some time together.
Challenge: Ramsay had the chefs choose a Christmas present under a tree that contained ingredients for them. They then had forty - five minutes to use those ingredients to make a festive inspired dish. Afterwards, Ramsay invited their loved ones for a blind judging, with them voting for their top two dishes. Benjamin and Michelle were tied, with Milly receiving no votes. Benjamin won the challenge when Ramsay broke the tie in his favor.
Reward / punishment: Benjamin rode with Ramsay in a Ferrari to lunch with his family while the rest of the chefs had to clean the SUV 's and clean up the dining room. During punishment, Nick, Michelle, and Milly made a pact to make sure Season 14 all made it to the final three.
Service: For this service, each of the final four had a turn on the pass with Ramsay not only testing their leadership skills, but their quality control as Sous Chefs Christina and Jocky would be intentionally making mistakes. In attendance that night were Anna Konkle and Gabrielle Dennis. Benjamin was up first and managed to catch Christina serving a carbonara with spaghetti instead of fettuccine, but did not notice carrots instead of butternut squash in the risotto. Milly missed an intentional ticket mistake from Marino, but became vocal and caught multiple mistakes from Michelle on garnish. Michelle did see that Christina did not serve spinach as requested, but failed to identify a ribeye instead of the ordered New York strip. Nick missed Jocky sending up a veal chop instead of a pork chop, but caught mistakes from Christina, Michelle, and Milly, the latter of which was struggling with a poached egg. After service, Ramsay told them to think of one person they wanted to be with in the finals.
Elimination: At elimination, everyone else said that they wanted to see Nick in the finale. Afterwards, Ramsay eliminated Milly, but said he was happy to give him a second chance, praised his confidence and told him to keep his jacket. In an unprecedented step, Ramsay offered Milly an opportunity to come to London for a week and stage at his flagship three Michelin Star Restaurant Gordon Ramsay. Milly enthusiastically accepted and left. Afterwards, Ramsay picked Nick as the first finalist and praised him for growing more than any chef in this competition. Benjamin was the second finalist for his calm, collected leadership that night. However, in another unprecedented move, Ramsay selected Michelle as the third finalist of the season, marking the first time in Hell 's Kitchen history where Chef Ramsay names three finalists.
Individual challenge: The finalists were each assigned a sous chef, who would help them prepare a menu in one hour consisting of a hot and cold appetizer, as well as a chicken, beef, and seafood entree. During this process, Nick overcooked the beurre blanc sauce for one of his dishes, but managed to recover with the help of Sous Chef Christina. After sampling all the dishes, Ramsay was unable to decide on a winner.
Reward: Michelle, Benjamin, and Nick were all transported to an awards ceremony for the fictitious Culinary Association of America, where Ramsay took the stage and announced that they would be cooking their menus again for the executive staff at Caesar 's Palace in Las Vegas.
Continued from the previous episode, Michelle picked Elise, so Benjamin was left with Barbie.
Service: Before dinner service, while both teams prepped their menus, Elise continued to give Michelle attitude until Nick told her to shut up or go home. Lamorne Morris and the finalists ' families were in attendance for the last dinner service of the season. In the red kitchen, Dana needed Michelle 's help to assemble a cold appetizer, prompting Ramsay to give Michelle a pep talk in the storeroom. Marino returned two risottos to Michelle 's kitchen after a minor complaint about the broth. Elise recovered and successfully re-fired the risottos that were then sent back to Lamorne Morris ' table, much to the actor 's delight. Ramsay then scolded Nick for attempting to call nine entrees in a single sitting. Meanwhile in the blue kitchen, Barbie did well on hot apps for Benjamin, despite not having done it often during the season. But entrees were a different story. First, Jennifer sent up raw fish twice. Robyn sent up raw filets and burned the subsequent refire. Her third attempt on the same ticket was raw again, prompting Ramsay to accuse her of sabotaging Benjamin. When she finally brought up an acceptable steak, it came with a raw lamb. She then refired the lamb in the same pan that had been used to cook the steak, which was a cross-contamination hazard. An irate Ramsay dragged Robyn and Benjamin into the dining room, threw the former out of the kitchen, and berated the latter for not stepping up as a leader. Nevertheless, Robyn continued to fight with Benjamin to be allowed back in, and he finally relented on the last ticket.
Winner: As per Hell 's Kitchen tradition, Michelle and Benjamin stood in front of two doors. Michelle 's door opened, making her the 17th winner and first All - Star winner of Hell 's Kitchen; Benjamin took his defeat graciously. Michelle gave a victory speech and hung her picture in the Hall of Fame. In the final credits scene, Elise cried openly over losing to Michelle and Van asked Marino for a ' real drink ' as opposed to the standard champagne.
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who won medals for gb at winter olympics | Great Britain at the Olympics - wikipedia
Great Britain or Team GB is the team that sends athletes from the United Kingdom (UK), all but three of its overseas territories, and the three Crown dependencies, to the Olympic Games. It has sent athletes to every Summer and Winter Games, along with France and Switzerland, since the start of the Olympics ' modern era in 1896, including the 1980 Summer Olympics and 1984 Summer Olympics, which were boycotted by a number of other nations on each occasion. From 1896 to 2016 inclusive, Great Britain has won 847 medals at the Summer Olympic Games, and another 31 at the Winter Olympic Games. It is the only national team to have won at least one Gold Medal at every Summer Games, and lies third globally in the winning of both Gold Medals and total medals, surpassed only by the United States and the former Soviet Union.
It is organised by the British Olympic Association (BOA) as the National Olympic Committee for the UK. While the International Olympic Committee (IOC) and BOA both refer to the team as ' Great Britain ' and the team uses the brand name Team GB, the BOA explains that it is a contraction of the full title, the Great Britain and Northern Ireland Olympic Team. Great Britain was one of 14 teams to compete in the first Games, the 1896 Summer Olympics in Athens, and is one of only three nations (France and Switzerland being the others) to have competed at every Summer and Winter Olympic Games.
The most successful British Olympians by gold medals won are Sir Chris Hoy and Jason Kenny, who have won six gold (and one silver) medals each in track cycling; two British Olympians come next with five gold medals -- fellow cyclist Sir Bradley Wiggins, and Sir Steve Redgrave, who won five gold medals in five consecutive Games in rowing, a record for an endurance event. Sailor Sir Ben Ainslie jointly holds the Great Britain record for most individual Olympic gold medals with Chris Hoy and Sir Mo Farah with four, and the most gold medals in a single event with three gold medals (in the Men 's Finn class sailing event 2004 -- 2012) - again shared with Jason Kenny (men 's team sprint 2008 -- 2016) and Steve Redgrave (men 's coxless pair 1988 -- 1996). Sir Chris Hoy holds the record for gold medals in different events, having reached the top step in four different disciplines -- men 's kilo, men 's team sprint, men 's match sprint and men 's kierin.
Cyclist Sir Bradley Wiggins has the most overall medals by a British Olympian (and thus often referred to in the media as the "most decorated British Olympian '') with eight. Sir Steve Redgrave is the only British Olympian to win a gold medal in five consecutive Olympic Games, winning his first in 1984 Los Angeles and last in 2000 Sydney. With five golds and a bronze, Redgrave is the most successful Olympic male rower of all time.
The most successful female Olympian for GB is cyclist Laura Trott, who has four gold medals, while the most decorated female Olympians are Katherine Grainger and Kathleen McKane Godfree, with five medals each - one gold and four silver for Grainger, a gold, two silver and two bronze for McKane Godfree. Alongside five time gold medalist Redgrave, Grainger, Ainslie, Wiggins and Jack Beresford are the only British Olympians to win medals of any colour in five successive Games. In 1908, the country finished in the Olympic table in first place for the first and only time in its history; its most successful performance both post-War and away from a home Games was in 2016, finishing second.
Chris Hoy and Jason Kenny are jointly the most successful cyclists in Olympic history and Ben Ainslie, with four golds at consecutive Games and a silver medal, is the most successful sailor in Olympic history.
Great Britain has hosted the Summer Games on three occasions -- 1908, 1948 and 2012, all in London -- second only to the United States. At the 2016 Summer Olympics in Rio, Great Britain became the first country to win more medals at a Summer Olympics immediately after hosting a Summer Olympics; they won 67 medals overall, coming in second place in the medal table ahead of China, two more than in London in 2012. This success came 20 years after finishing 36th in the medal table, after winning just one gold and fourteen other medals at the 1996 Summer Olympics in Atlanta, which led to significant changes into the management and funding of British sports and facilities.
At the Winter Olympics as a non-alpine nation Great Britain has historically been unable to replicate the amount of success they have achieved in the Summer Olympics although in recent years with the expansion of the Winter Olympics to include sports such as Curling, Snowboarding, Skeleton and Freestyle skiing has brought some increased success. Currently Great Britain is the most successful nation in women 's skeleton, having won a medal six times, at least one for each time the event has been held, including a gold medal for Amy Williams in 2010, and the same for Lizzy Yarnold in 2014 and 2018. Great Britain enjoyed a period of significant success between 1976 and 1984 in figure skating, winning golds in three successive games on the rink. Prior to the 2014 Games all Britain 's Winter Olympic medals had been won in sports performed on ice. Snowboarder Jenny Jones became the first British athlete to win a medal on snow in the 90 years of the winter games when she won a bronze medal in the women 's slopestyle event. At the 2018 Games, Izzy Atkin won Britain 's first skiing medal, winning a bronze in the women 's ski slopestyle.
The most successful Winter Olympian from Great Britain is Lizzy Yarnold, with two gold medals in the women 's skeleton.
As the National Olympic Committee (NOC) for the United Kingdom, the British Olympic Association (BOA) membership encompasses the four Home Nations of the United Kingdom (England, Scotland, Northern Ireland and Wales), plus the three Crown dependencies (Isle of Man, Jersey and Guernsey), and all but three of the British overseas territories (Cayman Islands, British Virgin Islands and Bermuda having their own NOCs).
Representatives of the devolved Northern Ireland government from a unionist background, however, have objected to the name "Team GB '', and have called for it to be renamed as Team UK to make it clearer that Northern Ireland is included on the team.
Under the IOC charter, the Olympic Council of Ireland is responsible for the entire island of Ireland. However, athletes from Northern Ireland can elect to represent either the UK or Ireland at the Olympics, as people from Northern Ireland. A number of Northern Ireland born athletes, particularly in boxing, have won medals for Ireland at the Games. Athletes from Ireland represented Great Britain up until the 1920 Olympics while the entire island was part of the United Kingdom.
London is the only city in the UK that has hosted the games, and the only city in the world to have hosted them three times. London also won the right to host the 1944 Summer Olympics. However, the 1944 games were cancelled due to WW2.
Host country
This table excludes seven medals -- one gold, two silver, and four bronze -- awarded in the 1908 and 1920 figure skating events.
This table includes seven medals -- one gold, two silver, and four bronze -- awarded in the 1908 and 1920 figure skating events.
According to official data of the International Olympic Committee. This is a list of people who have won three or more Olympic gold medals for Great Britain. Medals won in the 1906 Intercalated Games are not included. It includes top - three placings in 1896 and 1900, before medals were awarded for top - three placings.
In addition to the above, the female British Olympian with the most medals (five) is rower Katherine Grainger who, from 2000 - 2016 won one gold and four silver medals. Kathleen McKane Godfree also won five medals, but were one gold, two silvers, and two bronzes. Lizzy Yarnold is the most successful British athlete at the Winter Olympics, with two gold medals.
Chris Hoy, Jason Kenny (both cycling), Ben Ainslie (sailing) Alistair Brownlee (Triathlon) and Lizzy Yarnold (skeleton) are the most successful Olympic competitors in their sports, as of 2018.
Steve Redgrave and Reginald Doherty are the most successful male athletes in their respective sports, rowing and tennis. In addition, Shirley Robertson, Sarah Ayton and Sarah Webb with two gold medals in sailing, Nicola Adams in boxing and Stephanie Cook in modern pentathlon) share the position as most successful woman in their respective sports.
Great Britain has competed in all Badminton events held at the Summer Olympics since badminton made its full debut as an Olympic sport in 1992.
The figures from 1972 do not count towards the total as badminton was a demonstration sport.
Great Britain made its Olympic boxing debut in 1908.
Great Britain and France were the only two nations to compete in the only Olympic cricket match, in 1900. The British team won, making them the only nation to win an Olympic cricket contest and the only Olympic gold medalists in cricket.
Great Britain made its Olympic diving debut in 1908.
Great Britain first competed in the 1912 competition having not competed in the first event held in 1900.
Great Britain won its first fencing medal, a silver, in 1908 at the London Games.
Great Britain hosted the first Olympic figure skating contests in 1908.
Great Britain and Ireland -- now represented separately by Team Ireland and Team Great Britain -- was one of three nations to play in the inaugural football tournament, winning their only match to take the first Olympic gold medal in football. They competed in the nine Olympics in the table below.
In 1974, the FA abolished the distinction between "amateur '' and "professional '' footballers in England. This ended the practice of "shamateurism '', where players claimed to be amateur but still got irregular payments from their clubs. Also, Great Britain is not a member of FIFA and its athletes participate in international football competitions as members of the national teams of the home nations (England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland), none of which have National Olympic Committees. As a result, Great Britain usually does not participate in Olympic qualifying tournaments.
Great Britain was one of four nations to play golf at the first Olympic golf events in 1900. They did not compete in the Olympic golf competition held in 1904. When the sport returned in the 2016 Rio Olympics, after a 112 - year absence, Justin Rose won gold.
Great Britain 's first gymnastics medal came in 1908 with a silver in the men 's individual all - around. Until 2008, Great Britain 's last medal for gymnastics was a Bronze in the Women 's all - round team event in 1928. At the 2012 Summer Games in London, Great Britain equaled its tally for all previous games combined, winning 4 medals to bring their all - time total to eight.
Great Britain 's men 's and women 's handball teams were allowed to take up host places at the 2012 Olympics. This is the only time that Great Britain has competed in handball at the Olympics.
Great Britain hosted the first Olympic field hockey tournament in 1908.
Great Britain hosted the only Olympic jeu de paume tournament in 1908.
Great Britain has competed in all judo events held at the Summer Olympics since judo made its full debut as an Olympic sport in 1964. Although Great Britain has won 18 judo medals, none have been gold.
Great Britain 's Olympic lacrosse debut was in 1908.
Great Britain 's Olympic modern pentathlon debut was in 1912 when the it was first included in the Olympics. Since the women 's event was added in 2000, Great Britain has medalled in that event at every Games. The most successful Games was in 2000, when Great Britain won the gold and bronze medals.
Great Britain was one of four nations to compete in the debut of Olympic polo. Three of the five teams had British players, and those three teams took both the top two places and split the third place with the Mexican team.
Great Britain hosted the only Olympic rackets tournament, in 1908.
Britain took a bronze medal in the first Olympic rowing competition, in 1900.
Britain took a silver medal in the first Olympic rugby competition, in 1900.
Britain took four gold medals in the first Olympic sailing events in 1900. In addition, British sailors were part of two mixed teams that won gold.
Great Britain 's first shooting medals came when the nation hosted the 1908 Games, at which the British shooters dominated the competitions. There were 215 shooters from 14 nations in the shooting events, including 67 from Great Britain.
Great Britain was the third most successful nation in swimming in 2008, with 2 golds, 2 silvers and 2 bronzes, with Rebecca Adlington winning two of these, making her the most successful female British swimmer in 100 years.
Great Britain appeared in the first synchronized swimming competition in 1984.
Great Britain have competed in all four taekwondo competitions that have taken place since 2000. Their best result is a gold, silver and bronze in 2016.
John Pius Boland dominated the 1896 tennis tournaments. Tennis in 1896 was a sport that allowed mixed teams, and both Boland and George S. Robertson joined partners from other nations to win their medals. Britain again dominated in 1900, taking all four gold medals and adding seven others (three as part of mixed teams).
Great Britain have competed in all five triathlon competitions that have taken place since 2000. Their best finish is a 1st and 2nd place in the men 's triathlon, and 3rd - place finish in the women 's triathlon, in 2016.
Great Britain 's Olympic tug of war debut came when the nation hosted the Games in 1908. Great Britain was then one of only two teams to compete in 1912 and also won the last Tug of War competition held in the Olympics in 1920.
Prior to participating, as host nation, in the 2012 volleyball tournaments, Great Britain had never competed in Olympic volleyball with the exception of the women 's team participating in the inaugural Beach volleyball tournament in 1996.
Great Britain hosted the only Olympic water motorsports contests, in 1908.
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who has the most champions in the wwe | List of WWE champions - wikipedia
The WWE Championship is a professional wrestling world heavyweight championship in WWE, currently on the SmackDown brand. It is the first world title established in WWE, having been introduced in 1963 as the World Wide Wrestling Federation (WWWF) World Heavyweight Championship. The promotion was renamed World Wrestling Federation (WWF) in 1979 and ended its affiliation with the National Wrestling Alliance (NWA) in 1983, with the title also renamed to reflect the changes. In 2001, it was unified with the World Championship (formerly the WCW World Heavyweight Championship) following the WWF 's buyout of World Championship Wrestling (WCW) and became the Undisputed WWF Championship. In 2002, the WWF was renamed World Wrestling Entertainment (WWE) and split its roster into two brands, Raw and SmackDown. The title, now renamed WWE Championship, was then designated to the SmackDown brand while WWE established an alternate world title known as the World Heavyweight Championship for the Raw brand. A third alternate world title, the ECW World Heavyweight Championship, was reactivated for the ECW brand in 2006. It was vacated and decommissioned when the ECW brand disbanded in 2010.
When WWE Champion Randy Orton defeated World Heavyweight Champion John Cena at the TLC pay - per - view on December 15, 2013, the World Heavyweight Championship was unified with the WWE Championship, resulting in the retiring of the former and the renaming of the latter to the WWE World Heavyweight Championship. On June 27, 2016, the name was shortened back to the WWE Championship before assuming the WWE World Championship name on July 26, when the brand extension returned. It became designated to the SmackDown brand and WWE again established an alternate world title known as the WWE Universal Championship for the Raw brand. In December 2016, WWE again shortened the title 's name back to WWE Championship.
The championship is generally contested in professional wrestling matches, in which participants execute scripted finishes rather than contend in direct competition. Some reigns were held by champions using a ring name, while others use their real name. The first champion was Buddy Rogers, who won the championship in 1963. The champion with the single longest reign is Bruno Sammartino with a reign of 2,803 days, while the record for longest combined reign is also held by Sammartino at 4,040. The current champion is AJ Styles, who is in his second reign. He won the championship by defeating Jinder Mahal on SmackDown in Manchester, England on November 7, 2017.
Overall, there have been 50 different official champions, with John Cena having the most reigns at thirteen. Seven men in history have held the championship for a continuous reign of one year (365 days) or more: Bruno Sammartino, Pedro Morales, Bob Backlund, Hulk Hogan, Randy Savage, John Cena and CM Punk.
As of August 29, 2018.
As of August 29, 2018.
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where does the truth about forever take place | The Truth about Forever - wikipedia
The Truth About Forever is Sarah Dessen 's sixth novel. It was published in hardcover on May 11, 2004 and in paperback on April 6, 2006. In 2006 the audiobook adaptation of The Truth About Forever was one of the Young Adult Library Services Association 's selected picks for that year.
Macy is still recovering from the sudden loss of her father. Since he died during one of their habitual morning runs, Macy gives up running and keeps all of her feelings to herself. This results in her being unable to comfort her mother. Her boyfriend, Jason, is currently away at Brain Camp. When Macy attempts to communicate with him about her unhappiness with her coworkers at the library. At the end of one of their e-mails she tells him that she loves him, he replies and thinks it would be for the best if they took a break until he returns in August. Upset and hurt, Macy goes for a ride and sees a van for Wish Catering, which catered her mother 's party. She applies for a job, which she gets. Macy enjoys this new job and her new coworkers. There she meets the artistic Wes, who she later discovers lost his mother to cancer and attended reform school for breaking and entering. During this time Macy 's older sister begins to renovate their father 's beach house despite reluctance from the other family members (mainly from her mother). Her mother refuses to talk to Macy about the sudden death of her husband, Macy 's father; therefore she proceeds to put all of her time into her work.
Macy attends a party with some of her coworkers, where a drunk, former friend from the track team reveals to Macy 's friends Wes, Kristy, Bert, and Monica that she had to witness her father 's death. Ignoring this information, everybody returns to the party. There, she bonds with coworker Kristy, who advises her to enjoy her life because forever keeps changing. Later Wes and Macy end up stranded together after their catering van runs out of gas, where Macy opens up to Wes about all of the issues in her life during a game of "Truth ''. They continue to play the game later during work, where Macy discovers that he is also in an "on break '' relationship with a girl named Becky.
As Macy and Wes grow closer together, Macy 's mother advises against the job and any possible relationship with Wes after Macy misses one of her mother 's parties due to the birth of Avery, Delia 's daughter. Macy later ends up deciding to confess to Wes that she cares about him, but sees him with Becky (Wes 's girlfriend) and ends up heart - broken again. Her mother has Macy helping her with preparations for a party, but eventually has to have Wish Catering assist her. It is during this time that Macy succeeds in being able to comfort her mother. Macy realizes that there 's more to life than just sticking to the rules and trying to please everyone around her. She realizes that she 's the only one in control of her future.
Critical reception to The Truth About Forever has been positive, with The Celebrity Cafe giving the book 4.5 stars and the Star Telegram calling it "eternally inspiring ''. Publishers Weekly and Teen Ink also praised the book, with Teen Ink writing that it was a "must read '' for summer reading lists. The Otago Daily Times stated that although not all of the characters were as fully developed as the main characters, they enjoyed the book overall. Kirkus Reviews criticized the plot as "too conventional '' but wrote that "the Wish team is lovable, the romance clicks, and readers will be entertained ''. Of the audiobook, AudioFile Magazine cited narrator Stina Nielsen 's "appealing tone and cadence '' as a highlight.
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where are the los angeles rams playing football | Los Angeles Rams - wikipedia
American Football League (1936) National Football League (1937 -- present)
Millennium blue, white, New Century gold
League championships (3)
Conference championships (6)
Division championships (16)
The Los Angeles Rams are a professional American football team based in the Los Angeles metropolitan area. The Rams compete in the National Football League (NFL), as a member club of the league 's National Football Conference (NFC) West division. The Rams franchise has won three NFL championships and is the only franchise to win championships while representing three different cities (Cleveland in 1945, Los Angeles in 1951, and St. Louis in 1999). The Rams play their home games at the Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum in Los Angeles, California.
The franchise began in 1936 as the Cleveland Rams, located in Cleveland, Ohio. The club was owned by Homer Marshman and featured players such as William "Bud '' Cooper, Harry "The Horse '' Mattos, Stan Pincura, and Mike Sebastian. Damon "Buzz '' Wetzel joined as general manager.
After winning the 1945 NFL Championship Game, the franchise moved to Los Angeles, California in 1946, making way for Paul Brown 's Cleveland Browns of the All - America Football Conference and becoming the only NFL championship team to play the following season in another city. The club played their home games at the Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum before moving into a reconstructed Anaheim Stadium in nearby Anaheim in 1980.
After the 1994 NFL season, the Rams left California and moved east to St. Louis, Missouri. Five seasons after relocating, the team won Super Bowl XXXIV in a 23 -- 16 victory over the Tennessee Titans. They appeared again in Super Bowl XXXVI, where they lost 17 -- 20 to the Tom Brady - led New England Patriots. The Rams continued to play in Edward Jones Dome in St. Louis until the end of the 2015 NFL season, when the team filed notice with the NFL of its intent to pursue a relocation back to Los Angeles. The move was approved by a 30 -- 2 margin at an owners ' meeting in January 2016, with the Rams returning to the city for the 2016 NFL season.
The Cleveland Rams were founded in 1936 by Ohio attorney Homer Marshman and player - coach Damon Wetzel, a former Ohio State star who also played briefly for the Chicago Bears and Pittsburgh Pirates. Wetzel, who served as general manager, selected the "Rams '', because his favorite college football team was the Fordham Rams from Fordham University; Marshman, the principal owner, also liked the name choice. The team was part of the newly formed American Football League and finished the 1936 regular season in second place with a 5 -- 2 -- 2 record, trailing only the 8 -- 3 record of league champion Boston Shamrocks.
The Rams joined the National Football League on February 12, 1937, and were assigned to the Western Division. The Rams would be the fourth in a string of short - lived teams based in Cleveland, following the Cleveland Tigers, Cleveland Bulldogs, and Cleveland Indians. From the beginning, they were a team marked by frequent moves, playing in three stadiums over several losing seasons. However, the team did feature the MVP of the 1939 season, rookie halfback Parker Hall.
In June 1941, the Rams were bought by Dan Reeves and Fred Levy Jr. Reeves, an heir to his family 's grocery - chain business that had been purchased by Safeway, used some of his inheritance to buy his share of the team. Levy 's family owned the Levy Brothers department store chain in Kentucky and he also came to own the Riverside International Raceway. Levy owned part of the Rams, with Bob Hope another of the owners, until Reeves bought out his partners in 1962.
The franchise suspended operations and sat out the 1943 season because of a shortage of players during World War II and resumed playing in 1944. The team finally achieved success in 1945, which proved to be their last season in Ohio. Adam Walsh took over as head coach that season. Quarterback Bob Waterfield, a rookie from UCLA, passed, ran, and place - kicked his way to the league 's Most Valuable Player award and helped the Rams achieve a 9 -- 1 record and winning their first NFL Championship, a 15 -- 14 home field victory over the Washington Redskins on December 16. The margin of victory was provided by a safety: Redskins great Sammy Baugh 's pass bounced off the goal post, then backward, through his team 's own end zone. The next season, NFL rules were changed to prevent this from ever again resulting in a score; instead, it would merely result in an incomplete pass.
On January 12, 1946, Reeves was denied a request by the other NFL owners to move the Cleveland Rams to Los Angeles and the then - 103,000 - seat Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum. He threatened to end his relationship with the NFL and get out of the professional football business altogether unless the transfer to Los Angeles was permitted. A settlement was reached and, as a result, Reeves was allowed to move his team to Los Angeles. Consequently, the NFL became the first professional coast - to - coast sports entertainment industry.
From 1933, when Joe Lillard left the Chicago Cardinals, through 1946, there were no Black players in professional American football. After the Rams had received approval to move to Los Angeles, the Rams entered into negotiations to lease the Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum. The Rams were advised that a precondition to them getting a lease was that they would have to integrate the team with at least one African - American; the Rams agreed to this condition. Subsequently, the Rams signed Kenny Washington on March 21, 1946. The signing of Washington caused "all hell to break loose '' among the owners of the NFL franchises. The Rams added a second black player, Woody Strode, on May 7, 1946, giving them two black players going into the 1946 season.
The Rams were the first team in the NFL to play in Los Angeles (the 1926 Los Angeles Buccaneers were strictly a traveling team), but they were not the only professional football team to play its home games in the Coliseum between 1946 and 1949. The upstart All - America Football Conference had the Los Angeles Dons compete there as well. Reeves was taking a gamble that Los Angeles was ready for its own professional football team -- and suddenly there were two in the City of Angels. Reeves was proven to be correct when the Rams played their first pre-season game against the Washington Redskins in front of a crowd of 95,000 fans. The team finished their first season in L.A. with a 6 -- 4 -- 1 record, second place behind the Chicago Bears. At the end of the season Walsh was fired as head coach. The Coliseum would be the home of the Rams for more than 30 years, but the facility was already over 20 years old on the day of the first kickoff.
In 1948, halfback Fred Gehrke painted horns on the Rams ' helmets, making the first modern helmet emblem in pro football. Late in 1949, the Dons were folded into the Rams when the All - America Football Conference ceased operations.
The Rams ' first heyday in Southern California was from 1949 to 1955, when they played in the pre-Super Bowl era NFL Championship Game four times, winning once in 1951. During this period, they had the best offense in the NFL, even though there was a quarterback change from Bob Waterfield to Norm Van Brocklin in 1951. The defining offensive players of this period were wide receiver Elroy Hirsch, Van Brocklin and Waterfield. Teamed with fellow Hall of Famer Tom Fears, Hirsch helped create the style of Rams football as one of the first big play receivers. During the 1951 championship season, Hirsch posted a then stunning 1,495 receiving yards with 17 touchdowns. The popularity of this wide - open offense enabled the Los Angeles Rams to become the first pro football team to have all their games televised in 1950.
In the late 1950s and early 1960s, the Los Angeles Rams went from being the only major professional sports franchise in Southern California and Los Angeles to being one of five. The Los Angeles Dodgers moved from Brooklyn in 1958, the Los Angeles Chargers of the upstart AFL was established in 1960, the Los Angeles Lakers moved from Minneapolis in 1960, and the Los Angeles Angels were awarded to Gene Autry in 1961. In spite of this, the Rams continued to thrive in Southern California. In the first two years after the Dodgers moved to California, the Rams drew an average of 83,681 in 1958 and 74,069 in 1959. The Rams were so popular in Los Angeles that the upstart Chargers chose to relocate to San Diego rather than attempt to compete with the immensely popular Rams. The Los Angeles Times put the Chargers plight as such: "Hilton (the Chargers owner at the time) quickly realized that taking on the Rams in L.A. was like beating his head against the wall. ''
During this time, the Rams were not as successful on the field as they had been during their first decade. The team 's combined record from 1957 to 1964 was 24 -- 35 -- 1 (. 408), but the Rams continued to fill the cavernous Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum on a regular basis. While the National Football League 's average attendance ranged from the low 30,000 s to the low 40,000 s during this time, the Rams were drawing anywhere from 10,000 to 40,000 fans more than the league average. In 1957, the Rams set the all - time NFL attendance record that stood until 2006 and broke the 100,000 mark twice during the 1958 campaign.
The 1960s were defined by the Rams great defensive line of Rosey Grier, Merlin Olsen, Deacon Jones, and Lamar Lundy, dubbed the "Fearsome Foursome. '' It was this group of players who restored the on - field luster of the franchise in 1967 when the Rams reached (but lost) the conference championship under legendary coach George Allen. That 1967 squad became the first NFL team to surpass one million spectators in a season, a feat the Rams repeated the following year. In each of those two years, the L.A. Rams drew roughly double the number of fans that could be accommodated by their current stadium for a full season.
George Allen led the Rams from 1966 to 1970 and introduced many innovations, including the hiring of a young Dick Vermeil as one of the first special teams coaches. Though Allen would enjoy five straight winning seasons and win two divisional titles in his time with the Rams he never won a playoff game with the team, losing in 1967 to Green Bay 28 -- 7 and in 1969 23 -- 20 to Minnesota. Allen would leave after the 1970 season to take the head coaching job for the Washington Redskins.
Quarterback Roman Gabriel played eleven seasons for the Rams dating from 1962 to 1972. From 1967 to 1971, Gabriel led the Rams to either a first - or second - place finish in their division every year. He was voted the MVP of the entire NFL in 1969, for a season in which he threw for 2,549 yards and 24 TDs while leading the Rams to the playoffs. During the 1970 season, Gabriel combined with his primary receiver Jack Snow for 51 receptions totaling 859 yards. This would prove to be the best season of their eight seasons as teammates.
In 1972, Chicago industrialist Robert Irsay purchased the Rams for $19 million and then traded the franchise to Carroll Rosenbloom for his Baltimore Colts and cash. The Rams remained solid contenders in the 1970s, winning seven straight NFC West championships between 1973 and 1979. Though they clearly were the class of the NFC in the 1970s along with the Dallas Cowboys and Minnesota Vikings, they lost the first four conference championship games they played in that decade, losing twice each to Minnesota (1974, 1976) and Dallas (1975, 1978) and failing to win a league championship.
The Rams ' coach for this run was Chuck Knox, who led the team through 1977. The Chuck Knox - coached Rams featured an unremarkable offense carried into the playoffs annually by an elite defensive unit. The defining player of the 1970s L.A. Rams was Jack Youngblood. Youngblood was called the ' Perfect Defensive End ' by fellow Hall of Famer Merlin Olsen. His toughness was legendary, notably playing on a broken leg during the Rams ' run to the 1980 Super Bowl. His blue - collar ethic stood in opposition to the perception that the Rams were a soft ' Hollywood ' team. However, several Rams players from this period took advantage of their proximity to Hollywood and crossed over into acting after their playing careers ended. Most notable of these was Fred Dryer, who starred in the TV series Hunter from 1984 to 1991, as well as Olsen, who retired after 1976, starred in Little House on the Prairie. During the 1977 offseason, the Rams, looking for a veteran quarterback, acquired Joe Namath from the Jets. In spite of a 2 - 1 start to the regular season, Namath 's bad knees rendered him nearly immobile and after a Monday night defeat in Chicago, he never played again. With Pat Haden at the helm, the Rams won the division and advanced to the playoffs, but lost at home to Minnesota. Chuck Knox left for the Bills in 1978, after which Ray Malavasi became head coach. Going 12 - 4, the team won the NFC West for the sixth year in a row and defeated the Vikings, thus avenging their earlier playoff defeat. However, success eluded them again as they were shut out in the NFC Championship by the Cowboys.
It was the Rams ' weakest divisional winner (an aging 1979 team that only achieved a 9 - 7 record) that would achieve the team 's greatest success in that period. Led by third - year quarterback Vince Ferragamo, the Rams shocked the heavily favored and two - time defending NFC champion Dallas Cowboys 21 - 19 in the Divisional Playoffs, then shut out the upstart Tampa Bay Buccaneers 9 - 0 in the conference championship game to win the NFC and reach their first Super Bowl. Along with Ferragamo, key players for the Rams were halfback Wendell Tyler, offensive lineman Jackie Slater, and Pro Bowl defenders Jack Youngblood and Jack "Hacksaw '' Reynolds.
The Rams ' opponent in their first Super Bowl was the defending champion Pittsburgh Steelers. The game would be a virtual home game for the Rams as it was played in Pasadena at the Rose Bowl. Although some oddsmakers set the Rams as a 101⁄2 point underdog, the Rams played Pittsburgh very tough, leading at halftime 13 - 10 and at the end of the third quarter 19 - 17. In the end, however, the Steelers finally asserted themselves, scoring two touchdowns in the 4th quarter and completely shutting down the Rams offense to win their fourth Super Bowl, 31 - 19.
Prior to the 1979 NFL season, owner Carroll Rosenbloom died in a drowning accident, and his widow, Georgia Frontiere, inherited 70 percent ownership of the team. Frontiere then fired stepson Steve Rosenbloom and assumed total control of Rams operations. As had been planned prior to Rosenbloom 's death, the Rams moved from their longtime home at the Coliseum to Anaheim Stadium in nearby Orange County in 1980.
The reason for the move was twofold. First, the NFL 's blackout rule forbade games from being shown on local television if they did not sell out within 72 hours of the opening kickoff. As the Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum seated 92,604 at the time, it was rarely possible to sell that many tickets even in the Rams ' best years, and so most Rams home games were blacked out. Second, this move was following the population pattern in Southern California. During the 1970s and 1980s, the decline of manufacturing industries in the northeastern United States combined with the desire of many people to live in a warmer climate caused a large - scale population shift to the southern and western states. As a result, many affluent new suburbs were built in the Los Angeles area. Anaheim Stadium was originally built in 1966 to be the home of the California Angels. To accommodate the Rams ' move, the ballpark was reconfigured and enclosed to accommodate a capacity of 69,008 in the football configuration. With their new, smaller home, the Rams had no problem selling out games.
In 1980, the team posted an 11 - 5 record, but only managed a wild card spot and were sent packing after a loss to the Cowboys. Age and injuries finally caught up with the Rams in 1981, as they only won six games and missed the playoffs for the first time in nine years; adding to the woes was Ferragamo being wrested away by the CFL 's Montreal Alouettes that year (although he would return the following season). After the 1982 season was shortened to nine games by a strike, the Rams went 2 - 7, the worst record in the NFC.
In 1982, the Oakland Raiders moved to Los Angeles and took up residence in the Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum. The combined effect of these two moves was to divide the Rams ' traditional fanbase in two. This was coupled with the early 1980s being rebuilding years for the club, while the Raiders were winners of Super Bowl XVIII in the 1983 season. Meanwhile, the Los Angeles Lakers won championships in 1980 and 1982 en route to winning five titles in that decade, the Los Angeles Dodgers won the World Series in 1981 and 1988, and even the Los Angeles Kings made a deep run in the playoffs in 1982, and acquired fan interest following the arrival of Wayne Gretzky in 1988. As a result, the Rams declined sharply in popularity during the 1980s, despite the fact that they were playoff contenders for most of the decade.
The hiring of coach John Robinson in 1983 provided a needed boost for pro football in Orange County. The former USC coach began by cutting the aged veterans left over from the 1970s teams. His rebuilding program began to show results when the team rebounded to 9 - 7 in 1983 and defeated Dallas in the playoffs. However, the season ended after a rout at the hands of the defending champion Redskins. Another trip to the playoffs in 1984 saw them lose to the Giants. They made the NFC Championship Game in 1985 after winning the division, where they would be shut out by the eventual champion Chicago Bears 24 - 0.
The most notable player for the Rams during that period was running back Eric Dickerson, who was drafted in 1983 out of SMU and won Rookie of the Year. In 1984, Dickerson rushed for 2,105 yards, setting a new NFL record. Dickerson would end his five hugely successful years for the Rams in 1987 by being traded to the Indianapolis Colts for a number of players and draft picks after a bitter contract dispute, shortly after the players ' strike that year ended. Dickerson was the Rams ' career rushing leader until 2010, with 7,245 yards. Despite this trade, the Rams remained contenders due to the arrival of the innovative offensive leadership of Ernie Zampese. Zampese brought the intricate timing routes he had used in making the San Diego Chargers a state - of - the - art offense. Under Zampese, the Rams rose steadily from 28th rated offense in 1986 to 3rd in 1990. The late 1980s Rams featured a gifted young QB in Jim Everett, a solid rushing attack and a fleet of talented WRs led by Henry Ellard and Flipper Anderson.
After a 10 - 6 season in 1986, the Rams were booted from the playoffs by Washington. After one game of the 1987 season was lost to the players ' strike, the NFL employed substitutes, most of which were given derogatory nicknames (in this case the Los Angeles Shams). After a 2 - 1 record, the Rams ' regulars returned, but the team only went 6 - 9 and did not qualify for the postseason.
The Rams managed to return in 1988 with a 10 - 6 record, but then were defeated by Minnesota in the wild card round. Los Angeles won the first five games of 1989, including a sensational defeat of the defending champion 49ers. They beat the Eagles in the wild card game, then beat the Giants in overtime before suffering a 30 - 3 flogging at the hands of the 49ers in the NFC Championship Game.
Although it was n't apparent at the time, the 1989 NFC Championship Game was the end of an era. The Rams would never have another winning season for the rest of their first tenure in Los Angeles before relocating to St. Louis. They crumbled to 5 - 11 in 1990, followed by a 3 - 13 season in 1991.
Robinson was fired at the end of the 1991 season. The return of Chuck Knox as head coach, after Knox 's successful stints as head coach of the Buffalo Bills and Seattle Seahawks, would not boost the Rams ' fortunes. His run - oriented offense marked the end of the Zampese tenure in 1993. Knox ' game plans called for an offense that would be steady, if unspectacular. Unfortunately for the Rams, Knox 's offense was not only aesthetically unpleasing but dull as well, especially by 1990s standards. The Rams finished last in the NFC West during all three years of Knox ' second stint, and were never a serious contender during this time.
As the losses piled up and the team was seen as playing uninspired football, the Rams ' already dwindling fan base was reduced even further. By 1994, support for the Rams had withered to the point where they were barely part of the Los Angeles sports landscape. With sellouts becoming fewer and far between, the Rams saw more of their games blacked out in Southern California. One of the few bright spots during this time was Jerome Bettis, a bruising running back from Notre Dame. Bettis flourished in Knox ' offense, running for 1,429 yards as a rookie, and 1,025 in his sophomore effort.
As had become increasingly common with sports franchises, the Rams began to blame much of their misfortune on their stadium situation. With Orange County mired in a deep recession resulting largely from defense sector layoffs, the Rams were unable to secure a new or improved stadium in the Los Angeles area, which ultimately cast their future in Southern California into doubt.
By 1995, the Rams franchise had withered to a mere shadow of its former self. Accusations and excuses were constantly thrown back and forth between the Rams fan base, ownership, and local politicians. Many in the fan base blamed the ownership of Georgia Frontiere for the franchise 's woes, while ownership cited the out - dated stadium and withering fan support.
Frontiere finally gave up and decided to move the Rams franchise to St. Louis. However, on March 15, 1995, the other league owners rejected Frontiere 's bid to move the franchise by a 21 -- 3 -- 6 vote. Then - Commissioner Paul Tagliabue stated after rejecting the move, "This was one of the most complex issues we have had to approach in years. We had to balance the interest of fans in Los Angeles and in St. Louis that we appreciate very much. In my judgment, they did not meet the guidelines we have in place for such a move. '' The commissioner also added: "Once the bridges have been burned and people get turned off on a sports franchise, years of loyalty is not respected and it is difficult to get it back. By the same token, there are millions of fans in that area who have supported the Rams in an extraordinary way. The Rams have 50 years of history and the last 5 or so years of difficult times can be corrected. ''
Frontiere, however, responded with a thinly veiled threat at a lawsuit. The owners eventually acquiesced to her demands, wary of going through a long, protracted legal battle. Tagliabue simply stated that "The desire to have peace and not be at war was a big factor '' in allowing the Rams move to go forward. In a matter of a month, the vote had gone from 21 -- 6 opposed to 23 -- 6 in favor, with the Raiders, who would leave the Coliseum and return to Oakland in 1995, abstaining. Jonathan Kraft, son of Patriots owner Robert Kraft, elaborated on the commissioner 's remarks by saying that "about five or six owners did n't want to get the other owners into litigation, so they switched their votes. '' Only six franchises remained in opposition to the Rams move from Los Angeles: the Pittsburgh Steelers, New York Giants, New York Jets, Buffalo Bills, Arizona Cardinals (who played in St. Louis from 1960 to 1987), and Washington Redskins. After the vote was over, Dan Rooney publicly stated that he opposed the move of the Los Angeles Rams because "I believe we should support the fans who have supported us for years. ''
The 1995 and 1996 seasons, the Rams ' first two in St. Louis, were under the direction of former Oregon Ducks head coach Rich Brooks. Their most prolific player from their first two seasons was the fan - favorite Isaac Bruce. Then in 1997, Dick Vermeil was hired as the head coach. That same year, the Rams traded up in the 1997 NFL draft to select future All - Pro offensive tackle, Orlando Pace.
The 1999 season started with quarterback Trent Green injuring his leg in preseason play, which would leave him sidelined for the entire season; the starting job fell to backup Kurt Warner, who came out of college an undrafted free agent and whose career had included stints with the Iowa Barnstormers of the Arena Football League and the Amsterdam Admirals of NFL Europe. Vermeil told the public that the Rams would "Rally around Kurt Warner, and play good football. '' Warner synced up with Marshall Faulk and Isaac Bruce to lead the Rams to one of the most prolific offenses in history, posting 526 points for the season. This was the beginning of what would later become known around the league as "The Greatest Show on Turf ''. Warner shocked the league by throwing for 41 touchdowns. This would lead the Rams to Super Bowl XXXIV, where they beat the Tennessee Titans, 23 -- 16. Warner was named the MVP. Following the Rams ' win, Vermeil retired, and Vermeil 's offensive coordinator Mike Martz was hired as head coach. He managed to take the Rams to Super Bowl XXXVI, where the team lost to the New England Patriots 20 -- 17. Martz helped the Rams establish a pass - first identity that would post an NFL record number of points forged over the course of 3 seasons (1999 -- 2001). However, in the first round in the 2004 draft, the Rams chose Oregon State running back Steven Jackson as the 24th pick of the draft.
Although the Rams were one of the most productive teams in NFL history at the time, head coach Mike Martz was criticized by many as careless with game management. He often feuded with several players as well as team president and general manager, Jay Zygmunt. However, most of his players respected him and went on record saying that they enjoyed him as a coach. In 2005, Martz was ill, and was hospitalized for several games, allowing assistant head coach Joe Vitt to coach the remainder of the season, although Martz was cleared later in the season, team president John Shaw would not allow him to come back to coach the team. After the Rams fired Martz, former Minnesota offensive coordinator Scott Linehan took control of an 8 -- 8 team in 2006. In 2007, Linehan led the Rams to 3 -- 13.
Following the 2007 season, Georgia Frontiere died January 18, 2008 after a 28 - year ownership that began in 1979. Ownership of the team passed to her son Dale "Chip '' Rosenbloom and daughter Lucia Rodriguez. Chip Rosenbloom was named the new Rams majority owner. Linehan was already faced with scrutiny from several players in the locker room, including Torry Holt and Steven Jackson. Linehan was then fired on September 29, 2008, after the team started the season 0 -- 4. Jim Haslett, defensive coordinator under Linehan, was interim head coach for the rest of the 2008 season.
John Shaw then resigned as president, and personnel chief Billy Devaney was promoted to general manager on December 24, 2008, after the resignation of former president of football operations and general manager Jay Zygmunt on December 22.
On January 17, 2009, Steve Spagnuolo was named the new head coach of the franchise. In his previous post as Defensive Coordinator with the New York Giants, Spagnuolo masterminded a defensive scheme that shut down the potent offense of the previously undefeated and untied New England Patriots, the odds on favorite to win the Super Bowl that year. In one of the greatest upsets in Super Bowl history, the New York Giants defeated the Patriots 17 -- 14. In spite of his success as Defensive Coordinator with the New York Giants, Spagnuolo 's first season as Head Coach of the Rams was terribly disappointing as the team won only once in 16 attempts.
On May 31, 2009, the St. Louis Post-Dispatch reported that the majority owners Chip Rosenbloom and Lucia Rodriguez officially offered their majority share of Rams for sale. They retained the services of Goldman Sachs, a prominent investment banking firm, to help facilitate the sale of the Rams by evaluating bids and soliciting potential buyers. The sale price was unknown, but at the time Forbes magazine 's most recent estimate listed the Rams ' value at $929 million. On the final day to do so, then - minority owner Stan Kroenke invoked his right of first refusal to buy the 60 % of the team that he did not already own. The original intended buyer, Shahid Khan, would later acquire the Jacksonville Jaguars after the 2011 season. Pursuant to NFL rules, owners are prohibited from owning other sports teams in markets where there is already an NFL team. At the time of purchase, Kroenke (d / b / a Kroenke Sports Enterprises) owned the Denver Nuggets, the Colorado Avalanche, the Colorado Rapids, and the Pepsi Center (home to the Nuggets and the Avalanche). Kroenke, a real estate and sports mogul married to a Walmart heir, also owned Altitude Sports and Entertainment. These interests violated the NFL 's cross-ownership rule. Nevertheless, on August 25, 2010, NFL owners unanimously approved Stan Kroenke as the owner of the franchise contingent upon his eventual divestment of his Colorado sports interests. Kroenke complied with the rule when he transferred ownership of the Nuggets, Avalanche, the Pepsi Center, and the Altitude to his son Josh Kroenke.
The Rams received the first pick in the 2010 NFL Draft after finishing the 2009 season with a 1 -- 15 record. The team used the pick to select quarterback Sam Bradford from the University of Oklahoma. The Rams finished the 2010 season second in the NFC West with a record of 7 -- 9. Bradford started all 16 games for the Rams after earning the starting QB position during the preseason. On October 24, 2010, running back Steven Jackson passed Eric Dickerson as the franchise 's career rushing leader.
On February 4, 2011, rookie quarterback Sam Bradford was named the NFL 's Offensive Rookie of the Year. Sam Bradford received 44 out of 50 possible votes from the nationwide panel of media members. After a solid rookie campaign by starting quarterback Sam Bradford and strong finish to the 2010 season, the team and fans held high expectations for the upcoming season. Unfortunately for the team, due to injuries to starters and poor execution, the Rams fell to a 2 -- 14 record for the 2011 season. On January 2, 2012, head coach Steve Spagnuolo and GM Billy Devaney were fired. McDaniels also left the team and returned to New England to become their offensive coordinator for the 2012 season.
Under the terms of the lease that the Rams signed in St. Louis, the Edward Jones Dome was required to be ranked in the top tier of NFL stadiums through the 2015 season. The Rams were free to break the lease and either relocate without penalty or continue to lease the Dome on a year - to - year basis. In May 2012, the Dome was ranked by Time magazine as the 7th worst major sports stadium in the United States. In a 2008 Sports Illustrated poll, St. Louis fans ranked it the worst of any NFL stadium with particularly low marks for tailgating, affordability and atmosphere.
On January 20, 2012, it was announced that the Rams would play one home game a season at Wembley Stadium in London for the next 3 seasons. The first game was played against the New England Patriots on October 28, 2012. On August 13, 2012, it was announced that the Rams had withdrawn from the 2013 and 2014 games.
On March 10, 2015, the Rams traded starting quarterback Sam Bradford and a 2015 fifth - round pick to the Philadelphia Eagles in exchange for Eagles ' quarterback Nick Foles, a 2015 fourth - round pick, and a second - round pick in 2016. Foles had a 14 - 4 record as starter of the Eagles and an impressive TD - INT ratio of 46 - 17, while Bradford had an 18 - 30 - 1 record with the Rams. In the 2015 NFL draft the Rams drafted running back Todd Gurley. After Gurley was drafted, the Rams traded Zac Stacy to the New York Jets on May 2 for a 7th round pick. Stacy had led the team in rushing in 2013.
On December 17, 2015, the Rams played against the Tampa Bay Buccaneers in what was their final home game in St. Louis; their last game as the St. Louis Rams came two weeks later on the road against the San Francisco 49ers before moving back to Los Angeles the next season.
On January 5, 2015, the Los Angeles Times reported that Stan Kroenke and the Stockbridge Capital Group were partnering to develop a new NFL stadium on an Inglewood, California property owned by Kroenke. On February 24, 2015, the Inglewood City Council approved the stadium and the initiative with construction on the stadium planned to begin in December 2015. The Rams plan to relocate to their new stadium in Inglewood in 2020, when the stadium will likely be ready.
The day following the conclusion of the 2015 regular season, the Rams, Oakland Raiders, and San Diego Chargers all filed to relocate to Los Angeles. The same day, the NFL announced that any franchise approved for relocation would need to pay a $550 million relocation fee. On January 12, 2016, the NFL owners voted 30 -- 2 to allow the Rams to return to Los Angeles. The Rams were the first major league sports team to relocate since 2011 when the Atlanta Thrashers left Atlanta and became the new Winnipeg Jets. The team held a press conference at The Forum in Inglewood on January 15, 2016, to officially announce its return to Los Angeles to start play in the 2016 season and on that day the Rams began a season ticket deposit campaign that lasted from January 15 to February 8 which resulted in more than 56,000 season ticket deposits made. The Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum is the temporary home stadium of the Rams for four seasons (2016 to 2019) until the Los Angeles Stadium at Hollywood Park is opened for the 2020 season.
On February 4, 2016, the Los Angeles Rams selected Oxnard, California to be the site of their minicamp, offseason team activities, and offseason program that began on April 18. In March, it was announced that the Rams would be featured on HBO 's Hard Knocks. On March 30, California Lutheran University and the Rams reached an agreement that allowed the team to have regular season training operations at CLU 's campus for the next two years. The Rams will pay for two practice fields, paved parking, and modular buildings constructed on the northwestern corner of the campus.
On April 14, 2016, the Rams traded with the Tennessee Titans for the first overall pick in the 2016 NFL draft, along with a fourth and sixth - round pick in the same draft. To acquire the picks, the Rams traded away their first - round pick, two second - round picks, and a third - round pick in 2016. They also traded away their first and third - round picks in the 2017 NFL draft. On April 28, 2016, the Rams made their first selection in the 2016 NFL draft by selecting California quarterback Jared Goff first overall.
In June 2016, it was reported that the Rams had sold 63,000 season tickets, which was short of their goal of 70,000. Later on July 12, 2016, it was reported that they had sold 70,000 tickets, reaching their goal. In July 2016, the Rams signed a three - year agreement with UC Irvine to use the university 's facilities for training camp, with an option to extend it to two more years. On July 29, 2016, the Los Angeles Times reported that the Rams would host their first training - camp practice and "Rams Family Day '' on Saturday, August 6 at the Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum, which was open to the public.
The Rams played their first game in the Los Angeles area since 1994, a 22 - year absence, with a preseason opener against the Dallas Cowboys at the Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum on August 13. The Rams defeated the Cowboys 28 -- 24 in front of a crowd of 89,140, a record attendance for a pre-season game.
On September 12, 2016, the Rams played their first regular season game since returning to Los Angeles, where they lost to the San Francisco 49ers 28 -- 0 at Levi 's Stadium. On September 18, in front of over 91,000 fans at the Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum, the Rams beat the Seattle Seahawks 9 -- 3 in their first home regular season game in Los Angeles since 1994, and their first game at the Coliseum since 1979.
On December 12, 2016, the team fired head coach Jeff Fisher after starting the season 4 − 9. The team announced later that day that John Fassel would be taking over as interim head coach.
On January 12, 2017, Washington Redskins offensive coordinator Sean McVay became the new head coach at the age of 30, which made him the youngest one in modern NFL history, surpassing Lane Kiffin who was 31 when hired by the Oakland Raiders in 2007.
The Rams began the year 3 -- 2, much like their previous season in Los Angeles. However, the Rams became a quick surprise in the NFL when they won their next four games in a row, including blowouts of the Arizona Cardinals and New York Giants. The games were highlighted by resurgences of Jared Goff and Todd Gurley, who had mediocre performances in 2016. New acquisitions Sammy Watkins, Robert Woods and draft selection Cooper Kupp made such big impacts that analysts were comparing the 2017 Rams to the "Greatest Show on Turf '' Rams of the late 1990s and early 2000s.
On November 26, 2017, the Rams defeated the New Orleans Saints 26 -- 20. The win was their eighth of the season, which secured the franchise 's first non-losing year since 2006, as well as their first in Los Angeles since 1989. A week later, the Rams would defeat the Cardinals 32 -- 16 to secure a winning season for the first time since the 2003 season. On December 24, 2017, the Rams defeated the Tennessee Titans 27 -- 23 to clinch their first NFC West title since 2003, and their first in Los Angeles since 1985; they finished the regular season with an 11 - 5 record. However, the team would meet an early exit in the first round of the playoffs at the hands of the defending conference champion Atlanta Falcons 26 -- 13.
In the 2018 off - season, the Rams acquired Marcus Peters from the Kansas City Chiefs. The team dealt Robert Quinn to the Miami Dolphins and Alec Ogletree to the New York Giants, and lost Trumaine Johnson to the New York Jets in free agency before trading for five - time Pro Bowler Aqib Talib from the Denver Broncos. The team continued building a defensively strong squad by signing free agent Ndamukong Suh, further bolstering their pass rush. Many experts and analysts began to label the Rams as a serious Super Bowl contender, and the Rams continued to build for a deep postseason run by picking up wide receiver Brandin Cooks in a trade with the New England Patriots, which replaced the loss of Sammy Watkins to the Chiefs in free agency. The Rams then signed Cooks and running back Todd Gurley to five - year extensions, and offensive tackle Rob Havenstein to a four - year extension. The Rams ended their off - season by signing defensive tackle Aaron Donald to a six - year contract worth $135 million. Donald had been holding out for some time as he had been seeking a new deal, and thus missed training camp for the second season in a row, despite privately training on his own. Donald 's contract made him the highest - paid defensive player in NFL history, though this record would be broken a day later when the Chicago Bears signed newly acquired Khalil Mack to a $141 million extension.
The Rams opened their 2018 season on September 10 by defeating the Oakland Raiders 33 -- 13, scoring 23 unanswered second half points, in a game where head coach McVay took on his former boss, Jon Gruden, who had made his return to coaching. It was the Rams ' first of two Monday Night Football appearances in the season. The Rams continued their great start by shutting out the Arizona Cardinals 34 -- 0 in their home opener in Week 2, before defeating their crosstown rivals, the Los Angeles Chargers, in Week 3. As of week 8 of the 2018 NFL season they have an undefeated record of 8 - 0.
Forbes magazine estimated the worth of the team in 2015 as $1.45 billion, which at the time were the 28th most valuable NFL team and 44th most valuable sports team in the world. However, after relocating back to Los Angeles, it was reported by CBS Sports that the Rams ' value shot up to $2.9 billion (doubling in value) placing them third in the NFL (only behind the Dallas Cowboys and the New England Patriots). On September 15, 2016, Forbes released their 2016 "The Business of Football '' valuations list the Los Angeles Rams value was $2.9 billion making the team the 6th most valuable team in the NFL.
The Rams were the first NFL team to have a logo on their helmets. Ever since halfback Fred Gehrke, who worked as a commercial artist in off - seasons, painted ram horns on the team 's leather helmets in 1948, the logo has been the club 's trademark.
When the team debuted in 1937, the Rams ' colors were red and black, featuring red helmets, black uniforms with red shoulders and sleeves, tan pants, and red socks with black and white stripes. One year later they would switch their team colors to gold and royal blue, with gold helmets, white pants, royal blue uniforms with gold numbers and gold shoulders, white pants with a royal stripe, and solid royal blue socks. By the mid-1940s the Rams had adopted gold jerseys (with navy blue serif numerals, navy blue shoulders, gold helmets, white pants with a gold - navy - gold stripe, and gold socks with two navy stripes). The uniforms were unchanged as the team moved to Los Angeles. The helmets were changed to navy in 1947. When Gehrke introduced the horns, they were painted yellow - gold on navy blue helmets. In 1949 the team adopted plastic helmets, and the Rams ' horns were rendered by the Riddell company of Des Plaines, Illinois, which baked a painted design into the helmet at its factory. Also in 1949 the serif jersey numerals gave way to more standard block numbers. Wider, bolder horns joined at the helmet center front and curving around the earhole appeared in 1950; this design was somewhat tapered in 1954 -- 1955. Also in 1950 a blue - gold - blue tri-stripe appeared on the pants and "Northwestern University - style '' royal blue stripes were added to jersey sleeves. A white border was added to the blue jersey numerals in 1953. So - called TV numbers were added on jersey sleeves in 1956. In accordance with a 1957 NFL rule dictating that the home team wear dark, primary - colored jerseys and the road team light shirts, the Rams hurriedly readied for the regular season new royal - blue home jerseys with golden striping and golden front and back numerals with a white border. The white border was removed in 1958. The Rams continued to wear their golden jerseys for 1957 road games, but the following year adopted a white jersey with blue numerals and stripes. In 1962 -- 1963 the team 's road white jersey featured a UCLA - style blue - gold - blue crescent shoulder tri-stripe.
In 1964, concurrent with a major remodeling of the team 's Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum home, the colors were changed to a simpler blue and white. The new helmet horns were white, wider, and separated at the helmet center front. The blue jersey had white numerals with two white sleeve stripes. The white jersey featured blue numerals and a wide blue crescent shoulder stripe. A 1964 league rule allowed teams to wear white jerseys for home games and the Rams were among several teams to do so (the Dallas Cowboys, who introduced their blue - white - silverblue uniform that season, have worn white at home ever since), as owner Dan Reeves felt it would be more enjoyable for fans to see the various colors of the rest of the league as opposed to always having the Rams in blue and the visiting team in white. The pants were white with a thick blue stripe. In 1970, in keeping with the standards of the fully merged NFL and AFL, names appeared on the jersey backs for the first time. The sleeve "TV numbers '', quite large compared to those of other teams, were made smaller in 1965. From 1964 to early 1972 the Rams wore white jerseys for every home league game and exhibition, at one point not wearing their blue jerseys at all from the 10th game of 1967 through the 1971 opener, a stretch of 48 games; it was a tradition that continued under coaches Harland Svare, George Allen, and Tommy Prothro. But new owner Carroll Rosenbloom did not particularly like the Rams ' uniforms, so in pursuit of a new look the team wore its seldom - used blue jerseys for most home games in 1972. During that season Rosenbloom 's Rams also announced an intention to revive the old blue and gold colors for 1973, and asked fans to send in design ideas.
The colors returned to blue and yellow - gold in 1973. The new uniform design consisted of yellow - gold pants and curling rams horns on the sleeves -- yellow gold horns curving from the shoulders to the arms on the blue jerseys, which featured golden numerals (a white border around the numerals, similar to the 1957 style, appeared for two exhibitions and was then removed). Players ' names were in contrasting white. The white jersey had similarly shaped blue horns, blue numerals, and names. The white jerseys also had yellow gold sleeves. The gold pants included a blue - white - blue tri-stripe, which was gradually widened through the 1970s and early 1980s. The blue socks initially featured two thin golden stripes, but these were rarely visible. From 1973 to 1976 the Rams were the only team to wear white cleats on the road and royal blue cleats at home. The new golden helmet horns were of identical shape, but for the first time the horn was not factory - painted but instead a decal applied to the helmet. The decal was cut in sections and affixed to accommodate spaces for face - mask and chin - strap attachments, and so the horn curved farther around the ear hole. Jersey numerals were made thicker and blunter in 1975. The Rams primarily wore blue at home with this combination, but after 1977 would wear white on occasion at home. The team wore its white jerseys for most of its 1978 home dates, including its post-season games with the Minnesota Vikings and the Dallas Cowboys -- the latter is the only postseason game the Cowboys have ever won while outfitted in their blue jerseys. Standard gray face masks became dark blue in 1981. The Rams wore white jerseys exclusively in the 1982 and 1993 seasons, as well as other selected occasions throughout their 15 seasons in Anaheim.
On April 12, 2000, the then - St. Louis Rams debuted new logos, team colors, and uniforms. The Rams ' primary colors were changed from royal blue and yellow to Millennium Blue and New Century Gold. A new logo of a charging ram 's head was added to the sleeves and gold stripes were added to the sides of the jerseys. The new gold pants no longer featured any stripes. Blue pants and white pants with a small gold stripe (an extension off the jersey stripe that ended in a point) were also an option with the Rams only electing to wear the white set in a pre-season game in San Diego in 2001. The helmet design essentially remains the same as it was in 1948, except for updates to the coloring, navy blue field with gold horns. The 2000 rams ' horn design features a slightly wider separation at the helmet 's center. Both home and away jerseys had a gold stripe that ran down each side, but that only lasted for the 2000 and 2001 seasons. Additionally, the TV numbers on the jerseys, which had previously been on the sleeve, moved up to the shoulder pad.
In 2003, the Rams wore blue pants with their white jerseys for a pair of early - season games, but after losses to the New York Giants and Seattle Seahawks, the Rams reverted to gold pants with their white jerseys. In 2005, the Rams wore the blue pants again at home against Arizona and on the road against Dallas. In 2007, the Rams wore all possible combinations of their uniforms. They wore the Blue Tops and Gold Pants at home against Carolina, San Francisco, Cleveland, Seattle, and on the road against Dallas. They wore the blue tops and blue pants at home against Arizona, Atlanta, and Pittsburgh on Marshall Faulk night. They wore the blue tops and white pants on the road in Tampa Bay and at home against Green Bay. They wore white tops and gold pants at New Orleans and San Francisco. They wore white tops and white pants at Seattle and Arizona. And they wore white tops and blue pants at Baltimore and Cincinnati. In 2008, the Rams went away with the gold pants. The gold pants were used for only one regular season game at Seattle. The blue jerseys with white pants and white jerseys with blue pants combination were used most of the time. For the 2009 season, the Rams elected to wear the white pants with both jerseys for the majority of the time except the games against the Vikings and Texans (see below) where they wore the throwback jerseys from the 1999 season, week 2 in Washington when they wore gold pants with the blue jersey, and week 12 against Seattle when they wore blue pants with the blue jersey.
During their time in St. Louis, the Rams had worn blue at home. Like most other teams playing in a dome, the Rams did not need to wear white to gain an advantage with the heat. The Rams wore their white jerseys and blue pants in St. Louis against the Dallas Cowboys, on October 19, 2008, forcing the Cowboys to wear their "unlucky '' blue uniforms, and won the game 34 -- 14. On October 21, 2012, the Rams wore white jerseys and white pants against the Green Bay Packers.
The NFL approved the use of throwback uniforms for the club during the 2009 season to celebrate the 10th anniversary of the 1999 Super Bowl Championship Team. The Rams wore the throwback uniforms for two home games in 2009 -- October 11 against the Minnesota Vikings and December 20 against the Houston Texans. The Rams wore their 1999 throwbacks again on October 31, 2010, when they beat the Carolina Panthers 20 -- 10. The throwbacks have since then seen action for two select regular season games each year since. In 1994, the team 's last season in Southern California, the Rams wore jerseys and pants replicating those of their 1951 championship season for their September games with the San Francisco 49ers and Kansas City Chiefs.
On January 15, 2016, the Los Angeles Rams unveiled a new logo. The only change to the team 's primary logo was the location name, from St. Louis to Los Angeles, to reflect the team 's move. The team 's colors were retained. The Rams also announced there would be no significant changes to the team 's uniforms, apart from the newly updated logos with the Los Angeles location name.
In a March 21, 2016, interview with the Los Angeles Times, team COO Kevin Demoff said that there would be no uniform change for the team until 2019 (the year that the new stadium was originally planned to open). However, the stadium completion was pushed back one year into 2020 in May 2017, leaving it undecided whether they will rebrand in 2019 or 2020 when the stadium is slated to open. On August 11, 2016, the team announced on Twitter that it would wear its all - white uniforms for five of the team 's eight home games during the 2016 season as a nod to the Fearsome Foursome era; the Rams would wear their alternative royal blue throwback jersey for the other two games at the coliseum and wear their midnight blue jersey at their international home game at Twickenham Stadium.
Throughout the 2016 season, the Rams ' signage around the stadium, endzones, and other uses of the logo showed a variation that was only colored in blue and white, leading some fans to believe the team 's upcoming rebrand would involve gold being completely dropped from the color scheme. For the 2017 season, the Rams announced they would be wearing helmets similar to the Fearsome Foursome era: Millennium blue helmets with white helmet horns and, voted on by fans, a white facemask. Fans also voted for a new pants design, which was a single blue stripe down the side of white pants, as well as an inverse design for road games. The team also began using the blue and white logo as their primary logo, confirming that they would be phasing out gold from their colors (although gold remains on the jerseys due to an NFL rule that teams must wait a certain amount of time before changing jersey designs). The Rams also announced a fan vote via Twitter to decide two home games in which they would wear throwback uniforms. Fans selected the October 8, 2017 game against the Seahawks and the December 31, 2017 game against the 49ers, the same two opponents the Rams wore throwbacks against last season. In their Week 3 road game against the 49ers, the Rams also participated in NFL Color Rush, wearing throwback - style all - yellow uniforms with blue detailing and blue numbers, as well as yellow horns on the helmets and white stripes outlined in blue on the pants.
The Rams announced on July 27, 2018 that they would wear their throwback royal blue and yellow primary color uniform for as many as five home games at the Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum for the 2018 season. In conjunction with the change, the team retired its navy blue and metallic gold uniform. The Rams ' white uniform remains unchanged, and its one alternate uniform is the yellow Color Rush uniform. Additionally, the team confirmed their new rebrand would take place in 2020 to coincide with the opening of their new home arena, Los Angeles Stadium at Hollywood Park.
Running backs
Wide receivers
Tight ends
Defensive linemen
Defensive backs
Special teams
Practice squad
Roster updated October 23, 2018 Depth chart Transactions 53 Active, 9 Inactive, 10 Practice squad
Numbers that have been retired by the Rams:
Former Rams in the Pro Football Hall of Fame include Joe Namath (12), Marshall Faulk (28), Ollie Matson (33), Orlando Pace (76), Andy Robustelli (84), Dick "Night Train '' Lane (81), Kurt Warner (13), and coach Earl "Dutch '' Clark. Three other figures associated with the Rams are members of the Hall of Fame, but were elected more on the basis of their accomplishments outside the Rams:
Former Rams were included in the St. Louis Football Ring of Fame, which was located in The Dome at America 's Center. All players included are Hall of Famers, but there have been a few exceptions for team executives and coaches.
→ Coaching staff → Management → More NFL staffs
The Rams were the first NFL team to televise their home games; in a sponsorship arrangement with Admiral television, all home games of the 1950 NFL season were shown locally. The Rams also televised games in the early 1950s. The 1951 NFL Championship Game was the first championship game televised coast - to - coast (via the DuMont Network). During the team 's original stint in Los Angeles all games were broadcast on KMPC radio (710 AM); play - by - play announcers were Bob Kelley (who accompanied the team from Cleveland and worked until his death in 1966), Dick Enberg (1966 -- 1977), Al Wisk (1978 -- 1979), Bob Starr (1980 -- 1989, 1993), Eddie Doucette (1990), Paul Olden (1991 -- 1992), and Steve Physioc (1994). Analysts included Gil Stratton, Steve Bailey, Dave Niehaus (1968 -- 1972), Don Drysdale (1973 -- 1976), Dick Bass (1977 -- 1986), Jack Youngblood (1987 -- 1991), Jack Snow (1992 -- 1994), and Deacon Jones (1994).
During the team 's stint in St. Louis it had a few broadcast partners. From 1995 to 1999 the Rams games were broadcast on KSD 93.7 FM. From 2000 to 2008 KLOU FM 103.3 was the Rams ' flagship station with Steve Savard as the play - by - play announcer. Until October 2005, Jack Snow had been the color analyst since 1992, dating back to the team 's original stint in Los Angeles. Snow left the booth after suffering an illness and died in January 2006. Former Rams offensive line coach Jim Hanifan joined KLOU as the color analyst the year after Jack Snow 's departure. From 2009 until 2015, the Rams ' flagship radio station was 101.1 FM WXOS, a sports station in St. Louis affiliated with ESPN Radio. Savard served as the play - by - play man with D'Marco Farr in the color spot and Brian Stull reporting from the field. Preseason games not shown on a national broadcast network were seen on KTVI in St. Louis; preseason games are produced by the Kroenke - owned Denver - based Altitude Sports and Entertainment, which shares common ownership with the Rams.
Months after the Rams returned to Los Angeles, it was announced on June 9, 2016, CBS 's O&O station KCBS would air pre-season games that are not on national television. The KCBS broadcasting team includes Andrew Siciliano (play - by - play announcer), Pro Football Hall of Fame former running backs Eric Dickerson and Marshall Faulk providing color commentary. In 2017 NFL Network analyst Daniel Jeremiah replaced Dickerson. KCBS 's Jill Arrington and Rams reporters Dani Klupenger and Myles Simmons also provide insight; a pre-game show airs a half - hour before each game in addition former Rams quarterback Jim Everett and former defensive back and sports anchor / director Jim Hill provides an inside look into each upcoming game with player profiles, live interviews from booth and sideline updates and a thirty - minute postgame that provides game breakdown, film analysis, and press conference look - ins with head coach Sean McVay and select players. Spanish language game coverage is provided by Spanish - language sister stations Univision 34 (one home game) and UniMás 46 (two away games) in Spanish. In 2016, the Rams ' news and highlights where shown on Rams Primetime Live on KABC - TV on Saturday nights after college football games during the regular season, hosted by sports anchor Rob Fukuzaki, sports reporter Ashley Brewer and traffic reporter Alysha Del Valle.
Under the league 's current national TV contracts for regular season games, Fox O&O KTTV carries the bulk of the team 's games due to Fox holding the rights to the NFC contract, along with Thursday Night Football. KCBS carries Sunday afternoon games in which the Rams host an AFC team (pending any Rams Sunday game that the league later decides in mid-season to "cross-flex '' between Fox and CBS). KNBC airs NBC Sunday Night Football and some selected Thursday night games produced by NBC. As for games that air on ESPN 's Monday Night Football, KABC simulcasts these cable games carries those games as the two channels share common ownership. The league 's blackout policy is not currently in effect, meaning that besides road games, all Rams home games are televised in the Los Angeles market, regardless of attendance. If the Chargers and Rams are both playing at the same time on Sunday afternoons on a certain network (for instance, a Rams road game against an AFC opponent at the same time as a Charger home game with an NFC opponent with both on Fox, or the reverse where the Rams are on the road against an AFC opponent and the Chargers are at home against an AFC opponent on CBS), in the Los Angeles market, Fox and CBS have authorization to carry the additional game on their secondary sister stations; Fox games air on KCOP - TV, while CBS games are aired on KCAL - TV.
On June 20, 2016, the Rams announced their Los Angeles area radio broadcasting rights agreements. The team 's official flagship radio partner is KSPN - AM ESPN LA 710 AM, while the team 's official FM radio partner is KCBS 93.1 Jack FM, owned by Entercom. On July 19, 2016, the Rams announced that they had reached an agreement with KWKW for Spanish - language coverage of the team. The Rams radio English broadcast team is J.B. Long (play - by - play announcer), Maurice Jones - Drew (color analyst), and D'Marco Farr (sideline reporter) with Mario Solis and Troy Santiago comprising the Spanish broadcast team. ESPN 710 also broadcasts a three - hour pre game broadcast show featuring Steve Mason, Kirk Morrison (former NFL linebacker) and Eric Davis as well as a two - hour post game show with Travis Rodgers, Morrison, and Davis, Jeff Biggs will cover the Rams during halftime.
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once upon a time season 1 episode recap | Once Upon a Time (season 1) - wikipedia
The first season of the ABC television series Once Upon a Time premiered on October 23, 2011 and concluded on May 13, 2012. The series was created by Edward Kitsis and Adam Horowitz. The series centers around the Enchanted Forest and Storybrooke, and the Evil Queen 's (Lana Parrilla) plot to destroy everyone 's happiness so she can be the only one with a happy ending.
Once Upon a Time 's first season received generally favorable reviews from critics who praised its cast, visuals, and twists on fairy tales, though some criticized its uneven tone. The pilot episode was watched by 12.93 million viewers and achieved an adult 18 - 49 rating / share of 4.0 / 10. Those numbers dipped late in the season to a series low of 8.36 million viewers and a 2.8 / 8 adult 18 - 49 rating / share in April 2012, but rebounded slightly for the season finale with 9.66 million viewers and a 3.3 / 10 adult 18 - 49 rating / share.
The show is based on the theory that there is an alternate universe where every classic fairy tale character (new and old) exists -- a world that has a loose connection to our world. On the night of her 28th birthday, bail bonds collector Emma Swan (Jennifer Morrison) is reunited with Henry Mills (Jared S. Gilmore) -- the son she gave up for adoption ten years previous -- and takes him back to his hometown of Storybrooke, Maine -- a place where nothing is what it seems.
Henry has in his possession a large book of fairy tales and is convinced that Emma is the daughter of Snow White (Ginnifer Goodwin) and Prince Charming (Josh Dallas), who sent her away so she would be protected from a powerful curse enacted by the Evil Queen (Lana Parrilla), a curse in which the queen is the only one with a happy ending. It 's because of the curse that everyone in Storybrooke is frozen in time with no memories of their former selves -- except for the Queen, who is Storybrooke 's mayor and Henry 's adoptive mother, Regina Mills. Emma refuses to believe a word of Henry 's "theory '' and returns Henry home, but then decides to remain in the New England town after getting attached to Henry which causes the hands of the clock tower to move for the first time in 28 years.
It 's soon revealed that Snow and Charming, concerned for the safety of their unborn child, went to seek advice from the imprisoned trickster Rumplestiltskin (Robert Carlyle). In return for the child 's name, he would tell them their only hope is the child, who would return on her 28th birthday and begin "The Final Battle ''. The child, an infant girl, is born on the day the Queen enacts her curse and is placed in a wardrobe carved out of an enchanted tree which takes the child to our world, where she was named Emma Swan, and grew up in the foster system, never finding adoptive parents. She had a difficult childhood and rebelled in her teen years, which ultimately led to her meeting Henry 's father, Neil, (Season 2) equally rebellious and feeling abandoned by his own father.
As Emma stays in Storybrooke and is soon elected as Sheriff following the sudden death of the previous Sheriff, Graham Humbert (Jamie Dornan), who was really the Huntsman, Regina 's antagonistic attitude raises her suspicions and prompts her to move in with Henry 's teacher Mary Margaret Blanchard, who is really her mother Snow White. Regina 's bitter rivalry with Storybrooke 's wealthiest resident, Mr. Gold, becomes heated when she learns he is aware of his true identity as Rumplestiltskin when she asks about Emma 's relationship to the curse. Mary Margaret falls in love with David Nolan, a coma patient who, in reality is Emma 's father Prince Charming, wakes up after she reads Henry 's fairytale book to him as a favor to Henry. David, however, is married to Kathryn Nolan, the woman who is (in the fairy tale world) his ex-fiancée Princess Abigail daughter of King Midas. Unable to deny their love, David and Mary Margaret soon begin a secret relationship that becomes public and upsets Kathryn.
Kathryn eventually decides to go to Boston and let David be with Mary Margaret only to disappear before leaving Storybrooke, due to an effect of the curse being that no one can leave the town. Some time later an antique jewelry box which belonged to Mary Margaret when she was a child is found buried near the old toll bridge and is revealed to contain a human heart which is proven to be Kathryn 's via DNA testing. Mary Margaret is arrested for Kathryn 's supposed murder and hires Mr. Gold as her attorney. Things do not go well for Mary Margaret, who is about to be prosecuted by corrupt District Attorney Albert Spencer (Alan Dale), who 's really Prince Charming 's adoptive father King George, when Kathryn is found alive in an alley. It is revealed that Regina and Mr. Gold plotted to frame Mary Margaret and force her out of Storybrooke, but Mr. Gold double - crosses Regina and lets Kathryn go to exonerate Mary Margaret. When corrupt Daily Mirror chief editor Sidney Glass (Giancarlo Esposito), who 's actually the Magic Mirror, confesses to having abducted Kathryn in order to jump - start his career, Emma is not convinced and comes to the conclusion that Regina orchestrated the conspiracy and forced Sidney to "confess ''.
Emma soon discovers that writer August W. Booth (Eion Bailey), who is the first stranger ever to arrive in town after she did, is from the Enchanted Forest as well and that he is Pinocchio, who was sent to our world through the same wardrobe that brought Emma to watch over her. But he abandoned her out of fear and is slowly turning back into a wooden puppet. Emma then makes an attempt to take Henry out of Storybrooke forever, but is then forced to reconsider when he refuses to go. Emma makes a deal with Regina in which she leaves but still visits Henry on occasion.
But Regina knows Emma 's true identity and has retrieved her poisoned apple (the same one she used on Snow White) in order to use it on Emma in the form of an apple turnover. Henry takes a bite of the turnover, collapses to the floor unconscious, and proves to Emma the curse is real. Emma, who now starts to believe after seeing flashbacks of her true past, is forced to forge an alliance with Regina and retrieves Rumplestiltskin 's true love potion from underneath the Clock Tower, only to have Mr. Gold steal it leaving Emma halfway up the elevator shaft and Regina tied to a chair and gagged.
When Henry is pronounced dead, Emma and Regina return to the Hospital to say goodbye to his body. Emma kisses him on the forehead, causing a pulse of energy to engulf the entire town and restore everyone 's true memories while freeing Henry from the effects of the poisoned apple. Snow and Charming reunite with each other and Regina returns to her mansion alone as Emma begins to wonder why no one is returning to the Other World since the curse is broken. Rumplestiltskin reunites with his true love Belle (Emilie de Ravin) and takes her to a Wishing Well deep in the heart of the forest, a well with the power to restore that which one had lost. He takes the potion and drops it into the well, causing a purple cloud to emerge and consume Storybrooke as the Clock Tower strikes 8: 15.
Once Upon a Time is created and produced by Edward Kitsis and Adam Horowitz. In addition, Jane Espenson, Steve Pearlman, Kathy Gilroy, Damon Lindelof, and Brian Wankum are also producers. Liz Tigelaar also serve as series executive producers. Paul Kurta, Chad Oakes, Michael Frislev are producers, while Jordan Feiner and Keri Young are associate producers. Writers for season one episodes include: Kitsis, Horowitz, Espenson, Liz Tigelaar, David H. Goodman, Andrew Chambliss, and Ian Goldberg, with Daniel T. Thomsen writing an episode teleplay.
Rotten Tomatoes gave the season an approval rating of 78 % based on 32 reviews. The consensus reads "Charming and fantastical, Once Upon a Time is tonally uneven but derives strength from an outstanding cast and handsome visuals. ''
Metacritic gave it a score of 66 out of 100 based on 26 reviews. Washington Post 's Hank Stuever called the series "a smartly - crafted reward for fans of light fantasy, with the right mix of cleverness, action and romance. '' Verne Gay of Newsday said the series "glows with a near - theatrical shine, challenging viewers to think about TV drama as something other than boilerplate. '' Several feminist outlets were pleased with the show for its feminist twist on fairy tales. Avital Norman Nathman of Bitch stated that she liked the show for "infusing a feminist sensibility '' into the stories. Feministing 's Genie Leslie commented that Emma was a "badass '', that she liked how Emma was "very adamant that women be able to make their own decisions about their lives and their children '', and how Emma was a "well - rounded '' character who was "feminine, but not ' girly ' ''. Natalie Wilson from Ms. praised the show for a strong, "kick - butt '' female lead, for including multiple strong women who take turns doing the saving with the men, for subverting the fetishization of true love, and for dealing with the idea of what makes a mother in a more nuanced fashion. Wilson went on to state about the lead: "Her pursuit of a ' happy ending ' is not about finding a man or going to a ball all gussied up, but about detective work, about building a relationship with her son Henry, and about seeking the ' truth ' as to why time stands still in the corrupt Storybrooke world.
All tracks written by Mark Isham.
The album was released featuring five different collectible covers.
All tracks written by Mark Isham.
Once Upon a Time debuted a fantasy novel from Disney - owned Hyperion books. The novel, titled Reawakened, covers the first season and promises to give "fans of the show a whole new look at their favorite characters and stories. '' The narrative is told from the points - of - view of Emma Swan in Storybrooke and Snow White in the Enchanted Forest. Written by Odette Beane, the novel was published on April 27, 2013 as an exclusive ebook and May 7, 2013 in paperback form.
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where are natural sources of uranium found and how is it obtained | Uranium - Wikipedia
Uranium is a chemical element with symbol U and atomic number 92. It is a silvery - white metal in the actinide series of the periodic table. A uranium atom has 92 protons and 92 electrons, of which 6 are valence electrons. Uranium is weakly radioactive because all isotopes of uranium are unstable, with half - lives varying between 159,200 years and 4.5 billion years. The most common isotopes in natural uranium are uranium - 238 (which has 146 neutrons and accounts for over 99 %) and uranium - 235 (which has 143 neutrons). Uranium has the highest atomic weight of the primordially occurring elements. Its density is about 70 % higher than that of lead, and slightly lower than that of gold or tungsten. It occurs naturally in low concentrations of a few parts per million in soil, rock and water, and is commercially extracted from uranium - bearing minerals such as uraninite.
In nature, uranium is found as uranium - 238 (99.2739 -- 99.2752 %), uranium - 235 (0.7198 -- 0.7202 %), and a very small amount of uranium - 234 (0.0050 -- 0.0059 %). Uranium decays slowly by emitting an alpha particle. The half - life of uranium - 238 is about 4.47 billion years and that of uranium - 235 is 704 million years, making them useful in dating the age of the Earth.
Many contemporary uses of uranium exploit its unique nuclear properties. Uranium - 235 is the only naturally occurring fissile isotope, which makes it widely used in nuclear power plants and nuclear weapons. However, because of the tiny amounts found in nature, uranium needs to undergo enrichment so that enough uranium - 235 is present. Uranium - 238 is fissionable by fast neutrons, and is fertile, meaning it can be transmuted to fissile plutonium - 239 in a nuclear reactor. Another fissile isotope, uranium - 233, can be produced from natural thorium and is also important in nuclear technology. Uranium - 238 has a small probability for spontaneous fission or even induced fission with fast neutrons; uranium - 235 and to a lesser degree uranium - 233 have a much higher fission cross-section for slow neutrons. In sufficient concentration, these isotopes maintain a sustained nuclear chain reaction. This generates the heat in nuclear power reactors, and produces the fissile material for nuclear weapons. Depleted uranium (U) is used in kinetic energy penetrators and armor plating. Uranium is used as a colorant in uranium glass, producing lemon yellow to green colors. Uranium glass fluoresces green in ultraviolet light. It was also used for tinting and shading in early photography.
The 1789 discovery of uranium in the mineral pitchblende is credited to Martin Heinrich Klaproth, who named the new element after the recently discovered planet Uranus. Eugène - Melchior Péligot was the first person to isolate the metal and its radioactive properties were discovered in 1896 by Henri Becquerel. Research by Otto Hahn, Lise Meitner, Enrico Fermi and others, such as J. Robert Oppenheimer starting in 1934 led to its use as a fuel in the nuclear power industry and in Little Boy, the first nuclear weapon used in war. An ensuing arms race during the Cold War between the United States and the Soviet Union produced tens of thousands of nuclear weapons that used uranium metal and uranium - derived plutonium - 239. The security of those weapons and their fissile material following the breakup of the Soviet Union in 1991 is an ongoing concern for public health and safety. See Nuclear proliferation.
When refined, uranium is a silvery white, weakly radioactive metal. It has a Mohs hardness of 6, sufficient to scratch glass and approximately equal to that of titanium, rhodium, manganese and niobium. It is malleable, ductile, slightly paramagnetic, strongly electropositive and a poor electrical conductor. Uranium metal has a very high density of 19.1 g / cm, denser than lead (11.3 g / cm), but slightly less dense than tungsten and gold (19.3 g / cm).
Uranium metal reacts with almost all non-metal elements (with the exception of the noble gases) and their compounds, with reactivity increasing with temperature. Hydrochloric and nitric acids dissolve uranium, but non-oxidizing acids other than hydrochloric acid attack the element very slowly. When finely divided, it can react with cold water; in air, uranium metal becomes coated with a dark layer of uranium oxide. Uranium in ores is extracted chemically and converted into uranium dioxide or other chemical forms usable in industry.
Uranium - 235 was the first isotope that was found to be fissile. Other naturally occurring isotopes are fissionable, but not fissile. On bombardment with slow neutrons, its uranium - 235 isotope will most of the time divide into two smaller nuclei, releasing nuclear binding energy and more neutrons. If too many of these neutrons are absorbed by other uranium - 235 nuclei, a nuclear chain reaction occurs that results in a burst of heat or (in special circumstances) an explosion. In a nuclear reactor, such a chain reaction is slowed and controlled by a neutron poison, absorbing some of the free neutrons. Such neutron absorbent materials are often part of reactor control rods (see nuclear reactor physics for a description of this process of reactor control).
As little as 15 lb (7 kg) of uranium - 235 can be used to make an atomic bomb. The first nuclear bomb used in war, Little Boy, relied on uranium fission, but the very first nuclear explosive (the Gadget used at Trinity) and the bomb that destroyed Nagasaki (Fat Man) were both plutonium bombs.
Uranium metal has three allotropic forms:
The major application of uranium in the military sector is in high - density penetrators. This ammunition consists of depleted uranium (DU) alloyed with 1 -- 2 % other elements, such as titanium or molybdenum. At high impact speed, the density, hardness, and pyrophoricity of the projectile enable the destruction of heavily armored targets. Tank armor and other removable vehicle armor can also be hardened with depleted uranium plates. The use of depleted uranium became politically and environmentally contentious after the use of such munitions by the US, UK and other countries during wars in the Persian Gulf and the Balkans raised questions concerning uranium compounds left in the soil (see Gulf War Syndrome).
Depleted uranium is also used as a shielding material in some containers used to store and transport radioactive materials. While the metal itself is radioactive, its high density makes it more effective than lead in halting radiation from strong sources such as radium. Other uses of depleted uranium include counterweights for aircraft control surfaces, as ballast for missile re-entry vehicles and as a shielding material. Due to its high density, this material is found in inertial guidance systems and in gyroscopic compasses. Depleted uranium is preferred over similarly dense metals due to its ability to be easily machined and cast as well as its relatively low cost. The main risk of exposure to depleted uranium is chemical poisoning by uranium oxide rather than radioactivity (uranium being only a weak alpha emitter).
During the later stages of World War II, the entire Cold War, and to a lesser extent afterwards, uranium - 235 has been used as the fissile explosive material to produce nuclear weapons. Initially, two major types of fission bombs were built: a relatively simple device that uses uranium - 235 and a more complicated mechanism that uses plutonium - 239 derived from uranium - 238. Later, a much more complicated and far more powerful type of fission / fusion bomb (thermonuclear weapon) was built, that uses a plutonium - based device to cause a mixture of tritium and deuterium to undergo nuclear fusion. Such bombs are jacketed in a non-fissile (unenriched) uranium case, and they derive more than half their power from the fission of this material by fast neutrons from the nuclear fusion process.
The main use of uranium in the civilian sector is to fuel nuclear power plants. One kilogram of uranium - 235 can theoretically produce about 20 terajoules of energy (2 × 10 joules), assuming complete fission; as much energy as 1500 tonnes of coal.
Commercial nuclear power plants use fuel that is typically enriched to around 3 % uranium - 235. The CANDU and Magnox designs are the only commercial reactors capable of using unenriched uranium fuel. Fuel used for United States Navy reactors is typically highly enriched in uranium - 235 (the exact values are classified). In a breeder reactor, uranium - 238 can also be converted into plutonium through the following reaction:
Before (and, occasionally, after) the discovery of radioactivity, uranium was primarily used in small amounts for yellow glass and pottery glazes, such as uranium glass and in Fiestaware.
The discovery and isolation of radium in uranium ore (pitchblende) by Marie Curie sparked the development of uranium mining to extract the radium, which was used to make glow - in - the - dark paints for clock and aircraft dials. This left a prodigious quantity of uranium as a waste product, since it takes three tonnes of uranium to extract one gram of radium. This waste product was diverted to the glazing industry, making uranium glazes very inexpensive and abundant. Besides the pottery glazes, uranium tile glazes accounted for the bulk of the use, including common bathroom and kitchen tiles which can be produced in green, yellow, mauve, black, blue, red and other colors.
Uranium was also used in photographic chemicals (especially uranium nitrate as a toner), in lamp filaments for stage lighting bulbs, to improve the appearance of dentures, and in the leather and wood industries for stains and dyes. Uranium salts are mordants of silk or wool. Uranyl acetate and uranyl formate are used as electron - dense "stains '' in transmission electron microscopy, to increase the contrast of biological specimens in ultrathin sections and in negative staining of viruses, isolated cell organelles and macromolecules.
The discovery of the radioactivity of uranium ushered in additional scientific and practical uses of the element. The long half - life of the isotope uranium - 238 (4.51 × 10 years) makes it well - suited for use in estimating the age of the earliest igneous rocks and for other types of radiometric dating, including uranium -- thorium dating, uranium -- lead dating and uranium -- uranium dating. Uranium metal is used for X-ray targets in the making of high - energy X-rays.
The use of uranium in its natural oxide form dates back to at least the year 79 CE, when it was used to add a yellow color to ceramic glazes. Yellow glass with 1 % uranium oxide was found in a Roman villa on Cape Posillipo in the Bay of Naples, Italy, by R.T. Gunther of the University of Oxford in 1912. Starting in the late Middle Ages, pitchblende was extracted from the Habsburg silver mines in Joachimsthal, Bohemia (now Jáchymov in the Czech Republic), and was used as a coloring agent in the local glassmaking industry. In the early 19th century, the world 's only known sources of uranium ore were these mines.
The discovery of the element is credited to the German chemist Martin Heinrich Klaproth. While he was working in his experimental laboratory in Berlin in 1789, Klaproth was able to precipitate a yellow compound (likely sodium diuranate) by dissolving pitchblende in nitric acid and neutralizing the solution with sodium hydroxide. Klaproth assumed the yellow substance was the oxide of a yet - undiscovered element and heated it with charcoal to obtain a black powder, which he thought was the newly discovered metal itself (in fact, that powder was an oxide of uranium). He named the newly discovered element after the planet Uranus (named after the primordial Greek god of the sky), which had been discovered eight years earlier by William Herschel.
In 1841, Eugène - Melchior Péligot, Professor of Analytical Chemistry at the Conservatoire National des Arts et Métiers (Central School of Arts and Manufactures) in Paris, isolated the first sample of uranium metal by heating uranium tetrachloride with potassium.
Henri Becquerel discovered radioactivity by using uranium in 1896. Becquerel made the discovery in Paris by leaving a sample of a uranium salt, K UO (SO) (potassium uranyl sulfate), on top of an unexposed photographic plate in a drawer and noting that the plate had become "fogged ''. He determined that a form of invisible light or rays emitted by uranium had exposed the plate.
A team led by Enrico Fermi in 1934 observed that bombarding uranium with neutrons produces the emission of beta rays (electrons or positrons from the elements produced; see beta particle). The fission products were at first mistaken for new elements with atomic numbers 93 and 94, which the Dean of the Faculty of Rome, Orso Mario Corbino, christened ausonium and hesperium, respectively. The experiments leading to the discovery of uranium 's ability to fission (break apart) into lighter elements and release binding energy were conducted by Otto Hahn and Fritz Strassmann in Hahn 's laboratory in Berlin. Lise Meitner and her nephew, the physicist Otto Robert Frisch, published the physical explanation in February 1939 and named the process "nuclear fission ''. Soon after, Fermi hypothesized that the fission of uranium might release enough neutrons to sustain a fission reaction. Confirmation of this hypothesis came in 1939, and later work found that on average about 2.5 neutrons are released by each fission of the rare uranium isotope uranium - 235. Fermi urged Alfred O.C. Nier to separate uranium isotopes for determination of the fissile component, and on February 29, 1940, Nier used an instrument he built at the University of Minnesota to separate the world 's first uranium - 235 sample in the Tate Laboratory. After mailed to Columbia University 's cyclotron, John Dunning confirmed the sample to be the isolated fissile material on March 1. Further work found that the far more common uranium - 238 isotope can be transmuted into plutonium, which, like uranium - 235, is also fissile by thermal neutrons. These discoveries led numerous countries to begin working on the development of nuclear weapons and nuclear power.
On 2 December 1942, as part of the Manhattan Project, another team led by Enrico Fermi was able to initiate the first artificial self - sustained nuclear chain reaction, Chicago Pile - 1. An initial plan using enriched uranium - 235 was abandoned as it was as yet unavailable in sufficient quantities. Working in a lab below the stands of Stagg Field at the University of Chicago, the team created the conditions needed for such a reaction by piling together 400 short tons (360 metric tons) of graphite, 58 short tons (53 metric tons) of uranium oxide, and six short tons (5.5 metric tons) of uranium metal, a majority of which was supplied by Westinghouse Lamp Plant in a makeshift production process.
Two major types of atomic bombs were developed by the United States during World War II: a uranium - based device (codenamed "Little Boy '') whose fissile material was highly enriched uranium, and a plutonium - based device (see Trinity test and "Fat Man '') whose plutonium was derived from uranium - 238. The uranium - based Little Boy device became the first nuclear weapon used in war when it was detonated over the Japanese city of Hiroshima on 6 August 1945. Exploding with a yield equivalent to 12,500 tonnes of TNT, the blast and thermal wave of the bomb destroyed nearly 50,000 buildings and killed approximately 75,000 people (see Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki). Initially it was believed that uranium was relatively rare, and that nuclear proliferation could be avoided by simply buying up all known uranium stocks, but within a decade large deposits of it were discovered in many places around the world.
The X-10 Graphite Reactor at Oak Ridge National Laboratory (ORNL) in Oak Ridge, Tennessee, formerly known as the Clinton Pile and X-10 Pile, was the world 's second artificial nuclear reactor (after Enrico Fermi 's Chicago Pile) and was the first reactor designed and built for continuous operation. Argonne National Laboratory 's Experimental Breeder Reactor I, located at the Atomic Energy Commission 's National Reactor Testing Station near Arco, Idaho, became the first nuclear reactor to create electricity on 20 December 1951. Initially, four 150 - watt light bulbs were lit by the reactor, but improvements eventually enabled it to power the whole facility (later, the town of Arco became the first in the world to have all its electricity come from nuclear power generated by BORAX - III, another reactor designed and operated by Argonne National Laboratory). The world 's first commercial scale nuclear power station, Obninsk in the Soviet Union, began generation with its reactor AM - 1 on 27 June 1954. Other early nuclear power plants were Calder Hall in England, which began generation on 17 October 1956, and the Shippingport Atomic Power Station in Pennsylvania, which began on 26 May 1958. Nuclear power was used for the first time for propulsion by a submarine, the USS Nautilus, in 1954.
In 1972, the French physicist Francis Perrin discovered fifteen ancient and no longer active natural nuclear fission reactors in three separate ore deposits at the Oklo mine in Gabon, West Africa, collectively known as the Oklo Fossil Reactors. The ore deposit is 1.7 billion years old; then, uranium - 235 constituted about 3 % of the total uranium on Earth. This is high enough to permit a sustained nuclear fission chain reaction to occur, provided other supporting conditions exist. The capacity of the surrounding sediment to contain the nuclear waste products has been cited by the U.S. federal government as supporting evidence for the feasibility to store spent nuclear fuel at the Yucca Mountain nuclear waste repository.
Above - ground nuclear tests by the Soviet Union and the United States in the 1950s and early 1960s and by France into the 1970s and 1980s spread a significant amount of fallout from uranium daughter isotopes around the world. Additional fallout and pollution occurred from several nuclear accidents.
Uranium miners have a higher incidence of cancer. An excess risk of lung cancer among Navajo uranium miners, for example, has been documented and linked to their occupation. The Radiation Exposure Compensation Act, a 1990 law in the USA, required $100,000 in "compassion payments '' to uranium miners diagnosed with cancer or other respiratory ailments.
During the Cold War between the Soviet Union and the United States, huge stockpiles of uranium were amassed and tens of thousands of nuclear weapons were created using enriched uranium and plutonium made from uranium. Since the break - up of the Soviet Union in 1991, an estimated 600 short tons (540 metric tons) of highly enriched weapons grade uranium (enough to make 40,000 nuclear warheads) have been stored in often inadequately guarded facilities in the Russian Federation and several other former Soviet states. Police in Asia, Europe, and South America on at least 16 occasions from 1993 to 2005 have intercepted shipments of smuggled bomb - grade uranium or plutonium, most of which was from ex-Soviet sources. From 1993 to 2005 the Material Protection, Control, and Accounting Program, operated by the federal government of the United States, spent approximately US $ 550 million to help safeguard uranium and plutonium stockpiles in Russia. This money was used for improvements and security enhancements at research and storage facilities. Scientific American reported in February 2006 that in some of the facilities security consisted of chain link fences which were in severe states of disrepair. According to an interview from the article, one facility had been storing samples of enriched (weapons grade) uranium in a broom closet before the improvement project; another had been keeping track of its stock of nuclear warheads using index cards kept in a shoe box.
Along with all elements having atomic weights higher than that of iron, uranium is only naturally formed in supernovae. Primordial thorium and uranium are only produced in the r - process (rapid neutron capture), because the s - process (slow neutron capture) is too slow and can not pass the gap of instability after bismuth. Besides the two extant primordial uranium isotopes, U and U, the r - process also produced significant quantities of U, which has a shorter half - life and has long since decayed completely to Th, which was itself enriched by the decay of Pu, accounting for the observed higher - than - expected abundance of thorium and lower - than - expected abundance of uranium. While the natural abundance of uranium has been supplemented by the decay of extinct Pu (half - life 0.375 million years) and Cm (half - life 16 million years), producing U and U respectively, this occurred to an almost negligible extent due to the shorter half - lives of these parents and their lower production than U and Pu, the parents of thorium: the Cm: U ratio at the formation of the Solar System was 6995700000000000000 ♠ (7.0 ± 1.6) × 10.
Uranium is a naturally occurring element that can be found in low levels within all rock, soil, and water. Uranium is the 51st element in order of abundance in the Earth 's crust. Uranium is also the highest - numbered element to be found naturally in significant quantities on Earth and is almost always found combined with other elements. The decay of uranium, thorium, and potassium - 40 in the Earth 's mantle is thought to be the main source of heat that keeps the outer core liquid and drives mantle convection, which in turn drives plate tectonics.
Uranium 's average concentration in the Earth 's crust is (depending on the reference) 2 to 4 parts per million, or about 40 times as abundant as silver. The Earth 's crust from the surface to 25 km (15 mi) down is calculated to contain 10 kg (2 × 10 lb) of uranium while the oceans may contain 10 kg (2 × 10 lb). The concentration of uranium in soil ranges from 0.7 to 11 parts per million (up to 15 parts per million in farmland soil due to use of phosphate fertilizers), and its concentration in sea water is 3 parts per billion.
Uranium is more plentiful than antimony, tin, cadmium, mercury, or silver, and it is about as abundant as arsenic or molybdenum. Uranium is found in hundreds of minerals, including uraninite (the most common uranium ore), carnotite, autunite, uranophane, torbernite, and coffinite. Significant concentrations of uranium occur in some substances such as phosphate rock deposits, and minerals such as lignite, and monazite sands in uranium - rich ores (it is recovered commercially from sources with as little as 0.1 % uranium).
Some bacteria, such as Shewanella putrefaciens, Geobacter metallireducens and some strains of Burkholderia fungorum, use uranium for their growth and convert U (VI) to U (IV).
Some organisms, such as the lichen Trapelia involuta or microorganisms such as the bacterium Citrobacter, can absorb concentrations of uranium that are up to 300 times the level of their environment. Citrobacter species absorb uranyl ions when given glycerol phosphate (or other similar organic phosphates). After one day, one gram of bacteria can encrust themselves with nine grams of uranyl phosphate crystals; this creates the possibility that these organisms could be used in bioremediation to decontaminate uranium - polluted water. The proteobacterium Geobacter has also been shown to bioremediate uranium in ground water. The mycorrhizal fungus Glomus intraradices increases uranium content in the roots of its symbiotic plant.
In nature, uranium (VI) forms highly soluble carbonate complexes at alkaline pH. This leads to an increase in mobility and availability of uranium to groundwater and soil from nuclear wastes which leads to health hazards. However, it is difficult to precipitate uranium as phosphate in the presence of excess carbonate at alkaline pH. A Sphingomonas sp. strain BSAR - 1 has been found to express a high activity alkaline phosphatase (PhoK) that has been applied for bioprecipitation of uranium as uranyl phosphate species from alkaline solutions. The precipitation ability was enhanced by overexpressing PhoK protein in E. coli.
Plants absorb some uranium from soil. Dry weight concentrations of uranium in plants range from 5 to 60 parts per billion, and ash from burnt wood can have concentrations up to 4 parts per million. Dry weight concentrations of uranium in food plants are typically lower with one to two micrograms per day ingested through the food people eat.
Worldwide production of U O (yellowcake) in 2013 amounted to 70,015 tonnes, of which 22,451 t (32 %) was mined in Kazakhstan. Other important uranium mining countries are Canada (9,331 t), Australia (6,350 t), Niger (4,518 t), Namibia (4,323 t) and Russia (3,135 t).
Uranium ore is mined in several ways: by open pit, underground, in - situ leaching, and borehole mining (see uranium mining). Low - grade uranium ore mined typically contains 0.01 to 0.25 % uranium oxides. Extensive measures must be employed to extract the metal from its ore. High - grade ores found in Athabasca Basin deposits in Saskatchewan, Canada can contain up to 23 % uranium oxides on average. Uranium ore is crushed and rendered into a fine powder and then leached with either an acid or alkali. The leachate is subjected to one of several sequences of precipitation, solvent extraction, and ion exchange. The resulting mixture, called yellowcake, contains at least 75 % uranium oxides U O. Yellowcake is then calcined to remove impurities from the milling process before refining and conversion.
Commercial - grade uranium can be produced through the reduction of uranium halides with alkali or alkaline earth metals. Uranium metal can also be prepared through electrolysis of KUF or UF, dissolved in molten calcium chloride (Ca Cl) and sodium chloride (Na Cl) solution. Very pure uranium is produced through the thermal decomposition of uranium halides on a hot filament.
It is estimated that 5.5 million tonnes of uranium exists in ore reserves that are economically viable at US $59 per lb of uranium, while 35 million tonnes are classed as mineral resources (reasonable prospects for eventual economic extraction). Prices went from about $10 / lb in May 2003 to $138 / lb in July 2007. This has caused a big increase in spending on exploration, with US $200 million being spent worldwide in 2005, a 54 % increase on the previous year. This trend continued through 2006, when expenditure on exploration rocketed to over $774 million, an increase of over 250 % compared to 2004. The OECD Nuclear Energy Agency said exploration figures for 2007 would likely match those for 2006.
Australia has 31 % of the world 's known uranium ore reserves and the world 's largest single uranium deposit, located at the Olympic Dam Mine in South Australia. There is a significant reserve of uranium in Bakouma a sub-prefecture in the prefecture of Mbomou in Central African Republic.
Some nuclear fuel comes from nuclear weapons being dismantled, such as from the Megatons to Megawatts Program.
An additional 4.6 billion tonnes of uranium are estimated to be in sea water (Japanese scientists in the 1980s showed that extraction of uranium from sea water using ion exchangers was technically feasible). There have been experiments to extract uranium from sea water, but the yield has been low due to the carbonate present in the water. In 2012, ORNL researchers announced the successful development of a new absorbent material dubbed HiCap which performs surface retention of solid or gas molecules, atoms or ions and also effectively removes toxic metals from water, according to results verified by researchers at Pacific Northwest National Laboratory.
In 2005, seventeen countries produced concentrated uranium oxides: Canada (27.9 % of world production), Australia (22.8 %), Kazakhstan (10.5 %), Russia (8.0 %), Namibia (7.5 %), Niger (7.4 %), Uzbekistan (5.5 %), the United States (2.5 %), Argentina (2.1 %), Ukraine (1.9 %) and China (1.7 %). Kazakhstan continues to increase production and may have become the world 's largest producer of uranium by 2009 with an expected production of 12,826 tonnes, compared to Canada with 11,100 t and Australia with 9,430 t. In the late 1960s, UN geologists also discovered major uranium deposits and other rare mineral reserves in Somalia. The find was the largest of its kind, with industry experts estimating the deposits at over 25 % of the world 's then known uranium reserves of 800,000 tons.
The ultimate available supply is believed to be sufficient for at least the next 85 years, although some studies indicate underinvestment in the late twentieth century may produce supply problems in the 21st century. Uranium deposits seem to be log - normal distributed. There is a 300-fold increase in the amount of uranium recoverable for each tenfold decrease in ore grade. In other words, there is little high grade ore and proportionately much more low grade ore available.
Calcined uranium yellowcake, as produced in many large mills, contains a distribution of uranium oxidation species in various forms ranging from most oxidized to least oxidized. Particles with short residence times in a calciner will generally be less oxidized than those with long retention times or particles recovered in the stack scrubber. Uranium content is usually referenced to U O, which dates to the days of the Manhattan Project when U O was used as an analytical chemistry reporting standard.
Phase relationships in the uranium - oxygen system are complex. The most important oxidation states of uranium are uranium (IV) and uranium (VI), and their two corresponding oxides are, respectively, uranium dioxide (UO) and uranium trioxide (UO). Other uranium oxides such as uranium monoxide (UO), diuranium pentoxide (U O), and uranium peroxide (UO 2H O) also exist.
The most common forms of uranium oxide are triuranium octoxide (U O) and UO. Both oxide forms are solids that have low solubility in water and are relatively stable over a wide range of environmental conditions. Triuranium octoxide is (depending on conditions) the most stable compound of uranium and is the form most commonly found in nature. Uranium dioxide is the form in which uranium is most commonly used as a nuclear reactor fuel. At ambient temperatures, UO will gradually convert to U O. Because of their stability, uranium oxides are generally considered the preferred chemical form for storage or disposal.
Salts of many oxidation states of uranium are water - soluble and may be studied in aqueous solutions. The most common ionic forms are U (brown - red), U (green), UO (unstable), and UO (yellow), for U (III), U (IV), U (V), and U (VI), respectively. A few solid and semi-metallic compounds such as UO and US exist for the formal oxidation state uranium (II), but no simple ions are known to exist in solution for that state. Ions of U liberate hydrogen from water and are therefore considered to be highly unstable. The UO ion represents the uranium (VI) state and is known to form compounds such as uranyl carbonate, uranyl chloride and uranyl sulfate. UO also forms complexes with various organic chelating agents, the most commonly encountered of which is uranyl acetate.
Unlike the uranyl salts of uranium and polyatomic ion uranium - oxide cationic forms, the uranates, salts containing a polyatomic uranium - oxide anion, are generally not water - soluble.
The interactions of carbonate anions with uranium (VI) cause the Pourbaix diagram to change greatly when the medium is changed from water to a carbonate containing solution. While the vast majority of carbonates are insoluble in water (students are often taught that all carbonates other than those of alkali metals are insoluble in water), uranium carbonates are often soluble in water. This is because a U (VI) cation is able to bind two terminal oxides and three or more carbonates to form anionic complexes.
The uranium fraction diagrams in the presence of carbonate illustrate this further: when the pH of a uranium (VI) solution increases, the uranium is converted to a hydrated uranium oxide hydroxide and at high pHs it becomes an anionic hydroxide complex.
When carbonate is added, uranium is converted to a series of carbonate complexes if the pH is increased. One effect of these reactions is increased solubility of uranium in the pH range 6 to 8, a fact that has a direct bearing on the long term stability of spent uranium dioxide nuclear fuels.
Uranium metal heated to 250 to 300 ° C (482 to 572 ° F) reacts with hydrogen to form uranium hydride. Even higher temperatures will reversibly remove the hydrogen. This property makes uranium hydrides convenient starting materials to create reactive uranium powder along with various uranium carbide, nitride, and halide compounds. Two crystal modifications of uranium hydride exist: an α form that is obtained at low temperatures and a β form that is created when the formation temperature is above 250 ° C.
Uranium carbides and uranium nitrides are both relatively inert semimetallic compounds that are minimally soluble in acids, react with water, and can ignite in air to form U O. Carbides of uranium include uranium monocarbide (U C), uranium dicarbide (UC), and diuranium tricarbide (U). Both UC and UC are formed by adding carbon to molten uranium or by exposing the metal to carbon monoxide at high temperatures. Stable below 1800 ° C, U is prepared by subjecting a heated mixture of UC and UC to mechanical stress. Uranium nitrides obtained by direct exposure of the metal to nitrogen include uranium mononitride (UN), uranium dinitride (UN), and diuranium trinitride (U).
All uranium fluorides are created using uranium tetrafluoride (UF); UF itself is prepared by hydrofluorination of uranium dioxide. Reduction of UF with hydrogen at 1000 ° C produces uranium trifluoride (UF). Under the right conditions of temperature and pressure, the reaction of solid UF with gaseous uranium hexafluoride (UF) can form the intermediate fluorides of U, U, and UF.
At room temperatures, UF has a high vapor pressure, making it useful in the gaseous diffusion process to separate the rare uranium - 235 from the common uranium - 238 isotope. This compound can be prepared from uranium dioxide and uranium hydride by the following process:
The resulting UF, a white solid, is highly reactive (by fluorination), easily sublimes (emitting a vapor that behaves as a nearly ideal gas), and is the most volatile compound of uranium known to exist.
One method of preparing uranium tetrachloride (UCl) is to directly combine chlorine with either uranium metal or uranium hydride. The reduction of UCl by hydrogen produces uranium trichloride (UCl) while the higher chlorides of uranium are prepared by reaction with additional chlorine. All uranium chlorides react with water and air.
Bromides and iodides of uranium are formed by direct reaction of, respectively, bromine and iodine with uranium or by adding UH to those element 's acids. Known examples include: UBr, UBr, UI, and UI. Uranium oxyhalides are water - soluble and include UO, UOCl, UO Cl, and UO Br. Stability of the oxyhalides decrease as the atomic weight of the component halide increases.
Natural uranium consists of three major isotopes: uranium - 238 (99.28 % natural abundance), uranium - 235 (0.71 %), and uranium - 234 (0.0054 %). All three are radioactive, emitting alpha particles, with the exception that all three of these isotopes have small probabilities of undergoing spontaneous fission, rather than alpha emission. There are also five other trace isotopes: uranium - 239, which is formed when U undergoes spontaneous fission, releasing neutrons that are captured by another U atom; uranium - 237, which is formed when U captures a neutron but emits two more, which then decays to neptunium - 237; and finally, uranium - 233, which is formed in the decay chain of that neptunium - 237. It is also expected that thorium - 232 should be able to undergo double beta decay, which would produce uranium - 232, but this has not yet been observed experimentally.
Uranium - 238 is the most stable isotope of uranium, with a half - life of about 4.468 × 10 years, roughly the age of the Earth. Uranium - 235 has a half - life of about 7.13 × 10 years, and uranium - 234 has a half - life of about 2.48 × 10 years. For natural uranium, about 49 % of its alpha rays are emitted by each of U atom, and also 49 % by U (since the latter is formed from the former) and about 2.0 % of them by the U. When the Earth was young, probably about one - fifth of its uranium was uranium - 235, but the percentage of U was probably much lower than this.
Uranium - 238 is usually an α emitter (occasionally, it undergoes spontaneous fission), decaying through the uranium series, which has 18 members, into lead - 206, by a variety of different decay paths.
The decay chain of U)), which is called the actinium series, has 15 members and eventually decays into lead - 207. The constant rates of decay in these decay series makes the comparison of the ratios of parent to daughter elements useful in radiometric dating.
Uranium - 234, which is a member of the uranium series (the decay chain of uranium - 238), decays to lead - 206 through a series of relatively short - lived isotopes.
Uranium - 233 is made from thorium - 232 by neutron bombardment, usually in a nuclear reactor, and U is also fissile. Its decay chain forms part of the neptunium series and ends at bismuth - 209 and thallium - 205.
Uranium - 235 is important for both nuclear reactors and nuclear weapons, because it is the only uranium isotope existing in nature on Earth in any significant amount that is fissile. This means that it can be split into two or three fragments (fission products) by thermal neutrons.
Uranium - 238 is not fissile, but is a fertile isotope, because after neutron activation it can produce plutonium - 239, another fissile isotope. Indeed, the U nucleus can absorb one neutron to produce the radioactive isotope uranium - 239. U decays by beta emission to neptunium - 239, also a beta - emitter, that decays in its turn, within a few days into plutonium - 239. Pu was used as fissile material in the first atomic bomb detonated in the "Trinity test '' on 15 July 1945 in New Mexico.
In nature, uranium is found as uranium - 238 (99.2742 %) and uranium - 235 (0.7204 %). Isotope separation concentrates (enriches) the fissionable uranium - 235 for nuclear weapons and most nuclear power plants, except for gas cooled reactors and pressurised heavy water reactors. Most neutrons released by a fissioning atom of uranium - 235 must impact other uranium - 235 atoms to sustain the nuclear chain reaction. The concentration and amount of uranium - 235 needed to achieve this is called a ' critical mass '.
To be considered ' enriched ', the uranium - 235 fraction should be between 3 % and 5 %. This process produces huge quantities of uranium that is depleted of uranium - 235 and with a correspondingly increased fraction of uranium - 238, called depleted uranium or ' DU '. To be considered ' depleted ', the uranium - 235 isotope concentration should be no more than 0.3 %. The price of uranium has risen since 2001, so enrichment tailings containing more than 0.35 % uranium - 235 are being considered for re-enrichment, driving the price of depleted uranium hexafluoride above $130 per kilogram in July 2007 from $5 in 2001.
The gas centrifuge process, where gaseous uranium hexafluoride (UF) is separated by the difference in molecular weight between UF and UF using high - speed centrifuges, is the cheapest and leading enrichment process. The gaseous diffusion process had been the leading method for enrichment and was used in the Manhattan Project. In this process, uranium hexafluoride is repeatedly diffused through a silver - zinc membrane, and the different isotopes of uranium are separated by diffusion rate (since uranium 238 is heavier it diffuses slightly slower than uranium - 235). The molecular laser isotope separation method employs a laser beam of precise energy to sever the bond between uranium - 235 and fluorine. This leaves uranium - 238 bonded to fluorine and allows uranium - 235 metal to precipitate from the solution. An alternative laser method of enrichment is known as atomic vapor laser isotope separation (AVLIS) and employs visible tunable lasers such as dye lasers. Another method used is liquid thermal diffusion.
A person can be exposed to uranium (or its radioactive daughters, such as radon) by inhaling dust in air or by ingesting contaminated water and food. The amount of uranium in air is usually very small; however, people who work in factories that process phosphate fertilizers, live near government facilities that made or tested nuclear weapons, live or work near a modern battlefield where depleted uranium weapons have been used, or live or work near a coal - fired power plant, facilities that mine or process uranium ore, or enrich uranium for reactor fuel, may have increased exposure to uranium. Houses or structures that are over uranium deposits (either natural or man - made slag deposits) may have an increased incidence of exposure to radon gas. The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) has set the permissible exposure limit for uranium exposure in the workplace as 0.25 mg / m over an 8 - hour workday. The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) has set a recommended exposure limit (REL) of 0.2 mg / m over an 8 - hour workday and a short - term limit of 0.6 mg / m. At levels of 10 mg / m, uranium is immediately dangerous to life and health.
Most ingested uranium is excreted during digestion. Only 0.5 % is absorbed when insoluble forms of uranium, such as its oxide, are ingested, whereas absorption of the more soluble uranyl ion can be up to 5 %. However, soluble uranium compounds tend to quickly pass through the body, whereas insoluble uranium compounds, especially when inhaled by way of dust into the lungs, pose a more serious exposure hazard. After entering the bloodstream, the absorbed uranium tends to bioaccumulate and stay for many years in bone tissue because of uranium 's affinity for phosphates. Uranium is not absorbed through the skin, and alpha particles released by uranium can not penetrate the skin.
Incorporated uranium becomes uranyl ions, which accumulate in bone, liver, kidney, and reproductive tissues. Uranium can be decontaminated from steel surfaces and aquifers.
Normal functioning of the kidney, brain, liver, heart, and other systems can be affected by uranium exposure, because, besides being weakly radioactive, uranium is a toxic metal. Uranium is also a reproductive toxicant. Radiological effects are generally local because alpha radiation, the primary form of U decay, has a very short range, and will not penetrate skin. Alpha radiation from inhaled uranium has been demonstrated to cause lung cancer in exposed nuclear workers. Uranyl (UO) ions, such as from uranium trioxide or uranyl nitrate and other hexavalent uranium compounds, have been shown to cause birth defects and immune system damage in laboratory animals. While the CDC has published one study that no human cancer has been seen as a result of exposure to natural or depleted uranium, exposure to uranium and its decay products, especially radon, are widely known and significant health threats. Exposure to strontium - 90, iodine - 131, and other fission products is unrelated to uranium exposure, but may result from medical procedures or exposure to spent reactor fuel or fallout from nuclear weapons. Although accidental inhalation exposure to a high concentration of uranium hexafluoride has resulted in human fatalities, those deaths were associated with the generation of highly toxic hydrofluoric acid and uranyl fluoride rather than with uranium itself. Finely divided uranium metal presents a fire hazard because uranium is pyrophoric; small grains will ignite spontaneously in air at room temperature.
Uranium metal is commonly handled with gloves as a sufficient precaution. Uranium concentrate is handled and contained so as to ensure that people do not inhale or ingest it.
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who came up with the idea for the voice | The Voice (TV series) - Wikipedia
The Voice is an international reality television singing competition franchise. It is based on the reality singing competition The Voice of Holland, which was originally created by Dutch television producer John de Mol. Many other countries have adapted the format and begun airing their own versions since 2011. It has become a rival to the Idols franchise, Rising Star and The X Factor.
John de Mol, creator of Big Brother, first created The Voice concept with Dutch singer Roel van Velzen. Erland Galjaard, a Dutch program director, asked John de Mol about whether he could come up with a format that went a step further than The X Factor. De Mol then came with the idea of Blind Audition. He wanted to focus on singing quality alone, so the coaches must be top artists in music industry. The rotating chairs concept was invented by Roel van Velzen. It would also be the first talent show in which social media is actively involved.
On September 17, 2010, The Voice of Holland began to air on RTL 4 with Angela Groothuizen, Roel van Velzen, Nick & Simon, and Jeroen van der Boom as the mentor - judges (dubbed as "coaches '') of the show. The show proved to be an instant success in the Netherlands.
The format was later sold to different countries, in many cases replacing a previous Endemol music contest format, Operation Triumph / Star Academy.
The show 's format features five stages of competition: producers ' auditions, blind auditions, battle rounds, knockouts (since 2012), and live performance shows.
Contestants are aspiring singers drawn from public auditions, which are not televised. Unlike Idols and The X Factor, the producers pick fewer contestants (usually from 100 up to 200 contestants), which are deemed "the best artists '', to perform in the televised auditions. The first televised stage is the blind auditions, in which the four coaches, all noteworthy recording artists, listen to the contestants in chairs facing away from the stage so as to avoid seeing them. If a coach likes what they hear from that contestant, they press a button to rotate their chairs to signify that they are interested in working with that contestant. If more than one coach presses their button, the contestant chooses the coach he or she wants to work with. The blind auditions end when each coach has a set number of contestants to work with. Coaches will dedicate themselves to developing their singers mentally, musically and in some cases physically, giving them advice, and sharing the secrets of their success.
The contestants who successfully pass the blind auditions proceed to the battle rounds, where the coaches put two of their own team members against each other to sing the same song together in front of a studio audience. After the vocal face - off, the coach must choose only one to advance. If no specific winner can be identified the competition turns to a game of fate via a coin toss. In some versions, there are steals where opposing coaches can steal a contestant who was voted off by their own coach by pressing their button. As in the blind auditions, if more than one coach presses their button, the contestant chooses which coach they want. Each coach has a set number of steals (usually one or two).
In some versions, the winners of the battle rounds proceed to the knockout rounds (dubbed Super-battle round in some versions). The Knockout Rounds can happen in one of two method: Sing - off or Hot - seat / Chair Challenge.
In sing - off method, as in the battle rounds, coaches pit numbers (usually 2 / 3 / 4) of their own team members to compete against each other. This time, the contestants choose their own song to perform individually while the other watches and waits. After that, the coach chooses one to advance while the other is sent home. At the end of the knockout rounds, the strongest members of each coach 's roster proceed to the live stage shows. Some versions also have steals. Like in battle round, the opposing coaches can steal a contestant who was voted off by their own coach by pressing their button. Also same in the blind auditions, if more than one coach presses their button, the contestant chooses which coach they want.
In hot - seat or chair challenge method (first introduced in the sixth season of The Voice of Holland), a format similar to The X Factor 's six - chair challenge, there will be three seats (the number of seats varies sometimes). After the first 3 contestants perform a song of his or her choice, they will all sit in the three chairs. However, after these contestants perform, the fate of the fourth artist will be decided based on whether his or her coach would like to switch out an artist already seated in favor of this performer. In the case of a switch - out, the artist that was switched out will be eliminated, and this performer will sit down. If the coach would instead like to keep the performers already seated and thus not give a seat to this performer, he or she will be immediately eliminated. After all contestants have performed, those who end up seated will advance to the Live Shows.
In the final performance phase of the competition, the top contestants from each team compete against each other during a live broadcast. The television audience vote to save one contestant on each team, leaving the coach to decide on live television who they want to save and who will not move on. In the next round, the public chooses between the two artists left on each team, and the coach also has a vote that weighs equally with the public vote.
Finally, each coach will have his / her best contestant left standing to compete in the finals, singing an original song. From these four, one will be named "The Voice '' -- and will receive the grand prize of a recording contract. Universal Music Group is the general record company associated and affiliated with The Voice format in most countries.
One of the cornerstones of The Voice format is the social media participation via Twitter, Facebook and the especially designed platform "connect. '' Users are able to log in via their Facebook account and retrieve background information about the show. The platform also offers the possibility to stream the show online as well as to vote, interact with friends and to discuss various topics and questions asked by the producers throughout the show.
DISCLAIMER: All variations below and its descriptions are based of the observation and research in every single Youtube channel and Wikipedia article of each versions.
In various franchises, a duo coach is placed in the coaches ' panel -- a difference from the usual four individual coaches line - up. It was first introduced in the first season of The Voice of Holland with Nick & Simon as the first duo coach. The same variation is also used in seen in various The Voice Kids format.
Another variation was introduced in The Voice Kids. The same format usually have three individuals in the line - up of coaches. However, a variation was introduced in the second season of the O Ses Türkiye -- the Turkish version of the format -- wherein the said show included four individual coaches, but then was dropped in the later seasons. However, this was adopted in the second season of the Indian - Hindustani version and the seventh season of the Dutch version, and will be adopted in the fifth season of the French version.
Originally, The Voice only allowed solo artists and groups with two members, but not trios / quartets. The first case of a trio entering was in the first season of The Voice van Vlaanderen. In the second episode, the Vinken Sisters participated and three coaches turned. They commented that trios were n't allowed for participation and that there was a chance that the group had to drop a member. However, the trio remained in the competition without dropping members. Many versions of The Voice stuck with the original rule of only allowing solo artists and duos. The American version, the UK version and some other versions currently wo n't allow for trios to participate. However, the limit of two people per group was ultimately lifted in The Voice of Holland. In the fifth season of the Dutch version, girl group O'G3NE was the first trio that entered and ultimately won the show. After that, a few versions started to allow groups with more than two members. Trios / quartets have been seen entering the second season of The Voice Indonesia (Mervo), the sixth season of The Voice: la plus belle voix (The Sugazz), the fifth season of Glasat na Bulgaria (Trinity), and the eighth season of Holos Krainy (Trio "Nude Voices '').
A different rule was applied in the blind auditions in the Philippine version of The Voice Teens, wherein if contestants auditioning as duo had received only one - chair turn, the coach who turned for them must decide either dropping a member or advancing both of them. The said rule was also seen in the Malaysian and Singaporean version.
In some versions, all contestants perform each week and only the public 's vote determines which contestants advance in the competition, a format similar to both Idols and The X Factor. This means that any contestant can be eliminated and no coach is guaranteed a spot in the finals. Along with this elimination method, there is an Instant Save in certain versions, most notably the US version, Israeli version, and Australian Version, where contestants (usually two or three) who are in danger of elimination have to perform again and another vote is conducted to save one of those contestants.
The Cross-battle was introduced as one of the live rounds in the fourth season of The Voice of Holland. In this round, two contestants from two different team compete each other and the public vote determines who will advance. The Cross-battles returned in the fifth season of the Dutch version, but later dropped in the succeeding seasons. The Cross-battles was also used in the fourth season of The Voice Of China, the fifth season of The Voice Brasil, both fifth and sixth seasons of the Vocea României and in the third season of The Voice of Greece.
The seventh season of the Dutch version features "non stop steals '', which means that steals during the battle rounds follow a hot - seat procedure: a coach may replace his or her stolen contestant as many times as he or she likes until the end of the battles. This feature also applies in the seventh season of Vocea României, fifth season of The Voice van Vlaanderen, and the fifth season of The Voice Portugal.
Normally, The Voice have Knockout round come after Battle round. However, the sixth season of Australian version have the rounds swapped (Knockout round come before Battle round). It is followed in the fifth season of the Lithuanian version, the sixth season of the Brazilian version, and the sixth season of Thai version.
Introduced in the fifth season of the Brazilian version, the coaches will again attend the performance of the contestants and at the end, each of them will press the famous red button to choose who will move to the next phase. contestants who have more than one button pressed will be able to decide which team they want to stay in. Coaches may use a wildcard, which guarantees Supreme Power at the time of choice. If more than one of them presents the card, the priority will always be the team 's original coach. At the end of Remix each coach will have three candidates for the Semifinal rounds.
Starting from the seventh season, The Voice of Holland implements new system in the live shows, Scoring. During each contestant 's performance, every coach can give the score up to ten, as well as the viewers. Then the coaches ' score and viewers ' score each will be averaged, and the be combined, ultimately giving the score to the contestant at the end of performance, which will determine the fate of the contestant. The Scoring system is usually used until the semi-final.
Starting from the fifth season of The Voice of Holland, if all the coaches rejected one specific contestant, the losing contestant would leave the stage straight away, without any conversations with the coaches, and the chairs would remain unturned. The format is currently used in some versions like British version, with the latest debut which is on the seventh season of The Voice: la plus belle voix and the eighth season of Holos Krainy. It was used in the fifth season of the Vocea României and the fourth to sixth season of The Voice Belgique, but then was abandoned in later seasons.
The U.S. Version introduces new mechanism in blind auditions on the fourteenth season, Block button. When a coach wants to get that contestant but does n't want another coach to do so, he / she can press the block button to block them from getting the contestant, though they still be able to press the button and turn around (but after that they will see the "Blocked '' word).
The appearance of coaches names on the floor (after pressing the buttons in the blind auditions) was first introduced in the eleventh season of the U.S. version and ongoing until the present. The design was adopted in the following versions:
A combined 315 singers have won the television series The Voice, a reality singing competition adapted in one - hundred twenty - nine regions. Each winner is given a recording contract, a monetary prize, and a title as that nation 's The Voice, La Voz, Golos, Holos or La Voix. The first was Ben Saunders of the Netherlands and the most recent was Wachirawit Chinkoet from the Thai version of The Voice.
Astro AEC Website
The following coaches had appeared in multiple franchises:
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i was just trying to leave something behind song | Sean Rowe - wikipedia
Sean Rowe (born in Troy, New York) is an alternative folk singer - songwriter and musician.
Born and raised in Troy, New York, Rowe started playing music at an early age. He received a bass guitar from his father on his 12th birthday and performed in a local band. After receiving an acoustic guitar as a gift from his uncle, Rowe began playing solo.
He wrote his first song at the age of seven on a Fisher - Price typewriter after listening to Survivor 's "Eye of the Tiger. '' Rowe started seriously writing songs when he was 18. The first complete song that he wrote was called "Turtle, '' which was inspired by his friend and singer - songwriter Jeanne French.
At the age of 17, Rowe discovered Otis Redding and his song "Open The Door '', which inspired him to begin singing.
An avid naturalist, Rowe often speaks of his fascination with the woods and his connection to the land.
After reading The Tracker by Tom Brown at the age of 18, Rowe started a blog about his experiences in the wilderness. He later took courses at Tom Brown 's Wilderness Survival School in Asbury, NJ.
In 2006, Rowe studied for a year at Hawk Circle Wilderness Education in Cherry Valley, NY, and completed a 24 - day solo survival quest after his training.
Rowe also studied under wild food author and expert, Samuel Thayer, and has partnered with Kawing Crow Awareness Center as a guest instructor for wilderness survival workshops and wild edible plant foraging.
Since 2009, Rowe has contributed as a blogger to the Albany Times Union on topics concerning nature, wildlife and his music career.
Since 2003, Rowe played locally in his hometown at open mics, bars and cafes. He began playing with percussionist Marco Haber, who played on a few tracks on his first album "27 ''. Shortly thereafter they began playing under the name Mudfunk and recorded a live album, Live at the Grind, as well as a single of "Wrong Side of the Bed. '' The latter would be re-recorded for Sean 's solo album, Magic, without Haber and with different instrumentation. He recorded his album, Magic, at Collar City Sound and released it through Collar City Records on April 21, 2009. In 2009, Rowe was asked to open for Noah and the Whale in the United Kingdom. Soon after, Sean signed with ANTI - Records, which re-released Magic on February 22, 2011, and released The Salesman and the Shark on August 28, 2012. On March 4, Sean played his new release, "Downwind '', on Jimmy Kimmel Live. The movie The Accountant with actor Ben Affleck (2016) features Sean Rowe 's song "To Leave Something Behind ''
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who plays albert in count of monte cristo | The Count of Monte Cristo (2002 film) - wikipedia
The Count of Monte Cristo is a 2002 adventure drama film produced by Roger Birnbaum, Gary Barber, and Jonathan Glickman that was directed by Kevin Reynolds. An international co-production between the United States, the United Kingdom, and Ireland, the film is an adaptation of the book of the same name by Alexandre Dumas, père and stars Jim Caviezel, Guy Pearce, and Richard Harris. It follows the general plot of the novel (the main storyline of imprisonment and revenge is preserved); but many aspects, including the relationships between major characters and the ending, have been changed, simplified, or removed; and action scenes have been added. The film met with modest box office success.
In 1815, Edmond Dantés, Second Mate of a French merchant vessel, and his friend Fernand Mondego, representative of the shipping company, seek medical help at Elba for their ailing captain. Napoleon Bonaparte, having kept his guardians from killing the pair, exchanges his physician 's services with Edmond for the delivery of a letter to a Monsieur Clarion.
In Marseille, the company owner Morrell commends Edmond for his bravery, promoting him to captain over First Mate Danglars, who gave Edmond explicit orders not to land at Elba. Edmond states his intention to marry his girlfriend, Mercédès, whom Fernand lusts after.
Fernand and Danglars inform on Edmond, concerning the letter Fernand saw Napoleon hand him, to the city 's Magistrate, Villefort, who has Edmond arrested. Villefort prepares to exonerate Edmond until he learns the letter is addressed to Villefort 's father, a Bonapartist; he burns the letter and orders Edmond locked up in Château d'If. Edmond escapes, and turns to Fernand for help, but Fernand holds him up and turns him over to the pursuing gendarmes. Edmond is consigned to the island prison and its sadistic warden, Armand Dorleac. Villefort has Fernand assassinate his father in exchange for persuading Mercédès that Edmond has been executed for treason and that she should take comfort in Fernand.
Six years later, Edmond is startled in his cell by an eruption in the ground revealing another prisoner. Abbé Faria, who has been imprisoned for 11 years after he refused to tell Bonaparte the whereabouts of the treasure of Spada, has dug an escape tunnel. For the next seven years Faria educates Edmond in all facets of scholarship, including swordplay, in exchange for his help in digging a new escape route. Faria dies in a tunnel cave - in but before expiring he reveals a map to the treasure. Edmond escapes by switching himself for the priest 's body in the body bag, and is thrown into the sea, pulling Dorleac along with him, whom he drowns.
Edmond encounters a band of pirates preparing to execute a fellow pirate, Jacopo, (Luis Guzmán). Their leader, Luigi Vampa, decides justice and entertainment would be better served by pitting Edmond and Jacopo in a knife fight. Edmond wins, but spares Jacopo, who swears himself Edmond 's man for life. Jacopo and Edmond both work for the pirates until they arrive in Marseille.
Edmond learns from Morrell, who does not recognize him, that Fernand and Danglars are complicit in his betrayal, and that Fernand and Mercédès have wed. With Jacopo, he locates Faria 's treasure, and establishes himself as a Count in Parisian society.
Edmond ingratiates himself to the Mondegos by staging the kidnap and rescue of their son, Albert (Henry Cavill). Now known as the Count of Monte Cristo, Edmond lures Fernand, Villefort and Danglars into a trap by letting slip the notion that he has located the treasure of Spada, and is shipping it through Marseille. Danglars is caught red - handed in the act of theft. Villefort is arrested upon confessing that he ordered the hit on his father and it is revealed that Fernand carried out the murder of Monsieur Clarion.
Even though his appearance has dramatically changed, Mercédès recognizes her former fiancé. Eventually, she softens him and they rekindle their relationship. As Fernand prepares to flee, she reveals the only reason she married him was that she was pregnant with Albert who is really Edmond 's son.
Fernand encounters Edmond in the ruins of an estate where he hid what he thought were chests full of the treasure but contain nothing but ashes. Albert intervenes when Edmond attempts to kill Fernand, but Mercédès tells him of his true parentage. Fernand leaves, firing a shot that wounds Mercédès, and rides away, but changes his mind upon realizing that he has nothing left to live for. Fernand rides back and calls Edmond out. The two fight to the death; Edmond prevails.
Edmond purchases Château d'If, intending to raze it, but instead leaves it standing as he swears to the spirit of Faria to use his vast resources for nothing but good.
The Count of Monte Cristo holds a rating of 73 % based on 143 reviews at Rotten Tomatoes with the critical consensus being that, "Though it may not reach for any new artistic heights, The Count of Monte Cristo is an old - fashioned yet enjoyable swashbuckler. '' At Metacritic, the film received a score of 61 out of 100, with generally favourable reviews.
Roger Ebert gave the film 3 stars out of 4 writing, "The Count of Monte Cristo is a movie that incorporates piracy, Napoleon in exile, betrayal, solitary confinement, secret messages, escape tunnels, swashbuckling, comic relief, a treasure map, Parisian high society and sweet revenge, and brings it in at under two hours, with performances by good actors who are clearly having fun. This is the kind of adventure picture the studios churned out in the Golden Age -- so traditional it almost feels new. ''
The Count of Monte Cristo Official Soundtrack was composed and conducted by Edward Shearmur and performed by the London Metropolitan Orchestra.
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where do the rocky mountains begin and end | Rocky Mountains - wikipedia
The Rocky Mountains, commonly known as the Rockies, are a major mountain range in western North America. The Rocky Mountains stretch more than 3,000 miles (4,800 km) from the northernmost part of British Columbia, in western Canada, to New Mexico, in the Southwestern United States. Within the North American Cordillera, the Rockies are somewhat distinct from the Pacific Coast Ranges and the Cascade Range and Sierra Nevada, which all lie further to the west.
The Rocky Mountains were initially formed from 80 million to 55 million years ago during the Laramide orogeny, in which a number of plates began to slide underneath the North American plate. The angle of subduction was shallow, resulting in a broad belt of mountains running down western North America. Since then, further tectonic activity and erosion by glaciers have sculpted the Rockies into dramatic peaks and valleys. At the end of the last ice age, humans started to inhabit the mountain range. After Europeans, such as Sir Alexander Mackenzie, and Americans, such as the Lewis and Clark expedition, started to explore the range, minerals and furs drove the initial economic exploitation of the mountains, although the range itself never became densely populated.
Much of the mountain range is protected by public parks and forest lands and is a popular tourist destination, especially for hiking, camping, mountaineering, fishing, hunting, mountain biking, skiing, and snowboarding.
The name of the mountains is a translation of an Amerindian name that is closely related to Algonquian; the Cree name as - sin - wati is given as, "when seen from across the prairies, they looked like a rocky mass ''. The first mention of their present name by a European was in the journal of Jacques Legardeur de Saint - Pierre in 1752, where they were called "Montagnes de Roche ''.
The Rocky Mountains are commonly defined as stretching from the Liard River in British Columbia south to the Rio Grande in New Mexico. Other mountain ranges continue beyond those two rivers, including the Selwyn Mountains in Yukon, the Brooks Range in Alaska, and the Sierra Madre in Mexico, but those are not part of the Rockies, though they are part of the American Cordillera. The United States definition of the Rockies includes the Cabinet and Salish Mountains of Idaho and Montana. Their counterparts north of the Kootenai River, the Columbia Mountains, are considered a separate system in Canada, lying to the west of the huge Rocky Mountain Trench. This runs the length of British Columbia from its beginnings in the middle Flathead River valley in western Montana to the south bank of the Liard River. The Rockies vary in width from 70 to 300 miles (110 to 480 kilometers). Also west of the Rocky Mountain Trench, farther north and facing the Muskwa Range across the trench, are the Stikine Ranges and Omineca Mountains of the Interior Mountains system of British Columbia. A small area east of Prince George, British Columbia on the eastern side of the Trench, the McGregor Plateau, resembles the Rockies but is considered part of the Interior Plateau.
The eastern edge of the Rockies rises dramatically above the Interior Plains of central North America, including the Sangre de Cristo Mountains of New Mexico and Colorado, the Front Range of Colorado, the Wind River Range and Big Horn Mountains of Wyoming, the Absaroka - Beartooth ranges and Rocky Mountain Front of Montana and the Clark Range of Alberta. In Canada geographers define three main groups of ranges: the Continental Ranges, Hart Ranges and Muskwa Ranges (the latter two flank the Peace River, the only river to pierce the Rockies, and are collectively referred to as the Northern Rockies). The Muskwa and Hart Ranges together comprise what is known as the Northern Rockies (the Mackenzie Mountains north of the Liard River are sometimes referred to as being part of the Rocky Mountains but this is an unofficial designation).
The western edge of the Rockies includes ranges such as the Wasatch near Salt Lake City and the Bitterroots along the Idaho - Montana border. The Great Basin and Columbia River Plateau separate these subranges from distinct ranges further to the west, most prominent among which are the Sierra Nevada, Cascade Range and Coast Mountains. The Rockies do not extend into the Yukon or Alaska, or into central British Columbia, where the Rocky Mountain System (but not the Rocky Mountains) includes the Columbia Mountains, the southward extension of which is considered part of the Rockies in the United States. The Rocky Mountain System within the United States is a United States physiographic region; the Rocky Mountain System is known in Canada as the Eastern System.
The Rocky Mountains are notable for containing the highest peaks in central North America. The range 's highest peak is Mount Elbert located in Colorado at 14,440 feet (4,401 m) above sea level. Mount Robson in British Columbia, at 12,972 feet (3,954 m), is the highest peak in the Canadian Rockies.
The Continental Divide of the Americas is located in the Rocky Mountains and designates the line at which waters flow either to the Atlantic or Pacific Oceans. Triple Divide Peak (8,020 feet (2,440 m)) in Glacier National Park is so named because water that falls on the mountain reaches not only the Atlantic and Pacific but Hudson Bay as well. Farther north in Alberta, the Athabasca and other rivers feed the basin of the Mackenzie River, which has its outlet on the Beaufort Sea of the Arctic Ocean. See Rivers of the Rocky Mountains for a list of rivers.
Human population is not very dense in the Rocky Mountains, with an average of four people per square kilometer and few cities with over 50,000 people. However, the human population grew rapidly in the Rocky Mountain states between 1950 and 1990. The 40 - year statewide increases in population range from 35 % in Montana to about 150 % in Utah and Colorado. The populations of several mountain towns and communities have doubled in the last 40 years. Jackson Hole, Wyoming, increased 260 %, from 1,244 to 4,472 residents, in 40 years.
The rocks in the Rocky Mountains were formed before the mountains were raised by tectonic forces. The oldest rock is Precambrian metamorphic rock that forms the core of the North American continent. There is also Precambrian sedimentary argillite, dating back to 1.7 billion years ago. During the Paleozoic, western North America lay underneath a shallow sea, which deposited many kilometers of limestone and dolomite.
In the southern Rocky Mountains, near present - day Colorado, these ancestral rocks were disturbed by mountain building approximately 300 Ma, during the Pennsylvanian. This mountain - building produced the Ancestral Rocky Mountains. They consisted largely of Precambrian metamorphic rock forced upward through layers of the limestone laid down in the shallow sea. The mountains eroded throughout the late Paleozoic and early Mesozoic, leaving extensive deposits of sedimentary rock.
Terranes started to collide with the western edge of North America in the Mississippian (approximately 350 million years ago), causing the Antler orogeny. For 270 million years, the effects of plate collisions were focused very near the edge of the North American plate boundary, far to the west of the Rocky Mountain region. It was not until 80 Ma that these effects began to reach the Rockies.
The current Rocky Mountains were raised in the Laramide orogeny from between 80 and 55 Ma. For the Canadian Rockies, the mountain building is analogous to a rug being pushed on a hardwood floor: the rug bunches up and forms wrinkles (mountains). In Canada, the terranes and subduction are the foot pushing the rug, the ancestral rocks are the rug, and the Canadian Shield in the middle of the continent is the hardwood floor.
Further south, the growth of the Rocky Mountains in the United States was probably caused by an unusual subduction, where the Farallon plate dove at a shallow angle below the North American plate. This low angle moved the focus of melting and mountain building much farther inland than the normal 200 to 300 miles (300 to 500 km). It is postulated that the shallow angle of the subducting plate greatly increased the friction and other interactions with the thick continental mass above it. Tremendous thrusts piled sheets of crust on top of each other, building the extraordinarily broad, high Rocky Mountain range.
The current southern Rockies were forced upwards through the layers of Pennsylvanian and Permian sedimentary remnants of the Ancestral Rocky Mountains. Such sedimentary remnants were often tilted at steep angles along the flanks of the modern range; they are now visible in many places throughout the Rockies, and are prominently shown along the Dakota Hogback, an early Cretaceous sandstone formation that runs along the eastern flank of the modern Rockies.
Immediately after the Laramide orogeny, the Rockies were like Tibet: a high plateau, probably 6,000 metres (20,000 ft) above sea level. In the last 60 million years, erosion stripped away the high rocks, revealing the ancestral rocks beneath, and forming the current landscape of the Rockies.
Periods of glaciation occurred from the Pleistocene Epoch (1.8 million -- 70,000 years ago) to the Holocene Epoch (fewer than 11,000 years ago). These ice ages left their mark on the Rockies, forming extensive glacial landforms, such as U-shaped valleys and cirques. Recent glacial episodes included the Bull Lake Glaciation that began about 150,000 years ago and the Pinedale Glaciation that probably remained at full glaciation until 15,000 -- 20,000 years ago.
All of the geological processes, above, have left a complex set of rocks exposed at the surface. For example, volcanic rock from the Paleogene and Neogene periods (66 million -- 2.6 million years ago) occurs in the San Juan Mountains and in other areas. Millennia of severe erosion in the Wyoming Basin transformed intermountain basins into a relatively flat terrain. The Tetons and other north - central ranges contain folded and faulted rocks of Paleozoic and Mesozoic age draped above cores of Proterozoic and Archean igneous and metamorphic rocks ranging in age from 1.2 billion (e.g., Tetons) to more than 3.3 billion years (Beartooth Mountains).
There are a wide range of environmental factors in the Rocky Mountains. The Rockies range in latitude between the Liard River in British Columbia (at 59 ° N) and the Rio Grande in New Mexico (at 35 ° N). Prairie occurs at or below 1,800 feet (550 m), while the highest peak in the range is Mount Elbert at 14,440 feet (4,400 m). Precipitation ranges from 10 inches (250 mm) per year in the southern valleys to 60 inches (1,500 mm) per year locally in the northern peaks. Average January temperatures can range from 20 ° F (− 7 ° C) in Prince George, British Columbia, to 43 ° F (6 ° C) in Trinidad, Colorado. Therefore, there is not a single monolithic ecosystem for the entire Rocky Mountain Range.
Instead, ecologists divide the Rocky Mountain into a number of biotic zones. Each zone is defined by whether it can support trees and the presence of one or more indicator species. Two zones that do not support trees are the Plains and the Alpine tundra. The Great Plains lie to the east of the Rockies and is characterized by prairie grasses (below roughly 1,800 feet (550 m)). Alpine tundra occurs in regions above the treeline for the Rocky Mountains, which varies from 12,000 feet (3,700 m) in New Mexico to 2,500 feet (760 m) at the northern end of the Rocky Mountains (near the Yukon).
The USGS defines ten forested zones in the Rocky Mountains. Zones in more southern, warmer, or drier areas are defined by the presence of pinyon pines / junipers, ponderosa pines, or oaks mixed with pines. In more northern, colder, or wetter areas, zones are defined by Douglas firs, Cascadian species (such as western hemlock), lodgepole pines / quaking aspens, or firs mixed with spruce. Near treeline, zones can consist of white pines (such as whitebark pine or bristlecone pine); or a mixture of white pine, fir, and spruce that appear as shrub - like krummholz. Finally, rivers and canyons can create a unique forest zone in more arid parts of the mountain range.
The Rocky Mountains are an important habitat for a great deal of well - known wildlife, such as elk, moose, mule and white - tailed deer, pronghorn, mountain goats, bighorn sheep, badgers, black bears, grizzly bears, coyotes, lynxes, and wolverines. For example, North America 's largest herds of moose is in the Alberta - British Columbia foothills forests.
The status of most species in the Rocky Mountains is unknown, due to incomplete information. European - American settlement of the mountains has adversely impacted native species. Examples of some species that have declined include western toads, greenback cutthroat trout, white sturgeon, white - tailed ptarmigan, trumpeter swan, and bighorn sheep. In the United States portion of the mountain range, apex predators such as grizzly bears and gray wolves had been extirpated from their original ranges, but have partially recovered due to conservation measures and reintroduction. Other recovering species include the bald eagle and the peregrine falcon.
Since the last great ice age, the Rocky Mountains were home first to indigenous peoples including the Apache, Arapaho, Bannock, Blackfoot, Cheyenne, Coeur d'Alene, Kalispel, Crow Nation, Flathead, Shoshone, Sioux, Ute, Kutenai (Ktunaxa in Canada), Sekani, Dunne - za, and others. Paleo - Indians hunted the now - extinct mammoth and ancient bison (an animal 20 % larger than modern bison) in the foothills and valleys of the mountains. Like the modern tribes that followed them, Paleo - Indians probably migrated to the plains in fall and winter for bison and to the mountains in spring and summer for fish, deer, elk, roots, and berries. In Colorado, along with the crest of the Continental Divide, rock walls that Native Americans built for driving game date back 5,400 -- 5,800 years. A growing body of scientific evidence indicates that indigenous people had significant effects on mammal populations by hunting and on vegetation patterns through deliberate burning.
Recent human history of the Rocky Mountains is one of more rapid change. The Spanish explorer Francisco Vázquez de Coronado -- with a group of soldiers, missionaries, and African slaves -- marched into the Rocky Mountain region from the south in 1540. The introduction of the horse, metal tools, rifles, new diseases, and different cultures profoundly changed the Native American cultures. Native American populations were extirpated from most of their historical ranges by disease, warfare, habitat loss (eradication of the bison), and continued assaults on their culture.
In 1739, French fur traders Pierre and Paul Mallet, while journeying through the Great Plains, discovered a range of mountains at the headwaters of the Platte River, which local American Indian tribes called the "Rockies '', becoming the first Europeans to report on this uncharted mountain range.
Sir Alexander MacKenzie (1764 -- March 11, 1820) became the first European to cross the Rocky Mountains in 1793. He found the upper reaches of the Fraser River and reached the Pacific coast of what is now Canada on July 20 of that year, completing the first recorded transcontinental crossing of North America north of Mexico. He arrived at Bella Coola, British Columbia, where he first reached saltwater at South Bentinck Arm, an inlet of the Pacific Ocean.
The Lewis and Clark Expedition (1804 -- 1806) was the first scientific reconnaissance of the Rocky Mountains. Specimens were collected for contemporary botanists, zoologists, and geologists. The expedition was said to have paved the way to (and through) the Rocky Mountains for European - Americans from the East, although Lewis and Clark met at least 11 European - American mountain men during their travels.
Mountain men, primarily French, Spanish, and British, roamed the Rocky Mountains from 1720 to 1800 seeking mineral deposits and furs. The fur - trading North West Company established Rocky Mountain House as a trading post in what is now the Rocky Mountain Foothills of present - day Alberta in 1799, and their business rivals the Hudson 's Bay Company established Acton House nearby. These posts served as bases for most European activity in the Canadian Rockies in the early 19th century. Among the most notable are the expeditions of David Thompson (explorer), who followed the Columbia River to the Pacific Ocean. On his 1811 expedition, he camped at the junction of the Columbia River and the Snake River and erected a pole and notice claiming the area for the United Kingdom and stating the intention of the North West Company to build a fort at the site.
By the Anglo - American Convention of 1818, which established the 49th parallel north as the international boundary west from Lake of the Woods to the "Stony Mountains ''; the UK and the USA agreed to what has since been described as "joint occupancy '' of lands further west to the Pacific Ocean. Resolution of the territorial and treaty issues, the Oregon dispute, was deferred until a later time.
In 1819, Spain ceded their rights north of the 42nd Parallel to the United States, though these rights did not include possession and also included obligations to Britain and Russia concerning their claims in the same region.
After 1802, American fur traders and explorers ushered in the first widespread Caucasian presence in the Rockies south of the 49th parallel. The more famous of these include Americans William Henry Ashley, Jim Bridger, Kit Carson, John Colter, Thomas Fitzpatrick, Andrew Henry, and Jedediah Smith. On July 24, 1832, Benjamin Bonneville led the first wagon train across the Rocky Mountains by using South Pass in the present State of Wyoming. Similarly, in the wake of Mackenzie 's 1793 expedition, fur trading posts were established west of the Northern Rockies in a region of the northern Interior Plateau of British Columbia which came to be known as New Caledonia, beginning with Fort McLeod (today 's community of McLeod Lake) and Fort Fraser, but ultimately focused on Stuart Lake Post (today 's Fort St. James).
Negotiations between the United Kingdom and the United States over the next few decades failed to settle upon a compromise boundary and the Oregon Dispute became important in geopolitical diplomacy between the British Empire and the new American Republic. In 1841 James Sinclair, Chief Factor of the Hudson 's Bay Company, guided some 200 settlers from the Red River Colony west to bolster settlement around Fort Vancouver in an attempt to retain the Columbia District for Britain. The party crossed the Rockies into the Columbia Valley, a region of the Rocky Mountain Trench near present - day Radium Hot Springs, British Columbia, then traveled south. Despite such efforts, in 1846, Britain ceded all claim to Columbia District lands south of the 49th parallel to the United States; as resolution to the Oregon boundary dispute by the Oregon Treaty.
Thousands passed through the Rocky Mountains on the Oregon Trail beginning in the 1840s. The Mormons began to settle near the Great Salt Lake in 1847. From 1859 to 1864, gold was discovered in Colorado, Idaho, Montana, and British Columbia, sparking several gold rushes bringing thousands of prospectors and miners to explore every mountain and canyon and to create the Rocky Mountains ' first major industry. The Idaho gold rush alone produced more gold than the California and Alaska gold rushes combined and was important in the financing of the Union Army during the American Civil War. The transcontinental railroad was completed in 1869, and Yellowstone National Park was established as the world 's first national park in 1872. Meanwhile, a transcontinental railroad in Canada was originally promised in 1871. Though political complications pushed its completion to 1885, the Canadian Pacific Railway eventually followed the Kicking Horse and Rogers Passes to the Pacific Ocean. Canadian railway officials also convinced Parliament to set aside vast areas of the Canadian Rockies as Jasper, Banff, Yoho, and Waterton Lakes National Parks, laying the foundation for a tourism industry which thrives to this day. Glacier National Park (MT) was established with a similar relationship to tourism promotions by the Great Northern Railway. While settlers filled the valleys and mining towns, conservation and preservation ethics began to take hold. U.S. President Harrison established several forest reserves in the Rocky Mountains in 1891 -- 92. In 1905, U.S. President Theodore Roosevelt extended the Medicine Bow Forest Reserve to include the area now managed as Rocky Mountain National Park. Economic development began to center on mining, forestry, agriculture, and recreation, as well as on the service industries that support them. Tents and camps became ranches and farms, forts and train stations became towns, and some towns became cities.
Economic resources of the Rocky Mountains are varied and abundant. Minerals found in the Rocky Mountains include significant deposits of copper, gold, lead, molybdenum, silver, tungsten, and zinc. The Wyoming Basin and several smaller areas contain significant reserves of coal, natural gas, oil shale, and petroleum. For example, the Climax mine, located near Leadville, Colorado, was the largest producer of molybdenum in the world. Molybdenum is used in heat - resistant steel in such things as cars and planes. The Climax mine employed over 3,000 workers. The Coeur d'Alene mine of northern Idaho produces silver, lead, and zinc. Canada 's largest coal mines are near Fernie, British Columbia and Sparwood, British Columbia; additional coal mines exist near Hinton, Alberta, and in the Northern Rockies surrounding Tumbler Ridge, British Columbia.
Abandoned mines with their wakes of mine tailings and toxic wastes dot the Rocky Mountain landscape. In one major example, eighty years of zinc mining profoundly polluted the river and bank near Eagle River in north - central Colorado. High concentrations of the metal carried by spring runoff harmed algae, moss, and trout populations. An economic analysis of mining effects at this site revealed declining property values, degraded water quality, and the loss of recreational opportunities. The analysis also revealed that cleanup of the river could yield $2.3 million in additional revenue from recreation. In 1983, the former owner of the zinc mine was sued by the Colorado Attorney General for the $4.8 million cleanup costs; five years later, ecological recovery was considerable.
The Rocky Mountains contain several sedimentary basins that are rich in coalbed methane. Coalbed methane is natural gas that arises from coal, either through bacterial action or through exposure to high temperature. Coalbed methane supplies 7 percent of the natural gas used in the United States. The largest coalbed methane sources in the Rocky Mountains are in the San Juan Basin in New Mexico and Colorado and the Powder River Basin in Wyoming. These two basins are estimated to contain 38 trillion cubic feet of gas. Coalbed methane can be recovered by dewatering the coal bed, and separating the gas from the water; or injecting water to fracture the coal to release the gas (so - called hydraulic fracturing).
Agriculture and forestry are major industries. Agriculture includes dryland and irrigated farming and livestock grazing. Livestock are frequently moved between high - elevation summer pastures and low - elevation winter pastures, a practice known as transhumance.
See also: List of U.S. Rocky Mountain ski resorts, List of Alberta ski resorts, List of B.C. ski resorts
Every year the scenic areas and recreational opportunities of the Rocky Mountains draw millions of tourists. The main language of the Rocky Mountains is English. But there are also linguistic pockets of Spanish and indigenous languages.
People from all over the world visit the sites to hike, camp, or engage in mountain sports. In the summer season, examples of tourist attractions are:
In the United States:
In Canada, the mountain range contains these national parks:
Glacier National Park in Montana and Waterton Lakes National Park in Alberta border each other and are collectively are known as Waterton - Glacier International Peace Park
In the winter, skiing is the main attraction, with dozens of Rocky Mountain ski areas and resorts.
The adjacent Columbia Mountains in British Columbia contain major resorts such as Panorama and Kicking Horse, as well as Mount Revelstoke National Park and Glacier National Park.
There are numerous provincial parks in the British Columbia Rockies, the largest and most notable being Mount Assiniboine Provincial Park, Mount Robson Provincial Park, Northern Rocky Mountains Provincial Park, Kwadacha Wilderness Provincial Park, Stone Mountain Provincial Park and Muncho Lake Provincial Park.
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when did diamonds are a girl's best friend come out | Diamonds Are a Girl 's Best Friend - wikipedia
"Diamonds Are a Girl 's Best Friend '' is a jazz song introduced by Carol Channing in the original Broadway production of Gentlemen Prefer Blondes (1949), which was written by Jule Styne and Leo Robin. It was based on a novel by Anita Loos.
The song is perhaps most famously performed by Marilyn Monroe in the 1953 film Gentlemen Prefer Blondes. Monroe 's character, Lorelei Lee, has been followed on a Transatlantic ocean liner by a detective hired by her fiancé 's father, who wants assurance that she is not marrying purely for money. He is informed of compromising pictures taken with a British diamond mine owner and cancels her letter of credit before she arrives in France, requiring her to work in a nightclub to survive. Her fiancé arrives at the cabaret to see her perform this song, about exploiting men for riches. Diamonds are an element in another story line in the film, in which Lorelei is given a diamond tiara by the mine owner, in gratitude for her recovering the photographs. In a later scene, Jane Russell, who played opposite Monroe, sang "Diamonds Are a Girl 's Best Friend '' in court, while pretending to be Lorelei.
Most of the song in the film is Monroe 's own voice but she needed help in two phrases -- "These rocks do n't lose their shape, diamonds are a girl 's best friend '', and at the beginning with a series of high - pitched "no 's '', all of which were dubbed in by the soprano Marni Nixon.
The number was later re-shot in CinemaScope, to be used as part of a CinemaScope demonstration held on the Fox lot in March 1953. Producer Darryl F. Zanuck told Daily Variety that it only took 3 - 1 / 2 hours to shoot the number in CinemaScope versus four days for the original film version. The public finally saw the CinemaScope version ten years later when it closed Fox 's documentary tribute to Marilyn, however this has not been released on DVD or VHS.
The song was listed as the 12th most important film song of all time by the American Film Institute.
Monroe 's rendition of the song has been considered an iconic performance and has since been copied by other entertainers ranging from Madonna and Kylie Minogue to Geri Halliwell and Anna Nicole Smith. Madonna 's video "Material Girl '' uses a similar set and costumes for the singer and her male dancers.
The song is also featured in the 2001 film Moulin Rouge!, in which it is sung principally by Nicole Kidman in the role of Satine, the (fictional) star performer of the famous Moulin Rouge nightclub in Paris, at the turn of the 20th century. This film version is technically a musical adaptation that director Baz Luhrmann titled "Sparkling Diamonds ''. Although it consists almost entirely of an adaptation of "Diamonds Are a Girl 's Best Friend '', this version differs from the lyrics in Gentlemen Prefer Blondes in several ways. For example, it does not include the name Harry Winston in the chant of famous jewelers; rather, Moulin Rouge founder Charles Zidler 's name was changed to Harold in the film, so his name replaces Winston 's in the song as "Harry Zidler ''. Black Starr & Frost - Gorham was known by that name only after 1925, but instead of using their 1875 - 1925 name of "Black Starr & Frost '', their name was replaced in the Luhrmann film by nonsense words (understood by many listeners as "Ross Cole; '' in the 2002 DVD release, the words printed in the text captioning are "Black Star, Roscor ''). And the potentially anachronistic line "help you at the Automat '' was altered in the Luhrmann film to "help you feed your pussycat. '' Additionally, a lyrical snippet from Madonna 's song "Material Girl '' was worked into this adaptation of the song.
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describe how temples served as the center of mesopotamian cities | Architecture of Mesopotamia - wikipedia
The architecture of Mesopotamia is ancient architecture of the region of the Tigris -- Euphrates river system (also known as Mesopotamia), encompassing several distinct cultures and spanning a period from the 10th millennium BC, when the first permanent structures were built, to the 6th century BC. Among the Mesopotamian architectural accomplishments are the development of urban planning, the courtyard house, and ziggurats. No architectural profession existed in Mesopotamia; however, scribes drafted and managed construction for the government, nobility, or royalty.
Sumerian masonry was usually mortarless although bitumen was sometimes used. Brick styles, which varied greatly over time, are categorized by period.
The favored design was rounded bricks, which are somewhat unstable, so Mesopotamian bricklayers would lay a row of bricks perpendicular to the rest every few rows. The advantages to plano - convex bricks were the speed of manufacture as well as the irregular surface which held the finishing plaster coat better than a smooth surface from other brick types.
Bricks were sun baked to harden them. These types of bricks are much less durable than oven - baked ones so buildings eventually deteriorated. They were periodically destroyed, leveled, and rebuilt on the same spot. This planned structural life cycle gradually raised the level of cities, so that they came to be elevated above the surrounding plain. The resulting mounds are known as tells, and are found throughout the ancient Near East. Civic buildings slowed decay by using cones of colored stone, terracotta panels, and clay nails driven into the adobe - brick to create a protective sheath that decorated the façade. Specially prized were imported building materials such as cedar from Lebanon, diorite from Arabia, and lapis lazuli from India.
Babylonian temples are massive structures of crude brick, supported by buttresses, the rain being carried off by drains. One such drain at Ur was made of lead. The use of brick led to the early development of the pilaster and column, and of frescoes and enamelled tiles. The walls were brilliantly colored, and sometimes plated with zinc or gold, as well as with tiles. Painted terra - cotta cones for torches were also embedded in the plaster. Assyria, imitating Babylonian architecture, also built its palaces and temples of brick, even when stone was the natural building material of the country -- faithfully preserving the brick platform, necessary in the marshy soil of Babylonia, but little needed in the north.
As time went on, however, later Assyrian architects began to shake themselves free of Babylonian influence, and to use stone as well as brick. The walls of Assyrian palaces were lined with sculptured and coloured slabs of stone, instead of being painted as in Chaldea. Three stages may be traced in the art of these bas - reliefs: it is vigorous but simple under Ashurnasirpal II, careful and realistic under Sargon II, and refined but wanting in boldness under Ashurbanipal.
In Babylonia, in place of the bas relief, there is greater use of three - dimensional figures in the round -- the earliest examples being the statues from Girsu, that are realistic if somewhat clumsy. The paucity of stone in Babylonia made every pebble precious, and led to a high perfection in the art of gem - cutting. Two seal - cylinders from the age of Sargon of Akkad are among the best examples of their kind. One of the first remarkable specimens of early metallurgy to be discovered by archaeologists is the silver vase of Entemena. At a later epoch, great excellence was attained in the manufacture of such jewellery as earrings and bracelets of gold. Copper, too, was worked with skill; indeed, it is possible that Babylonia was the original home of copper - working.
The people were famous at an early date for their embroideries and rugs. The forms of Assyrian pottery are graceful; the porcelain, like the glass discovered in the palaces of Nineveh, was derived from Egyptian models. Transparent glass seems to have been first introduced in the reign of Sargon. Stone, clay and glass were used to make vases, and vases of hard stone have been dug up at Girsu similar to those of the early dynastic period of Egypt.
The study of ancient Mesopotamian architecture is based on available archaeological evidence, pictorial representation of buildings, and texts on building practices. According to Archibald Sayce, the primitive pictograms of the Uruk period era suggest that "Stone was scarce, but was already cut into blocks and seals. Brick was the ordinary building material, and with it cities, forts, temples and houses were constructed. The city was provided with towers and stood on an artificial platform; the house also had a tower - like appearance. It was provided with a door which turned on a hinge, and could be opened with a sort of key; the city gate was on a larger scale, and seems to have been double... Demons were feared who had wings like a bird, and the foundation stones -- or rather bricks -- of a house were consecrated by certain objects that were deposited under them. ''
Scholarly literature usually concentrates on the architecture of temples, palaces, city walls and gates, and other monumental buildings, but occasionally one finds works on residential architecture as well. Archaeological surface surveys also allowed for the study of urban form in early Mesopotamian cities.
The Sumerians were the first society to construct the city itself as a built form. They were proud of this achievement as attested in the Epic of Gilgamesh which opens with a description of Uruk -- its walls, streets, markets, temples, and gardens. Uruk itself is significant as the center of an urban culture which both colonized and urbanized western Asia.
The construction of cities was the end product of trends which began in the Neolithic Revolution. The growth of the city was partly planned and partly organic. Planning is evident in the walls, high temple district, main canal with harbor, and main street. The finer structure of residential and commercial spaces is the reaction of economic forces to the spatial limits imposed by the planned areas resulting in an irregular design with regular features. Because the Sumerians recorded real estate transactions it is possible to reconstruct much of the urban growth pattern, density, property value, and other metrics from cuneiform text sources.
The typical city divided space into residential, mixed use, commercial, and civic spaces. The residential areas were grouped by profession. At the core of the city was a high temple complex always sited slightly off of the geographical center. This high temple usually predated the founding of the city and was the nucleus around which the urban form grew. The districts adjacent to gates had a special religious and economic function.
The city always included a belt of irrigated agricultural land including small hamlets. A network of roads and canals connected the city to this land. The transportation network was organized in three tiers: wide processional streets (Akkadian: sūqu ilāni u šarri), public through streets (Akkadian: sūqu nišī), and private blind alleys (Akkadian: mūṣû). The public streets that defined a block varied little over time while the blind - alleys were much more fluid. The current estimate is 10 % of the city area was streets and 90 % buildings. The canals; however, were more important than roads for good transportation.
The materials used to build a Mesopotamian house were similar but not exact as those used today: mud brick, mud plaster and wooden doors, which were all naturally available around the city, although wood was not common in some cities of Sumer. Most houses had a square center room with other rooms attached to it, but a great variation in the size and materials used to build the houses suggest they were built by the inhabitants themselves. The smallest rooms may not have coincided with the poorest people; in fact, it could be that the poorest people built houses out of perishable materials such as reeds on the outside of the city, but there is very little direct evidence for this.
Residential design was a direct development from Ubaid houses. Although Sumerian cylinder seals depict reed houses, the courtyard house was the predominant typology, which has been used in Mesopotamia to the present day. This house called é (Cuneiform: 𒂍, E; Sumerian: e; Akkadian: bītu) faced inward toward an open courtyard which provided a cooling effect by creating convection currents. This courtyard called tarbaṣu (Akkadian) was the primary organizing feature of the house, all the rooms opened into it. The external walls were featureless with only a single opening connecting the house to the street. Movement between the house and street required a 90 ° turn through a small antechamber. From the street only the rear wall of the antechamber would be visible through an open door, likewise there was no view of the street from the courtyard. The Sumerians had a strict division of public and private spaces. The typical size for a Sumerian house was 90 m.
The palace came into existence during the Early Dynastic I period. From a rather modest beginning the palace grows in size and complexity as power is increasingly centralized. The palace is called a ' Big House ' (Cuneiform: E. GAL Sumerian e-gal Akkdian: ekallu) where the lugal or ensi lived and worked.
The palaces of the early Mesopotamian elites were large - scale complexes, and were often lavishly decorated. Earliest known examples are from the Diyala River valley sites such as Khafajah and Tell Asmar. These third millennium BC palaces functioned as large - scale socio - economic institutions, and therefore, along with residential and private functions, they housed craftsmen workshops, food storehouses, ceremonial courtyards, and are often associated with shrines. For instance, the so - called "giparu '' (or Gig - Par - Ku in Sumerian) at Ur where the Moon god Nanna 's priestesses resided was a major complex with multiple courtyards, a number of sanctuaries, burial chambers for dead priestesses, and a ceremonial banquet hall. A similarly complex example of a Mesopotamian palace was excavated at Mari in Syria, dating from the Old Babylonian period.
Assyrian palaces of the Iron Age, especially at Kalhu / Nimrud, Dur Sharrukin / Khorsabad and Ninuwa / Nineveh, have become famous due to the Assyrian palace reliefs, extensive pictorial and textual narrative programs on their walls, all carved on stone slabs known as orthostats. These pictorial programs either incorporated cultic scenes or the narrative accounts of the kings ' military and civic accomplishments. Gates and important passageways were flanked with massive stone sculptures of apotropaic mythological figures, lamassu and winged genies. The architectural arrangement of these Iron Age palaces were also organized around large and small courtyards. Usually the king 's throne room opened to a massive ceremonial courtyard where important state councils met and state ceremonies were performed.
Massive amounts of ivory furniture pieces were found in some Assyrian palaces pointing to an intense trade relationship with North Syrian Neo-Hittite states at the time. Bronze repousse bands decorated the wooden gates of major buildings, but were mostly looted at the fall of the empire; the Balawat Gates are the principal survivors.
Temples often predated the creation of the urban settlement and grew from small one room structures to elaborate multiacre complexes across the 2,500 years of Sumerian history. Sumerian temples, fortifications, and palaces made use of more advanced materials and techniques, such as buttresses, recesses, and half columns. Chronologically, Sumerian temples evolved from earlier Ubaid temples. As the temple decayed it was ritually destroyed and a new temple built on its foundations. The successor temple was larger and more articulated than its predecessor temple. The evolution of the E. abzu temple at Eridu is a frequently cited case - study of this process. Many temples had inscriptions engraved into them, such as the one at Tell Uqair. Palaces and city walls came much later after temples in the Early Dynastic Period.
The form of a Sumerian temple is manifestation of Near Eastern cosmology, which described the world as a disc of land which was surrounded by a salt water ocean, both of which floated on another sea of fresh water called apsu, above them was a hemispherical firmament which regulated time. A world mountain formed an axis mundi that joined all three layers. The role of the temple was to act as that axis mundi, a meeting place between gods and men. The sacredness of ' high places ' as a meeting point between realms is a pre-Ubaid belief well attested in the Near East back the Neolithic age. The plan of the temple was rectangular with the corners pointing in cardinal directions to symbolize the four rivers which flow from the mountain to the four world regions. The orientation also serves a more practical purpose of using the temple roof as an observatory for Sumerian timekeeping. The temple was built on a low terrace of rammed earth meant to represent the sacred mound of primordial land which emerged from the water called dukug, ' pure mound ' (Sumerian: du - ku Cuneiform:) during creation.
The doors of the long axis were the entry point for the gods, and the doors of the short axis the entry point for men. This configuration was called the bent axis approach, as anyone entering would make a ninety degree turn to face the cult statue at the end of the central hall. The bent axis approach is an innovation from the Ubaid temples which had a linear axis approach, and is also a feature of Sumerian houses. An offering table was located in the center of the temple at the intersection of the axes.
Temples of the Uruk Period divided the temple rectangle into tripartite, T - shaped, or combined plans. The tripartite plan inherited from the Ubaid had a large central hall with two smaller flanking halls on either side. The entry was along the short axis and the shrine was at the end of the long axis. The T - shaped plan, also from the Ubaid period, was identical to the tripartite plan except for a hall at one end of the rectangle perpendicular to the main hall. Temple C from the Eanna district of Uruk is a case - study of classical temple form.
There was an explosion of diversity in temple design during the following Early Dynastic Period. The temples still retained features such as cardinal orientation, rectangular plans, and buttresses. Now however they took on a variety new configurations including courtyards, walls, basins, and barracks. The Sin Temple in Khafajah is typical of this era, as it was designed around a series of courtyards leading to a cella.
The high temple was a special type of temple that was home to the patron god of the city. Functionally, it served as a storage and distribution center as well as housing the priesthood. The White Temple of Anu in Uruk is typical of a high temple which was built very high on a platform of adobe - brick. In the Early Dynastic period high temples began to include a ziggurat, a series of platforms creating a stepped pyramid. Such ziggurats may have been the inspiration for the Biblical Tower of Babel.
Ziggurats were huge pyramidal temple towers which were first built in Sumerian City - States and then developed in Babylonia and Assyrian cities as well. There are 32 ziggurats known at, or near, Mesopotamia -- 28 in Iraq and 4 in Iran. Notable ziggurats include the Great Ziggurat of Ur near Nasiriyah, Iraq, the Ziggurat of Aqar Quf near Baghdad, Iraq, Chogha Zanbil in Khūzestān, Iran (the most recent to be discovered), and the Sialk near Kashan, Iran. Ziggurats were built by the Sumerians, Babylonians, Elamites, and Assyrians as monuments to local religions. The earliest examples of the ziggurat were raised platforms that date from the Ubaid period during the fourth millennium BC, and the latest date from the 6th century BC. The top of the ziggurat was flat, unlike many pyramids. The step pyramid style began near the end of the Early Dynastic Period.
Built in receding tiers upon a rectangular, oval, or square platform, the ziggurat was a pyramidal structure. Sun - baked bricks made up the core of the ziggurat with facings of fired bricks on the outside. The facings were often glazed in different colors and may have had astrological significance. Kings sometimes had their names engraved on these glazed bricks. The number of tiers ranged from two to seven, with a shrine or temple at the summit. Access to the shrine was provided by a series of ramps on one side of the ziggurat or by a spiral ramp from base to summit. It has been suggested that ziggurats were built to resemble mountains, but there is little textual or archaeological evidence to support that hypothesis.
Classical ziggurats emerged in the Neo-Sumerian Period with articulated buttresses, vitreous brick sheathing, and entasis in the elevation. The Ziggurat of Ur is the best example of this style. Another change in temple design in this period was a straight as opposed to bent - axis approach to the temple.
Ur - Nammu 's ziggurat at Ur was designed as a three - stage construction, but today only two of these survive. This entire mudbrick core structure was originally given a facing of baked brick envelope set in bitumen, 2.5 m on the first lowest stage, and 1.15 m on the second. Each of these baked bricks were stamped with the name of the king. The sloping walls of the stages were buttressed. The access to the top was by means of a triple monumental staircase, which all converges at a portal that opened on a landing between the first and second stages. The height of the first stage was about 11 m while the second stage rose some 5.7 m. Usually, a third stage is reconstructed by the excavator of the ziggurat (Leonard Woolley), and crowned by a temple. At the C hogha Zanbil ziggurat, archaeologists have found massive reed ropes that ran across the core of the ziggurat structure and tied together the mudbrick mass.
The most notable architectural remains from early Mesopotamia are the temple complexes at Uruk from the 4th millennium BC, temples and palaces from the Early Dynastic period sites in the Diyala River valley such as Khafajah and Tell Asmar, the Third Dynasty of Ur remains at Nippur (Sanctuary of Enlil) and Ur (Sanctuary of Nanna), Middle Bronze Age remains at Syrian - Turkish sites of Ebla, Mari, Alalakh, Aleppo and Kultepe, Late Bronze Age palaces at Bogazkoy (Hattusha), Ugarit, Ashur and Nuzi, Iron Age palaces and temples at Assyrian (Kalhu / Nimrud, Khorsabad, Nineveh), Babylonian (Babylon), Urartian (Tushpa / Van, Haykaberd, Ayanis, Armavir, Erebuni, Bastam) and Neo-Hittite sites (Karkamis, Tell Halaf, Karatepe). Houses are mostly known from Old Babylonian remains at Nippur and Ur. Among the textual sources on building construction and associated rituals are Gudea 's cylinders from the late 3rd millennium are notable, as well as the Assyrian and Babylonian royal inscriptions from the Iron Age.
The plans of all the Assyrian buildings are rectangular, and we know that long ago, as now, the Eastern architects used this outline almost invariably, and upon it reared some of the most lovely and varied forms ever devised. They gather over the angles by graceful curves, and on the basis of an ordinary square hall carry up a minaret or a dome, an octagon or a circle. That this was sometimes done in Assyria is shown by the sculptures. Slabs from Kouyunjik show domes of varied form, and tower - like structures, each rising from a square base. The resemblance between the ancient form of the dome and those still used in the Assyrian villages is very striking. Whether sloping roofs were used is uncertain. Mr. Bonomi believes that they were, and a few sculptures seem to support his view. Of the private houses nothing, of course, remains; but they are represented on the slabs as being of several stories in height, the ground floor as usual having only a door and no windows. All have flat roofs, and we gather from one of the bas - reliefs, which represents a town on fire, that these roofs were made, just as they now are, with thick layers of earth on strong beams. These roofs are well - nigh fireproof, and the flames are represented as stopped by them, and coming out of the windows. No remains of a window, or, so far as we are aware, of an internal staircase, have been found.
Of the fortifications we know much more. In the north wall of Nimroud fifty - eight towers have been traced, and at Kouyunjik there are large remains of three walls, the lower part being of stone, and the upper of sun - dried bricks. At Khorsabad there are the remains of a wall, still 40 feet (12 m) high, built of blocks of stone 3 to 4 feet (1.2 m) thick, and the evidences wanting as to finishing of these is completely supplied by the sculptures, which show an extraordinary resemblance to medieval works of the same class. Tier upon tier of walls are represented, enclosing a great tower or keep in the centre. The entrances are great arched gateways flanked by square towers. These and the other towers have overhanging parapets just like the mediaeval machicolations, and are finished at top with battlements, remains of which have been found at Nimrud and Kouyunjik, and at Assur, the capital of Assyria before Nineveh.
Of temples distinct from the palace we have a few supposed remains, but little is absolutely known as to their general form.
But in Chaldea there are some enormous masses of ruins, evidently remains of the vast mounds which formed the substructure of their temples. The grandest of all these and the most interesting is the temple of Nabû at Borsippa (now Birs Nimrod), near Babylon, which has been identified as the temple of the Seven Spheres. This was reconstructed by Nebuchadnezzar, as appears by a well - known inscription. Another example is at Mugheir, which was 198 feet (60 m) by 133 feet (41 m) at the base, and is even now 70 feet (21 m) high, and it is clear that both it and the Birs were built with diminishing stages, presenting a series of grand platforms, decreasing in length as they ascended, and leaving a comparatively small one at top for the temple cell. This has been found, it is supposed, at the Birs Nimroud, of vitrified brick made in ancient ovens.
Text sources indicate open space planning was a part of the city from the earliest times. The description of Uruk in the Epic of Gilgamesh tells of one third of that city set aside for orchards. Similar planned open space is found at the one fifth enclosure of Nippur. Another important landscape element was the vacant lot (Akkadian: kišubbû).
External to the city, Sumerian irrigation agriculture created some of the first garden forms in history. The garden (sar) was 144 square cubits with a perimeter canal. This form of the enclosed quadrangle was the basis for the later paradise gardens of Persia.
In Mesopotamia, the use of fountains date as far back as the 3rd millennium BC. An early example is preserved in a carved Babylonian basin, dating back to circa 3000 B.C., found at Girsu, Lagash. An ancient Assyrian fountain "discovered in the gorge of the Comel River consists of basins cut in solid rock and descending in steps to the stream. '' The water was led from small conduits.
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describe the various political group in the legislative assembly | National Legislative Assembly (France) - wikipedia
The Legislative Assembly (French: Assemblée législative) was the legislature of France from 1 October 1791 to 20 September 1792 during the years of the French Revolution. It provided the focus of political debate and revolutionary law - making between the periods of the National Constituent Assembly and of the National Convention.
The National Constituent Assembly dissolved itself on 28 September 1791. Upon Maximilien Robespierre 's motion, it had decreed that none of its members would be eligible to the next legislature. Its successor body, the Legislative Assembly, operating over the liberal French Constitution of 1791, lasted until 20 September 1792, when the National Convention was established
The elections of 1791, held by census franchise, brought in a legislature that desired to carry the Revolution further. Prominent in the legislature were the Jacobin Club and its affiliated societies throughout France.
The Legislative Assembly first met on 1 October 1791. It consisted of 745 members, mostly from the middle class. The members were generally young and since none had sat in the previous Assembly, they largely lacked national political experience. They tended to be people who had made their name through successful political careers in local politics.
The rightists within the assembly consisted of about 260 Feuillants, whose chief leaders, Gilbert du Motier de La Fayette and Antoine Barnave, remained outside the House because of their ineligibility for re-election. They were staunch constitutional monarchists, firm in their defence of the king against the popular agitation.
The leftists were of 136 Jacobins (still including the party later known as the Girondins or Girondists) and Cordeliers. Its most famous leaders were Jacques Pierre Brissot, the philosopher Condorcet and Pierre Victurnien Vergniaud. The Left drew its inspiration from the more radical tendency of the Enlightenment, regarded the émigré nobles as traitors and espoused anticlericalism. They were suspicious of Louis XVI, some of them favoring a general European war, both to spread the new ideals of liberty and equality and to put the king 's loyalty to the test.
The remainder of the House, 345 deputies, generally belonged to no definite party. They were called "the Marsh '' (Le Marais) or "the Plain '' (La Plaine). They were committed to the ideals of the Revolution, hence generally inclined to side with the Left, but would also occasionally back proposals from the Right.
The king 's ministers, named by him and excluded from the Assembly, are described by the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica as "mostly persons of little mark ''.
The 27 August 1791 Declaration of Pillnitz already threatened France with attack by its neighbors. King Louis XVI favored war hoping to exploit a military defeat to restore his absolute power -- the Assembly was leaning toward war and to spread the ideals of the Revolution. This led in April 1792 to the first of the French Revolutionary Wars.
The king vetoed many of the Assembly 's bills throughout its existence such as these:
Louis XVI formed a series of cabinets, veering at times as far - left as the Girondins. However, by the summer of 1792, amid war and insurrection, it had become clear that the monarchy and the now - dominant Jacobins could not reach any accommodation. On 11 July 1792, the Assembly formally declared the nation in danger because of the dire military situation.
On 9 August 1792, a new revolutionary Commune took possession of Hôtel de Ville and early on the morning of 10 August the insurgents assailed the Tuileries, where the royal family resided. Louis and his family sought asylum with the Legislative Assembly.
The Assembly stripped Louis, suspected of intelligence with the enemy, of all his royal functions and prerogatives. The king and his family were subsequently imprisoned in the Temple. On 10 August 1792, a resolution is adopted to summon a new National Convention, to be elected by universal suffrage.
Many who had sat in the National Constituent Assembly and many more who had sat in the Legislative Assembly were re-elected. The Convention met on 20 September 1792 and became the new government of France.
There were numerous reforms passed by the Legislative Assembly that addressed various topics including divorce, émigrés and the clergy.
The Legislative Assembly implemented new reforms to help create a society of independent individuals with equal rights. These reforms included new legislation about divorce, government control over registration and inheritance rights for children. The registration of births, marriages and deaths became a function under the government instead of the Catholic Church. The new laws introduced adoption and gave illegitimate children inheritance rights equal to those of legitimate children. Before 1791, divorces could only be granted for adultery and other violations of the marriage contract, but under the new reform a couple could also get divorced if they met one or more of the following:
The new divorce laws were not sexually discriminatory as both the man and woman had the right to file for a divorce -- the women petitioned for the most divorce decrees.
The émigrés, mainly members of the nobility and public office who fled France after the events of the Revolution turned violent, were a major focus of the Legislative Assembly. In their decree on 9 November 1791, the Legislative Assembly established a three - class hierarchy of émigrés as well as the punishments that would correspond with each class. The first class was composed of the princes and other people of high birth who "formed (emigration 's) rallying point and controlled both its recruiting in France and its organization abroad ''.
The second class was composed of officials in public office, soldiers and other members of society with less organizational clout than members of the nobility yet more influence than the common people. The third and final class of recognized émigrés encompassed the average French citizens who left France yet commanded little to no direct influence over emigration proceedings.
In twelve articles, the decree outlined the economic and political punishments of the first and second classes -- particularly assigning deadlines by which time emigration would be classified as an act of treason. Article 3 dictated that first class émigrés still abroad after 1 January would be "impeached for treason and punished with death '' and articles 6 through 10 imposed a loss of position, salary, and even citizenship for second class émigrés still abroad after 14 September. Along with the declaration that emigration could result in the loss of active citizenship, article 6 established the Assembly 's right to sequester first class émigrés ' revenues and article 11 classified émigré soldiers as deserters.
As the Legislative Assembly considered third class émigrés to be faultless victims of trickery and seduction by the other two classes, the legislators ' decree explicitly avoided issuing punitive measures against third class émigrés -- whereas the other classes were to be financially and socially punished, third class émigrés were to be treated with "sympathy and understanding ''. The émigrés decree was vetoed by the king three days later.
The laws regarding the clergy were mostly made in response to a reform passed by the National Assembly in July 1790, known as the Civil Constitution of the Clergy. In this decree, the National Assembly took the power to appoint bishops and curés away from the king. Many members of the Catholic clergy objected to this ruling. In response, the National Assembly required a public oath of fidelity from the clergy if they wanted to retain their positions in the Catholic Church.
This decision was not well received by a substantial portion of the clergy, which is why the Legislative Assembly felt it was necessary to address the issue. Those unwilling to take the oath were known as non-juring members. On 29 November 1791, the Legislative Assembly decreed that any who refused to take the oath were committing a political crime and were liable to punishments including loss of pension and expulsion from their homes in the event of religious disturbances.
The Legislative Assembly was driven by two opposing groups. The members of the first group were conservative members of the bourgeoisie (wealthy middle class in the Third Estate) that favored a constitutional monarchy, represented by the Feuillants, who felt that the revolution had already achieved its goal. The other group was the democratic faction, for whom the king could no longer be trusted, represented by the new members of the Jacobin Club that claimed that more revolutionary measures were necessary.
Independent Feuillants Club Jacobin Club
This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Montague, Francis Charles (1911). "French Revolution, The ''. In Chisholm, Hugh. Encyclopædia Britannica. 11 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.
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who used guerilla warfare in the vietnam war | History of guerrilla warfare - wikipedia
The history of guerrilla warfare stretches back to ancient history. While guerrilla tactics can be viewed as a natural continuation of prehistoric warfare, the Chinese general and strategist Sun Tzu, in his The Art of War (6th century BCE), was the earliest to propose the use of guerrilla warfare. This directly inspired the development of modern guerrilla warfare.; Communist leaders like Mao Zedong and North Vietnamese Ho Chi Minh both implemented guerrilla warfare in the style of Sun Tzu, which served as a model for similar strategies elsewhere, such as the Cuban "foco '' theory and the anti-Soviet Mujahadeen in Afghanistan. While the tactics of modern guerrilla warfare originate in the 20th century, irregular warfare, using elements later characteristic of modern guerrilla warfare, has existed throughout the battles of many ancient civilizations.
The Chinese general and strategist Sun Tzu, in his The Art of War (6th century BC), was one of the first proponents of the use of guerrilla warfare. The earliest description of guerrilla warfare is an alleged battle between Emperor Huang and the Miao in China. Guerrilla warfare was not unique to China; nomadic and migratory tribes such as the Scythians, Goths, Vandals, and Huns used elements of guerrilla warfare to fight the Persian Empire, the Roman Empire, and Alexander the Great. Quintus Fabius Maximus Verrucosus, widely regarded as the "father of guerrilla warfare '' of his time, devised the Fabian strategy which was used to great effect against Hannibal Barca 's army. Guerrilla warfare was also a common strategy of the various Celtic, Iberian and Germanic tribes that the Romans faced. Caratacus, the British war chief, employed guerrilla warfare against the Romans for approximately 8 years, mixed in with occasional set piece battles. Despite ultimately being captured by the Romans, Tacitus writes that many Romans respected him. Other leaders of the time who employed guerrilla warfare to some effect included Viriathus, Arminius and Vercingetorix. In the Classic Ancient world, this kind of warfare was indirectly mentioned by the Greeks in Homeric stories, but usually as hit and run acts of foraging or booty in enemy territory, pretty much as later Vikings piracy. The Romans and Carthaginians learned of these tactics more as intended warfare by the Iberians before Viriathus and Hamilcar Barca in campaigns in Sicily against them.
During the Mongol invasion of Europe, guerrilla warfare and stiff resistance helped many Europeans, particularly those at Croatia and Dzurdzuketia, in preventing the Mongols from setting a permanent hold of their territory and driving them off. In the 15th century, Vietnamese leader Lê Lợi launched a guerrilla war against Chinese.
One of the most successful guerrilla wars was led by George Kastrioti Skanderbeg against the invading Ottomans. In 1443 he rallied Albanian forces and drove the Turks from his homeland. Skanderbeg fought a guerrilla war against invading armies up to 20 times larger than his, by using the mountainous terrain to his advantage. He harassed the vast Ottoman army with small "hit and run '' units, as well as using feint retreats followed by sudden counterattacks, and other tactics unknown in warfare up to then. For 25 years Skanderbeg kept the Turks from retaking Albania, which due to its proximity to Italy, could easily have served as a springboard to the rest of Europe.
In 1462, the Ottomans were driven back by Wallachian prince Vlad III Dracula. Vlad was unable to stop the Turks from entering Wallachia, so he resorted to guerrilla war, constantly organizing small attacks and ambushes on the Turks. During The Deluge in Poland guerrilla tactics were applied. In the 100 years war between England and France, commander Bertrand du Guesclin used guerrilla tactics to pester the English invaders. The Frisian warlord and freedom fighter Pier Gerlofs Donia fought a guerrilla against Philip I of Castile and with his co-commander Wijerd Jelckama against Charles V.
During the Dutch Revolt of the 16th century, the Geuzen waged a guerrilla war against the Spanish Empire. During the Scanian War, a pro-Danish guerrilla group known as the Snapphane fought against the Swedes. Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj started guerrilla warfare against the Mughals and other powers in 1645 leading to establishment of the Maratha state in 1674, sowing seeds of what would become the last great empire (Maratha empire) in free India. In 17th century Ireland, Irish irregulars called tories and rapparees used guerrilla warfare in the Irish Confederate Wars and the Williamite war in Ireland. Finnish guerrillas, sissis, fought against Russian occupation troops in the Great Northern War, 1710 -- 1721. The Russians retaliated brutally against the civilian populace; the period is called Isoviha (Grand Hatred) in Finland.
In North America, one of the earliest recorded instances of guerrilla warfare was Apalachee resistance to the Spanish during the Narváez expedition in 1528 in present - day Florida.
In the mid 17th century the Colonists of New France were in conflict with the Iroquois Confederacy. Iroquois forces used hit and run tactics, harassment and avoided costly pitched battles. The colonists of New France began calling these Indian tactics La Petite Guerre because the tactics were meant for raiding as opposed to pitched battles. Under the tutelage of Wendake, Wobanaki, Algonquin and Ottawa tutors the habitants of New France learned La Petite Guerre and successfully used them against the Iroquois.
Led by Major Benjamin Church, New Englanders had also been adopting Indian scouting and raiding tactics since King Philip 's War. Throughout the four French and Indian Wars, starting in the late 17th century Canadiens, the Wabanaki Confederacy, and some Acadians brought La Petite Guerre to New England and the Ohio Valley. In present - day Maine, Father Sebastian Rale led the Wabanaki Confederacy in a petite guerre along the New England / Acadia border. A generation later, in Nova Scotia, Father Jean - Louis Le Loutre led the Mi'kmaq and the Acadians in a petite guerre behind Anglo - American lines in the lead up to the last French and Indian War.
During the French and Indian War La Petite Guerre came to front stage when the Ohio valley Indians defeated Braddock 's expedition near the forks of the Ohio in the Battle of the Monongahela. In Nova Scotia, French Officer Charles Deschamps de Boishébert led the Mi'kmaq and the Acadians in a guerrilla war while the British expelled the Acadians from the region. In the Northeast, a New Hampshire backwoodsman, Robert Rogers, began to make a stir in the British military establishment for his success using the tactics of the "little war ''. British military leaders like Jeffery Amherst, John Forbes and Henry Bouquet understood they needed to learn and adopt the techniques and tactics of the little war, or be consumed, like Braddock. The British military establishment began adopting some of the tactics of La Petite Guerre as "light infantry. ''
Although many of the engagements of the American Revolution were conventional, guerrilla warfare was used to a certain extent during this conflict from 1775 -- 1783, which made a significant impact. Guerrilla tactics were first used at the Battles of Lexington and Concord by the Patriots at April 19, 1775. George Washington sometimes used some sort of unconventional methods to fight the British. During the Forage War, George Washington sent militia units with limited Continental Army support to launch raids and ambushes on British detachments and forage parties, the militia and Continental Army support would skirmish with British detachments in small scale battles and engagements. Throughout the Forage War, British casualties exceeded past 900. The Forage War raised morale for the Patriots as their guerrilla operations against the British were very effective. Next, there are other Americans that used hit and run raids, ambushes, and surprise attacks against the British such as William R. Davie, David Wooster, Francis Marion, Shadrach Inman, Daniel Morgan, Morgan 's riflemen, and the Overmountain Men. All these American guerrilla fighters did their part by using unconventional tactics to fight the British and loyalists. Nathanael Greene used a guerrilla strategy very effectively against Lord Cornwallis. First, Nathanael Greene would keep retreating to lure the British far from their supply lines, then send out his forces to fight in small skirmishes and engagements with British detachments to weaken them. Then fighting the conventional battle, Nathanael Greene fought Lord Cornwallis at Guilford Court House and gave him a severe blow. Although Lord Cornwallis was the victor, his victory was pyrrhic as he had too many casualties that he could ill afford. After the British surrender at Yorktown and America gaining their independence, many of these Americans who used guerrilla tactics and strategies became immortalized and romanticized as time passed. Although guerrilla warfare was frequently used when avoiding battles, the Americans fought in conventional linear formations in decisive battles against the British. The American Revolution could be seen as a hybrid war since both conventional and guerrilla warfare were used throughout its duration.
From 1793 -- 1796 a revolt broke out against the French Revolution by Catholic royalists in the Department of the Vendée. This movement was intended to oppose the persecution endured by the Roman Catholic Church in revolutionary France (see Dechristianisation of France during the French Revolution # The Revolution and the Church) and ultimately to restore the monarchy. Though ill - equipped and untrained in conventional military tactics, the Vendéan counter-revolution, known as the "Royal Catholic Army, '' relied heavily on guerrilla tactics, taking full advantage of their intimate knowledge of the marsh filled, heavily forested countryside. Though the Revolt in the Vendée was eventually "pacified '' by government troops, their successes against the larger, better equipped republican army were notable.
Works such as "La Vendée '' by Anthony Trollope, G.A. Henty 's "No Surrender! A Tale of Rising in the Vendée '' detail the history of the revolt.
The Hawkesbury and Nepean Wars (1790 -- 1816), the first of the Australian Frontier Wars, were a series of conflicts between the New South Wales Corps and the Indigenous Australians of the Hawkesbury river and Nepean river in Sydney, Australia. The local Darug people raided farms until Governor Macquarie dispatched troops from the British Army 46th Regiment in 1816. They were fought using mostly guerrilla - warfare tactics; however, several conventional battles also took place. Indigenous Australians led by Pemulwuy, a resistance leader, also conducted raids around Parramatta, a western suburb in Sydney, during the period between 1795 and 1802. These attacks led Governor Philip Gidley King to issue an order in 1801 which authorised settlers to shoot Indigenous Australians on sight in Parramatta, Georges River and Prospect areas. The wars resulted in the defeat of the Hawkesbury river and Nepean river Indigenous clans who were subsequently dispossessed of their lands.
"Wherever we arrived, they disappeared, whenever we left, they arrived -- they were everywhere and nowhere, they had no tangible center which could be attacked. ''
In the Napoleonic Wars many of the armies lived off the land. This often led to some resistance by the local population if the army did not pay fair prices for produce they consumed. Usually this resistance was sporadic, and not very successful, so it is not classified as guerrilla action. There are three notable exceptions, though:
In Napoleon 's invasion of Russia of 1812 two actions could be seen as initiating guerrilla tactics. The burning of Moscow after it had been occupied by Napoleon 's Grand Army, depriving the French of shelter in the city, resembled guerrilla action insofar as it was an attack on the available resources rather than directly on the troops (and insofar as it was a Russian action rather than an inadvertent consequence of nineteenth - century troops ' camping in a largely abandoned city of wooden buildings). In a different sense, the imperial command that the Russian serfs should attack the French resembled guerrilla tactics in its reliance on partisans rather than army regulars. This did not so much spark a guerrilla war as encourage a revengeful slaughter of French deserters by Russian peasants. Meanwhile, Fieldmarshal Kutuzov permitted than - Hussar Lieutenant - Colonel Denis Davydov to open the Partisan War against the French communications. Davydov, Seslavin, Figner and others are since known in Russia as the ' Partisan Rangers of the Year ' 12 ' (Russian: Партизаны (Отечественной войны 18) ' 12 - го года). They were successful in their operations making the French troops unable to fight or even move, because of food and ammunition shortage, and not just because of the Russian Winter as is usually stated.
In the Peninsular War Spanish guerrillas tied down tens of thousands of French troops and killed hundreds of thousands. The continual losses of troops caused Napoleon to describe this conflict as his "Spanish ulcer ''. This was one of the most successful partisan wars in history and was where the word guerrilla was first used in this context. The Oxford English Dictionary lists Wellington as the oldest known source, speaking of "Guerrillas '' in 1809. Poet William Wordsworth showed a surprising early insight into guerrilla methods in his pamphlet on the Convention of Cintra:
This war saw British and Portuguese forces using Portugal as a secure position to launch campaigns against the French army, while Spanish guerrilleros bled the occupiers. Gates notes that much of the French army "was rendered unavailable for operations against Wellington because innumerable Spanish contingents kept materialising all over the country. In 1810, for example, when Massena invaded Portugal, the Imperial forces in the Peninsula totaled a massive 325,000 men, but only about one quarter of these could be spared for the offensive -- the rest were required to contain the Spanish insurgents and regulars. This was the greatest single contribution that the Spaniards were to make and, without it, Wellington could not have maintained himself on the continent for long -- let alone emerge victorious from the conflict ''. Combined, the regular and irregular allied forces prevented Napoleon 's Marshals from subduing the rebellious Spanish provinces.
Irregular warfare in the American Civil War followed the patterns of irregular warfare in 19th century Europe. Structurally, irregular warfare can be divided into three different types conducted during the Civil War: ' People 's War ', ' partisan warfare ', and ' raiding warfare '. The concept of ' People 's war, ' first described by Carl von Clausewitz in On War, was the closest example of a mass guerrilla movement in the era. In general, this type of irregular warfare was conducted in the hinterland of the Border States (Missouri, Arkansas, Tennessee, Kentucky, and northwestern Virginia), and was marked by a vicious neighbor - against - neighbor conflict. One such example was the opposing irregular forces operating in Missouri and northern Arkansas from 1862 to 1865, most of which were pro-Confederate or pro-Union in name only and preyed on civilians and isolated military forces of both sides with little regard of politics. From these semi-organized guerrillas, several groups formed and were given some measure of legitimacy by their governments. Quantrill 's Raiders, who terrorized pro-Union civilians and fought Federal troops in large areas of Missouri and Kansas, was one such unit. Another notorious unit, with debatable ties to the Confederate military, was led by Champ Ferguson along the Kentucky - Tennessee border. Ferguson became one of the only figures of Confederate cause to be executed after the war. Dozens of other small, localized bands terrorized the countryside throughout the border region during the war, bringing total war to the area that lasted until the end of the Civil War and, in some areas, beyond.
Partisan warfare, in contrast, more closely resembles Commando operations of the 20th century. Partisans were small units of conventional forces, controlled and organized by a military force for operations behind enemy lines. The 1862 Partisan Ranger Act passed by the Confederate Congress authorized the formation of these units and gave them legitimacy, which placed them in a different category than the common ' bushwhacker ' or ' guerrilla '. John Singleton Mosby formed a partisan unit which was very effective in tying down Federal forces behind Union lines in northern Virginia in the last two years of the war.
Lastly, deep raids by conventional cavalry forces were often considered ' irregular ' in nature. The "Partisan Brigades '' of Nathan Bedford Forrest and John Hunt Morgan operated as part of the cavalry forces of the Confederate Army of Tennessee in 1862 and 1863. They were given specific missions to destroy logistical hubs, railroad bridges, and other strategic targets to support the greater mission of the Army of Tennessee. By mid-1863, with the destruction of Morgan 's raiders during the Great Raid of 1863, the Confederacy conducted few deep cavalry raids in the latter years of the war, mostly because of the losses in experienced horsemen and the offensive operations of the Union army. Federal cavalry conducted several successful raids during the war but in general used their cavalry forces in a more conventional role. A good exception was the 1863 Grierson 's Raid, which did much to set the stage for General Ulysses S. Grant 's victory during the Vicksburg Campaign.
Federal counter-guerrilla operations were very successful in preventing the success of Confederate guerrilla warfare. In Arkansas, Federal forces used a wide variety of strategies to defeat irregulars. These included the use of Arkansas Unionist forces as anti-guerrilla troops, the use of riverine forces such as gunboats to control the waterways, and the provost marshal military law enforcement system to spy on suspected guerrillas and to imprison those captured. Against Confederate raiders, the Federal army developed an effective cavalry themselves and reinforced that system by numerous blockhouses and fortification to defend strategic targets.
However, Federal attempts to defeat Mosby 's Partisan Rangers fell short of success because of Mosby 's use of very small units (10 -- 15 men) operating in areas considered friendly to the Rebel cause. Another regiment known as the "Thomas Legion '', consisting of white and anti-Union Cherokee Indians, morphed into a guerrilla force and continued fighting in the remote mountain back - country of western North Carolina for a month after Lee 's surrender at Appomattox. That unit was never completely suppressed by Union forces, but voluntarily ceased hostilities after capturing the town of Waynesville on May 10, 1865.
In the late 20th century several historians have focused on the non-use of guerrilla warfare to prolong the war. Near the end of the war, there were those in the Confederate government, notably Jefferson Davis who advocated continuing the southern fight as a guerrilla conflict. He was opposed by generals such as Robert E. Lee who ultimately believed that surrender and reconciliation were better than guerrilla warfare.
See also Bushwhackers (Union and Confederate) and Jayhawkers (Union).
Guerrilla tactics were used extensively by the forces of the Boer republics in the First and Second Boer Wars in South Africa (1880 -- 1881; 1899 -- 1902) against the invading British Army. In the First Boer War, the Boer commandos wore their everyday dull - coloured farming clothes. The Boers relied more on stealth and speed than discipline and formation and, being expert marksmen using smokeless ammunition, the Boer were able to easily snipe at British troops from a distance. So the British Army relaxed their close - formation tactics. The British Army had changed to Khaki uniforms, first used by the British Indian Army, a decade earlier, and officers were soon ordered to dispense with gleaming buttons and buckles which made them conspicuous to snipers.
In the third phase of the Second Boer War, after the British defeated the Boer armies in conventional warfare and occupied their capitals of Pretoria and Bloemfontein, Boer commandos reverted to mobile warfare. Units led by leaders such as Jan Smuts and Christiaan de Wet harassed slow - moving British columns and attacked railway lines and encampments. The Boers were almost all mounted and possessed long range magazine loaded rifles. This gave them the ability to attack quickly and cause many casualties before retreating rapidly when British reinforcements arrived. In the early period of the guerrilla war, Boer commandos could be very large, containing several thousand men and even field artillery. However, as their supplies of food and ammunition gave out, the Boers increasingly broke up into smaller units and relied on captured British arms, ammunition, and uniforms.
To counter these tactics, the British under Kitchener interned Boer civilians into concentration camps and built hundreds of blockhouses all over the Transvaal and Orange Free State. Kitchener also enacted a scorched earth policy, destroying Boer homes and farms. Eventually, the Boer guerrillas surrendered in 1902, but the British granted them generous terms in order to bring the war to an end. This showed how effective guerrilla tactics could be in extracting concessions from a militarily more powerful enemy.
At the start of the Philippine -- American War, even with the recommendation of the able General Antonio Luna, guerrilla warfare strategy was viewed by the Philippine side only as a tactical option of final recourse. This led to subsequent defeat of the Filipino forces in the early stages of the war mainly due to superior American weaponry and troops. Guerrilla warfare was only used as a main strategy on November 13, 1899 which made American occupation of the Philippine archipelago all the more difficult over the next few years. This can be greatly seen by the Moro insurrection at the southern province of the Philippines wherein Moro rebels will conceal themselves in the thick Philippine jungle and will charge American troops with only bolo knives in overwhelming numbers at the opportune time. These led the American weapons manufacturers to develop the famed M1911 pistol.
During the War of the Pacific (1879 - 1883) the Peruvian General Andres Avelino Caceres fought a three year guerrilla war against the victorious Chilean army in the Andean Region of Peru from 1881 to 1883 (La Breña Campaign); this campaign was later studied in the Austrian Theresian Military Academy as an excellent illustration of successful mountain warfare.
In the Mexican Revolution from 1910 to 1920, the populist revolutionary leader Emiliano Zapata employed the use of predominantly guerrilla tactics. His forces, composed entirely of peasant farmers turned soldiers, wore no uniform and would easily blend into the general population after an operation 's completion. They would have young soldiers, called "dynamite boys '', hurl cans filled with explosives into enemy barracks, and then a large number of lightly armed soldiers would emerge from the surrounding area to attack it. Although Zapata 's forces met considerable success, his strategy backfired as government troops, unable to distinguish his soldiers from the civilian population, waged a broad and brutal campaign against the latter.
After the Italian unification in 1860, many bands composed mainly by peasants emerged in Southern Italy. The sources of the trouble were the carelessness of the new government toward the problems of the southern laborers, higher taxes and higher prices of basic necessities, mandatory military service who subtracted youths from the workforce and the economical benefits reserved only for the bourgeois society. In this period thousands of poors took the way of brigandage. The most well known brigand was Carmine Crocco, a former soldier in the service of Giuseppe Garibaldi who formed an army of two thousand men. Crocco was renowned for his guerrilla tactics, which were enhanced by the same royal soldiers who chased him. His warfare included cutting water supplies, destroying flour - mills, cutting telegraph wires and ambushing stragglers.
The wars between Ireland and the British state have been long, and over the centuries have covered the full spectrum of the types of warfare. The Irish fought the first successful 20th century war of independence against the British Empire and the United Kingdom. After the military failure of the Easter Rising in 1916, the Irish Republican Army (IRA) used guerrilla tactics involving both urban guerrilla warfare and flying columns in the countryside during the Irish War of Independence of 1919 to 1922. Many were inspired by the fabled exploits of the 1799 -- 1803 guerilla campaign by Michael Dwyer after the failed 1798 rebellion.
The chief IRA commanders in the localities during this period were Tom Barry, Seamus Robinson, Liam Lynch, Seán Mac Eoin, and Tom Maguire.
The IRA guerrilla was of considerable intensity in parts of the country, notably in Dublin and in areas such as County Cork, County Kerry and County Mayo in the south and west. Despite this, the Irish fighters were never in a position to either hold territory or take on British forces in a conventional manner. Even the largest engagements of the conflict, such as the Kilmichael Ambush or Crossbarry Ambush constituted mere skirmishes by the standards of a conventional war. Another aspect of the war, particularly in the north - eastern part of the province of Ulster, was communal violence. The Unionist majority there, who were largely Protestant and loyal to Britain were granted control over the security forces there, in particular the Ulster Special Constabulary and used them to attack the Nationalist (and largely Catholic) population in reprisal for IRA actions. Elsewhere in Ireland, where Unionists were in a minority, they were sometimes attacked by the IRA for aiding the British forces. The extent to which the conflict was an inter-communal one as well as war of national liberation is still strongly debated in Ireland. The total death toll in the war came to a little over 2000 people.
By mid-1921, the military and political costs of maintaining the British security forces in Ireland eventually proved too heavy for the British government. In July 1921, the UK government agreed to a truce with the IRA and agreed to meet representatives of the Irish First Dail, who since the 1918 General Election held seventy - three of the one hundred and five parliamentary seats for the island. Negotiations led to a settlement, the Anglo - Irish Treaty. It created the Irish Free State of 26 counties as a dominion within the British Empire; the other 6 counties remained part of the UK as Northern Ireland.
Sinn Féin and the Irish Republican Army split into pro - and anti-Treaty factions with the Anti-Treaty IRA forces losing the Irish Civil War (1922 -- 23) which followed. The partition of Ireland laid the seeds for the later Troubles. The Irish Civil War is a striking example of the failure of guerrilla tactics when used against a relatively popular native regime. Following their failure to hold fixed positions against an Irish Free State offensive in the summer of 1922, the IRA re-formed "flying columns '' and attempted to use the same tactics they had successfully used against the British. However, against Irish troops, who knew them and the terrain and faced with the hostility of the Roman Catholic Church and the majority of Irish nationalist opinion, they were unable to sustain their campaign. In addition, the Free State government, confident of its legitimacy among the Irish population, sometimes used more ruthless and effective measures of repression than the British had felt able to employ. Whereas the British executed 14 IRA men in 1919 -- 1922, the Free State executed 77 anti-treaty prisoners officially and its troops killed another 150 prisoners or so in the field (see Executions during the Irish Civil War). The Free State also interned 12,000 republicans, compared with the British figure of 4,500. The last anti-Treaty guerrillas abandoned their military campaign against the Free State after nine months in March 1923.
In a successful campaign in German East Africa, the German commander Paul Emil von Lettow - Vorbeck fought against the numerically superior allied forces. Even though he was cut off from Germany and had few Germans under his command (most of his fighters were African askaris), he won multiple victories during the East Africa Campaign and managed to exhaust and trouble the Allies; he was undefeated up until his acceptance of a cease - fire in Northern Rhodesia three days after the end of the war in Europe. He returned to Germany as a hero.
A major guerrilla war was fought by the Arabs against the Ottoman Turks during the Arab Revolt (1916 -- 1918). Attacking the Hejaz Railway to disrupt Ottman forces is a strategy often credited to the British officer T.E. Lawrence.
Another guerrilla war opposed the German Occupation of Ukraine in 1918 and partisan and guerrilla forces fought against both the Bolsheviks and the Whites during the Russian Civil War. This fighting continued into 1921 in Ukraine, in Tambov province, and in parts of Siberia. Other guerrillas opposed the Japanese occupation of the Russian Far East.
Despite a common misconception, both Nationalist and Communist forces maintained active underground resistance in Japanese - occupied areas during the Second Sino - Japanese War. Even before the outbreak of total war in 1937, partisans were already present in Manchuria hampering Japan 's occupation of the region. After the initial phases of the war, when large swaths of the North China Plain rapidly fell to the Japanese, underground resistance, supported by either Communist sympathizers or composed of disguised Nationalist soldiers, would soon rise up to combat the garrison forces. They were quite successful, able to sabotage railroad routes and ambush reinforcements. Many major campaigns, such as the four failed invasions of Changsha, were caused by overly - stretched supply lines, lack of reinforcements, and ambushes by irregulars. The Communist cells, many having decades of prior experience in guerrilla warfare against the Nationalists, usually fared much better, and many Nationalist underground groups were subsequently absorbed into Communist ones. Usually in Japanese - occupied areas, the IJA only controlled the cities and railroad routes, with most of them countryside either left alone or with active guerrilla presence. The People 's Republic of China has emphasized their contribution to the Chinese war effort, going as far to say that in addition to a "overt theatre '', which in many cases they deny was effective, there was also a "covert theatre '', which they claim did much to stop the Japanese advance.
Many clandestine organizations (often known as resistance movements) operated in the countries occupied by German Reich during the Second World War. These organizations began forming as early as 1939 when, after the defeat of Poland, the members of what would become the Polish Home Army began to gather. In March 1940, a partisan unit of the first guerrilla commanders in the Second World War in Europe under Major Henryk Dobrzański "Hubal '' completely destroyed a battalion of German infantry in a skirmish near the village of Huciska.
A guerrilla movement in Ethiopia was formed to rout out Italian forces as early as 1935. Other clandestine organizations operated in Denmark, Belgium, Norway, France (Resistance), France (Maquis), Czechoslovakia, Slovakia, Yugoslavia (Royalist Chetniks), Yugoslavia (Partisans), Soviet Union, Italy, Albania and Greece. From the second half of 1944, the total forces of the Yugoslav Partisans numbered over 500,000 men organized in four field armies, which engaged in conventional warfare. By 1944 the Polish resistance was thought to number 600,000. Many of these organizations received help from the British operated Special Operations Executive (SOE) which along with the commandos was initiated by Winston Churchill to "set Europe ablaze. '' The SOE was originally designated as ' Section D ' of MI6 but its aid to resistance movements to start fires clashed with MI6 's primary role as an intelligence - gathering agency. When Britain was under threat of invasion, SOE trained Auxiliary Units to conduct guerrilla warfare in the event of invasion. Even the Home Guard were trained in guerrilla warfare in the case of invasion of England.
Osterly Park was the first of 3 such schools established to train the Home Guard. Not only did SOE help the resistance to tie down many German units as garrison troops, so directly aiding the conventional war effort, but also guerrilla incidents in occupied countries were useful in the propaganda war, helping to repudiate German claims that the occupied countries were pacified and broadly on the side of the Germans. Despite these minor successes, many historians believe that the efficacy of the European resistance movements has been greatly exaggerated in popular novels, films and other media.
Contrary to popular belief, in the Western and Southern Europe the resistance groups were only able to seriously counter the German in areas that offered the protection of rugged terrain. In relatively flat, open areas, such as France, the resistance groups were all too vulnerable to decimation by German regulars and pro-German collaborators. Only when operating in concert with conventional Allied units were the resistance groups to prove indispensable.
All the clandestine resistance movements and organizations in the occupied Europe were dwarfed by the partisan warfare that took place on the vast scale of the Eastern Front combat between Soviet partisans and the German Reich forces. The strength of the partisan units and formations can not be accurately estimated, but in Belorussia alone is thought to have been in excess of 300,000. This was a planned and closely coordinated effort by the STAVKA which included insertion of officers and delivery of equipment, as well as coordination of operational planning with the regular Red Army forces such as Operation Concert in 1943 (commenced 19 September) and the massive sabotage of German logistics in preparation for commencement of Operation Bagration in the summer of 1944.
Guerrilla tactics were employed in the war in the Pacific as well. When Japanese forces invaded the island of Timor on 20 February 1942, they were resisted by a small, under - equipped force of Allied military personnel -- known as Sparrow Force -- predominantly from Australia, United Kingdom, and the Netherlands East Indies. Although Portugal was not a combatant, many East Timorese civilians and some Portuguese colonists fought with the Allies as guerrillas (criados), or provided food, shelter and other assistance. Some Timorese continued a resistance campaign following the Australian withdrawal.
When the United States entered the war, the US Office of Strategic Services (OSS) co-operated and enhanced the work of SOE as well as working on its own initiatives in the Far East. Colonel Wendell Fertig in 1942 organized a large guerrilla force which harassed the Japanese occupation forces on the Philippine Island of Mindanao all the way up to the liberation of the Philippines in 1945. After the surrender of Bataan and Corregidor which was the last organized resistance against the Imperial Japanese Army, Filipino guerillas fought the Japanese throughout the war and became a very important force during the liberation of the Philippines. The exploits of these American commanders and Filipino guerillas influenced the later formation of the United States Green Berets.
Others included Col. Aaron Bank, Col. Russell Volckmann, and Col. William R. Peers. Volckmann commanded a guerrilla force which operated out of the Cordillera of Northern Luzon in the Philippines from the beginning of World War II to its conclusion. He remained in radio contact with US Forces, prior to the invasion of Lingayen Gulf. Peers, who later became a general, commanded OSS Detachment 101 in Burma. Because it was never larger than a few hundred Americans, it relied on support from various Burmese tribal groups. In particular, the vigorously anti-Japanese Kachin people were vital to the unit 's success.
The Chindits -- officially in 1943 77th Indian Infantry Brigade and in 1944 3rd Indian Infantry Division -- were a British India "Special Force '' that served in Burma and India in 1943 and 1944 during the Burma Campaign. They were formed to put into effect Orde Wingate 's newly developed guerilla warfare tactic of long range penetration.
The Japanese military themselves also used guerrilla warfare during the later part of the Pacific War, when Japan 's resource was already dwindling and the Allies have started invading. Tadamichi Kuribayashi famously used guerrilla warfare during the Battle of Iwo Jima, where the general used network of tunnels and caves to attack American forces. His tactic was somewhat successfully, delaying the Americans from taking Iwo Jima for 36 days. The same tactic was used during the Battle of Okinawa.
After World War II, during the 1940s and 1950s, thousands of fighters in Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania (see Forest Brothers, Latvian national partisans, Lithuanian partisans (1944 -- 1953)) participated in unsuccessful guerrilla warfare against Soviet occupation. In Lithuania guerrilla warfare was massive until 1958 and the last fighter in Estonia was discovered and killed in 1978.
Within the United States, the Vietnam War is commonly thought of as a guerrilla war. However, this is a simplification of a much more complex situation which followed the pattern outlined by Maoist theory.
The National Liberation Front (NLF), drawing its ranks from the South Vietnamese peasantry and working class, used guerrilla tactics in the early phases of the war. However, by 1965 when U.S. involvement escalated, the National Liberation Front was in the process of being supplanted by regular units of the North Vietnamese Army.
The NVA regiments organized along traditional military lines, were supplied via the Ho Chi Minh trail rather than living off the land, and had access to weapons such as tanks and artillery which are not normally used by guerrilla forces. Furthermore, parts of North Vietnam were "off - limits '' by American bombardment for political reasons, giving the NVA personnel and their material a haven that does not usually exist for a guerrilla army.
Over time, more of the fighting was conducted by the North Vietnamese Army and the character of the war become increasingly conventional. The final offensive into South Vietnam in 1975 was a mostly conventional military operation in which guerrilla warfare played a minor, supporting role.
The Cu Chi Tunnels (Ðịa đạo Củ Chi) was a major base for guerrilla warfare during the Vietnam War. Located about 60 km northwest of Saigon (Ho Chi Minh City), the Viet Cong (NLF) used the complex system tunnels to hide and live during the day and come up to fight at night.
Throughout the Vietnam War, the Communist Party closely supervised all levels of the conflict. The bulk of the VC / NLF were initially southerners, with some distinctive southern issues and sensibilities. Nevertheless, the VC / NLF was associated with the Northern Lao Dong Party which furnished it with supplies, weaponry and trained cadres, including regular NVA / PAVN troops. The Southern Communist party, the Peoples Revolutionary Party (PRP) organized in 1962, to participate in the insurgency, and COVSN, Central Office for Southern Vietnam, which partially controlled military activity. The general replacement of CV irregulars with NVA troops supplanted the original VC goals with those proposed by the NVA. As the 1968 Tet Offensive was primarily a VC operation in which large numbers of VC fighters were killed, increasing the role of the NVA in the war effort.
This is a set of tactics which were used frequently in the Vietnam War by the NVA.
The Central Intelligence Agency raised a guerrilla army to oppose PAVN invaders of the Kingdom of Laos. Consisting principally Hmong hill tribesmen, L'Armee Clandestine under General Vang Pao was the only guerrilla army to ever enjoy air supremacy. It fought the Vietnamese regulars from 1961 -- 1975 before reduced numbers and dwindling American support led to their defeat.
The Soviet invasion of Afghanistan started with a rapid takeover of the major cities but then turned into a decade - long guerilla resistance. The Afghan side was a collection of tribes who initially fought with obsolete weapons such as rifles from the 19th century or the First World War. The resistance fighters were known collectively as the Mujahideen. The United States started to support the Afghanistan resistance with gradually more potent weapons and eventually anti-tank and anti-aircraft missiles which then would cause so much damage to the far larger Soviet army that the Soviet Union abandoned its occupation and retreated back to the Soviet Union.
Pakistan Army Regulars disguised as locals together with local militias carried out a 6 months long Guerrilla campaign in Indian Occupied Kashmir for the Independence of The State of Kashmir, it came to an end after an all out war between Pakistan and India in September 1965.
Mukti Bahini (Bengali: মুক্তি বাহিনী "Liberation Army '') collectively refers to the armed organizations who fought against the Pakistan Army during the Bangladesh Liberation War. It was dynamically formed by (mostly) Bengali regulars and civilians after the proclamation of independence for Bangladesh (formerly East Pakistan) on March 26, 1971. Subsequently, by mid-April 1971 the former members of East Pakistan armed forces formed the "Bangladesh Armed Forces '' and MAG Osmani assumed the command of the same. The civilian groups continued to assist the armed forces during the war. After the war "Mukti Bahini '' became the general term to refer to all forces (military and civilian) of former East Pakistani origin fighting against the Pakistani armed forces during the Bangladesh Liberation War. Often Mukti Bahini operated as an effective guerrilla force to keep their enemies on the run. It has been compared to the French Maquis, the Viet Cong, and the guerrillas of Josip Broz Tito in their tactics and effectiveness.
In the late 1960s the Troubles began again in Northern Ireland. They had their origins in the partition of Ireland during the Irish War of Independence. They came to an end with the signing of the Good Friday Agreement in 1998. The violence was characterised by an armed campaign against the British presence in Northern Ireland by the Provisional Irish Republican Army, British counter-insurgency policy, and attacks on civilians by both loyalists and republicans. There were also allegations of collusion between loyalist paramilitaries and British security forces, and to a lesser extent, republicans and both British and Irish security forces.
Although both loyalist and republican paramilitaries carried out terrorist atrocities against civilians which were often tit - for - tat, a case can be made for saying that attacks such as the Provisional IRA carried out on British soldiers at Warrenpoint in 1979 was a well planned guerrilla ambush. Anti-Good Friday Agreement splinter groups could be called guerrillas but are usually called terrorists or dissidents by governments of both the British and Irish governments. The news media such as the BBC and CNN will often use the term "gunmen '' as in "IRA gunmen '' or "Loyalist gunmen ''. Since 1995 CNN also uses guerrilla as in "IRA guerrilla '' and "Protestant guerrilla ''. Reuters, in accordance with its principle of not using the word terrorist except in direct quotes, refers to "guerrilla groups ''.
In the 1960s, 1970s, and 1980s, Latin America had several urban guerrilla movements whose strategy was to destabilize regimes and provoke a counter-reaction by the military. The theory was that a harsh military regime would oppress the middle classes who would then support the guerrillas and create a popular uprising.
While these movements did destabilize governments, such as Argentina, Uruguay, Guatemala, and Peru to the point of military intervention, the military generally proceeded to completely wipe out the guerrilla movements, usually committing several atrocities among both civilians and armed insurgents in the process.
Several other left - wing guerrilla movements, sometimes backed by Cuba, attempted to overthrow US - backed governments or right - wing military dictatorships. US - backed Contra guerrillas attempted to overthrow the left - wing Sandinista government of Nicaragua. The Sandinista Revolution saw the involvement of Women and the Armed Struggle in Nicaragua.
During the eight - year Iran -- Iraq war, irregular warfare was used against Iraqi military. The Iranian Irregular Warfare Headquarters, the 65th Airborne Special Forces Brigade of Iranian Army, and Peshmerga of Iraqi Kurdistan were involved.
The Greek Marxist 17 November disbanded around 2002 following the capture and imprisonment of much of its leadership.
The ongoing war between pro-independence groups in Chechnya and the Russian government is currently the most active guerrilla war in Europe. Most of the incidents reported by the Western news media are very gory terrorist acts against Russian civilians committed by Chechen separatists outside Chechnya. However, within Chechnya the war has many of the characteristics of a classic guerrilla war. See the article History of Chechnya for more details.
In Northern Ireland, the Real Irish Republican Army and the Continuity Irish Republican Army, two small, radical splinter groups who broke with the Provisional Irish Republican Army, continue to exist. They are dwarfed in size by the Provisional IRA and have been less successful in terms of both popularity among Irish republicans and guerrilla activity: The Continuity IRA has failed to carry out any killings, while the Real IRA 's only attacks resulting in deaths were the 1998 Omagh bombing, which killed 29 civilians, a booby trap torch bomb in Derry which killed a former Ulster Defence Regiment soldier, and a 2009 attack on a Northern Ireland military installation which killed 2 British soldiers and wounded several others.
After 1979 Revolution, the Iranian Defence Minister Mostafa Chamran established the Irregular Warfare Headquarters as part of the Iranian Armed Forces. He employed the force against Iraqi military during the Iran -- Iraq war. The unit was later disbanded.
Many guerrilla tactics are used by the Iraqi insurgency against the U.S. - led coalition. Such tactics include the bombing of vehicles and human targets, suicide bombings, ambushes, sniper attacks, and traditional hit and run raids. Although it is unclear how many U.S. casualties can be attributed to insurgent guerrilla action because of the high numbers of non-combat related injuries and deaths being included in all available statistics of total coalition casualties, it is estimated that they have injured more than 18,000 coalition troops and killed over 3,900, including more than 3,000 U.S. soldiers. In addition the Sunni insurgents established de facto control over the Al Anbar Governorate and Diyala Governorate, over a third of Iraq 's land. Insurgent control was maintained despite a series of coalition campaigns; the worsening violence in Baghdad led to the recall of coalition forces, ensuring continued insurgent control.
European Jews fleeing from anti-Semitic violence (especially Russian pogroms) immigrated in increasing numbers to Palestine. When the British restricted Jewish immigration to the region (see White Paper of 1939), Jewish immigrants began to use guerrilla warfare against the British for two purposes: to bring in more Jewish refugees, and to turn the tide of British sentiment at home. Jewish groups such as the Lehi and the Irgun -- many of whom had experience in the Warsaw Ghetto battles against the Nazis, fought British soldiers whenever they could, including the bombing of the King David Hotel. They also conducted attacks against the Arabs, and prepared the infrastructure for the coming 1948 conflict.
The Jewish irregular forces were fighting the British Empire, which had just emerged victorious from World War II. Some of these groups were amalgamated into the Israel Defense Forces and subsequently fought in the 1948 War of Independence.
The Naxal insurgency in West Bengal was the beginning of the rising of Maoists in eastern India. The Naxals, begun their People 's War through radical students in the city of Calcutta, however it continues today, having its bases in rural India and top universities. The area under maoist control has been viewed as a war zone and the group itself has been called the biggest threat to Indian Security by the Prime Minister.
Khalistan movement was a movement initiated by the Sikhs of the Indian Punjab. The Punjab region is of historical and religious significance for Sikhs and was contested during the separation of United India. Though it ended in India in the 1980s, the Khalistan movement still has supporters across the world, mainly in Canada, and the British Sikh Community.
One of the proponents of the ideology are the Khalistan Zindabad Force
The Taliban uprising took place after Afghanistan 's invasion by Allied forces in 2001. As in the earlier wars against the British and Soviets, Afghan resistance to the NATO intervention took the traditional form of a Muslim "holy war (Jihad) against the infidels ''. As with the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan 20 years earlier, the Taliban took refuge in the Pakistani Mountain areas and continue to move across the border between Afghanistan and Pakistan, often evading Pakistani and NATO forces. The Taliban have now become a dominant role in the Afghan life once again. The Pakistani Government have been accused of supporting and / or turning a blind eye to the Afghan Taliban, while the Pakistani Government has accused NATO of doing the same.
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orange is the new black spoilers season 3 | Orange is the New Black (season 3) - Wikipedia
The third season of the American comedy - drama television series Orange Is the New Black premiered on Netflix on June 11, 2015, at 12: 00 am PST in multiple countries. It consists of thirteen episodes, each between 53 -- 60 minutes, with a 90 - minute finale. The series is based on Piper Kerman 's memoir, Orange Is the New Black: My Year in a Women 's Prison (2010), about her experiences at FCI Danbury, a minimum - security federal prison. The series is created and adapted for television by Jenji Kohan.
The season received critical acclaim, again winning the Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Comedy Series and Outstanding Performance by a Female Actor in a Comedy Series for Uzo Aduba, and numerous other awards.
The prison hosts a special visit to celebrate Mother 's Day, as part of Caputo 's attempt to "soften '' his regime in light of recent controversies. Piper finds out that Alex has returned to Litchfield and the two reconcile. Poussey misses her mother. Bennett struggles to deal with Daya 's family while keeping under wraps that he is the father of her child. Daya and Aleida clash on motherhood. Pennsatucky holds a memorial for the abortions she has had. Healy feels threatened by Caputo 's recent staff change decision. Red fills the hole in the greenhouse with cement, and is later visited by her family, from whom she finds out Piper lied regarding the store 's success.
Litchfield prison combats a bed bug infestation. This forces the prisoners to wear underwear or disposable paper suits and causing some of them to become paranoid about the cause of the bugs. Red confronts Piper about the lies she told regarding Red 's family 's store, causing Red to cut off both Piper and her husband for dishonesty before Healy gives her a dressing down. Mendez 's mother visits the prison and offers to adopt Daya 's baby, causing tension among Bennett, Daya and Aleida. Alex struggles to deal with being back in prison. Piper reveals she ratted Alex out to her parole officer, causing the two to square off. Bennett proposes to Daya but has qualms about her extended family, especially the angry Cesar. Nicky and Big Boo find that they have been robbed of the heroin they were hiding. Caputo learns that the prison is to close due to budget constraints. Piper and Alex 's feud comes to a head in the closed library, where they hook up. Bennett gets a crib from Cesar, but also witnesses Cesar pointing a gun at one of his children. He abandons the crib on the side of the road and drives away.
Luschek finds a buyer for Nicky 's heroin, but is furious when Nicky says it has been stolen. Alex and Piper continue to have a contentious relationship. Caputo denies rumors from the staff that the prison is shutting down, but the staff is suspicious. Bennett disappears, worrying Daya. New staff member Rogers starts a theater class, where Alex and Piper reconcile during a performance. It is revealed Nicky was keeping the heroin for herself, but it was discovered by the meth heads. Luschek takes the heroin from them, but it is found by Caputo, causing Luschek to rat out Nicky. Healy recruits Red to help him talk to his wife. Caputo blackmails Figueroa into helping him keep the prison open, and she points him to a private company that was interested in acquiring it in the past. Nicky says goodbye as she is sent to maximum security prison. She laments that even after kicking her drug addiction, she may never lose her self - destructive tendencies.
The inmates deal with the loss of Nicky. Caputo takes the private company, MCC, on a tour of the prison. Crazy Eyes continues to deal with the death of Vee. Daya worries that Bennett has run off on her. It is Piper 's birthday and she has a tense visit with her family. She and Alex begin to grow close again. Pennsatucky reveals she is still getting money from the anti-abortion group that considers her a martyr. Big Boo gets a makeover hoping to convince the religious group to give her funding, but she flies into a rage at the man instead. Red and Healy develop a friendship with romantic undertones. MCC agrees to take over operations of the prison, saving it from closure.
MCC invests in new mattresses and improvements in the prison, but cuts the guards ' hours to part time. A new work detail that pays ten times the wage of other prison jobs is introduced, prompting the inmates to jockey for the new positions. They take a test and several, including Piper and Flaca, are selected. It is revealed they will be working in a shop making women 's underwear. Daya tries to figure out her next steps without Bennett. Alex is paranoid that her former boss is trying to kill her. Poussey tries to stop animals from stealing her fermented alcohol.
Caputo interviews more part - time applicants, to the consternation of the other COs. A new prisoner reveals that a more appetizing kosher meal may be requested from the kitchen. Celebrity chef Judy King (Blair Brown) is arraigned on tax - evasion charges. As the prisoners begin making Whispers underwear, Piper flirts with a new prisoner, Stella Carlin. Morello is visited by a series of civilian pen pals looking for romance, and takes a shine to a Jiu Jitsu enthusiast. Healy cons Caputo into getting Red back into the kitchen. Dreaming of love, a lonely Poussey makes and drinks hooch. Chang secretly prepares specialty foods for herself and watches Chinese movies on a cell phone stashed in a garden shack.
Suzanne displays a talent for writing bizarre, erotically charged fantasy stories. Stella agrees to contribute soiled Whispers underwear for Piper 's planned dirty - panties business. Piper recruits Cal to assist in the operation. Daya wrestles with who should raise her baby. Commuting to the prison together, Mendoza 's son teaches Sophia 's son rude behavior, causing the two mothers to clash. The controversy, paired with Ramos nearly slicing her finger off, leads to Red running the kitchen again -- just as the new regime introduces "boil in the bag '' meals. MCC 's failure to properly train the COs leads to a botched pepper - spraying incident. Norma 's reputation as a miracle - performing mystic grows.
Suzanne 's sci - fi story gains a cult following in the prison, but its latest chapter aggravates Poussey 's alcoholic depression. The prisoners despise the new cafeteria food, and are angry at the rising prices of commissary items. Piper conscripts her fellow prisoners to wear panties stolen from the factory, and sells them online for a profit. Counselor Rogers objects when Healy prescribes antidepressants to Soso, causing him to angrily pass Soso 's case on to her. Pennsatucky bonds with Coates, a new CO and part - time doughnut - store employee. At a meeting in Utica, executives at MCC are shown to be totally devoid of compassion and solely concerned with cost - cutting and profits. Caputo grows to despise Pearson, who proves unsuccessful in pushing through his suggestions about upgrades. Sophia and Mendoza commiserate about not being around to raise their respective sons. When Daya learns from Mendez 's mother that Aleida arranged a financial deal to raise the baby, Daya confesses to her that Mendez is not the child 's father. Alex suspects that a new prisoner, Lolly, may have been sent by Kubra to kill her. Lolly is later seen keeping detailed notebook records of Alex 's every move.
With the help of Cal and CO Bayley, Piper 's used - panties business is a rousing success. Prisoners continue to obsess over Suzanne 's comically pornographic serial novel. Red is humiliated having to serve slop from a bag instead of real food. A rabbi quizzes prisoners about their alleged devotion to committed Jewish beliefs, resulting in a short list of approved kosher meals. A nude Stella chats with a visibly impressed Piper in the bathroom; they later share a kiss. Mendoza and Sophia clash again when Sophia 's son is arrested on battery charges. Sophia learns that Mendoza 's son fled the scene. Celebrity chef Judy King once again appears on the TV news. Outside of the prison, CO Coates kisses Pennsatucky. After Lolly breaks a window in a shed, Alex notices that a large shard of glass has vanished from the debris. Leanne bullies Soso and acts as self - appointed vocal leader of Norma 's spiritual group. Unsuccessfully, Norma tries to teach kindness and tolerance to Leanne. To her horror, Alex discovers that Lolly has been secretly monitoring her moves.
A young inmate begins pursuing Suzanne romantically. Suzanne tells Morello that in spite of her erotically charged novels, she is still a virgin and confused about sex. Judy King is found guilty, but it seems that her ultimate destination will not be Litchfield. After observing Stella making moves on Piper, Alex confronts the pair in Piper 's bunk. Visited in jail by his mother, a shaken and traumatized Mendez is told that he is not the father of Daya 's child, which he refuses to believe. Mendez 's mother informs Daya she still wishes to raise the baby, and after painful deliberation, Daya agrees. Morello uses Vince, her pen pal, to exact revenge on Christopher. Leanne and Soso continue to antagonize each other, with uncertain Norma caught in the middle. Using veggies grown in the garden, Red prepares a small pan of ratatouille for her kitchen staffers. Enraged that Sophia has cut off her son 's ride to the prison, Mendoza picks a fight with her in the bathroom. Alex attacks Lolly, but comes to realize that she is just highly paranoid and delusional, not an assassin. CO Coates is reprimanded for being late after spending time with Pennsatucky. In a rage, he rapes her in the prison van.
Caputo agrees to help the guards unite against their heartless corporate overlords, while he sleeps with Figueroa. Due to a computer error, Leanne 's sidekick Angie is mistakenly released. Caputo later recaptures her at the bus station. Big Boo learns of Coates ' abuse of Pennsatucky and vows to help her get revenge. After injuring Mendoza, Sophia becomes a pariah and her salon empties. Suzanne 's manuscript lands on the staff 's radar, leading to its confiscation, and counselor Rogers is unfairly put on leave over the scandal. Suzanne appears relieved to be done with the project and apologizes to Poussey for attacking her under Vee 's tenure. After Soso confronts Norma for letting her group bully her, Leanne cuts off Soso 's hair while she sleeps. Flaca encourages Piper 's girls to stop wearing the panties until they get paid real money. Piper agrees to set up a payment plan using cash cards, but then fires Flaca for instigating the uprising. Repulsed by seeing this side of Piper, Alex quits both the business and their relationship.
Daya goes into labor, and will not let her mother Aleida help as Aleida was trying to solicit money from Mendez 's mother. Red runs an open lottery to determine who will attend her fancy dinner party. Following counselor Rogers ' suspension, Soso returns to Healy for counseling. He continues to recommend medication. Boo cajoles Pennsatucky into exacting revenge on Coates, but they back out before doing so. Sophia gets attacked, and beaten by two other inmates. Gerber refuses to carry the panties out of the prison, so Piper comes close to following through on her promise of sexual favors, but Stella intervenes and convinces Gerber to continue. Daya 's labor does not go according to plan. An encounter with Frieda causes Taystee to realize that she is the new "mother '' in the group. Poussey finds Soso unconscious in the library from overdosing on pills that she stole from the Doctor 's office after being given a prescription from Healy. Piper reaches out to take Stella 's hand while they watch a movie, but Stella reveals she is getting out soon.
Poussey, Taystee and Suzanne save Soso from her overdose. Piper confronts Flaca about stealing the proceeds from her panty business, but soon comes to realize that Stella is the culprit, as she will have no money to live on when she gets released. Piper exacts revenge by framing Stella for possession of dangerous contraband, resulting in Stella being dragged off to maximum security prison. Healy investigates the possibility of a romantic life with Red, but Red quashes the opportunity. Morello marries Vince, while Black Cindy shows a newfound sincerity in her attempts to become Jewish. She is however frustrated because converting fully requires a Jewish baptism (called a tevilah), which in turn requires a natural body of water that she does not have access to inside a prison. Complications arise concerning Daya 's baby after Cesar is arrested. For the first time Norma faces losing her followers after Poussey angrily confronts her for her role in Soso 's attempted suicide. Tensions between Flaca and Gloria come to a head, as do those between Leanne and Norma. Caputo, after promising to head up the staff union, accepts a promotion from MCC, causing the staff to walk out. A construction mishap allows all the prisoners to escape to a nearby beach and play in the lake, Soso is taken in by the African - American group, while Suzanne bonds with Maureen. Black Cindy, with unexpected access to the required natural body of water, performs her ritual immersion and officially becomes Jewish. Alex is cornered in the greenhouse by a new guard sent by Kubra, and her fate is left uncertain. As the prisoners frolic in the lake, construction crews convert the prison 's beds into two - tiered bunkbeds, doubling the prison 's capacity, and several busloads of new prisoners arrive at Litchfield.
On May 5, 2014, the series was renewed for a third season. For the third season, several actors were promoted to series regulars, including Selenis Leyva, Adrienne C. Moore, Dascha Polanco, Nick Sandow, Yael Stone, and Samira Wiley. Both Jason Biggs and Pablo Schreiber were confirmed as not returning for the third season, but Schreiber appeared in the 10th episode of the third season.
The third season received critical acclaim. On Metacritic, it has a score of 83 out of 100 based on 24 reviews. On Rotten Tomatoes, it has a 96 % rating with an average score of 8.2 out of 10 based on 53 reviews. The site 's critical consensus reads: "Thanks to its blend of potent comedy and rich character work, Orange is the New Black remains a bittersweet pleasure in its third season. ''
For its third season, Orange Is the New Black won Screen Actors Guild Awards for Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Comedy Series and Outstanding Performance by a Female Actor in a Comedy Series (Aduba). It received a Golden Globe Award nomination for Best Television Series -- Musical or Comedy. The series has also received, among other accolades, six Writers Guild of America Award nominations, five Satellite Awards, four Critics ' Choice Television Awards, a GLAAD Media Award, an American Cinema Editors Award, a Producers Guild of America Award, and a Peabody Award.
In Australia, the third season began airing on Showcase on June 11, 2015.
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who owns the district banks of the federal reserve system | Federal Reserve System - Wikipedia
The Federal Reserve System (also known as the Federal Reserve or simply the Fed) is the central banking system of the United States. It was created on December 23, 1913, with the enactment of the Federal Reserve Act, after a series of financial panics (particularly the panic of 1907) led to the desire for central control of the monetary system in order to alleviate financial crises. Over the years, events such as the Great Depression in the 1930s and the Great Recession during the 2000s have led to the expansion of the roles and responsibilities of the Federal Reserve System.
The U.S. Congress established three key objectives for monetary policy in the Federal Reserve Act: maximizing employment, stabilizing prices, and moderating long - term interest rates. The first two objectives are sometimes referred to as the Federal Reserve 's dual mandate. Its duties have expanded over the years, and as of 2009 also include supervising and regulating banks, maintaining the stability of the financial system and providing financial services to depository institutions, the U.S. government, and foreign official institutions. The Fed conducts research into the economy and provides numerous publications, such as the Beige Book and the FRED database.
The Federal Reserve System is composed of several layers. It is governed by the presidentially appointed Board of Governors or Federal Reserve Board (FRB). Twelve regional Federal Reserve Banks, located in cities throughout the nation, oversee the privately owned U.S. member banks. Nationally chartered commercial banks are required to hold stock in the Federal Reserve Bank of their region, which entitles them to elect some of their board members. The Federal Open Market Committee (FOMC) sets monetary policy; it consists of all seven members of the Board of Governors and the twelve regional bank presidents, though only five bank presidents vote at any given time: the president of the New York Fed and four others who rotate through one - year terms. There are also various advisory councils. Thus, the Federal Reserve System has both public and private components. The structure is considered unique among central banks. It is also unusual in that the United States Department of the Treasury, an entity outside of the central bank, prints the currency used.
Although an instrument of the U.S. Government, the Federal Reserve System considers itself "an independent central bank because its monetary policy decisions do not have to be approved by the President or anyone else in the executive or legislative branches of government, it does not receive funding appropriated by the Congress, and the terms of the members of the Board of Governors span multiple presidential and congressional terms. '' The federal government sets the salaries of the board 's seven governors. The federal government receives all the system 's annual profits, after a statutory dividend of 6 % on member banks ' capital investment is paid, and an account surplus is maintained. In 2015, the Federal Reserve made a profit of $100.2 billion and transferred $97.7 billion to the U.S. Treasury.
The primary motivation for creating the Federal Reserve System was to address banking panics. Other purposes are stated in the Federal Reserve Act, such as "to furnish an elastic currency, to afford means of rediscounting commercial paper, to establish a more effective supervision of banking in the United States, and for other purposes ''. Before the founding of the Federal Reserve System, the United States underwent several financial crises. A particularly severe crisis in 1907 led Congress to enact the Federal Reserve Act in 1913. Today the Federal Reserve System has responsibilities in addition to ensuring the stability of the financial system.
Current functions of the Federal Reserve System include:
Banking institutions in the United States are required to hold reserves -- amounts of currency and deposits in other banks -- equal to only a fraction of the amount of the bank 's deposit liabilities owed to customers. This practice is called fractional - reserve banking. As a result, banks usually invest the majority of the funds received from depositors. On rare occasions, too many of the bank 's customers will withdraw their savings and the bank will need help from another institution to continue operating; this is called a bank run. Bank runs can lead to a multitude of social and economic problems. The Federal Reserve System was designed as an attempt to prevent or minimize the occurrence of bank runs, and possibly act as a lender of last resort when a bank run does occur. Many economists, following Milton Friedman, believe that the Federal Reserve inappropriately refused to lend money to small banks during the bank runs of 1929.
Because some banks refused to clear checks from certain other banks during times of economic uncertainty, a check - clearing system was created in the Federal Reserve System. It is briefly described in The Federal Reserve System -- Purposes and Functions as follows:
By creating the Federal Reserve System, Congress intended to eliminate the severe financial crises that had periodically swept the nation, especially the sort of financial panic that occurred in 1907. During that episode, payments were disrupted throughout the country because many banks and clearinghouses refused to clear checks drawn on certain other banks, a practice that contributed to the failure of otherwise solvent banks. To address these problems, Congress gave the Federal Reserve System the authority to establish a nationwide check - clearing system. The System, then, was to provide not only an elastic currency -- that is, a currency that would expand or shrink in amount as economic conditions warranted -- but also an efficient and equitable check - collection system.
In the United States, the Federal Reserve serves as the lender of last resort to those institutions that can not obtain credit elsewhere and the collapse of which would have serious implications for the economy. It took over this role from the private sector "clearing houses '' which operated during the Free Banking Era; whether public or private, the availability of liquidity was intended to prevent bank runs.
Through its discount window and credit operations, Reserve Banks provide liquidity to banks to meet short - term needs stemming from seasonal fluctuations in deposits or unexpected withdrawals. Longer term liquidity may also be provided in exceptional circumstances. The rate the Fed charges banks for these loans is called the discount rate (officially the primary credit rate).
By making these loans, the Fed serves as a buffer against unexpected day - to - day fluctuations in reserve demand and supply. This contributes to the effective functioning of the banking system, alleviates pressure in the reserves market and reduces the extent of unexpected movements in the interest rates. For example, on September 16, 2008, the Federal Reserve Board authorized an $85 billion loan to stave off the bankruptcy of international insurance giant American International Group (AIG).
In its role as the central bank of the United States, the Fed serves as a banker 's bank and as the government 's bank. As the banker 's bank, it helps to assure the safety and efficiency of the payments system. As the government 's bank or fiscal agent, the Fed processes a variety of financial transactions involving trillions of dollars. Just as an individual might keep an account at a bank, the U.S. Treasury keeps a checking account with the Federal Reserve, through which incoming federal tax deposits and outgoing government payments are handled. As part of this service relationship, the Fed sells and redeems U.S. government securities such as savings bonds and Treasury bills, notes and bonds. It also issues the nation 's coin and paper currency. The U.S. Treasury, through its Bureau of the Mint and Bureau of Engraving and Printing, actually produces the nation 's cash supply and, in effect, sells the paper currency to the Federal Reserve Banks at manufacturing cost, and the coins at face value. The Federal Reserve Banks then distribute it to other financial institutions in various ways. During the Fiscal Year 2013, the Bureau of Engraving and Printing delivered 6.6 billion notes at an average cost of 5.0 cents per note.
Federal funds are the reserve balances (also called Federal Reserve Deposits) that private banks keep at their local Federal Reserve Bank. These balances are the namesake reserves of the Federal Reserve System. The purpose of keeping funds at a Federal Reserve Bank is to have a mechanism for private banks to lend funds to one another. This market for funds plays an important role in the Federal Reserve System as it is what inspired the name of the system and it is what is used as the basis for monetary policy. Monetary policy is put into effect partly by influencing how much interest the private banks charge each other for the lending of these funds.
Federal reserve accounts contain federal reserve credit, which can be converted into federal reserve notes. Private banks maintain their bank reserves in federal reserve accounts.
The Federal Reserve regulates private banks. The system was designed out of a compromise between the competing philosophies of privatization and government regulation. In 2006 Donald L. Kohn, vice chairman of the Board of Governors, summarized the history of this compromise:
Agrarian and progressive interests, led by William Jennings Bryan, favored a central bank under public, rather than banker, control. But the vast majority of the nation 's bankers, concerned about government intervention in the banking business, opposed a central bank structure directed by political appointees.
The legislation that Congress ultimately adopted in 1913 reflected a hard - fought battle to balance these two competing views and created the hybrid public - private, centralized - decentralized structure that we have today.
The balance between private interests and government can also be seen in the structure of the system. Private banks elect members of the board of directors at their regional Federal Reserve Bank while the members of the Board of Governors are selected by the President of the United States and confirmed by the Senate.
The Federal Banking Agency Audit Act, enacted in 1978 as Public Law 95 - 320 and 31 U.S.C. section 714 establish that the Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System and the Federal Reserve banks may be audited by the Government Accountability Office (GAO).
The GAO has authority to audit check - processing, currency storage and shipments, and some regulatory and bank examination functions, however, there are restrictions to what the GAO may audit. Under the Federal Banking Agency Audit Act, 31 U.S.C. section 714 (b), audits of the Federal Reserve Board and Federal Reserve banks do not include (1) transactions for or with a foreign central bank or government or non-private international financing organization; (2) deliberations, decisions, or actions on monetary policy matters; (3) transactions made under the direction of the Federal Open Market Committee; or (4) a part of a discussion or communication among or between members of the Board of Governors and officers and employees of the Federal Reserve System related to items (1), (2), or (3). See Federal Reserve System Audits: Restrictions on GAO 's Access (GAO / T - GGD - 94 - 44), statement of Charles A. Bowsher.
The Board of Governors in the Federal Reserve System has a number of supervisory and regulatory responsibilities in the U.S. banking system, but not complete responsibility. A general description of the types of regulation and supervision involved in the U.S. banking system is given by the Federal Reserve:
The Board also plays a major role in the supervision and regulation of the U.S. banking system. It has supervisory responsibilities for state - chartered banks that are members of the Federal Reserve System, bank holding companies (companies that control banks), the foreign activities of member banks, the U.S. activities of foreign banks, and Edge Act and "agreement corporations '' (limited - purpose institutions that engage in a foreign banking business). The Board and, under delegated authority, the Federal Reserve Banks, supervise approximately 900 state member banks and 5,000 bank holding companies. Other federal agencies also serve as the primary federal supervisors of commercial banks; the Office of the Comptroller of the Currency supervises national banks, and the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation supervises state banks that are not members of the Federal Reserve System.
Some regulations issued by the Board apply to the entire banking industry, whereas others apply only to member banks, that is, state banks that have chosen to join the Federal Reserve System and national banks, which by law must be members of the System. The Board also issues regulations to carry out major federal laws governing consumer credit protection, such as the Truth in Lending, Equal Credit Opportunity, and Home Mortgage Disclosure Acts. Many of these consumer protection regulations apply to various lenders outside the banking industry as well as to banks.
Members of the Board of Governors are in continual contact with other policy makers in government. They frequently testify before congressional committees on the economy, monetary policy, banking supervision and regulation, consumer credit protection, financial markets, and other matters.
The Board has regular contact with members of the President 's Council of Economic Advisers and other key economic officials. The Chair also meets from time to time with the President of the United States and has regular meetings with the Secretary of the Treasury. The Chair has formal responsibilities in the international arena as well.
The board of directors of each Federal Reserve Bank District also has regulatory and supervisory responsibilities. If the board of directors of a district bank has judged that a member bank is performing or behaving poorly, it will report this to the Board of Governors. This policy is described in United States Code:
Each Federal reserve bank shall keep itself informed of the general character and amount of the loans and investments of its member banks with a view to ascertaining whether undue use is being made of bank credit for the speculative carrying of or trading in securities, real estate, or commodities, or for any other purpose inconsistent with the maintenance of sound credit conditions; and, in determining whether to grant or refuse advances, rediscounts, or other credit accommodations, the Federal reserve bank shall give consideration to such information. The chairman of the Federal reserve bank shall report to the Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System any such undue use of bank credit by any member bank, together with his recommendation. Whenever, in the judgment of the Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System, any member bank is making such undue use of bank credit, the Board may, in its discretion, after reasonable notice and an opportunity for a hearing, suspend such bank from the use of the credit facilities of the Federal Reserve System and may terminate such suspension or may renew it from time to time.
The Federal Reserve plays an important role in the U.S. payments system. The twelve Federal Reserve Banks provide banking services to depository institutions and to the federal government. For depository institutions, they maintain accounts and provide various payment services, including collecting checks, electronically transferring funds, and distributing and receiving currency and coin. For the federal government, the Reserve Banks act as fiscal agents, paying Treasury checks; processing electronic payments; and issuing, transferring, and redeeming U.S. government securities.
In the Depository Institutions Deregulation and Monetary Control Act of 1980, Congress reaffirmed that the Federal Reserve should promote an efficient nationwide payments system. The act subjects all depository institutions, not just member commercial banks, to reserve requirements and grants them equal access to Reserve Bank payment services. The Federal Reserve plays a role in the nation 's retail and wholesale payments systems by providing financial services to depository institutions. Retail payments are generally for relatively small - dollar amounts and often involve a depository institution 's retail clients -- individuals and smaller businesses. The Reserve Banks ' retail services include distributing currency and coin, collecting checks, and electronically transferring funds through the automated clearinghouse system. By contrast, wholesale payments are generally for large - dollar amounts and often involve a depository institution 's large corporate customers or counterparties, including other financial institutions. The Reserve Banks ' wholesale services include electronically transferring funds through the Fedwire Funds Service and transferring securities issued by the U.S. government, its agencies, and certain other entities through the Fedwire Securities Service.
The Federal Reserve System has a "unique structure that is both public and private '' and is described as "independent within the government '' rather than "independent of government ''. The System does not require public funding, and derives its authority and purpose from the Federal Reserve Act, which was passed by Congress in 1913 and is subject to Congressional modification or repeal. The four main components of the Federal Reserve System are (1) the Board of Governors, (2) the Federal Open Market Committee, (3) the twelve regional Federal Reserve Banks, and (4) the member banks throughout the country.
The seven - member Board of Governors is a federal agency. It is charged with the overseeing of the 12 District Reserve Banks and setting national monetary policy. It also supervises and regulates the U.S. banking system in general. Governors are appointed by the President of the United States and confirmed by the Senate for staggered 14 - year terms. One term begins every two years, on February 1 of even - numbered years, and members serving a full term can not be renominated for a second term. "(U) pon the expiration of their terms of office, members of the Board shall continue to serve until their successors are appointed and have qualified. '' The law provides for the removal of a member of the board by the President "for cause ''. The board is required to make an annual report of operations to the Speaker of the U.S. House of Representatives.
The Chair and Vice Chair of the Board of Governors are appointed by the President from among the sitting Governors. They both serve a four - year term and they can be renominated as many times as the President chooses, until their terms on the Board of Governors expire.
The current members of the Board of Governors are as follows:
Indicates the date of term expiration for the individual nominated to this vacant position.
In late December 2011, President Barack Obama nominated Jeremy C. Stein, a Harvard University finance professor and a Democrat, and Jerome Powell, formerly of Dillon Read, Bankers Trust and The Carlyle Group and a Republican. Both candidates also have Treasury Department experience in the Obama and George H.W. Bush administrations respectively.
"Obama administration officials (had) regrouped to identify Fed candidates after Peter Diamond, a Nobel Prize - winning economist, withdrew his nomination to the board in June (2011) in the face of Republican opposition. Richard Clarida, a potential nominee who was a Treasury official under George W. Bush, pulled out of consideration in August (2011) '', one account of the December nominations noted. The two other Obama nominees in 2011, Yellen and Raskin, were confirmed in September. One of the vacancies was created in 2011 with the resignation of Kevin Warsh, who took office in 2006 to fill the unexpired term ending January 31, 2018, and resigned his position effective March 31, 2011. In March 2012, U.S. Senator David Vitter (R, LA) said he would oppose Obama 's Stein and Powell nominations, dampening near - term hopes for approval. However Senate leaders reached a deal, paving the way for affirmative votes on the two nominees in May 2012 and bringing the board to full strength for the first time since 2006 with Duke 's service after term end. Later, on January 6, 2014, the United States Senate confirmed Yellen 's nomination to be Chair of the Federal Reserve Board of Governors; she is slated to be the first woman to hold the position and will become Chair on February 1, 2014. Subsequently, President Obama nominated Stanley Fischer to replace Yellen as the Vice Chair.
In April 2014, Stein announced he was leaving to return to Harvard May 28 with four years remaining on his term. At the time of the announcement, the FOMC "already is down three members as it awaits the Senate confirmation of... Fischer and Lael Brainard, and as (President) Obama has yet to name a replacement for... Duke... Powell is still serving as he awaits his confirmation for a second term. ''
Allan R. Landon, former president and CEO of the Bank of Hawaii, was nominated in early 2015 by President Obama to the board.
In July 2015, President Obama nominated University of Michigan economist Kathryn M. Dominguez to fill the second vacancy on the board. The Senate had not yet acted on Landon 's confirmation by the time of the second nomination.
Daniel Tarullo submitted his resignation from the board on February 10, 2017, effective on or around April 5, 2017.
The Federal Open Market Committee (FOMC) consists of 12 members, seven from the Board of Governors and 5 of the regional Federal Reserve Bank presidents. The FOMC oversees and sets policy on open market operations, the principal tool of national monetary policy. These operations affect the amount of Federal Reserve balances available to depository institutions, thereby influencing overall monetary and credit conditions. The FOMC also directs operations undertaken by the Federal Reserve in foreign exchange markets. The FOMC must reach consensus on all decisions. The president of the Federal Reserve Bank of New York is a permanent member of the FOMC; the presidents of the other banks rotate membership at two - and three - year intervals. All Regional Reserve Bank presidents contribute to the committee 's assessment of the economy and of policy options, but only the five presidents who are then members of the FOMC vote on policy decisions. The FOMC determines its own internal organization and, by tradition, elects the Chair of the Board of Governors as its chair and the president of the Federal Reserve Bank of New York as its vice chair. Formal meetings typically are held eight times each year in Washington, D.C. Nonvoting Reserve Bank presidents also participate in Committee deliberations and discussion. The FOMC generally meets eight times a year in telephone consultations and other meetings are held when needed.
The Federal Advisory Council, composed of twelve representatives of the banking industry, advises the board on all matters within its jurisdiction.
There are 12 Federal Reserve Banks, each of which is responsible for member banks located in its district. They are located in Boston, New York, Philadelphia, Cleveland, Richmond, Atlanta, Chicago, St. Louis, Minneapolis, Kansas City, Dallas, and San Francisco. The size of each district was set based upon the population distribution of the United States when the Federal Reserve Act was passed.
The charter and organization of each Federal Reserve Bank is established by law and can not be altered by the member banks. Member banks, do however, elect six of the nine members of the Federal Reserve Banks ' boards of directors.
Each regional Bank has a president, who is the chief executive officer of their Bank. Each regional Reserve Bank 's president is nominated by their Bank 's board of directors, but the nomination is contingent upon approval by the Board of Governors. Presidents serve five - year terms and may be reappointed.
Each regional Bank 's board consists of nine members. Members are broken down into three classes: A, B, and C. There are three board members in each class. Class A members are chosen by the regional Bank 's shareholders, and are intended to represent member banks ' interests. Member banks are divided into three categories: large, medium, and small. Each category elects one of the three class A board members. Class B board members are also nominated by the region 's member banks, but class B board members are supposed to represent the interests of the public. Lastly, class C board members are appointed by the Board of Governors, and are also intended to represent the interests of the public.
The Federal Reserve Banks have an intermediate legal status, with some features of private corporations and some features of public federal agencies. The United States has an interest in the Federal Reserve Banks as tax - exempt federally created instrumentalities whose profits belong to the federal government, but this interest is not proprietary. In Lewis v. United States, the United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit stated that: "The Reserve Banks are not federal instrumentalities for purposes of the FTCA (the Federal Tort Claims Act), but are independent, privately owned and locally controlled corporations. '' The opinion went on to say, however, that: "The Reserve Banks have properly been held to be federal instrumentalities for some purposes. '' Another relevant decision is Scott v. Federal Reserve Bank of Kansas City, in which the distinction is made between Federal Reserve Banks, which are federally created instrumentalities, and the Board of Governors, which is a federal agency.
Regarding the structural relationship between the twelve Federal Reserve banks and the various commercial (member) banks, political science professor Michael D. Reagan has written that:
... the "ownership '' of the Reserve Banks by the commercial banks is symbolic; they do not exercise the proprietary control associated with the concept of ownership nor share, beyond the statutory dividend, in Reserve Bank "profits. ''... Bank ownership and election at the base are therefore devoid of substantive significance, despite the superficial appearance of private bank control that the formal arrangement creates.
A member bank is a private institution and owns stock in its regional Federal Reserve Bank. All nationally chartered banks hold stock in one of the Federal Reserve Banks. State chartered banks may choose to be members (and hold stock in their regional Federal Reserve bank), upon meeting certain standards.
The amount of stock a member bank must own is equal to 3 % of its combined capital and surplus. However, holding stock in a Federal Reserve bank is not like owning stock in a publicly traded company. These stocks can not be sold or traded, and member banks do not control the Federal Reserve Bank as a result of owning this stock. From the profits of the Regional Bank of which it is a member, a member bank receives a dividend equal to 6 % of their purchased stock. The remainder of the regional Federal Reserve Banks ' profits is given over to the United States Treasury Department. In 2015, the Federal Reserve Banks made a profit of $100.2 billion and distributed $2.5 billion in dividends to member banks as well as returning $97.7 billion to the U.S. Treasury.
About 38 % of U.S. banks are members of their regional Federal Reserve Bank.
The GAO and an outside auditor regularly audit the Board of Governors, the Federal Reserve banks, and individual member banks. Audits do not cover "most of the Fed 's monetary policy actions or decisions, including discount window lending (direct loans to financial institutions), open - market operations and any other transactions made under the direction of the Federal Open Market Committee ''... (nor may the GAO audit) "dealings with foreign governments and other central banks. ''
As of August 27, 2012, the Federal Reserve Board has been publishing unaudited financial reports for the Federal Reserve banks every quarter. This is an expansion of prior financial reporting practices. Greater transparency is offered with more frequent disclosure and more detail.
November 7, 2008, Bloomberg L.P. News brought a lawsuit against the Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System to force the board to reveal the identities of firms for which it has provided guarantees during the financial crisis of 2007 -- 2008. Bloomberg, L.P. won at the trial court and the Fed 's appeals were rejected at both the United States Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit and the U.S. Supreme Court. The data was released on March 31, 2011.
The term "monetary policy '' refers to the actions undertaken by a central bank, such as the Federal Reserve, to influence the availability and cost of money and credit to help promote national economic goals. What happens to money and credit affects interest rates (the cost of credit) and the performance of an economy. The Federal Reserve Act of 1913 gave the Federal Reserve authority to set monetary policy in the United States.
The Federal Reserve sets monetary policy by influencing the federal funds rate, which is the rate of interbank lending of excess reserves. The rate that banks charge each other for these loans is determined in the interbank market and the Federal Reserve influences this rate through the three "tools '' of monetary policy described in the Tools section below. The federal funds rate is a short - term interest rate that the FOMC focuses on, which affects the longer - term interest rates throughout the economy. The Federal Reserve summarized its monetary policy in 2005:
The Federal Reserve implements U.S. monetary policy by affecting conditions in the market for balances that depository institutions hold at the Federal Reserve Banks... By conducting open market operations, imposing reserve requirements, permitting depository institutions to hold contractual clearing balances, and extending credit through its discount window facility, the Federal Reserve exercises considerable control over the demand for and supply of Federal Reserve balances and the federal funds rate. Through its control of the federal funds rate, the Federal Reserve is able to foster financial and monetary conditions consistent with its monetary policy objectives.
Effects on the quantity of reserves that banks used to make loans influence the economy. Policy actions that add reserves to the banking system encourage lending at lower interest rates thus stimulating growth in money, credit, and the economy. Policy actions that absorb reserves work in the opposite direction. The Fed 's task is to supply enough reserves to support an adequate amount of money and credit, avoiding the excesses that result in inflation and the shortages that stifle economic growth.
There are three main tools of monetary policy that the Federal Reserve uses to influence the amount of reserves in private banks:
The Federal Reserve System implements monetary policy largely by targeting the federal funds rate. This is the interest rate that banks charge each other for overnight loans of federal funds, which are the reserves held by banks at the Fed. This rate is actually determined by the market and is not explicitly mandated by the Fed. The Fed therefore tries to align the effective federal funds rate with the targeted rate by adding or subtracting from the money supply through open market operations. The Federal Reserve System usually adjusts the federal funds rate target by 0.25 % or 0.50 % at a time.
Open market operations allow the Federal Reserve to increase or decrease the amount of money in the banking system as necessary to balance the Federal Reserve 's dual mandates. Open market operations are done through the sale and purchase of United States Treasury security, sometimes called "Treasury bills '' or more informally "T - bills '' or "Treasuries ''. The Federal Reserve buys Treasury bills from its primary dealers. The purchase of these securities affects the federal funds rate, because primary dealers have accounts at depository institutions.
The Federal Reserve education website describes open market operations as follows:
Open market operations involve the buying and selling of U.S. government securities (federal agency and mortgage - backed). The term ' open market ' means that the Fed does n't decide on its own which securities dealers it will do business with on a particular day. Rather, the choice emerges from an ' open market ' in which the various securities dealers that the Fed does business with -- the primary dealers -- compete on the basis of price. Open market operations are flexible and thus, the most frequently used tool of monetary policy.
Open market operations are the primary tool used to regulate the supply of bank reserves. This tool consists of Federal Reserve purchases and sales of financial instruments, usually securities issued by the U.S. Treasury, Federal agencies and government - sponsored enterprises. Open market operations are carried out by the Domestic Trading Desk of the Federal Reserve Bank of New York under direction from the FOMC. The transactions are undertaken with primary dealers.
The Fed 's goal in trading the securities is to affect the federal funds rate, the rate at which banks borrow reserves from each other. When the Fed wants to increase reserves, it buys securities and pays for them by making a deposit to the account maintained at the Fed by the primary dealer 's bank. When the Fed wants to reduce reserves, it sells securities and collects from those accounts. Most days, the Fed does not want to increase or decrease reserves permanently so it usually engages in transactions reversed within a day or two. That means that a reserve injection today could be withdrawn tomorrow morning, only to be renewed at some level several hours later. These short - term transactions are called repurchase agreements (repos) -- the dealer sells the Fed a security and agrees to buy it back at a later date.
To smooth temporary or cyclical changes in the money supply, the desk engages in repurchase agreements (repos) with its primary dealers. Repos are essentially secured, short - term lending by the Fed. On the day of the transaction, the Fed deposits money in a primary dealer 's reserve account, and receives the promised securities as collateral. When the transaction matures, the process unwinds: the Fed returns the collateral and charges the primary dealer 's reserve account for the principal and accrued interest. The term of the repo (the time between settlement and maturity) can vary from 1 day (called an overnight repo) to 65 days.
The Federal Reserve System also directly sets the "discount rate '', which is the interest rate for "discount window lending '', overnight loans that member banks borrow directly from the Fed. This rate is generally set at a rate close to 100 basis points above the target federal funds rate. The idea is to encourage banks to seek alternative funding before using the "discount rate '' option. The equivalent operation by the European Central Bank is referred to as the "marginal lending facility ''.
Both the discount rate and the federal funds rate influence the prime rate, which is usually about 3 percentage points higher than the federal funds rate.
Another instrument of monetary policy adjustment employed by the Federal Reserve System is the fractional reserve requirement, also known as the required reserve ratio. The required reserve ratio sets the balance that the Federal Reserve System requires a depository institution to hold in the Federal Reserve Banks, which depository institutions trade in the federal funds market discussed above. The required reserve ratio is set by the Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System. The reserve requirements have changed over time and some history of these changes is published by the Federal Reserve.
As a response to the financial crisis of 2008, the Federal Reserve now makes interest payments on depository institutions ' required and excess reserve balances. The payment of interest on excess reserves gives the central bank greater opportunity to address credit market conditions while maintaining the federal funds rate close to the target rate set by the FOMC.
In order to address problems related to the subprime mortgage crisis and United States housing bubble, several new tools have been created. The first new tool, called the Term Auction Facility, was added on December 12, 2007. It was first announced as a temporary tool but there have been suggestions that this new tool may remain in place for a prolonged period of time. Creation of the second new tool, called the Term Securities Lending Facility, was announced on March 11, 2008. The main difference between these two facilities is that the Term Auction Facility is used to inject cash into the banking system whereas the Term Securities Lending Facility is used to inject treasury securities into the banking system. Creation of the third tool, called the Primary Dealer Credit Facility (PDCF), was announced on March 16, 2008. The PDCF was a fundamental change in Federal Reserve policy because now the Fed is able to lend directly to primary dealers, which was previously against Fed policy. The differences between these three new facilities is described by the Federal Reserve:
The Term Auction Facility program offers term funding to depository institutions via a bi-weekly auction, for fixed amounts of credit. The Term Securities Lending Facility will be an auction for a fixed amount of lending of Treasury general collateral in exchange for OMO - eligible and AAA / Aaa rated private - label residential mortgage - backed securities. The Primary Dealer Credit Facility now allows eligible primary dealers to borrow at the existing Discount Rate for up to 120 days.
Some measures taken by the Federal Reserve to address this mortgage crisis have not been used since the Great Depression. The Federal Reserve gives a brief summary of these new facilities:
As the economy has slowed in the last nine months and credit markets have become unstable, the Federal Reserve has taken a number of steps to help address the situation. These steps have included the use of traditional monetary policy tools at the macroeconomic level as well as measures at the level of specific markets to provide additional liquidity.
The Federal Reserve 's response has continued to evolve since pressure on credit markets began to surface last summer, but all these measures derive from the Fed 's traditional open market operations and discount window tools by extending the term of transactions, the type of collateral, or eligible borrowers.
A fourth facility, the Term Deposit Facility, was announced December 9, 2009, and approved April 30, 2010, with an effective date of June 4, 2010. The Term Deposit Facility allows Reserve Banks to offer term deposits to institutions that are eligible to receive earnings on their balances at Reserve Banks. Term deposits are intended to facilitate the implementation of monetary policy by providing a tool by which the Federal Reserve can manage the aggregate quantity of reserve balances held by depository institutions. Funds placed in term deposits are removed from the accounts of participating institutions for the life of the term deposit and thus drain reserve balances from the banking system.
The Term Auction Facility is a program in which the Federal Reserve auctions term funds to depository institutions. The creation of this facility was announced by the Federal Reserve on December 12, 2007, and was done in conjunction with the Bank of Canada, the Bank of England, the European Central Bank, and the Swiss National Bank to address elevated pressures in short - term funding markets. The reason it was created is that banks were not lending funds to one another and banks in need of funds were refusing to go to the discount window. Banks were not lending money to each other because there was a fear that the loans would not be paid back. Banks refused to go to the discount window because it is usually associated with the stigma of bank failure. Under the Term Auction Facility, the identity of the banks in need of funds is protected in order to avoid the stigma of bank failure. Foreign exchange swap lines with the European Central Bank and Swiss National Bank were opened so the banks in Europe could have access to U.S. dollars. Federal Reserve Chairman Ben Bernanke briefly described this facility to the U.S. House of Representatives on January 17, 2008:
the Federal Reserve recently unveiled a term auction facility, or TAF, through which prespecified amounts of discount window credit can be auctioned to eligible borrowers. The goal of the TAF is to reduce the incentive for banks to hoard cash and increase their willingness to provide credit to households and firms... TAF auctions will continue as long as necessary to address elevated pressures in short - term funding markets, and we will continue to work closely and cooperatively with other central banks to address market strains that could hamper the achievement of our broader economic objectives.
It is also described in the Term Auction Facility FAQ
The TAF is a credit facility that allows a depository institution to place a bid for an advance from its local Federal Reserve Bank at an interest rate that is determined as the result of an auction. By allowing the Federal Reserve to inject term funds through a broader range of counterparties and against a broader range of collateral than open market operations, this facility could help ensure that liquidity provisions can be disseminated efficiently even when the unsecured interbank markets are under stress.
In short, the TAF will auction term funds of approximately one - month maturity. All depository institutions that are judged to be in sound financial condition by their local Reserve Bank and that are eligible to borrow at the discount window are also eligible to participate in TAF auctions. All TAF credit must be fully collateralized. Depositories may pledge the broad range of collateral that is accepted for other Federal Reserve lending programs to secure TAF credit. The same collateral values and margins applicable for other Federal Reserve lending programs will also apply for the TAF.
The Term Securities Lending Facility is a 28 - day facility that will offer Treasury general collateral to the Federal Reserve Bank of New York 's primary dealers in exchange for other program - eligible collateral. It is intended to promote liquidity in the financing markets for Treasury and other collateral and thus to foster the functioning of financial markets more generally. Like the Term Auction Facility, the TSLF was done in conjunction with the Bank of Canada, the Bank of England, the European Central Bank, and the Swiss National Bank. The resource allows dealers to switch debt that is less liquid for U.S. government securities that are easily tradable. The currency swap lines with the European Central Bank and Swiss National Bank were increased.
The Primary Dealer Credit Facility (PDCF) is an overnight loan facility that will provide funding to primary dealers in exchange for a specified range of eligible collateral and is intended to foster the functioning of financial markets more generally. This new facility marks a fundamental change in Federal Reserve policy because now primary dealers can borrow directly from the Fed when this used to be prohibited.
As of October 2008, the Federal Reserve banks will pay interest on reserve balances (required and excess) held by depository institutions. The rate is set at the lowest federal funds rate during the reserve maintenance period of an institution, less 75 bp. As of October 23, 2008, the Fed has lowered the spread to a mere 35 bp.
The Term Deposit Facility is a program through which the Federal Reserve Banks will offer interest - bearing term deposits to eligible institutions. By removing "excess deposits '' from participating banks, the overall level of reserves available for lending is reduced, which should result in increased market interest rates, acting as a brake on economic activity and inflation. The Federal Reserve has stated that:
Term deposits will be one of several tools that the Federal Reserve could employ to drain reserves when policymakers judge that it is appropriate to begin moving to a less accommodative stance of monetary policy. The development of the TDF is a matter of prudent planning and has no implication for the near - term conduct of monetary policy.
The Federal Reserve initially authorized up to five "small - value offerings are designed to ensure the effectiveness of TDF operations and to provide eligible institutions with an opportunity to gain familiarity with term deposit procedures. '' After three of the offering auctions were successfully completed, it was announced that small - value auctions would continue on an ongoing basis.
The Term Deposit Facility is essentially a tool available to reverse the efforts that have been employed to provide liquidity to the financial markets and to reduce the amount of capital available to the economy. As stated in Bloomberg News:
Policy makers led by Chairman Ben S. Bernanke are preparing for the day when they will have to start siphoning off more than $1 trillion in excess reserves from the banking system to contain inflation. The Fed is charting an eventual return to normal monetary policy, even as a weakening near - term outlook has raised the possibility it may expand its balance sheet.
Chairman Ben S. Bernanke, testifying before House Committee on Financial Services, described the Term Deposit Facility and other facilities to Congress in the following terms:
Most importantly, in October 2008 the Congress gave the Federal Reserve statutory authority to pay interest on balances that banks hold at the Federal Reserve Banks. By increasing the interest rate on banks ' reserves, the Federal Reserve will be able to put significant upward pressure on all short - term interest rates, as banks will not supply short - term funds to the money markets at rates significantly below what they can earn by holding reserves at the Federal Reserve Banks. Actual and prospective increases in short - term interest rates will be reflected in turn in higher longer - term interest rates and in tighter financial conditions more generally...
As an additional means of draining reserves, the Federal Reserve is also developing plans to offer to depository institutions term deposits, which are roughly analogous to certificates of deposit that the institutions offer to their customers. A proposal describing a term deposit facility was recently published in the Federal Register, and the Federal Reserve is finalizing a revised proposal in light of the public comments that have been received. After a revised proposal is reviewed by the Board, we expect to be able to conduct test transactions this spring and to have the facility available if necessary thereafter. The use of reverse repos and the deposit facility would together allow the Federal Reserve to drain hundreds of billions of dollars of reserves from the banking system quite quickly, should it choose to do so.
When these tools are used to drain reserves from the banking system, they do so by replacing bank reserves with other liabilities; the asset side and the overall size of the Federal Reserve 's balance sheet remain unchanged. If necessary, as a means of applying monetary restraint, the Federal Reserve also has the option of redeeming or selling securities. The redemption or sale of securities would have the effect of reducing the size of the Federal Reserve 's balance sheet as well as further reducing the quantity of reserves in the banking system. Restoring the size and composition of the balance sheet to a more normal configuration is a longer - term objective of our policies. In any case, the sequencing of steps and the combination of tools that the Federal Reserve uses as it exits from its currently very accommodative policy stance will depend on economic and financial developments and on our best judgments about how to meet the Federal Reserve 's dual mandate of maximum employment and price stability.
In sum, in response to severe threats to our economy, the Federal Reserve created a series of special lending facilities to stabilize the financial system and encourage the resumption of private credit flows to American families and businesses. As market conditions and the economic outlook have improved, these programs have been terminated or are being phased out. The Federal Reserve also promoted economic recovery through sharp reductions in its target for the federal funds rate and through large - scale purchases of securities. The economy continues to require the support of accommodative monetary policies. However, we have been working to ensure that we have the tools to reverse, at the appropriate time, the currently very high degree of monetary stimulus. We have full confidence that, when the time comes, we will be ready to do so.
The Asset Backed Commercial Paper Money Market Mutual Fund Liquidity Facility (ABCPMMMFLF) was also called the AMLF. The Facility began operations on September 22, 2008, and was closed on February 1, 2010.
All U.S. depository institutions, bank holding companies (parent companies or U.S. broker - dealer affiliates), or U.S. branches and agencies of foreign banks were eligible to borrow under this facility pursuant to the discretion of the FRBB.
Collateral eligible for pledge under the Facility was required to meet the following criteria:
On October 7, 2008, the Federal Reserve further expanded the collateral it will loan against to include commercial paper using the new Commercial Paper Funding Facility (CPFF). The action made the Fed a crucial source of credit for non-financial businesses in addition to commercial banks and investment firms. Fed officials said they 'll buy as much of the debt as necessary to get the market functioning again. They refused to say how much that might be, but they noted that around $1.3 trillion worth of commercial paper would qualify. There was $1.61 trillion in outstanding commercial paper, seasonally adjusted, on the market as of October 1, 2008, according to the most recent data from the Fed. That was down from $1.70 trillion in the previous week. Since the summer of 2007, the market has shrunk from more than $2.2 trillion. This program lent out a total $738 billion before it was closed. Forty - five out of 81 of the companies participating in this program were foreign firms. Research shows that Troubled Asset Relief Program (TARP) recipients were twice as likely to participate in the program than other commercial paper issuers who did not take advantage of the TARP bailout. The Fed incurred no losses from the CPFF.
A little - used tool of the Federal Reserve is the quantitative policy. With that the Federal Reserve actually buys back corporate bonds and mortgage backed securities held by banks or other financial institutions. This in effect puts money back into the financial institutions and allows them to make loans and conduct normal business. The bursting of the United States housing bubble prompted the Fed to buy mortgage - backed securities for the first time in November 2008. Over six weeks, a total of $1.25 trillion were purchased in order to stabilize the housing market, about one - fifth of all U.S. government - backed mortgages.
The first attempt at a national currency was during the American Revolutionary War. In 1775, the Continental Congress, as well as the states, began issuing paper currency, calling the bills "Continentals ''. The Continentals were backed only by future tax revenue, and were used to help finance the Revolutionary War. Overprinting, as well as British counterfeiting, caused the value of the Continental to diminish quickly. This experience with paper money led the United States to strip the power to issue Bills of Credit (paper money) from a draft of the new Constitution on August 16, 1787, as well as banning such issuance by the various states, and limiting the states ' ability to make anything but gold or silver coin legal tender on August 28.
In 1791, the government granted the First Bank of the United States a charter to operate as the U.S. central bank until 1811. The First Bank of the United States came to an end under President Madison because Congress refused to renew its charter. The Second Bank of the United States was established in 1816, and lost its authority to be the central bank of the U.S. twenty years later under President Jackson when its charter expired. Both banks were based upon the Bank of England. Ultimately, a third national bank, known as the Federal Reserve, was established in 1913 and still exists to this day.
The first U.S. institution with central banking responsibilities was the First Bank of the United States, chartered by Congress and signed into law by President George Washington on February 25, 1791, at the urging of Alexander Hamilton. This was done despite strong opposition from Thomas Jefferson and James Madison, among numerous others. The charter was for twenty years and expired in 1811 under President Madison, because Congress refused to renew it.
In 1816, however, Madison revived it in the form of the Second Bank of the United States. Years later, early renewal of the bank 's charter became the primary issue in the reelection of President Andrew Jackson. After Jackson, who was opposed to the central bank, was reelected, he pulled the government 's funds out of the bank. Jackson was the only President to completely pay off the debt. The bank 's charter was not renewed in 1836. From 1837 to 1862, in the Free Banking Era there was no formal central bank. From 1846 to 1921, an Independent Treasury System ruled. From 1863 to 1913, a system of national banks was instituted by the 1863 National Banking Act during which series of bank panics, in 1873, 1893, and 1907 occurred
The main motivation for the third central banking system came from the Panic of 1907, which caused renewed demands for banking and currency reform. During the last quarter of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century, the United States economy went through a series of financial panics. According to many economists, the previous national banking system had two main weaknesses: an inelastic currency and a lack of liquidity. In 1908, Congress enacted the Aldrich -- Vreeland Act, which provided for an emergency currency and established the National Monetary Commission to study banking and currency reform. The National Monetary Commission returned with recommendations which were repeatedly rejected by Congress. A revision crafted during a secret meeting on Jekyll Island by Senator Aldrich and representatives of the nation 's top finance and industrial groups later became the basis of the Federal Reserve Act. The House voted on December 22, 1913, with 298 voting yes to 60 voting no. The Senate voted 43 -- 25 on December 23, 1913. President Woodrow Wilson signed the bill later that day.
The head of the bipartisan National Monetary Commission was financial expert and Senate Republican leader Nelson Aldrich. Aldrich set up two commissions -- one to study the American monetary system in depth and the other, headed by Aldrich himself, to study the European central banking systems and report on them.
In early November 1910, Aldrich met with five well known members of the New York banking community to devise a central banking bill. Paul Warburg, an attendee of the meeting and longtime advocate of central banking in the U.S., later wrote that Aldrich was "bewildered at all that he had absorbed abroad and he was faced with the difficult task of writing a highly technical bill while being harassed by the daily grind of his parliamentary duties ''. After ten days of deliberation, the bill, which would later be referred to as the "Aldrich Plan '', was agreed upon. It had several key components, including a central bank with a Washington - based headquarters and fifteen branches located throughout the U.S. in geographically strategic locations, and a uniform elastic currency based on gold and commercial paper. Aldrich believed a central banking system with no political involvement was best, but was convinced by Warburg that a plan with no public control was not politically feasible. The compromise involved representation of the public sector on the Board of Directors.
Aldrich 's bill met much opposition from politicians. Critics charged Aldrich of being biased due to his close ties to wealthy bankers such as J.P. Morgan and John D. Rockefeller, Jr., Aldrich 's son - in - law. Most Republicans favored the Aldrich Plan, but it lacked enough support in Congress to pass because rural and western states viewed it as favoring the "eastern establishment ''. In contrast, progressive Democrats favored a reserve system owned and operated by the government; they believed that public ownership of the central bank would end Wall Street 's control of the American currency supply. Conservative Democrats fought for a privately owned, yet decentralized, reserve system, which would still be free of Wall Street 's control.
The original Aldrich Plan was dealt a fatal blow in 1912, when Democrats won the White House and Congress. Nonetheless, President Woodrow Wilson believed that the Aldrich plan would suffice with a few modifications. The plan became the basis for the Federal Reserve Act, which was proposed by Senator Robert Owen in May 1913. The primary difference between the two bills was the transfer of control of the Board of Directors (called the Federal Open Market Committee in the Federal Reserve Act) to the government. The bill passed Congress on December 23, 1913, on a mostly partisan basis, with most Democrats voting "yea '' and most Republicans voting "nay ''.
Key laws affecting the Federal Reserve have been:
The Federal Reserve records and publishes large amounts of data. A few websites where data is published are at the Board of Governors Economic Data and Research page, the Board of Governors statistical releases and historical data page, and at the St. Louis Fed 's FRED (Federal Reserve Economic Data) page. The Federal Open Market Committee (FOMC) examines many economic indicators prior to determining monetary policy.
Some criticism involves economic data compiled by the Fed. The Fed sponsors much of the monetary economics research in the U.S., and Lawrence H. White objects that this makes it less likely for researchers to publish findings challenging the status quo.
The net worth of households and nonprofit organizations in the United States is published by the Federal Reserve in a report titled Flow of Funds. At the end of the third quarter of fiscal year 2012, this value was $64.8 trillion. At the end of the first quarter of fiscal year 2014, this value was $95.5 trillion.
The most common measures are named M0 (narrowest), M1, M2, and M3. In the United States they are defined by the Federal Reserve as follows:
The Federal Reserve stopped publishing M3 statistics in March 2006, saying that the data cost a lot to collect but did not provide significantly useful information. The other three money supply measures continue to be provided in detail.
The Personal consumption expenditures price index, also referred to as simply the PCE price index, is used as one measure of the value of money. It is a United States - wide indicator of the average increase in prices for all domestic personal consumption. Using a variety of data including United States Consumer Price Index and U.S. Producer Price Index prices, it is derived from the largest component of the gross domestic product in the BEA 's National Income and Product Accounts, personal consumption expenditures.
One of the Fed 's main roles is to maintain price stability, which means that the Fed 's ability to keep a low inflation rate is a long - term measure of their success. Although the Fed is not required to maintain inflation within a specific range, their long run target for the growth of the PCE price index is between 1.5 and 2 percent. There has been debate among policy makers as to whether the Federal Reserve should have a specific inflation targeting policy.
Most mainstream economists favor a low, steady rate of inflation. Low (as opposed to zero or negative) inflation may reduce the severity of economic recessions by enabling the labor market to adjust more quickly in a downturn, and reduce the risk that a liquidity trap prevents monetary policy from stabilizing the economy. The task of keeping the rate of inflation low and stable is usually given to monetary authorities.
One of the stated goals of monetary policy is maximum employment. The unemployment rate statistics are collected by the Bureau of Labor Statistics, and like the PCE price index are used as a barometer of the nation 's economic health.
The Federal Reserve is self - funded. The vast majority (90 % +) of Fed revenues come from open market operations, specifically the interest on the portfolio of Treasury securities as well as "capital gains / losses '' that may arise from the buying / selling of the securities and their derivatives as part of Open Market Operations. The balance of revenues come from sales of financial services (check and electronic payment processing) and discount window loans. The Board of Governors (Federal Reserve Board) creates a budget report once per year for Congress. There are two reports with budget information. The one that lists the complete balance statements with income and expenses as well as the net profit or loss is the large report simply titled, "Annual Report ''. It also includes data about employment throughout the system. The other report, which explains in more detail the expenses of the different aspects of the whole system, is called "Annual Report: Budget Review ''. These detailed comprehensive reports can be found at the Board of Governors ' website under the section "Reports to Congress ''
One of the keys to understanding the Federal Reserve is the Federal Reserve balance sheet (or balance statement). In accordance with Section 11 of the Federal Reserve Act, the Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System publishes once each week the "Consolidated Statement of Condition of All Federal Reserve Banks '' showing the condition of each Federal Reserve bank and a consolidated statement for all Federal Reserve banks. The Board of Governors requires that excess earnings of the Reserve Banks be transferred to the Treasury as interest on Federal Reserve notes.
Below is the balance sheet as of July 6, 2011 (in billions of dollars):
NOTE: The Fed balance sheet shown in this article has assets, liabilities and net equity that do not add up correctly. The Fed balance sheet is missing the item "Reserve Balances with Federal Reserve Banks '' which would make the figures balance.
In addition, the balance sheet also indicates which assets are held as collateral against Federal Reserve Notes.
The Federal Reserve System has faced various criticisms since its inception in 1913. Critique of the organization and system has come from sources such as writers, journalists, economists, and financial institutions as well as politicians and various government employees. Criticisms include transparency, doubt of efficacy due to what is seen by some as poor historical performance and traditionalist concerns about the debasement of the value of the dollar. From the beginning, the Federal Reserve has been the subject of many popular conspiracy theories, that typically link the Fed to numerous other supposed conspiracies.
Bundled references
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as you like it movie free download in english | As You Like it (1936 film) - wikipedia
As You Like It is a 1936 British film, directed by Paul Czinner and starring Laurence Olivier as Orlando and Elisabeth Bergner as Rosalind. It is based on William Shakespeare 's play of the same name. It was Olivier 's first performance of Shakespeare on screen.
It was the final film of stage actors Leon Quartermaine and Henry Ainley, and featured an early screen role for Ainley 's son Richard as Sylvius, as well as for John Laurie, who played Orlando 's brother Oliver. (Laurie would go on to co-star with Olivier in the three Shakespearean films that Olivier directed.)
Bergner had previously played the role of Rosalind in her native Germany and her German accent is apparent in most of her scenes.
Duke Frederick (Felix Aylmer) has usurped and deposed his older brother, Duke Senior (Henry Ainley). Frederick allows the exiled Duke 's daughter, Rosalind (Elisabeth Bergner), however, to stay, as she is the closest friend of his daughter, Celia (Sophie Stewart). Orlando (Laurence Olivier), who has been forced to flee his home due to the oppression from his brother, Oliver (John Laurie), comes to the Frederick 's Duchy, and enters a wrestling tournament. On leaving the Duchy, Orlando encounters Rosalind, and it is love at first sight. Frederick then becomes angry, and banishes Rosalind. Celia decides to accompany her, along with a jester, Touchstone (Mackenzie Ward).
Rosalind and Celia disguise themselves as "Ganymede '', a boy, and "Aliena '', respectively, and venture into the Forest of Arden, where they eventually encounter the exiled Duke. Orlando, deeply in love, posts love poems on the trees in praise of Rosalind. Orlando comes across Ganymede, who tells him he can teach Orlando how to cure love by pretending to be Rosalind. At the same time, Phoebe (Joan White), a shepherdess, falls in love with Ganymede, though he (she) continually rejects her. Sylvius (Richard Ainley), a shepherd, is in love with Phoebe, which complicates the matter. Meanwhile, Touchstone attempts to marry the simple farmgirl, Audrey (Dorice Fordred), before he can be stopped by Jaques (Leon Quartermaine), a Lord who lives with the exiled Duke.
Orlando rescues Oliver from a lioness in the forest, causing Oliver to repent and re-embrace his brother. Ganymede, Orlando, Phoebe, and Silvius are brought together to sort out who marries whom. Ganymede proposes that Orlando promise to marry Rosalind, and Phoebe promise to marry Silvius if she can not marry Ganymede. The next day, Rosalind reveals herself. Orlando and Rosalind, Oliver and Celia, Silvius and Phoebe, and Touchstone and Audrey are all then married, and they learn that Frederick has also repented and decided to reinstate his brother as the Duke.
The 1936 adaptation is the first time that the Shakespearean play was made into a sound film. It was directed in London by Paul Czinner, an Austrian Jew that fled his home country to avoid political persecution. The film stars his wife, Elizabeth Bergner, also an Austrian Jewish refugee. To the persecuted, the escape to the Forest of Arden does not simply represent, as Celia sees it, a place to spend time and relax so much as an escape to freedom. This view is reflected in the film created by refugees, and speaks to other refugees and exiles.
The film is notable for being scored by William Walton, who was to become Olivier 's longtime musical collaborator, scoring his films of Henry V, Hamlet and Richard III, and defending his score for the film Battle of Britain against its replacement by Ron Goodwin 's.
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who played becky's boyfriend jimmy on roseanne | Glenn Quinn - wikipedia
Glenn Martin Christopher Francis Quinn (May 28, 1970 -- December 3, 2002) was an Irish actor. While he was best known for his portrayal of Mark Healy on the popular ' 90s family sitcom Roseanne, Quinn also amassed a large fan base for his portrayal of Doyle, a half - demon, on Angel, a spin - off series of Buffy the Vampire Slayer.
Quinn was born in Dublin, Ireland on May 28, 1970, the son of Murty Quinn, a musician and singer with the Miami Showband who enjoyed seven # 1 hits in the ' 60s and ' 70s, and his wife, Bernadette Quinn (nee Brady). He was raised in Cabinteely, a suburb of Dublin, and attended Clonkeen College. He emigrated to the United States with his mother and two sisters, Sonja and Louisa, in 1988, when he was still just a teenager, with the family settling in Los Angeles, California. Quinn had a third sibling, a brother Ciaran, whom he never knew existed as the boy had been placed for adoption.
Quinn did commercials for Pepsi and Ray - Ban, appeared in the music video for the Richard Marx song "Satisfied, '' and had his first speaking line in the pilot of Beverly Hills, 90210 after having endured eight separate auditions for the role of "Brandon Walsh '' and then "Steve Sanders '' (played by Jason Priestley and Ian Ziering, respectively). Casting director Johanna Ray gave him a small role with two lines in the pilot, but Quinn was barely visible in the final broadcast version. His first substantial speaking part was as a guest star in an episode of the short - lived series The Outsiders.
In 1991, Quinn had his first major role in the movie Shout, which starred John Travolta and in which Quinn shared an on - screen kiss with Gwyneth Paltrow in her debut film.
One of Quinn 's more visible roles began in 1990 as the character Mark Healy, Becky Conner 's boyfriend and later husband, in Roseanne. He continued in this role until the show ended in 1997 (seasons 3 -- 9). In 2018, the fourth episode of the revived show 's tenth season was dedicated to the memory of Quinn.
Quinn took on the role as youngest son Cedric on the 1992 U.S. and UK TV series Covington Cross. While shooting the series in England, he suffered a serious injury to his back after falling from his horse while shooting a scene.
In 1992, he starred alongside Holly Marie Combs in Dr. Giggles. In 1997, he played dual roles in the horror anthology film Campfire Tales.
After seven years using an American accent on Roseanne, Quinn was pleased producers made Doyle on Angel Irish because it would allow him to use his native accent. In an interview with The Irish Times, Quinn said of his accent, "I 've been hiding it for so long that it 's amazing to have some freedom. It was like putting on an old pair of shoes. It 's bringing my soul back to life. '' His last film work was in R.S.V.P. (2002).
On December 3, 2002, Quinn 's body was found at a friend 's home in North Hollywood, California. An autopsy found that Quinn had died as the result of a heroin overdose. In the months leading up to his death, Quinn had reportedly been struggling with homelessness and drug addiction. His issues with substance abuse started in 1987 with the breakdown of his parents ' marriage and, unable to maintain sobriety, he was eventually bought out as owner of Goldfingers nightclub in Los Angeles, California, for begging for money from customers and causing fights. Quinn neither married nor had any children.
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who wrote ask not what your country can do | Inauguration of John F. Kennedy - wikipedia
The inauguration of John F. Kennedy as the 35th President of the United States was held on Friday, January 20, 1961 at the eastern portico of the United States Capitol in Washington, D.C.. The inauguration marked the commencement of John F. Kennedy 's only term as President and of Lyndon B. Johnson 's only term as Vice President. Kennedy was assassinated 2 years, 306 days into this term, and Johnson succeeded to the presidency.
Kennedy took office following the November 1960 presidential election, in which he narrowly defeated Richard Nixon, the then -- incumbent Vice President. He was the first Catholic to become President, and became the youngest person elected to the office.
His inaugural address encompassed the major themes of his campaign and would define his presidency during a time of economic prosperity, emerging social changes, and diplomatic challenges. This inauguration was the first in which a poet, Robert Frost, participated in the program.
Presidential inaugurations are organized by the Joint Committee on Inaugural Ceremonies. For John F. Kennedy 's inauguration, this committee was chaired by Senator John Sparkman, and included Senators Carl Hayden and Styles Bridges, and Representatives Sam Rayburn, John William McCormack, and Charles A. Halleck.
-- Todd S. Purdum, Vanity Fair, Feb. 2011
Frank Sinatra and Peter Lawford organized and hosted a pre-inaugural ball at the D.C. Armory on the eve of Inauguration day, January 19, 1961, considered as one of the biggest parties ever held in Washington, D.C. Sinatra recruited many Hollywood stars who performed and attended, and went as far as convincing Broadway theatres to suspend their shows for the night to accommodate some of their actors attending the gala. With tickets ranging from $100 per person to $10,000 per group, Sinatra hoped to raise $1.7 million ($13.9 million in today 's dollars) for the Democratic Party to eliminate its debt brought on by a hard - fought campaign. Many Hollywood stars gave brief speeches or performed acts, rehearsed by Kay Thompson and directed by Roger Edens, and stayed at the Statler - Hilton Hotel where preparations and rehearsals were photographed by Phil Stern. Performances and speeches included Fredric March, Sidney Poitier, Nat King Cole, Ella Fitzgerald, Gene Kelly, Tony Curtis, Janet Leigh, Bill Dana, Milton Berle, Jimmy Durante, Harry Belafonte, and Sinatra himself.
Sammy Davis, Jr., a long - time friend of Sinatra, supporter of the Democratic Party, and member of the Rat Pack, was asked by John F. Kennedy not to attend the gala at the behest of his father Joseph, fearing that his interracial marriage to Swedish actress May Britt was too controversial for the time and occasion, much to Sammy 's and Sinatra 's dismay. Davis had already postponed his wedding to Britt until after the election, also at the request of the Kennedy campaign via Sinatra. Davis eventually switched his support to the Republican Party and Richard Nixon in the early 1970s. Harry Belafonte expressed sadness at the controversy, stating "It was the ambassador, (but) we did n't know that until after. Sammy not being there was a loss. ''
At the end of the ball, Kennedy spoke to thank Sinatra on the festivities and his support of the Democratic Party throughout his life and the 1960 campaign, adding "The happy relationship between the arts and politics which has characterized our long history I think reached culmination tonight. '' Jacqueline retired to the White House before the ball ended at 1: 30am (ET), and John went to a second pre-inaugural ball hosted by his father Joseph Kennedy, and would finally return to the White House at around 3: 30am.
A strong nor'easter fell the day before the inauguration, with temperatures at 20 ° F (− 7 ° C) and snowfall at 1 -- 2 inches (2.5 -- 5.1 cm) per hour and a total of 8 inches (20 cm) during the night, causing transportation and logistical problems in Washington and serious concern for the inauguration.
On inauguration day, January 20, 1961, the skies began to clear but the snow created chaos in Washington, almost canceling the inaugural parade. The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers was put in charge of clearing the streets during the evening and morning before the inauguration, and were assisted by more than 1,000 District of Columbia employees and 1,700 Boy Scouts. This task force employed hundreds of dump trucks, front - end loaders, sanders, plows, rotaries, and flamethrowers to clear the route. Over 1,400 cars which had been stranded due to the conditions and lack of fuel had to be removed from the parade route along Pennsylvania Avenue.
The snowstorm dropped visibility at Washington National Airport to less than half a mile, preventing former President Herbert Hoover from flying into Washington and attending the inauguration.
Before the proceeding to the Capitol in company with outgoing President Dwight D. Eisenhower, Kennedy went to a morning Mass at Holy Trinity Catholic Church in Georgetown. Cardinal Richard Cushing gave the invocation at the inaugural which lasted for 12 minutes, with additional prayers recited by Archbishop Iakovos of the Greek Orthodox Church and Reverend Dr. John Barclay of the Central Christian Church of Austin, Texas, and a blessing offered by Rabbi Nelson Glueck. The invocation and prayers lasted a total of 28 minutes. Marian Anderson sang "The Star - Spangled Banner '', and a composition by musical Leonard Bernstein titled "Fanfare for the Inauguration of John F. Kennedy '' was played.
The oath of office for Vice President was administered by the Speaker of the House of Representatives Sam Rayburn to Lyndon Johnson. This marked the first time a Speaker administered the oath, which had been given in previous inaugurations by either the President pro tempore of the Senate, the ex-Vice President, or a United States Senator.
Robert Frost, then 86 years old, recited his poem "The Gift Outright ''. Kennedy requested Frost to read a poem at the inauguration, suggesting "The Gift Outright '', considered an act of gratitude towards Frost for his help during the campaign. Kennedy would later state that he admired the "courage, the towering skill and daring '' of Frost, and adding that "I 've never taken the view the world of politics and the world of poetry are so far apart. I think politicians and poets share at least one thing, and that is their greatness depends upon the courage with which they face the challenges of life. '' American poet William Meredith would say that the request "focused attention on Kennedy as a man of culture, as a man interested in culture. ''
"The glory of a next Augustan age Of a power leading from its strength and pride, Of young ambition eager to be tried, Firm in our free beliefs without dismay, In any game the nations want to play. A golden age of poetry and power Of which this noonday 's the beginning hour. ''
-- -- Closing seven lines from Robert Frost 's poem "For John F. Kennedy His Inauguration '', the expanded version of "Dedication ''.
Frost composed a new poem titled Dedication specifically for the ceremony as a preface to the poem Kennedy suggested, to the surprise of Kennedy 's friends. On the morning of the inauguration, Frost asked Stewart Udall, Kennedy 's future Secretary of the Interior, to have his handwritten draft type scripted for easier reading, to which Udall obliged.
Once at the presidential podium, however, the glare of the sun and snow prevented him from reading his papers. When Frost started reading, he stumbled on the first three lines, squinting at his papers in view of the crowd and cameras. Vice-President Johnson tried to assist by using his top hat as a shade, however Frost waved the offer aside, took the hat and jokingly said "I 'll help you with that '', sparking laughter and applause from the crowd and President Kennedy. Understanding the immediacy of the situation, Frost stated to the microphones that "this (the poem) was to have been a preface to a poem which I do not have to read '', and began to recite "The Gift Outright '' from memory. This marks the first time a poem was read at a Presidential inauguration, a feature repeated by future Presidents Bill Clinton and Barack Obama at their respective ceremonies.
Frost gave the type scripted version of the undelivered "Dedication '' poem to Udall after the ceremony, who eventually donated the document to the Library of Congress where it is stored today. The original manuscript version, personally dedicated by Frost, was provided to the President and currently held by the John F. Kennedy Presidential Library. Kennedy 's wife Jacqueline framed this manuscript version, writing on the back of the frame: For Jack. First thing I had framed to be put in your office. First thing to be hung there. Frost officially presented the poem, retitled to For John F. Kennedy His Inauguration and expanded from 42 to 77 lines, to Kennedy in March 1962. The unread poem (published in 1962 as part of Frost 's In the Clearing poetry collection) was finally recited at the U.S. Capitol by Chaplain Daniel P. Coughlin during the 50th anniversary celebrations of Kennedy 's inauguration.
The oath of office for the President was administered by Chief Justice of the United States Earl Warren to Kennedy using a closed family Bible at 12: 51 (ET) Kennedy did not wear an overcoat when taking the oath of office and delivering the inaugural address, despite the cold conditions of 22 ° F (− 6 ° C) with windchill at 7 ° F (− 14 ° C) at noon.
Immediately after reciting the oath of office, President Kennedy turned to address the crowd gathered at the Capitol. His 1366 - word inaugural address, the first delivered to a televised audience in color, is considered among the best presidential inaugural speeches in American history.
Let the word go forth from this time and place, to friend and foe alike, that the torch has been passed to a new generation of Americans -- born in this century, tempered by war, disciplined by a hard and bitter peace, proud of our ancient heritage -- and unwilling to witness or permit the slow undoing of those human rights to which this nation has always been committed, and to which we are committed today at home and around the world.
And so, my fellow Americans: ask not what your country can do for you -- ask what you can do for your country.
The speech was crafted by Kennedy and his speech writer Ted Sorensen. Kennedy had Sorensen study President Abraham Lincoln 's Gettysburg Address as well as other inaugural speeches. Kennedy began collecting thoughts and ideas for his inauguration speech in late November 1960. He took suggestions from various friends, aides and counselors, including suggestions from clergymen for biblical quotations. Kennedy then made several drafts using his own thoughts and some of those suggestions. Kennedy included in his speech several suggestions made by Harvard economist John Kenneth Galbraith and by the former Democratic presidential candidate Adlai Stevenson II. Kennedy 's line "Let us never negotiate out of fear. But let us never fear to negotiate. '' is nearly identical to Galbraith 's suggestion "We shall never negotiate out of fear. But we shall never fear to negotiate. '' Stevenson 's suggestion "if the free way of life does n't help the many poor of this world it will never save the few rich. '' was the basis for Kennedy 's line "If a free society can not help the many who are poor, it can not save the few who are rich. ''
As a president coming into power at the height of the Cold War, President Kennedy 's duty of maintaining peaceful international relations with representing the United States as a force to be reckoned was daunting, at the very least. It is this overarching goal of his presidential term that dominates his inaugural address. Kennedy highlights the newly discovered dangers of nuclear power coupled with the accelerating arms race, and essentially makes the main point that this focus on pure firepower should be replaced with a focus on maintenance of international relations and helping the impoverished in the world.
The main focus of the speech can crudely be boiled down to one theme -- the relationship between duty and power. This is emphasized by Kennedy 's strong use of juxtaposition in the first part of the speech. For example, he states in the second passage, "... Man holds in his mortal hands the power to abolish all forms of human poverty and all forms of human life, '' a clear calling - out of not only America, but also other nations of power for skewed Cold War priorities. He again employs the strategy in the fifth passage when he says, "United there is little we can not do in a host of cooperative ventures. Divided there is little we can do, '' again appealing to the idea of refocusing of international values. Again, after exhorting "both sides '' to action, he calls on all of "us '' "to bear the burden of a long twilight struggle... against the common enemies of man: tyranny, poverty, disease, and war itself, '' though the phrase "long twilight struggle '' came to be associated with the cold war struggle against communism.
One of the main components of classical rhetoric, to prepon (the appropriate), is also extremely prevalent in this address. Recognizing the fear and anxiety prevalent in the American people since the start of the Cold War, Kennedy geared his speech to have an optimistic and even idealistic tone as a means of providing comfort. He does this by quickly moving the time of the speech into the future, and invokes repetition of the phrase "Let both sides... '' to allude to how he plans to deal with strained relations while also appealing to the end goal of international unity. He also phrases negative ideas in a manner so as to present them as opportunities -- a challenge, appealing to innately American ideals. A great line to emphasize this is in the fourth from last passage, where he states, "In the long history of the world, only a few generations have been granted the role of defending freedom in its hour of maximum danger, '' a simple twist of words that challenges the American public rather than frightening them.
It was also in his inaugural address that John F. Kennedy spoke his famous words, "ask not what your country can do for you, ask what you can do for your country. '' This use of chiasmus can be seen even as a thesis statement of his speech -- a call to action for the public to do what is right for the greater good. (This appears to be an elegant rephrasing of Franklin D. Roosevelt 's acceptance speech at the 1936 Democratic National Convention: "To some generations much is given. Of other generations much is expected. This generation of Americans has a rendezvous with destiny. '')
Along with official presidential guests and honorees, including former presidents, vice-presidents, cabinet members, and other Washington officials, the Kennedys invited famous men and women of the arts, including Carl Sandburg, John Steinbeck, Ernest Hemingway, Brendan Behan, Mark Rothko, and fashion icon and future Vogue editor Diana Vreeland.
Congressman Tip O'Neill sat next to wealthy Boston businessman George Kara:
O'Neill recalled that Kara had nudged him and said, "Years from now, historians will wonder what was on the young man 's mind as he strode to take his oath of office. I bet he 's asking himself how George Kara got such a good seat. '' That night, O'Neill and his wife danced over to the president 's box at the ball in the Mayflower Hotel to congratulate him, and sure enough, Kennedy asked, "Was that George Kara sitting beside you? '' O'Neill told Kennedy what Kara had said, and J.F.K replied, "Tip, you 'll never believe it. I had my left hand on the Bible and my right hand in the air, and I was about to take the oath of office, and I said to myself, ' How the hell did Kara get that seat? ' ''
Five first Ladies, Edith Wilson, Eleanor Roosevelt, Bess Truman, Mamie Eisenhower and Jackie Kennedy attended the event, as did future First Ladies Lady Bird Johnson, Pat Nixon, and Betty Ford.
Former President Harry S Truman joined Presidents Eisenhower and Kennedy on the platform, as did future Presidents Lyndon B. Johnson, Richard M. Nixon and Gerald Ford, making this, retroactively, the largest conclave of the "presidential fraternity '' prior to the opening of the Reagan Library in the 1990s.
A vast parade along Pennsylvania Avenue followed the inauguration ceremony, bearing the new President from Capitol Plaza to the White House. Upon his arrival, Kennedy mounted a reviewing stand shared with honored guests such as former President Harry Truman and former First Ladies Edith Wilson and Eleanor Roosevelt. Throngs of onlookers and millions of television viewers also watched the procession; it took three hours to pass by. Sixteen thousand members of the US armed forces marched with displays of modern weaponry like the Minuteman missile and the supersonic B - 70 bomber. A further sixteen thousand marchers were civilians ranging from federal and state officials to high school bands and Boy Scouts, accompanied by forty floats.
Kennedy 's inauguration marked many firsts for the United States. Kennedy was the first, and to this date, the only Catholic inaugurated as commander - in - chief. At the inauguration, Kennedy, then 43, was the youngest elected president and was replacing the oldest president in American history at that time, Eisenhower. The age difference and visual impact of the turnover from Eisenhower 's presence to Kennedy 's was noticeable at the inauguration. In addition, Kennedy was the first person born in the 20th century to have been inaugurated as President.
The claim that Kennedy did not wear a hat to his inauguration, and so single - handedly killed the men 's hat industry, is false. Kennedy wore a top hat to the inauguration and to the balls in the evening, removing it only to be sworn in and give his address. He in fact restored the tradition, after Eisenhower broke with it by wearing a homburg instead of a top hat to both of his inaugurations. Johnson, at his inauguration in 1965, was the first President to go completely hatless.
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how long can a uk government remain in office before they have to hold a general election | Elections in the United Kingdom - wikipedia
There are six types of elections in the United Kingdom: elections to the House of Commons of the United Kingdom, elections to devolved parliaments and assemblies, elections to the European Parliament, local elections, mayoral elections and Police and Crime Commissioner elections. Within each of those categories, there may be by - elections as well as general elections. Elections are held on Election Day, which is conventionally a Thursday. Since the passing of the Fixed - term Parliaments Act 2011 for general elections, all six types of elections are held after fixed periods, though early elections to parliament and the devolved assemblies and parliaments can occur in certain situations. Currently, six electoral systems are used: the single member plurality system (first past the post), the multi member plurality system, party - list proportional representation, the single transferable vote, the additional member system and the supplementary vote.
Elections are administered locally: in each lower - tier local authority, the polling procedure is operated by the Acting Returning Officer or Returning Officer, and the compiling and maintenance of the electoral roll by the Electoral Registration Officer (except in Northern Ireland, where the Electoral Office for Northern Ireland assumes both responsibilities). The Electoral Commission sets standards for and issues guidelines to Returning Officers and Electoral Registration Officers, and is responsible for nationwide electoral administration (such as the registration of political parties and directing the administration of national referendums).
The total number of names in the United Kingdom appearing in Electoral Registers published on 1 December 2010 and based on a qualifying date of 15 October 2010 was 45,844,691.
In England and Wales, anyone who will be aged 18 or over on polling day and who is a national of the United Kingdom (all forms of British nationality but excluding British protected persons), the Republic of Ireland, a Commonwealth country (including Fiji, Zimbabwe and the whole of Cyprus) or a European Union Member State, can apply to the Electoral Registration Officer in the local authority area where they reside with a ' considerable degree of permanence ' to be listed in that area 's Electoral Register.
In Scotland, those fulfilling the nationality requirements (as stated in the previous paragraph) who will be aged 16 or over on polling day can register to vote, as the age for voting in Scottish Parliament and local elections is 16. However, voters in Scotland under 18 are not entitled to vote in European Parliament and UK general elections.
A person can still register at their ordinary address if they will be away temporarily (for example, away working, on holiday, in student accommodation or in hospital). A person who has two homes (such as a university student who has a term - time address and lives at home during holidays) may be able to register to vote at both addresses as long as they are not in the same electoral area (though an elector can only vote once in any single election or referendum).
In addition, to qualify to appear on the Electoral Register, applicants who are Commonwealth citizens must either possess leave to enter or remain in the UK or not require such leave on the date of their application and no applicant may be a convicted person detained in prison or a mental hospital (or unlawfully at large if they would otherwise have been detained) or a person found guilty of certain corrupt or illegal practices.
In Northern Ireland, a further criterion has to be fulfilled to qualify for registration: it is possible for a person to apply to be listed on the Electoral Register only if they have been resident in Northern Ireland for at least three months prior to the date of application.
Remand prisoners, voluntary patients in mental hospitals and people without a fixed place of residence can register to vote by making a declaration of local connection.
Members of HM Forces and their immediate family members have the option of registering as a service voter, by making a service declaration based on their last UK address.
British citizens (but not other categories of British nationals) residing outside the United Kingdom can register as an overseas voter provided that they were on the Electoral Register in the UK within the previous 15 years. The 15 - year period begins when they no longer appeared in the electoral register, not the date they moved abroad. British citizens who moved abroad before they turned 18 years old can still qualify for registration, with the 15 - years period calculated from the date their parent (s) / guardian ceased to appear in the Electoral Register. Overseas voters can only vote in European Parliament and UK Parliamentary elections in the constituency of their last registered UK address (or for those who moved abroad as a minor, the last registered UK address of their parent (s) / guardian). British citizens who are away overseas temporarily do not need to register as overseas electors and can register to vote in the usual way at their UK address.
Crown servants and British Council employees (as well as their spouses who live abroad) employed in a post outside the UK can register by making a Crown Servant declaration, allowing them to vote in all UK elections.
An individual can register as an anonymous elector if his / her safety (or that of any other person in the same household) would be at risk were his / her name and address to be disclosed publicly on the Electoral Register, but the application needs to be supported by a relevant court order, injunction or an attestation by a chief police officer or a Director of Social Services.
The right of Commonwealth and Irish citizens to vote is a legacy of the Representation of the People Act 1918, which limited the vote to British subjects. At that time, "British subjects '' included the people of Ireland -- then part of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland -- and all other parts of the British Empire. Though most of Ireland (see Ireland Act 1949) and the majority of the colonies became independent nations, their citizens have retained the right to vote if they live in the United Kingdom.
In theory, members of the Royal Family who are not members of the House of Lords (including those who are peers who lost their right to sit following the House of Lords Act 1999) are eligible to vote, although in practice they do not exercise that right.
In Great Britain, most electors are enrolled during the course of the annual canvass, which Electoral Registration Officers are obliged to conduct every year between August and November. Canvass forms are sent to all households, and must be returned, otherwise a fine of £ 1000 can be imposed. One person in the household must confirm the details of all residents who are existing electors, which includes adding or deleting residents who have moved in or out and are eligible to register to vote.
Between December and early August, the rolling registration procedure applies instead. Applications must be submitted individually (unlike the annual canvass forms where one person is responsible for registering all eligible people in a household) using registration forms available from local Electoral Registration Officers or the Electoral Commission 's website (4). Although no proof of identity or address is necessary when submitting an application, the Electoral Registration Officer can require the applicant to provide further information regarding the applicant 's age, nationality, residence and whether or not they are disqualified and / or evidence to prove the applicant 's age and / or nationality. Application forms can be returned to the local Electoral Registration Officer by post, by fax or by e-mail as a scanned attachment.
As of June 2014, as part of the Government 's Digital By Default policy, voters in England and Wales can register to the electoral roll online.
Special category electors do not register through the annual canvass procedure. Instead, they submit applications at any time during the year and have to renew their electoral application periodically (every one year for overseas electors and voters with a declaration of local connection and every three years for service voters).
After applications are received by the Electoral Registration Officer, he / she must add them to a list of applications (unless they are applications to register as an anonymous elector). The list is open for inspection for five working days, during which any other elector may raise an objection to an application. The Electoral Registration Officer can initiate an application hearing if he / she considers that there are reasonable integrity concerns about the application.
In Northern Ireland, there is no annual canvass, and instead people register individually at any time during the year. Applicants must supply their National Insurance number or, if they do not have one, make a declaration to that effect. Proof of identity, address, three months ' residency in NI and date of birth must also be included with applications, which are submitted by post to the Electoral Office for Northern Ireland.
Knowingly giving false information to an Electoral Registration Officer anywhere in the UK is an offence with a maximum penalty, upon conviction, of £ 5000 and / or six months ' imprisonment.
Each district council or unitary authority has an Electoral Register which is compiled by the Electoral Registration Officer listing all registered electors. The Electoral Register contains the name, qualifying address and electoral number of every ordinary elector, the name of every special category elector (such as service voters) and the electoral number of every anonymous elector. Any elector who was not aged 18 yet at the time of registration will also have his / her date of birth printed. Each district 's Electoral Register is subdivided into separate registers for each polling district.
Because the franchise differs between individual voters, various markers may be placed next to voters ' names to identify in which elections they are entitled to vote. European Union citizens who are not Commonwealth or Irish citizens have their entry prefixed either with G (meaning they can only vote in local government elections) or K (meaning they can only vote in European Parliamentary and local government elections). Overseas electors are prefixed with the letter F, meaning they can only vote in European and UK Parliamentary elections. Members of the House of Lords residing in the UK are prefixed with the letter L, meaning they can only vote in European Parliamentary and local government elections, whilst peers who are overseas electors are prefixed with the letter E, indicating that they can only vote in European Parliamentary elections.
The Register is published every year on 1 December after the annual canvass period (unless there has been an election during the annual canvass period between 1 July and 1 December, in which case the publication date is 1 February in the following year). However, in 2012, because the Police and Crime Commissioner elections were held on 15 November, the annual canvass in England and Wales (excluding London) was held between July and October and the Electoral Register was published on 16 October. Between January and September, during the ' rolling registration ' period, notices of alteration are published on the first working day of each month to add, remove or amend names. Notices of alteration are also published 5 working days before an election at any time of the year and just before the close of poll at any election to correct any clerical errors or to implement any court decisions. With the exception of a deceased elector who is removed from the Register, any individual who is added or removed from the Register must be notified by the Electoral Registration Officer.
There are two versions of the Register: the full Register and the edited Register. The full Register can only be inspected under supervision at the office of the local Electoral Registration Officer, and must be supplied free of charge to the district 's Returning Officer, the British Library, the Electoral Commission, the Office for National Statistics (only English and Welsh Registers), the General Register Office for Scotland (only Scottish Registers), the National Library of Wales (only English and Welsh Registers), the National Library of Scotland (only English and Scottish Registers) and the relevant Boundary Commission. The edited Register is available for general sale from Electoral Registration Officers and can be used for any purpose. Electors can choose to opt out from appearing in the edited Register by informing their local Electoral Registration Officer.
Political parties are the dominant organisations in the modern UK political system. The majority of election candidates stand on behalf of political parties of varying sizes. All parties, however large or small, must be registered with the Electoral Commission to be able to operate and stand candidates. Parties must regularly report donations, loans and spending on national elections. Larger parties must also submit audited accounts on an annual basis.
Most parties will have an individual leader (some parties choose to nominate one or more "spokespersons '' rather than having a "leader ''). Leaders of the main parties will be those parties ' "candidates '' for the post of prime minister - though there is no formal position of "prime ministerial candidate '' since the prime minister is appointed by the monarch rather than being elected directly. Where a party has members elected to a parliament, devolved assembly or local council, they will typically seek to follow a united position and maintain a disciplined group using the whip system.
Historically (until 2005, with the sole exception of 1923), the United Kingdom has effectively had a two party system as a result of the First - Past - The - Post system used for general and local elections. Duverger 's law certainly seems borne out in the history of British parliamentary politics. Before World War I, the United Kingdom had a true two - party system: the main parties were the Tories (which became the Conservative Party) and the Whigs (which became the Liberal Party), though after Catholic Emancipation there was also a substantial Irish Parliamentary Party. After World War II, the dominant parties have been Conservative and Labour. No third party has come close to winning a parliamentary majority, although Johnston et al. wrote of the elections from 1950 to 1997, "Increasingly, a number of smaller (or third) parties has won a substantial proportion of the votes cast. '' Third parties and smaller parties have always polled at least 20 % of the vote between them since the 1980s, while the Liberal Democrats won 62 of the 646 seats in the House of Commons in 2005, which led some spectators to regard the Westminster Parliament as a "two and a half '' party system.
More recently, in 2010 the share of the vote for the two largest parties fell to 65 %, with seats won by several other parties, including nationalist parties. In 2015, televised election debates included leaders of up to seven different parties. In the general election, the Scottish National Party (SNP) won over 90 % of Scottish constituencies, to become the third party in terms of seats in the House of Commons. At the same time, the United Kingdom Independence Party won nearly 13 % of the UK vote (more than double the UK - wide share obtained by the SNP) to finish third in terms of popular support, yet they won only one seat. Meanwhile, the Liberal Democrats remain the third largest political party in the House of Lords, with over 100 seats.
Smaller parties receive a higher proportion of votes, and a much higher proportion of seats, in those elections which use some form of proportional system: i.e. the regional elections for the Scottish Parliament, Welsh Assembly, Northern Ireland Assembly and London Assembly, and the European Parliament elections. Parties, such as Plaid Cymru, the United Kingdom Independence Party and Green Parties perform better in these elections, which can therefore be considered to produce a multi-party system.
It is relatively easy to stand for election as an independent candidate, although wins are very rare and usually involve special circumstances (for example Martin Bell 's 1997 victory against the discredited Conservative MP Neil Hamilton was aided by the major parties standing aside and not contesting the election). Following the 2005 General Election there were three independent MPs, the highest number since 1945, however only one of these was returned in the 2010 election.
Almost any registered elector is entitled to stand for election to parliament, provided they are able to submit nomination forms signed by ten voters from the constituency they wish to contest, along with a £ 500 deposit (which is returned to the candidate after the election if they poll more than 5 % of the vote). The selection of candidates standing for political parties is the responsibility of the party itself, and all parties follow different procedures. Per the Registration of Political Parties Act 1998, political party candidates must be authorised to stand for election for their party by their party 's "nominating officer '', or someone authorised in writing by the nominating officer. The three largest parties, the Conservative Party, Labour Party, and Liberal Democrats, have centrally - approved lists of candidates.
In the Conservative Party, constituency Associations select their constituency 's candidates. Some associations have organised open parliamentary primaries. A Constituency Association must choose a candidate using the rules approved by, and (in England, Wales and Northern Ireland) from a list established by, the Committee on Candidates of the Board of the Conservative Party. Prospective candidates apply to the Conservative Central Office to be included on the approved list of candidates, some candidates will be given the option of applying for any seat they choose, while others may be restricted to certain constituencies. A Conservative MP can only be deselected at a special general meeting of the local Conservative association, which can only be organised if backed by a petition of more than fifty members.
In the Labour Party, the Constituency Labour Parties (CLP) select the parliamentary general election candidates using procedures agreed by the National Executive Committee (NEC). The selection will always involve a "one member, one vote '' ballot where all members of the CLP are entitled to select their candidate from a shortlist. The methods used to draw up the shortlist will vary according to the structure of the CLP, the time available before the election, and the number of candidates who express an interest in the selection. All selected candidates must attend and pass an interview conducted on behalf of the NEC - most candidates will do this before starting to apply for selections, though the interview can occur after a candidate is selected. Different procedures apply when a sitting Labour MP indicates they wish to stand for re-selection. On very rare occasions, the NEC may withdraw their endorsement of a candidate (including sitting MPs) after the selection process is complete. They exercised this power with regards to some of the MPs involved in the expenses scandal prior to the 2010 General Election.
The Liberal Democrats operate an assessment process for members wishing to join the party 's list of potential candidates. Once on the list, candidates are free to apply for selection in any constituency. The candidate in each seat is selected by local party members following a hustings.
The United Kingdom Independence Party, Scottish National Party and Plaid Cymru select their candidates in a similar manner to the Liberal Democrats.
The Green Party 's selections are open to all members to apply. Applicants are not shortlisted, so local parties vote directly on the full list of applicants.
A person may only cast a vote if he or she is on the Electoral Register - even if he or she would otherwise qualify to vote. If, because of a clerical error, someone 's name has been left off the Electoral Register (even though a correctly completed application form was submitted by the deadline), the Electoral Registration Officer can amend the Register up to 9pm on polling day. Because the franchise between electors varies (for example, EU citizens who are not Commonwealth or Irish citizens can not vote in UK Parliamentary elections) ballot papers are only issued after checking the marker in the Electoral Register before an elector 's name to identify in which elections the individual is eligible to vote.
Votes can be cast either in person at a polling station, by post or by proxy. British citizens residing abroad and registered as overseas electors can not vote at British high commissions, embassies or consulates - their votes can only be cast either in person in the constituency where they are enrolled in the United Kingdom, by proxy (who must reside in and be eligible to vote in the UK) or by post (although this option is less popular as postal ballot packs are only despatched by returning officers at 4pm, 19 working days before polling day at the earliest and must be received by the returning officer by the close of poll to be counted).
Polling stations (also known as polling places) are open from 7am to 10pm on polling day. Voters receive a poll card from the returning officer at their local authority with details of their allocated polling place. They are not required to show their poll card (unless they are an anonymous elector) or any other form of identification at the polling place in order to vote, except in Northern Ireland, where one piece of photographic ID (current or expired) must be presented at the polling station - a NI Electoral Identity Card, a photographic NI or GB or other EEA driving licence, a British or other EU passport, a Translink 60 + SmartPass, a Translink Senior SmartPass, a Translink Blind Person 's SmartPass or a Translink War Disabled SmartPass.
At 7am when the poll opens, the presiding officer must show the empty ballot box to those who are present inside the polling station, before closing and sealing it.
Having verified and marked off the voter 's name and address on the list of electors, the presiding officer or poll clerk issues the ballot paper, calling out the voter 's name, elector number and polling district reference, unless the voter is an anonymous elector, in which case only his / her elector number is called out. Ballot papers can not be issued before 7am and can only be issued after 10pm to a voter who was present in the queue at / outside the polling station at 10pm. All ballot papers contain both an official mark (e.g. a watermark or perforation) and a unique identifying number; any papers issued without both these features (even if it is the presiding officer / poll clerk 's mistake) will be invalid and rejected at the count. On a separate list (called the corresponding number list) the presiding officer or poll clerk writes the voter 's elector number next to the unique identifying number of the ballot paper issued. However, the secrecy of the vote is usually maintained, as at the close of the poll this list linking voters to their ballot paper numbers is sealed inside a packet which may only be opened by the order of a court in the event that the election result is challenged. The ballot paper is folded and then handed to the voter.
The voter marks the ballot papers in the privacy of a voting booth. Polling stations must provide a writing implement for voters; usually pencils are provided (for practical reasons, as ink pens may dry out or spill), but there is no legal requirement for voters to mark their ballot papers with a pencil (they can use their own pen instead). If the ballot paper has been spoilt, the presiding officer / poll clerk can issue a new one after the old ballot paper is cancelled. Before placing the ballot papers in the ballot box, the voter has (in theory) to show the presiding officer or the poll clerk the official mark and the unique identifying number printed on the reverse of the ballot papers.
If a voter requests a ballot paper but someone has already voted in their name, or they are listed as having requested a postal vote, they can only cast a tendered ballot. After marking the tendered ballot in private, the voter must not place it in the ballot box. Instead, it must be returned to the presiding officer who will endorse it with the voter 's name, elector number and polling district reference, before placing it in a special envelope. The voter 's name and elector number is then written down in the ' List of Tendered Votes '. Although tendered ballots are not included at the count, they serve as a formal record that a voter has tried, but has been unable, to cast a vote and is evidence of a voter 's concern about the conduct of an election. If a voter wants to make a complaint, marking a tendered ballot is the first step in pursuing the complaints procedure.
Voters may bring their underage children with them inside the polling station, but they may only observe the voting procedure and are not permitted to participate (for example, by marking the voter 's ballot paper).
The presiding officer and the poll clerk (s) are responsible for maintaining order in the polling station (this includes ensuring that candidates / agents / tellers in the vicinity of the polling station do not interfere with the election process and / or impede voters ' access to / from the polling station, and removing any campaign literature from inside the polling station) and ensuring the secrecy and security of all ballots cast. They are under a duty to act impartially at all times.
Candidates may appoint polling agents to observe the voting process in polling stations.
Tellers are often present outside the polling station and record the elector number (as it appears on the Electoral Register and poll card) of those who have voted. Tellers volunteer on behalf of political parties (identifiable by their rosette), but have no legal or official status, and voters are not obliged to give them their elector number. By recording who has voted, tellers help their parties identify supporters who have not yet voted, so that they can be contacted and encouraged to vote, and offered assistance -- such as transport to the polling station -- if necessary.
At the close of poll, the slot at the top of the ballot box is sealed by the presiding officer or poll clerk (the election and polling agents appointed by candidates can also apply their own seals to the boxes) before being transported ' directly and without delay ' by the presiding officer to the central counting location.
Voters can apply to receive a postal ballot either for specific elections or on a permanent basis until further notice without having to give a reason (except in Northern Ireland, where voters have to give a specific reason explaining why they can not physically attend their allocated polling station). Applications for postal ballots close at 5pm 11 working days before polling day. Postal ballots can be sent anywhere within and outside the United Kingdom, although if they are not sent to a voter 's registered address, a reason must be provided to the Electoral Registration Officer as to why the postal ballot is to be sent to an alternative address.
The returning officer must issue and send out postal ballot packs ' as soon as is practicable ' (i.e. as soon as possible after the close of nominations at 4pm 19 working days before polling day).
Where an elector has applied for a postal ballot to be sent to an overseas address, the returning officer should prioritise the dispatch of their postal ballot packs (over those sent to UK addresses), send them by air mail and ensure that the postal ballot pack includes a return envelope with sufficient postage to be sent to the UK from abroad.
Voters return their postal ballots together with postal voting statements filled in with their date of birth and signature either by post or by hand directly to the returning officer, or by hand to the presiding officer on polling day at a polling station situated within the constituency / ward printed on the postal ballot return envelope. However, for the postal ballot to be counted, the returning officer (or the presiding officer if returned at a polling station) must receive the ballot paper by the close of poll (usually 10pm on polling day).
Any person who is eligible to vote (he / she does not necessarily have to be on the Electoral Register already) can be appointed by another voter as his / her proxy, but for the proxy to be able to vote in an election the proxy application must be received by the Electoral Registration Officer at the voter 's local authority by 5pm 6 working days before polling day. The proxy can either vote in person, or can apply for a postal proxy vote (though a postal proxy vote application has an even earlier deadline - any such request must be received by the Electoral Registration Officer by 5pm 11 working days before polling day at the latest). A voter who has become ill or disabled after 5pm six working days before polling day can make an emergency application to vote by proxy as long as the application is received by the Electoral Registration Officer by 5pm on polling day. Unless a close relative, a person can only vote as a proxy on behalf of a maximum of 2 other voters in any single election in each constituency / ward. When applying to vote by proxy for more than one particular election, the application must be accompanied by a relevant attestation and must be justified based on one of the following reasons: blindness; other disability; employment; on an education course; registered as a service, overseas or anonymous elector. If only applying to vote by proxy for one particular election, the elector only needs to explain why he / she can not vote in person, but does not need an attestation. If it is possible to get to the polling station from the registered address by only air or by sea, the elector can apply for a permanent proxy vote without an attestation.
In Northern Ireland, voters can only appoint another person to be their proxy if they can provide a specific reason explaining why they can not physically attend their allocated polling station.
All polling stations are legally required to be wheelchair - accessible and be equipped with a tactile voting device and at least one large print display version of the ballot paper to assist visually impaired voters. Though the large print version can not be marked, it can be used for reference. Disabled voters can also request the Presiding Officer in the polling station or bring along a family member to mark their ballot papers for them if they wish. If a voter is unable to enter the polling station because of a disability, the Presiding Officer can take the ballot paper to him / her.
Although the Electoral Commission provides electoral registration forms in a number of foreign languages (5), by law all voting materials (e.g. ballot papers) are only printed in English (and also in Welsh in Wales).
United Kingdom general elections are held following a dissolution of Parliament. All the Members of Parliament (MPs) forming the House of Commons of the Parliament of the United Kingdom are elected. Following the Fixed - term Parliaments Act 2011, parliamentary sessions last five years and the only way that an early election can be called is in a vote by a two - thirds majority of the House. Under the Act, dissolution occurs automatically 25 working days before the election (previously, a minimum period of 17 working days applied). At this point, all parliamentary business ends and the role of MP ceases to exist until after polling day.
Candidates for each constituency are chosen by political parties or stand as independents. Almost all successful candidates are members of a political party, with only one independent elected in the 2010 election. Each constituency elects one MP by the first past the post system of election. At the 2005 general election, there were 646 constituencies, thus 646 MPs were elected to Parliament. At the 2010 election the number of MPs was 650.
A party with an overall parliamentary majority (more seats than all the other parties combined) following an election forms the government. If no party has an outright majority, parties can seek to form coalitions. At the 2010 election, even though the Conservatives won the greatest number of seats, it would have been possible for the Liberal Democrats to form a coalition with Labour (and maybe also other, smaller parties) instead of with the Conservatives. Situations such as these can give smaller parties considerable power: the eventual outcome of the 2010 election was effectively decided by the Liberal Democrats, while in 2017 the support of the Democratic Unionist Party allowed the Conservative Party to govern with a minority.
The largest party not in government forms Her Majesty 's Loyal Opposition.
A general election must take place before each parliamentary term begins. Since the maximum term of a parliament is five years, the interval between successive general elections can exceed that period by no more than the combined length of the election campaign and the time for the new parliament to assemble (a total of typically around four weeks). The five years runs from the first meeting of Parliament following the election.
After the 2010 general election, the coalition government enacted the Fixed - term Parliaments Act 2011 which set fixed term parliaments of five years. Thus the next general election was held on 7 May 2015, with subsequent elections scheduled to be held every five years thereafter on the first Thursday in May. However the Act also contains provisions for Parliament to be dissolved and an early election held if no government can be formed within 14 days after a vote of no confidence in the government. Similarly, the Act allows for an election to be triggered by a vote of two - thirds of MPs in the House of Commons calling for one.
The Prime Minister asks the Monarch to dissolve Parliament by Royal Proclamation. The Proclamation also orders the issue of the formal Writs of Election which require an election to be held in each constituency. The election is held 17 working days after the date of the Proclamation, as regulated by the Representation of the People Act 1983, s. 23 and Schedule 1 ("Parliamentary election rules ''), rule 1 ("Timetable '').
Since 1935 every general election has been held on a Thursday. Of the 18 general elections between 1945 and 2010, five were held in May, four each in June and October, two in February and one each in March, April and July.
The Cabinet Office imposes Purdah before elections. This is a period of roughly six weeks in which Government Departments are not allowed to communicate with members of the public about any new or controversial Government initiatives (such as modernisation initiatives, and administrative and legislative changes).
Voting ends at 10 pm (or once all voters present in a queue at / outside the polling station at 10 pm have cast their vote). Presiding officers are responsible for sealing ballot boxes in polling stations (election and polling agents appointed by candidates can also apply their own seals to the boxes) and transporting them ' directly and without delay ' to the central counting location for the constituency. Returning officers are required to ' take reasonable steps to begin counting... as soon as practicable within the period of four hours starting with the close of the poll ' (i.e. no later than 2 am). In most constituencies, upon receipt by the returning officer at the central counting location, ballot boxes are unsealed and emptied, and ballot papers are verified and counted immediately. Ballot papers are verified manually and counted by hand. The counting process is observed by candidates and their agents.
Results are declared in each individual constituency by the local returning officer. The earliest results are declared by about 11 pm, with most having been declared by 3 or 4 am; some constituencies do not declare their results until later the following day. Each individual MP assumes office immediately upon the declaration by the local returning officer.
When all the results are known, or when one party achieves an absolute majority of the seats in the House of Commons, the first response comes from the current (and possibly outgoing) Prime Minister. If a majority in the new Parliament has been achieved by their party, they remain in office without the need for reconfirmation or reappointment -- no new "term '' of office is started. If a majority has not been achieved, and another party has the numbers to form a government, the Prime Minister submits his / her resignation to the Monarch. The Monarch then commissions the leader of the new majority party to form a new government. The Prime Minister can try to remain in power even without a majority. The subsequent "Queen 's Speech '' (giving an outline of the government 's proposed legislative programme) offers a chance for the House of Commons to cast a vote of confidence or no confidence in the government by accepting or rejecting the Queen 's Speech.
By precedent, and in the absence of any formal written constitutional objection, the Monarch could in theory dismiss the incumbent Prime Minister and seek to appoint a replacement. However, this has not occurred since the dismissal of Lord Melbourne in 1834, and would almost certainly trigger a constitutional crisis, similar to the 1975 Australian constitutional crisis.
The most recent Prime Ministers who, having failed to win a majority, opted not to resign immediately, were Edward Heath in 1974, Gordon Brown in 2010 and Theresa May in 2017. In 1974, after initial negotiations with the Liberal Party failed to provide a coalition deal, Heath resigned, allowing Queen Elizabeth II to commission Labour leader Harold Wilson to form an administration. Until the Prime Minister reacts to the election result, either by deciding to remain on or by resigning, the Monarch has no role. Only if the Prime Minister resigns can the Monarch then commission someone else to form a government.
The largest party not in government becomes the Official Opposition, known as Her Majesty 's Loyal Opposition. Any smaller parties not in government are collectively known as "the opposition ''.
After each election, having remained in power, a Prime Minister may engage in a major or minor reshuffle of ministers; such a reshuffle may occur at any time if the Prime Minister wishes it. Any vacancy arising in the House, due to death, ennoblement, or resignation is filled by a by - election. The timing for this is not automatic and it can be months after the vacancy arose, or even abandoned if there is a general election due soon.
See United Kingdom general elections, List of UK by - elections
Scottish Parliament elections occur every four years to elect the Members of the Scottish Parliament (MSPs). The first election to the unicameral Scottish Parliament that was created by the Scotland Act 1998, was held in 1999. Elections to the Scottish Parliament are by the Additional Member System, which is a hybrid of single member plurality and party list.
Welsh Assembly elections normally occur every four years. They elect the Members of the National Assembly for Wales (AMs). They began in 1999, when the unicameral Welsh Assembly, created by the Government of Wales Act 1998, began its first session. However AMs voted to hold the most recent election in 2016 to avoid a clash with the UK parliamentary general election in 2015. For elections to the Welsh Assembly the Additional Member System is used, which is a hybrid of single member plurality and proportional representation.
Northern Ireland Assembly elections occur every four years on the first Thursday in May. They began in 1998, when the assembly created by the Northern Ireland Act 1998 began its first session. For elections to the Northern Ireland Assembly, the Single Transferable Vote system, is used. Under this system, voters rank individual candidates in order of preference. STV was chosen as the electoral method to attempt to give adequate representation to the different sectarian groups in Northern Ireland. Elections continued even when the assembly was suspended between 2002 and 2007.
Elections to the European Parliament have taken place since 1979, the first year in which the parliament was directly elected. (From 1973 to 1979, members were elected by national parliaments).
Since the 1999 election, Members of the European Parliament (MEPs) representing England, Scotland and Wales have been elected in regional constituencies using the party list, a closed list (i.e. candidates are chosen by parties). In Northern Ireland the Single Transferable Vote system has been used since 1979.
The United Kingdom is divided into twelve electoral regions, which are the three smaller nations (Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland), and nine Regions of England.
The use of proportional representation greatly increased the representation of minor parties. Until the 1999 election, the First Past the Post system was used, which had prevented parties with moderately large, but geographically spread out vote shares from receiving any seats. For example, in the 1989 election the Green Party received 2,292,718 votes, constituting a 15 % vote share, but no seats. The European Parliamentary Elections Act 1999 changed the system in time for the 1999 election.
From 1979 to 1989, the United Kingdom had 81 MEPs (78 in England, Wales and Scotland, 3 in Northern Ireland). The European Parliamentary Elections Act 1993 increased the number to 87, adding five more seats in England and one more in Wales. The number was reduced to 78 for the 2004 election, and to 72 for the 2009 election, but increased to 73 during the term of the 2009 - 2014 parliament. The UK 's representation in Europe remained at this level in 2014.
In local elections, councillors are elected forming the local administrations of the United Kingdom. A number of tiers of local council exist, at region, county, district / borough and town / parish levels. A variety of voting systems are used for local elections. In Northern Ireland and Scotland, the single transferable vote system is used, whilst in most of England and Wales the single member plurality system is used. The remainder of England (including all of the London Boroughs) and Wales use the plurality at - large system, except for the elections of the Mayor and Assembly of the Greater London Authority (GLA).
The only Region of England which has a directly elected administration is London. London Assembly elections began in 2000, when it was created. The Additional Member System is used for elections to the Assembly. The Mayor is elected via the Supplementary Vote system.
Local elections are held in different parts of the country each year. In general, local elections are held on the first Thursday in May. In years with a general election it is usual practice to hold both general and local elections on the same day. In 2004, for the first time, local elections were held on the same day as European elections, and London Mayoral and Assembly elections. The date was referred to as ' Super Thursday '.
Unlike general elections, for local elections there is no legal requirement as to when the count should begin after the close of poll. For this reason, some returning officers have decided to store the sealed ballot boxes overnight at the central counting location and begin the count the next working day. However, once the count has started, the returning officer must, so far as practicable, proceed continuously with the count between the hours of 9am and 7pm (subject to refreshments). Ballot papers are verified manually and counted by hand (with the exception of London Mayoral and Assembly elections, where optical scanners are used).
From 2012, England and Wales have voted for regional Police and Crime Commissioners.
In the Kingdom of England (of which Wales was a full and equal member from 1542), a few percent of the adult male population were able to vote in parliamentary elections that occurred at irregular intervals to the Parliament of England from 1265. From 1432 only forty - shilling freeholders held the parliamentary franchise. The franchise for the Parliament of Scotland developed separately but, again, involving just a small proportion of the adult population. The Bill of Rights 1689 in England and Claim of Right Act 1689 in Scotland established the principles of regular parliaments and free elections, but no significant changes to the electoral franchise had taken place by the time the United Kingdom had come into being.
Similarly, the history of local government in England stretches over the same period with the election of town mayors and the development of town councils taking place since the Middle Ages. Local government in Scotland and in Wales evolved separately.
The system of universal suffrage did not exist in the United Kingdom until 1928. From the birth of the United Kingdom, the franchise had been restricted to males by custom rather than statute; on rare occasions women had been able to vote in parliamentary elections as a result of property ownership until the 1832 Great Reform Act specified ' male persons '.
The first Act to increase the size of the electorate was the Reform Act 1832 (sometimes known as the Great Reform Act). It abolished 56 rotten boroughs (which had elected 112 MPs) and decreased the property qualification in boroughs. It gave some parliamentary representation to the industrial towns (142 MPs) by redistributing some MPs from boroughs who had disproportional representation. The electoral register was created. The overall result of the Act was that the electorate was increased to 14 % of the adult male population. Although this was not a large increase, the Act was the first big step towards equal representation.
Between 1838 and 1848 a popular movement, Chartism, organised around six demands including universal male franchise and the secret ballot.
The Reform Act 1867 redistributed more MPs from boroughs which had disproportional representation (42) to London and industrial towns. It decreased the property qualification in boroughs, so that all men with an address in boroughs could vote. For the first time some of the working class could vote and MPs had to take these new constituents into account. Some political parties decided to become national parties. Overall, the Act increased the size of the electorate to 32 % of the adult male population.
In local government elections, single women ratepayers received the right to vote in the Municipal Franchise Act 1869. This right was confirmed in the Local Government Act 1894 and extended to include some married women.
The Ballot Act 1872 replaced open elections with a secret ballot system. The Corrupt and Illegal Practices Prevention Act 1883 criminalised attempts to bribe voters and standardised the amount that could be spent on election expenses. The Representation of the People Act 1884 and the Redistribution of Seats Act 1885 (the Third Reform Act) together increased the electorate to 56 % of the adult male population.
The Representation of the People Act 1918 expanded the electorate to include all men over the age of 21 and most women over the age of 30. Later that year, the Parliament (Qualification of Women) Act 1918 gave women over 21 the right to stand for election as MPs. The first woman to become an MP was Constance Markievicz in 1918. However she declined to take up her seat, being a member of Sinn Féin. Nancy Astor, elected in 1919, was the second woman to become an MP, and the first to sit in the Commons. The Equal Franchise Act 1928 lowered the minimum age for women to vote from 30 to 21, making men and women equal in terms of suffrage for the first time. The Representation of the People Act 1949 abolished additional votes for graduates (university constituencies) and the owners of business premises.
The Representation of the People Act 1969 lowered the voting age from 21 to 18. The Representation of the People Act 1985 gave British citizens abroad the right to vote for a five - year period after they had left the United Kingdom. The Representation of the People Act 1989 extended the period to 20 years; and citizens who were too young to vote when they left the country also became eligible.
In the history of the electoral system there has been a clear bias. This bias has been known to the parties involved and has not been pleasing to all parties. While the bias appears to be changing, the electoral system still holds a bias.
The following table summarises historic developments in extending the franchise in England and later the UK (after 1707). At each stage, it shows the percentage of the adult population entitled to vote and the voting age, separately for males and females.
Prior to 1997, and the Labour Party government of Tony Blair, there were only three types of elections: elections to the House of Commons, local government elections, and elections to the European Parliament. Most elections were conducted under the First Past the Post (FPTP) electoral system. In Northern Ireland, both local government and European elections were conducted under the Single Transferable Vote (STV) system. Labour 's constitutional reforms introduced elected assemblies for London, Scotland and Wales, and elected mayors in certain cities. Proportional Representation (PR) was introduced outside Northern Ireland for the first time.
The hybrid (part PR, part FPTP) Additional Member System was introduced in 1999 for the newly created devolved assemblies: the Scottish Parliament, Welsh Assembly and London Assembly and STV was used for the newly created Northern Ireland Assembly. The regional party list (Closed list) system was introduced for European elections in Great Britain (which had previously used single member constituency FPTP) though Northern Ireland continues to use STV.
Labour passed the Political Parties, Elections and Referendums Act 2000, which created the Electoral Commission, which since 2000 has been responsible for the running of elections and referendums and to a limited extent regulating party funding. It also reduced the period during which British expatriates can vote, from 20 years after they emigrate to 15.
In 2008 the Ministry of Justice delivered a report that failed to conclusively recommend any particular voting system as "best '' and instead simply compared working practices used in the different elections. The Minister of State for Justice, Ministry of Justice (Michael Wills) issued a statement following its publication stating that no action would be taken on the various reports that, since 1997, have suggested a move towards proportional representation for the UK general election until reform of the House of Lords is completed.
Labour also made many changes to the election administration underpinning the way that elections are run. Changes included postal voting on demand, rolling registration and some innovative pilots such as internet voting
Some British parties and campaigners have long argued that the current First Past the Post system used for Parliamentary elections should be replaced with another system. The introduction of proportional representation has been advocated for some time by the Liberal Democrats, and by some pressure groups such as Charter 88, Unlock Democracy and the Electoral Reform Society. In 1998 and 2003 independent commissions were formed to look into electoral reform. After the 2005 election, in which Labour was elected with the lowest share of the national vote for any single party majority government in British history, more public attention was drawn to the issue. The national newspaper The Independent started a petition for the introduction of a more proportional system immediately after the election, under the title "Campaign For Democracy ''.
After the UK 2010 general election, the new coalition government agreed to hold a referendum on voting reform. This took place on 5 May 2011: voters were given the choice of switching to the Alternative Vote system or retaining the current one. The country voted against AV, with 32 % in favour and 68 % against.
In 2015, the non-profit venture Make Votes Matter was formed to campaign for proportional representation. It makes the point that some 68 per cent of votes were ineffective and hence ' wasted ' in the UK General Election of 2015.
Since February 2016 an anonymous blog, Make Votes Count, seemingly based in the United Kingdom, has intermittently promoted a "First Two Past the Post '' voting system.
After its inaugural meeting on 29 November 2016 and until September 2017, the All - Party Parliamentary Group on Electoral Reform was a cross-party group consisting of 150 MPs who support electoral reform, chaired by Richard Burden and latterly Chuka Umunna.
Labour pledged in its manifesto for the 1997 general election to set up a commission on alternatives to the first - past - the - post system for general elections and to hold a referendum on whether to change the system. The Independent Commission on the Voting System, headed by Lord Jenkins of Hillhead and known as the Jenkins Commission, was established in December 1997. It reported in October 1998 and suggested the Alternative vote top - up or AV+ system.
The government had expected a recommendation which could have been implemented within the Parliament, and decided that it would be impractical to have a general election using First Past the Post (FPTP) after a referendum decision to adopt a different system, and therefore delayed the referendum until after the next general election. Those elements within the Labour Party opposed to any change persuaded the party not to repeat the pledge for a referendum in the 2001 manifesto, and therefore none was held once the party was re-elected.
After the 2005 election, Lord Chancellor Lord Falconer said there was "no groundswell '' for change, although a Cabinet committee was given the task of investigating reform. John Prescott was appointed as Chair; given his known opposition to change, proponents were critical and dismissive of the move. Several prominent Labour MPs expressed a desire for investigating electoral reform, including Peter Hain (who argued in the House of Commons in March 2004 for the Alternative Vote), Patricia Hewitt, Tessa Jowell and Baroness Amos.
As mentioned above, in January 2008 the government produced a "desk - bound '' review of the experience to date of new voting systems in the United Kingdom since Labour came to power in 1997. This review was non-committal as to the need for further reform, especially as regards reform of the voting system used in Parliamentary Elections.
The Conservative Party in the 2005 -- 2010 parliament were predominantly in favour of retaining FPTP. Although the Conservative Party would have won significantly more seats in the 2005 election if some form of proportional representation had been used, some in the party felt it might find itself politically isolated on the right, and face Labour / Lib Dem coalition governments. Electoral reform, towards a proportional model, was desired by the Liberal Democrat party, the Green party, and several other small parties.
As in many Western democracies, voter apathy is a current concern, after a dramatic decline in election turnout around the end of the 20th century. Turnout in UK General Elections fell from 77 % in 1992, and 71 % in 1997, to a historic low of 59 % in 2001. It has, however, increased since, to 61 % in 2005, 65 % in 2010, 66 % in 2015 and 69 % in 2017. In other elections turnout trends have been more varied. At the referendum on Scottish independence in 2014, turnout exceeded 84.5 % - the highest in a large - scale poll since the introduction of universal suffrage - and some local authorities recorded turnouts of over 90 %. Conversely, the Police and Crime Commissioner elections in November 2012 saw a record low turnout of just 15 % and the Parliamentary by - election in Manchester Central also had a record low peacetime by - election turnout of 18 %. Parliamentary by - election turnout is usually around 30 - 50 %, while local government elections typically see turnouts of around 30 % when they are not held alongside higher profile contests such as General or European elections.
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when does scarecrow appear in wizard of oz | Scarecrow (Oz) - wikipedia
The Scarecrow is a character in the fictional Land of Oz created by American author L. Frank Baum and illustrator W.W. Denslow. In his first appearance, the Scarecrow reveals that he lacks a brain and desires above all else to have one. In reality, he is only two days old and merely ignorant. Throughout the course of the novel, he demonstrates that he already has the brains he seeks and is later recognized as "the wisest man in all of Oz, '' although he continues to credit the Wizard for them. He is, however, wise enough to know his own limitations and all too happy to hand the rulership of Oz, passed to him by the Wizard, to Princess Ozma, to become one of her trusted advisors, though he typically spends more time playing games than advising.
In Baum 's classic 1900 novel The Wonderful Wizard of Oz, the living scarecrow encounters Dorothy Gale in a field in the Munchkin Country while she is on her way to the Emerald City. He tells her about his creation and of how he at first scared away the crows, before an older one realised he was a straw man, causing the other crows to start eating the corn. The old crow then told the Scarecrow of the importance of brains. The "mindless '' Scarecrow joins Dorothy in the hope that The Wizard will give him a brain. They are later joined by the Tin Woodman and the Cowardly Lion. When the group goes to the West, he kills the Witch 's crows by twisting their necks. He is taken apart by the Flying Monkeys and his clothes thrown up a tree, but when his clothes are filled with straw he is back again. After Dorothy and her friends have completed their mission to kill the Wicked Witch of the West, the Wizard gives the Scarecrow brains (made out of bran, pins and needles -- in reality a placebo, as he has been the most intelligent of the travelers all along). Before he leaves Oz in a balloon, the Wizard appoints the Scarecrow to rule the Emerald City in his stead. He accompanies Dorothy and the others to the palace of the Good Witch of the South Glinda, and she uses the Golden Cap to summon the Winged Monkeys, who take the Scarecrow back to the Emerald City.
His desire for a brain notably contrasts with the Tin Woodman 's desire for a heart, reflecting a common debate between the relative importance of the mind and the emotions. Indeed, both believe they have neither. This occasions philosophical debate between the two friends as to why their own choices are superior; neither convinces the other, and Dorothy, listening, is unable to decide which one is right. Symbolically, because they remain with Dorothy throughout her quest, she is provided with both and need not select.
In the musical of Gregory Maguire 's interpretation of the Oz franchise, this version of the Scarecrow was Fiyero Tigelaar, the love interest of Elphaba Thropp. Fiyero attends school with Elphaba and Glinda the Good, while they were all still young. Fiyero takes a special interest in Elphaba. However, he is highly sought after by Elphaba 's roommate, Glinda. Fiyero and Elphaba share a secret romance, and when she leaves for the Emerald City, he gives her a long and meaningful goodbye.
Many years later, after Elphaba goes into hiding, we are shown that Glinda and Fiyero are to be wed. However this is not because of love, at least not on Fiyero 's part, for he still loves Elphaba. Once she reappears in the Emerald City, they escape together, much to Glinda 's discontent. Elphaba then goes to the site of her sister 's death (Dorothy 's arrival into Oz). Here she is ambushed by guards, and about to be taken away, when Fiyero saves her, but he is merely sacrificing himself to save her. Elphaba in a fit of rage and heartbreak reads a spell to keep Fiyero safe, with the words of the spell including pleas to let him feel no pain and never die however they try to destroy him. Although Elphaba abandons the spell as she believes it is not working, it is not until the end of the production that we are shown that Fiyero is still alive, and has been transformed into the Scarecrow from "The Wonderful Wizard of Oz ''.
In Gregory Maguire 's novel "Wicked: The Life and Times of the Wicked Witch of the West '' The Scarecrow is a companion of Dorothy. When the quartet of Dorothy, The Scarecrow, Tin Woodman, and Lion approach Elphaba 's home in Fiyero 's castle, she thinks for a moment that maybe Fiyero is the Scarecrow, having not died earlier in the novel. She sends minions after him to tear him apart to see if Fiyero is inside, but he is not. In the novel he is NOT Fiyero, but this is probably where they got the idea for the stage version.
The Scarecrow appears briefly in this novel, first giving Liir advice. When he appears at Glinda 's induction Liir notes that it is an obvious impostor and not the same Scarecrow that he once knew.
Economics and history professors have published scholarly studies that indicate the images and characters used by Baum and Denslow closely resembled political images that were well known in the 1890s. The Scarecrow, like other characters and elements in The Wonderful Wizard of Oz, was a common theme found in editorial cartoons of the previous decade. Baum and Denslow, like most writers, used the materials at hand that they knew best. They built a story around them, added Dorothy, and added a series of lessons to the effect that everyone possesses the resources they need (such as brains, a heart and courage) if only they had self - confidence. Although it was a children 's book, of course, Baum noted in the preface that it was a "modernized '' fairy tale as well.
Those who interpret The Wonderful Wizard of Oz as a political allegory often see the Scarecrow, a central figure, as a reflection of the popular image of the American farmer -- although he has been persuaded that he is only a dumb hick, he possesses a strong common sense, remarkable insight and quick - wittedness that needs only to be reinforced by self - confidence.
The blackface minstrel star, Fred Stone, was the first to play the Scarecrow on stage, and he brought his minstrel style of performance to the role of the Scarecrow. Baum was delighted with Stone 's performance, and he wrote subsequent Oz books with Stone 's minstrel - style in mind.
The Scarecrow also appears in other Oz books, sharing further adventures with Dorothy and her friends. His reign as king of the Emerald City ends in The Marvelous Land of Oz when General Jinjur and her Army of Revolt oust him in a coup. He manages to escape the palace and joins Tip and his companions in seeking the aid of Glinda the Good.
He spars with H.M. Woggle - Bug T.E. on the value of education. Although he claims to be educated himself and to value education, he finds the Woggle - Bug 's learning rote and without wisdom. Although he can not eat, he tells Billina that she might be better cooked and generally seems to favor the use of animals as food, sometimes making snide remarks to that effect to his animal companions, although he himself only gathers nuts and fruit for his traveling companions, such as Dorothy and Tip, to eat.
By The Road to Oz he is acknowledged, at least by the Tin Woodman, to be "probably the wisest man in all Oz, '' and this is the caption of an illustration, suggesting that the reader take his comment at face value. Dorothy herself, in Dorothy and the Wizard in Oz, praises the Scarecrow 's wisdom and says the Scarecrow seemed just as wise before the Wizard gave him brains as after.
In The Emerald City of Oz, the Scarecrow lives in a house shaped like an ear of corn in Winkie Country. In The Scarecrow of Oz, the Scarecrow travels to Jinxland, where he helps Cap'n Bill, Trot and Button - Bright overthrow the villainous King Krewl.
In Glinda of Oz the Scarecrow serves as Regent to Ozma of Oz, demonstrating that he is Ozma 's third in command. Mostly all he does is play croquet until Ozma 's advisers, including himself, band together for a rescue operation.
In The Royal Book of Oz by Ruth Plumly Thompson, Baum 's authorized successor as "Royal Historian of Oz '', Professor Woggle - Bug accused the Scarecrow of having no ancestry, so he returns to the pole at the cornfield where he was once hung. Sliding down it and descending underground, he first encounters the Midlings and then the Silver Islands, whose people believe themselves to be the ancestors of the Chinese. Apparently, when Emperor Chang Wang Woe defeated the king of the Golden Islands in battle, the king hired a sorcerer to sneak into the palace and transform the Emperor into a crocus, which later sprouted into a bean pole, preceding a prophecy that the first being to touch the bean pole would become possessed by the spirit of the Emperor. As it turned out, the first thing to touch the pole was the straw - stuffed human, which would become the Scarecrow. This account is not consistent with the Scarecrow 's story in The Wonderful Wizard of Oz of becoming aware of each sense as the relevant organs were painted on his head.
The Scarecrow has appeared in nearly every early Oz film, portrayed by different actors each time.
In the 1939 film The Wizard of Oz, the Scarecrow was played by Ray Bolger in what is arguably the actor 's most famous role. He was originally cast as the Tin Woodsman, but Bolger had always wanted to play the Scarecrow, so he was upset about it since he wanted to switch roles with Buddy Ebsen, who was originally going to play the Scarecrow. Ebsen did n't mind the swap, so Bolger and Ebsen swapped roles. While Ray was pleased with his role as the Scarecrow, the aluminum dust from Ebsen 's Tin Man make - up nearly choked him to the edge of death (causing Ebsen to have to give up that role). Ebsen was replaced by Jack Haley for his role of the Tin Man. Bolger 's costume consisted of a straw - stuffed suit and a light face mask of rubber designed to simulate burlap. The mask was fragile, and usually had to be completely replaced at the start of each new day of filming. Bolger 's Scarecrow costume, minus the mask, is part of the collections of the National Museum of American History at the Smithsonian Institution. Bolger was a talented dancer, so The Scarecrow was given an extended dance sequence in the movie. However, to shorten the movie, much of this sequence was edited out since it would slow down the film. While Bolger admitted in a 1939 radio broadcast that he was too young to have seen Fred Stone play the Scarecrow in the 1902 musical extravaganza, he told Stone on the broadcast that the first play he was allowed to see was The Red Mill featuring Stone, and that his performance in that play was an inspiration.
During the scene where the Wizard gives him his brains, the Scarecrow makes a mistake in his first educated pronouncement. He recites the Pythagorean theorem stating that it applies to an isosceles triangle, which is incorrect, as it applies to a right triangle; he also refers to square roots, not to squares. This probably reflects ignorance by the scriptwriters, not the Scarecrow.
Bolger also portrayed the Scarecrow 's Kansas counterpart, Hunk (one of Aunt Em and Uncle Henry 's farmworkers), newly created for the film by screenwriter Noel Langley. A scene which was written in the script, but dropped before filming commenced, ended the movie by sending Hunk off to agricultural college, with Dorothy promising to write. The scene implied the potential for a romance between the two characters.
He helps Zeke (Cowardly Lion 's alter ego) and Hickory (Tin Man 's alter ego) repair a wagon. Unlike Zeke, Hickory and Hunk lose their hats with Uncle Henry as they struggle to open the cellar when the tornado approaches their farm. He closes and locks the cellar with Zeke when Dorothy arrives at the farmhouse. Hunk reunites with Dorothy when she awakens from being unconscious. He is seen with Aunt Em, Uncle Henry, Zeke, Hickory, and Professor Marvel (The Wizard 's alter ego).
In 1996, they made a cartoon animated The Oz Kids. He has a son named Scarecrow, Jr. His son is smart and knows everything just like him. Scarecrow, Sr. is voiced by Andy Milder.
In the 2013 film Oz the Great and Powerful, the Scarecrow 's origins are explained; being fabricated by the townspeople of Oz as a diversionary tactic during the retaliatory attack on the Emerald City.
In the 1925 film, Wizard of Oz, the Scarecrow and the Tin Man were actually human farmhands, who were blown to Oz by the tornado along with Dorothy. Dorothy, in another major departure from the novel, turns out to be the rightful ruler of Oz, having been exiled to Kansas as a baby.
Hinton Battle originated the role of the Scarecrow in the 1975 Broadway musical The Wiz, and Michael Jackson played the Scarecrow in the 1978 film adaptation. This version of the Scarecrow was a more tragic character before Dorothy rescues him; while hung on his pole, the crows he is unable to scare, who force him to humiliate himself and entertain them, torment him day and night. They force him to sing the song, "You Ca n't Win '', meaning that he can not escape the crows ' rule and his bad luck. While Stan Winston created Jackson 's makeup, it was applied to Jackson 's face by Michael R. Thomas who portrayed the Scarecrow in Barry Mahon 's The Wonderful Land of Oz (1969), as well as doing the makeup for that film. Elijah Kelley portrayed the Scarecrow in the TV special The Wiz Live!, as well as the farmhand Sticks.
In the animated film Journey Back to Oz (produced in 1964 but not released until the 1970s), the Scarecrow was voiced by Mickey Rooney.
In an episode of The World 's Greatest Super Friends, Aquaman temporarily became the Scarecrow after a tornado took him, Superman and Wonder Woman to Mister Mxyzptlk 's planet of Oz.
In a 1981 episode of Scooby - Doo and Scrappy - Doo, Shaggy is dressed as the Scarecrow after a tornado took him, Scooby, and Scrappy to "Ahz '', a direct spoof of Oz with a different spelling by its enunciation.
Justin Case, an English bicycle acrobat, appeared briefly as the Scarecrow in the 1985 film Return to Oz.
American voice actor Michael Gough voices the Scarecrow in 2011 's direct - to - DVD animated film Tom and Jerry and the Wizard of Oz.
The Scarecrow appeared in Legends of Oz: Dorothy 's Return (which is based on Dorothy of Oz) voiced by Dan Aykroyd.
The Scarecrow appeared in the Once Upon a Time episode "Our Decay '' voiced by Paul Scheer. Many years ago, Zelena the Wicked Witch of the West targeted him for his brain as part of her attempt to create a time - travel spell. Before she can remove Scarecrow 's brain, Dorothy and Toto arrived where they managed to get away from Zelena. With help from Hades who enchanted a bicycle that was found at the remains of Dorothy 's house, Zelena was able to locate where Dorothy and Scarecrow are hiding. After magically freezing Dorothy, Zelena successfully removed Scarecrow 's brain and was about to show it to Hades only to find that he is not there.
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when was the last war fought on us soil | List of conflicts in the United States - wikipedia
List of conflicts in the United States is a timeline of events that includes Indian wars, battles, skirmishes, and other related items that have occurred in the United States 's geographical area, including overseas territories since 1775.
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what event most likely created the blue ridge mountains in virginia | Blue Ridge Mountains - wikipedia
The Blue Ridge Mountains are a physiographic province of the larger Appalachian Mountains range. This province consists of northern and southern physiographic regions, which divide near the Roanoke River gap. The mountain range is located in the eastern United States, starting at its southernmost portion in Georgia, then ending northward in Pennsylvania. To the west of the Blue Ridge, between it and the bulk of the Appalachians, lies the Great Appalachian Valley, bordered on the west by the Ridge and Valley province of the Appalachian range.
The Blue Ridge Mountains are noted for having a bluish color when seen from a distance. Trees put the "blue '' in Blue Ridge, from the isoprene released into the atmosphere, thereby contributing to the characteristic haze on the mountains and their distinctive color.
Within the Blue Ridge province are two major national parks -- the Shenandoah National Park in the northern section, and the Great Smoky Mountains National Park in the southern section -- and eight national forests including George Washington and Jefferson National Forests, Monongahela National Forest, Daniel Boone National Forest, Cherokee National Forest, Pisgah National Forest, Nantahala National Forest and Chattahoochee National Forest. The Blue Ridge also contains the Blue Ridge Parkway, a 469 - mile (755 km) long scenic highway that connects the two parks and is located along the ridge crest - lines with the Appalachian Trail.
Although the term "Blue Ridge '' is sometimes applied exclusively to the eastern edge or front range of the Appalachian Mountains, the geological definition of the Blue Ridge province extends westward to the Ridge and Valley area, encompassing the Great Smoky Mountains, the Great Balsams, the Roans, the Blacks, the Brushy Mountains (a "spur '' of the Blue Ridge) and other mountain ranges.
The Blue Ridge extends as far north into Pennsylvania as South Mountain. While South Mountain dwindles to mere hills between Gettysburg and Harrisburg, the band of ancient rocks that forms the core of the Blue Ridge continues northeast through the New Jersey and Hudson River highlands, eventually reaching The Berkshires of Massachusetts and the Green Mountains of Vermont.
The Blue Ridge contains the highest mountains in eastern North America south of Baffin Island. About 125 peaks exceed 5,000 feet (1,500 m) in elevation. The highest peak in the Blue Ridge (and in the entire Appalachian chain) is Mt. Mitchell in North Carolina at 6,684 feet (2,037 m). There are 39 peaks in North Carolina and Tennessee higher than 6,000 feet (1,800 m); by comparison, in the northern portion of the Appalachian chain only New Hampshire 's Mt. Washington rises above 6,000 feet. Southern Sixers is a term used by peak baggers for this group of mountains.
The Blue Ridge Parkway runs 469 miles (755 km) along crests of the Southern Appalachians and links two national parks: Shenandoah and Great Smoky Mountains. In many places along the parkway, there are metamorphic rocks (gneiss) with folded bands of light - and dark - colored minerals, which sometimes look like the folds and swirls in a marble cake.
Most of the rocks that form the Blue Ridge Mountains are ancient granitic charnockites, metamorphosed volcanic formations, and sedimentary limestone. Recent studies completed by Richard Tollo, a professor and geologist at George Washington University, provide greater insight into the petrologic and geochronologic history of the Blue Ridge basement suites. Modern studies have found that the basement geology of the Blue Ridge is made of compositionally unique gneisses and granitoids, including orthopyroxene - bearing charnockites. Analysis of zircon minerals in the granite completed by John Aleinikoff at the U.S. Geological Survey has provided more detailed emplacement ages.
Many of the features found in the Blue Ridge and documented by Tollo and others have confirmed that the rocks exhibit many similar features in other North American Grenville - age terranes. The lack of a calc - alkaline affinity and zircon ages less than 1,200 Ma suggest that the Blue Ridge is distinct from the Adirondacks, Green Mountains, and possibly the New York - New Jersey Highlands. The petrologic and geochronologic data suggest that the Blue Ridge basement is a composite orogenic crust that was emplaced during several episodes from a crustal magma source. Field relationships further illustrate that rocks emplaced prior to 1,078 - 1,064 Ma preserve deformational features. Those emplaced post-1,064 Ma generally have a massive texture and missed the main episode of Mesoproterozoic compression.
The Blue Ridge Mountains began forming during the Silurian Period over 400 million years ago. Approximately 320 Mya, North America and Europe collided, pushing up the Blue Ridge. At the time of their emergence, the Blue Ridge were among the highest mountains in the world, and reached heights comparable to the much younger Alps. Today, due to weathering and erosion over hundreds of millions of years, the highest peak in the range, Mount Mitchell in North Carolina, is only 6,684 feet high -- still the highest peak east of the Rockies.
The English who settled colonial Virginia in the early 17th century recorded that the native Powhatan name for the Blue Ridge was Quirank. At the foot of the Blue Ridge, various tribes including the Siouan Manahoacs, the Iroquois, and the Shawnee hunted and fished. A German physician - explorer, John Lederer, first reached the crest of the Blue Ridge in 1669 and again the following year; he also recorded the Virginia Siouan name for the Blue Ridge (Ahkonshuck).
At the Treaty of Albany negotiated by Lieutenant Governor Alexander Spotswood (1676 - 1740), of Virginia with the Iroquois between 1718 and 1722, the Iroquois ceded lands they had conquered south of the Potomac River and east of the Blue Ridge to the Virginia Colony. This treaty made the Blue Ridge the new demarcation point between the areas and tribes subject to the Six Nations, and those tributary to the Colony. When colonists began to disregard this by crossing the Blue Ridge and settling in the Shenandoah Valley in the 1730s, the Iroquois began to object, finally selling their rights to the Valley, on the west side of the Blue Ridge, at the Treaty of Lancaster in 1744.
During the Gettysburg Campaign of the American Civil War, the Army of Northern Virginia, Robert E. Lee commanding, slipped across the Potomac to begin the second invasion of the North. They moved slowly across the Blue Ridge, using the mountains to screen their movements.
The forest environment provides natural habitat for many plants, trees, and animals.
The Blue Ridge Mountains have stunted oak and oak - hickory forest habitats, which comprise most of the Appalachian slope forests. Flora also includes grass, shrubs, hemlock and mixed - oak pine forests.
While the Blue Ridge range includes the highest summits in the eastern United States, the climate is nevertheless too warm to support an alpine zone, and thus the range lacks the tree line found at lower elevations in the northern half of the Appalachian range. The highest parts of the Blue Ridge are generally vegetated in dense Southern Appalachian spruce - fir forests.
The area is host to many animals, including:
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where does the last name cates come from | Armenian name - wikipedia
An Armenian name comprises a given name and a surname.
According to Armenia 's National Statistical Service, the most commonly used names for newborn boys in Armenia, as of early 2012, were Davit, Narek, Gor, Hayk, Alex, Erik, Arman, Samvel, Tigran, and Aram. For girls, the most popular names were Nare, Milena, Maria, Mane, Ani, Anna, Anahit, Mariam, Elen, and Mary.
Traditionally, Armenians have used Biblical names of Greek, Latin and Hebrew origin, such as Abraham, Hakob (Jacob), Hovhannes (John), Petros (Peter), Poghos (Paul), Madlene (Magdalene), Yeghisabet (Elizabeth), etc.
Typical modern Armenian last names (family names) end with the originally patronymic suffix - յան (reformed orthography) or - եան (classical orthography), transliterated as - yan, - ian, or less often ' - jan '. Example: Petrosyan, meaning "issued from Petros '', akin to the English name Peterson. Some Armenian last names bear the suffix - նց ((nʦh)), transliterated as - nc, - nts or - ntz (as in Bakunts or Adontz), or in addition to - yan / - ian (as in Vardanyants), although that is not common.
Some Armenian surnames have a suffix - լի ((li)) preceding the - յան / - եան suffix. For example, Sivaslian and Vanlian refer to the cities of Sivas and Van, respectively. Other Armenian surnames have a suffix - ճի ((ʤi) or (ʧi)), transliterated as - ji / dji or - chi / tchi, preceding the - յան / - եան suffix. Names such as Kebabjian and Kahvejian refer to kebab and coffee merchants, respectively. While the - եան suffix already existed in the Classical Armenian period (e.g. Արտաշեսեան Artashesian, Մամիկոնեան Mamikonian), other suffixes, now rarer, also existed. The suffix - ունի (as in Բագրատունի Bagratuni, Արշակունի Arshakuni, (uni)) had a similar meaning to - եան.
The suffix - ցի ((tshi)) denoted a geographical provenance, e.g. Movses Khorenatsi (from Khoren) and Anania Shirakatsi (from Shirak).
The prefix Տեր ((ter)), which comes from how one addresses a priest, is typically Armenian. It might be followed by a space or attached directly to the root. If someone possesses a surname containing "Der '' or "Ter '' it usually signifies that this person has a patrilineal ancestor who was a priest.
The roots of names ending with - ian / - yan are typically first names, such as Petrosian "issued from Petros '', Simonian "issued from Simon '', etc. When the name ends in - lian or - (d) jian, the root is expected to refer to a location or a profession, respectively. Thus, the etymology of Vanlian is literally "issued from the man from Van '' and that of Kebabjian is "issued from the kebab merchant ''. However, an ancestor 's occupation will not necessarily contain the suffix - (d) ji, thus Vardapetian / Vartabedian (Վարդապետյան / - եան) translates as "issued from the vardapet '', Bjishkian (Բժիշկյան / - եան) as "issued from the doctor '' and Keshishian (Քեշիշյան / - եան) as "issued from the priest ''.
The - ian / - yan suffix may also, but more rarely, attach to an adjective denoting a quality. Thus, Bzdigian / Pztikian (Պզտիկյան / - եան) translates as "issued from the small (man) '', Medzian / Metsian (Մեծյան / - եան) as "issued from the tall (man) '', Ganantchian / Kanantchian (Կանանչյան / - եան) as "issued from the green, i.e. young (man) ''.
Some former noble Armenian names, such as Artsruni / Ardzruni (Արծրունի) are still in use today. When they moved from Armenia or from the Middle East, some changed their last names to adapt better to their new societies. Sometimes the - ian or - yan ending was dropped and the root kept, such as Charles Aznavour (was Aznavourian), or Andy Serkis (originally Sarkissian). Other times the name was translated, as "Tashjian '' (which is derived from Turkish word ' taş ' meaning ' stone ') becoming (approximately) "Stone ''.
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when did the lead singer of inxs die | Michael Hutchence - Wikipedia
Michael Kelland John Hutchence (22 January 1960 -- 22 November 1997) was an Australian musician and actor. He was a founding member, lead singer and lyricist of rock band INXS from 1977 until his death in November 1997. He was a member of short - lived pop rock group Max Q and recorded solo material which was released posthumously. He acted in feature films, including Dogs in Space (1986), Frankenstein Unbound (1990) and Limp (1997). According to rock - music historian Ian McFarlane, "Hutchence was the archetypal rock showman. He exuded an overtly sexual, macho cool with his flowing locks, and lithe and exuberant stage movements. '' Hutchence won the ' Best International Artist ' at the 1991 BRIT Awards with INXS winning the related group award.
His private life was often reported in the Australian and international press, with a string of love affairs with prominent actresses, models and singers. Hutchence 's relationship with UK television presenter Paula Yates began while she was married to musician and Live Aid organiser Bob Geldof. Geldof and Yates divorced in 1996. During July of the same year, Hutchence and Yates had a daughter, Heavenly Hiraani Tiger Lily.
On the morning of 22 November 1997, Hutchence was found dead in his hotel room in Sydney. His death was reported by the New South Wales Coroner to be the result of suicide. In 2000, Yates died of a heroin overdose. The couple 's daughter was placed in Geldof 's custody with her half - sisters.
Michael Kelland John Hutchence was born on 22 January 1960, the son of Sydney businessman Kelland ("Kell '') Hutchence, and make - up artist, Patricia (née Kennedy). Hutchence was of Irish ancestry from his mother 's side, Patricia 's father was from County Cork in Ireland. Following Kell 's business interests, the Hutchence family moved to Brisbane where younger brother Rhett was born, and subsequently relocated to Hong Kong as a result of their father taking a job at an Australian trading company. During the early years in Hong Kong, both boys attended Beacon Hill School in Kowloon Tong. While in Hong Kong, Michael showed a lot of promise in a possible swimming career before breaking his arm badly. He then began to show interest in poetry and performed his first song in a local toy store commercial, before attending King George V School during his early teens.
The family returned to Sydney in 1972, buying a house in Belrose near the Northern Beaches when Michael was 12 years old. Michael attended Davidson High School, where he met Andrew Farriss and they became good friends. Around this time, Hutchence and Farriss spent a lot of time jamming in the garage with Andrew 's brothers. Farriss then convinced Hutchence to join his band, Doctor Dolphin, alongside two classmates, Kent Kerny and Neil Sanders. From nearby Forest High School, bass guitarist Garry Beers and Geoff Kennelly on drums filled out the line - up. The boys transferred to Davidson High School where they became serious about the idea of starting a proper band. Hutchence 's parents separated when he was 15; in 1976 for a short time, he lived with his mother and half - sister Tina in California. Hutchence later returned to Sydney with his mother.
In 1977, a new band, The Farriss Brothers, was formed with Tim Farriss on lead guitar, his younger brother Andrew as keyboardist, and youngest brother Jon on drums. Andrew brought Hutchence on board as lead vocalist and Beers on bass guitar, and Tim brought his former bandmate Kirk Pengilly on guitar and saxophone. The band made their debut on 16 August 1977 at Whale Beach, 40 km (25 mi) north of Sydney.
In 1978, the parents of the Farriss boys moved to Perth, Western Australia, taking Jon, who was still at high school. After Hutchence and Andrew finished their secondary schooling, the rest of the group followed.
Hutchence, the Farriss brothers, Kerny, Sanders, Beers and Kennelly briefly performed as The Vegetables, singing "We Are the Vegetables ''. Ten months later, they returned to Sydney, where they recorded a set of demos. The Farriss Brothers regularly supported hard rockers Midnight Oil on the pub rock circuit, and were renamed as INXS in 1979. Their first performance under the new name was on 1 September at the Oceanview Hotel in Toukley. In May 1980, the group released their first single, "Simple Simon '' / "We Are the Vegetables '' which was followed by the debut album, INXS, in October. Their first Top 40 Australian hit on the Kent Music Report Singles Chart, "Just Keep Walking '', was released in September. During the 1980s, Hutchence resided at the apartment block at the end of Kirketon Road, Darlinghurst, Sydney.
Hutchence became the main spokesperson for the band and, according to rock music historian, Ian McFarlane, "He was the archetypal rock showman. He exuded an overtly sexual, macho cool with his flowing locks, and lithe and exuberant stage movements ''. Close friends and family, however, maintain he was more introverted than his on - stage persona. He co-wrote almost all of INXS 's songs with Andrew Farriss, who has attributed his own success as a songwriter to Hutchence 's "genius ''.
According to Hutchence, "Most of the songs on Underneath the Colours were written in a relatively short space of time. Most bands shudder at the prospect of having 20 years to write their first album and four days to write their second. For us, though, it was good. It left less room for us to go off on all sorts of tangents ''. Soon after recording sessions for Underneath the Colours -- produced by Richard Clapton -- had finished, band members started work on outside projects. Hutchence recorded "Speed Kills '', written by Don Walker of hard rockers Cold Chisel, for the Freedom (1982) film soundtrack, directed by Scott Hicks. It was Hutchence 's first solo single and was released by WEA in early 1982.
In March 1985, after Hutchence and INXS recorded their album The Swing (1984), WEA released the Australian version of Dekadance, as a limited edition cassette only EP of six tracks including remixes from the album. The cassette also included a cover version of Nancy Sinatra and Lee Hazlewood 's hit "Jackson '', which Hutchence sang as a duet with Jenny Morris, a backing singer for The Swing sessions. The EP reached No 2 on the Kent Music Report Albums Chart. Hutchence provided vocals for new wave band Beargarden 's 1985 single release.
On 19 May, INXS won seven awards at the 1984 Countdown Music and Video Awards ceremony, including ' Best Songwriter ' for Hutchence and Andrew, and ' Most Popular Male ' for Hutchence. They performed "Burn for You '', dressed in Akubras (a brand of hats) and Drizabones (a brand of outdoor coats / oilskin jackets) followed by Hutchence and Morris singing "Jackson '' to close. INXS performed five songs for the July Oz for Africa concert, in conjunction with the Live Aid benefit organised by Irish musician, Bob Geldof. Two of their songs, "What You Need '' and "Do n't Change '', were also in the BBC broadcast and are contained on Live Aid 's four DVD boxed set released in 2004.
In 1986, Hutchence acted as Sam the lead male role, in the Australian film Dogs in Space, directed by long - time INXS music video collaborator Richard Lowenstein. Sam 's girlfriend, Anna, was portrayed by Saskia Post as a "fragile peroxide blonde in op - shop clothes ''. Some events are based on Lowenstein 's life when sharing a home in a Melbourne inner suburb with friend Sam Sejavka (Beargarden) when Sam was in the band The Ears, in the late 1970s. Hutchence provided four songs on the film 's soundtrack. A cover version of "Rooms for the Memory '', a song by Whirlywirld (a post punk band that included Ollie Olsen), was released as a solo single. It peaked at No. 11 in February 1987. Back in 1979, both INXS and Whirlywirld had played at the Crystal Ballroom, in Fitzroy Street, St Kilda, which featured in the film. According to music journalist and author, James Cockington, "St Kilda was about drugs. Fitzroy Street was the smack capital of Melbourne, with heroin being openly traded on the footpath. ''
Late in 1986, before commencing work on a new INXS album and while supposedly taking an eight - month break, their management decided to stage the Australian Made tour as a series of major outdoor concerts across the country. The roster featured INXS, Jimmy Barnes (Cold Chisel), Models, Divinyls, Mental as Anything, The Triffids and I 'm Talking. To promote the tour, Hutchence and Barnes shared vocals on: The Easybeats cover "Good Times '' and "Laying Down the Law '' which Barnes cowrote with Beers, Andrew Farriss, Jon Farriss, Hutchence and Pengilly. "Good Times '' was used as the theme for the concert series of 1986 -- 1987. It peaked at No. 2 on the Australian charts, and months later was featured in the Joel Schumacher film The Lost Boys and its soundtrack, allowing it to peak at No. 47 in the U.S. on 1 August 1987. Divinyls ' lead singer, Chrissie Amphlett enjoyed the tour and reconnected with Hutchence, "(he) was a sweet man, who said in one interview that he wanted me to have his baby. ''
In 1987, Hutchence provided vocals for Richard Clapton 's album Glory Road which was produced by Jon Farriss. INXS released Kick in October, which provided the band with worldwide popularity, it peaked at No. 1 in Australia, No. 3 on the US Billboard 200, No. 9 in UK, and No. 15 in Austria. It was an upbeat, confident album that yielded four Top 10 U.S. singles, "New Sensation '', "Never Tear Us Apart '', "Devil Inside '' and No. 1 "Need You Tonight ''. "Need You Tonight '' peaked No. 2 on the UK charts, No. 3 in Australia, and No. 10 in France. The song is not lyrically complex, it is Hutchence 's performance where "he sings in kittenish whisper, gently drawing back with the incredible lust of a tiger hunting in the night... Hutchence knows the prey will eventually come to him '' that makes the song "as sexy and funky as any white rock group has ever been ''. They toured heavily behind the album throughout 1987 and 1988. The video, directed by Lowenstein, for the 1987 INXS track "Mediate '' (which played after the video for "Need You Tonight '') replicated the format of Bob Dylan 's video for "Subterranean Homesick Blues '', even in its use of apparently deliberate errors. In September 1988 the band swept the MTV Video Music Awards with the video for "Need You Tonight / Mediate '' winning in five categories.
In 1989, Hutchence collaborated further with Olsen for the Max Q project, they were joined by members of Olsen 's previous groups including Whirlywirld, No and Orchestra of Skin and Bone. They released a self - titled album and three singles, "Way of the World '', "Sometimes '' and "Monday Night by Satellite ''. Max Q disbanded in 1990. Max Q showed Hutchence explore the darker side of his music and, with Olsen, they created "one of the most innovative dance music albums of the decade ''. Hutchence wrote most of the music and provided "an extraordinary performance... it was one of the most significant statements Hutchence was to make ''. Hutchence, from the late - 1980s lived outside Australia, mostly in the United Kingdom. In 1990, Hutchence portrayed nineteenth - century Romantic poet, Percy Shelley, in Roger Corman 's film version of Frankenstein Unbound based on a science fiction time travel story of the same name written by Brian Aldiss.
In 1990, INXS released X, which spawned more international hits such as "Suicide Blonde '' and "Disappear '' (both Top 10 in the US). "Suicide Blonde '' peaked at No. 2 in Australia and No. 11 in the UK. Hutchence and Kylie Minogue attended the premiere of her 1989 film, The Delinquents, which depicts her in a platinum blonde wig. Hutchence, with Andrew Farriss, wrote the song after Minogue used the phrase, suicide blonde, to describe her look during filming. Hutchence won the ' Best International Artist ' at the 1991 BRIT Awards with INXS winning the related group award. Hutchence provided vocals for pub rockers Noiseworks ' album, Love Versus Money (1991).
Welcome to Wherever You Are was released in August 1992 but INXS did not tour to support the album. It received good critical reviews and went to No. 1 in the UK and in Sweden; No. 2 in Australia and Switzerland, and No. 3 in Norway; but had less chart success in the U.S. peaking at No. 16. Also in August 1992, Helena Christensen and Hutchence were walking after drinking heavily when he refused to move for a taxi. The taxi driver then assaulted him, causing him to fall backwards and hit his head on the roadway. Hutchence suffered a fractured skull in the altercation. Hutchence did not immediately seek medical assistance for the injury, instead waiting several days before seeing a doctor. As a result, Hutchence 's fractured skull left him with an almost complete loss of the sense of smell and significant loss of taste. This led to periods of depression and increased levels of aggression; he had not fully recovered after two weeks in a Copenhagen hospital. According to INXS bandmate Beers, Hutchence pulled a knife and threatened to kill him during the 1993 recording of Full Moon, Dirty Hearts on the isle of Capri. "Over those six weeks, Michael threatened or physically confronted nearly every member of the band. Suicide blonde, right? ''
Spud Entertainment made an independent film in the United States / Vancouver called "Limp '' that had a cameo appearance by Michael Hutchence. It is his last known work. He played a jaded A&R representative in the music industry named Clive. The movie was filmed while the band was recording tracks such as "Elegantly Wasted '' up in Canada.
Hutchence and INXS faced reduced commercial success with Full Moon, Dirty Hearts, especially in the U.S. The band took time off to rest and be with their families, while Hutchence remained in the public eye through his romances. He commenced work on a self - titled solo album in the mid-1990s. During this time, his relationship with Christensen ended when he renewed his friendship with UK television presenter Paula Yates. He had met Yates in 1985, during an interview for her program, The Tube; her marriage with The Boomtown Rats ' lead singer and Live Aid organiser, Geldof, was already in crisis. Yates interviewed Hutchence again in 1994 for her Big Breakfast show, and their affair was soon uncovered by the British press. By that time, Geldof and Yates had three daughters, Fifi Trixibelle, Peaches Honeyblossom and Little Pixie and had married in 1986. Media scrutiny was intense and Hutchence assaulted a photographer who had followed the couple. Yates ' separation from Geldof in February 1995 sparked a public and at times bitter custody battle over their daughters. They divorced in May 1996. On 22 July, Yates gave birth to Hutchence 's only child, their daughter Heavenly Hiraani Tiger Lily Hutchence, who Yates claimed was delivered in their bathroom. Like her half - sisters, she was christened with an unusual name. Pixie chose Heavenly, Hutchence picked Hiraani, and Yates provided Tiger Lily; she was called Tiger and Hutchence described her as "just what we ordered ''.
After a period of inactivity and releases that received lukewarm reviews, INXS recorded the band 's 10th official album, Elegantly Wasted, in 1996, produced by Bruce Fairbairn and Andrew Farriss.
Hutchence and INXS went on a world tour to support the April 1997 release of Elegantly Wasted, both the album and its related singles having had less chart success than their prior releases. During the tour, Yates planned to visit Hutchence with his daughter and Yates 's three children, but Geldof was seeking legal action to prevent the visit. The final leg of their 20th anniversary tour was to be in Australia in November and December. However, on the morning of 22 November 1997, Hutchence, aged 37, was found dead in Room 524 at the Ritz - Carlton hotel in Double Bay, Sydney.
On 6 February 1998, after an autopsy and coronial inquest, New South Wales State Coroner, Derrick Hand, presented his report which ruled that Hutchence 's death was a suicide while depressed and under the influence of alcohol and other drugs.
Former girlfriend Kym Wilson and her then - boyfriend, Andrew Reyment, were the last people to see Hutchence alive when they left him at 4: 50 am; he was still awaiting a phone call from Yates in London concerning whether she would bring their daughter Tiger to Australia. Hutchence 's second last outgoing phone call was to his personal manager, Martha Troup 's voice - mail, "Marth, Michael here. I 've fucking had enough. '' When Troup returned the call there was no answer. At 9: 54 am he talked to his former longtime girlfriend, Michèle Bennett, who stated that he was crying, sounded upset and said he needed to see her. Bennett arrived at his door at about 10: 40 am, but there was no response. Hutchence 's body was discovered by a hotel maid at 11: 50 am. Police reported that, "He was in a kneeling position facing the door. He had used his snake skin belt to tie a knot on the automatic door closure at the top of the door, and had strained his head forward into the loop so hard that the buckle had broken. ''
After Hutchence 's death, Geldof and Yates each gave police statements on the phone calls they exchanged with Hutchence that morning but did not volunteer their phone records. Yates 's statement on 26 November included "He was frightened and could n't stand a minute more without his baby... (he) was terribly upset and he said, ' I do n't know how I 'll live without seeing Tiger ' ''. Yates contended that Geldof had repeatedly said, "Do n't forget, I am above the law '', referring to his influence since Live Aid. Her statement said that she had informed Hutchence of the custody hearing being adjourned until 17 December, and that consequently she would not be bringing their daughter out to Australia as previously intended. Yates indicated that Hutchence said he was going to phone Geldof, "to let Tiger come to Australia ''.
Geldof 's police statements and evidence to the coroner indicated that he patiently listened to Hutchence who was "hectoring and abusive and threatening ''. A friend of Yates and Geldof confirmed the substance of this call and added that Geldof had said, "I know what time the call ended, it was 20 to 7, I was going to log it as a threatening call ''. The occupant in the room next to Room 524 heard a loud male voice and swearing at about 5 am; the coroner was satisfied that this was Hutchence arguing with Geldof.
On 27 November, Hutchence 's coffin was carried out of St. Andrew 's Cathedral by members of the band and his younger brother Rhett. "Never Tear Us Apart '' was played in the background. Nick Cave, a friend of Hutchence, performed his 1997 song "Into My Arms '' during the funeral and requested that television cameras be switched off. Rhett claimed in his 2004 book, Total XS, that on the previous day at the funeral parlour, Yates had put a gram of heroin into Hutchence 's pocket. He was cremated at Northern Suburbs Crematorium, Sydney. His ashes were scattered on Sydney Harbour in Rose Bay on 22 January 1998.
In 1999 in an interview on 60 Minutes and in a documentary film on Channel 4, Yates claimed that Hutchence 's death may have resulted from autoerotic asphyxiation which contradicted her previous statements to police investigators and the coroner. In producing his coroner 's report, Hand had specifically considered the suggestions of accidental death (coupled with the fact that Hutchence left no suicide note) but had discounted it based on substantial evidence presented to the contrary. Despite the official coroner 's report, fans and relatives considered his death accidental. In 2000, Patricia Glassop (Hutchence 's mother, who had remarried) and Tina Schorr (his sister), gave an interview on This Morning, asserting that Yates had on more than one occasion made threats of harming herself or the baby if Hutchence did not marry her, and that they believed she said this again on the morning of his death, directly precipitating his suicide.
Bono of the Irish rock band U2, a good friend of Hutchence, wrote "Stuck in a Moment You Ca n't Get Out Of '', which is interpreted as an intervention with him. In a 2005 interview, Bono regretted that he had not spent more time with Hutchence. Bono 's wife, Alison Hewson, had seen Hutchence prior to the Australian trip and noted "he looked a bit shaky to (her). ''
INXS decided to continue without Hutchence and, on 14 November 1998, they performed at Mushroom Records ' 25th anniversary concert -- recorded as Mushroom 25 Live -- with Jimmy Barnes handling vocals. In June 1999 U.S. singer Terence Trent D'Arby provided vocals for INXS at the opening of facilities for 2000 Summer Olympics in Sydney. From May 2000 they performed with former Noiseworks front man, Jon Stevens, who officially joined in 2002 to start recording a new INXS album but the sessions only provided one track and Stevens left in 2003. In 2005, INXS took their search for a lead singer to Rock Star: INXS, a reality TV show on CBS. The winner was Canadian singer J.D. Fortune -- they subsequently released Switch on 29 November and Original Sin in October 2010.
Hutchence 's solo album, Michael Hutchence, was finally released in October 1999. He had started on the album in 1995, recording songs in between INXS sessions and had last worked on it three days prior to his death. The last song he recorded was "Possibilities ''. The album was co-written and co-produced by Hutchence and various collaborators -- Andy Gill (Gang of Four), Bernard Fowler (The Rolling Stones backing singer), Tim Simenon (Bomb the Bass), and Danny Saber (Black Grape). It has a duet with U2 's Bono, "Slide Away '', with Bono 's vocals recorded after Hutchence 's death. The movie, Limp (1999) includes a cameo by Hutchence, playing a record company A&R man -- he had filmed his scene in 1996 on a day off working on INXS 's Elegantly Wasted.
On 18 June 2000, his mother Patricia and half - sister Tina released their book, Just a Man: The Real Michael Hutchence, which is described as "an odd biography... (that) combines the basic facts of Hutchence 's early life... with an almost too - intimate view of the authors ' feelings ''. Yates died on 17 September of an accidental heroin overdose; she was discovered by four - year - old Tiger. Geldof filed for custody of Tiger the next day. Although they were not directly related, he wanted her to be raised with her half - sisters. Hutchence 's family members were not given Geldof 's permission to join the custody hearings -- Patricia and Tina initiated legal proceedings to pursue custody. On 12 December 2002, Hutchence 's father, Kelland, died of cancer in Sydney. Kelland had helped create and maintain a memorial website for his son from 1999.
On 20 August 2005, Melbourne 's The Age reported on the disposition of Hutchence 's estate and assets, estimated at between $10 to $20 million but containing virtually nothing. The remainder of his estate had been sold off and swallowed in legal fees. Millions of dollars in property and other assets, including ongoing royalties from INXS, were held in ' The Vocals Trust ', a complex arrangement of international companies and trusts, of which Hutchence was not a beneficiary. Gordon Fisher, who set up the arrangement, stated that Hutchence used this structure to keep his wealth from his "thieving relatives '' and "girlfriends ''. Others linked with this scheme are Andrew Young, Tony Alford, Andrew Paul and Colin Diamond, some of whom have had their financial and personal credibility questioned.
On 22 November 2007, the 10th anniversary of Hutchence 's death, the original members of INXS created a tribute page on their official website. Rhett revealed to Woman 's Day magazine that he was going to the Supreme Court to try to overturn the verdict of suicide, as he does not want Tiger growing up thinking her father intentionally left her.
The dispute between Geldof and Hutchence family members over Tiger continued. Geldof legally adopted Tiger, against the wishes of Patricia and Tina, who disagreed with Geldof changing her surname to Hutchence - Geldof. In July 2009, Patricia protested that Geldof had prevented access to her granddaughter for three years, "It 's totally cruel and unnecessary. I 've lost my husband and now I have a granddaughter who does n't even know her beloved Grandpa Ross (Glassop) has died. We have been completely cut out of her life by Bob Geldof. '' Patricia requested a visit with Tiger from Geldof for what would have been Hutchence 's 50th birthday (22 January 2010) and indicated that she accepted her son 's death as being a suicide. Patricia died on 21 September 2010; Tiger was not in attendance at her grandmother 's funeral due to Geldof 's fear of the attention that would be generated. Her uncle Rhett indicated that Geldof had sent condolences, that he had spoken to Tiger and agreed it was advisable to keep the 14 - year - old out of the media.
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who is the chief minister of india who is the chief minister of india | List of current Indian Chief ministers - Wikipedia
In the Republic of India, a chief minister is the head of government of each of twenty - nine states and two union territories (Delhi and Puducherry). According to the Constitution of India, at the state - level, the governor is de jure head, but de facto executive authority rests with the chief minister. Following elections to the state legislative assembly, the governor usually invites the party (or coalition) with a majority of seats to form the government. The governor appoints the chief minister, whose council of ministers are collectively responsible to the assembly. Given he has the assembly 's confidence, the chief minister 's term is usually for a maximum of five years; there are no limits to the number of terms he / she can serve.
Since June 2018, the office of Chief Minister of Jammu and Kashmir has been vacant; Governor 's rule is in force there. Of the thirty incumbents, two are women -- Mamata Banerjee in West Bengal and Vasundhara Raje in Rajasthan. Serving since December 1994 (for 23 years, 318 days), Sikkim 's Pawan Kumar Chamling has the longest incumbency. Amarinder Singh (b. 1942) of Punjab is the oldest chief minister while Arunachal Pradesh 's Pema Khandu (b. 1979) is the youngest. Fifteen incumbents belong to the Bharatiya Janata Party and three to the Indian National Congress; no other party has more than one chief minister in office.
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who sang lean on me.in the 80's | Lean on Me (song) - wikipedia
"Lean on Me '' is a song written and recorded by African American singer - songwriter Bill Withers. It was released in April 1972 as the first single from his second album, Still Bill. It was his first and only number one single on both the soul singles and the Billboard Hot 100. Billboard ranked it as the No. 7 song of 1972. It is ranked number 208 on Rolling Stone 's list of "The 500 Greatest Songs of All Time ''. Numerous cover versions have been recorded, and it is one of only nine songs to have reached No. 1 in the US Singles Charts with versions recorded by two different artists.
Withers ' childhood in the coal mining town of Slab Fork, West Virginia, was the inspiration for "Lean on Me '', which he wrote after he had moved to Los Angeles and found himself missing the strong community ethic of his hometown. He lived in a decrepit house in the poor section of town.
Withers recalled to Songfacts the original inspiration for the song:
"I bought a little piano and I was sitting there just running my fingers up and down the piano. In the course of doing the music, that phrase crossed my mind, so then you go back and say, ' OK, I like the way that phrase, Lean On Me, sounds with this song. ' ''
Several members of the Watts 103rd Street Rhythm Band were used for the recording session in 1972. A string section was also included as well.
Withers ' version is noted for its Bridge section: ("Just call on me, brother ''), as well as the Coda section, where the words: Call Me, '' is repeated a total of 14 times, before the song ends on a cadenza on the strings. Several radio stations, as well as the single version, fade out during the repeated Coda, due to time limits as well as the repetition of the lyrics. Some radio versions cut the number of "Call Me 's '' to six times before the song 's end.
7 '' single
The R&B group Club Nouveau covered the song and took it to number one for two weeks on the Billboard Hot 100 charts in 1987. It also reached number one on the dance charts, and number two on the Black Singles charts, kept out of the top spot by Jody Watley 's "Looking for a New Love ''. It won a Grammy award in 1987 for Bill Withers, as the writer, for Best R&B Song.
7 '' Single
12 '' Single
In 1999, 2 - 4 Family released "Lean on Me (with the Family) '', a cover version with a hip hop arrangement and additional lyrics. Epic Records published a 12 - inch single and a CD maxi single in Germany.
In 2008, several years after the dissolution of 2 - 4 Family, founding band - member Mike Johnson performed the song with backing vocalists and dancers at the Eurovision Song Content in Bulgaria.
The song is frequently played at charity events. Avril Lavigne and Heart made a duet singing this song at the 17th Race To Erase MS event in May 2010. Kid Rock, Sheryl Crow and Keith Urban performed the song at the 2010 Hope for Haiti earthquake relief telethon.
The song was used in a 1970s drug awareness film titled Dead Is Dead, hosted and produced by actor Godfrey Cambridge.
The original and Club Nouveau version was featured in the 1989 film Lean on Me, starring Morgan Freeman.
Mary J. Blige performed this song at the HBO We Are One: The Obama Inaugural Celebration at the Lincoln Memorial. The next day, a crowd spontaneously began singing the song in the Purple Tunnel of Doom under the National Mall as they waited to gain entrance to the inauguration ceremonies.
The song plays at the end of "Radioactive Man '', an episode of The Simpsons, when two film producers return to Hollywood after a movie failure.
Early TV comedy sketch parodies of Lean on Me included a famous sketch on In Living Color where Joe Louis Clark is played by Keenen Ivory Wayans.
Paula Abdul and The Muppets performed this song on a 1997 episode of Muppets Tonight.
On the fourth season of Martin, Martin and the crew sang the song in the hospital in the episode, "Why Ca n't We Be Friends '' that was broadcast in 1996.
Brian Eno, Michael Stipe and Stephen Colbert sang an a cappella version of the song on The Colbert Report that was first broadcast on November 10, 2011.
Club Nouveau 's cover is played over the credits of Escape Plan (video game).
A cover version appears in a 2016 TV commercial for Muscle Milk.
The original Bill Withers version is played in a Walmart commercial to raise money for the victims of Hurricane Harvey. Similarly it opened the September 2017 Hand in Hand: A Benefit for Hurricane Relief, in the wake of Hurricane Harvey and Hurricane Irma, as performed by Stevie Wonder and modern gospel figures.
"Lean on Me '' has been interpreted by various other artists including Mud (1976), Al Jarreau (1985), Club Nouveau (1986), DC Talk (1992), Michael Bolton (1993), Bonnie Tyler (1999), Anne Murray (1999), The Temptations and Mark Medlock (2011).
In 1989, covers of "Lean on Me '' by The Winans and Sandra Reaves - Phillips provided the emotional uplift for the film, Lean on Me. For the same film, the song was adapted by Big Daddy Kane in "hip hop '' form.
Jack Vidgen recorded a version of the song for his album Inspire.
In 2004, Glen Campbell recorded the song on his album Love Is the Answer: 24 Songs of Faith, Hope and Love.
The rapper Majid featuring Burhan G made a rap song entitled "Lean On Me ''. The song contains the same introduction words as the original, with Burhan G doing the refrain from the song; however, it otherwise has different lyrics.
Mitchel Musso recorded a version of the song for the 2008 film Snow Buddies.
Glee recorded a version of the song for the "Ballad '' episode, in which the glee club sings it to fellow members Finn and Quinn.
Garth Brooks released a version in his Blame It All on My Roots: Five Decades of Influences box set in 2013.
The Canadian Tenors released their own version in the album Under One Sky published in 2015.
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who has played in the most ryder cup matches | List of European Ryder Cup golfers - wikipedia
This is a complete list of golfers who have played against the United States in the Ryder Cup for the following teams:
156 golfers have been in the final teams. In addition the list below includes Miguel Ángel Martín who qualified for the European 1997 Ryder Cup team but withdrew due to injury. Seven of the golfers in the final teams were never chosen to play in any matches so that only 149 of these golfers have actually played in the Ryder Cup.
^ In the final team but did not play in any matches.
+ Selected or qualified for the team but withdrew and was replaced. Abe Mitchell (in 1927) was ill and was replaced by Herbert Jolly; Herbert Jolly (in 1931) withdrew due to lack of form and was replaced by Arthur Havers; José María Olazábal (in 1995) withdrew due to injury and was replaced by Ian Woosnam; and Miguel Ángel Martín (in 1997) withdrew due to injury and was replaced by José María Olazábal.
Source:
O = Overall, S = Singles matches, Fs = Foursome matches, Fb = Fourball matches W = Matches won, L = Matches lost, H = Matches halved
In this table the appearances includes players who were in the final team but were not selected for any matches. It does not include those who were initially selected or who qualified but were later replaced. Thus Mitchell (1927), Jolly (1931), Olazábal (1995) and Martín (1997) are excluded.
This table excludes José María Olazábal (in 1995) and Miguel Ángel Martín (in 1997) who withdrew due to injury and were replaced in the team. Martín never played in a Ryder Cup team. Faldo played in 11 Ryder Cups but made his debut in 1977 for Great Britain and Ireland.
In the 20 contests from 1979 to 2018 there have been 150 appearances by players from Great Britain and Ireland (an average of 7.5) and 90 by those from Continental Europe (an average of 4.5).
The following European Ryder Cup players are or have been related:
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what does i am in the bible mean | I am that I am - wikipedia
I Am that I Am (אֶהְיֶה אֲשֶׁר אֶהְיֶה , ehyeh asher ehyeh (ehˈje aˈʃer ehˈje)) is the common English translation (JPS among others) of the response that God used in the Hebrew Bible when Moses asked for his name (Exodus 3: 14). It is one of the most famous verses in the Torah. Hayah means "existed '' in Hebrew; ehyeh is the first person singular imperfect form and is usually translated in English Bibles as "I am '' or "I will be '' (or "I shall be ''), for example, at Exodus 3: 14. Ehyeh asher ehyeh literally translates as "I Am Who I Am. '' The ancient Hebrew of Exodus 3: 14 lacks a future tense such as modern English has, yet a few translations render this name as "I Will Be What I Will Be, '' given the context of Yahweh 's promising to be with his people through their future troubles. Both the literal present tense "I Am '' and the future tense "I will be '' have given rise to many attendant theological and mystical implications in Jewish tradition. However, in most English Bibles, in particular the King James Version, the phrase is rendered as I am that I am.
Ehyeh - Asher - Ehyeh (often contracted in English as "I AM '') is one of the Seven Names of God accorded special care by medieval Jewish tradition. The phrase is also found in other world religious literature, used to describe the Supreme Being, generally referring back to its use in Exodus. The word Ehyeh is considered by many rabbinical scholars to be a first - person derivation of the Tetragrammaton, see for example Yahweh.
The word AahYah is used a total of 43 places in the Hebrew Bible, where it is often translated as "I will be '' -- as is the case for its first occurrence, in Genesis 26: 3 -- or "I shall be, '' as is the case for its final occurrence in Zechariah 8: 8. Whether YHWH is derived from AahYah or whether the two are individual concepts is a subject of debate among historians and theologians.
In appearance, it is possible to render YHWH (יהוה) as an archaic third person singular imperfect form of the verb ahyah (אהיה) "to be '' meaning, therefore, "He (הוא) is ''. This interpretation agrees with the meaning of the name given in Exodus 3: 14, where God is represented as speaking, and hence as using the first person -- AahYah "I am ''. Other scholars regard the triconsonantal root of hawah (הוה) as a more likely origin for the name Yahweh. It is notably distinct from the root El, which can be used as a simple noun to refer to the creator deity in general, as in Elohim, meaning simply "God '' (or gods).
In the Hellenistic Greek literature of the Jewish diaspora the phrase "Ehyeh asher ehyeh '' was rendered in Greek "ego eimi ho on ", "I am the BEING ''.
This usage is also found in the Christian New Testament:
The Roman Catholic Church 's interpretation has been summarized in the Catechism of the Catholic Church. The interpretation is found in numbers 203 - 213.
Some of the salient points are the following:
Some religious groups and theologians regard this phrase or at least the "I am '' part of the phrase as an actual name of God, or to lesser degree the sole name of God. It can be found in many listings of other common names of God.
In the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church Amharic Bible, it is written as Yale'na Yeminor (I am that exists and will exists).
The conceptualization of the omnipresence of the divine being has led to the consideration of simplicity. The unified perspectival concept of "I '' combined with the supposition of omnipresence creates an atmosphere in which the unity of divine being and self can be easily understood.
Samuel Taylor Coleridge predicates much of the theoretical frame of his Biographia Literaria on what he calls ' the great I AM ' (that is, God the Father) and ' the filial WORD that re-affirmeth it... ' (Christ, reaffirming his father 's statement ') '... from Eternity to Eternity, whose choral Echo is the Universe. ' Coleridge 's argument is that these two things together work to create the ground for all meaning, especially poetic and artistic meaning.
The South Indian sage Ramana Maharshi mentions that in the Hindu Advaita Vedanta school, of all the definitions of God, "none is indeed so well put as the biblical statement ' I am that I am ' ''. He maintained that although Hindu scripture contains similar statements in the Mahavakyas, these are not as direct as given in Exodus. Sri Nisargadatta Maharaj explains the "I am '' as an abstraction in the mind of the Stateless State, of the Absolute, or the Supreme Reality, called Parabrahman: it is pure awareness, prior to thoughts, free from perceptions, associations, memories.
Victor P. Hamilton suggests "some legitimate translations (...): (1) ' I am who I am '; (2) ' I am who I was '; (3) ' I am who I shall be '; (4) ' I was who I am '; (5) ' I was who I was '; (6) ' I was who I shall be '; (7) ' I shall be who I am '; (8) ' I shall be who I was '; (9) ' I shall be who I shall be. ' ''
The Bahá'í Faith reference to "I Am '' can be found in on page 316 of The Dawn - Breakers: Nabíl 's Narrative of the Early Days of the Bahá'í Revelation. "I am, '' thrice exclaimed The Bab, "I am, I am, the promised One! I am the One whose name you have for a thousand years invoked, at whose mention you have risen, whose advent you have longed to witness, and the hour of whose Revelation you have prayed God to hasten. Verily I say, it is incumbent upon the peoples of both the East and the West to obey My word and to pledge allegiance to My person. ''
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who holds the most consecutive wins in mlb | List of Major League Baseball longest winning streaks - wikipedia
This is a list of the longest team winning streaks or unbeaten streaks in Major League Baseball history. Streaks started at the end of one season are carried over into the following season. The lists below include streaks that consist entirely of regular - season games, streaks from the predecessor National Association (1871 -- 1875), streaks of playoff games and World Series games, and streaks that include both regular - season and postseason games.
The 1916 New York Giants hold the record for the longest unbeaten streak in MLB history at 26, with a tie in - between the 14th and 15th win. The record for the longest winning streak by an American League team is held by the 2017 Cleveland Indians at 22. The Chicago Cubs franchise has won 21 games twice, once in 1880 when they were the Chicago White Stockings and once in 1935.
The longest winning streak consisting only of playoff games stands at 12 consecutive wins, by the 1927, 1928 and 1932 New York Yankees (who swept the World Series all three seasons) and tied by the 1998 -- 99 Yankees. For streaks that have included both regular and postseason games, the 1970 and 1971 Baltimore Orioles hold the top two positions with 17 and 16 consecutive victories, respectively.
Several entries in the table are denoted as including ties. In the early days of baseball, a game that was postponed due to weather or darkness was replayed from the beginning (instead of being resumed from that point), but all statistics from the game were counted. In official records, the game is unofficial but is listed as a tie.
This list contains the top 30 streaks consisting entirely of regular - season games.
Denotes season in which team won a pennant in the American Association
This list contains only the top 10 streaks consisting entirely of postseason games.
This list contains only the top 10 streaks consisting entirely of World Series games.
(tie)
This list includes streaks that involve both regular season games and games which occurred in the postseason.
This list contains only the top 10 streaks consisting entirely of postseason series. For the purpose of this list, one - game wild card matchups, such as the 2012 Cardinals ' win, and the Giants ' wild card wins in 2014 and 2016, are counted.
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where does the last name echeverria come from | Echeverría - wikipedia
Echeverría may refer to:
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dry ice (solid co2) is which type of solid | Dry ice - wikipedia
Dry ice, sometimes referred to as "cardice '' (chiefly by British chemists), is the solid form of carbon dioxide. It is used primarily as a cooling agent. Its advantages include lower temperature than that of water ice and not leaving any residue (other than incidental frost from moisture in the atmosphere). It is useful for preserving frozen foods where mechanical cooling is unavailable.
Dry ice sublimates at 194.65 K (− 78.5 ° C; − 109.3 ° F), at Earth atmospheric pressures. This extreme cold makes the solid dangerous to handle without protection due to burns caused by freezing (frostbite). While generally not very toxic, the outgassing from it can cause hypercapnia (abnormally elevated carbon dioxide levels in the blood) due to buildup in confined locations.
Dry ice is the solid form of carbon dioxide (CO), a molecule consisting of a single carbon atom bonded to two oxygen atoms. Dry ice is colorless, non-flammable, with a sour zesty odor, and can lower the pH of a solution when dissolved in water, forming carbonic acid (H CO).
At pressures below 5.13 atm and temperatures below − 56.4 ° C (− 69.5 ° F) (the triple point), CO changes from a solid to a gas with no intervening liquid form, through a process called sublimation. The opposite process is called deposition, where CO changes from the gas to solid phase (dry ice). At atmospheric pressure, sublimation / deposition occurs at − 78.5 ° C (− 109.3 ° F) or 194.65 K.
The density of dry ice varies, but usually ranges between about 1.4 and 1.6 g / cm (87 and 100 lb / cu ft). The low temperature and direct sublimation to a gas makes dry ice an effective coolant, since it is colder than water ice and leaves no residue as it changes state. Its enthalpy of sublimation is 571 kJ / kg (25.2 kJ / mol).
Dry ice is non-polar, with a dipole moment of zero, so attractive intermolecular van der Waals forces operate. The composition results in low thermal and electrical conductivity.
It is generally accepted that dry ice was first observed in 1835 by French inventor Adrien - Jean - Pierre Thilorier (1790 -- 1844), who published the first account of the substance. In his experiments, it was noted that when opening the lid of a large cylinder containing liquid carbon dioxide, most of the liquid carbon dioxide quickly evaporated. This left only solid dry ice in the container. In 1924, Thomas B. Slate applied for a US patent to sell dry ice commercially. Subsequently, he became the first to make dry ice successful as an industry. In 1925, this solid form of CO was trademarked by the DryIce Corporation of America as "Dry ice '', thus leading to its common name. That same year the DryIce Co. sold the substance commercially for the first time; marketing it for refrigerating purposes.
The alternative name "Cardice '' is a registered trademark of Air Liquide UK Ltd. It is sometimes written as "card ice ''.
Dry ice is easily manufactured. First, gases with a high concentration of carbon dioxide are produced. Such gases can be a byproduct of another process, such as producing ammonia from nitrogen and natural gas, oil refinery activities or large - scale fermentation. Second, the carbon dioxide - rich gas is pressurized and refrigerated until it liquefies. Next, the pressure is reduced. When this occurs some liquid carbon dioxide vaporizes, causing a rapid lowering of temperature of the remaining liquid. As a result, the extreme cold causes the liquid to solidify into a snow - like consistency. Finally, the snow - like solid carbon dioxide is compressed into small pellets or larger blocks of dry ice.
A teaching laboratory demonstration for the production of dry ice is to use a 15 lb aluminum carbon dioxide fire extinguisher with a porous fabric collecting bag over the nozzle. The Joule - Thomson expansion of the gas lowers the temperature enough to produce an approximate 50 / 50 mixture of CO2 gas and dry ice snow also called dust that is collected in the bag. This is an inefficient process, and unsuitable for even lab - scale production. The expansion is inefficient, fire extinguishers are an expensive way to buy carbon dioxide, especially when a signed and dated fire extinguisher certification is required.
Dry ice is typically produced in three standard forms: large blocks, cylindrical small (5 / 8 or 1 / 2 inch diameter) pellets and cylindrical tiny (1 / 8 inch diameter), high surface to volume pellets that float on oil or water and do not stick to skin because of their high radii of curvature. Tiny dry ice pellets are used primarily for ice blasting, quick freezing, fire fighting, oil solidifying and have been found to be safe for experimentation by middle school students wearing appropriate Personal Protective Equipment such as gloves and safety glasses. A standard block weighing approximately 30 kg covered in a taped paper wrapping is most common. These are commonly used in shipping, because they sublime relatively slowly due to a low ratio of surface area to volume. Pellets are around 1 cm (0.4 in) in diameter and can be bagged easily. This form is suited to small scale use, for example at grocery stores and laboratories where it is stored in a thickly insulated chest.
The most common use of dry ice is to preserve food, using non-cyclic refrigeration.
It is frequently used to package items that must remain cold or frozen, such as ice cream or biological samples, without the use of mechanical cooling.
Dry ice can be used to flash - freeze food or laboratory biological samples, carbonate beverages, make ice cream, solidify oil spills and stop ice sculptures and ice walls from melting.
Dry ice can be used to arrest and prevent insect activity in closed containers of grains and grain products, as it displaces oxygen, but does not alter the taste or quality of foods. For the same reason, it can prevent or retard food oils and fats from becoming rancid.
When dry ice is placed in water, sublimation is accelerated, and low - sinking, dense clouds of smoke - like fog are created. This is used in fog machines, at theaters, haunted house attractions, and nightclubs for dramatic effects. Unlike most artificial fog machines, in which fog rises like smoke, fog from dry ice hovers near the ground. Dry ice is useful in theater productions that require dense fog effects. The fog originates from the bulk water into which the dry ice is placed, and not from atmospheric water vapor (as is commonly assumed).
It is occasionally used to freeze and remove warts. However, liquid nitrogen performs better in this role, since it is colder so requires less time to act, and less pressure. Dry ice has fewer problems with storage, since it can be generated from compressed carbon dioxide gas as needed.
Plumbers use equipment that forces pressurised liquid CO into a jacket around a pipe. The dry ice formed causes the water to freeze, forming an ice plug, allowing them to perform repairs without turning off the water mains. This technique can be used on pipes up to 4 inches (100 mm) in diameter.
Dry ice can be used as bait to trap mosquitoes, bedbugs, and other insects, due to their attraction to carbon dioxide.
It can be used to exterminate rodents. This is done by dropping pellets into rodent tunnels in the ground and then sealing off the entrance, thus suffocating the animals as the dry ice sublimates.
Tiny dry ice pellets can be used to fight fire by both cooling fuel and suffocating the fire by excluding oxygen.
The extreme temperature of dry ice can cause viscoelastic materials to change to glass phase. Thus it is useful for removing many types of pressure sensitive adhesives.
Dry ice can be used for loosening asphalt floor tiles or car sound deadening material making it easy to prise off, as well as freezing water in valveless pipes to enable repair.
One of the largest mechanical uses of dry ice is blast cleaning. Dry ice pellets are shot from a nozzle with compressed air, combining the power of the speed of the pellets with the action of the sublimation. This can remove residues from industrial equipment. Examples of materials removed include ink, glue, oil, paint, mold and rubber. Dry ice blasting can replace sandblasting, steam blasting, water blasting or solvent blasting. The primary environmental residue of dry ice blasting is the sublimed CO, thus making it a useful technique where residues from other blasting techniques are undesirable. Recently, blast cleaning has been introduced as a method of removing smoke damage from structures after fires.
Dry ice is also useful for the de-gassing of flammable vapours from storage tanks -- the sublimation of dry ice pellets inside an emptied and vented tank causes an outrush of CO that carries with it the flammable vapours.
The removal and fitting of cylinder liners in large engines requires the use of dry ice to chill and thus shrink the liner so that it freely slides into the engine block. When the liner then warms up, it expands, and the resulting interference fit holds it tightly in place. Similar procedures may be used in fabricating mechanical assemblies with a high resultant strength, replacing the need for pins, keys or welds.
Dry - ice blasting, a form of carbon dioxide cleaning, is used in a number of industrial applications.
It is also useful as a cutting fluid.
In laboratories, a slurry of dry ice in an organic solvent is a useful freezing mixture for cold chemical reactions and for condensing solvents in rotary evaporators. Dry ice / acetone forms a cold bath of − 78 ° C, which can be used for instance to prevent thermal runaway in a Swern oxidation.
The process of altering cloud precipitation can be done with the use of dry ice. It was widely used in experiments in the US in the 1950s and early 60s before it was replaced by silver iodide. Dry ice has the advantage of being relatively cheap and completely non-toxic. Its main drawback is the need to be delivered directly into the supercooled region of clouds being seeded.
A "dry ice bomb '' is a balloon - like device using dry ice in a sealed container such as a plastic bottle. Water is usually added to accelerate the sublimation of the dry ice. As the dry ice sublimes, pressure increases, causing the bottle to burst causing a loud noise that can be avoided when a # 3 rubber stopper replaces the screw on cap to make a water rocket with a two - liter bottle.
The dry ice bomb device was featured on MythBusters, episode 57 Mentos and Soda, which first aired on August 9, 2006. It was also featured in an episode of Time Warp, as well as in an episode of Archer.
Following the Mars flyby of the Mariner 4 spacecraft in 1966, scientists concluded that Mars ' polar caps consist entirely of dry ice. However, findings made in 2003 by researchers at the California Institute of Technology have shown that Mars ' polar caps are almost completely made of water ice, and that dry ice only forms a thin surface layer that thickens and thins seasonally. A phenomenon named dry ice storms was proposed to occur over the polar regions of Mars. They are comparable to Earth 's thunderstorms, with crystalline CO taking the place of water in the clouds.
In 2012, the European Space Agency 's Venus Express probe detected a cold layer in the atmosphere of Venus where temperatures are close to the triple point of carbon dioxide and it is possible that flakes of dry ice precipitate.
Prolonged exposure to dry ice can cause severe skin damage through frostbite, and the fog produced may also hinder attempts to withdraw from contact in a safe manner. Because it sublimes into large quantities of carbon dioxide gas, which could pose a danger of hypercapnia, dry ice should only be exposed to open air in a well - ventilated environment. For this reason, dry ice is assigned the S - phrase S9 in the context of laboratory safety. Industrial dry ice may contain contaminants that make it unsafe for direct contact with foodstuffs. Tiny dry ice pellets used in dry ice blast cleaning do not contain oily residues.
Although dry ice is not classified as a dangerous substance by the European Union, or as a hazardous material by the United States Department of Transportation for ground transportation, when shipped by air or water, it is regulated as a dangerous good and IATA packing instruction 954 (IATA PI 954) requires that it be labeled specially, including a diamond - shaped black - and white label, UN 1845. Also, arrangements must be in place to ensure adequate ventilation so that pressure build - up does not rupture the packaging. The Federal Aviation Administration in the US allows airline passengers to carry up to 2.5 kg per person either as checked baggage or carry - on baggage, when used to refrigerate perishables.
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where are the john deere tractors made at | John Deere - wikipedia
Deere & Company (brand name John Deere) is an American corporation that manufactures agricultural, construction, and forestry machinery, diesel engines, drivetrains (axles, transmissions, gearboxes) used in heavy equipment, and lawn care equipment. In 2017, it was listed as 105th in the Fortune 500 America 's ranking and was ranked 407th in the global ranking. John Deere also provides financial services and other related activities.
Deere is listed on the New York Stock Exchange under the symbol DE. The company 's slogan is "Nothing Runs Like a Deere '', and its logo is a leaping deer, with the words ' JOHN DEERE ' under it. The logo has been used by the company for over 155 years.
Deere & Company began when John Deere, born in Rutland, Vermont, USA on February 7, 1804, moved to Grand Detour, Illinois in 1836 to escape bankruptcy in Vermont. Already an established blacksmith, Deere opened a 1,378 - square - foot (128 m) shop in Grand Detour in 1837, which allowed him to serve as a general repairman in the village, as well as a manufacturer of small tools such as pitchforks and shovels. Small tools production was just a start; the item that set him apart was the self - scouring steel plow, which was pioneered in 1837 when John Deere fashioned a Scottish steel saw blade into a plow. Prior to Deere 's steel plow, most farmers used iron or wooden plows to which the rich Midwestern soil stuck, so had to be cleaned frequently. The smooth - sided steel plow solved this problem, and greatly aided migration into the American Great Plains in the 19th and early 20th centuries.
The traditional way of doing business was to make the product as and when it was ordered. This style was very slow, As Deere realized that this was not going to be a viable business model, he increased the rate of production by manufacturing plows before putting them up for sale; this allowed customers to not only see what they were buying beforehand, but also allowed his customers to purchase his products straight away. Word of his products began to spread quickly.
In 1842, Deere entered a business partnership with Leonard Andrus and purchased land for the construction of a new, two - story factory along the Rock River in Illinois. This factory, named the "L. Andrus Plough Manufacturer '', produced about 100 plows in 1842 and around 400 plows during the next year. Deere 's partnership with Andrus ended in 1848, and Deere relocated to Moline, Illinois, to have access to the railroad and the Mississippi River. There, Deere formed a partnership with Robert Tate and John Gould and built a 1,440 - square - foot (134 m) factory the same year. Production rose quickly, and by 1849, the Deere, Tate & Gould Company was producing over 200 plows a month. A two - story addition to the plant was built, allowing further production.
Deere bought out Tate and Gould 's interests in the company in 1853, and was joined in the business by his son Charles Deere. At that time, the company was manufacturing a variety of farm equipment products in addition to plows, including wagons, corn planters, and cultivators. In 1857, the company 's production totals reached almost 1,120 implements per month. In 1858, a nationwide financial recession took a toll on the company. To prevent bankruptcy, the company was reorganized and Deere sold his interests in the business to his son - in - law, Christopher Webber, and his son, Charles Deere, who would take on most of his father 's managerial roles. John Deere served as president of the company until 1886. The company was reorganized again in 1868, when it was incorporated as Deere & Company. While the company 's original stockholders were Charles Deere, Stephen Velie, George Vinton, and John Deere, Charles effectively ran the company. In 1869, Charles began to introduce marketing centers and independent retail dealers to advance the company 's sales nationwide. This same year, Deere & Company won "Best and Greatest Display of Plows in Variety '' at the 17th Annual Illinois State Fair, for which it won $10 and a Silver Medal.
The core focus remained on the agricultural implements, but John Deere apparently also made a few bicycles in the 1890s.
Increased competition during the early 1900s from the new International Harvester Company led the company to expand its offerings in the implement business, but the production of gasoline tractors came to define Deere & Company 's operations during the 20th century.
In 1912, Deere & Company president William Butterworth (Charles ' son - in - law), who had replaced Charles Deere after his death in 1907, began the company 's expansion into the tractor business. Deere & Company briefly experimented with its own tractor models, the most successful of which was the Dain All - Wheel - Drive, but in the end decided to continue its foray into the tractor business by purchasing the Waterloo Gasoline Engine Company in 1918, which manufactured the popular Waterloo Boy tractor at its facilities in Waterloo, Iowa. Deere & Company continued to sell tractors under the Waterloo Boy name until 1923, when the John Deere Model D was introduced. The company continues to manufacture a large percentage of its tractors in Waterloo, Iowa, namely the 7R, 8R, and 9R series.
The company produced its first combine harvester, the John Deere No. 2, in 1927. A year later, this innovation was followed up by the introduction of John Deere No. 1, a smaller machine that was more popular with customers. By 1929, the No. 1 and No. 2 were replaced by newer, lighter - weight harvesters. In the 1930s, John Deere and other farm equipment manufacturers began developing hillside harvesting technology. Harvesters now had the ability to effectively use their combines to harvest grain on hillsides with up to a 50 % slope gradient.
On an episode of the Travel Channel series Made in America that profiled Deere & Company, host John Ratzenberger stated that the company never repossessed any equipment from American farmers during the Great Depression.
During World War II, the great - grandson of John Deere, Charles Deere Wiman, was president of the company, but he accepted a commission as a colonel in the U.S. Army. A replacement was hired and before returning to work at the company in late 1944, Wiman directed the farm machinery and equipment division of the War Production Board. In addition to farm machinery, John Deere manufactured military tractors, and transmissions for the M3 tank. They also made aircraft parts, ammunition, and mobile laundry units to support the war effort.
In 1947, John Deere introduced its first self - propelled combine, the model 55. It was soon followed by the smaller models 40 and 45, the larger model 95, and an even larger model 105 was introduced in the 1960s. In the mid-1950s, Deere introduced attachable corn heads, allowing crop producers to cut, shell, and clean corn in one smooth operation.
In 1956, Deere & Company bought - out the German tractor manufacturer, Heinrich Lanz AG (see Lanz Bulldog).
In the last months of 1958, John Deere install a factory in the north of Rosario, Argentina. In Argentina, the make was managed by Agar Cross & Co. John Deere made in Argentina the following models of tractos: 445, 730; the models of the serie 20 like 1420, 2420, 3420, 4420; the models of the serie 30 like 2330, 2530, 2730, 3330, 3530, 4530; the models of the serie 40 like 2140, 3140 / 3140 DT, 3440, 3540 and the last made in Baigorria of the serie 50 like 2850, 3350, 3550 until 1994. Seventeen years ago, (in 2011) the argentinian plant returns the assembly of tractors with the following models: 5036C, 5045D (45 HP) Serie 5D, 5045E (45 HP) Serie 5E, 5065E (65 HP) Serie 5E, 5075E (75 HP) Serie 5E, 5425N (77 HP) Serie 5000, 5725 (92 HP) Serie 5025, 5725HC (92 HP) Serie 5025, 5090E, 5090EH, 5076EF, 6110J, 6130J, 6145J and 6165J.
Plus, in 2012, added in SKD / CKD format, the assembly of combine harvesters 9570 STS Serie 70, 9470 STS, 9670 STS and 9770 STS.
Also with the green line, the argentinian facility made some backhoe loaders and motor graders like 570 A / B, 544 A / B, 507, 308, 200 and the 627, 727 model tractors.
On August 30, 1960, John Deere dealers from around the world converged on Dallas, Texas, for an unprecedented product showcase. Deere Day in Dallas, as the event was called, introduced the world to the "New Generation of Power '', the company 's first modern four - cylinder and six - cylinder tractors, during a day packed with high - tech presentations, live demonstrations, and a parking lot full of brand - new green and yellow machines. The line of tractors introduced that day was five years in the making, and the event itself took months to plan. Deere chose Dallas to host the event partly because it was home to facilities large enough to accommodate the 6,000 guests and the equipment they were all there to see. The Dallas Memorial Auditorium, the Texas State Fairgrounds Coliseum, the Cotton Bowl, and the Cotton Bowl parking lot were each the site of part of the event. During the event, a new John Deere tractor with a diamond - covered nameplate was displayed for all to see inside Neiman - Marcus, a popular Dallas - based department store.
According to information released by the company at the time of the event, John Deere dealers and key employees came to Dallas via the "largest commercial airlift of its type ever attempted. '' During the 24 hours leading up to the event, 16 airlines brought Deere employees and sales people from all over the United States and Canada to Love Field in Dallas. Bill Hewitt, then chairman and CEO of Deere & Company, welcomed the dealers and introduced the new tractors. Hewitt told the guests they were about to see "a line of entirely new tractors -- completely modern in every respect -- with outstanding features not duplicated in any other make of tractor. ''
Since entering the tractor business in 1918, John Deere had focused on two - cylinder machines. The New Generation of Power introduced at Deere Day in Dallas was very different from anything Deere had built before. The new line of four - and six - cylinder tractors, the models 1010, 2010, 3010, and 4010, were more far more powerful than Deere 's two - cylinder models, and also easier and more comfortable to operate, with conveniently located controls, better visibility, and improved seat suspension. These new tractors were also easier to service.
The 4010 was rated at 80 horsepower in 1960, but tested at 84 horsepower during testing trials, making it one of the most powerful two - wheel - drive farm tractors at that time. The 4010 was the predecessor to the 4020, which is widely regarded as the most popular tractor ever produced by John Deere, and perhaps any tractor manufacturer in the United States. Although the 4020, which was available with Deere 's optional Power Shift, enjoyed greater popularity, the 4010 moved John Deere into the modern era of farm tractor technology and design following its successful history as a tractor manufacturer that was by the late 1950s experiencing waning market share due to its outdated technology.
In addition to the advanced engine technology, the "10 '' series tractors offered many other upgrades from the older two - cylinder models they replaced, including significantly higher horsepower - to - weight ratio, advanced hydraulics, more convenient and comfortable operator stations, and many other improvements. Of the "10 '' series John Deere tractors introduced in 1960, the 4010 was by far the most popular, with more than 58,000 units sold from 1960 to 1963. The success of the "10 '' series John Deere tractors, led by the 4010, helped propel John Deere from a 23 % market share in 1959 to 34 % by 1964 when the 4020 was introduced, making it the top manufacturer of farm equipment in the United States.
In 1972, Deere introduced its new ' Sound Idea ' tractors, the 4030, 4230, 4430, and 4630. While these tractors were mechanically similar to the New Generation tractors they replaced, and the 4230, 4430, and 4630 used a 404 - cubic - inch displacement engine like the 4020, they featured redesigned sheet metal and most importantly they were available with an optional completely integrated operator 's cab that John Deere called the Sound Gard body. This insulated cab that included a roll - over protective structure had a distinctive rounded windshield and came equipped with heat and air conditioning, as well as speakers for an optional radio. An 8 - track tape player was also available as an option. The 5020 was replaced by the very similar 6030 and continued in production with New Generation styling until 1977 when the 30 Series tractors were replaced by Deere 's ' Iron Horse ' series that included the 90 - hp 4040, 110 - hp 4240, 130 - hp 4440, 150 - HP 4640, and 180 - hp 4840. The 4240, 4440, 4640, and 4840 featured a new 466 - cubic - inch displacement engine, and improvements to the cab including an optional hydraulic seat for a smoother ride. The Sound Gard body and Power Shift transmission were standard equipment on the 4840.
In 1983, Deere introduced the 4050, 4250, 4450, 4650, and 4850. These tractors were essentially the same machines as the Iron Horses they replaced, but with significant upgrades. They offered a new 15 - speed Power Shift transmission, and were available with optional mechanical front - wheel drive featuring caster action for better traction and a tighter turning radius. They also featured cosmetic upgrades, including a new light brown cab interior, not the black interior on previous models. These tractors were followed by the mechanically similar 55 and 60 series tractors before they were replaced by the Deere 's completely redesigned 7000 and 8000 series tractors in the early 1990s.
In the 1962 Illinois Manufacturers Directory (50th anniversary edition), John Deere, listed as Deere and Company, claimed a total work force of 35,000, of which 9,000 were in Illinois. The corporate headquarters were located at 1325 Third Ave. in Moline, Illinois, with six manufacturing plants located around that city and a seventh plant in Hoopston, Illinois. The six plants in Moline were listed as:
The John Deere Vermilion Works was located at North Sixth Ave., Hoopston, Illinois, where 140 employees were listed as making iron work and implement parts. Moline, with 42,705 residents in 1962, had the local 7,000 employees of John Deere represent 16 % of the city 's entire population.
In 1969, John Deere followed its New Generation tractors of the 1960s with a New Generation of combines. These included the 3300, 4400, 6600, and 7700. These models were also the first to come with Quik - Tatch header mounting capabilities as standard equipment. In the 1980s, these combines were followed by the 4420, 6620, 7720, and 8820 that were essentially updated and improved versions of the previous models with larger capacity, a nicer cab, and easier maintenance and service. The 4420 was discontinued in 1984 and replaced by the 4425 combine imported from Germany, and the 6620, 7720, and 8820 received the Titan II updates.
In 1989, Deere replaced the 6620, 7720, and 8820 with a new line of completely redesigned ' Maximizer ' combines that included the 9400, 9500, and 9600 walker combines. These combines were completely redesigned and featured a center - mounted cab, rear - mounted engine, and more comforts in the cab. Also in 1989, Deere was inducted into the National Inventors Hall of Fame. In 1997, Deere celebrated 50 years of self - propelled combine production, and the 1997 models featured a 50th - anniversary decal. In 1998, the 9410, 9510, and 9610 were introduced. These were essentially the same machines, but with minor upgrades. Deere dealers offered ' 10 series ' upgrades to owners of older 9000 series Maximizer combines. In 1999, Deere introduced the 50 series Maximizer combines. These machines featured significant cosmetic upgrades including a more streamlined appearance, improved ergonomics in the cab, PTO shaft - style header hook - up, and the larger models were available as rotary machines which were a complete departure from the combines that Deere had built in the past.
In the late 1970s, International Harvester had pioneered rotary combines with their Axial flow machines, and were soon followed by other manufacturers, but Deere continued to build only conventional walker combines through the 1980s and 1990s. In 1999, John Deere introduced the Single - Tine Separation (STS) system on its 9550, 9650, and 9750 combines, representing a step forward in rotary combine technology. The STS system uses less horsepower and improves material handling.
As of 2014, Deere & Company employed about 67,000 people worldwide, of which half are in the United States and Canada, and is the largest agriculture machinery company in the world. In August 2014, the company announced it was indefinitely laying off 600 of its workers at plants in Illinois, Iowa, and Kansas due to less demand for its products. Inside the United States, the company 's primary locations are its administrative center in Moline, Illinois, and manufacturing factories in central and southeastern United States. As of 2016, the company experiments with an electric farm tractor.
The logo of the leaping deer has been used by this company for over 155 years. Over the years, the logo has had minor changes and pieces removed. Some of the older style logos have the deer leaping over a log. The company uses different logo colors for agricultural vs. construction products. The company 's agricultural products are identifiable by a distinctive shade of green paint, with the inside border being yellow. While the construction products are identifiable by a shade of black with the deer being yellow, and the inside border also being yellow.
In September 2017, Deere & Company signed a definitive agreement to acquire Blue River Technology, which is based in Sunnyvale, California and is a leader in applying machine learning to agriculture. Blue River has designed and integrated computer vision and machine learning technology that will enable growers to reduce the use of herbicides by spraying only where weeds are present, optimizing the use of inputs in farming.
John Deere manufactures a wide range of products, with several models of each in many cases.
Agricultural products include, among others, tractors, combine harvesters, cotton harvesters, balers, planters / seeders, silage machines, and sprayers.
Tractor
Tracked tractor (9630T)
FEL attachment
Combine
Forage harvester
Cotton picker
Sugarcane harvester
Seed drill
Field sprayer
Telescopic handler
Horse drawn manure spreader
Construction equipment includes:
Excavator
Loader
Tracked loader
Backhoe
Skid - steer
Grader
John Deere manufactures a range of forestry machinery, among others, harvesters, forwarders, skidders. feller bunchers and log loaders. Timberjack is a subsidiary of John Deere since 2000.
Harvester
Forwarder
Skidder
The company manufactures lawn mowers and also is a manufacturer of consumer and commercial equipment, and snow throwers, as well as a supplier of diesel engines and powertrains (axles, transmissions, etc.) used especially in heavy equipment.
Other products were / are snowmobiles, all - terrain vehicles, and StarFire (a wide - area differential GPS).
John Deere leasing has expanded to non-equipment loans and as of 2017, it is the leading division of John Deere and with loan portfolio of $2 billion, accounts for a third of John Deere 's income.
Lawn mower
UTV (Gator)
Diesel engine
Major North American factories include:
Other important factories:
Some groups, including the Electronic Frontier Foundation, have taken issue with the fact that John Deere 's license covering the internal software on tractor control computers does not allow them to modify the software and that John Deere claims doing so would be forbidden by the Digital Millennium Copyright Act, as bypassing of digital rights management.
Stating security reasons, John Deere locks tractors digitally to prevent repairs by do - it - yourself farmers.
Green Magazine is a publication devoted to John Deere enthusiasts. It began in November 1984 by Richard and Carol Hain of Bee, Nebraska.
The first issue was mailed in early November 1984 to 135 paid subscribers and had 10 black - and - ehite pages with features on tractors, letters from readers, and advertisements. At the time, the magazine was published bimonthly. It writing was written in Lincoln, Nebraska, and it was mailed from the Bee post office.
The magazine grew rapidly, and in 1990, bowing to public demand, the magazine became a monthly. Circulation continued to increase, and at the current time hovers around 30,000. The magazine now generally contains 88 full - color pages and is perfect bound. It is now printed in Michigan and mailed from several different post offices throughout the country.
Current content usually includes a "Tip of the Month '' article covering New Generation restoration written by Dan Brotzman, a "Youngtimer '' article written by Tyler Buchheit, "Shop Talk '' by Ron and JoAnn O'Neill, "Saw it On eBay '' by Adam Smith and Benjamin Hain, "Scale Models '' by Bill Proft, "What 's New and Old '' by Greg Stephen, "Feature Model '' by Benjamin Hain, "Do You Have One of These '' by Richard Hain, and "Mr. Thinker '', which is said to be written by "a variety of experts ''.
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who is the most popular artist in america | List of highest - certified music artists in the United States - wikipedia
This is the list of the top 100 highest - certified music artists in the United States based on album certifications by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA).
RIAA certifications are based on wholesale shipments rather than retail sales. Since 2016, the RIAA album certification has also included on - demand audio / video streams (1,500 streams = 1 album unit) and track sale equivalent (10 track sales = 1 album unit). Additionally, awards are only presented if and when a record company applies for certification. Therefore, the total certified units for a given artist may be incomplete or out of date.
The RIAA began its certifications in 1958, therefore, popular artists from earlier eras are generally not represented on this list.
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where did phrase quit cold turkey come from | Cold turkey - wikipedia
"Cold turkey '' refers to the abrupt cessation of a substance dependence and the resulting unpleasant experience, as opposed to gradually easing the process through reduction over time or by using replacement medication. The term comes from the piloerection or "goose bumps '' that occurs with abrupt withdrawal from opioids, which resembles the skin of a plucked refrigerated turkey.
Sudden withdrawal from drugs such as alcohol, benzodiazepines, and barbiturates can be extremely dangerous, leading to potentially fatal seizures. For long - term alcoholics, going cold turkey can cause life - threatening delirium tremens, rendering this an inappropriate method for breaking an alcohol addiction.
In the case of opioid withdrawal, going "cold turkey '' is extremely unpleasant but less dangerous. Life - threatening issues are unlikely unless one has a pre-existing medical condition.
Smoking cessation methods advanced by J. Wayne McFarland and Elman J. Folkenburg (an M.D. and a pastor who wrote their Five Day Plan ca. 1959), Joel Spitzer and John R. Polito (smoking cessation educators) and Allen Carr (who founded Easyway during the early 1980s) are cold turkey plans.
An early printed use of the term from 1920:
Some addicts voluntarily stop taking opiates and "suffer it out '' as they express it without medical assistance, a process which in their slang is called taking "cold turkey ''...
Another early printed use of the term in the media to refer to drug withdrawal occurred in the Daily Colonist in British Columbia in 1921:
Perhaps the most pitiful figures who have appeared before Dr. Carleton Simon... are those who voluntarily surrender themselves. When they go before him, that are given what is called the ' cold turkey ' treatment.
The phrase "taking cold turkey '' has also been reported during the 1920s as slang for pleading guilty.
The term is later seen in the 1947 novel I, The Jury ' by Mickey Spillane:
Included was a medical record from the hospital when he had made her go cold turkey, which is dope - addict talk for an all - out cure.
On February 26, 1951 Time magazine article "High & Light '' used the phrase, stating:
There is one dimly hopeful side to the teenage dope problem. Unlike older people, few teenagers appear to take to drugs because of psychological troubles; youngsters usually start using narcotics either out of ignorance or the same reckless impulses which lead them to race hot rods. Though they are easier to wean, however, there are almost no facilities for taking care of them. On New York City 's Rikers Island, youngsters have to endure the horrors of a sudden "cold turkey '' cure or get none at all. Once released, many go right back to drugs again.
In early drug slang, the term "going cold turkey '' was referred to suddenly and totally stopping drugs. The term is now used in general slang with the broader meaning of stopping any habit or practice suddenly.
There are several explanations of the phrase 's origin:
Instances of the phrase 's use in popular culture include:
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who played the role of swami in malgudi days | Master Manjunath - wikipedia
Manjunath Nayaker is an Indian actor and public relations professional. He is better known by his screen name Master Manjunath and "Swami '' for his lead role in the television series Malgudi Days (1987) directed by Shankar Nag and in its film version, Swami And Friends.
Nayaker was born in Bangalore, India. He did his BA in English and MA in Sociology from Mysore University and Bangalore University. He also holds a Diploma in cinematography and CA Foundation course.
Master Manjunath, who started acting at age three, has been part of 68 movies in Kannada and Hindi, but it was his role in Swami and Friends that fetched him recognition, in addition to six international, one national and a state award. The series was shot during his school vacation in 1985 -- 86, and telecast in 1987. He acted in Super Hit movies of actor - director Shankar Nag such as Nodi Swamy Navirodu Hige, Sangliana and S.P. Sangliana 2. He also played the role of young Vijay Deenanath Chauhan in Agneepath (1990), which starred Amitabh Bachchan.
He quit acting at the age of 19 to concentrate on his studies.
He became a PR professional and has been working for the Bangalore -- Mysore Infrastructure Corridor Project (BMICP). He now runs his own PR consultancy company.
Manjunath is married to athlete Swarnarekha, a sprinter and long jumper.
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who is the audience of letter from birmingham jail | Letter from Birmingham Jail - wikipedia
The Letter from Birmingham Jail, also known as the Letter from Birmingham City Jail and The Negro Is Your Brother, is an open letter written on April 16, 1963, by Martin Luther King Jr. The letter defends the strategy of nonviolent resistance to racism. It says that people have a moral responsibility to break unjust laws and to take direct action rather than waiting potentially forever for justice to come through the courts. Responding to being referred to as an "outsider, '' King writes, "Injustice anywhere is a threat to justice everywhere ''.
The letter, written during the 1963 Birmingham campaign, was widely published, and became an important text for the American Civil Rights Movement.
The Birmingham campaign began on April 3, 1963, with coordinated marches and sit - ins against racism and racial segregation in Birmingham, Alabama. The nonviolent campaign was coordinated by the Alabama Christian Movement for Human Rights (ACMHR) and King 's Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC). On April 10, Circuit Judge W.A. Jenkins issued a blanket injunction against "parading, demonstrating, boycotting, trespassing and picketing. '' Leaders of the campaign announced they would disobey the ruling. On April 12, King was roughly arrested with SCLC activist Ralph Abernathy, ACMHR and SCLC official Fred Shuttlesworth and other marchers, while thousands of African Americans dressed for Good Friday looked on.
King was met with unusually harsh conditions in the Birmingham jail. An ally smuggled in a newspaper from April 12, which contained A Call for Unity, a statement by eight white Alabama clergymen against King and his methods. The letter provoked King, and he began to write a response on the newspaper itself. King writes in Why We Ca n't Wait: "Begun on the margins of the newspaper in which the statement appeared while I was in jail, the letter was continued on scraps of writing paper supplied by a friendly black trusty, and concluded on a pad my attorneys were eventually permitted to leave me. ''
The letter responded to several criticisms made by the "A Call for Unity '' clergymen, who agreed that social injustices existed but argued that the battle against racial segregation should be fought solely in the courts, not the streets. As a minister, King responded to these criticisms on religious grounds. As an activist challenging an entrenched social system, he argued on legal, political, and historical grounds. As an African American, he spoke of the country 's oppression of black people, including himself. As an orator, he used many persuasive techniques to reach the hearts and minds of his audience. Altogether, King 's letter was a powerful defense of the motivations, tactics, and goals of the Birmingham campaign and the Civil Rights Movement more generally.
King began the letter by responding to the criticism that he and his fellow activists were "outsiders '' causing trouble in the streets of Birmingham. To this, King referred to his responsibility as the leader of the SCLC, which had numerous affiliated organizations throughout the South. "I was invited '' by our Birmingham affiliate "because injustice is here '', in what is probably the most racially divided city in the country, with its brutal police, unjust courts, and many "unsolved bombings of Negro homes and churches. '' Referring to his belief that all communities and states were interrelated, King wrote, "Injustice anywhere is a threat to justice everywhere. We are caught in an inescapable network of mutuality, tied in a single garment of destiny. Whatever affects one directly, affects all indirectly... Anyone who lives inside the United States can never be considered an outsider anywhere within its bounds. '' King also warned that if white people successfully rejected his nonviolent activists as rabble - rousing outside agitators, this could encourage millions of African Americans to "seek solace and security in black nationalist ideologies, a development that will lead inevitably to a frightening racial nightmare. ''
The clergymen also disapproved of tensions created by public actions such as sit - ins and marches. To this, King confirmed that he and his fellow demonstrators were indeed using nonviolent direct action in order to create "constructive '' tension. This tension was intended to compel meaningful negotiation with the white power structure, without which true civil rights could never be achieved. Citing previous failed negotiations, King wrote that the black community was left with "no alternative. '' "We know through painful experience that freedom is never voluntarily given by the oppressor; it must be demanded by the oppressed. ''
The clergymen also disapproved of the timing of public actions. In response, King said that recent decisions by the SCLC to delay its efforts for tactical reasons showed they were behaving responsibly. He also referred to the broader scope of history, when "' Wait ' has almost always meant ' Never. ' '' Declaring that African Americans had waited for these God - given and constitutional rights long enough, King quoted Chief Justice Earl Warren, who said in 1958 that "justice too long delayed is justice denied. '' Listing numerous ongoing injustices toward black people, including himself, King said, "Perhaps it is easy for those who have never felt the stinging darts of segregation to say, ' Wait. ' '' Along similar lines, King also lamented the "myth concerning time, '' by which white moderates assumed that progress toward equal rights was inevitable, so assertive activism was unnecessary. King called it a "tragic misconception of time '' to assume that its mere passage "will inevitably cure all ills. '' Progress takes time as well as the "tireless efforts '' of dedicated people of good will.
Against the clergymen 's assertion that demonstrations could be illegal, King argued that not only was civil disobedience justified in the face of unjust laws, but it was necessary and even patriotic. "I submit that an individual who breaks a law that conscience tells him is unjust, and who willingly accepts the penalty of imprisonment in order to arouse the conscience of the community over its injustice, is in reality expressing the highest respect for law. '' King stated that an unjust law was a law that degraded a human personality. Citing Augustine of Hippo, Thomas Aquinas, Martin Buber, and Paul Tillich -- and examples from the past and present -- King described what makes laws just or unjust. For example, "A law is unjust if it is inflicted on a minority that, as a result of being denied the right to vote, had no part in enacting or devising the law. '' In terms of obedience to the law, King stated that citizens have "not only a legal but a moral responsibility to obey just laws, '' and at the same time "to disobey unjust laws. '' King stated that it is not morally wrong to disobey a law that pertains to one group of people differently than another. Alabama has used "all sorts of devious methods '' to deny its black citizens their right to vote and thus preserve its unjust laws and broader system of white supremacy. Segregation laws are immoral and unjust "because segregation distorts the soul and damages the personality. It gives the segregator a false sense of superiority and the segregated a false sense of inferiority. '' Even some just laws, such as permit requirements for public marches, are unjust when used to uphold an unjust system.
King addressed the accusation that the Civil Rights Movement was "extreme '', first disputing the label but then accepting it. Compared to other movements at the time, King finds himself as a moderate. However, in his devotion to his cause, King refers to himself as an extremist. Jesus and other great reformers were extremists: "So the question is not whether we will be extremists, but what kind of extremists we will be. Will we be extremists for hate or for love? '' King 's discussion of extremism implicitly responded to numerous "moderate '' objections to the ongoing movement, such as President Dwight D. Eisenhower 's claim that he could not meet with civil rights leaders because doing so would require him to meet with the Ku Klux Klan.
King expressed general frustration with both white moderates and certain "opposing forces in the Negro community. '' He wrote that white moderates, including clergymen, posed a challenge comparable to that of white supremacists, in the sense that, "Shallow understanding from people of good will is more frustrating than absolute misunderstanding from people of ill will. Lukewarm acceptance is much more bewildering than outright rejection. '' King asserted that the white church needed to take a principled stand or risk being "dismissed as an irrelevant social club. '' Regarding the black community, King wrote that we need not follow "the ' do - nothingism ' of the complacent nor the hatred and despair of the black nationalist. ''
In closing the letter, King criticized the clergy 's praise of the Birmingham police for maintaining order nonviolently. Recent public displays of nonviolence by the police were in stark contrast to their typical treatment of black people, and, as public relations, helped "to preserve the evil system of segregation. '' Not only is it wrong to use immoral means to achieve moral ends, but also "to use moral means to preserve immoral ends. '' Instead of the police, King praised the nonviolent demonstrators in Birmingham, "for their sublime courage, their willingness to suffer and their amazing discipline in the midst of great provocation. One day the South will recognize its real heroes. ''
King wrote the letter on the margins of a newspaper, which was the only paper available to him, and then gave bits and pieces of the letter to his lawyers to take back to movement headquarters, where the pastor Wyatt Tee Walker and his secretary Willie Pearl Mackey began compiling and editing the literary jigsaw puzzle.
An editor at The New York Times Magazine, Harvey Shapiro, asked King to write his letter for publication in the magazine, but the Times chose not to publish it. Extensive excerpts from the letter were published, without King 's consent, on May 19, 1963, in the New York Post Sunday Magazine. The letter was first published as "Letter from Birmingham Jail '' in the June 1963 issue of Liberation, the June 12, 1963, edition of The Christian Century, and in the June 24, 1963, issue of The New Leader. The letter gained more popularity as summer went on, and was reprinted in the July Atlantic Monthly as "The Negro Is Your Brother ''. King included a version of the full text in his 1964 book Why We Ca n't Wait.
The essay was highly anthologized, and was reprinted 50 times in 325 editions of 58 readers published between 1964 and 1996 that were intended for use in college - level composition courses.
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queen you're so square baby i don't care lyrics | (You 're So Square) Baby I Do n't Care - Wikipedia
"(You 're So Square) Baby I Do n't Care '' is a song written in 1957 by Jerry Leiber and Mike Stoller for the film Jailhouse Rock starring singer and musician Elvis Presley. Presley 's version, one of the only songs in which he plays the electric bass, was recorded on May 3, with the vocal track added on May 9, 1957 and released on his Jailhouse Rock EP. It reached number fourteen on the R&B charts. It later become a minor pop standard, with notable versions being performed by Buddy Holly, who included the song on his self - titled second album, and his version made the British singles chart in 1961.
The song 's narrator addresses the object of their affection, and points out all the ways that the addressee is square, how they 're out of touch with modern trends in music and romance. Then the narrator tells the subject of the song that they love them in spite of, and maybe because of this.
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how are kurds different from sunni and shia | Kurds - wikipedia
The Kurds (Kurdish: کورد , Kurd) or the Kurdish people (Kurdish: گەلی کورد , Gelî kurd), are an ethnic group in the Middle East, mostly inhabiting a contiguous area spanning adjacent parts of southeastern Turkey (Northern Kurdistan), northwestern Iran (Eastern Kurdistan), northern Iraq (Southern Kurdistan), and northern Syria (Western Kurdistan). The Kurds are culturally, historically and linguistically classified as belonging to the Iranian peoples.
Globally, the Kurds are estimated to number anywhere from a low of 30 million, to possibly as high as 45 million, with the majority living in the region they regard as Greater Kurdistan. However, there are significant Kurdish diaspora communities in the cities of western Turkey, in particular Istanbul. A recent Kurdish diaspora has also developed in Western countries, primarily in Germany. The Kurds are the majority population in the autonomous region of Iraqi Kurdistan, and are a significant minority group in the neighboring countries of Turkey, Iran, and Syria, where Kurdish nationalist movements continue to pursue greater autonomy and cultural rights.
Kurdish (Kurdish: Kurdî or کوردی) is a collection of related dialects spoken by the Kurds. It is mainly spoken in those parts of Iran, Iraq, Syria and Turkey which comprise Kurdistan. Kurdish holds official status in Iraq as a national language alongside Arabic, is recognized in Iran as a regional language, and in Armenia as a minority language.
The Kurdish languages belong to the northwestern sub ‐ group of the Iranian languages, which in turn belongs to the Indo - Iranian branch of the Indo - European family.
Most Kurds are either bilingual or multilingual, speaking the language of their respective nation of origin, such as Arabic, Persian, and Turkish as a second language alongside their native Kurdish, while those in diaspora communities often speak three or more languages.
According to Mackenzie, there are few linguistic features that all Kurdish dialects have in common and that are not at the same time found in other Iranian languages.
The Kurdish dialects according to Mackenzie are classified as:
The Zaza and Gorani are ethnic Kurds, but the Zaza -- Gorani languages are not classified as Kurdish.
Commenting on the differences between the dialects of Kurdish, Kreyenbroek clarifies that in some ways, Kurmanji and Sorani are as different from each other as is English from German, giving the example that Kurmanji has grammatical gender and case endings, but Sorani does not, and observing that referring to Sorani and Kurmanji as "dialects '' of one language is supported only by "their common origin... and the fact that this usage reflects the sense of ethnic identity and unity of the Kurds. ''
The number of Kurds living in Southwest Asia is estimated at close to 30 million, with another one or two million living in diaspora. Kurds comprise anywhere from 18 % to 20 % of the population in Turkey, possibly as high as 25 %; 15 to 20 % in Iraq; 10 % in Iran; and 9 % in Syria. Kurds form regional majorities in all four of these countries, viz. in Turkish Kurdistan, Iraqi Kurdistan, Iranian Kurdistan and Syrian Kurdistan. The Kurds are the fourth largest ethnic group in West Asia after the Arabs, Persians, and Turks.
The total number of Kurds in 1991 was placed at 22.5 million, with 48 % of this number living in Turkey, 18 % in Iraq, 24 % in Iran, and 4 % in Syria.
Recent emigration accounts for a population of close to 1.5 million in Western countries, about half of them in Germany.
A special case are the Kurdish populations in the Transcaucasus and Central Asia, displaced there mostly in the time of the Russian Empire, who underwent independent developments for more than a century and have developed an ethnic identity in their own right. This groups ' population was estimated at close to 0.4 million in 1990.
"The land of Karda '' is mentioned on a Sumerian clay - tablet dated to the 3rd millennium B.C. This land was inhabited by "the people of Su '' who dwelt in the southern regions of Lake Van; The philological connection between "Kurd '' and "Karda '' is uncertain but the relationship is considered possible. Other Sumerian clay - tablets referred to the people, who lived in the land of Karda, as the Qarduchi and the Qurti. Karda / Qardu is etymologically related to the Assyrian term Urartu and the Hebrew term Ararat.
Qarti or Qartas, who were originally settled on the mountains north of Mesopotamia, are considered as a probable ancestor of the Kurds. Akkadians were attacked by nomads coming through Qartas territory at the end of 3rd millennium B.C. Akkadians distinguished them as Guti. They conquered Mesopotamia in 2150 B.C. and ruled with 21 kings until defeated by the Sumerian king Utu - hengal.
Many Kurds consider themselves descended from the Medes, an ancient Iranian people, and even use a calendar dating from 612 B.C., when the Assyrian capital of Nineveh was conquered by the Medes. The claimed Median descent is reflected in the words of the Kurdish national anthem: "We are the children of the Medes and Kai Khosrow. '' However, MacKenzie and Asatrian challenge the relation of the Median language to Kurdish. The Kurdish languages, on the other hand, form a subgroup of the Northwestern Iranian languages like Median. Some researchers consider the independent Kardouchoi as the ancestors of the Kurds, while others prefer Cyrtians. The term "Kurd, '' however, is first encountered in Arabic sources of the seventh century. Books from the early Islamic era, including those containing legends such as the Shahnameh and the Middle Persian Kar - Namag i Ardashir i Pabagan, and other early Islamic sources provide early attestation of the name Kurd. The Kurds have ethnically diverse origins.
During the Sassanid era, in Kar - Namag i Ardashir i Pabagan, a short prose work written in Middle Persian, Ardashir I is depicted as having battled the Kurds and their leader, Madig. After initially sustaining a heavy defeat, Ardashir I was successful in subjugating the Kurds. In a letter Ardashir I received from his foe, Ardavan V, which is also featured in the same work, he is referred to as being a Kurd himself.
You 've bitten off more than you can chew and you have brought death to yourself. O son of a Kurd, raised in the tents of the Kurds, who gave you permission to put a crown on your head?
The usage of the term Kurd during this time period most likely was a social term, designating Northwestern Iranian nomads, rather than a concrete ethnic group.
Similarly, in AD 360, the Sassanid king Shapur II marched into the Roman province Zabdicene, to conquer its chief city, Bezabde, present - day Cizre. He found it heavily fortified, and guarded by three legions and a large body of Kurdish archers. After a long and hard - fought siege, Shapur II breached the walls, conquered the city and massacred all its defenders. Thereafter he had the strategically located city repaired, provisioned and garrisoned with his best troops.
There is also a 7th - century text by an unidentified author, written about the legendary Christian martyr Mar Qardagh. He lived in the 4th century, during the reign of Shapur II, and during his travels is said to have encountered Mar Abdisho, a deacon and martyr, who, after having been questioned of his origins by Mar Qardagh and his Marzobans, stated that his parents were originally from an Assyrian village called Hazza, but were driven out and subsequently settled in Tamanon, a village in the land of the Kurds, identified as being in the region of Mount Judi.
Early Syriac sources use the terms Hurdanaye, Kurdanaye, Kurdaye to refer to the Kurds. According to Michael the Syrian, Hurdanaye separated from Tayaye Arabs and sought refuge with the Byzantine Emperor Theophilus. He also mentions the Persian troops who fought against Musa chief of Hurdanaye in the region of Qardu in 841. According to Barhebreaus, a king appeared to the Kurdanaye and they rebelled against the Arabs in 829. Michael the Syrian considered them as pagan, followers of mahdi and adepts of Magi anism. Their mahdi called himself Christ and the Holy Ghost.
In the early Middle Ages, the Kurds sporadically appear in Arabic sources, though the term was still not being used for a specific people; instead it referred to an amalgam of nomadic western Iranic tribes, who were distinct from Persians. However, in the High Middle Ages, the Kurdish ethnic identity gradually materialized, as one can find clear evidence of the Kurdish ethnic identity and solidarity in texts of the 12th and 13th century, though, the term was also still being used in the social sense. From 11th century onward, the term Kurd is explicitly defined as an ethnonym and this does not suggest synonymity with the ethnographic category nomad. Al - Tabari wrote that in 639, Hormuzan, a Sasanian general originating from a noble family, battled against the Islamic invaders in Khuzestan, and called upon the Kurds to aid him in battle. However, they were defeated and brought under Islamic rule.
In 838, a Kurdish leader based in Mosul, named Mir Jafar, revolted against the Caliph Al - Mu'tasim who sent the commander Itakh to combat him. Itakh won this war and executed many of the Kurds. Eventually Arabs conquered the Kurdish regions and gradually converted the majority of Kurds to Islam, often incorporating them into the military, such as the Hamdanids whose dynastic family members also frequently intermarried with Kurds.
In 934 the Daylamite Buyid dynasty was founded, and subsequently conquered most of present - day Iran and Iraq. During the time of rule of this dynasty, Kurdish chief and ruler, Badr ibn Hasanwaih, established himself as one of the most important emirs of the time.
In the 10th - 12th centuries, a number of Kurdish principalities and dynasties were founded, ruling Kurdistan and neighbouring areas:
Due to the Turkic invasion of Anatolia, the 11th century Kurdish dynasties crumbled and became incorporated into the Seljuk Dynasty. Kurds would hereafter be used in great numbers in the armies of the Zengids. Succeeding the Zengids, the Kurdish Ayyubids established themselves in 1171, first under the leadership of Saladin. Saladin led the Muslims to recapture the city of Jerusalem from the Crusaders at the Battle of Hattin; also frequently clashing with the Hashashins. The Ayyubid dynasty lasted until 1341 when the Ayyubid sultanate fell to Mongolian invasions.
The Safavid Dynasty, established in 1501, also established its rule over Kurdish - inhabited territories. The paternal line of this family actually had Kurdish roots, tracing back to Firuz - Shah Zarrin - Kolah, a dignitary who moved from Kurdistan to Ardabil in the 11th century. The Battle of Chaldiran in 1514 that culminated in what is nowadays Iran 's West Azerbaijan Province, marked the start of the Ottoman - Persian Wars between the Iranian Safavids (and successive Iranian dynasties) and the Ottomans. For the next 300 years, many of the Kurds found themselves living in territories that frequently changed hands between Ottoman Turkey and Iran during the protracted series of Ottoman - Persian Wars.
The Safavid king Ismail I (r. 1501 - 1524) put down a Yezidi rebellion which went on from 1506 - 1510. A century later, the year - long Battle of Dimdim took place, wherein the Safavid king Abbas I (r. 1588 - 1629) succeeded in putting down the rebellion led by the Kurdish ruler Amir Khan Lepzerin. Thereafter, a large number of Kurds were deported to Khorasan, not only to weaken the Kurds, but also to protect the eastern border from invading Afghan and Turkmen tribes. Other forced movements and deportations of other groups were also implimented by Abbas I and his successors, most notably of the Armenians, the Georgians, and the Circassians, who were moved en masse to and from other districts within the Persian empire.
The Kurds of Khorasan, numbering around 700,000, still use the Kurmanji Kurdish dialect. Several Kurdish noblemen served the Safavids and rose to prominence, such as Shaykh Ali Khan Zanganeh, who served as the grand vizier of the Safavid shah Suleiman I (r. 1666 -- 1694) from 1669 to 1689. Due to his efforts in reforming the declining Iranian economy, he has been called the "Safavid Amir Kabir '' in modern historiography. His son, Shahqoli Khan Zanganeh, also served as a grand vizier from 1707 to 1716. Another Kurdish statesman, Ganj Ali Khan, was close friends with Abbas I, and served as governor in various provinces and was known for his loyal service.
After the fall of the Safavids, Iran fell under the control of the Afsharid Empire ruled by Nader Shah at its peak. After Nader 's death, Iran fell into civil war, with multiple leaders trying to gain control over the country. Ultimately, it was Karim Khan, a Laki general of the Zand tribe who would come to power. The country would flourish during Karim Khan 's reign; a strong resurgence of the arts would take place, and international ties were strengthened. Karim Khan was portrayed as being a ruler who truly cared about his subjects, thereby gaining the title Vakil e-Ra'aayaa (meaning Representative of the People in Persian). Though not as powerful in its geo - political and military reach as the preceding Safavids and Afsharids or even the early Qajars, he managed to reassert Iranian hegemony over its integral territories in the Caucasus, and presided over an era of relative peace, prosperity, and tranquility. In Ottoman Iraq, following the Ottoman -- Persian War (1775 -- 76), Karim Khan managed to seize Basra for several years.
After Karim Khan 's death, the dynasty would decline in favour of the rival Qajars due to infighting between the Khan 's incompetent offspring. It was n't until Lotf Ali Khan, 10 years later, that the dynasty would once again be led by an adept ruler. By this time however, the Qajars had already progressed greatly, having taken a number of Zand territories. Lotf Ali Khan made multiple successes before ultimately succumbing to the rivaling faction. Iran and all its Kurdish territories would hereby be incorporated in the Qajar Dynasty.
The Kurdish tribes present in Baluchistan and some of those in Fars are believed to be remnants of those that assisted and accompanied Lotf Ali Khan and Karim Khan, respectively.
When Sultan Selim I, after defeating Shah Ismail I in 1514, annexed Western Armenia and Kurdistan, he entrusted the organisation of the conquered territories to Idris, the historian, who was a Kurd of Bitlis. He divided the territory into sanjaks or districts, and, making no attempt to interfere with the principle of heredity, installed the local chiefs as governors. He also resettled the rich pastoral country between Erzerum and Erivan, which had lain in waste since the passage of Timur, with Kurds from the Hakkari and Bohtan districts. For the next centuries, from the Peace of Amasya until the first half of the 19th century, several regions of the wide Kurdish homelands would be contested as well between the Ottomans and the neighbouring rival successive Iranian dynasties (Safavids, Afsharids, Qajars) in the frequent Ottoman - Persian Wars.
The Ottoman centralist policies in the beginning of the 19th century aimed to remove power from the principalities and localities, which directly affected the Kurdish emirs. Bedirhan Bey was the last emir of the Cizre Bohtan Emirate after initiating an uprising in 1847 against the Ottomans to protect the current structures of the Kurdish principalities. Although his uprising is not classified as a nationalist one, his children played significant roles in the emergence and the development of Kurdish nationalism through the next century.
The first modern Kurdish nationalist movement emerged in 1880 with an uprising led by a Kurdish landowner and head of the powerful Shemdinan family, Sheik Ubeydullah, who demanded political autonomy or outright independence for Kurds as well as the recognition of a Kurdistan state without interference from Turkish or Persian authorities. The uprising against Qajar Persia and the Ottoman Empire was ultimately suppressed by the Ottomans and Ubeydullah, along with other notables, were exiled to Istanbul.
Kurdish nationalism emerged after World War I with the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire which had historically successfully integrated (but not assimilated) the Kurds, through use of forced repression of Kurdish movements to gain independence. Revolts did occur sporadically but only in 1880 with the uprising led by Sheik Ubeydullah did the Kurds as an ethnic group or nation make demands. Ottoman sultan Abdul Hamid responded with a campaign of integration by co-opting prominent Kurdish opponents to strengthen Ottoman power with offers of prestigious positions in his government. This strategy appears to have been successful given the loyalty displayed by the Kurdish Hamidiye regiments during World War I.
The Kurdish ethno - nationalist movement that emerged following World War I and the end of the Ottoman Empire was largely a reaction to the changes taking place in mainstream Turkey, primarily to the radical secularization, which the strongly Muslim Kurds abhorred, to the centralization of authority, which threatened the power of local chieftains and Kurdish autonomy, and to rampant Turkish nationalism in the new Turkish Republic, which obviously threatened to marginalize them.
Jakob Künzler, head of a missionary hospital in Urfa, has documented the large scale ethnic cleansing of both Armenians and Kurds by the Young Turks. He has given a detailed account of the deportation of Kurds from Erzurum and Bitlis in the winter of 1916. The Kurds were perceived to be subversive elements that would take the Russian side in the war. In order to eliminate this threat, Young Turks embarked on a large scale deportation of Kurds from the regions of Djabachdjur, Palu, Musch, Erzurum and Bitlis. Around 300,000 Kurds were forced to move southwards to Urfa and then westwards to Aintab and Marasch. In the summer of 1917, Kurds were moved to Konya in central Anatolia. Through these measures, the Young Turk leaders aimed at weakening the political influence of the Kurds by deporting them from their ancestral lands and by dispersing them in small pockets of exiled communities. By the end of World War I, up to 700,000 Kurds had been forcibly deported and almost half of the displaced perished.
Some of the Kurdish groups sought self - determination and the confirmation of Kurdish autonomy in the Treaty of Sèvres, but in the aftermath of World War I, Kemal Atatürk prevented such a result. Kurds backed by the United Kingdom declared independence in 1927 and established the Republic of Ararat. Turkey suppressed Kurdist revolts in 1925, 1930, and 1937 -- 1938, while Iran in the 1920s suppressed Simko Shikak at Lake Urmia and Jaafar Sultan of the Hewraman region, who controlled the region between Marivan and north of Halabja. A short - lived Soviet - sponsored Kurdish Republic of Mahabad in Iran did not long outlast World War II.
From 1922 -- 1924 in Iraq a Kingdom of Kurdistan existed. When Ba'athist administrators thwarted Kurdish nationalist ambitions in Iraq, war broke out in the 1960s. In 1970 the Kurds rejected limited territorial self - rule within Iraq, demanding larger areas including the oil - rich Kirkuk region.
During the 1920s and 1930s, several large scale Kurdish revolts took place in Kurdistan. Following these rebellions, the area of Turkish Kurdistan was put under martial law and a large number of the Kurds were displaced. The Turkish government also encouraged resettlement of Albanians from Kosovo and Assyrians in the region to change the make - up of the population. These events and measures led to a long - lasting mutual distrust between Ankara and the Kurds. During the relatively open government of the 1950s, Kurds gained political office and started working within the framework of the Turkish Republic to further their interests, but this move towards integration was halted with the 1960 Turkish coup d'état. The 1970s saw an evolution in Kurdish nationalism as Marxist political thought influenced some in the new generation of Kurdish nationalists opposed to the local feudal authorities who had been a traditional source of opposition to authority; eventually they would form the militant separatist organization PKK, also known as the Kurdistan Workers ' Party in English. The Kurdistan Workers ' Party later abandoned Marxism - Leninism.
Kurds are often regarded as "the largest ethnic group without a state. '' A similar claim regarding the Rohinga of Myanmar has also been made, however while the level of persecution of the Rohinga is certainly greater than that of the Kurds, there are only approximately 2 million Rohinga, as compared to over 30 million Kurds. The Kurdish claim of "statelessness '' is rejected by some researchers such as Martin van Bruinessen and some other scholars who seem to agree with the official Turkish position. They argue that while some level of Kurdish cultural, social, political and ideological heterogeneity may exist, the Kurdish community has long thrived over the centuries as a generally peaceful and well integrated part of Turkish society, with hostilities erupting only in recent years. Michael Radu who had worked for the United States 's Pennsylvania Foreign Policy Research Institute argued that the claim of Kurdish "statelessness '' comes primarily from Kurdish nationalists, Western human rights activists, and European leftists.
The exact origins of the name Kurd are unclear. The underlying toponym is recorded in Assyrian as Qardu and in Middle Bronze Age Sumerian as Kar - da. Assyrian Qardu refers to an area in the upper Tigris basin, and it is presumably reflected in corrupted form in Classical Arabic Ǧūdī, re-adopted in Kurdish as Cûdî. The name would be continued as the first element in the toponym Corduene, mentioned by Xenophon as the tribe who opposed the retreat of the Ten Thousand through the mountains north of Mesopotamia in the 4th century BC.
There are, however, dissenting views, which do not derive the name of the Kurds from Qardu and Corduene but opt for derivation from Cyrtii (Cyrtaei) instead.
Regardless of its possible roots in ancient toponymy, the ethnonym Kurd might be derived from a term kwrt - used in Middle Persian as a common noun to refer to "nomads '' or "tent - dwellers, '' which could be applied as an attribute to any Iranian group with such a lifestyle.
The term gained the characteristic of an ethnonym following the Muslim conquest of Persia, as it was adopted into Arabic and gradually became associated with an amalgamation of Iranian and Iranicised tribes and groups in the region.
It is also hypothesized that Kurd could derive from the Persian word gord (see Shahrekord), because the Arabic script lacks a symbol corresponding uniquely to g (گ).
Sherefxan Bidlisi in the 16th century states that there are four division of "Kurds '': Kurmanj, Lur, Kalhor and Guran, each of which speak a different dialect or language variation. Paul (2008) notes that the 16th - century usage of the term Kurd as recorded by Bidlisi, regardless of linguistic grouping, might still reflect an incipient Northwestern Iranian "Kurdish '' ethnic identity uniting the Kurmanj, Kalhur, and Guran.
According to CIA Factbook, Kurds formed approximately 18 % of the population in Turkey (approximately 14 million) in 2008. One Western source estimates that up to 25 % of the Turkish population is Kurdish (approximately 18 - 19 million people). Kurdish sources claim there are as many as 20 or 25 million Kurds in Turkey. In 1980, Ethnologue estimated the number of Kurdish - speakers in Turkey at around five million, when the country 's population stood at 44 million. Kurds form the largest minority group in Turkey, and they have posed the most serious and persistent challenge to the official image of a homogeneous society. This classification was changed to the new euphemism of Eastern Turk in 1980. Nowadays the Kurds, in Turkey, are still known under the name Easterner (Doğulu).
Several large scale Kurdish revolts in 1925, 1930 and 1938 were suppressed by the Turkish government and more than one million Kurds were forcibly relocated between 1925 and 1938. The use of Kurdish language, dress, folklore, and names were banned and the Kurdish - inhabited areas remained under martial law until 1946. The Ararat revolt, which reached its apex in 1930, was only suppressed after a massive military campaign including destruction of many villages and their populations. By the 1970s, Kurdish leftist organizations such as Kurdistan Socialist Party - Turkey (KSP - T) emerged in Turkey which were against violence and supported civil activities and participation in elections. In 1977, Mehdi Zana a supporter of KSP - T won the mayoralty of Diyarbakir in the local elections. At about the same time, generational fissures gave birth to two new organizations: the National Liberation of Kurdistan and the Kurdistan Workers Party.
The words "Kurds '', "Kurdistan '', or "Kurdish '' were officially banned by the Turkish government. Following the military coup of 1980, the Kurdish language was officially prohibited in public and private life. Many people who spoke, published, or sang in Kurdish were arrested and imprisoned. The Kurds are still not allowed to get a primary education in their mother tongue and they do n't have a right to self - determination, even though Turkey has signed the ICCPR. There is ongoing discrimination against and "otherization '' of Kurds in society.
The Partiya Karkerên Kurdistan (PKK), also known as KADEK and Kongra - Gel is Kurdish militant organization which has waged an armed struggle against the Turkish state for cultural and political rights and self - determination for the Kurds. Turkey 's military allies the US, the EU, and NATO see the PKK as a terrorist organization while the UN, Switzerland, Russia, China and India have refused to add the PKK to their terrorist list. Some of them have even supported the PKK.
Between 1984 and 1999, the PKK and the Turkish military engaged in open war, and much of the countryside in the southeast was depopulated, as Kurdish civilians moved from villages to bigger cities such as Diyarbakır, Van, and Şırnak, as well as to the cities of western Turkey and even to western Europe. The causes of the depopulation included mainly the Turkish state 's military operations, state 's political actions, Turkish Deep state actions, the poverty of the southeast and PKK atrocities against Kurdish clans which were against them. Turkish State actions have included forced inscription, forced evacuation, destruction of villages, severe harassment, illegal arrests and executions of Kurdish civilians.
Since the 1970s, the European Court of Human Rights has condemned Turkey for the thousands of human rights abuses. The judgments are related to executions of Kurdish civilians, torturing, forced displacements systematic destruction of villages, arbitrary arrests murdered and disappeared Kurdish journalists.
Leyla Zana, the first Kurdish female MP from Diyarbakir, caused an uproar in Turkish Parliament after adding the following sentence in Kurdish to her parliamentary oath during the swearing - in ceremony in 1994: "I take this oath for the brotherhood of the Turkish and Kurdish peoples. ''
In March 1994, the Turkish Parliament voted to lift the immunity of Zana and five other Kurdish DEP members: Hatip Dicle, Ahmet Turk, Sirri Sakik, Orhan Dogan and Selim Sadak. Zana, Dicle, Sadak and Dogan were sentenced to 15 years in jail by the Supreme Court in October 1995. Zana was awarded the Sakharov Prize for human rights by the European Parliament in 1995. She was released in 2004 amid warnings from European institutions that the continued imprisonment of the four Kurdish MPs would affect Turkey 's bid to join the EU. The 2009 local elections resulted in 5.7 % for Kurdish political party DTP.
Officially protected death squads are accused of the disappearance of 3,200 Kurds and Assyrians in 1993 and 1994 in the so - called "mystery killings ''. Kurdish politicians, human - rights activists, journalists, teachers and other members of intelligentsia were among the victims. Virtually none of the perpetrators were investigated nor punished. Turkish government also encouraged Islamic extremist group Hezbollah to assassinate suspected PKK members and often ordinary Kurds. Azimet Köylüoğlu, the state minister of human rights, revealed the extent of security forces ' excesses in autumn 1994: While acts of terrorism in other regions are done by the PKK; in Tunceli it is state terrorism. In Tunceli, it is the state that is evacuating and burning villages. In the southeast there are two million people left homeless.
The Kurdish region of Iran has been a part of the country since ancient times. Nearly all Kurdistan was part of Persian Empire until its Western part was lost during wars against the Ottoman Empire. Following the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire, at the Paris Peace Conference of 1919 Tehran had demanded all lost territories including Turkish Kurdistan, Mosul, and even Diyarbakır, but demands were quickly rejected by Western powers. This area has been divided by modern Turkey, Syria and Iraq. Today, the Kurds inhabit mostly northwestern territories known as Iranian Kurdistan but also the northeastern region of Khorasan, and constitute approximately 7 - 10 % of Iran 's overall population (6.5 -- 7.9 million), compared to 10.6 % (2 million) in 1956 and 8 % (800 thousand) in 1850.
Unlike in other Kurdish - populated countries, there are strong ethnolinguistical and cultural ties between Kurds, Persians and others as Iranian peoples. Some modern Iranian dynasties like the Safavids and Zands are considered to be partly of Kurdish origin. Kurdish literature in all of its forms (Kurmanji, Sorani, and Gorani) has been developed within historical Iranian boundaries under strong influence of the Persian language. The Kurds sharing much of their history with the rest of Iran is seen as reason for why Kurdish leaders in Iran do not want a separate Kurdish state
The government of Iran has never employed the same level of brutality against its own Kurds like Turkey or Iraq, but it has always been implacably opposed to any suggestion of Kurdish separatism. During and shortly after the First World War the government of Iran was ineffective and had very little control over events in the country and several Kurdish tribal chiefs gained local political power, even established large confederations. At the same time waves of nationalism from the disintegrating Ottoman Empire partly influenced some Kurdish chiefs in border regions to pose as Kurdish nationalist leaders. Prior to this, identity in both countries largely relied upon religion i.e. Shia Islam in the particular case of Iran. In 19th century Iran, Shia -- Sunni animosity and the describing of Sunni Kurds as an Ottoman fifth column was quite frequent.
During the late 1910s and early 1920s, tribal revolt led by Kurdish chieftain Simko Shikak struck north western Iran. Although elements of Kurdish nationalism were present in this movement, historians agree these were hardly articulate enough to justify a claim that recognition of Kurdish identity was a major issue in Simko 's movement, and he had to rely heavily on conventional tribal motives. Government forces and non-Kurds were not the only ones to suffer in the attacks, the Kurdish population was also robbed and assaulted. Rebels do not appear to have felt any sense of unity or solidarity with fellow Kurds. Kurdish insurgency and seasonal migrations in the late 1920s, along with long - running tensions between Tehran and Ankara, resulted in border clashes and even military penetrations in both Iranian and Turkish territory. Two regional powers have used Kurdish tribes as tool for own political benefits: Turkey has provided military help and refuge for anti-Iranian Turcophone Shikak rebels in 1918 - 1922, while Iran did the same during Ararat rebellion against Turkey in 1930. Reza Shah 's military victory over Kurdish and Turkic tribal leaders initiated a repressive era toward non-Iranian minorities. Government 's forced detribalization and sedentarization in 1920s and 1930s resulted with many other tribal revolts in Iranian regions of Azerbaijan, Luristan and Kurdistan. In particular case of the Kurds, this repressive policies partly contributed to developing nationalism among some tribes.
As a response to growing Pan-Turkism and Pan-Arabism in region which were seen as potential threats to the territorial integrity of Iran, Pan-Iranist ideology has been developed in the early 1920s. Some of such groups and journals openly advocated Iranian support to the Kurdish rebellion against Turkey. Secular Pahlavi dynasty has endorsed Iranian ethnic nationalism which seen the Kurds as integral part of the Iranian nation. Mohammad Reza Pahlavi has personally praised the Kurds as "pure Iranians '' or "one of the most noble Iranian peoples ''. Another significant ideology during this period was Marxism which arose among Kurds under influence of USSR. It culminated in the Iran crisis of 1946 which included a separatist attempt of KDP - I and communist groups to establish the Soviet puppet government called Republic of Mahabad. It arose along with Azerbaijan People 's Government, another Soviet puppet state. The state itself encompassed a very small territory, including Mahabad and the adjacent cities, unable to incorporate the southern Iranian Kurdistan which fell inside the Anglo - American zone, and unable to attract the tribes outside Mahabad itself to the nationalist cause. As a result, when the Soviets withdrew from Iran in December 1946, government forces were able to enter Mahabad unopposed.
Several nationalist and Marxist insurgencies continued for decades (1967, 1979, 1989 -- 96) led by KDP - I and Komalah, but those two organization have never advocated a separate Kurdish state or greater Kurdistan as did the PKK in Turkey. Still, many of dissident leaders, among others Qazi Muhammad and Abdul Rahman Ghassemlou, were executed or assassinated. During Iran -- Iraq War, Tehran has provided support for Iraqi - based Kurdish groups like KDP or PUK, along with asylum for 1,400,000 Iraqi refugees, mostly Kurds. Kurdish Marxist groups have been marginalized in Iran since the dissolution of the Soviet Union. In 2004 new insurrection started by PJAK, separatist organization affiliated with the Turkey - based PKK and designated as terrorist by Iran, Turkey and the United States. Some analysts claim PJAK do not pose any serious threat to the government of Iran. Cease - fire has been established in September 2011 following the Iranian offensive on PJAK bases, but several clashes between PJAK and IRGC took place after it. Since the Iranian Revolution of 1979, accusations of "discrimination '' by Western organizations and of "foreign involvement '' by Iranian side have become very frequent.
Kurds have been well integrated in Iranian political life during reign of various governments. Kurdish liberal political Karim Sanjabi has served as minister of education under Mohammad Mossadegh in 1952. During the reign of Mohammad Reza Pahlavi some members of parliament and high army officers were Kurds, and there was even a Kurdish Cabinet Minister. During the reign of the Pahlavis Kurds received many favours from the authorities, for instance to keep their land after the land reforms of 1962. In the early 2000s, presence of thirty Kurdish deputies in the 290 - strong parliament has also helped to undermine claims of discrimination. Some of the more influential Kurdish politicians during recent years include former first vice president Mohammad Reza Rahimi and Mohammad Bagher Ghalibaf, Mayor of Tehran and second - placed presidential candidate in 2013. Kurdish language is today used more than at any other time since the Revolution, including in several newspapers and among schoolchildren. A large number of Iranian Kurds show no interest in Kurdish nationalism, particularly Kurds of the Shia faith who sometimes even vigorously reject idea of autonomy, preferring direct rule from Tehran. The issue of Kurdish nationalism and Iranian national identity is generally only questioned in the peripheral Kurdish dominated regions where the Sunni faith is prevalent.
Kurds constitute approximately 17 % of Iraq 's population. They are the majority in at least three provinces in northern Iraq which are together known as Iraqi Kurdistan. Kurds also have a presence in Kirkuk, Mosul, Khanaqin, and Baghdad. Around 300,000 Kurds live in the Iraqi capital Baghdad, 50,000 in the city of Mosul and around 100,000 elsewhere in southern Iraq.
Kurds led by Mustafa Barzani were engaged in heavy fighting against successive Iraqi regimes from 1960 to 1975. In March 1970, Iraq announced a peace plan providing for Kurdish autonomy. The plan was to be implemented in four years. However, at the same time, the Iraqi regime started an Arabization program in the oil - rich regions of Kirkuk and Khanaqin. The peace agreement did not last long, and in 1974, the Iraqi government began a new offensive against the Kurds. Moreover, in March 1975, Iraq and Iran signed the Algiers Accord, according to which Iran cut supplies to Iraqi Kurds. Iraq started another wave of Arabization by moving Arabs to the oil fields in Kurdistan, particularly those around Kirkuk. Between 1975 and 1978, 200,000 Kurds were deported to other parts of Iraq.
During the Iran -- Iraq War in the 1980s, the regime implemented anti-Kurdish policies and a de facto civil war broke out. Iraq was widely condemned by the international community, but was never seriously punished for oppressive measures such as the mass murder of hundreds of thousands of civilians, the wholesale destruction of thousands of villages and the deportation of thousands of Kurds to southern and central Iraq.
The genocidal campaign, conducted between 1986 and 1989 and culminating in 1988, carried out by the Iraqi government against the Kurdish population was called Anfal ("Spoils of War ''). The Anfal campaign led to destruction of over two thousand villages and killing of 182,000 Kurdish civilians. The campaign included the use of ground offensives, aerial bombing, systematic destruction of settlements, mass deportation, firing squads, and chemical attacks, including the most infamous attack on the Kurdish town of Halabja in 1988 that killed 5000 civilians instantly.
After the collapse of the Kurdish uprising in March 1991, Iraqi troops recaptured most of the Kurdish areas and 1.5 million Kurds abandoned their homes and fled to the Turkish and Iranian borders. It is estimated that close to 20,000 Kurds succumbed to death due to exhaustion, lack of food, exposure to cold and disease. On 5 April 1991, UN Security Council passed resolution 688 which condemned the repression of Iraqi Kurdish civilians and demanded that Iraq end its repressive measures and allow immediate access to international humanitarian organizations. This was the first international document (since the League of Nations arbitration of Mosul in 1926) to mention Kurds by name. In mid-April, the Coalition established safe havens inside Iraqi borders and prohibited Iraqi planes from flying north of 36th parallel. In October 1991, Kurdish guerrillas captured Erbil and Sulaimaniyah after a series of clashes with Iraqi troops. In late October, Iraqi government retaliated by imposing a food and fuel embargo on the Kurds and stopping to pay civil servants in the Kurdish region. The embargo, however, backfired and Kurds held parliamentary elections in May 1992 and established Kurdistan Regional Government (KRG).
The Kurdish population welcomed the American troops in 2003 by holding celebrations and dancing in the streets. The area controlled by Peshmerga was expanded, and Kurds now have effective control in Kirkuk and parts of Mosul. The authority of the KRG and legality of its laws and regulations were recognized in the articles 113 and 137 of the new Iraqi Constitution ratified in 2005. By the beginning of 2006, the two Kurdish administrations of Erbil and Sulaimaniya were unified. On 14 August 2007, Yazidis were targeted in a series of bombings that became the deadliest suicide attack since the Iraq War began, killing 796 civilians, wounding 1,562.
Kurds account for 9 % of Syria 's population, a total of around 1.6 million people. This makes them the largest ethnic minority in the country. They are mostly concentrated in the northeast and the north, but there are also significant Kurdish populations in Aleppo and Damascus. Kurds often speak Kurdish in public, unless all those present do not. According to Amnesty International, Kurdish human rights activists are mistreated and persecuted. No political parties are allowed for any group, Kurdish or otherwise.
Techniques used to suppress the ethnic identity of Kurds in Syria include various bans on the use of the Kurdish language, refusal to register children with Kurdish names, the replacement of Kurdish place names with new names in Arabic, the prohibition of businesses that do not have Arabic names, the prohibition of Kurdish private schools, and the prohibition of books and other materials written in Kurdish. Having been denied the right to Syrian nationality, around 300,000 Kurds have been deprived of any social rights, in violation of international law. As a consequence, these Kurds are in effect trapped within Syria. In March 2011, in part to avoid further demonstrations and unrest from spreading across Syria, the Syrian government promised to tackle the issue and grant Syrian citizenship to approximately 300,000 Kurds who had been previously denied the right.
On 12 March 2004, beginning at a stadium in Qamishli (a largely Kurdish city in northeastern Syria), clashes between Kurds and Syrians broke out and continued over a number of days. At least thirty people were killed and more than 160 injured. The unrest spread to other Kurdish towns along the northern border with Turkey, and then to Damascus and Aleppo.
As a result of Syrian civil war, since July 2012, Kurds were able to take control of large parts of Syrian Kurdistan from Andiwar in extreme northeast to Jindires in extreme northwest Syria. The Syrian Kurds started the Rojava Revolution in 2013.
Kurdish - inhabited Afrin Canton has been occupied by Turkish Armed Forces and Turkish - backed Free Syrian Army since the Turkish military operation in Afrin in early 2018. Between 150,000 and 200,000 people were displaced due to the Turkish intervention.
Between the 1930s and 1980s, Armenia was a part of the Soviet Union, within which Kurds, like other ethnic groups, had the status of a protected minority. Armenian Kurds were permitted their own state - sponsored newspaper, radio broadcasts and cultural events. During the conflict in Nagorno - Karabakh, many non-Yazidi Kurds were forced to leave their homes since both the Azeri and non-Yazidi Kurds were Muslim.
In 1920, two Kurdish - inhabited areas of Jewanshir (capital Kalbajar) and eastern Zangazur (capital Lachin) were combined to form the Kurdistan Okrug (or "Red Kurdistan ''). The period of existence of the Kurdish administrative unit was brief and did not last beyond 1929. Kurds subsequently faced many repressive measures, including deportations, imposed by the Soviet government. As a result of the conflict in Nagorno - Karabakh, many Kurdish areas have been destroyed and more than 150,000 Kurds have been deported since 1988 by separatist Armenian forces.
According to a report by the Council of Europe, approximately 1.3 million Kurds live in Western Europe. The earliest immigrants were Kurds from Turkey, who settled in Germany, Austria, the Benelux countries, Great Britain, Switzerland and France during the 1960s. Successive periods of political and social turmoil in the region during the 1980s and 1990s brought new waves of Kurdish refugees, mostly from Iran and Iraq under Saddam Hussein, came to Europe. In recent years, many Kurdish asylum seekers from both Iran and Iraq have settled in the United Kingdom (especially in the town of Dewsbury and in some northern areas of London), which has sometimes caused media controversy over their right to remain. There have been tensions between Kurds and the established Muslim community in Dewsbury, which is home to very traditional mosques such as the Markazi. Since the beginning of the turmoil in Syria many of the refugees of the Syrian Civil War are Syrian Kurds and as a result many of the current Syrian asylum seekers in Germany are of Kurdish descent.
There was substantial immigration of ethnic Kurds in Canada and the United States, who are mainly political refugees and immigrants seeking economic opportunity. According to a 2011 Statistics Canada household survey, there were 11,685 people of Kurdish ethnic background living in Canada, and according to the 2011 Census, 10,325 Canadians spoke Kurdish language. In the United States, Kurdish immigrants started to settle in large numbers in Nashville in 1976, which is now home to the largest Kurdish community in the United States and is nicknamed Little Kurdistan. Kurdish population in Nashville is estimated to be around 11,000. Total number of ethnic Kurds residing in the United States is estimated by the US Census Bureau to be 15,400. Other sources claim that there are 20,000 ethnic Kurds in the United States.
As a whole, the Kurdish people are adherents to a large number of different religions and creeds, perhaps constituting the most religiously diverse people of West Asia. Traditionally, Kurds have been known to take great liberties with their practices. This sentiment is reflected in the saying "Compared to the unbeliever, the Kurd is a Muslim ''.
Today, the majority of Kurds are Sunni Muslim, belonging to the Shafi school. The Kurdish following of the Shafi legal code has caused some tension when pushed up against Sunni Turks and Sunni Arabs who subscribe to the Hanafi legal code.
The majority of Sunni Muslim Kurds belonging to the Shafi school speak the Northern Kurdish (Kurmanji) dialect.
There is also a significant minority of Kurds who are Shia Muslims. A side of sources mention that most of Kurds in Iran are Shias, who primarily living in the Ilam, Kermanshah and Khorasan provinces of Iran; the other Shia Kurds are (often) in central and southeastern Iraq (Fayli Kurds) as well as Shia Kurds who are in Syria and especially in Turkey. Amongst Shia Muslim Kurdish communities, in particular the practitioners of Alevism in Anatolia, the Zaza language is found more commonly.
Mystical practices and participation in Sufi orders are also widespread among Kurds, with prominent Kurdish Sufi saints including Piryones.
The Alevis (usually considered adherents of a branch of Shia Islam with elements of Sufism) are another religious significant minority among the Kurds, living in Eastern Anatolia in Turkey, meanwhile, it is estimated that 30 % of Kurds in Turkey are Alevis. Alevism developed out of the teachings of Haji Bektash Veli, a 13th - century mystic from Khorasan. Among the Qizilbash, the militant groups which predate the Alevis and helped establish the Safavid Dynasty, there were numerous Kurdish tribes. The American missionary Stephen van Renssalaer Trowbridge, working at Aintab (present Gaziantep) reported that his Alevi acquaintances considered as their highest spiritual leaders an Ahl - i Haqq sayyid family in the Guran district.
Ahl - i Haqq or Yarsanism is a syncretic religion founded by Sultan Sahak in the late 14th century in western Iran. Most of its adherents, estimated at around 500,000 or 1,000,000, are found primarily in western Iran and eastern Iraq and are mostly ethnic Goran Kurds, though there are also smaller groups of Persian, Lori, Azeri and Arab adherents. Its central religious text is the Kalâm - e Saranjâm, written in Gurani. In this text, the religion 's basic pillars are summarized as: "The Yarsan should strive for these four qualities: purity, rectitude, self - effacement and self - abnegation ''.
The Yarsan faith 's unique features include millenarism, nativism, egalitarianism, metempsychosis, angelology, divine manifestation and dualism. Many of these features are found in Yazidism, another Kurdish faith, in the faith of Zoroastrians and in ghulat (non-mainstream Shia) groups; certainly, the names and religious terminology of the Yarsan are often explicitly of Muslim origin. Unlike other indigenous Persianate faiths, the Yarsan explicitly reject class, caste and rank, which sets them apart from the Yazidis and Zoroastrians.
The Ahl - i Haqq consider the Bektashi and Alevi as kindred communities.
Yazidism is another syncretic religion practiced among Kurdish communities, founded by Sheikh Adi ibn Musafir, a 12th - century mystic from Lebanon. Their numbers exceed 500,000, with some estimates numbering them at 1.2 million worldwide. Its central religious texts are the Kitêba Cilwe and Meshaf Resh.
According to Yazidi beliefs, God created the world but left it in the care of seven holy beings or angels. The most prominent angel is Melek Taus (Kurdish: Tawûsê Melek), the Peacock Angel, God 's representative on earth. Yazidis believe in the periodic reincarnation of the seven holy beings in human form. Yazidis who marry non-Yazidis are automatically considered to be converted to the religion of their spouse and therefore are not permitted to call themselves Yazidis.
They live primarily in the Nineveh Province of Iraq. Their holiest shrine and the tomb of the faith 's founder is located in Lalish, in northern Iraq.
The Persian religion of Zoroastrianism had a major influence on the early Kurdish culture and has maintained some effect since the demise of the religion in the Middle Ages. The Kurdish philosopher Sohrevardi drew heavily from Zoroastrian teachings. Ascribed to the teachings of the prophet Zoroaster, the faith 's Supreme Being is Ahura Mazda. Leading characteristics, such as messianism, the Golden Rule, heaven and hell, and free will influenced other religious systems, including Second Temple Judaism, Gnosticism, Christianity, and Islam.
In 2016, the first official Zoroastrian fire temple of Iraqi Kurdistan opened in Sulaymaniyah. Attendees celebrated the occasion by lighting a ritual fire and beating the frame drum or ' daf '. Awat Tayib, the chief of followers of Zoroastrianism in the Kurdistan region, claimed that many were returning to Zoroastrianism but some kept it secret out of fear of reprisals from Islamists.
Although historically there have been various accounts of Kurdish Christians, most often these were in the form of individuals, and not as communities. However, in the 19th and 20th century various travel logs tell of Kurdish Christian tribes, as well as Kurdish Muslim tribes who had substantial Christian populations living amongst them. A significant number of these were allegedly originally Armenian or Assyrian, and it has been recorded that a small number of Christian traditions have been preserved. Several Christian prayers in Kurdish have been found from earlier centuries.
Segments of the Bible were first made available in the Kurdish language in 1856 in the Kurmanji dialect. The Gospels were translated by Stepan, an Armenian employee of the American Bible Society and were published in 1857. Prominent historical Kurdish Christians include Theophobos and the brothers Zakare and Ivane.
Kurdish culture is a legacy from the various ancient peoples who shaped modern Kurds and their society. As most other Middle Eastern populations, a high degree of mutual influences between the Kurds and their neighbouring peoples are apparent. Therefore, in Kurdish culture elements of various other cultures are to be seen. However, on the whole, Kurdish culture is closest to that of other Iranian peoples, in particular those who historically had the closest geographical proximity to the Kurds, such as the Persians and Lurs. Kurds, for instance, also celebrate Newroz (March 21) as New Year 's Day.
A madrasa system was used before the modern era. Mele are Islamic clerics and instructors.
In general, Kurdish women 's rights and equality have improved in the 20th and 21st century due to progressive movements within Kurdish society. However, despite the progress, Kurdish and international women 's rights organizations still report problems related to gender equality, forced marriages, honor killings and in Iraqi Kurdistan also female genital mutilation (FGM).
The Kurds possess a rich tradition of folklore, which, until recent times, was largely transmitted by speech or song, from one generation to the next. Although some of the Kurdish writers ' stories were well - known throughout Kurdistan; most of the stories told and sung were only written down in the 20th and 21st century. Many of these are, allegedly, centuries old.
Widely varying in purpose and style, among the Kurdish folklore one will find stories about nature, anthropomorphic animals, love, heroes and villains, mythological creatures and everyday life. A number of these mythological figures can be found in other cultures, like the Simurgh and Kaveh the Blacksmith in the broader Iranian Mythology, and stories of Shahmaran throughout Anatolia. Additionally, stories can be purely entertaining, or have an educational or religious aspect.
Perhaps the most widely reoccurring element is the fox, which, through cunningness and shrewdness triumphs over less intelligent species, yet often also meets his demise. Another common theme in Kurdish folklore is the origin of a tribe.
Storytellers would perform in front of an audience, sometimes consisting of an entire village. People from outside the region would travel to attend their narratives, and the storytellers themselves would visit other villages to spread their tales. These would thrive especially during winter, where entertainment was hard to find as evenings had to be spent inside.
Coinciding with the heterogeneous Kurdish groupings, although certain stories and elements were commonly found throughout Kurdistan, others were unique to a specific area; depending on the region, religion or dialect. The Kurdish Jews of Zakho are perhaps the best example of this; whose gifted storytellers are known to have been greatly respected throughout the region, thanks to a unique oral tradition. Other examples are the mythology of the Yezidis, and the stories of the Dersim Kurds, which had a substantial Armenian influence.
During the criminalization of the Kurdish language after the coup d'état of 1980, dengbêj (singers) and çîrokbêj (tellers) were silenced, and many of the stories had become endangered. In 1991, the language was decriminalized, yet the now highly available radios and TV 's had as an effect a diminished interest in traditional storytelling. However, a number of writers have made great strides in the preservation of these tales.
Kurdish weaving is renowned throughout the world, with fine specimens of both rugs and bags. The most famous Kurdish rugs are those from the Bijar region, in the Kurdistan Province. Because of the unique way in which the Bijar rugs are woven, they are very stout and durable, hence their appellation as the ' Iron Rugs of Persia '. Exhibiting a wide variety, the Bijar rugs have patterns ranging from floral designs, medallions and animals to other ornaments. They generally have two wefts, and are very colorful in design. With an increased interest in these rugs in the last century, and a lesser need for them to be as sturdy as they were, new Bijar rugs are more refined and delicate in design.
Another well - known Kurdish rug is the Senneh rug, which is regarded as the most sophisticated of the Kurdish rugs. They are especially known for their great knot density and high quality mountain wool. They lend their name from the region of Sanandaj. Throughout other Kurdish regions like Kermanshah, Siirt, Malatya and Bitlis rugs were also woven to great extent.
Kurdish bags are mainly known from the works of one large tribe: the Jaffs, living in the border area between Iran and Iraq. These Jaff bags share the same characteristics of Kurdish rugs; very colorful, stout in design, often with medallion patterns. They were especially popular in the West during the 1920s and 1930s.
Outside of weaving and clothing, there are many other Kurdish handicrafts, which were traditionally often crafted by nomadic Kurdish tribes. These are especially well known in Iran, most notably the crafts from the Kermanshah and Sanandaj regions. Among these crafts are chess boards, talismans, jewelry, ornaments, weaponry, instruments etc.
Kurdish blades include a distinct jambiya, with its characteristic I - shaped hilt, and oblong blade. Generally, these possess double - edged blades, reinforced with a central ridge, a wooden, leather or silver decorated scabbard, and a horn hilt, furthermore they are often still worn decoratively by older men. Swords were made as well. Most of these blades in circulation stem from the 19th century.
Another distinct form of art from Sanandaj is ' Oroosi ', a type of window where stylized wooden pieces are locked into each other, rather than being glued together. These are further decorated with coloured glass, this stems from an old belief that if light passes through a combination of seven colours it helps keep the atmosphere clean.
Among Kurdish Jews a common practice was the making of talismans, which were believed to combat illnesses and protect the wearer from malevolent spirits.
Adorning the body with tattoos (deq in Kurdish) is widespread among the Kurds; even though permanent tattoos are not permissible in Sunni Islam. Therefore, these traditional tattoos are thought to derive from pre-Islamic times.
Tattoo ink is made by mixing soot with (breast) milk and the poisonous liquid from the gall bladder of an animal. The design is drawn on the skin using a thin twig and is, by needle, penetrated under the skin. These have a wide variety of meanings and purposes, among which are protection against evil or illnesses; beauty enhancement; and the showing of tribal affiliations. Religious symbolism is also common among both traditional and modern Kurdish tattoos. Tattoos are more prevalent among women than among men, and were generally worn on feet, the chin, foreheads and other places of the body.
The popularity of permanent, traditional tattoos has greatly diminished among newer generation of Kurds. However, modern tattoos are becoming more prevalent; and temporary tattoos are still being worn on special occasions (such as henna, the night before a wedding) and as tribute to the cultural heritage.
Traditionally, there are three types of Kurdish classical performers: storytellers (çîrokbêj), minstrels (stranbêj), and bards (dengbêj). No specific music was associated with the Kurdish princely courts. Instead, music performed in night gatherings (şevbihêrk) is considered classical. Several musical forms are found in this genre. Many songs are epic in nature, such as the popular Lawiks, heroic ballads recounting the tales of Kurdish heroes such as Saladin. Heyrans are love ballads usually expressing the melancholy of separation and unfulfilled love, one of the first Kurdish female singers to sing heyrans is Chopy Fatah, while Lawje is a form of religious music and Payizoks are songs performed during the autumn. Love songs, dance music, wedding and other celebratory songs (dîlok / narînk), erotic poetry, and work songs are also popular.
Throughout the Middle East, there are many prominent Kurdish artists. Most famous are Ibrahim Tatlises, Nizamettin Arıç, Ahmet Kaya and the Kamkars. In Europe, well - known artists are Darin Zanyar, Sivan Perwer, and Azad.
The main themes of Kurdish Cinema are the poverty and hardship which ordinary Kurds have to endure. The first films featuring Kurdish culture were actually shot in Armenia. Zare, released in 1927, produced by Hamo Beknazarian, details the story of Zare and her love for the shepherd Seydo, and the difficulties the two experience by the hand of the village elder. In 1948 and 1959, two documentaries were made concerning the Yezidi Kurds in Armenia. These were joint Armenian - Kurdish productions; with H. Koçaryan and Heciye Cindi teaming up for The Kurds of Soviet Armenia, and Ereb Samilov and C. Jamharyan for Kurds of Armenia.
The first critically acclaimed and famous Kurdish films were produced by Yılmaz Güney. Initially a popular, award - winning actor in Turkey with the nickname Çirkin Kral (the Ugly King, after his rough looks), he spent the later part of his career producing socio - critical and politically loaded films. Sürü (1979), Yol (1982) and Duvar (1983) are his best - known works, of which the second won Palme d'Or at the Cannes Film Festival of 1982, the most prestigious award in the world of cinema.
Another prominent Kurdish film director is Bahman Qubadi. His first feature film was A Time for Drunken Horses, released in 2000. It was critically acclaimed, and went on to win multiple awards. Other movies of his would follow this example; making him one of the best known film producers of Iran of today. Recently, he released Rhinos Season, starring Behrouz Vossoughi, Monica Bellucci and Yilmaz Erdogan, detailing the tumultuous life of a Kurdish poet.
Other prominent Kurdish film directors that are critically acclaimed include Mahsun Kırmızıgül, Hiner Saleem and the aforementioned Yilmaz Erdogan. There 's also been a number of films set and / or filmed in Kurdistan made by non-Kurdish film directors, such as the Wind Will Carry Us, Triage, The Exorcist, and The Market: A Tale of Trade.
The most popular sport among the Kurds is football. Because the Kurds have no independent state, they have no representative team in FIFA or the AFC; however a team representing Iraqi Kurdistan has been active in the Viva World Cup since 2008. They became runners - up in 2009 and 2010, before ultimately becoming champion in 2012.
On a national level, the Kurdish clubs of Iraq have achieved success in recent years as well, winning the Iraqi Premier League four times in the last five years. Prominent clubs are Erbil SC, Duhok SC, Sulaymaniyah FC and Zakho FC.
In Turkey, a Kurd named Celal Ibrahim was one of the founders of Galatasaray S.K. in 1905, as well as one of the original players. The most prominent Kurdish - Turkish club is Diyarbakirspor. In the diaspora, the most successful Kurdish club is Dalkurd FF and the most famous player is Eren Derdiyok.
Another prominent sport is wrestling. In Iranian Wrestling, there are three styles originating from Kurdish regions:
Furthermore, the most accredited of the traditional Iranian wrestling styles, the Bachoukheh, derives its name from a local Khorasani Kurdish costume in which it is practised.
Kurdish medalists in the 2012 Summer Olympics were Nur Tatar, Kianoush Rostami and Yezidi Misha Aloyan; who won medals in taekwondo, weightlifting and boxing, respectively.
The traditional Kurdish village has simple houses, made of mud. In most cases with flat, wooden roofs, and, if the village is built on the slope of a mountain, the roof on one house makes for the garden of the house one level higher. However, houses with a beehive - like roof, not unlike those in Harran, are also present.
Over the centuries many Kurdish architectural marvels have been erected, with varying styles. Kurdistan boasts many examples from ancient Iranic, Roman, Greek and Semitic origin, most famous of these include Bisotun and Taq - e Bostan in Kermanshah, Takht - e Soleyman near Takab, Mount Nemrud near Adiyaman and the citadels of Erbil and Diyarbakir.
The first genuinely Kurdish examples extant were built in the 11th century. Those earliest examples consist of the Marwanid Dicle Bridge in Diyarbakir, the Shadaddid Minuchir Mosque in Ani, and the Hisn al Akrad near Homs.
In the 12th and 13th centuries the Ayyubid dynasty constructed many buildings throughout the Middle East, being influenced by their predecessors, the Fatimids, and their rivals, the Crusaders, whilst also developing their own techniques. Furthermore, women of the Ayyubid family took a prominent role in the patronage of new constructions. The Ayyubids ' most famous works are the Halil - ur - Rahman Mosque that surrounds the Pool of Sacred Fish in Urfa, the Citadel of Cairo and most parts of the Citadel of Aleppo. Another important piece of Kurdish architectural heritage from the late 12th / early 13th century is the Yezidi pilgrimage site Lalish, with its trademark conical roofs.
In later periods too, Kurdish rulers and their corresponding dynasties and emirates would leave their mark upon the land in the form mosques, castles and bridges, some of which have decayed, or have been (partly) destroyed in an attempt to erase the Kurdish cultural heritage, such as the White Castle of the Bohtan Emirate. Well - known examples are Hosap Castle of the 17th century, Sherwana Castle of the early 18th century, and the Ellwen Bridge of Khanaqin of the 19th century.
Most famous is the Ishak Pasha Palace of Dogubeyazit, a structure with heavy influences from both Anatolian and Iranic architectural traditions. Construction of the Palace began in 1685, led by Colak Abdi Pasha, a Kurdish bey of the Ottoman Empire, but the building would n't be completed until 1784, by his grandson, Ishak Pasha. Containing almost 100 rooms, including a mosque, dining rooms, dungeons and being heavily decorated by hewn - out ornaments, this Palace has the reputation as being one of the finest pieces of architecture of the Ottoman Period, and of Anatolia.
In recent years, the KRG has been responsible for the renovation of several historical structures, such as Erbil Citadel and the Mudhafaria Minaret.
Mercier. Kurde (Asie) by Auguste Wahlen, 1843
Kurdish warriors by Amadeo Preziosi.
Armenian, Turkish and Kurdish females in their traditional clothes, 1873.
Zakho Kurds by Albert Kahn, 1910s.
Kurdish Cavalry in the passes of the Caucasus mountains (The New York Times, January 24, 1915).
A Kurdish woman from Kirkuk, 1922.
A Kurdish chief.
A Kurdish woman from Piranshahr, Iran, Antoin Sevruguin.
A Kurdish man on horseback, Turkey, 1974.
A Kurdish man wearing traditional clothes, Arbil.
A Kurdish child from Mardin.
A Kurdish woman fighter from Rojava.
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how did the actor who played sparticus die | Andy Whitfield - Wikipedia
Andy Whitfield (17 October 1971 -- 11 September 2011) was a Welsh actor. He was best known for his leading role in the Starz television series Spartacus: Blood and Sand.
Whitfield was born in Amlwch, Anglesey, Wales. He studied construction at Sheffield Hallam University in England. He moved to Australia in 1999 to work as an engineer in Lidcombe, before later settling in Sydney. He appeared in several Australian television series, such as Opening Up, All Saints, The Strip, Packed to the Rafters, and McLeod 's Daughters.
Whitfield gained his first prominent role in the Australian supernatural film Gabriel. He also starred in the 2010 television series Spartacus: Blood and Sand, which was filmed in New Zealand. He portrays a version of the historical Spartacus, although in this retelling he is a conscripted soldier condemned to death who defeats all four of his executioners and is thereby recycled as a gladiator. The actual Spartacus, like this fictional version, led a rebellion against the Romans (the Third Servile War). Whitfield also appeared in the Australian thriller The Clinic starring opposite Tabrett Bethell (of Legend of the Seeker fame) which was shot in Deniliquin.
In August 2010, Whitfield teamed up with Freddie Wong and created a 2 - minute YouTube video named "Time Crisis '', based on the game Time Crisis. Whitfield made a brief, uncredited voice - only appearance in the prequel mini-series Spartacus: Gods of the Arena, which premiered on 21 January 2011.
Whitfield met Vashti in London. The couple moved to Sydney and married in 2001. They had two children together.
In March 2010, Whitfield was diagnosed with non-Hodgkin lymphoma and began undergoing treatment immediately in New Zealand. This delayed production of season two of Spartacus: Vengeance. While waiting for Whitfield 's treatment and expected recovery, the network produced a six - part prequel, Spartacus: Gods of the Arena, with only a brief uncredited voiceover from the actor. Although declared cancer - free in June 2010, a routine medical check in September 2010 revealed a relapse and Whitfield was compelled to abandon the role. Starz recast Australian actor Liam McIntyre as Whitfield 's successor.
Whitfield died of non-Hodgkin lymphoma in Sydney, Australia, on 11 September 2011, 18 months after his initial cancer diagnosis.
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where is drinking age 18 in the us | U.S. history of alcohol minimum purchase age by State - wikipedia
The alcohol laws of the United States regarding minimum age for purchase have changed over time. The history is given in the table below. Unless otherwise noted, if different alcohol categories have different minimum purchase ages, the age listed below is set at the lowest age given (e.g. if the purchase age is 18 for beer and 21 for wine or spirits, as was the case in several states, the age in the table will read as "18 '', not "21 ''). In addition, the purchase age is not necessarily the same as the minimum age for consumption of alcoholic beverages, although they have often been the same.
As one can see in the table below, there has been much volatility in the states ' drinking ages since the repeal of Prohibition in 1933. Shortly after the ratification of the 21st amendment in December, most states set their purchase ages at 21 since that was the Voting age at the time. Most of these limits remained constant until the early 1970s. From 1969 to 1976, some 30 states lowered their purchase ages, generally to 18. This was primarily because the voting age was lowered from 21 to 18 in 1971 with the 26th amendment. A lot of states started to lower their minimum drinking age in response, most of this occurring in 1972 or 1973. Twelve states kept their purchase ages at 21 since repeal of Prohibition and never changed them.
From 1976 to 1983, several states voluntarily raised their purchase ages to 19 (or, less commonly, 20 or 21), in part to combat drunk driving fatalities. In 1984, Congress passed the National Minimum Drinking Age Act, which required states to raise their ages for purchase and public possession to 21 by October 1986 or lose 10 % of their federal highway funds. By mid-1988, all 50 states and the District of Columbia had raised their purchase ages to 21 (but not Puerto Rico, Guam, or the Virgin Islands, see Additional Notes below). South Dakota and Wyoming were the final two states to comply with the age 21 mandate. The current drinking age of 21 remains a point of contention among many Americans, because of it being higher than the age of majority (18 in most states) and higher than the drinking ages of most other countries. The National Minimum Drinking Age Act is also seen as a congressional sidestep of the tenth amendment. Although debates have not been highly publicized, a few states have proposed legislation to lower their drinking age, while Guam has raised its drinking age to 21 in July 2010.
For an established religious purpose; When a person under twenty - one years of age is accompanied by a parent, spouse, or legal guardian twenty - one years of age or older; For medical purposes when purchased as an over the counter medication, or when prescribed or administered by a licensed physician, pharmacist, dentist, nurse, hospital, or medical institution; In a private residence, which shall include a residential dwelling and up to twenty contiguous acres, on which the dwelling is located, owned by the same person who owns the dwelling; The sale, handling, transport, or service in dispensing of any alcoholic beverage pursuant to lawful ownership of an establishment or to lawful employment of a person under twenty - one years of age by a duly licensed manufacturer, wholesaler, or retailer of beverage alcohol.)
94. Citation for Wisconsin drinking law: https://www.revenue.wi.gov/Pages/FAQS/ise-atundrg.aspx
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disadvantages of money as a medium of exchange | Money - wikipedia
Money is any item or verifiable record that is generally accepted as payment for goods and services and repayment of debts in a particular country or socio - economic context. The main functions of money are distinguished as: a medium of exchange, a unit of account, a store of value and sometimes, a standard of deferred payment. Any item or verifiable record that fulfills these functions can be considered as money.
Money is historically an emergent market phenomenon establishing a commodity money, but nearly all contemporary money systems are based on fiat money. Fiat money, like any check or note of debt, is without use value as a physical commodity. It derives its value by being declared by a government to be legal tender; that is, it must be accepted as a form of payment within the boundaries of the country, for "all debts, public and private ''.
The money supply of a country consists of currency (banknotes and coins) and, depending on the particular definition used, one or more types of bank money (the balances held in checking accounts, savings accounts, and other types of bank accounts). Bank money, which consists only of records (mostly computerized in modern banking), forms by far the largest part of broad money in developed countries.
The word "money '' is believed to originate from a temple of Juno, on Capitoline, one of Rome 's seven hills. In the ancient world Juno was often associated with money. The temple of Juno Moneta at Rome was the place where the mint of Ancient Rome was located. The name "Juno '' may derive from the Etruscan goddess Uni (which means "the one '', "unique '', "unit '', "union '', "united '') and "Moneta '' either from the Latin word "monere '' (remind, warn, or instruct) or the Greek word "moneres '' (alone, unique).
In the Western world, a prevalent term for coin - money has been specie, stemming from Latin in specie, meaning ' in kind '.
The use of barter - like methods may date back to at least 100,000 years ago, though there is no evidence of a society or economy that relied primarily on barter. Instead, non-monetary societies operated largely along the principles of gift economy and debt. When barter did in fact occur, it was usually between either complete strangers or potential enemies.
Many cultures around the world eventually developed the use of commodity money. The Mesopotamian shekel was a unit of weight, and relied on the mass of something like 160 grains of barley. The first usage of the term came from Mesopotamia circa 3000 BC. Societies in the Americas, Asia, Africa and Australia used shell money -- often, the shells of the cowry (Cypraea moneta L. or C. annulus L.). According to Herodotus, the Lydians were the first people to introduce the use of gold and silver coins. It is thought by modern scholars that these first stamped coins were minted around 650 -- 600 BC.
The system of commodity money eventually evolved into a system of representative money. This occurred because gold and silver merchants or banks would issue receipts to their depositors -- redeemable for the commodity money deposited. Eventually, these receipts became generally accepted as a means of payment and were used as money. Paper money or banknotes were first used in China during the Song dynasty. These banknotes, known as "jiaozi '', evolved from promissory notes that had been used since the 7th century. However, they did not displace commodity money, and were used alongside coins. In the 13th century, paper money became known in Europe through the accounts of travelers, such as Marco Polo and William of Rubruck. Marco Polo 's account of paper money during the Yuan dynasty is the subject of a chapter of his book, The Travels of Marco Polo, titled "How the Great Kaan Causeth the Bark of Trees, Made Into Something Like Paper, to Pass for Money All Over his Country. '' Banknotes were first issued in Europe by Stockholms Banco in 1661, and were again also used alongside coins. The gold standard, a monetary system where the medium of exchange are paper notes that are convertible into pre-set, fixed quantities of gold, replaced the use of gold coins as currency in the 17th -- 19th centuries in Europe. These gold standard notes were made legal tender, and redemption into gold coins was discouraged. By the beginning of the 20th century almost all countries had adopted the gold standard, backing their legal tender notes with fixed amounts of gold.
After World War II and the Bretton Woods Conference, most countries adopted fiat currencies that were fixed to the U.S. dollar. The U.S. dollar was in turn fixed to gold. In 1971 the U.S. government suspended the convertibility of the U.S. dollar to gold. After this many countries de-pegged their currencies from the U.S. dollar, and most of the world 's currencies became unbacked by anything except the governments ' fiat of legal tender and the ability to convert the money into goods via payment. According to proponents of modern money theory, fiat money is also backed by taxes. By imposing taxes, states create demand for the currency they issue.
In Money and the Mechanism of Exchange (1875), William Stanley Jevons famously analyzed money in terms of four functions: a medium of exchange, a common measure of value (or unit of account), a standard of value (or standard of deferred payment), and a store of value. By 1919, Jevons 's four functions of money were summarized in the couplet:
This couplet would later become widely popular in macroeconomics textbooks. Most modern textbooks now list only three functions, that of medium of exchange, unit of account, and store of value, not considering a standard of deferred payment as it is a distinguished function, but rather subsuming it in the others.
There have been many historical disputes regarding the combination of money 's functions, some arguing that they need more separation and that a single unit is insufficient to deal with them all. One of these arguments is that the role of money as a medium of exchange is in conflict with its role as a store of value: its role as a store of value requires holding it without spending, whereas its role as a medium of exchange requires it to circulate. Others argue that storing of value is just deferral of the exchange, but does not diminish the fact that money is a medium of exchange that can be transported both across space and time. The term "financial capital '' is a more general and inclusive term for all liquid instruments, whether or not they are a uniformly recognized tender.
When money is used to intermediate the exchange of goods and services, it is performing a function as a medium of exchange. It thereby avoids the inefficiencies of a barter system, such as the "coincidence of wants '' problem. Money 's most important usage is as a method for comparing the values of dissimilar objects.
A unit of account (in economics) is a standard numerical monetary unit of measurement of the market value of goods, services, and other transactions. Also known as a "measure '' or "standard '' of relative worth and deferred payment, a unit of account is a necessary prerequisite for the formulation of commercial agreements that involve debt.
Money acts as a standard measure and common denomination of trade. It is thus a basis for quoting and bargaining of prices. It is necessary for developing efficient accounting systems.
While standard of deferred payment is distinguished by some texts, particularly older ones, other texts subsume this under other functions. A "standard of deferred payment '' is an accepted way to settle a debt -- a unit in which debts are denominated, and the status of money as legal tender, in those jurisdictions which have this concept, states that it may function for the discharge of debts. When debts are denominated in money, the real value of debts may change due to inflation and deflation, and for sovereign and international debts via debasement and devaluation.
To act as a store of value, a money must be able to be reliably saved, stored, and retrieved -- and be predictably usable as a medium of exchange when it is retrieved. The value of the money must also remain stable over time. Some have argued that inflation, by reducing the value of money, diminishes the ability of the money to function as a store of value.
To fulfill its various functions, money must have certain properties:
In economics, money is a broad term that refers to any financial instrument that can fulfil the functions of money (detailed above). These financial instruments together are collectively referred to as the money supply of an economy. In other words, the money supply is the number of financial instruments within a specific economy available for purchasing goods or services. Since the money supply consists of various financial instruments (usually currency, demand deposits and various other types of deposits), the amount of money in an economy is measured by adding together these financial instruments creating a monetary aggregate.
Modern monetary theory distinguishes among different ways to measure the money supply, reflected in different types of monetary aggregates, using a categorization system that focuses on the liquidity of the financial instrument used as money. The most commonly used monetary aggregates (or types of money) are conventionally designated M1, M2 and M3. These are successively larger aggregate categories: M1 is currency (coins and bills) plus demand deposits (such as checking accounts); M2 is M1 plus savings accounts and time deposits under $100,000; and M3 is M2 plus larger time deposits and similar institutional accounts. M1 includes only the most liquid financial instruments, and M3 relatively illiquid instruments. The precise definition of M1, M2 etc. may be different in different countries.
Another measure of money, M0, is also used; unlike the other measures, it does not represent actual purchasing power by firms and households in the economy. M0 is base money, or the amount of money actually issued by the central bank of a country. It is measured as currency plus deposits of banks and other institutions at the central bank. M0 is also the only money that can satisfy the reserve requirements of commercial banks.
In current economic systems, money is created by two procedures:
Legal tender, or narrow money (M0) is the cash money created by a Central Bank by minting coins and printing banknotes.
Bank money, or broad money (M1 / M2) is the money created by private banks through the recording of loans as deposits of borrowing clients, with partial support indicated by the cash ratio. Currently, bank money is created as electronic money.
In most countries, the majority of money is mostly created as M1 / M2 by commercial banks making loans. Contrary to some popular misconceptions, banks do not act simply as intermediaries, lending out deposits that savers place with them, and do not depend on central bank money (M0) to create new loans and deposits.
"Market liquidity '' describes how easily an item can be traded for another item, or into the common currency within an economy. Money is the most liquid asset because it is universally recognised and accepted as the common currency. In this way, money gives consumers the freedom to trade goods and services easily without having to barter.
Liquid financial instruments are easily tradable and have low transaction costs. There should be no (or minimal) spread between the prices to buy and sell the instrument being used as money.
Currently, most modern monetary systems are based on fiat money. However, for most of history, almost all money was commodity money, such as gold and silver coins. As economies developed, commodity money was eventually replaced by representative money, such as the gold standard, as traders found the physical transportation of gold and silver burdensome. Fiat currencies gradually took over in the last hundred years, especially since the breakup of the Bretton Woods system in the early 1970s.
Many items have been used as commodity money such as naturally scarce precious metals, conch shells, barley, beads etc., as well as many other things that are thought of as having value. Commodity money value comes from the commodity out of which it is made. The commodity itself constitutes the money, and the money is the commodity. Examples of commodities that have been used as mediums of exchange include gold, silver, copper, rice, Wampum, salt, peppercorns, large stones, decorated belts, shells, alcohol, cigarettes, cannabis, candy, etc. These items were sometimes used in a metric of perceived value in conjunction to one another, in various commodity valuation or price system economies. Use of commodity money is similar to barter, but a commodity money provides a simple and automatic unit of account for the commodity which is being used as money. Although some gold coins such as the Krugerrand are considered legal tender, there is no record of their face value on either side of the coin. The rationale for this is that emphasis is laid on their direct link to the prevailing value of their fine gold content. American Eagles are imprinted with their gold content and legal tender face value.
In 1875, the British economist William Stanley Jevons described the money used at the time as "representative money ''. Representative money is money that consists of token coins, paper money or other physical tokens such as certificates, that can be reliably exchanged for a fixed quantity of a commodity such as gold or silver. The value of representative money stands in direct and fixed relation to the commodity that backs it, while not itself being composed of that commodity.
Fiat money or fiat currency is money whose value is not derived from any intrinsic value or guarantee that it can be converted into a valuable commodity (such as gold). Instead, it has value only by government order (fiat). Usually, the government declares the fiat currency (typically notes and coins from a central bank, such as the Federal Reserve System in the U.S.) to be legal tender, making it unlawful not to accept the fiat currency as a means of repayment for all debts, public and private.
Some bullion coins such as the Australian Gold Nugget and American Eagle are legal tender, however, they trade based on the market price of the metal content as a commodity, rather than their legal tender face value (which is usually only a small fraction of their bullion value).
Fiat money, if physically represented in the form of currency (paper or coins) can be accidentally damaged or destroyed. However, fiat money has an advantage over representative or commodity money, in that the same laws that created the money can also define rules for its replacement in case of damage or destruction. For example, the U.S. government will replace mutilated Federal Reserve Notes (U.S. fiat money) if at least half of the physical note can be reconstructed, or if it can be otherwise proven to have been destroyed. By contrast, commodity money which has been lost or destroyed can not be recovered.
These factors led to the shift of the store of value being the metal itself: at first silver, then both silver and gold, and at one point there was bronze as well. Now we have copper coins and other non-precious metals as coins. Metals were mined, weighed, and stamped into coins. This was to assure the individual taking the coin that he was getting a certain known weight of precious metal. Coins could be counterfeited, but they also created a new unit of account, which helped lead to banking. Archimedes ' principle provided the next link: coins could now be easily tested for their fine weight of metal, and thus the value of a coin could be determined, even if it had been shaved, debased or otherwise tampered with (see Numismatics).
In most major economies using coinage, copper, silver and gold formed three tiers of coins. Gold coins were used for large purchases, payment of the military and backing of state activities. Silver coins were used for midsized transactions, and as a unit of account for taxes, dues, contracts and fealty, while copper coins represented the coinage of common transaction. This system had been used in ancient India since the time of the Mahajanapadas. In Europe, this system worked through the medieval period because there was virtually no new gold, silver or copper introduced through mining or conquest. Thus the overall ratios of the three coinages remained roughly equivalent.
In premodern China, the need for credit and for circulating a medium that was less of a burden than exchanging thousands of copper coins led to the introduction of paper money, commonly known today as banknotes. This economic phenomenon was a slow and gradual process that took place from the late Tang dynasty (618 -- 907) into the Song dynasty (960 -- 1279). It began as a means for merchants to exchange heavy coinage for receipts of deposit issued as promissory notes from shops of wholesalers, notes that were valid for temporary use in a small regional territory. In the 10th century, the Song dynasty government began circulating these notes amongst the traders in their monopolized salt industry. The Song government granted several shops the sole right to issue banknotes, and in the early 12th century the government finally took over these shops to produce state - issued currency. Yet the banknotes issued were still regionally valid and temporary; it was not until the mid 13th century that a standard and uniform government issue of paper money was made into an acceptable nationwide currency. The already widespread methods of woodblock printing and then Pi Sheng 's movable type printing by the 11th century was the impetus for the massive production of paper money in premodern China.
At around the same time in the medieval Islamic world, a vigorous monetary economy was created during the 7th -- 12th centuries on the basis of the expanding levels of circulation of a stable high - value currency (the dinar). Innovations introduced by Muslim economists, traders and merchants include the earliest uses of credit, cheques, promissory notes, savings accounts, transactional accounts, loaning, trusts, exchange rates, the transfer of credit and debt, and banking institutions for loans and deposits.
In Europe, paper money was first introduced in Sweden in 1661. Sweden was rich in copper, thus, because of copper 's low value, extraordinarily big coins (often weighing several kilograms) had to be made. The advantages of paper currency were numerous: it reduced transport of gold and silver, and thus lowered the risks; it made loaning gold or silver at interest easier, since the specie (gold or silver) never left the possession of the lender until someone else redeemed the note; and it allowed for a division of currency into credit and specie backed forms. It enabled the sale of stock in joint stock companies, and the redemption of those shares in paper.
However, these advantages held within them disadvantages. First, since a note has no intrinsic value, there was nothing to stop issuing authorities from printing more of it than they had specie to back it with. Second, because it increased the money supply, it increased inflationary pressures, a fact observed by David Hume in the 18th century. The result is that paper money would often lead to an inflationary bubble, which could collapse if people began demanding hard money, causing the demand for paper notes to fall to zero. The printing of paper money was also associated with wars, and financing of wars, and therefore regarded as part of maintaining a standing army. For these reasons, paper currency was held in suspicion and hostility in Europe and America. It was also addictive, since the speculative profits of trade and capital creation were quite large. Major nations established mints to print money and mint coins, and branches of their treasury to collect taxes and hold gold and silver stock.
At this time both silver and gold were considered legal tender, and accepted by governments for taxes. However, the instability in the ratio between the two grew over the course of the 19th century, with the increase both in supply of these metals, particularly silver, and of trade. This is called bimetallism and the attempt to create a bimetallic standard where both gold and silver backed currency remained in circulation occupied the efforts of inflationists. Governments at this point could use currency as an instrument of policy, printing paper currency such as the United States Greenback, to pay for military expenditures. They could also set the terms at which they would redeem notes for specie, by limiting the amount of purchase, or the minimum amount that could be redeemed.
By 1900, most of the industrializing nations were on some form of gold standard, with paper notes and silver coins constituting the circulating medium. Private banks and governments across the world followed Gresham 's Law: keeping gold and silver paid, but paying out in notes. This did not happen all around the world at the same time, but occurred sporadically, generally in times of war or financial crisis, beginning in the early part of the 20th century and continuing across the world until the late 20th century, when the regime of floating fiat currencies came into force. One of the last countries to break away from the gold standard was the United States in 1971.
No country anywhere in the world today has an enforceable gold standard or silver standard currency system.
Commercial bank money or demand deposits are claims against financial institutions that can be used for the purchase of goods and services. A demand deposit account is an account from which funds can be withdrawn at any time by check or cash withdrawal without giving the bank or financial institution any prior notice. Banks have the legal obligation to return funds held in demand deposits immediately upon demand (or ' at call '). Demand deposit withdrawals can be performed in person, via checks or bank drafts, using automatic teller machines (ATMs), or through online banking.
Commercial bank money is created through fractional - reserve banking, the banking practice where banks keep only a fraction of their deposits in reserve (as cash and other highly liquid assets) and lend out the remainder, while maintaining the simultaneous obligation to redeem all these deposits upon demand. Commercial bank money differs from commodity and fiat money in two ways: firstly it is non-physical, as its existence is only reflected in the account ledgers of banks and other financial institutions, and secondly, there is some element of risk that the claim will not be fulfilled if the financial institution becomes insolvent. The process of fractional - reserve banking has a cumulative effect of money creation by commercial banks, as it expands money supply (cash and demand deposits) beyond what it would otherwise be. Because of the prevalence of fractional reserve banking, the broad money supply of most countries is a multiple larger than the amount of base money created by the country 's central bank. That multiple (called the money multiplier) is determined by the reserve requirement or other financial ratio requirements imposed by financial regulators.
The money supply of a country is usually held to be the total amount of currency in circulation plus the total value of checking and savings deposits in the commercial banks in the country. In modern economies, relatively little of the money supply is in physical currency. For example, in December 2010 in the U.S., of the $8853.4 billion in broad money supply (M2), only $915.7 billion (about 10 %) consisted of physical coins and paper money.
Many digital currencies, in particular Flooz and Beenz, had gained momentum before the Dot - com bubble of the early 2000s. Not much innovation occurred until the conception of Bitcoin in 2009, which introduced the concept of a cryptocurrency.
When gold and silver are used as money, the money supply can grow only if the supply of these metals is increased by mining. This rate of increase will accelerate during periods of gold rushes and discoveries, such as when Columbus discovered the New World and brought back gold and silver to Spain, or when gold was discovered in California in 1848. This causes inflation, as the value of gold goes down. However, if the rate of gold mining can not keep up with the growth of the economy, gold becomes relatively more valuable, and prices (denominated in gold) will drop, causing deflation. Deflation was the more typical situation for over a century when gold and paper money backed by gold were used as money in the 18th and 19th centuries.
Modern day monetary systems are based on fiat money and are no longer tied to the value of gold. The control of the amount of money in the economy is known as monetary policy. Monetary policy is the process by which a government, central bank, or monetary authority manages the money supply to achieve specific goals. Usually the goal of monetary policy is to accommodate economic growth in an environment of stable prices. For example, it is clearly stated in the Federal Reserve Act that the Board of Governors and the Federal Open Market Committee should seek "to promote effectively the goals of maximum employment, stable prices, and moderate long - term interest rates. ''
A failed monetary policy can have significant detrimental effects on an economy and the society that depends on it. These include hyperinflation, stagflation, recession, high unemployment, shortages of imported goods, inability to export goods, and even total monetary collapse and the adoption of a much less efficient barter economy. This happened in Russia, for instance, after the fall of the Soviet Union.
Governments and central banks have taken both regulatory and free market approaches to monetary policy. Some of the tools used to control the money supply include:
In the US, the Federal Reserve is responsible for controlling the money supply, while in the Euro area the respective institution is the European Central Bank. Other central banks with significant impact on global finances are the Bank of Japan, People 's Bank of China and the Bank of England.
For many years much of monetary policy was influenced by an economic theory known as monetarism. Monetarism is an economic theory which argues that management of the money supply should be the primary means of regulating economic activity. The stability of the demand for money prior to the 1980s was a key finding of Milton Friedman and Anna Schwartz supported by the work of David Laidler, and many others. The nature of the demand for money changed during the 1980s owing to technical, institutional, and legal factors and the influence of monetarism has since decreased.
In economics, in many cases, the money can be treated as the capital. The capital can be invested into the capital markets with a goal to get the high Return - On - Investment (ROI) premium. The capital markets definition includes the money markets and some other investment markets.
Counterfeit money is imitation currency produced without the legal sanction of the state or government. Producing or using counterfeit money is a form of fraud or forgery. Counterfeiting is almost as old as money itself. Plated copies (known as Fourrées) have been found of Lydian coins which are thought to be among the first western coins. Before the introduction of paper money, the most prevalent method of counterfeiting involved mixing base metals with pure gold or silver. A form of counterfeiting is the production of documents by legitimate printers in response to fraudulent instructions. During World War II, the Nazis forged British pounds and American dollars. Today some of the finest counterfeit banknotes are called Superdollars because of their high quality and likeness to the real U.S. dollar. There has been significant counterfeiting of Euro banknotes and coins since the launch of the currency in 2002, but considerably less than for the U.S. dollar.
Money laundering is the process in which the proceeds of crime are transformed into ostensibly legitimate money or other assets. However, in a number of legal and regulatory systems the term money laundering has become conflated with other forms of financial crime, and sometimes used more generally to include misuse of the financial system (involving things such as securities, digital currencies, credit cards, and traditional currency), including terrorism financing, tax evasion, and evading of international sanctions.
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who has the highest elo rating in chess | Comparison of top chess players throughout history - wikipedia
This article presents a number of methodologies that have been suggested for the task of comparing the greatest chess players in history. Statistical methods offer objectivity but, while there is agreement on systems to rate the strengths of current players, there is disagreement on whether such techniques can be applied to players from different generations who never competed against each other.
Perhaps the best - known statistical model is that devised by Arpad Elo in 1960 and further elaborated on in his 1978 book The Rating of Chessplayers, Past and Present, he gave ratings to players corresponding to their performance over the best five - year span of their career. According to this system the highest ratings achieved were:
(Though published in 1978, Elo 's list did not include five - year averages for Bobby Fischer and Anatoly Karpov. It did list January 1978 ratings of 2780 for Fischer and 2725 for Karpov.)
In 1970, FIDE adopted Elo 's system for rating current players, so one way to compare players of different eras is to compare their Elo ratings. The best - ever Elo ratings are tabulated below.
As of December 2015, there were 101 chess players in history who broke 2700 and nine of them exceeded 2800. Particularly notable are the peak ratings of Fischer, Karpov and Kasparov, who achieved their peak ratings in earlier years (1972, 1994, and 1999 respectively).
The average Elo rating of top players has risen over time. For instance, the average of the top 10 active players rose from 2751 in July 2000 to 2794 in July 2014, a 43 - point increase in 14 years. The average rating of the top 100 players, meanwhile, increased from 2644 to 2703, a 59 - point increase. Many people believe that this rise is mostly due to a system artifact known as ratings inflation, making it impractical to compare players of different eras.
Arpad Elo was of the opinion that it was futile to attempt to use ratings to compare players from different eras; in his view, they could only possibly measure the strength of a player as compared to his or her contemporaries. He also stated that the process of rating players was in any case rather approximate; he compared it to "the measurement of the position of a cork bobbing up and down on the surface of agitated water with a yard stick tied to a rope and which is swaying in the wind ''.)
Many statisticians besides Elo have devised similar methods to retrospectively rate players. Jeff Sonas ' rating system is called "Chessmetrics ''. This system takes account of many games played after the publication of Elo 's book, and claims to take account of the rating inflation that the Elo system has allegedly suffered.
One caveat is that a Chessmetrics rating takes into account the frequency of play. According to Sonas, "As soon as you go a month without playing, your Chessmetrics rating will start to drop. ''
Sonas, like Elo, claims that it is impossible to compare the strength of players from different eras, saying:
Of course, a rating always indicates the level of dominance of a particular player against contemporary peers; it says nothing about whether the player is stronger / weaker in their actual technical chess skill than a player far removed from them in time. So while we can not say that Bobby Fischer in the early 1970s or José Capablanca in the early 1920s were the "strongest '' players of all time, we can say with a certain amount of confidence that they were the two most dominant players of all time. That is the extent of what these ratings can tell us.
Nevertheless, Sonas ' website does compare players from different eras. Including data until December 2004, the ratings were:
In 2005, Sonas used Chessmetrics to evaluate historical annual performance ratings and came to the conclusion that Kasparov was dominant for the most years, followed by Karpov and Lasker. He also published the following list of the highest ratings ever attained according to calculations done at the start of each month:
In contrast to Elo and Sonas 's systems, Raymond Keene and Nathan Divinsky 's book Warriors of the Mind attempts to establish a rating system claiming to compare directly the strength of players active in different eras, and so determine the strongest player of all time. Considering games played between sixty - four of the strongest players in history, they came up with the following top ten:
These "Divinsky numbers '' are not on the same scale as Elo ratings (the last person on the list, Johannes Zukertort, has a Divinsky number of 873, which would be a beginner - level Elo rating). Keene and Divinsky 's system has met with limited acceptance, and Warriors of the Mind has been accused of arbitrarily selecting players and bias towards modern players.
A computer - based method of analyzing chess abilities across history came from Matej Guid and Ivan Bratko from the Department of Computer and Information Science of University of Ljubljana, Slovenia, in 2006. The basis for their evaluation was the difference between the position values resulting from the moves played by the human chess player and the moves chosen as best by the chess program Crafty. They compared the average number of errors in the player 's game. Opening moves were excluded, in an attempt to negate the progress in chess opening theory.
The method received a number of criticisms, including: the study used a modified version of Crafty rather than the standard version; even the standard version of Crafty was not strong enough to evaluate the world champions ' play; one of the modifications restricted the search depth to 12 half - moves, which is often insufficient. As of 2006 Crafty 's Elo rating was 2657, below many historical top human players and several other computer programs.
A similar project was conducted for World Champions in 2007 - 8 using Rybka 2.3. 2a (then - strongest chess program) and a modified version of Crafty 20.14. It arrived at the following results:
A 2008 analysis, using Rybka 3, showed that Capablanca had the smallest average error factor (i.e. the most accurate play); but after adjusting for factors such as the complexity of positions, the best player came out as Fischer, followed by Capablanca, Karpov and Kramnik. The best players had an average error of about 0.07 pawns per move (after the opening). Capablanca was the most positional player, and Anand by far the most tactical. The most complex game tested was Fischer v Spassky (1972 game 6, Fischer won) while the most accurately played game was Tal v Benko (1958, Tal won).
A study by online chess data provider Chess - DB, based on an analysis of over 50,000 chess games, claims that the "strength '' of a player, as determined by the method of Matej Guid and Ivan Bratko, correlates with the Elo rating strength of modern players.
CAPS (Computer Aggregated Precision Score) is a system created by Daniel Rensch of chess.com that compares players from different eras by finding the percentage of moves that matches that of a chess engine. A score is then assigned based on percentage of matches and move value (for example, if the move was not the best, but still good, points are awarded). CAPS ignores both style and psychology. According to the system, Carlsen was the best player ever, with a CAPS score of 98.36 and a top engine match of 85.26 %. He was followed closely by Kramnik, and then Kasparov.
In an article published by the ICGA Journal, Jean - Marc Alliot of the Toulouse Computer Science Research Institute (IRIT) presents a new method, based on a Markovian interpretation of a chess game. Starting with those of Wilhelm Steinitz, all 26,000 games played since then by chess world champions have been processed by a supercomputer using Stockfish (rated between 3310 ELO at the CCRL and 3337 at the SSDF as of 10 / 2015, but around 3150 under the test condition according to the authors) in 62000 CPU hours, in order to create a probabilistic model for each player. For each position, the model estimates the probability of making a mistake, and the magnitude of the mistake by comparing the two best moves calculated at an average of 2 minutes by move (26 plies on the average) with the move actually played, starting from move number 10. These models can then be used to compute the win / draw / lose probability for any given match between two players. The predictions have proven not only to be extremely close to the actual results when players have played concrete games against one another, they also fare better than those based on ELO scores. The results demonstrate that the level of chess players has been steadily increasing. Magnus Carlsen (in 2013), tops the list, while Bobby Fischer (in 1971) is third, and Garry Kasparov (in 2001) is fourth. The complete database of the chess games and their evaluations can be downloaded from the page presenting this work on the author 's website.
Many prominent players and chess writers have offered their own rankings of the greatest players.
In 1964 Bobby Fischer listed his top 10 in Chessworld magazine: Morphy, Staunton, Steinitz, Tarrasch, Chigorin, Alekhine, Capablanca, Spassky, Tal, Reshevsky. He considered Morphy the best, writing: "In a set match he would beat anyone alive today. ''
In 1970 Fischer named Morphy, Steinitz, Capablanca, Botvinnik, Petrosian, Tal, Spassky, Reshevsky, Svetozar Gligorić and Bent Larsen the greatest chess players in history.
In 1974, popular chess author Irving Chernev published an article titled Who were the greatest? in the English magazine CHESS. He followed this up with his 1976 book The Golden Dozen, in which he ranked his all - time top twelve: 1. Capablanca, 2. Alekhine, 3. Lasker, 4. Fischer, 5. Botvinnik, 6. Petrosian, 7. Tal, 8. Smyslov, 9. Spassky, 10. Bronstein, 11. Rubinstein, and 12. Nimzowitsch.
In a 1992 interview GM Miguel Quinteros gave the opinion: "I think Fischer was and still is the greatest chess player of all time. (...) During his absence other good chess players have appeared. But no one equals Fischer 's talent and perfection. ''
In 2000, when Karpov, Korchnoi and Kasparov were still active, Anand listed his top 10 as: Fischer, Morphy, Lasker, Capablanca, Steinitz, Tal, Korchnoi, Keres, Karpov and Kasparov.
When interviewed in 2008 shortly after Fischer 's death, he ranked Fischer and Kasparov as the greatest, with Kasparov a little ahead by virtue of being on top for so many years.
In 2012, Anand stated that he considered Fischer the greatest, because of the hurdles he faced.
Svetozar Gligorić reported in his book Shall We Play Fischerandom Chess? (Batsford, 2002):
At the beginning of 2001 a large poll for the "Ten Greatest Chess Players of the 20th Century, selected by Chess Informant readers '' resulted in Fischer having the highest percentage of votes and finishing as No. 1, ahead of Kasparov, Alekhine, Capablanca, Botvinnik, Karpov, Tal, Lasker, Anand and Korchnoi.
BBC award - winning journalists, from their book Bobby Fischer Goes to War: How the Soviets Lost the Most Extraordinary Chess Match of All Time (HarperCollins, 2004):
Fischer, some will maintain, was the outstanding player in chess history, though there are powerful advocates too for Lasker, Capablanca, Alekhine, and Kasparov. Many chess players will dismiss such comparisons as meaningless, akin to the futile attempt to grade the supreme musicians of all time. But the manner in which Fischer stormed his way to Reykjavik, his breathtaking dominance at the Palma de Majorca Interzonal, the trouncings of Taimanov, Larsen, and Petrosian -- all this was unprecedented. There never has been an era in modern chess during which one player has so overshadowed all others.
In a 2005 interview, Vladimir Kramnik (World Champion from 2000 to 2007) did not name a greatest player, but stated, "The other world champions had something ' missing '. I ca n't say the same about Kasparov: he can do everything. ''
In an interview in 2011, Vladimir Kramnik said about Anand: "I always considered him to be a colossal talent, one of the greatest in the whole history of chess '', "I think that in terms of play Anand is in no way weaker than Kasparov '', and "In the last 5 -- 6 years he 's made a qualitative leap that 's made it possible to consider him one of the great chess players ''.
In his 2008 obituary of Bobby Fischer, Leonard Barden wrote that most experts ranked Kasparov as the greatest ever, with either Fischer or Karpov second.
In a 2012 interview, Levon Aronian stated that he considers Alexander Alekhine the greatest player of all time.
In a 2015 interview after the 8th round of the Sinquefield Cup, Levon Aronian stated that he considers Garry Kasparov the greatest player of all time.
In 2012, Magnus Carlsen said that Kasparov is the greatest player of all time, adding that while Fischer may have been better at his best, Kasparov remained at the top for much longer.
In December 2015, he repeated his great respect for both Fischer and Kasparov when he mentioned them several times in an interview, saying he would like to play against them at their peak performance. Also, he said he liked the style of play and games of Vladimir Kramnik. As the toughest opponent to beat at that time he named Levon Aronian.
The table below organises the world champions in order of championship wins. (For the purpose of this table, a successful defence counts as a win, even if the match was drawn.) The table is made more complicated by the split between the "Classical '' and FIDE world titles between 1993 and 2006.
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when is the last time mt fuji erupted | Historic eruptions of Mount Fuji - Wikipedia
Coordinates: 35 ° 21 ′ 46.35 '' N 138 ° 43 ′ 53.63 '' E / 35.3628750 ° N 138.7315639 ° E / 35.3628750; 138.7315639 Historic eruptions of Mount Fuji (富士山 の 噴火 史, Fuji - san no funka - shi)
Mount Fuji is the tallest volcano in Japan, and also the highest peak. The mountain as it appears now is the "New Fuji volcano '', which began to erupt about 10,000 years ago. Under the "New Fuji volcano '' lies the "Old Fuji volcano '', which was active between 100,000 years ago and 10,000 years ago, and the "Komitake volcano '', which became active 700,000 years ago.
There has been volcanic activity in the vicinity of Mount Fuji for several million years. The earliest geologically known volcano was Mount Komitake (小 御岳 火山, small mountain volcano) that became active 700,000 years ago. Another volcano to the south - east of Mount Fuji - known as Mount Ashitaka (愛 鷹山) - was also highly active throughout the period. The peak of Komitake is about 2,300 meters (7,500 ft) above sea - level on the north face of Mount Fuji (at the fifth station).
Komitake entered another period of activity around 100,000 years ago. This created a new volcano known as Old Fuji (古 富士, kofuji, Old Fuji) that reached a height of 3,100 meters (10,200 ft). It created many explosive eruptions that threw out large amounts of scoria, volcanic ash and lava.
Following the Old Fuji period, there were about 4,000 years of inactivity, ending at around 5,000 years ago, when Mount Fuji became active again; this period is known as New Fuji (新 富士, shinfuji), and continues to the present day. Eruptions of New Fuji exhibit phenomena such as lava flows, magma, scoria, volcanic ash, collapses and side eruptions, leading it to be called "a department store of eruptions ''. Ash from New Fuji is often black, and eruptions are new in terms of geological layers. Valuable data on the activity of Mount Fuji is recorded in Japanese historical documents dating from the 8th century onwards. It exhibits a range of representative eruptions.
About 2,300 years ago the east face of the volcano collapsed and lahars flowed down to the Gotemba area as far as the Ashigara plain in the east and the Suruga bay across Mishima city in the south. This incident is now called the Gotemba mud flow (御殿場 泥 流, Gotemba deiryū). Liquid mud piled up over an area as wide as the city area of Mishima.
In 864 (the 6th year of the Jōgan era) there was an eruption on the north - east side of Mount Fuji, which produced a great amount of lava.
The latest eruption, in 1707 (the 4th year of the Hōei era), was known as the great Hōei eruption. It followed several weeks after the Great Hōei earthquake, an 8.7 in the Richter scale. The earthquake severely damaged the city of Osaka, but more than that, it created enough seismic activity to compress the magma chamber 20 km deep in the inactive Mt. Fuji. Due to the compression of the magma chamber, basaltic lava rose from the bottom to the higher dacitic magma chamber at 8 km deep. The mixing of the two different types of magma caused a Plinian eruption to occur. Previous to the Hoei, another earthquake named Genroku had struck Japan in 1703. The earthquake affected both Kanagawa and Shizuoka prefectures; Genroku was measured as an 8.2 in the Richter Scale, it caused the same effect as Hoei but with less severity. It clamped the dike of the mountain at 8 km to the surface (where the dacitic magma resides), as well as the basaltic chamber at 20 km deep. Many articles find a correlation between the two earthquakes, getting to the conclusion that without one another the Hoei eruption would 've not happened.
Sixteen eruptions of New Fuji have been recorded since 781. Many of the eruptions occurred in the Heian era, with twelve eruptions between 800 and 1083. Sometimes inactive periods between eruptions lasted for hundreds of years, as in the period between 1083 and 1511, when no eruptions were recorded for over 400 years. At present, there have been no eruptions since the Hoei eruption in 1707 -- 1708, around 300 years ago.
Scientists study the activity of the magma rising by measuring CO emissions in the deeper parts of the volcano. Studies from before the Tohoku earthquake show the CO emissions below 5 gCO / m / day, which is the detection limit. If the emissions rise above 5 gCO / m / day then seismic activity is occurring and an eruption could possibly take place. According to a five - stage evolutionary model for the release of volcanic gas, Mt. Fuji would be considered stage I. Magma is at a considerable 10 km (6.2 mi) depth and no emissions of gasses can be observed regularly.
Following the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami much attention was given to the volcanic reaction of Mt. Fuji. Experts have found that the internal pressure of the Mt. Fuji magma chamber has increased to an estimated 1.6 megapascals, raising speculation over the possibility of an eruption. The estimated damage to Japan from a Fuji eruption is at ¥ 2.5 trillion ($25 billion).
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who played the voice of ducky in the land before time | Judith Barsi - wikipedia
Judith Eva Barsi (June 6, 1978 -- July 25, 1988) was an American child actress in the mid - to late 1980s. She began her career in television, making appearances in commercials and television shows, and later appeared in the films Jaws: The Revenge, The Land Before Time, and All Dogs Go to Heaven, supplying the voice for animated characters in the latter two. She and her mother, Maria, were both killed in July 1988 as a result of a double murder -- suicide perpetrated by her father, József.
Her father, József Barsi, fled Communist Hungary after the 1956 Soviet occupation. He relocated to New York in 1964, and then to California, where he met Maria Virovacz, also a Hungarian immigrant escaping the Soviet occupation. They married and Judith 's birth quickly followed in Los Angeles, California, on June 6, 1978, where she was raised.
Maria began grooming Judith to become an actress, and at the age of five, she was discovered at a skating rink. Barsi 's first role was in Fatal Vision, playing the three - year - old Kimberley MacDonald. She went on to appear in more than 70 commercials and guest roles on television. As well as her career in television, she appeared in several films including Jaws: The Revenge as Thea Brody and provided the voices of Ducky in The Land Before Time, and Anne - Marie in All Dogs Go to Heaven.
By the time she started fourth grade, Judith was earning an estimated $100,000 a year, which helped her family buy a three - bedroom house in West Hills, Los Angeles. As she was short for her age (she stood 3 ft 8 in (1.12 m) at age 10), she began receiving hormone injections at UCLA to encourage her growth. Her petiteness led casting directors to cast her as children that were younger than her actual age. Her agent was quoted in The Los Angeles Times as saying that when she was ten, "she was still playing 7, 8. ''
As Judith 's career success increased, József became increasingly angry and would routinely threaten to kill himself, Maria, and Judith. His alcoholism worsened, causing the police to arrest him three separate times for drunk driving. In December 1986, Maria reported his threats and physical violence toward her to the police. After police found no physical signs of abuse, she decided not to press charges against him.
After the incident with police, József reportedly stopped drinking, but again he continued to threaten Maria and Judith. His various threats included cutting their throats as well as burning down the house. He reportedly hid a telegram informing Maria that a relative in Hungary had died, in an attempt to prevent her and Judith from leaving America. Physical violence continued, with Judith telling a friend that her father threw pots and pans at her, resulting in a nosebleed. As a result of his abuse, Judith began putting on weight and exhibited disturbing behavior, which included plucking out all her eyelashes and pulling out her cat 's whiskers. After breaking down in front of her agent during a singing audition for All Dogs Go to Heaven, she was taken by Maria to a child psychologist, who identified severe physical and emotional abuse and reported her findings to Child Protective Services.
The investigation was dropped after Maria assured the case worker that she intended to begin divorce proceedings against József and that she and Judith were going to move into a Panorama City apartment she had recently rented as a daytime haven from him. Friends urged her to follow through with the plan, but she resisted, reportedly because she was afraid that she would lose the family home and belongings.
Judith was last seen riding her bike on the morning of July 25, 1988. That evening, József shot her in the head while she was sleeping, and then murdered Maria. He spent the next two days wandering around the house, and said during a phone conversation with Judith 's agent the next night that he intended to move out for good, and just needed time to "say goodbye to my little girl. '' He then poured gasoline on the bodies and set them on fire. After incinerating the bodies, he went to the garage and shot himself in the head with a. 32 caliber pistol. On August 9, 1988, Judith and Maria were interred at the Forest Lawn Memorial Park in Los Angeles.
Judith 's final film, All Dogs Go to Heaven, in which she provided the speaking voice of Anne - Marie, was released in November 1989. Don Bluth, the director of The Land Before Time and All Dogs Go To Heaven, described her as "absolutely astonishing. She understood verbal direction, even for the most sophisticated situations, '' and he intended to feature her extensively in his future productions. The end credits song "Love Survives '' was dedicated in her memory.
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advantage in chambers about part of somerset crossword clue | Cryptic crossword - wikipedia
A cryptic crossword is a crossword puzzle in which each clue is a word puzzle in and of itself. Cryptic crosswords are particularly popular in the United Kingdom, where they originated, Ireland, Israel, the Netherlands, and in several Commonwealth nations, including Australia, Canada, India, Kenya, Malta, New Zealand, and South Africa. In the United States, cryptics are sometimes known as "British - style '' crosswords. Compilers of cryptic crosswords are commonly called "setters '' in the UK.
Cryptic crossword puzzles come in two main types: the basic cryptic in which each clue answer is entered into the diagram normally, and "themed '' or "variety '' cryptics, in which some or all of the answers must be altered before entering, usually in accordance with a hidden pattern or rule which must be discovered by the solver.
The history of cryptic crosswords started in the UK. The first British crossword puzzles appeared around 1923 and were purely definitional, but from the mid-1920s they began to include cryptic material: not cryptic clues in the modern sense, but anagrams, classical allusions, incomplete quotations, and other references and wordplay. Torquemada (Edward Powys Mathers), who set for The Saturday Westminster from 1925 and for The Observer from 1926 until his death in 1939, was the first setter to use cryptic clues exclusively and is often credited as the inventor of the cryptic crossword.
The first newspaper crosswords appeared in the Sunday and Daily Express from about 1924. Crosswords were gradually taken up by other newspapers, appearing in the Daily Telegraph from 1925, The Manchester Guardian from 1929 and The Times from 1930. These newspaper puzzles were almost entirely non-cryptic at first and gradually used more cryptic clues, until the fully cryptic puzzle as known today became widespread. In some papers this took until about 1960.
Puzzles appeared in The Listener from 1930, but this was a weekly magazine rather than a newspaper, and the puzzles were much harder than the newspaper ones, though again they took a while to become entirely cryptic.
Torquemada 's puzzles were extremely obscure and difficult, and later setters reacted against this tendency by developing a standard for fair clues, ones that can be solved, at least in principle, by deduction, without needing leaps of faith or insights into the setter 's thought processes.
The basic principle of fairness was set out by Listener setter Afrit (Alistair Ferguson Ritchie) in his book Armchair Crosswords (1946), wherein he credits it to the fictional Book of the Crossword:
An example of a clue which can not logically be taken the right way:
Here the composer intends the answer to be "derby '', with "hat '' the definition, "could be '' the anagram indicator, and "be dry '' the anagram fodder. But "be '' is doing double duty, and this means that any attempt to read the clue cryptically in the form "(definition) (anagram indicator) (fodder) '' fails: if "be '' is part of the anagram indicator, then the fodder is too short, but if it is part of the fodder, there is no anagram indicator; to be a correct clue it would have to be "Hat could be be dry (5) '', which is ungrammatical. A variation might read Hat turns out to be dry (5), but this also fails because the word "to '', which is necessary to make the sentence grammatical, follows the indicator ("turns out '') even though it is not part of the anagram indicated.
Torquemada 's successor at The Observer was Ximenes (Derrick Somerset Macnutt, 1902 -- 1971), and in his influential work, Ximenes on the Art of the Crossword Puzzle (1966), he set out more detailed guidelines for setting fair cryptic clues, now known as "Ximenean principles '' and sometimes described by the word "square - dealing ''. The most important of them are tersely summed up by Ximenes ' successor Azed (Jonathan Crowther, born 1942):
The Ximenean principles are adhered to most strictly in the subgenre of "advanced cryptics '' -- difficult puzzles using barred grids and a large vocabulary. Easier puzzles often have more relaxed standards, permitting a wider array of clue types, and allowing a little flexibility. The popular Guardian setter Araucaria (John Galbraith Graham, 1921 -- 2013) was a noted non-Ximenean, celebrated for his witty, if occasionally unorthodox, clues.
Most of the major national newspapers in the UK carry both cryptic and concise (quick) crosswords. The puzzle in The Guardian is well loved for its humour and quirkiness, and quite often includes puzzles with themes, which are extremely rare in The Times. The Independent puzzle also includes themes quite often. However, with its larger circulation, The Telegraph version is probably the most attempted.
Many Canadian newspapers, including the Ottawa Citizen, Toronto Star and the Globe and Mail, carry cryptic crosswords.
Cryptic crosswords do not commonly appear in U.S. publications, although they can be found in magazines such as GAMES Magazine, The Nation, Harper 's, and occasionally in the Sunday New York Times. The New York Post reprints cryptic crosswords from The Times. Other sources of cryptic crosswords in the U.S. (at various difficulty levels) are puzzle books, as well as UK and Canadian newspapers distributed in the U.S. Other venues include the Enigma, the magazine of the National Puzzlers ' League, and formerly, The Atlantic Monthly. The latter puzzle, after a long and distinguished run, appeared solely on The Atlantic 's website for several years, and ended with the October 2009 issue. A similar puzzle by the same authors now appears monthly in The Wall Street Journal.
Cryptic crosswords are very popular in Australia. Most Australian newspapers will have at least one cryptic crossword, if not two. The Sydney Morning Herald and Melbourne 's The Age carry daily cryptic crosswords, including Friday 's challenging cryptic by ' DA ', composed by David Astle. The Australian puzzle publishers "Lovatts '' regularly puts out cryptic crossword puzzle books.
In essence, a cryptic clue leads to its answer as long as it is read in the right way. What the clue appears to say when read normally (the surface reading) is a distraction and usually has nothing to do with the clue answer. The challenge is to find the way of reading the clue that leads to the solution.
A typical clue consists of two parts, the definition and the wordplay. It provides two ways of getting to the answer. The definition, which usually exactly matches the part of speech, tense, and number of the answer, is in essence the same as any ' straight ' crossword clue, a synonym for the answer. It usually appears at the start or the end of a clue.
The other part (the subsidiary indication, or wordplay) provides an alternative route to the answer (this part would be a second definition in the case of double definition clues). One of the tasks of the solver is to find the boundary between definition and wordplay and insert a mental pause there when reading the clue cryptically. This wordplay gives the solver some instructions on how to get to the answer another way. (Sometimes the two parts are joined with a link word or phrase such as "from '', "gives '' or "could be ''.)
There are many sorts of wordplay, such as anagrams and double definitions, but they all conform to rules. The crossword setters do their best to stick to these rules when writing their clues, and solvers can use these rules and conventions to help them solve the clues. Noted cryptic setter Derrick Somerset Macnutt (who wrote cryptics under the pseudonym of Ximenes) discusses the importance and art of fair cluemanship in his seminal book on cryptic crosswords, Ximenes on the Art of the Crossword (1966, reprinted 2001).
Because a typical cryptic clue describes its answer in detail and often more than once, the solver can usually have a great deal of confidence in the answer once it has been determined. The clues are ' self - checking '. This is in contrast to non-cryptic crossword clues which often have several possible answers and force the solver to use the crossing letters to distinguish which was intended.
Here is an example (taken from The Guardian crossword of 6 August 2002, set by "Shed '').
is a clue for TRAGICAL. This breaks down as follows.
There are many "code words '' or "indicators '' that have a special meaning in the cryptic crossword context. (In the example above, "about '', "unfinished '' and "rising '' all fall into this category). Learning these, or being able to spot them, is a useful and necessary part of becoming a skilled cryptic crossword solver.
Compilers or setters often use slang terms and abbreviations, generally without indication, so familiarity with these is important for the solver. Abbreviations may be as simple as ' west ' = W, ' New York ' = NY, but may also be more difficult. Words that can mean more than one thing are commonly exploited; often the meaning the solver must use is completely different from the one it appears to have in the clue. Some examples are:
Of these examples, "flower '' is an invented meaning by back - formation from the - er suffix, which can not be confirmed in a standard dictionary. A similar trick is played in the old clue "A wicked thing '' for CANDLE, where the - ed suffix must be understood in its "equipped with a... '' meaning. In the case of the - er suffix, this trick could be played with other meanings of the suffix, but except for river → BANKER (a river is not a ' thing that banks ' but a ' thing that has banks '), this is rarely done.
Sometimes "compiler '', or the name or codename of the compiler (if visible by the crossword), codes for some form of the pronoun "I, me, my, mine ''.
In the Daily Telegraph back page, Monday 15 March 2017, 7 down, is "Banish spirits with zero ice upsetting imbibing times (8) ''; the answer is EXORCIZE: it means "banish spirits '', and is "zero ice '' rearranged, including ' x ' (described as "times '').
A typical cryptic crossword grid is generally 15 × 15, with half - turn rotational symmetry. Unlike typical American crosswords, in which every square is almost always checked (that is, each square provides a letter for both an across and a down answer), only about half of the squares in a cryptic crossword are checked.
In most daily newspaper cryptic crosswords, grid designs are restricted to a set of stock grids. In the past this was because hot metal typesetting meant that new grids were expensive.
Some papers have additional grid rules. In The Times, for example, all words have at least half the letters checked, and although words can have two unchecked squares in succession, they can not be the first two or last two letters of a word. The grid shown here breaks one Times grid rule: the 15 - letter words at 9 and 24 across each have 8 letters unchecked out of 15. The Independent allows setters to use their own grid designs.
Variety (UK: "advanced '') cryptic crosswords typically use a "barred grid '' with no black squares and a slightly smaller size; 12 × 12 is typical. Word boundaries are denoted by thick lines called "bars ''. In these variety puzzles, one or more clues may require modification to fit into the grid, such as dropping or adding a letter, or being anagrammed to fit other, unmodified clues; unclued spaces may spell out a secret message appropriate for the puzzle theme once the puzzle is fully solved. The solver also may need to determine where answers fit into the grid.
A July 2006 "Puzzlecraft '' section in Games magazine on cryptic crossword construction noted that for cryptic crosswords to be readily solvable, no fewer than half the letters for every word should be checked by another word for a standard cryptic crossword, while nearly every letter should be checked for a variety cryptic crossword. In most UK "advanced cryptics '' (' variety cryptic '), at least three - quarters of the letters in each word are checked.
There are notable differences between British and North American (including Canadian) cryptics. American cryptics are thought of as holding to a more rigid set of construction rules than British ones. American cryptics usually require all words in a clue to be used in service of the wordplay or definition, whereas British ones allow for more extraneous or supporting words. In American cryptics, a clue is only allowed to have one subsidiary indication, but in British cryptics the occasional clue may have more than one; e.g., a triple definition clue would be considered an amusing variation in the UK but unsound in the US.
For the most part, cryptic crosswords are an English - language phenomenon, although similar puzzles are popular in a Hebrew form in Israel (where they are called tashbetsey higayon (תשבצי הגיון) "Logic crosswords '') and (as Cryptogrammen) in Dutch. In Poland similar crosswords are called "Hetman crosswords ''. ' Hetman ', a senior commander, and also the name for a queen in Chess, emphasises their importance over other crosswords. In Finnish, this type of crossword puzzle is known as piilosana (literally "hidden word ''), while krypto refers to a crossword puzzle where the letters have been coded as numbers. The German ZEITmagazin has a weekly cryptic crossword called Um die Ecke gedacht and the SZ Magazin features das Kreuz mit den Worten.
In India the Telugu publication Sakshi carries a "Tenglish '' (Telugu - English, bilingual) cryptic crossword; the Prajavani crossword (Kannada) also employs cryptic wordplay. Enthusiasts have also created cryptic crosswords in Hindi. Since 1994, enigmista Ennio Peres has challenged Italians annually with Il cruciverba più difficile del mondo (The World 's Most Difficult Crossword), which has many features in common with English - style cryptics.
In Chinese something similar is the riddle of Chinese characters, where partial characters instead of substrings are clued and combined.
Clues given to the solver are based on various forms of wordplay. Nearly every clue has two non-overlapping parts to it: one part that provides an unmodified but often indirect definition for the word or phrase, and a second part that includes the wordplay involved. In a few cases, the two definitions are one and the same, as often in the case of "& lit. '' clues. Most cryptic crosswords provide the number of letters in the answer, or in the case of phrases, a series of numbers to denote the letters in each word: "cryptic crossword '' would be clued with "(7, 9) '' following the clue. More advanced puzzles may drop this portion of the clue.
An anagram is a rearrangement of a certain section of the clue to form the answer. This is usually indicated by words such as "strange '', "bizarre '', "muddled '', "wild '', "drunk '', or any other term indicating change. One example:
gives ESCORT, which means chaperone and is an anagram of corset, indicated by the word shredded.
Anagram clues are characterized by an indicator word adjacent to a phrase that has the same number of letters as the answer. The indicator tells the solver that there is an anagram they need to solve to work out the answer. Indicators come either before or after the letters to be anagrammed. In an American cryptic, only the words given in the clue may be anagrammed; in some older puzzles, the words to be anagrammed may be clued and then anagrammed. So in this clue:
Chew is the anagram indicator; honeydew clues melon, which is to be anagrammed; and fruit is the definition for the answer, LEMON. This kind of clue is called an indirect anagram, which in the vast majority of cryptic crosswords are not used, ever since they were criticised by ' Ximenes ' in his 1966 book On the Art of the Crossword. Minor exception: simple abbreviations may be used to spice up the process; e.g., "Husband, a most eccentric fellow '' (6) for THOMAS, where the anagram is made from A, MOST, and H = husband.
Anagram indicators, among the thousands possible, include: about, abstract, absurd, adapted, adjusted, again, alien, alternative, anew, another, around, arranged, assembled, assorted, at sea, awful, awkward, bad, barmy, becomes, blend, blow, break, brew, build, careless, changed, chaotic, characters, clumsy, composed, confused, contrived, convert, cooked, corrupt, could be, crazy, damaged, dancing, designed, develop, different, disorderly, disturbed, doctor, eccentric, edited, engineer, fabricate, fake, fancy, faulty, fiddled, fix, foolish, form, free, fudge, gives, ground, hammer, haywire, hybrid, improper, in a tizzy, involved, irregular, jostle, jumbled, jumping, kind of, knead, letters, loose, made, managed, maybe, messy, mistaken, mix, modified, moving, muddled, mutant, new, novel, odd, off, order, organised, otherwise, out, outrageous, peculiar, perhaps, playing, poor, possible, prepared, produced, queer, questionable, random, reform, remodel, repair, resort, rough, shaken, shifting, silly, sloppy, smashed, somehow, sort, spoilt, strange, style, switch, tangled, treated, tricky, troubled, turning, twist, unconventional, undone, unsettled, unsound, untidy, unusual, upset, used, vary, version, warped, wayward, weird, wild, working, wrecked, wrong.
It is common for the setter to use a juxtaposition of anagram indicator and anagram that form a common phrase to make the clue appear as much like a ' normal ' sentence or phrase as possible. For example:
uses dancing as the indicator as it fits cohesively with lap to give the solution, PAL.
Here the answer is formed by joining individually clued words to make a larger word (namely, the answer).
For example:
The answer is BANKING formed by BAN for "outlaw '' and KING for "leader ''. The definition is "managing money ''. With this example, the words appear in the same order in the clue as they do in the answer, and no special words are needed to indicate this. However, the order of the parts is sometimes indicated with words such as "against '', "after '', "on '', "with '' or "above '' (in a down clue).
A container clue puts one set of letters inside another. So:
gives PAUL ("apostle ''), by placing "pal '' ("friend '') outside of "U '' ("university '').
Other container indicators are "inside '', "over '', "around '', "about '', "clutching '', "enters '', and the like.
Deletions consist of beheadments, curtailments, and internal deletions. In beheadments, a word loses its first letter. In curtailments, it loses its last letter, and internal deletions remove an inner letter, such as the middle one.
An example of a beheadment:
The answer would be TAR, another word for "sailor '', which is a "celebrity '', or star, without the first letter.
Other indicator words of beheadment include "do n't start '', "topless '', and "after the first ''.
An example of curtailment:
The answer is BOO. If you ignore the punctuation, a book is a "read '', and book "endlessly '' is boo, a "shout ''.
Other indicators include "nearly '' and "unfinished ''.
An example of internal deletion:
The answer is DARING, which means "challenging '', and is darling without its middle letter, or "heartlessly ''.
Note that "sweetheart '' could also be simply "wee '' or the letter "E '', that is, the "heart '' (middle) of "sweet ''.
A clue may, rather than having a definition part and a wordplay part, have two definition parts. Thus:
would have the answer BLIND, because blind can mean both "not seeing '' and "window covering ''. Note that since these definitions come from the same root word, an American magazine might not allow this clue. American double definitions tend to require both parts to come from different roots, as in this clue:
This takes advantage of the two very different meanings (and pronunciations) of POLISH, the one with the long "o '' sound meaning "someone from Poland '' and the one with the short "o '' sound meaning "make shiny ''.
These clues tend to be short; in particular, two - word clues are almost always double - definition clues.
In the UK, multiple definitions are occasionally used; e.g.:
is a quintuple definition of DOWN ("blue '' (sad), "swallow '' (drink), "feathers '' (plumage), "fell '' (cut down) and "from above ''), but in the US this would be considered unsound.
Some British newspapers have an affection for quirky clues of this kind where the two definitions are similar:
Note that these clues do not have clear indicator words.
When the answer appears in the clue but is contained within one or more words, it is hidden. For example:
gives UNDERMINED, which means (cryptically at least) "damaged '' and can be found as part of "Found ermine deer ''. The word "hides '' is used to mean "contains, '' but in the surface sense suggests "pelts ''. A complication is that "damaged '' often (but not in this clue) means "rearrange the letters ''.
Possible indicators of a hidden clue are "in part '', "partially '', "in '', "within '', "hides '', "conceals '', "some '', and "held by ''.
Another example:
gives DOG, which is the first part of, or "introduction to '', the word "do - gooder '', and means "canine ''. Hidden words clues are sometimes called "Embedded words '' or "Telescopic clues ''. The opposite of a hidden word clue, where letters missing from a sentence have to be found, is known as a Printer 's Devilry, and appears in some advanced cryptics.
There are several common techniques used in Hidden Word clues.
The first letters of part of the clue are put together to give the answer.
An example of an initialism:
The answer would be APE, which is a type of primate. "Initially '' signals that you must take the first letters of "amiable person eats '' -- "ape ''.
Another example would be:
The answer would be ANNIE, the name of a famous orphan in musical theatre. This is obtained from the first letters of "actor needing new identity emulates ''.
Words that indicate initialisms also include "firstly '' and "to start ''.
It is possible to have initialisms just for certain parts of the clue. It is also possible to employ the same technique to the end of words. For example:
The answer would be DAHOMEY, which used to be a kingdom in Africa (an "old country ''). Here, we take the first letters of only the words "Head Office '' (ho) and we take the "end '' of the word "day '' (y). The letters of the word "dame '', meaning "lady '', are then made to go around the letters "ho '' to form Dahomey.
Either the odd or even letters of words in the clue give the answer. An example is:
The answer would be SUFFRAGIST, which is "someone wanting women to vote ''. The word "odd '' indicates that we must take every other letter of the rest of the clue, starting with the first: StUfF oF mR wAuGh Is SeT.
Homophones are words that sound the same but have different meanings, such as "night '' and "knight ''. Homophone clues always have an indicator word or phrase that has to do with phonetics, such as "reportedly '', "they say '', "utterly '' (here treated as "utter (ing) - ly '' and not with its usual meaning), "vocal '', "to the audience '', "auditioned '', "by the sound of it '', "is heard '', "in conversation '' and "on the radio ''. "Broadcast '' is a particularly devious indicator as it could indicate either a homophone or an anagram.
An example of a homophone clue is
which is a clue for PARE, which means "shave '' and is a homophone of pair, or "twins ''. The homophone is indicated by "we hear ''.
If the two words are the same length, the clue should be phrased in such a way that only one of them can be the answer. This is usually done by having the homophone indicator adjacent to the word that is not the definition; therefore, in the previous example, "we hear '' was adjacent to "twins '' and the answer was pare rather than pair. The indicator could come between the words if they were of different lengths and the enumeration was given, such as in the case of "right '' and "rite ''.
A word that gets turned around to make another is a reversal. For example:
The answer is REGAL. "Lager '' (i.e., "beer '') is "returned '' to make regal.
Other indicator words include "receding '', "in the mirror '', "going the wrong way '', "returns '', "reverses '' "to the left '' or "left '' (for across clues), and "rising '', "overturned '' or "mounted '' or "comes up '' (for down clues).
Here the clue appears to say one thing, but with a slight shift of viewpoint it says another. For example:
gives THAMES, a flow - er of London. Here, the surface reading suggests a blossom, which disguises the fact that the name of a river is required. Notice the question mark: this is often (though by no means always) used by compilers to indicate this sort of clue is one where you need to interpret the words in a different fashion. The way that a clue reads as an ordinary sentence is called its surface reading and is often used to disguise the need for a different interpretation of the clue 's component words.
This type of clue is common in British and Canadian cryptics but is a bit less common in American cryptics; in American - style crosswords, a clue like this is generally called a punny clue. It 's almost certainly the oldest kind of cryptic clue: cryptic definitions appeared in the UK newspaper puzzles in the late 1920s and early 1930s that mixed cryptic and plain definition clues and evolved into fully cryptic crosswords.
A very uncommon clue type, a Spoonerism is a play on words where corresponding morphemes are switched between two words in a phrase (or syllables in a word) and the switch forms another pair of proper sounding words. For example: "butterfly '' = "flutter by ''.
Both the solution word or phrase and its corresponding Spoonerism are clued for, and the clue type is almost always indicated by reference to Spooner himself -- with some regions / publications insisting his religious title "Rev. '' or "Reverend '' be included. In contrast to all other clue types, this makes them almost impossible to disguise. But that does n't necessarily make them easy.
An example of a Spoonerism clue is:
The answer is LITTERBUG (He will casually put down). The Spoonerism being "bitter '' (angry) and "lug '' (bear, as in carry).
The vast majority of Spoonerism clues swap the first consonants of words or syllables, but Spoonerisms are not strictly restricted to that form and some setters will take advantage of this. John Henderson (Enigmatist in the Guardian) once clued for the Spoonerism "light crick '' from "right click '', which did n't sit well with many solvers.
An "&lit. '' or "Literal '' clue is not a clue type, but, rather a variant on an existing clue. "&lit '' stands for "and literally so ''. In this case, the entire clue is both a definition and a cryptic clue. In some publications &lit clues are indicated by an exclamation mark at the end of the clue. For example:
The answer is ODIN. The Norse god Odin is hidden in "god incarnate '', as clued by "essentially '', but the definition of Odin is also the whole clue, as Odin is essentially a God incarnate.
This satisfies the "& lit. '' clue definition but as read is clearly a cryptic clue. Another example:
would give the answer VETO; in the cryptic sense, spoil works as an anagram indicator for vote, while the whole clue is, with a certain amount of licence allowed to crossword setters, a definition.
Another example:
gives the answer EGG. Geese find their origins in eggs, so the whole clue gives "egg '', but the clue can also be broken down: e.g., loses its full stops to give eg, followed by the first letter (i.e., the "origin '') of the word goose -- g -- to make egg.
Daily Telegraph Tuesday 22 April 2014 has: "Dog in wild? Yes! (5) ''; the answer is DINGO. "Dog in wild '' means "rearrange the letters of "DOG IN '', and is the definition.
It is very common for a clue to employ more than one method of wordplay. For example:
The answer is HONORABLE. "Baron '' "returns '', or is reversed, and put inside "pit '' or hole, to make honorable, or "illustrious ''.
In this example, the clue uses a combination of Reversal and Hidden clue types:
The answer to this clue is ROTTEN. The phrase "to turn '' indicates "to reverse, '' and "part of '' suggests a piece of "Internet torrid ''.
To make clues more difficult, cryptic constructors will frequently use traditional indicator words in a misleading manner.
Abbreviations are popular with crossword compilers for cluing individual letters or short sections of the answer. Consider this clue:
About to come between little Desmond and worker for discourse (7)
Compilers use many of these crossword abbreviations.
Another type of abbreviation in clues might be words that refer to letters. For example, ' you ' refers to the letter U, ' why ' refers to the letter Y, etc. A clue for instance:
There are many ways in which constructors can clue a part of a clue. In this clue:
Exclamation of surprise about spectacles, from the top (3)
Often, Roman numerals are used to break down words into their component letter groups. E.g. In this clue:
A team 's first supporter is pivotal (4)
In a cryptic crossword in the British newspaper Daily Telegraph (20 April 2017), the clue "Irritating proverb we 're told (4) (SORE = "saw '') depends on a homophony which only happens in British arhotic pronunciation.
Cryptic clue styles across newspapers are ostensibly similar, but there are technical differences which result in the work of setters being regarded as either Ximenean or Libertarian (and often a combination of both).
Ximenean rules are very precise in terms of grammar and syntax, especially as regards the indicators used for various methods of wordplay. Libertarian setters may use devices which "more or less '' get the message across. For example, when treating the answer BEER the setter may decide to split the word into BEE and R and, after finding suitable ways to define the answer and BEE, now looks to give the solver a clue to the letter R. Ximenean rules would not allow something like "reach first '' to indicate that R is the first letter of "reach '' because, grammatically, that is not what "reach first '' implies. Instead, a phrase along the lines of "first to reach '' would be needed as this conforms to rules of grammar. Many Libertarian crossword editors would, however, accept "reach first '' as it would be considered to reasonably get the idea across. For instance, a clue following Ximenian rules for BEER (BEE + R) may look as such:
While a clue following Libertarian rules may look as follows:
The Guardian is perhaps the most Libertarian of cryptic crosswords, while The Times is mostly Ximenean. The others tend to be somewhere in between; the Financial Times and Independent tend towards Ximenean, the Daily Telegraph also -- although its Toughie crossword can take a very Libertarian approach depending on the setter. None of the major daily cryptics in the UK is "strictly Ximenean ''; all allow clues which are just cryptic definitions, and strict Ximenean rules exclude such clues. There are other differences like nounal anagram indicators and in current Times crosswords, unindicated definition by example: "bay '' in the clue indicating HORSE in the answer, without a qualification like "bay, perhaps ''.
In terms of difficulty, Libertarian clues can seem impenetrable to inexperienced solvers. However, more significant is the setter him / herself. Crosswords in the Times and Daily Telegraph are published anonymously, so the crossword editor ensures that clues adhere to a consistent house style. Inevitably each setter has an individual (and often very recognisable) approach to clue - writing, but the way in which wordplay devices are used and indicated is kept within a defined set of rules.
In the Guardian, Independent, Financial Times and Telegraph Toughie series the setters ' pseudonyms are published, so solvers become familiar with the styles of individual setters rather than house rules. Thus the level of difficulty is associated with the setter rather than the newspaper, though puzzles by individual setters can actually vary in difficulty considerably.
It is effectively impossible, then, to describe one newspaper 's crosswords as the toughest or easiest. For newcomers to cryptic puzzles the Daily Telegraph is often regarded as an ideal starting point, but this is contentious. Since all of the newspapers have different styles, concentrating on one of them is likely to lead to proficiency in only one style of clue - writing; moving to a different series, after perhaps years spent with just one, can leave the solver feeling as if they have gone back to square one. The better technique is to simply attempt as many different crosswords as possible, perhaps to find a "comfort zone '' but, more importantly, to experience the widest possible range of Ximenean / Libertarian styles.
In Britain it is traditional -- dating from the cryptic crossword pioneer Edward (Bill) Powys Mathers (1892 -- 1939), who called himself "Torquemada '' after the Spanish Inquisitor -- for compilers to use evocative pseudonyms. "Crispa '', named from the Latin for "curly - headed '', who set crosswords for the Guardian from 1954 until her retirement in 2004, legally changed her surname to "Crisp '' after divorcing in the 1970s. Some pseudonyms have obvious connotations: for example, Torquemada as already described, or "Mephisto '' with fairly obvious devilish overtones. Others are chosen for logical but less obvious reasons, though "Dinmutz '' (the late Bert Danher in the Financial Times) was produced by random selection of Scrabble tiles.
Several setters appear in more than one paper. Some of these are:
x - Denotes a compiler operating without a pseudonym in this publication.
In addition, Roger Squires compiles for the Glasgow Herald and the Yorkshire Post.
Roger Squires and the late Ruth Crisp set at various times in their careers for all 5 of the broadsheets.
Research into cryptic crossword solving has been comparatively sparse. Several discrete areas have been explored: the cognitive or linguistic challenges posed by cryptic clues, the use of cryptic crosswords to preserve cognitive flexibility ("use - it - or - lose - it '') in aging populations, and expertise studies into the drivers of high performance and ability in solving cryptics.
Recent studies by Friedlander and Fine, based on a large - scale survey of 805 solvers of all ability (mainly UK - based), suggest that cryptic crossword solvers are generally highly academically able adults whose education and occupations lie predominantly in the area of scientific, mathematical or IT - related fields. This STEM connection increases significantly with level of expertise, particularly for mathematics and IT. The authors suggest that cryptic crossword skill is bound up with code - cracking and problem - solving skills of a logical and quasi-algebraic nature.
Friedlander and Fine also note that solvers are motivated predominantly by "Aha! '' moments, and intrinsic rewards such as mental challenge. Solvers voluntarily choose to engage with intellectually and culturally stimulating activities like music, theatre, reading, and the arts in their leisure time, and pursue active musical participation such as singing or playing an instrument at noticeably higher levels than the UK national average.
Cryptic crosswords often appear in British literature, and are particularly popular in murder mysteries, where they are part of the puzzle. The character Inspector Morse created by Colin Dexter is fond of solving cryptic crosswords, and the crosswords often become part of the mystery. Colin Dexter himself set crosswords for The Oxford Times for many years and was a national crossword champion. In the short story "The Fascinating Problem of Uncle Meleager 's Will '', by Dorothy L Sayers, Lord Peter Wimsey solves a crossword in order to solve the mystery. Ruth Rendell has used the device in her novel One Across and Two Down. Among non-crime writers, crosswords often feature in the works of P.G. Wodehouse, and are an important part of the book The Truth About George.
Crosswords have also featured in TV series like The Simpsons and The West Wing. They feature prominently in the 1945 British romantic drama film Brief Encounter, scripted by playwright Noël Coward, which is number two in the British Film Institute 's Top 100 British films.
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where is the mint mark on a peace dollar | Peace dollar - wikipedia
The Peace dollar is a United States dollar coin minted from 1921 to 1928, and again in 1934 and 1935. Designed by Anthony de Francisci, the coin was the result of a competition to find designs emblematic of peace. Its obverse represents the head and neck of the Goddess of Liberty in profile, and the reverse depicts a bald eagle at rest clutching an olive branch, with the legend "Peace ''. It was the last United States dollar coin to be struck for circulation in silver.
With the passage of the Pittman Act in 1918, the United States Mint was required to strike millions of silver dollars, and began to do so in 1921, using the Morgan dollar design. Numismatists began to lobby the Mint to issue a coin that memorialized the peace following World War I; although they failed to get Congress to pass a bill requiring the redesign, they were able to persuade government officials to take action. The Peace dollar was approved by Treasury Secretary Andrew Mellon in December 1921, completing the redesign of United States coinage that had begun in 1907.
The public believed the announced design, which included a broken sword, was illustrative of defeat, and the Mint hastily acted to remove the sword. The Peace dollar was first struck on December 28, 1921; just over a million were coined bearing a 1921 date. When the Pittman Act requirements were met in 1928, the mint ceased production of the coins, but more were struck during 1934 and 1935 as a result of further legislation. In 1965, the Denver mint struck over 316,000 Peace dollars dated 1964, but these were never issued, and all are believed to have been melted.
The Bland -- Allison Act, passed by Congress on February 28, 1878, required the Treasury to purchase a minimum of $2 million in domestically mined silver per month and coin it into silver dollars. The Mint used a new design by engraver George T. Morgan, and struck what became known as the Morgan dollar. Many of the pieces quickly vanished into bank vaults for use as backing for paper currency redeemable in silver coin, known as silver certificates. In 1890, the purchases required under the Bland -- Allison Act were greatly increased under the terms of the Sherman Silver Purchase Act. Although the Sherman Act was repealed in 1893, it was not until 1904 that the government struck the last of the purchased silver into dollars. Once it did, production of the coin ceased.
During World War I, the German government hoped to destabilize British rule over India by spreading rumors that the British were unable to redeem for silver all of the paper currency they had printed. These rumors, and hoarding of silver, caused the price of silver to rise and risked damaging the British war effort. The British turned to their war ally, the United States, asking to purchase silver to increase the supply and lower the price. In response, Congress passed the Pittman Act of April 23, 1918. This statute gave the United States authority to sell metal to the British government from up to 350,000,000 silver dollars at $1 per ounce of silver plus the value of the copper in the coins, and handling and transportation fees. Only 270,232,722 coins were melted for sale to the British, but this represented 47 % of all Morgan dollars struck to that point. The Treasury was required by the terms of the Act to strike new silver dollars to replace the coins that were melted, and to strike them from silver purchased from American mining companies.
It is uncertain who originated the idea for a US coin to commemorate the peace following World War I; the genesis is usually traced to an article by Frank Duffield published in the November 1918 issue of The Numismatist. Duffield suggested that a victory coin should be "issued in such quantities it will never become rare ''. In August 1920, a paper by numismatist Farran Zerbe was read to that year 's American Numismatic Association (ANA) convention in Chicago. In the paper, entitled Commemorate the Peace with a Coin for Circulation, Zerbe called for the issuance of a coin to celebrate peace, stating,
I do not want to be misunderstood as favoring the silver dollar for the Peace Coin, but if coinage of silver dollars is to be resumed in the immediate future, a new design is probable and desirable, bullion for the purpose is being provided, law for the coinage exists and limitation of the quantity is fixed -- all factors that help pave the way for Peace Coin advocates. And then -- we gave our silver dollars to help win the war, we restore them in commemoration of victory and peace.
Zerbe 's proposal led to the appointment of a committee to transmit the proposal to Congress and urge its adoption. According to numismatic historian Walter Breen, "Apparently, this was the first time that a coin collector ever wielded enough political clout to influence not only the Bureau of the Mint, but Congress as well. '' The committee included noted coin collector and Congressman William A. Ashbrook (Democrat -- Ohio), who had chaired the House Committee on Coinage, Weights, and Measures until the Republicans gained control following the 1918 elections.
Ashbrook was defeated for re-election in the 1920 elections; at that time congressional terms did not end until March 4 of the following year. He was friendly with the new committee chairman Albert Henry Vestal (Republican -- Indiana), and persuaded him to schedule a hearing on the peace coin proposal for December 14, 1920. Though no bill was put before it, the committee heard from the ANA delegates, discussed the matter, and favored the use of the silver dollar, which as a large coin had the most room for an artistic design. The committee took no immediate action; in March 1921, after the Harding administration took office, Vestal met with the new Secretary of the Treasury, Andrew W. Mellon, and Mint Director Raymond T. Baker about the matter, finding them supportive so long as the redesign involved no expense.
On May 9, 1921, striking of the Morgan dollar resumed at the Philadelphia Mint under the recoinage called for by the Pittman Act. The same day, Congressman Vestal introduced the Peace dollar authorization bill as a joint resolution. Vestal placed his bill on the Unanimous Consent Calendar, but Congress adjourned for a lengthy recess without taking any action. When Congress returned, Vestal asked for unanimous consent that the bill pass on August 1, 1921. However, one representative, former Republican leader James R. Mann (Illinois) objected, and numismatic historian Roger Burdette suggests that Mann 's stature in the House ensured that the bill would not pass. Nevertheless, Vestal met with the ANA and told them that he hoped Congress would reconsider when it met again in December 1921.
Sometime after the December 1920 hearing requested by the ANA, the chairman of the U.S. Commission of Fine Arts, Charles Moore, became aware of the proposed congressional action, and decided to investigate. Moore, together with Commission member and Buffalo nickel designer James Earle Fraser, met with Mint Director Baker on May 26, 1921, and they agreed that it would be appropriate to hold a design competition for the proposed dollar, under the auspices of the Commission. This was formalized on July 26 with the Commission 's written recommendation to the Mint that a competition, open only to invited sculptors, be used to select designs. The winner of the competition was to receive $1,500 prize money, while all other participants would be given $100. On July 28, President Harding issued Executive Order 3524, requiring that coin designs be submitted to the Commission before approval by the Treasury Secretary. In early September, following the failure of the bill, Baker contacted Moore, putting the matter aside pending congressional action.
By November, proponents of the peace coin had realized that congressional approval was not necessary -- as the Morgan dollar had been struck for more than 25 years, it was eligible for replacement at the discretion of the Secretary of the Treasury under an 1890 act. The Morgan design was then being used for large quantities of silver dollars as the Mint struck replacements for the melted coins under the Pittman Act. Though Congress had not yet convened, Baker contacted Fraser in early November to discuss details of the design competition. According to Burdette, Baker 's newfound enthusiasm came from the fact that President Harding was about to formally declare an end to the war with Germany -- a declaration needed because the US had not ratified the Treaty of Versailles. In addition, the Washington Conference on disarmament, for which the administration had great hopes, was soon to convene. On November 19, Fraser notified competition participants by personal letter, sending official rules and requirements four days later, with submissions due by December 12. Competition participants included Hermon MacNeil, Victor D. Brenner, and Adolph Weinman, all of whom had designed previous U.S. coins.
The artists were instructed to depict the head of Liberty on the obverse, to be made "as beautiful and full of character as possible ''. The reverse would depict an eagle, as prescribed by the Coinage Act of 1792, but otherwise was left to the discretion of the artist. The piece also had to bear the denomination, the name of the country, "E pluribus unum '', the motto "In God We Trust '', and the word "Liberty ''.
On December 13, the commission assembled to review the submitted designs, as well as a set produced by Mint Chief Engraver Morgan at Baker 's request, and a set, unrequested, from a Mr. Folio of New York City. It is not known how the designs were displayed for the Commission. After considerable discussion among Fraser, Moore, and Herbert Adams (a sculptor and former member of the Commission), a design by Anthony de Francisci was unanimously selected.
At age 34, de Francisci was the youngest of the competitors; he was also among the least experienced in the realm of coin design. While most of the others had designed regular or commemorative coins for the Mint, de Francisci 's sole effort had been the conversion of drawings for the 1920 Maine commemorative half dollar to the finished design. De Francisci had had little discretion in that project, and later said of the work, "I do not consider it very favorably. ''
The sculptor based the obverse design of Liberty on the features of his wife, Teresa de Francisci. Due to the short length of the competition, he lacked the time to hire a model with the features he envisioned. Teresa de Francisci was born Teresa Cafarelli in Naples, Italy. In interviews, she related that when she was five years old and the steamer on which she and her family were immigrating passed the Statue of Liberty, she was fascinated by the statue, called her family over, and struck a pose in imitation. She later wrote to her brother Rocco,
You remember how I was always posing as Liberty, and how brokenhearted I was when some other little girl was selected to play the role in the patriotic exercises in school? I thought of those days often while sitting as a model for Tony 's design, and now seeing myself as Miss Liberty on the new coin, it seems like the realization of my fondest childhood dream.
Breen wrote that the radiate crown that the Liberty head bears is not dissimilar to those on certain Roman coins, but is "more explicitly intended to recall that on the Statue of Liberty ''. Anthony de Francisci recalled that he opened the window of the studio and let the wind blow on his wife 's hair as he worked. However, he did not feel that the design depicted her exclusively. He noted that "the nose, the fullness of the mouth are much like my wife 's, although the whole face has been elongated ''. De Francisci submitted two reverse designs; one showed a warlike eagle, aggressively breaking a sword; the other an eagle at rest, holding an olive branch. The latter design, which would form the basis for the reverse of the Peace dollar, recalled de Francisci 's failed entry for the Verdun City medal. The submitted obverse is almost identical to the coin as struck, excepting certain details of the face, and that the submitted design used Roman rather than Arabic numerals for the date.
Baker, de Francisci, and Moore met in Washington on December 15. At that time, Baker, who hoped to start Peace dollar production in 1921, outlined the tight schedule for this to be accomplished, and requested certain design changes. Among these was the inclusion of the broken sword from the sculptor 's alternate reverse design, to be placed under the eagle, on the mountaintop on which it stands, in addition to the olive branch. Baker approved the designs, subject to these changes. The revised designs were presented to President Harding on December 19. Harding insisted on the removal of a small feature of Liberty 's face, which seemed to him to suggest a dimple, something he did not consider suggestive of peace, and the sculptor then did so.
The Treasury announced the new design on December 19, 1921. Photographs of Baker and de Francisci examining the final plaster model appeared in newspapers, along with written descriptions of the designs, since the Treasury at that time took the position that it was illegal for photographs of a United States coin to be printed in a newspaper. Secretary Mellon gave formal approval to the design on December 20. As it would take the Mint several days to produce working dies, the first strike of the new coins was scheduled for December 29.
The new design was widely reported in newspapers, and was the source of intense public attention. A Mint press release described the reverse as "a large figure of an eagle perched on a broken sword, and clutching an olive branch bearing the word, ' peace ' ''. On December 21, the New York Herald ran a scathing editorial against the new design,
If the artist had sheathed the blade or blunted it there could be no objection. Sheathing is symbolic of peace, of course; the blunted sword implies mercy. But a broken sword carries with it only unpleasant associations.
A sword is broken when its owner has disgraced himself. It is broken when a battle is lost and breaking is the alternative to surrendering. A sword is broken when the man who wears it can no longer render allegiance to his sovereign. But America has not broken its sword. It has not been cashiered or beaten; it has not lost allegiance to itself. The blade is bright and keen and wholly dependable. It is regrettable that the artist should have made such an error in symbolism. The sword is emblematic of Justice as well as of Strength. Let not the world be deceived by this new dollar. The American effort to limit armament and to prevent war or at least reduce its horror does not mean that our sword is broken.
At the time, according to Burdette, given the traumas of the Great War, Americans were highly sensitive about their national symbols, and unwilling to allow artists any leeway in interpretation. The Mint, the Treasury, and the Fine Arts Commission began to receive large numbers of letters from the public objecting to the design. De Francisci attempted to defend his design, stating, "with the sword there is the olive branch of peace and the combination of the two renders it impossible to conceive of the sword as a symbolization of defeat ''. Baker had left Washington to visit the San Francisco Mint, a transcontinental journey of three days. Acting Mint Director Mary Margaret O'Reilly sent him a telegram on December 23, urgently seeking his approval to remove the sword from the reverse, as had been recommended by Moore and Fraser at a meeting the previous afternoon. Due to the tight timeline for 1921 strikings of the dollar, it was not possible to await Baker 's response, so on the authority of Treasury Undersecretary Seymour Parker Gilbert, who was approached by O'Reilly, the Mint proceeded with the redesign. To satisfy Harding 's executive order, the Fine Arts Commission quickly approved the change, and by the time Baker wired his approval on December 24, without being able to see the revisions, Gilbert had already approved the revised design in Secretary Mellon 's absence. A press release was issued late on December 24, stating that the broken sword which had appeared on de Francisci 's alternate reverse would not appear on the issued coin. In its December 25 edition, the Herald took full credit for the deletion of the broken sword from the coin 's design.
Farran Zerbe, whose paper to the ANA convention helped launch the dollar proposal, saw de Francisci 's defense and the press release, and suggested that the sculptor had mistakenly thought his alternate design had been approved.
The removal of the sword from the coinage hub, which had already been produced by reduction from the plaster models, was accomplished by painstaking work by Mint Chief Engraver Morgan, using extremely fine engraving tools under magnification. Morgan did the work on December 23 in the presence of de Francisci, who had been summoned to the Philadelphia Mint to ensure the work met with his approval. It was insufficient merely to remove the sword, as the rest of the design had to be adjusted. Morgan had to hide the excision; he did so by extending the olive branch, previously half - hidden by the sword, but had to remove a small length of stem that showed to the left of the eagle 's talons. Morgan also strengthened the rays, and sharpened the appearance of the eagle 's leg. The chief engraver did his work with such skill that the work on the dollar was not known for over 85 years.
On December 28, Philadelphia Mint Superintendent Freas Styer wired Baker in San Francisco, reporting the first striking of the Peace dollar. The Mint later reported that 1,006,473 pieces were struck in 1921, a rate of output for the four days remaining in the year that Burdette calls "amazing ''; he speculates that minting of 1921 Peace dollars continued into 1922. The first coin struck was to be sent to President Harding, but what became of it is something of a mystery: O'Reilly indicated that she had the coin sent to Harding, but the inventory of Harding 's estate, prepared after the President died in office less than two years later, does not mention it, nor is there any mention of the coin in Harding 's papers. Breen, in his earlier book on U.S. coins, stated that the coin was delivered to Harding by messenger on January 3, 1922, but does not state the source of his information. A few proofs of the 1921 production were struck early in the run, in both satin and matte finishes, but it is unknown exactly how many with either finish were created; numismatic historians Leroy Van Allen and A. George Mallis estimate the mintage totals at 24 of the former and five of the latter.
The Peace dollar was released into circulation on January 3, 1922. In common with all silver and copper - nickel dollar coins struck from 1840 to 1978, the Peace dollar had a diameter of 1.5 inches (38 mm), which was larger than the Mint 's subsequently struck modern dollar coins. Its issuance completed the redesign of United States coinage that had begun with issues in 1907. Long lines formed at the Sub-Treasury Building in New York the following day when that city 's Federal Reserve Bank received a shipment; the 75,000 coins initially sent by the Mint were "practically exhausted '' by the end of the day. Rumors that the coins did not stack well were contradicted by bank cashiers, who demonstrated for The New York Times that the coins stacked about as well as the Morgan dollars. De Francisci had paid Morgan for 50 of the new dollars; on January 3, Morgan sent him the pieces. According to his wife, de Francisci had bet several people that he would lose the design competition; he used the pieces to pay off the bets and did not keep any.
According to one Philadelphia newspaper,
Liberty is getting younger. Take it from the new ' Peace Dollar, ' put in circulation yesterday, the young woman who has been adorning silver currency for many years, never looked better than in the ' cart wheel ' that the Philadelphia Mint has just started to turn out. The young lady, moreover, has lost her Greek profile. Helenic (sic) beauty seems to have been superseded by the newer ' flapper ' type.
From the start, the Mint found that excessive pressure had to be applied to fully bring out the design of the coin, and the dies broke rapidly. On January 10, 1922, O'Reilly, still serving as Acting Mint Director in Baker 's absence, ordered production halted. Dies had been sent to the Denver and San Francisco mints in anticipation of beginning coinage there; they were ordered not to begin work until the difficulties had been resolved. The Commission of Fine Arts was asked to advise what changes might solve the problems. Both Fraser and de Francisci were called to Philadelphia, and after repeated attempts to solve the problem without reducing the relief failed, de Francisci agreed to modify his design to reduce the relief. The plaster models he prepared were reduced to coin size using the Mint 's Janvier reducing lathe. However, even after 15 years of possessing the pantograph - like device, the Mint had no expert in its use on its staff, and, according to Burdette, "(h) ad a technician from Tiffany 's or Medallic Art (Company) been called in, the 1922 low relief coins might have turned out noticeably better than they did ''.
Approximately 32,400 coins on which Morgan had tried to keep a higher relief were struck in January 1922. While all were believed to have been melted, one circulated example has surfaced. Also, high relief 1922 proof dollars occasionally appear on the market and it is believed that about six to 10 of them exist. The new low - relief coins, which Fraser accepted on behalf of the Commission, though under protest, were given limited production runs in Philadelphia in early February. When the results proved satisfactory, San Francisco began striking its first Peace dollars using the low - relief design on February 13, with Denver initiating production on February 21, and Philadelphia on February 23. The three mints together struck over 84 million pieces in 1922.
The 1926 Peace dollar, from all mints, has on the obverse the word "God '', slightly boldened. The Peace dollar 's lettering tended to strike indistinctly, and Burdette suggests that the new chief engraver, John R. Sinnock (who succeeded Morgan after his 1925 death), may have begun work in the middle of the motto "In God We Trust '', and for reasons unknown, only the one word was boldened. No Mint records discuss the matter, which was not discovered until 1999.
The Peace dollar circulated mainly in the Western United States, where coins were preferred over paper money, and saw little circulation elsewhere. Aside from this use, the coins were retained in vaults as part of bank reserves. They would commonly be obtained from banks as Christmas presents, with most deposited again in January. With the last of the Pittman Act silver struck into coins in 1928, the Mint ceased production of Peace dollars.
Production resumed in 1934, due to another congressional act; this one requiring the Mint to purchase large quantities of domestic silver, a commodity whose price was at a historic low. This Act assured producers of a ready market for their product, with the Mint gaining a large profit in seigniorage, through monetizing cheaply purchased silver -- the Mint in fact paid for some shipments of silver bullion in silver dollars. Pursuant to this authorization, over seven million silver Peace dollars were struck in 1934 and 1935. Mint officials gave consideration to striking 1936 silver dollars, and in fact prepared working dies, but as there was no commercial demand for them, none were actually struck. With Mint Chief Engraver Sinnock thinking it unlikely that there would be future demand for the denomination, the master dies were ordered destroyed in January 1937.
On August 3, 1964, Congress passed legislation providing for the striking of 45,000,000 silver dollars. Silver coins, including the dollar, had become scarce due to hoarding as the price of silver rose past the point at which a silver dollar was worth more as bullion than as currency. The new coins were intended to be used at Nevada casinos and elsewhere in the West where "hard money '' was popular. Many in the numismatic press complained that the new silver dollars would only satisfy a small special interest, and would do nothing to alleviate the general coin shortage. Much of the pressure for the coins to be struck was being applied by the Senate Majority Leader, Mike Mansfield (Democrat -- Montana), who represented a state that heavily used silver dollars. Preparations for the striking proceeded at a reluctant Mint Bureau. Some working dies had survived Sinnock 's 1937 destruction order, but were found to be in poor condition, and Mint Assistant Engraver (later Chief Engraver) Frank Gasparro was authorized to produce new ones. Mint officials had also considered using the Morgan Dollar design; this idea was dropped and Gasparro replicated the Peace dollar dies. The reverse dies all bore Denver mintmarks; as the coins were slated for circulation in the West, it was deemed logical to strike them nearby.
In early 1965, Treasury Secretary C. Douglas Dillon wrote to President Lyndon Johnson, opposing the dollar and pointing out that the coins would be unlikely to circulate in Montana or anywhere else; they would simply be hoarded. Nevertheless, Dillon concluded that as Senator Mansfield insisted, the coins would have to be struck. Dillon resigned on April 1; his successor, Henry H. Fowler, was immediately questioned by Mansfield about the dollars, and he assured the senator that things would be worked out to his satisfaction. Mint Director Eva Adams hoped to avoid striking the silver dollars, but wanted to keep the $600,000 appropriated for that expense. Senator Mansfield refused to consider any cancellation or delay and on May 12, 1965, the Denver Mint began trial strikes of the 1964 - D Peace dollar -- the Mint had obtained congressional authorization to continue striking 1964 - dated coins into 1965.
The new pieces were publicly announced on May 15, 1965, and coin dealers immediately offered $7.50 each for them, ensuring that they would not circulate. The public announcement prompted a storm of objections. Both the public and many congressmen saw the issue as a poor use of Mint resources during a severe coin shortage, which would only benefit coin dealers. On May 24, one day before a hastily called congressional hearing, Adams announced that the pieces were deemed trial strikes, never intended for circulation. The Mint later stated that 316,076 dollars had been struck; all were reported melted amid heavy security. To ensure that there would be no repetition, Congress inserted a provision in the Coinage Act of 1965 forbidding the coinage of silver dollars for five years. No 1964 - D Peace dollars are known to exist in either public or private hands. Two specimens were discovered in a Treasury vault in 1970 and were destroyed, but rumors and speculation about others in illegal private possession continue to appear from time to time. The issue has also been privately restruck using unofficial dies and genuine, earlier - date Peace dollars resulting in an altered date.
Some Peace dollars using a base metal composition were struck as experimental pieces in 1970 in anticipation of the approval of the Eisenhower dollar; they are all presumed destroyed. This new dollar coin was approved by an act signed by President Richard Nixon on December 31, 1970, with the obverse to depict President Dwight D. Eisenhower, who had died in March, 1969. Circulating Eisenhower dollars contained no precious metal, though some for collectors were struck in 40 % silver.
None of the Peace dollar mintages are particularly rare, and A Guide Book of United States Coins (or Red Book) lists low - grade circulated specimens for most years for little more than the coin 's bullion value. Two exceptions are the first year of issue 1921 Peace dollar, minted only at the Philadelphia mint and issued in high relief, and the low - mintage 1928 - P Peace dollar. The prices for the 1928 - P dollar are much lower than its mintage of 360,649 would suggest, because the U.S. mint announced that limited quantities would be produced and many were saved. In contrast the 1934 - S dollar was not saved in great numbers so that prices for circulated specimens are fairly inexpensive but mid-grade uncirculated specimens can cost thousands of dollars.
Bibliography
Other sources
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dragon ball z movies not released in america | List of Dragon Ball films - wikipedia
Since the debut of the anime adaptation of Akira Toriyama 's Dragon Ball manga in 1986, Toei Animation has produced nineteen theatrical films based on the franchise: four based on the original Dragon Ball anime and fifteen based on the sequel series Dragon Ball Z.
The first seventeen films were originally shown as back - to - back presentations alongside other Toei film productions and thus have a running time below feature length (around 45 -- 60 minutes each), the sole exception being 1996 's The Path to Power (which has a running time of 80 minutes). The first through fifth films were shown at the Toei Manga Festival (東映 まんが まつり, Tōei Manga Matsuri), while the sixth through seventeenth films were shown at the Toei Anime Fair (東映 アニメ フェア, Toei Anime Fea). These films were mostly alternate re-tellings of certain story arcs involving new characters or extra side - stories that do not correlate with the same continuity as the manga or TV series.
The newest films in the series, Battle of Gods and Resurrection ' F ', differ from the earlier ones, as they are full - length feature films set between chapters 517 and 518 of the manga, with Toriyama deeply involved in their creation. Toriyama did have some involvement with the earlier films, such as checking the scripts, altering new characters and their names or designing them from the ground up himself.
There are also three television specials that were broadcast on Fuji TV and two short films, which were shown at the 2008 Jump Super Anime Tour and Jump Festa 2012 respectively. A two - part hour - long crossover TV special between Dragon Ball Z, One Piece and Toriko aired on Fuji TV in 2013. Additionally, there is a two - part original video animation created as strategy guides for the 1993 video game Dragon Ball Z Side Story: Plan to Eradicate the Saiyans, which was remade in 2010 and included with the Raging Blast 2 video game.
As with the franchise 's anime television series, all nineteen films and the first three TV specials were licensed in North America by Funimation. Dragon Ball Z movies six and twelve received select theatrical presentations in the United States, as part of a double - feature on March 17, 2006, while movies fourteen and fifteen were given limited theatrical runs in August 2014 and August 2015 respectively. In Europe, AB Groupe licensed the second and third Dragon Ball movies, the first nine Z movies and the first two TV specials.
The Dragon Ball franchise has spawned three one - hour long television specials that aired on Fuji TV, the first two based on the "Z '' portion of the series and the third based on the "GT '' portion. Of these specials, all are original stories created by the anime staff with the exception of the second special, which is based on a special chapter of the manga.
Though the specials aired on TV in Japan, Funimation 's North American releases of the episodes are on home video, each one labeled "Feature '' the same as their theatrical films. This, doubled with the inclusion of the "Z '' specials in Funimation 's remastered "Movie Double Features '' has caused fans to continue to erroneously believe these to be theatrical films, when they are not.
On April 7, 2013, a two - part hour - long crossover TV special, between Dragon Ball Z, One Piece and Toriko, referred to as Dream 9 Toriko & One Piece & Dragon Ball Z Super Collaboration Special!! aired on Fuji TV. The first part is named "Run, Strongest Team! Toriko, Luffy, Goku! '' (走れ 最強 軍団! トリコ と ルフィ と 悟空!, Hashire Saikyō Gundan! Toriko to Luffy to Goku!) and the second is titled "History 's Strongest Collaboration vs. Glutton of the Sea '' (史上 最強 コラボ VS 海 の 大食漢, Shijō Saikyō Collaboration vs. Umi no Taishokukan). The plot has the International Gourmet Organization (from Toriko) sponsoring the Tenka'ichi Shokuōkai, a race with no rules that characters from all three series compete in.
Dragon Ball: Yo! Son Goku and His Friends Return!! is a 35 - minute short film that was shown at the 2008 Jump Super Anime Tour, which visited ten Japanese cities to celebrate Weekly Shōnen Jump 's 40th anniversary. It was later released as a triple feature DVD with One Piece: Romance Dawn Story and Tegami Bachi: Light and Blue Night Fantasy in 2009, that was available only through a mail - in offer exclusive to Japanese residents. In 2013, it was included in the limited edition home video release of Battle of Gods.
Another short film, Dragon Ball: Episode of Bardock, was shown at the Jump Festa 2012 event on December 17, 2011. It is an adaptation of the three part spin - off manga of the same name by Naho Ōishi that ran in V Jump from August to October 2011, which is a spin - off sequel to the Bardock -- The Father of Goku TV special. It was later released on DVD in the February 3, 2012 issue of Saikyō Jump together with Dragon Ball: Plan to Eradicate the Super Saiyans. The film was included subtitled in the European and North American exclusive Xbox 360 video game Dragon Ball Z: For Kinect, released in October 2012.
In 1993, Toei Animation, in cooperation with Weekly Shōnen Jump and V Jump, produced a two - part original video animation (OVA) that serves as a video strategy guide to the Family Computer game titled Dragon Ball Z Side Story: Plan to Eradicate the Saiyans. The first volume was released on VHS on July 23, while the second was released on August 25. The animation was also used in the 1994 two part video games, True Plan to Eradicate the Saiyans, released for the Playdia. The complete OVA was included in the second Dragon Ball Z Dragon Box DVD set released in Japan in 2003.
The OVA was remade for the 2010 PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 video game Dragon Ball: Raging Blast 2 under the title Dragon Ball: Plan to Eradicate the Super Saiyans. It was included in Dragon Ball: Raging Blast 2 as a bonus feature, unlocked at the start of gameplay without any necessary cheat code or in - game achievement, presented in its original Japanese - language audio with subtitles appropriate for each region. It was later released on DVD in the February 3, 2012 issue of Saikyō Jump together with Dragon Ball: Episode of Bardock.
Two educational shorts based on the original Dragon Ball anime were produced in 1988. The first was a traffic safety special titled Goku 's Traffic Safety (悟空 の 交通 安全, Gokū no Kōtsū Ansen), while the second was a fire safety special titled Goku 's Fire Brigade (悟空 の 消防 隊, Gokū no Shōbōtai). The two educational films were included in the Dragon Box DVD set released in Japan in 2004.
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stabilizing interactions van der waals electrostatic hydrogen bonding hydrophobic interaction | Non-covalent interactions - Wikipedia
A non-covalent interaction differs from a covalent bond in that it does not involve the sharing of electrons, but rather involves more dispersed variations of electromagnetic interactions between molecules or within a molecule. The chemical energy released in the formation of non-covalent interactions is typically on the order of 1 - 5 kcal / mol (1000 -- 5000 calories per 6.02 x 10 ^ 23 molecules). Non-covalent interactions can be classified into different categories, such as electrostatic, π - effects, van der Waals forces, and hydrophobic effects.
Non-covalent interactions are critical in maintaining the three - dimensional structure of large molecules, such as proteins and nucleic acids. In addition, they are also involved in many biological processes in which large molecules bind specifically but transiently to one another (see the properties section of the DNA page). These interactions also heavily influence drug design, crystallinity and design of materials, particularly for self - assembly, and, in general, the synthesis of many organic molecules.
Intermolecular forces are non-covalent interactions that occur between different molecules, rather than between different atoms of the same molecule
For a more detailed introduction to electrostatics, see Coulomb 's Law
Ionic interactions involve the attraction of ions or molecules with full permanent charges of opposite signs. For example, sodium fluoride involves the attraction of the positive charge on sodium (Na) with the negative charge on fluoride (F). These bonds are harder to break than covalent bonds because there is a strong electrostatic interaction between oppositely charged ions. However, this particular interaction is easily broken upon addition to water, or other highly polar solvents.
These interactions can also be seen in molecules with a localized charge on a particular atom. For example, the full negative charge associated with ethoxide, the conjugate base of ethanol, is most commonly accompanied by the positive charge of an alkali metal salt such as the sodium cation (Na).
A hydrogen bond (H - bond), is a specific type of interaction that involves dipole - dipole attraction between a partially positive hydrogen atom and a highly electronegative, partially negative oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur, or fluorine atom (not covalently bound to said hydrogen atom). It is not a covalent bond, but instead is classified as a strong non-covalent interaction. It is responsible for why water is a liquid at room temperature and not a gas (given water 's low molecular weight). Most commonly, the strength of hydrogen bonds lies between 0 - 4 kcal / mol, but can sometimes be as strong as 40 kcal / mol
Halogen bonding is a type of non-covalent interaction which does not involve the formation nor breaking of actual bonds, but rather is similar to the dipole - dipole interaction known as hydrogen bonding. In halogen bonding, a halogen atom acts as an electrophile, or electron - seeking species, and forms a weak electrostatic interaction with a nucleophile, or electron - rich species. The nucleophilic agent in these interactions tends to be highly electronegative (such as oxygen, nitrogen, or sulfur), or may be anionic, bearing a negative formal charge. As compared to hydrogen bonding, the halogen atom takes the place of the partially positively charged hydrogen as the electrophile.
Halogen bonding should not be confused with halogen - aromatic interactions, as the two are related but differ by definition. Halogen - aromatic interactions involve an electron - rich aromatic π - cloud as a nucleophile; halogen bonding is restricted to monatomic nucleophiles.
Van der Waals Forces are a subset of electrostatic interactions involving permanent or induced dipoles (or multipoles). These include the following:
Hydrogen bonding and halogen bonding are typically not classified as Van der Waals forces.
Dipole - dipole interactions are electrostatic interactions between permanent dipoles in molecules. These interactions tend to align the molecules to increase attraction (reducing potential energy). Normally, dipoles are associated with electronegative atoms, including oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur, and fluorine.
For example, acetone, the active ingredient in some nail polish removers, has a net dipole associated with the carbonyl (see figure 2). Since oxygen is more electronegative than the carbon that is covalently bonded to it, the electrons associated with that bond will be closer to the oxygen than the carbon, creating a partial negative charge (δ) on the oxygen, and a partial positive charge (δ) on the carbon. They are not full charges because the electrons are still shared through a covalent bond between the oxygen and carbon. If the electrons were no longer being shared, then the oxygen - carbon bond would be an electrostatic interaction.
Often molecules contain dipolar groups, but have no overall dipole moment. This occurs if there is symmetry within the molecule that causes the dipoles to cancel each other out. This occurs in molecules such as tetrachloromethane. Note that the dipole - dipole interaction between two individual atoms is usually zero, since atoms rarely carry a permanent dipole. See atomic dipoles.
A dipole - induced dipole interaction (Debye force) is due to the approach of a molecule with a permanent dipole to another non-polar molecule with no permanent dipole. This approach causes the electrons of the non-polar molecule to be polarized toward or away from the dipole (or "induce '' a dipole) of the approaching molecule. Specifically, the dipole can cause electrostatic attraction or repulsion of the electrons from the non-polar molecule, depending on orientation of the incoming dipole. Atoms with larger atomic radii are considered more "polarizable '' and therefore experience greater attraction as a result of the Debye force.
London dispersion forces are the weakest type of non-covalent interaction. They are also known as "induced dipole - induced dipole interactions '' and present between all molecules, even those which inherently do not have permanent dipoles. They are caused by the temporary repulsion of electrons away from the electrons of a neighboring molecule, leading to a partially positive dipole on one molecule and a partially negative dipole on another molecule. Hexane is a good example of a molecule with no polarity or highly electronegative atoms, yet is a liquid at room temperature due mainly to London dispersion forces. In this example, when one hexane molecule approaches another, a temporary, weak partially negative dipole on the incoming hexane can polarize the electron cloud of another, causing a partially positive dipole on that hexane molecule. While these interactions are short - lived and very weak, they can be responsible for why certain non-polar molecules are liquids at room temperature.
π - effects can be broken down into numerous categories, including π - π interactions, cation - π & anion - π interactions, and polar - π interactions. In general, π - effects are associated with the interactions of molecules with the π - systems of conjugated molecules such as benzene.
π - π interactions are associated with the interaction between the π - orbitals of a molecular system. For a simple example, a benzene ring, with its fully conjugated π cloud, will interact in two major ways (and one minor way) with a neighboring benzene ring through a π - π interaction (see figure 3). The two major ways that benzene stacks are edge - to - face, with an enthalpy of ~ 2 kcal / mol, and displaced (or slip stacked), with an enthalpy of ~ 2.3 kcal / mol. Interestingly, the sandwich configuration is not nearly as stable of an interaction as the previously two mentioned due to high electrostatic repulsion of the electrons in the π orbitals.
Cation - π interactions involve the positive charge of a cation interacting with the electrons in a π - system of a molecule. This interaction is surprisingly strong (as strong or stronger than H - bonding in some contexts), and has many potential applications in chemical sensors. For example, the sodium ion can easily sit atop the π cloud of a benzene molecule, with C symmetry (for more on point groups and molecular symmetry, see the Wikipedia page on point groups) (See figure 4).
Anion - π interactions are very similar to cation - π interactions, but reversed. In this case, an anion sits atop an electron - poor π - system, usually established by the placement of electron - withdrawing substituents on the conjugated molecule
Polar - π interactions involve molecules with permanent dipoles (such as water) interacting with the quadrupole moment of a π - system (such as that in benzene (see figure 5). While not as strong as a cation - π interaction, these interactions can be quite strong (~ 1 - 2 kcal / mol), and are commonly involved in protein folding and crystallinity of solids containing both hydrogen bonding and π - systems. In fact, any molecule with a hydrogen bond donor (hydrogen bound to a highly electronegative atom) will have favorable electrostatic interactions with the electron - rich π - system of a conjugated molecule.
The hydrophobic effect is the desire for non-polar molecules to aggregate in aqueous solutions in order to separate from water. This phenomenon leads to minimum exposed surface area of non-polar molecules to the polar water molecules (typically spherical droplets), and is commonly used in biochemistry to study protein folding and other various biological phenomenon. The effect is also commonly seen when mixing various oils (including cooking oil) and water. Over time, oil sitting on top of water will begin to aggregate into large flattened spheres from smaller droplets, eventually leading to a film of all oil sitting atop a pool of water.
Most pharmaceutical drugs are small molecules which elicit a physiological response by "binding '' to enzymes or receptors, causing an increase or decrease in the enzyme 's ability to function. The binding of a small molecule to a protein is governed by a combination of steric, or spatial considerations, in addition to various non-covalent interactions, although some drugs do covalently modify an active site (see irreversible inhibitors). Using the "lock and key model '' of enzyme binding, a drug (key) must be of roughly the proper dimensions to fit the enzyme 's binding site (lock). Using the appropriately sized molecular scaffold, drugs must also interact with the enzyme non-covalently in order to maximize binding affinity binding constant and reduce the ability of the drug to dissociate from the binding site. This is achieved by forming various non-covalent interactions between the small molecule and amino acids in the binding site, including: hydrogen bonding, electrostatic interactions, pi stacking, van der Waals interactions, and dipole - dipole interactions.
The folding of most proteins from a primary (linear) sequence of amino acids to a three - dimensional structure is governed by many factors, including non-covalent interactions. The first ~ 5 milliseconds of folding are primarily dependent on van der Waals forces, whereby the protein folds so as to orient nonpolar amino acids in the interior of the globular protein, while more polar amino acid residues are exposed to aqueous solvent. This phase is known as the hydrophobic collapse, when nonpolar non-covalent interactions exclude water from the interior of the developing 3D protein structure.
After this initial "burst phase, '' more polar non-covalent interactions take over. Between 5 and 1000 milliseconds after protein folding initiation, three - dimensional structures of proteins, known as secondary and tertiary structures, are stabilized by formation of hydrogen bonds, in addition to disulfide bridges (covalent linkages). Through a series of small conformational changes, spatial orientations are modified so as to arrive at the most energetically minimized orientation achievable. The folding of proteins is often facilitated by enzymes known as molecular chaperones Sterics, bond strain, and angle strain also play major roles in the folding of a protein from its primary sequence to its tertiary structure.
Single tertiary protein structures can also assemble to form protein complexes composed of multiple independently folded subunits. As a whole, this is called a protein 's quaternary structure. The quaternary structure is generated by the formation of relatively strong non-covalent interactions, such as hydrogen bonds, between different subunits to generate a functional polymeric enzyme. Some proteins also utilize non-covalent interactions to bind cofactors in the active site during catalysis, however a cofactor can also be covalently attached to an enzyme. Cofactors can be either organic or inorganic molecules which assist in the catalytic mechanism of the active enzyme. The strength with which a cofactor is bound to an enzyme may vary greatly; non-covalently bound cofactors are typically anchored by hydrogen bonds or electrostatic interactions.
Non-covalent interactions have a significant effect on the boiling point of a liquid. Boiling point is defined as the temperature at which the vapor pressure of a liquid is equal to the pressure surrounding the liquid. More simply, it is the temperature at which a liquid becomes a gas. As one might expect, the stronger the non-covalent interactions present for a substance, the higher its boiling point. For example, consider three compounds of similar chemical composition: sodium n - butoxide (C H ONa), diethyl ether (C H O), and n - butanol (C H OH).
The predominant non-covalent interactions associated with each species in solution are listed in the above figure. As previously discussed, ionic interactions require considerably more energy to break than hydrogen bonds, which in turn are require more energy than dipole - dipole interactions. The trends observed in their boiling points (figure 8) shows exactly the correlation expected, where sodium n - butoxide requires significantly more heat energy (higher temperature) to boil than n - butanol, which boils at a much higher temperature than diethyl ether. The heat energy required for a compound to change from liquid to gas is associated with the energy required to break the intermolecular forces each molecule experiences in its liquid state.
Non-Covalent Interactions in the Synthesis and Design of New Compounds. A.M. Maharramov, K.T. Mahmudov, M.N. Kopylovich, A.J.L. Pombeiro, (Eds.), John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, New Jersey, 2016. ISBN 978 - 1 - 119 - 10989 - 1 Mahmudov K.T., Kopylovich M.N., Guedes da Silva M.F.C., Pombeiro A.J.L. Noncovalent Interactions in the Synthesis of Coordination Compounds: Recent Advances. Coordination Chemistry Reviews, doi: 10.1016 / j. ccr. 2016.09. 002
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what was an effect of the quartering act | Quartering Acts - wikipedia
The Quartering Act is a name given to a minimum of two Acts of British Parliament in the local governments of the American colonies to provide the British soldiers with any needed accommodations and housing. It also required colonists to provide food for any British soldiers in the area. Each of the Quartering Acts was an amendment to the Mutiny Act and required annual renewal by Parliament. William Winthrop, (Military Law and Precedents), (Government Printing Office 1920); "Quartering Act. '' They were originally intended as a response to issues that arose during the French and Indian War and soon became a source of tension between the inhabitants of the Thirteen Colonies and the government in London, England. These tensions would later fuel the fire that led to the American Revolution.
General Thomas Gage, commander - in - chief of forces in British North America, and other British officers who had fought in the French and Indian War, had found it hard to persuade colonial assemblies to pay for quartering and provisioning of troops on the march. Therefore, he asked Parliament to do something. Most colonies had supplied provisions during the war, but the issue was disputed in peacetime. The Province of New York was their headquarters, because the assembly had passed an Act to provide for the quartering of British regulars, but it expired on January 2, 1764, The result was the Quartering Act of 1765, which went far beyond what Gage had requested. No standing army had been kept in the colonies before the French and Indian War, so the colonies asked why a standing army was needed after the French had been defeated in battle.
This first Quartering Act was given Royal Assent on March 24, 1765, and provided that Great Britain would house its soldiers in American barracks and public houses, as by the Mutiny Act of 1765, but if its soldiers outnumbered the housing available, would quarter them in "inns, livery stables, ale houses, victualing houses, and the houses of sellers of wine and houses of persons selling of rum, brandy, strong water, cider or metheglin '', and if numbers required in "uninhabited houses, outhouses, barns, or other buildings. '' Colonial authorities were required to pay the cost of housing and feeding these troops.
When 1,500 British troops arrived at New York City in 1766 the New York Provincial Assembly refused to comply with the Quartering Act and did not supply billeting for the troops. The troops had to remain on their ships. With its great impact on the city, a skirmish occurred in which one colonist was wounded following the Assembly 's refusal to provide quartering. For failure to comply with the Quartering Act, Parliament suspended the Province of New York 's Governor and legislature in 1767 and 1769, but never carried it out, since the Assembly soon agreed to contribute money toward the quartering of troops; the New York Assembly allocated funds for the quartering of British troops in 1771. The Quartering Act was circumvented in all colonies other than Pennsylvania.
This act expired on March 24, 1776.
The Quartering Act of 1774 was known as one of the Coercive Acts in Great Britain, and as part of the intolerable acts in the colonies. This act applied to all colonies and stated that the British troops could live and eat in colonial homes without the owners ' permission.
During the French and Indian War Britain had forcibly seized quarters in private dwellings. In the American Revolutionary War, the New York Provincial Congress barracked Continental Army troops in private homes. The Americans strongly opposed the quartering of British troops in their homes because the British Parliament had created the Mutiny Act under which the British army was supposed to be prohibited against quartering troops in private homes of citizens against their will. Although Parliament passed these laws in 1723, 1754, and 1756 the British Army ignored them in the Colonies. Because of this violation of their rights the colonies believed that liberty itself would be destroyed. Along with the fear of a loss of liberty, the colonists felt that the British army should be subordinate to civil authority since Parliament already stated that the army could n't force quartering through the Mutiny Act.
With the growing worries of illegal quartering by the British, the Pennsylvania Assembly met and denied any quartering bill that guaranteed citizens could deny soldiers to stay in private homes. When the Assembly finally passed the quartering bill, the passage stating how soldiers could or could not be quartered in homes was omitted and it only outlined how the soldiers were to be quartered in public houses. That winter 's harsh conditions led the British commander, Col. Henry Bouquet, to order the colonists to quarter his troops in other places than just private homes. Bouquet felt his troops could n't survive the winter without better living conditions. Bouquet wrote a letter to the governor of Pennsylvania telling him to issue a warrant to allow the quartering of his troops in private homes. The governor issued the warrant but left it blank instead of directly listing what Col. Bouquet could or could not do. The Pennsylvania Assembly was outraged when they learned what their governor had done. But instead of asking for a veto on the warrant they asked for a review on how many troops could be quartered in a single home at a time. But the only response they received was that the king 's troops must and will be quartered. In response to this the Assembly met on a Sunday for the first time. There they wrote a letter to the governor asking why their constitutional rights were being violated when The British Parliament laws favored the colonists.
In response to what was happening to the colonists, Benjamin Franklin opened up an Assembly meeting suggesting that soldiers could be quartered in public houses in the suburbs. This meant instead of the troops be directly in the city they would be in houses on the outskirts of the city on farms where they could potentially have more space. Governor Denny attended this Pennsylvania meeting and bluntly answered that the commander in chief had requested quartering for the troops in Philadelphia and if anybody had a problem with this then they should talk to Lord Loudoun. The committeemen brought to light that they felt Denny was siding with the British military when instead as governor he should work to protect the rights of the colonists. The ongoing quarrel between State Assembly, governor, and Lord Loudoun was n't a dispute between legislature and executive powers; but a contest for political liberty. The colonists had the same rights through British Parliament laws but they were not granted to them and instead threatened by bayonets for personal gain.
In Albany, New York the mayor had allocated $1,000 for the building of barracks for Loudoun 's troops, but the barracks had not been built by the time the troops arrived. The mayor told Loudoun that he knew his rights and refused to let the troops be quartered in Albany. When the mayor stayed adamant on his beliefs of not allowing the troops to be quartered, Loudoun had them forcefully apply themselves in private homes.
In an early August committee meeting in Boston, Massachusetts, the governor was able to get the committee to pass a bill to grant money for the building of barracks. These barracks would accommodate up to one thousand troops. The barracks were built and all that had to be done was convince Loudoun to obey the procedures set by parliament. Everything went smoothly until two recruiting officers complained to governor Pawnall of Massachusetts that they were denied quarters in Boston. The response was that it was illegal to quarter in private homes in Boston and the committeemen suggested that they stay at the newly built barracks at Castle William. The timing of this new meeting with Lord Loudoun was extremely unfortunate. He was currently suffering losses in northern New York while trying to hold off the French and Indians. When he heard of what happened with the committeemen he argued that the current military crisis made it acceptable to quarter troops in private homes. A bill was then brought to the governor to sign that said troops could be quartered in homes but innkeepers had the right to complain to a judge if they felt too many soldiers were there. Loudon was enraged with this and threatened to force troops upon civilians again. By the end of December, the Massachusetts legislature was able to get Loudoun to agree to quarter his troops at Castle William, which meant through the long process the colonists, were able to uphold their legal rights.
On May 3, 1765 the British Parliament met and finally passed a Quartering Act for the Americans. The act stated that troops could only be quartered in barracks and if there was n't enough space in barracks then they were to be quartered in public houses and inns. If still not enough space then the governor and council were to find vacant space, but at no time was it legal to quarter troops in private homes.
A section of the United States Declaration of Independence listing the colonies ' grievances against the King explicitly notes:
He has combined with others to subject us to a jurisdiction foreign to our constitution, and unacknowledged by our laws; giving his Assent to their Acts of pretended Legislation: For quartering large bodies of armed troops among us.
The Third Amendment to the United States Constitution, expressly prohibited the military from peacetime quartering of troops without consent of the owner of the house. A product of their times, the relevance of the Acts and the Third Amendment has greatly declined since the era of the American Revolution, having been the subject of only one case in over 200 years, Engblom v. Carey in 1982.
The Quartering Act was one of the reasons for the Second Amendment to the United States Constitution, which prohibits infringing on the right of the people to keep and bear arms. Standing armies were mistrusted, and the First Congress considered quartering of troops to have been one of the tools of oppression before and during the American revolution.
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which side of the heart is the tricuspid valve | Tricuspid valve - wikipedia
The tricuspid valve, or right atrioventricular valve, is on the right dorsal side of the mammalian heart, between the right atrium and the right ventricle. The function of the valve is to prevent back flow of blood from the right ventricle into the right atrium.
The normal tricuspid valve usually has three leaflets, named the anterior, posterior, and septal leaflets. Each leaflet is connected via chordae tendineae to the anterior, posterior, and septal papillary muscles of the right ventricle, respectively. Tricuspid valves may also occur with two or four leaflets; the number may change over a lifetime.
The tricuspid valve functions as a one - way valve that closes during ventricular systole to prevent regurgitation of blood from the right ventricle back into the right atrium. It opens during ventricular diastole, allowing blood to flow from the right atrium into right ventricle. The back flow of blood is also known as regression or tricuspid regurgitation. Tricuspid regurgitation can result in increased ventricular preload because the blood refluxed back into the atrium is added to the volume of blood that must be pumped back into the ventricle during the next cycle of ventricular diastole. Increased right ventricular preload over a prolonged period of time may lead to right ventricular enlargement (dilatation), which can progress to right heart failure if left uncorrected.
Tricuspid regurgitation is not uncommon.
Infected valves can result in endocarditis in intravenous drug users. Patients who inject narcotics or other drugs intravenously may introduce infection, which can travel to the right side of the heart, most often caused by the bacteria S. aureus. In patients without a history of intravenous exposure, endocarditis is more frequently left - sided.
The tricuspid valve can be affected by rheumatic fever, which can cause tricuspid stenosis or tricuspid insufficiency (also called tricuspid regurgitation). Some individuals are born with congenital abnormalities of the tricuspid valve. Congenital apical displacement of the tricuspid valve is called Ebstein 's anomaly and typically causes significant tricuspid regurgitation.
Certain carcinoid syndromes can affect the tricuspid valve by producing fibrosis due to serotonin production by those tumors.
The first endovascular tricuspid valve implant was performed by surgeons at the Cleveland Clinic.
Tricuspid valve. Deep dissection.
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who sang something's got a hold of me | Something 's Got a Hold on Me - wikipedia
"Something 's Got a Hold on Me '' is a song by American singer Etta James. The song was written by James, Leroy Kirkland and Pearl Woods, while production was handled by Leonard and Phil Chess. It was released in 1962 as the third single from her 1962 self - titled album as a 7 '' vinyl disc. Musically, "Something 's Got a Hold on Me '' is an R&B track with elements of soul, blues and gospel. Upon its release, the single was an R&B hit, peaking at number four on the Billboard Hot R&B Sides chart.
"Something 's Got a Hold on Me '' has been covered and sampled by various contemporary artists. Pretty Lights sampled the song on his 2006 album Taking Up Your Precious Time. In 2010, American singer - songwriter Christina Aguilera recorded a cover version of the song on the soundtrack Burlesque. In 2011, the track was sampled on two hits: "Levels '' by Swedish DJ Avicii, which in turn was sampled on "Good Feeling '' by American rapper Flo Rida. Australian recording artist Jessica Mauboy also covered "Something 's Got a Hold on Me '' in 2013 and released it as a single.
"Something 's Got a Hold on Me '' was written by Etta James, Leroy Kirkland and Pearl Woods, while it was produced by two founders of the Chess Records, Leonard and Phil Chess. The song was released as the third single from James ' 1962 self - titled studio album. It was served as a 7 '' vinyl disc with the other song, "Waiting for Charlie to Come Home '', as the B - side in the United States. Later, the track was included on the singer 's 1963 compilation album Etta James Top Ten. The live version of "Something 's Got a Hold on Me '' also appeared on Etta James ' first live album, Etta James Rocks the House (1964). In 1992, the song was a part of her greatest hits album, My Greatest Songs.
"Something 's Got a Hold on Me '' is an R&B track with elements of soul, blues, and gospel. The song lasts for a duration of 2: 48 (two minutes and 48 seconds). According to the sheet music published by EMI Music Publishing, "Something 's Got a Hold on Me '' was composed in the key of G minor and set as the moderate tempo of 72 beats per minute with a "strong beat ''. James ' vocals in the song span on nearly one and a half octaves, from the low - note of D to the high - note of G.
On September 27, 1963, Etta James first performed "Something 's Got a Hold on Me '' at the New Era Club in Nashville, Tennessee; later the performance was recorded and was included on her first live album Etta James Rocks the House. During a "King - led all - star concert '' which was held at the Ebony Theater, Los Angeles, California in 1987, James performed the song again with American blues musician B.B. King. There, the singer sang the track with backing guitar played by King. That performance was released as a CD and home video entitled "A Night of Blistering Blues ''.
Jay Lustig of New Jersey On - Line called "Something 's Got a Hold on Me '' a "scintillating '' track. Upon its release, "Something 's Got a Hold on Me '' was an R&B hit, peaking at number four on the Hot R&B Sides chart, a music chart which was published by American music magazine Billboard and now is the Hot R&B / Hip - Hop Songs chart. The single also charted on the Billboard Hot 100 chart, peaking at number 37.
"Something 's Got a Hold on Me '' has been covered on numerous occasions. The Kingsmen released a cover version on The Kingsmen Volume II in 1965 and on Greatest Hits in 1966. The Belgian band Vaya Con Dios covered the track on their album Night Owls (1990). On March 30, 2004, Natalie Cole performed "Something 's Got a Hold on Me '' at the Apollo Theater in New York City. In 2010, American singer - songwriter Christina Aguilera also covered it for the soundtrack album Burlesque. The version by Aguilera was met with favorable reviews from critics; a writer from Blogcritics wrote that "(the song) really digs in and makes them show stoppers '' and "(it) suits her voice perfectly '', while Stephen Thomas Erlewine from Allmusic picked "Something 's Got a Hold on Me '' as one of the three best songs from the soundtrack. Jools Holland, with Paloma Faith, recorded a version for his 2012 album, The Golden Age of Song. Australian R&B singer Jessica Mauboy recorded a cover version of the track and released it as a single exclusively in Australia in 2013.
Doi - Oing was the first artist to sample "Something 's Got a Hold on Me '' in his 1991 song "Good Feeling ''. In 2006, electronic music artist Pretty Lights sampled the song again in his track "Finally Moving '' from the album Taking Up Your Precious Time. In 2009, Dutch DJ Fedde Le Grand interpolated the song 's intro on "Wild ' n Raw '', with the vocals performed by Rob Birch of the Stereo MC 's. In 2011, two smash hits sampled "Something 's Got a Hold on Me '': "Levels '' by Swedish DJ Avicii and Flo Rida 's "Good Feeling ''.
The song was featured in a 2017 commercial for the LG G6 smartphone.
In 2018, Citigroup featured the song in a commercial for their Citi App smartphone application.
"Something 's Got a Hold on Me '' was covered by Australian R&B singer Jessica Mauboy. It was released as a digital download single on 27 February 2013.
"Something 's Got a Hold on Me '' by Jessica Mauboy received mainly positive reviews from music critics. Brad Stern of MTV Buzzworthy Brad Stern called Mauboy 's version a "power - pop anthem ''. Daisy Dumas of The Age was positive toward the track, noted it as a "sassy, pop - heavy spin on the Etta James classic ''. Simone Ubaldi of Beat magazine described the cover as "grotesque dance pop bastardisation '', while a writer for radio station 96.5 Wave FM thought that it sounds impressive. A writer for Take 40 Australia called it energetic, while Fox Sports ' Anthony Costa wrote that the song does not feel like "a potential rugby league anthem '' but "it suits Mauboy 's vocal talents ''. "Something 's Got a Hold on Me '' won Single Release of the Year at the 2013 Deadly Awards. The song entered the Australian ARIA Singles Chart at number 26 on March 11, 2013. The following week, it fell down to number 50.
On 27 February 2013, the Australian Rugby League Commission released a television advertisement, which features Mauboy singing her version of "Something 's Got a Hold on Me '', as well as highlights from previous rugby league matches and fans playing rugby league in backyards, on beaches and running down streets. That same day, Mauboy performed the song during the official launch for the 2013 NRL season, held at The Star Casino in Sydney. NRL director of marketing and commercial operations Paul Kind said her version "is very contemporary '' and "has a really broad appeal ''. Mauboy is the second female artist (the first being Tina Turner) to be featured in a NRL theme song. "Something 's Got a Hold on Me '' is also the first theme song in major Australian sport to feature an Indigenous Australian artist.
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list of current health and safety legislation uk | Health and Safety regulations in the United Kingdom - wikipedia
In the United Kingdom there are many regulations relevant to safety and health at work. Many of these give effect to European Union directives.
Breach of the regulations is a crime throughout the UK. In England and Wales contravention is punishable on summary conviction or on indictment with an unlimited fine. Either an individual or a corporation can be punished and sentencing practice is published by the Sentencing Guidelines Council.
In England and Wales, a person who suffered damage caused by a breach of the regulations, used to have a cause of action in tort against the offender. However, s69 of the Enterprise and Regulatory Reform Act 2013 repealed this right of action. This prevents a defendant for claiming damages against an employer for contravention of an absolute duty. Instead, they must now prove that the employer was negligent as with other torts. A similar right of action exists in Scotland through the law of delict.
A full list of all UK Health & Safety legislation can be found on the HSE website
Registration REACH in the UK is planned for 8 November.
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when was the last time the ravens went to the playoffs | List of Baltimore Ravens seasons - wikipedia
This is a list of seasons completed by the Baltimore Ravens, a professional American football franchise based in Baltimore, Maryland. The Ravens are a member club of the American Football Conference (AFC) North division in the National Football League (NFL). The team began play in the 1996 season as a result of former Cleveland Browns team owner Art Modell 's decision to move the Browns to Baltimore.
Overall, the Ravens have won two Super Bowl championships in franchise history: 2000, when the team defeated the New York Giants 34 -- 7 in Super Bowl XXXV; and in 2012, when the team defeated the San Francisco 49ers 34 -- 31 in Super Bowl XLVII. They are currently the only team to reach the Super Bowl multiple times and never lose an appearance.
Note: Statistics are correct through the end of the 2017 NFL season.
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who does the good samaritan law apply to | Good Samaritan law - wikipedia
Good Samaritan laws offer legal protection to people who give reasonable assistance to those who are, or who they believe to be, injured, ill, in peril, or otherwise incapacitated. The protection is intended to reduce bystanders ' hesitation to assist, for fear of being sued or prosecuted for unintentional injury or wrongful death. An example of such a law in common - law areas of Canada: a good Samaritan doctrine is a legal principle that prevents a rescuer who has voluntarily helped a victim in distress from being successfully sued for wrongdoing. Its purpose is to keep people from being reluctant to help a stranger in need for fear of legal repercussions should they make some mistake in treatment. By contrast, a duty to rescue law requires people to offer assistance, and holds those who fail to do so liable.
Good Samaritan laws may vary from jurisdiction to jurisdiction as do their interactions with various other legal principles, such as consent, parental rights and the right to refuse treatment. Most such laws do not apply to medical professionals ' or career emergency responders ' on - the - job conduct, but some extend protection to professional rescuers when they are acting in a volunteer capacity.
The principles contained in good Samaritan laws more typically operate in countries in which the foundation of the legal system is English Common Law, such as Australia. In many countries that use civil law as the foundation for their legal systems, the same legal effect is more typically achieved using a principle of duty to rescue.
Good Samaritan laws take their name from a parable found in the Bible, attributed to Jesus, commonly referred to as the Parable of the Good Samaritan which is contained in Luke 10: 25 - 37. It recounts the aid given by a traveler from the area known as Samaria to another traveler of a conflicting religious and ethnic background who had been beaten and robbed by bandits.
Most Australian states and territories have some form of good Samaritan protection. In general these offer protection if care is made in good faith, and the "good Samaritan '' is not impaired by drugs or alcohol. Variations exist between states, from not applying if the "good Samaritan '' is the cause of the problem (New South Wales), to applying under all circumstances if the attempt is made in good faith (Victoria).
In Canada, good Samaritan acts fall under provincial jurisdiction. Each province has its own act, such as Ontario and British Columbia 's respective Good Samaritan Acts, Alberta 's Emergency Medical Aid Act, and Nova Scotia 's Volunteer Services Act Only in Quebec, a civil law jurisdiction, does a person have a general duty to respond, as detailed in the Quebec Charter of Human Rights and Freedoms.
An example of a typical Canadian law is provided here, from Ontario 's Good Samaritan Act, 2001, section 2:
Protection from liability
2. (1) Despite the rules of common law, a person described in subsection (2) who voluntarily and without reasonable expectation of compensation or reward provides the services described in that subsection is not liable for damages that result from the person 's negligence in acting or failing to act while providing the services, unless it is established that the damages were caused by the gross negligence of the person. 2001, c. 2, s. 2 (1).
Yukon and Nunavut do not have good Samaritan laws.
There have been incidents in China, such as the Peng Yu incident in 2006, where good Samaritans who helped people injured in accidents were accused of having injured the victim themselves.
The death of Wang Yue was caused when the toddler was run over by two vehicles. The entire incident was caught on a video, which shows eighteen people seeing the child but refusing to help. In a November 2011 survey, a majority, 71 %, thought that the people who passed the child without helping were afraid of getting into trouble themselves.
According to China Daily, "at least 10 Party and government departments and organizations in Guangdong, including the province 's commission on politics and law, the women 's federation, the Academy of Social Sciences, and the Communist Youth League, have started discussions on punishing those who refuse to help people who clearly need it. '' Officials of Guangdong province, along with many lawyers and social workers, also held three days of meetings in the provincial capital of Guangzhou to discuss the case. It was reported that various lawmakers of the province are drafting a good Samaritan law, which would "penalize people who fail to help in a situation of this type and indemnify them from lawsuits if their efforts are in vain. '' Legal experts and the public are debating the idea ahead of discussions and a legislative push. On 1 August 2013, the nation 's first good Samaritan law went into effect in Shenzhen.
On 1 Oct 2017, China 's national Good Samaritan law came into force, Clause 184 in Civil Law General Principles.
The Finnish Rescue Act explicitly stipulates a duty to rescue as a "general duty to act '' and "engage in rescue activities according to (one 's) abilities ''. The Finnish Rescue Act thus includes a principle of proportionality which requires professionals to extend immediate aid further than lay persons.
The Finnish Criminal Code stipulates
"Section 15 - Neglect of rescue (578 / 1995) A person who knows that another is in mortal danger or serious danger to his or her health, and does not give or procure such assistance that in view of his or her options and the nature of the situation can reasonably be expected, shall be sentenced for neglect of rescue to a fine or to imprisonment for at most six months. ''
In Germany, failure to provide first aid to a person in need is punishable under § 323c of its criminal penal code. However, any help one provides can not and will not be prosecuted even if it made the situation worse or did not fulfill specific first aid criteria. People are thus encouraged to help in any way possible, even if the attempt is not successful. Moreover, people providing first aid are covered by the German Statutory Accident Insurance in case they suffer injury, losses, or damages.
The Civil Law (Miscellaneous Provisions) Act of 2011 first introduced legislation specifically addressing the liability of citizen good Samaritans or volunteers in the Republic of Ireland, without introducing a duty to intervene. This act provides for exemption from liability for a person, or voluntary organisation, for anything done while providing "assistance, advice or care '' to a person who is injured, in serious risk or danger of becoming injured or suffering from an illness (or apparently so). There are exclusions for cases of "bad faith '' or "gross negligence '' on behalf of the carer, and incidents relating to negligent use of motor vehicles. This Act only addresses situations where there is no duty of care owed by the good Samaritan or the volunteer.
In Israel, the law requires anyone to assist a person in danger or at the very least call for help. People who help in good faith are not liable for damages. Helpers are eligible for compensation for damages caused to them during their assistance.
All 50 states and the District of Columbia have some type of Good Samaritan law. The details of good Samaritan laws / acts vary by jurisdiction, including who is protected from liability and under what circumstances.
The 1996 Federal Emerson Act was intended to encourage donations of food and grocery products that meet quality and labeling standards imposed by federal, state and local laws and regulations, by protecting the donor and the recipient agency against liability, excepting in the case of gross negligence and / or intentional misconduct. Prior to passage of the Emerson Act differences in language and applicability between states often discouraged national and regional companies from donating, resulting in otherwise usable food being sent to landfills.
The 1998 Aviation Medical Assistance Act also provided coverage for "Good Samaritans '' while in flight (Section 5b)
In the common law of England and Wales there is no criminal liability for failing to act in the event of another person being in danger; however, there are exceptions to this rule. In instances where there has been an assumption of responsibility by the bystander, a dangerous situation was created by them, or there is a contractual or statutory duty to act, criminal liability would be imposed on the bystander for their failure to take action. The courts are reluctant to penalize people attempting rescue and English law makes provision for the actions of ' good Samaritans, ' unless their actions were grossly negligent or made a situation worse. Cases such as Donoghue v Stevenson where Lord Atkin culminates the parable of the good samaritan principle to ' love your neighbour ' transposed in law for negligence liability. Donoghue won the case.
In some jurisdictions, unless a caretaker relationship (such as a parent - child or doctor - patient relationship) exists prior to the illness or injury, or the "good Samaritan '' is responsible for the existence of the illness or injury, no person is required to give aid of any sort to a victim. Good Samaritan statutes in the states of Minnesota and Vermont do require a person at the scene of an emergency to provide reasonable assistance to a person in need. This assistance may be to call 9 - 1 - 1. Violation of the duty - to - assist subdivision is a petty misdemeanor in Minnesota and may warrant a fine of up to $100 in Vermont. At least five other states, including California and Nevada, have seriously considered adding duty - to - assist subdivisions to their good Samaritan statutes. New York 's law provides immunity for those who assist in an emergency. The public policy behind the law is:
The furnishing of medical assistance in an emergency is a matter of vital concern affecting the public health, safety and welfare. Prehospital emergency medical care, the provision of prompt and effective communication among ambulances and hospitals (,) and safe and effective care and transportation of the sick and injured are essential public health services.
Good Samaritan provisions are not universal in application. The legal principle of imminent peril may also apply. In the absence of imminent peril, the actions of a rescuer may be perceived by the courts to be reckless and not worthy of protection. To illustrate, a motor vehicle collision occurs, but there is no fire, no immediate life threat from injuries and no danger of a second collision. If someone, with good intentions, causes injury by pulling the victim from the wreckage, a court may rule that good Samaritan laws do not apply because the victim was not in imminent peril and hold the actions of the rescuer to be unnecessary and reckless.
Only first aid provided without intention of reward or financial compensation is covered. Medical professionals are typically not protected by good Samaritan laws when performing first aid in connection with their employment. Some states make specific provisions for trained medical professionals acting as volunteers and for members of volunteer rescue squads acting without expectation of remuneration. In Texas, a physician who voluntarily assisted in the delivery of an infant, and who proved that he had "no expectation of remuneration '', had no liability for the infant 's injuries due to allegedly ordinary negligence; there was "uncontroverted testimony that neither he nor any doctor in Travis County would have charged a fee to (the mother) or any other person under the circumstances of this case. '' It was significant that the doctor was not an employee of the attending physician, but was only visiting the hospital and had responded to a "Dr. Stork '' page, and had not asked or expected to be paid.
If a responder begins rendering aid, he must not leave the scene until it is necessary to call for needed medical assistance, a rescuer of equal or higher ability takes over, or continuing to give aid is unsafe. This can be as simple as a lack of adequate protection against potential diseases, such as vinyl, latex, or nitrile gloves to protect against blood - borne pathogens. A responder is never legally compelled to take risks to aid another person. The responder is not legally liable for any harm to the person assisted, as long as the responder acted rationally, in good faith and in accordance with their level of training.
The responder must obtain the consent of the patient, or of the legal guardian of a patient who is a minor, unless this is not possible; failing to do so may attract a charge of assault or battery.
Consent may be implied if an unattended patient is unconscious, delusional, intoxicated or deemed mentally unfit to make decisions regarding his or her safety, or if the responder has a reasonable belief that this was so; courts tend to be very forgiving in adjudicating this, under the legal fiction that "peril invites rescue '' (as in the rescue doctrine). The test in most jurisdictions is that of the "average, reasonable person ''. To illustrate, would the average, reasonable person in any of the states described above consent to receiving assistance in these circumstances if able to make a decision?
Consent may also be implied if the legal parent or guardian is not immediately reachable and the patient is not considered an adult.
If the victim is a minor, consent must come from a parent or guardian. However, if the legal parent or guardian is absent, unconscious, delusional or intoxicated, consent is implied. A responder is not required to withhold life - saving treatment (e.g., CPR or the Heimlich maneuver) from a minor if the parent or guardian will not consent. The parent or guardian is then considered neglecting, and consent for treatment is implied by default because neglect has been committed. Special circumstances may exist if child abuse is suspected (the courts will usually give immunity to those first responders who report what they reasonably consider to be evidence of child abuse or neglect, similar to that given to those who have an actual duty to report such abuse, such as teachers or counsellors).
In some jurisdictions, good Samaritan laws only protect those who have completed basic first aid training and are certified by health organizations, such as the American Heart Association, or American Red Cross, provided that they have acted within the scope of their training. In these jurisdictions, a person who is neither trained in first aid nor certified, and who performs first aid incorrectly, can be held legally liable for errors made. In other jurisdictions any rescuer is protected from liability so long as the responder acted rationally. In Florida, paramedics, EMTs, and Emergency Medical Responders (First Responders) are required by law to act under the Duty to Act law, which requires them to stop and give aid that falls within their practice.
Good Samaritan laws may be confused with the duty to rescue, as described above. U.S. and Canadian approaches to this issue differ. Under the common law, good Samaritan laws provide a defence against torts arising from the attempted rescue. Such laws do not constitute a duty to rescue, such as exists in some civil law countries, and in the common law under certain circumstances. However, the duty to rescue where it exists may itself imply a shield from liability; for example, under the German law of unterlassene Hilfeleistung (an offense not to provide first aid when necessary), a citizen is obliged to provide first aid when necessary and is immune from prosecution if assistance given in good faith turns out to be harmful. In Canada, all provinces with the exception of Quebec operate on the basis of English Common Law. Quebec operates a civil law system, based in part on the Napoleonic Code, and the principle of duty to rescue does apply. Similarly, in France anyone who fails to render assistance to a person in danger will be found liable before French Courts (civil and criminal liability). The penalty for this offence in criminal courts is imprisonment and a fine (under article 223 -- 6 of the Criminal Code) while in civil courts judges will order payment of pecuniary compensation to the victims.
To illustrate a variation in the concept of duty to rescue, in the Canadian province of Ontario, the Occupational Health and Safety Act provides all workers with the right to refuse to perform unsafe work. There are, however, specific exceptions to this right. When the "life, health or safety of another person is at risk, '' then specific groups, including "police officers, firefighters, or employees of a hospital, clinic or other type of medical worker (including EMS) '' are specifically excluded from the right to refuse unsafe work.
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what does it cost to enter a horse in the belmont stakes | Road to the Kentucky Derby - wikipedia
The Road to the Kentucky Derby is a points system by which horses qualify for a position in the starting gate for the Kentucky Derby. It features dozens of stakes races for 2 and 3 - year - old Thoroughbreds -- the number and specific races have changed slightly over the years. The point system replaced a previous qualifying system that looked at earnings from all graded stakes races worldwide.
There are 20 positions available in the starting gate for the Kentucky Derby. Starting in 2017, one of those spots is reserved for the winner of the separate Japan Road to the Kentucky Derby. If the winner of the Japan Road declines the offer, their position is offered to the next ranked Japanese horse. If none of the top four finishers accepts the offer, this position in the starting gate reverts to qualifiers on the regular Road to the Kentucky Derby. Starting in 2018, Churchill Downs developed a similar European Road to the Kentucky Derby.
The remaining 18 spots in the starting gate (or up 20 if the European and Japanese offers are declined) are offered to the top finishers on the main Road to the Kentucky Derby. If one of those horses does not enter the Derby, their position is given to the next ranked horses on the list. Up to 24 horses may enter the race, with the bottom four point - earners listed as "also eligible ''. If any of the top 20 is scratched after entries are taken but before betting begins, the next ranked horse on the also eligible list will be eligible to run.
If two or more horses have the same number of points, the tiebreaker to get into the Kentucky Derby will be earnings in non-restricted stakes races, whether or not they are graded. In the event of a tie, those horses will divide equally the points they would have received jointly had one beaten the other. If an owner wants to run a filly in the Derby, she will have to earn points in the same races as the colts and geldings -- points earned of the Road to the Kentucky Oaks are not transferable to the Derby.
The Road to the Kentucky Derby point system was created in 2012 to establish a "clear, practical and understandable path '' to the first leg of horse racing 's Triple Crown, according to the official website of Churchill Downs. A poll conducted by Churchill Downs prior to the changes showed 83 % of respondents did not understand how horses became starters for the Kentucky Derby. The previous system was based on earnings from all graded stakes races, which essentially gave equal weight to earnings from juvenile races, sprints and even races on the turf as to the traditional Derby prep races. The new system completely disregards sprint races, and places heavy weight on later races, thus putting a premium on recent results. The points system has changed the way horses are prepared for the Derby, the composition of the field and how the race itself is run given the absence of pure sprinters to ensure a fast early pace.
The series is divided into two phases, the Kentucky Derby Prep Season and the Kentucky Derby Championship Series. The prep season consists of early races on dirt or synthetic surfaces over distances of at least one mile that typically are run between late September and late February. Points are awarded to the top 4 finishers in each race on a 10 - 4 - 2 - 1 scale, except for the Breeders ' Cup Juvenile, which has been awarded points on a 20 - 8 - 4 - 2 scale since 2016. The championship season consists of two legs and a "wild card '' round. The first leg includes minor prep races, usually Grade II, with a 50 - 20 - 10 - 5 scale. The second leg consists of the Super Six Prep races, each worth 100 points to the winner. They include such historic races as the Florida Derby (G1) at Gulfstream Park, the Santa Anita Derby (G1) at Santa Anita Park, the Arkansas Derby (G1) at Oaklawn Park, the Louisiana Derby (G2) at Fair Ground Race Course, the Blue Grass Stakes (currently G2) at Keeneland Race Course and the Wood Memorial Stakes (currently G2) at Aqueduct Racetrack. Originally, there was also one "wild card '' race with a 10 - 4 - 2 - 1 scale. Starting in 2018, there are now two wild card races with points offered on a 20 - 8 - 4 - 2 basis.
The series consisted of 36 races in 2013 and has since changed slightly each year.
In addition to qualifying via the Road to the Kentucky Derby, various fees are required to start in the Derby: a nomination fee, an entry fee and a starter fee. For example, in 2013 horses born in 2010 were eligible and the nomination fee was $600 which was to be paid by January 26, 2013. If the January date was missed, a late nomination fee of $6,000 could be paid by March 23, 2013. In addition, owners with qualifying horses were required to pay $25,000 to enter the Derby by May 1, 2013, and an additional $25,000 to start. If a qualifying horse was not nominated in either January or March, it could be supplemented to the Derby for $200,000.
The 2013 season consisted of 36 races (19 races for the Kentucky Derby Prep Season and 17 races for the Kentucky Derby Championship Season).
The 2014 season consisted of 34 races (18 races for the Kentucky Derby Prep Season and 16 races for the Kentucky Derby Championship Season).
The 2015 season consisted of 35 races (19 races for the Kentucky Derby Prep Season and 16 races for the Kentucky Derby Championship Season).
The 2016 season consisted of 35 races (19 races for the Kentucky Derby Prep Season and 16 races for the Kentucky Derby Championship Season).
The 2017 season consisted of 37 races (19 races for the Kentucky Derby Prep Season, 16 races for the Kentucky Derby Championship Season, and 2 races for the Japan Road to the Kentucky Derby).
The 2018 season consists of 46 races (20 races for the Kentucky Derby Prep Season, 16 races for the Kentucky Derby Championship Season, 7 races for the European Road to the Kentucky Derby, and 3 races for the Japan Road to the Kentucky Derby).
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what are the biggest markets in the world | List of largest consumer markets - wikipedia
Below is a list of the largest consumer markets of the world, according to data from the World Bank. The countries are sorted by their Household final consumption expenditure (HFCE) which represents consumer spending in nominal terms.
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who sings the theme song from the 4400 | Amanda Abizaid - wikipedia
Amanda Jo Abizaid is an American Lebanese singer / songwriter best known for her vocal performance on the theme song of the US TV series The 4400.
Abizaid was born in Beirut, Lebanon, to an American mother and a Mexican / Lebanese father. She traveled the Middle East and Europe with her family before the age of ten, when she moved with her mother and brother to the United States. Along with her four sisters, she formed a band and developed a talent for harmonies. Her first exposure to music was Middle Eastern music combined with the late 1970s American influences of Alice Cooper, Elton John, Crosby, Stills and Nash, and The Beatles.
After moving to the US, she lived in Poughkeepsie, NY until moving to Great Falls, Virginia for high school. She later attended the Corcoran School of Art in Georgetown and then transferred to The Catholic University of America to study drama and music, while pursuing a career in hairstyling. She dropped out of college to work as a runway model with designers such as Jacques Fath, Nina Ricci, Oscar de la Renta, Alberta Ferretti, Badgley Mischka, Chloe and Bill Blass. She traveled to Paris and Germany and modeled for London designer Zandra Rhodes in the UK. Afterward, she returned to the US to live in Miami, Florida. In Miami, she met musician / songwriter Shane Soloski in the late 90 's and decided to move to Los Angeles to form a band with him.
Their first gig was an open mic at Molly Malone 's where she met and played with Todd Sucherman (drummer for Styx). After several open mics around Los Angeles, she and Soloski formed a band called Blue which included musicians Eric Dover (guitarist for Alice Cooper), Ron Dziubla (guitarist / saxophonist for Ricky Martin), Brian Head (drummer for Foreigner), Mike Mennell (bassist for Tom Jones) and Taylor Mills (singer for Brian Wilson). They played a series of shows in Los Angeles at The Gig and The Mint and broke up in 2001 just before releasing their first album. She then recorded and performed as a backup vocalist for Jennifer Stills and as a backup vocalist for Kathleen Bird York (known for her Oscar - nominated song "In the Deep '' from Crash). Abizaid began recording vocal sessions for several TV shows with writers Stephen Phillips and Tim P. from Bosshouse Music, as well as two songs for the film Devious Beings in 2002, starring Patrick van Horn and Kevin Connolly. She was also the voice for Ally Sheedy and Charisma Carpenter on the TV show Strange Frequency starring Roger Daltrey in 2001, singing a vocal recorded duet with Sebastian Bach from the band Skid Row. Due to the success of Paramount 's The 4400, New York Post author Adam Buckman wrote on August 28, 2005 "I 'd like to thank two singers -- one named Sia and the other named Amanda Abizaid -- for making TV all the more memorable this summer. ''
Now an established artist in Los Angeles, Abizaid has performed as a solo artist releasing a single, two EPs and one LP working with musicians Eric Dover, Ron Dziubla, Mike Mennell, Tom Gimbel (keyboardist / saxophonist for Foreigner), Brian Head and Brian Tichy (drummer for Ozzy Osbourne). Abizaid has played shows around the Los Angeles area at The Gig, The Mint and The Rainbow, and other acoustic venues such as Genghis Cohen, Tangier and The Derby. She played at the Indiegrrl festival in the Blue Ridge Mountains in 2012 and remains an avid supporter of women in music. She was on a compilation CD last year of women around the world called Females on Fire.
She has also written and sang songs for several independent feature films, 3 Below, 13th Alley, Dark Ascension, and wrote the theme song and starred in the short film Facing the Lion.
Albums:
EPs / Singles:
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how did the failure of the spanish armada change the course of history | Spanish Armada - wikipedia
Decisive Spanish defeat
The Spanish Armada (Spanish: Grande y Felicísima Armada, literally "Great and Most Fortunate Navy '') was a Spanish fleet of 130 ships that sailed from La Coruña in August 1588, under the command of the Duke of Medina Sidonia with the purpose of escorting an army from Flanders to invade England. The strategic aim was to overthrow Queen Elizabeth I and her establishment of Protestantism in England, with the expectation that this would put a stop to English interference in the Spanish Netherlands and to the harm caused to Spanish interests by English and Dutch privateering.
The Armada chose not to attack the English fleet at Plymouth, then failed to establish a temporary anchorage in the Solent, after one Spanish ship had been captured by Francis Drake in the English Channel. The Armada finally dropped anchor off Calais. While awaiting communications from the Duke of Parma 's army, the Armada was scattered by an English fireship attack. In the ensuing Battle of Gravelines the Spanish fleet was damaged and forced to abandon its rendezvous with Parma 's army, who were blockaded in harbour by Dutch flyboats. The Armada managed to regroup and, driven by southwest winds, withdrew north, with the English fleet harrying it up the east coast of England. The commander ordered a return to Spain, but the Armada was disrupted during severe storms in the North Atlantic and a large number of the vessels were wrecked on the coasts of Scotland and Ireland. Of the initial 130 ships over a third failed to return. As Martin and Parker explain, "Philip II attempted to invade England, but his plans miscarried, partly because of his own mismanagement, unfortunate weather, and partly because the opportunistic defensive naval efforts of the English and their Dutch allies (the use of ships set afire and sailed into the anchored Armada to create panic) prevailed. ''
The expedition was the largest engagement of the undeclared Anglo - Spanish War (1585 -- 1604). The following year, England organised a similar large - scale campaign against Spain, the Drake -- Norris Expedition or "counter-Armada of 1589 '', which was unsuccessful and resulted in serious economic consequences and the loss of many English lives and ships.
The word armada is from the Spanish armada, which is a cognate with English army. Originally from the Latin armāta, the past participle of armāre (to arm), used in Romance languages as a noun, for armed force, army, navy, fleet. Armada Española is still the Spanish term for the modern Spanish Navy. Armada (originally from its armadas) was also the Portuguese traditional term (now alternative, but in common use) of the Portuguese Navy.
Henry VIII began the English Reformation as a political exercise over his desire to divorce his first wife, Catherine of Aragon. Over time it became increasingly aligned with the Protestant reformation taking place in Europe, especially during the reign of Henry 's son, Edward VI. Edward 's death without an heir led to Henry 's daughter Mary I taking the throne. A devout Catholic, Mary (with her co-monarch and husband, Philip II of Spain) began to reassert Roman influence over church affairs. Her attempts led to over 260 people being burned at the stake, earning her the nickname ' Bloody Mary '.
Mary 's death in 1558 led to her half - sister, Elizabeth I, taking the throne. Unlike Mary, Elizabeth was firmly in the reformist camp, and quickly reimplemented many of Edward 's reforms. Philip, no longer co-monarch, deemed Elizabeth a heretic and illegitimate ruler of England. Under Roman law, Henry had never officially divorced Catherine, making Elizabeth illegitimate. It is alleged that Phillip supported plots to have Elizabeth overthrown in favour of her Catholic cousin and heir presumptive, Mary, Queen of Scots; however, these were thwarted when Elizabeth had the Queen of Scots imprisoned and finally executed in 1587. Elizabeth retaliated against Philip by supporting the Dutch revolt against Spain, as well as funding privateers to raid Spanish ships across the Atlantic.
In retaliation, Philip planned an expedition to invade England in order to overthrow Elizabeth and reinstate Catholicism. Through this, it would end the English material support for the United Provinces -- the part of the Low Countries that had successfully seceded from Spanish rule -- and cut off English attacks on Spanish trade and settlements in the New World. The King was supported by Pope Sixtus V, who treated the invasion as a crusade, with the promise of a subsidy should the Armada make land.
A raid on Cadiz, led by Francis Drake in April 1587, had captured or destroyed some thirty ships and great quantities of supplies, setting preparations back by a year. Philip initially favoured a triple attack, starting with a diversionary raid on Scotland, while the main Armada would capture the Isle of Wight, or Southampton, to establish a safe anchorage in the Solent. The Duke of Parma would then follow with a large army from the Low Countries crossing the English Channel. Parma was uneasy about mounting such an invasion without any possibility of surprise. He was also alarmed by the costs that would be incurred and advised Philip to postpone or abandon it. The appointed commander of the Armada was the highly experienced Álvaro de Bazán, Marquis of Santa Cruz, but he died in February 1588, and the Duke of Medina Sidonia, a high - born courtier, took his place. While a competent soldier and distinguished administrator, Medina Sidonia had no naval experience. He wrote to Philip expressing grave doubts about the planned campaign, but this was prevented from reaching the King by courtiers on the grounds that God would ensure the Armada 's success.
Prior to the undertaking, Pope Sixtus V allowed Philip II of Spain to collect crusade taxes and granted his men indulgences. The blessing of the Armada 's banner on 25 April 1588, was similar to the ceremony used prior to the Battle of Lepanto in 1571. On 28 May 1588, the Armada set sail from Lisbon and headed for the English Channel. The fleet was composed of 130 ships, 8,000 sailors and 18,000 soldiers, and bore 1,500 brass guns and 1,000 iron guns. The full body of the fleet took two days to leave port. It included twenty eight purpose - built warships, of which twenty were galleons, four galleys and four (Neapolitan) galleasses. The remainder of the heavy vessels were mostly armed carracks and hulks together with thirty - four light ships.
In the Spanish Netherlands, 30,000 soldiers awaited the arrival of the Armada, the plan being to use the cover of the warships to convey the army on barges to a place near London. All told, 55,000 men were to have been mustered, a huge army for that time. On the day the Armada set sail, Elizabeth 's ambassador in the Netherlands, Valentine Dale, met Parma 's representatives in peace negotiations. The English made a vain effort to intercept the Armada in the Bay of Biscay. On 6 July negotiations were abandoned, and the English fleet stood prepared, if ill - supplied, at Plymouth, awaiting news of Spanish movements. The English fleet outnumbered the Spanish, 200 ships to 130, while the Spanish fleet outgunned the English -- its available firepower was 50 % more than that of the English. The English fleet consisted of the 34 ships of the Royal Fleet (21 of which were galleons of 200 to 400 tons) and 163 other ships (30 of which were of 200 to 400 tons and carried up to 42 guns each), 12 of these were privateers owned by Lord Howard of Effingham, Sir John Hawkins and Sir Francis Drake.
The Armada was delayed by bad weather. Storms in the Bay of Biscay forced four galleys and one galleon to turn back, and other ships had to put in for repairs, so only about 123 or 124 ships actually made it to the English Channel. Nearly half the fleet were not built as warships and were used for duties such as scouting and dispatch work, or for carrying supplies, animals, and troops.
The fleet was not sighted in England until 19 July, when it appeared off The Lizard in Cornwall. The news was conveyed to London by a system of beacons that had been constructed all the way along the south coast. On that evening, the English fleet was trapped in Plymouth Harbour by the incoming tide. The Spanish convened a council of war, where it was proposed to ride into the harbour on the tide and incapacitate the defending ships at anchor and from there to attack England; but Medina Sidonia declined to act because this had been explicitly forbidden by Philip, and decided to sail on to the east and towards the Isle of Wight. As the tide turned, 55 English ships set out to confront them from Plymouth under the command of Lord Howard of Effingham, with Sir Francis Drake as Vice Admiral. Howard ceded some control to Drake, given his experience in battle. The rear admiral was Sir John Hawkins.
On 20 July the English fleet was off Eddystone Rocks, with the Armada upwind to the west. That night, in order to execute their attack, the English tacked upwind of the Armada, thus gaining the weather gage, a significant advantage. At daybreak on 21 July the English fleet engaged the Armada off Plymouth near the Eddystone rocks. The Armada was in a crescent - shaped defensive formation, convex towards the east. The galleons and great ships were concentrated in the centre and at the tips of the crescent 's horns, giving cover to the transports and supply ships in between. Opposing them the English were in two sections, Drake to the north in Revenge with 11 ships, and Howard to the south in Ark Royal with the bulk of the fleet.
Given the Spanish advantage in close - quarter fighting, the English ships used their superior speed and manoeuvrability to keep beyond grappling range and bombarded the Spanish ships from a distance with cannon fire. The distance was too great for this to be effective, however, and at the end of the first day 's fighting neither fleet had lost a ship in action, although the Spanish carrack Rosario and galleon San Salvador were abandoned after they collided. When night fell, Francis Drake turned his ship back to loot the abandoned Spanish ships, capturing supplies of much - needed gunpowder, and gold. However, Drake had been guiding the English fleet by means of a lantern. As a result of him snuffing out the lantern to slip away from the Spanish ships, the rest of his fleet became scattered and was in complete disarray by dawn. It took an entire day for the English fleet to regroup and the Armada gained a day 's grace. The English ships again used their superior speed and manoeuvrability to catch up with the Spanish fleet after a day of sailing.
The English fleet and the Armada engaged once more on 23 July, off Portland. This time a change of wind gave the Spanish the weather - gage, and they sought to close with the English, but were foiled by the smaller ships ' greater manoeuvrability. At one point Howard formed his ships into a line of battle, to attack at close range bringing all his guns to bear, but this was not followed through and little was achieved.
If the Armada could create a temporary base in the protected waters of the Solent (a strait separating the Isle of Wight from the English mainland), they could wait there for word from Parma 's army. However, in a full - scale attack, the English fleet broke into four groups -- Martin Frobisher of Aid now also being given command over a squadron -- with Drake coming in with a large force from the south. At the critical moment Medina Sidonia sent reinforcements south and ordered the Armada back to open sea to avoid The Owers shoals. There were no other secure harbours further east along England 's south coast, so the Armada was compelled to make for Calais, without being able to wait for word of Parma 's army.
On 27 July, the Armada anchored off Calais in a tightly - packed defensive crescent formation, not far from Dunkirk, where Parma 's army, reduced by disease to 16,000, was expected to be waiting, ready to join the fleet in barges sent from ports along the Flemish coast. Communication had proven to be far more difficult than anticipated, and it only now became known that this army had yet to be equipped with sufficient transport or assembled in the port, a process which would take at least six days, while Medina Sidonia waited at anchor; and that Dunkirk was blockaded by a Dutch fleet of thirty flyboats under Lieutenant - Admiral Justinus of Nassau. Parma wanted the Armada to send its light pataches to drive away the Dutch, but Medina Sidonia could not do this because he feared that he might need these ships for his own protection. There was no deep - water port where the fleet might shelter -- always acknowledged as a major difficulty for the expedition -- and the Spanish found themselves vulnerable as night drew on.
The Dutch flyboats mainly operated in the shallow waters off Zeeland and Flanders that larger warships with a deeper draught, like the Spanish and English galleons, could not safely enter. The Dutch therefore enjoyed an unchallenged naval advantage in these waters, even though their navy was inferior in naval armament. An essential element of the plan of invasion, as it was eventually implemented, was the transportation of a large part of Parma 's Army of Flanders as the main invasion force in unarmed barges across the English Channel. These barges would be protected by the large ships of the Armada. However, to get to the Armada, they would have to cross the zone dominated by the Dutch navy, where the Armada could not go. This problem seems to have been overlooked by the Spanish planners, but it was insurmountable. Because of this obstacle, England never was in any real danger, at least from the Duke of Parma and the Army of Flanders. Because of the eventual English victory at sea, the Army of Flanders escaped the drowning death Justinus and his men had in mind for them, ready to fight another day.
At midnight on 28 July, the English set alight eight fireships, sacrificing regular warships by filling them with pitch, brimstone, some gunpowder and tar, and cast them downwind among the closely anchored vessels of the Armada. The Spanish feared that these uncommonly large fireships were "hellburners '', specialised fireships filled with large gunpowder charges, which had been used to deadly effect at the Siege of Antwerp. Two were intercepted and towed away, but the remainder bore down on the fleet. Medina Sidonia 's flagship and the principal warships held their positions, but the rest of the fleet cut their anchor cables and scattered in confusion. No Spanish ships were burnt, but the crescent formation had been broken, and the fleet now found itself too far to leeward of Calais in the rising southwesterly wind to recover its position. The English closed in for battle.
The small port of Gravelines was then part of Flanders in the Spanish Netherlands, close to the border with France and the closest Spanish territory to England. Medina Sidonia tried to re-form his fleet there and was reluctant to sail further east knowing the danger from the shoals off Flanders, from which his Dutch enemies had removed the sea marks. The English had learned more of the Armada 's strengths and weaknesses during the skirmishes in the English Channel and had concluded it was necessary to close within 100 yards (91 m) to penetrate the oak hulls of the Spanish ships. They had spent most of their gunpowder in the first engagements and had, after the Isle of Wight, been forced to conserve their heavy shot and powder for a final attack near Gravelines. During all the engagements, the Spanish heavy guns could not easily be run in for reloading because of their close spacing and the quantities of supplies stowed between decks, as Francis Drake had discovered on capturing the damaged Rosario in the Channel. Instead the gunners fired once and then jumped to the rigging to attend to their main task as marines ready to board enemy ships, as had been the practice in naval warfare at the time. In fact, evidence from Armada wrecks in Ireland shows that much of the fleet 's ammunition was never spent. Their determination to fight by boarding, rather than cannon fire at a distance, proved a weakness for the Spanish; it had been effective on occasions such as the battles of Lepanto and Ponta Delgada (1582), but the English were aware of this strength and sought to avoid it by keeping their distance.
With its superior manoeuvrability, the English fleet provoked Spanish fire while staying out of range. The English then closed, firing repeated and damaging broadsides into the enemy ships. This also enabled them to maintain a position to windward so that the heeling Armada hulls were exposed to damage below the water line. Many of the Spanish gunners were killed or wounded by the English broadsides, and the task of manning the cannon often fell to the regular foot soldiers on board, who did not know how to operate the guns. The ships were close enough for sailors on the upper decks of the English and Spanish ships to exchange musket fire. After eight hours, the English ships began to run out of ammunition, and some gunners began loading objects such as chains into cannons. Around 4: 00 pm, the English fired their last shots and were forced to pull back.
Five Spanish ships were lost. The galleass San Lorenzo, flagship of Don Hugo de Moncada, ran aground at Calais and was taken by Howard after murderous fighting between the crew, the galley slaves, the English who eventually killed all Spanish and slaves, and the French, who ultimately took possession of the wreck. The galleons San Mateo and San Felipe drifted away in a sinking condition, ran aground on the island of Walcheren the next day, and were taken by the Dutch. One carrack ran aground near Blankenberge; another foundered. Many other Spanish ships were severely damaged, especially the Portuguese and some Spanish Atlantic - class galleons (including some Neapolitan galleys) which had to bear the brunt of the fighting during the early hours of the battle in desperate individual actions against groups of English ships. The Spanish plan to join with Parma 's army had been defeated and the English had gained some breathing space, but the Armada 's presence in northern waters still posed a great threat to England.
On the day after the battle of Gravelines, the wind had backed southerly, enabling Medina Sidonia to move his fleet northward away from the French coast. Although their shot lockers were almost empty, the English pursued in an attempt to prevent the enemy from returning to escort Parma. On 2 August Old Style (12 August New Style) Howard called a halt to the pursuit in the latitude of the Firth of Forth off Scotland. By that point, the Spanish were suffering from thirst and exhaustion, and the only option left to Medina Sidonia was to chart a course home to Spain, by a very hazardous route.
The threat of invasion from the Netherlands had not yet been discounted by the English, and Robert Dudley, Earl of Leicester maintained a force of 4,000 soldiers at West Tilbury, Essex, to defend the Thames Estuary against any incursion up - river towards London.
On 8 August (18 August New Style) Elizabeth went to Tilbury to encourage her forces, and the next day, per legend, arrived on horseback in her own personal battle armour (and thus showing to the assembled warriors that she was prepared to fight with them in the ensuing battle to her own death). She gave to them her Royal address, which is probably her most famous speech. It survives in six different versions, each vying to be the authentic report of her words on that day. One version is as follows:
My loving people, we have been persuaded by some that are careful of our safety, to take heed how we commit ourselves to armed multitudes for fear of treachery; but, I do assure you, I do not desire to live to distrust my faithful and loving people. Let tyrants fear, I have always so behaved myself, that under God I have placed my chiefest strength and safeguard in the loyal hearts and goodwill of my subjects; and, therefore, I am come amongst you as you see at this time, not for my recreation and disport, but being resolved, in the midst and heat of battle, to live or die amongst you all -- to lay down for my God, and for my kingdoms, and for my people, my honour and my blood even in the dust. I know I have the body of a weak and feeble woman; but I have the heart and stomach of a king -- and of a King of England too, and think foul scorn that Parma or Spain, or any prince of Europe, should dare to invade the borders of my realm; to which, rather than any dishonour should grow by me, I myself will take up arms -- I myself will be your general, judge, and rewarder of every one of your virtues in the field. I know already, for your forwardness, you have deserved rewards and crowns, and, we do assure you, on the word of a prince, they shall be duly paid you. In the mean time, my lieutenant general shall be in my stead, than whom never prince commanded a more noble or worthy subject; not doubting but by your obedience to my general, by your concord in the camp, and your valour in the field, we shall shortly have a famous victory over those enemies of my God, of my kingdom, and of my people.
After the victory, typhus swept the fleet, killing off thousands of English mariners. Elizabeth failed in her promise to pay the sailors, and of the few who did survive, even of the crew of the royal warship, Elizabeth, most expired destitute in the gutters of Margate.
In September 1588 the Armada sailed around Scotland and Ireland into the North Atlantic. The ships were beginning to show wear from the long voyage, and some were kept together by having their hulls bundled up with cables. Supplies of food and water ran short. The intention would have been to keep well to the west of the coast of Scotland and Ireland, in the relative safety of the open sea. However, there being at that time no way of accurately measuring longitude, the Spanish were not aware that the Gulf Stream was carrying them north and east as they tried to move west, and they eventually turned south much further to the east than planned, a devastating navigational error. Off the coasts of Scotland and Ireland the fleet ran into a series of powerful westerly winds, which drove many of the damaged ships further towards the lee shore. Because so many anchors had been abandoned during the escape from the English fireships off Calais, many of the ships were incapable of securing shelter as they reached the coast of Ireland and were driven onto the rocks. Local inhabitants looted the ships. The late 16th century, and especially 1588, was marked by unusually strong North Atlantic storms, perhaps associated with a high accumulation of polar ice off the coast of Greenland, a characteristic phenomenon of the "Little Ice Age ''. As a result, more ships and sailors were lost to cold and stormy weather than in direct combat.
Following the gales it is reckoned that 5,000 men died, by drowning, starvation and slaughter at the hands of English forces after they were driven ashore in Ireland. Reports of the passage of the remnants of the Spanish Armada around Ireland abound with onerous accounts of hardships and survival.
In the end, 67 ships and fewer than 10,000 men survived. Many of the men were near death from disease, as the conditions were very cramped and most of the ships ran out of food and water. Many more later died in Spain, or on hospital ships in Spanish harbours, from diseases contracted during the voyage. It was reported that when Philip II learned of the result of the expedition, he declared, "I sent the Armada against men, not God 's winds and waves ''.
The English fleet was still cautious of the remaining Armada after the Battle of Gravelines, requiring it to remain on duty even as some of its sailors died. The following year Elizabeth I launched the Counter Armada, under Sir Francis Drake, but it was unsuccessful in its goals, resulting in Spain retaining naval superiority.
The Spanish failed to gain control of the Channel from the English, nor stop their intervention in the region of Flanders or their privateer transatlantic raids; however, for the sixteen years that the war continued, the English ultimately failed to disrupt the various fleets of the Indies, despite the great number of military personnel mobilised every year. The English were also unsuccessful in plots to support Portuguese separation from the Spanish crown. Spanish naval power not only continued its hegemony in the key trade routes but also in the creation of the Armada de Barlovento. An important fortification effort ensued in different fortifications at both sides of the Atlantic, notably in Cartagena or Portobelo. Despite the efforts by the English and Dutch, Spain remained the predominant power in Europe for several decades, thanks to sufficient financing and organisation as well as superior technology to enhance its naval strength.
The outcome vindicated the English naval battle strategy and resulted in a revolution in naval battle tactics of the era -- using weather gage advantage and line - to - line cannon battle from windward (revealing the opponent ship 's hull and rudder as targets) -- with the promotion of heavier, more numerous naval cannon gunnery, which until then had played a supporting role to the principal tactics of ramming and crew boarding. The clear choice of sink or capture.
Most military historians hold that the battle of Gravelines reflected a lasting shift in the balance of naval power in favour of the English, in part because of the gap in naval technology and cannon armament it confirmed between the two nations, which continued into the next century. In the words of Geoffrey Parker, by 1588 "the capital ships of the Elizabethan navy constituted the most powerful battlefleet afloat anywhere in the world ''. The English navy yards were leaders in technical innovation, and the captains devised new battle formations and tactics. Parker argues that the sleeker full - rigged ship, amply cannoned, was one of the greatest technological advances of the century and permanently transformed naval warfare.
English shipwrights introduced designs in 1573, first demonstrated in Dreadnought, that allowed the ships to sail faster and manoeuvre better and permitted heavier guns. Whereas before warships had tried to grapple with each other so that soldiers could board the enemy ship, now they more often stood off and fired broadsides that could sink the enemy vessel. Superior English ships and seamanship had foiled the invasion. The English also took advantage of Spain 's overly complex strategy that required coordination between the invasion fleet and the Spanish army on shore. But the poor design of the Spanish cannon meant they were much slower in reloading in a close - range battle, allowing the English to take control. Spain still had numerically larger fleets, but England was catching up.
In England, the boost to national pride from the defeat of the Spanish invasion attempt lasted for years, and Elizabeth 's legend persisted and grew long after her death. Repulsing the Spanish naval force may have given heart to the Protestant cause across Europe and the belief that God was behind the Protestants. This was shown by the striking of commemorative medals that bore variations on the inscription, "1588. Flavit Jehovah et Dissipati Sunt '' -- with "Jehovah '' in Hebrew letters ("God blew, and they are scattered ''), or He blew with His winds, and they were scattered. There were also more lighthearted medals struck, such as the one with the play on the words of Julius Caesar: Venit, Vidit, Fugit (he came, he saw, he fled). The victory was acclaimed by the English as their greatest since Agincourt.
The English attempted to press home their advantage the following year, when the Drake -- Norris Expedition of 1589, with a comparable fleet of English privateers, sailed to establish a base in the Azores, attack Spain, and raise a revolt in Portugal. This expedition, led by Sir Francis Drake and John Norreys raided Corunna but withdrew from Lisbon after failing to coordinate its strategy effectively with the Portuguese.
Two more armadas were sent by Spain, in 1596 and 1597, but both were once more scattered by treacherous storms.
The Spanish Navy underwent a major organizational reform that helped it to maintain control over its trans - Atlantic routes. High - seas buccaneering and the supply of troops to Philip II 's enemies in the Netherlands and France continued, but brought few tangible rewards for England.
The memory of the victory over the Armada was evoked during both the Napoleonic Wars and the Second World War, when Britain again faced a substantial danger of foreign invasion.
The Armada Memorial in Plymouth was constructed in 1888 to celebrate the tercentenary of the defeat of the Spanish Armada.
Knerr (1989) has reviewed the main trends in historiography over five centuries. For 150 years writers relied heavily on Petruccio Ubaldini 's A Discourse Concernye the Spanish Fleete Invadinye Englande (1590), which argued that God decisively favoured the Protestant cause. William Camden (1551 -- 1623) pointed in addition to elements of English nationalism and the private enterprise of the sea dogs. He also emphasized that the Duke of Medina Sidonia was an incompetent seaman. David Hume (1711 -- 1776) praised the leadership of Queen Elizabeth. However the Whig historians, led by James A. Froude (1818 -- 1894), rejected Hume 's interpretation and argued that Elizabeth was vacillating and almost lost the conflict by her unwillingness to previously spend enough to maintain and supply the Royal Navy 's fleet of ships. Scientific modern historiography came of age with the publication of two volumes of primary documents by John K. Laughton in 1894. This enabled the leading naval scholar of the day Julian Corbett (1854 -- 1922) to reject the Whig views and turn attention to the professionalization of the Royal Navy as a critical factor. Twentieth - century historians have focused on technical issues, such as the comparative power of English and Spanish naval guns and the degree of naval battle tactics credit due Francis Drake and Charles Howard. Inclement weather in the English Channel and on the oceans at the time has always been cited as a major factor to the outcome.
Coordinates: 50 ° 10 ′ 00 '' N 4 ° 15 ′ 42 '' W / 50.16667 ° N 4.26167 ° W / 50.16667; - 4.26167
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who won americas next top model season 16 | America 's Next Top Model (cycle 16) - wikipedia
February 23 (2011 - 02 - 23) -- May 18, 2011 (2011 - 05 - 18)
The sixteenth cycle of America 's Next Top Model premiered on February 23, 2011, and was the tenth season to be aired on The CW. The catch - phrase for this cycle is "Rainy Day Women. ''
The prizes for this cycle were:
All three permanent judges from the previous cycle -- Vogue editor - at - large André Leon Talley, photographer Nigel Barker and Tyra Banks herself -- remain.
The international destination for this cycle is Marrakech, Morocco.
The winner was 19 - year - old Brittani Kline from Beech Creek, Pennsylvania.
(ages stated are at start of contest)
First aired February 23, 2011
First aired March 2, 2011
First aired March 9, 2011
First aired March 16, 2011
First aired March 23, 2011
First aired March 30, 2011
First aired April 6, 2011
First aired April 13, 2011
First aired April 27, 2011
First aired May 4, 2011
First aired May 11, 2011
First aired May 18, 2011
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the stage in action potential that immediately follows depolarization is known as | Refractory period (physiology) - wikipedia
Refractoriness is the fundamental property of any object of autowave nature (especially excitable medium) not to respond on stimuli, if the object stays in the specific refractory state. In common sense, refractory period is the characteristic recovery time, a period of time that is associated with the motion of the image point on the left branch of the isocline u _̇ = 0 (\ displaystyle (\ dot (u)) = 0) (for more details, see also Reaction - diffusion and Parabolic partial differential equation).
In physiology, a refractory period is a period of time during which an organ or cell is incapable of repeating a particular action, or (more precisely) the amount of time it takes for an excitable membrane to be ready for a second stimulus once it returns to its resting state following an excitation. It most commonly refers to electrically excitable muscle cells or neurons. Absolute refractory period corresponds to depolarization and repolarization, whereas relative refractory period corresponds to hyperpolarization.
After initiation of an action potential, the refractory period is defined two ways: The absolute refractory period coincides with nearly the entire duration of the action potential. In neurons, it is caused by the inactivation of the Na channels that originally opened to depolarize the membrane. These channels remain inactivated until the membrane hyperpolarizes. The channels then close, de-inactivate, and regain their ability to open in response to stimulus.
The relative refractory period immediately follows the absolute. As voltage - gated potassium channels open to terminate the action potential by repolarizing the membrane, the potassium conductance of the membrane increases dramatically. K ions moving out of the cell bring the membrane potential closer to the equilibrium potential for potassium. This causes brief hyperpolarization of the membrane, that is, the membrane potential becomes transiently more negative than the normal resting potential. Until the potassium conductance returns to the resting value, a greater stimulus will be required to reach the initiation threshold for a second depolarization. The return to the equilibrium resting potential marks the end of the relative refractory period.
The refractory period in cardiac physiology is related to the ion currents that, in cardiac cells as in nerve cells, flow into and out of the cell freely. The flow of ions translates into a change in the voltage of the inside of the cell relative to the extracellular space. As in nerve cells, this characteristic change in voltage is referred to as an action potential. Unlike that in nerve cells, the cardiac action potential duration is closer to 100 ms (with variations depending on cell type, autonomic tone, etc.). After an action potential initiates, the cardiac cell is unable to initiate another action potential for some duration of time (which is slightly shorter than the "true '' action potential duration). This period of time is referred to as the refractory period, which is 250ms in duration and helps to protect the heart.
In the classical sense, the cardiac refractory period is separated into an absolute refractory period and a relative refractory period. During the absolute refractory period, a new action potential can not be elicited. During the relative refractory period, a new action potential can be elicited under the correct circumstances.
The cardiac refractory period can result in different forms of re-entry, which are a cause of tachycardia. Vortices of excitation in the myocardium (autowave vortices) are a form of re-entry. Such vortices can be a mechanism of life - threatening cardiac arrhythmias. In particular, the autowave reverberator, more commonly referred to as spiral waves or rotors, can be found within the atria and may be a cause of atrial fibrillation.
The refractory period in a neuron occurs after an action potential and generally lasts one millisecond. An action potential consists of three phases.
Phase one is depolarization. During depolarization, voltage - gated sodium ion channels open, increasing the neuron 's membrane conductance for sodium ions and depolarizing the cell 's membrane potential (from typically - 70 mV toward a positive potential). In other words, the membrane is made less negative. After the potential reaches the activation threshold (- 55 mV), the depolarization is actively driven by the neuron and overshoots the equilibrium potential of an activated membrane (+ 30 mV).
Phase two is repolarization. During repolarization, voltage - gated sodium ion channels inactivate (different from the closed state) due to the now - depolarized membrane, and voltage - gated potassium channels activate (open). Both the inactivation of the sodium ion channels and the opening of the potassium ion channels act to repolarize the cell 's membrane potential back to its resting membrane potential.
When the cell 's membrane voltage overshoots its resting membrane potential (near - 60mV), the cell enters a phase of hyperpolarization. This is due to a larger - than - resting potassium conductance across the cell membrane. This potassium conductance eventually drops and the cell returns to its resting membrane potential.
The refractory periods are due to the inactivation property of voltage - gated sodium channels and the lag of potassium channels in closing. Voltage - gated sodium channels have two gating mechanisms, the activation mechanism that opens the channel with depolarization and the inactivation mechanism that closes the channel with repolarization. While the channel is in the inactive state, it will not open in response to depolarization. The period when the majority of sodium channels remain in the inactive state is the absolute refractory period. After this period, there are enough voltage - activated sodium channels in the closed (active) state to respond to depolarization. However, voltage - gated potassium channels that opened in response to repolarization do not close as quickly as voltage - gated sodium channels; to return to the active closed state. During this time, the extra potassium conductance means that the membrane is at a higher threshold and will require a greater stimulus to cause action potentials to fire. This period is the relative refractory period.
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who is the original singer of hotel california | Hotel California - wikipedia
"Hotel California '' is the title track from the Eagles ' album of the same name and was released as a single in February 1977. Writing credits for the song are shared by Don Felder (music), Don Henley, and Glenn Frey (lyrics). The Eagles ' original recording of the song features Henley singing the lead vocals and concludes with an extended section of electric guitar interplay between Felder and Joe Walsh.
The song is considered the most famous recording by the band, and its long guitar coda has been voted the best guitar solo of all time by readers of Guitarist in 1998. The song was awarded the Grammy Award for Record of the Year in 1978. The lyrics of the song have been given various interpretations by fans and critics alike, the Eagles themselves described the song as their "interpretation of the high life in Los Angeles ''. In the 2013 documentary History of the Eagles, Henley said that the song was about "a journey from innocence to experience... that 's all... ''
The melody of the song was composed by Don Felder in a rented house on Malibu Beach. He recorded the basic tracks with a Rhythm Ace drum machine and added a 12 string guitar on a four - track recording deck in his spare bedroom, then mixed in a bassline, and gave Don Henley and Glenn Frey each the resulting demo cassette. Felder, who met the Eagles through his high school bandmate Bernie Leadon, said that Leadon advised him to make tapes of songs he wrote for the band so that other band members like Henley, whose forte is in writing lyrics, might work with him on finishing the songs they like. The demos he made were always instrumental, and on every album project he would submit 15 or 16 ideas. The demo he made for Hotel California showed influences from Latin and reggae music, and it grabbed the attention of Henley who said he liked the song that "sounds like a Mexican reggae or Bolero '', which gave the song its first working title, "Mexican Reggae ''.
Frey and Henley were both interested in the tune after hearing the demo, and discussed the concept for the lyrics. In 2008, Felder described the writing of the lyrics:
Don Henley and Glenn wrote most of the words. All of us kind of drove into L.A. at night. Nobody was from California, and if you drive into L.A. at night... you can just see this glow on the horizon of lights, and the images that start running through your head of Hollywood and all the dreams that you have, and so it was kind of about that... what we started writing the song about.
Henley decided on the theme of Hotel California, noting how The Beverly Hills Hotel had become a literal and symbolic focal point of their lives at that time. Henley said of their personal and professional experience in LA: "We were getting an extensive education, in life, in love, in business. Beverly Hills was still a mythical place to us. In that sense it became something of a symbol, and the ' Hotel ' the locus of all that LA had come to mean for us. In a sentence, I 'd sum it up as the end of the innocence, round one. ''
Frey came up with a cinematic scenario of a person who, tired from driving a long distance in a desert, saw a place for a rest and pulled in for the night, but entered "a weird world peopled by freaky characters '', and became "quickly spooked by the claustrophobic feeling of being caught in a disturbing web from which he may never escape. '' In an interview with Cameron Crowe, Frey said that he and Henley wanted the song "to open like an episode of the Twilight Zone '', and added: "We take this guy and make him like a character in The Magus, where every time he walks through a door there 's a new version of reality. We wanted to write a song just like it was a movie. '' Frey described the song in an interview with NBC 's Bob Costas as a cinematic montage "just one shot to the next... a picture of a guy on the highway, a picture of the hotel, the guy walks in, the door opens, strange people. '' Frey continued: "We decided to create something strange, just to see if we could do it. '' Henley then wrote most of the lyrics based on Frey 's idea, and sought inspiration for the writing by driving out into the desert as well as from films and theater.
Part of the lyrics, such as "Her mind is Tiffany twisted, she got the Mercedes bends / She got a lot of pretty pretty boys she calls friends '', are based on Henley 's break - up with his girlfriend Loree Rodkin. According to Glenn Frey 's liner notes for The Very Best Of, the use of the word "steely '' in the lyric, "They stab it with their steely knives, but they just ca n't kill the beast, '' was a playful nod to the band Steely Dan, who had included the lyric "Turn up the Eagles, the neighbors are listening '' in their song "Everything You Did ''. Frey had also said that the writing of the song was inspired by the boldness of Steely Dan 's lyrics and its willingness to go "out there '', and thought that the song they wrote had "achieved perfect ambiguity. ''
The Eagles recorded the track with Don Henley on lead vocal three different times, twice at the Record Plant in Los Angeles and finally at the Criteria Studios in Miami. They first recorded a riff, but when it came to recording the vocal, it was found to be in too high a key for Henley 's voice, so Felder progressively lowered the key from E minor, eventually settling on B minor. The second recording however was judged too fast. In Miami, the band fine - tuned the instrumentation and the lyrics and recorded numerous takes. Five or six best ones were selected, and the best parts were then spliced together to create the released version. According to the producer Bill Szymczyk, there were 33 edits on the two ‐ inch master. The final section features a guitar battle between Joe Walsh (who had replaced Bernie Leadon who left in 1975) and Felder, which took the two of them sitting together working for around three days to achieve the necessary precision. Walsh and Felder initially started improvising but Henley insisted that the recording should follow the music as first recorded in Felder 's demo.
Henley decided that the song should be a single, although Felder had doubts and the record company was reluctant to release it as a single because, at over six minutes, its duration far exceeds that of the songs generally played by radio stations. The band took a stand and refused the label 's request to shorten the song. The song was released as the second single from the album after "New Kid in Town ''. The front cover art for some overseas editions of the 45rpm single released was a reworked version of the Hotel California LP cover art, which used a photograph of the Beverly Hills Hotel by David Alexander, with design and art direction by Kosh.
As "Hotel California '' became one of the group 's most popular songs and a concert staple for the band, live recordings of the song have therefore also been released. The first live recording of the song appeared on the Eagles ' 1980 live album, and an acoustic version with an extended intro is a track in the 1994 Hell Freezes Over reunion concert CD and video release. The Hell Freezes Over version is performed using eight guitars and has a decidedly Spanish sound, with Don Felder 's flamenco - inspired arrangement and intro.
"Hotel California '' first entered the Billboard Hot 100 on chart dated February 26, 1977, and topped the Hot 100 singles chart for one week in May 1977, the band 's fourth song to reach No. 1 on that chart. It peaked at number 10 on the Easy Listening chart in April 1977. Billboard ranked it number 19 on its 1977 Pop Singles year - end chart. Three months after its first release, the single was certified Gold by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA), representing one million copies shipped. In 2009, the song was further certified Platinum (Digital Sales Award) by the RIAA for sales of one million digital downloads, and has since sold over 3 million downloads.
The Eagles won the 1977 Grammy Award for Record of the Year for "Hotel California '' at the 20th Grammy Awards in 1978.
The song is rated highly in many rock music lists and polls; Rolling Stone magazine ranked it number 49 on its list of "The 500 Greatest Songs of All Time ''. It was named one of The Rock and Roll Hall of Fame 's 500 Songs that Shaped Rock and Roll. At the induction of the Eagles into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 1998, all seven former and present members of the band reunited to perform "Hotel California ''.
The song 's guitar solo was voted the best solo of all time by readers of Guitarist magazine in 1998, and was ranked 8th on Guitar Magazine 's Top 100 Guitar Solos. The song was also included in the music video game Guitar Hero World Tour. It was ranked the number 1 in the list of the best 12 - string guitar songs of all times by Guitar World magazine in 2015.
Don Henley has given a number of explanations about the song, ranging from "a journey from innocence to experience '' to "a sociopolitical statement ''. In an interview with Rolling Stone, Henley said that the song was meant to be "more of a symbolic piece about America in general '', and added: "Lyrically, the song deals with traditional or classical themes of conflict: darkness and light, good and evil, youth and age, the spiritual versus the secular. I guess you could say it 's a song about loss of innocence. ''
The song has been described as being "all about American decadence and burnout, too much money, corruption, drugs and arrogance; too little humility and heart. '' It has also been interpreted an allegory about hedonism, self - destruction, and greed in the music industry of the late 1970s. Don Henley called it "our interpretation of the high life in Los Angeles '', and later said: "It 's basically a song about the dark underbelly of the American dream and about excess in America, which is something we knew a lot about. '' In the 2013 documentary, History of the Eagles, Henley reiterated:
On just about every album we made, there was some kind of commentary on the music business, and on American culture in general. The hotel itself could be taken as a metaphor not only for the myth - making of Southern California, but for the myth - making that is the American Dream, because it is a fine line between the American Dream, and the American nightmare.
In a 2009 interview, The Plain Dealer music critic John Soeder asked Don Henley if he regretted writing the lines "So I called up the captain / ' Please bring me my wine ' / He said, ' We have n't had that spirit here since 1969 ' '' because wines are fermented while spirits are distilled. Henley responded:
Thanks for the tutorial and, no, you 're not the first to bring this to my attention -- and you 're not the first to completely misinterpret the lyric and miss the metaphor. Believe me, I 've consumed enough alcoholic beverages in my time to know how they are made and what the proper nomenclature is. But that line in the song has little or nothing to do with alcoholic beverages. It 's a sociopolitical statement. My only regret would be having to explain it in detail to you, which would defeat the purpose of using literary devices in songwriting and lower the discussion to some silly and irrelevant argument about chemical processes.
In his Encyclopedia of Great Popular Song Recordings, Volume 1, Steve Sullivan theorizes that the "spirit '' that the Hotel California has n't had since 1969 refers to the spirit of social activism of the 1960s, and how disco and the related pop music of mid-1970s had turned away from it.
The metaphorical character of the story related in the lyrics has inspired a number of conjectural interpretations by listeners. In the 1980s some Christian evangelists alleged that "Hotel California '' referred to a San Francisco hotel that was purchased by Anton LaVey and converted into his Church of Satan. Other rumors suggested that the Hotel California was the Camarillo State Mental Hospital.
The term "colitas '' in the first stanza ("warm smell of colitas, rising up through the air '') has been interpreted as a sexual slang or a reference to marijuana. "Colitas '' means "little tails '' in Spanish; in Mexican slang it refers to buds of the cannabis (marijuana) plant. According to Glenn Frey, the "warm smell '' is "colitas... it means little tails, the very top of the plant. '' The Eagles ' manager Irving Azoff appears to lend support to the marijuana hypothesis, however, Felder said: "The colitas is a plant that grows in the desert that blooms at night, and it has this kind of pungent, almost funky smell. Don Henley came up with a lot of the lyrics for that song, and he came up with colitas. ''
Other interpretations of the songs include heroin addiction and cannibalism. On the various interpretations, Henley said: "Some of the wilder interpretations of that song have been amazing. It was really about the excesses of American culture and certain girls we knew. But it was also about the uneasy balance between art and commerce. ''
The intro and verse 's chord pattern counts eight measures, each one assigned to a single chord. Seven different chords are used in the eight measures. As the song opens, it is not until the eighth measure that a chord is repeated. The song is initially in the key of B - minor. The presence of E major gives a hint of B Dorian.
The chords are played as follows:
The eight measure sequence is repeated in the intro, for each verse and in the outro, providing the harmonic framework for the entire extended dual guitar solo at the end of the song. One explanation of the progression is that it is a common flamenco chord progression called the "Spanish progression '' (i -- VII -- VI -- V in a phrygian context) that is interspersed with consecutive fifths. With its descending ostinato pattern, it could be considered a fandango, a forerunner of the Baroque chaconne form.
This chord sequence is not commonly used, and Ian Anderson of Jethro Tull has pointed out its similarity to his song "We Used to Know '' from their 1969 album Stand Up, suggesting the Eagles heard it when they toured together. While the Eagles did open for Jethro Tull in June 1972, Don Felder, who wrote the music, did not join the band until 1974 and would not have been in the audience or backstage. Felder has said that he had never heard "We Used to Know '', and that he was unfamiliar with Jethro Tull apart from the fact the frontman plays a flute.
The chorus, or refrain, uses five of the song 's seven chords, structured with the melody in a way that shifts the key from B - minor to its relative major of D:
Al B. Sure! recorded his rendition for his album, Private Times... and the Whole 9! (1990). Gipsy Kings recorded a flamenco version sung in Spanish, which was used in the soundtrack for the film The Big Lebowski. The Orb, under the name of Jam On The Mutha produced a version which charted at No. 62 on the UK chart in 1990. Mike Piranha recorded "Hotel Honolulu '' in 1998, satirizing overdevelopment, crime, and other issues on Oahu, which became a local hit in Hawaii. The Romanian band Vama Veche recorded its version with different lyrics entitled "Hotel Cişmigiu '', sung in its native language. Alabama 3 covered the song for the album, La Peste (2000). Nancy Sinatra recorded a cover version for her 2002 album California Girl, an album of songs about California. The Cat Empire recorded a version sung in French "L'hotel de Californie '' for Triple J 's Like a Version segment, and is included in its 2005 compilation album as well as the band 's 2003 live album On the Attack. The Killers and Rhythms del Mundo collaborated their version with Afro - Cuban music for the 2009 Artists ' Project Earth charity, and it appeared on the album Rhythms del Mundo Classics.
Frank Ocean released a version sampling the entire instrumental track of "Hotel California '' with his own vocal and lyrics on his mixtape Nostalgia, Ultra (2011), entitled "American Wedding ''. However, it led to a threatened lawsuit from Don Henley for copyright infringement.
"Hotel California '' and its lyrics have become absorbed into the wider culture around the world, and have been used by various writers and commentators to reflect on issues ranging from politics to social media and welfare, or as an observation on a particular situation. The lines "We are programmed to receive / You can check out any time you like / But you can never leave! '' were used by an economist to refer to how the appeal of an attractive "Hotel California '' - type host country to foreign investors may be countered by the cost of exit on leaving the country. A term "The Hotel California Effect '' was then used to refer to the negative effect of financial regulations on investment, and the problems foreigner investors faced when getting their money out of China. It has also applied to other ideas such as leaving a service provider or social media network. A book titled Operation Hotel California: The Clandestine War Inside Iraq was written about the clandestine operation named after the song title by CIA -- US Special Forces teams in Iraqi Kurdistan in the lead - up to the Iraq War.
Although the Eagles were noted for their reluctance to license their songs for use in shows, the song had been used in a number of films and television shows, such as The Big Lebowski (performed by Gipsy Kings), Absolutely Fabulous, and The Sopranos. Most recently it was used during the final scenes of the premiere episode of American Horror Story: Hotel in October 2015.
According to Rolling Stone, Julia Phillips, the producer of films like Taxi Driver and Close Encounters of the Third Kind, was interested in shooting a movie based on the song 's story. Although the band members and Phillips met to discuss the project, tension between the two parties ended the pre-development deal for the film.
shipments figures based on certification alone sales + streaming figures based on certification alone
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characters in the rime of the ancient mariner | The Rime of the Ancient mariner - wikipedia
The Rime of the Ancient Mariner (originally The Rime of the Ancyent Marinere) is the longest major poem by the English poet Samuel Taylor Coleridge, written in 1797 -- 98 and published in 1798 in the first edition of Lyrical Ballads. Some modern editions use a revised version printed in 1817 that featured a gloss. Along with other poems in Lyrical Ballads, it is often considered a signal shift to modern poetry and the beginning of British Romantic literature.
The Rime of the Ancient Mariner relates the experiences of a sailor who has returned from a long sea voyage. The mariner stops a man who is on the way to a wedding ceremony and begins to narrate a story. The wedding - guest 's reaction turns from bemusement to impatience to fear to fascination as the mariner 's story progresses, as can be seen in the language style: Coleridge uses narrative techniques such as personification and repetition to create a sense of danger, the supernatural, or serenity, depending on the mood in different parts of the poem.
The mariner 's tale begins with his ship departing on its journey. Despite initial good fortune, the ship is driven south by a storm and eventually reaches Antarctic waters. An albatross appears and leads them out of the ice jam where they are stuck, but even as the albatross is praised by the ship 's crew, the mariner shoots the bird:
With my cross-bow, I shot the albatross.
The crew is angry with the mariner, believing the albatross brought the south wind that led them out of the Antarctic. However, the sailors change their minds when the weather becomes warmer and the mist disappears:
' Twas right, said they, such birds to slay, That bring the fog and mist.
They soon find that they made a grave mistake in supporting this crime, as it arouses the wrath of spirits who then pursue the ship "from the land of mist and snow ''; the south wind that had initially led them from the land of ice now sends the ship into uncharted waters near the equator, where it is becalmed.
Day after day, day after day, We stuck, nor breath nor motion; As idle as a painted ship Upon a painted ocean. Water, water, every where, And all the boards did shrink; Water, water, every where, Nor any drop to drink. The very deep did rot -- Oh Christ! That ever this should be. Yea, slimy things did crawl with legs, Upon the slimy sea.
The sailors change their minds again and blame the mariner for the torment of their thirst. In anger, the crew forces the mariner to wear the dead albatross about his neck, perhaps to illustrate the burden he must suffer from killing it, or perhaps as a sign of regret:
Ah! Well a-day! What evil looks Had I from old and young! Instead of the cross, the albatross About my neck was hung.
Eventually, the ship encounters a ghostly hulk. On board are Death (a skeleton) and the "Night - mare Life - in - Death '', a deathly - pale woman, who are playing dice for the souls of the crew. With a roll of the dice, Death wins the lives of the crew members and Life - in - Death the life of the mariner, a prize she considers more valuable. Her name is a clue to the mariner 's fate: he will endure a fate worse than death as punishment for his killing of the albatross.
One by one, all of the crew members die, but the mariner lives on, seeing for seven days and nights the curse in the eyes of the crew 's corpses, whose last expressions remain upon their faces. Eventually, this stage of the mariner 's curse is lifted after he appreciates the sea creatures swimming in the water. Despite his cursing them as "slimy things '' earlier in the poem, he suddenly sees their true beauty and blesses them ("a spring of love gush 'd from my heart, and I bless 'd them unaware ''); suddenly, as he manages to pray, the albatross falls from his neck and his guilt is partially expiated. The bodies of the crew, possessed by good spirits, rise again and help steer the ship. In a trance, the mariner hears two spirits discussing his voyage and penance, and learns that the ship is being powered preternaturally:
The air is cut away before, And closes from behind.
Finally the mariner comes in sight of his homeland, but is initially uncertain as to whether or not he is hallucinating.
Oh! Dream of joy! Is this indeed The light - house top I see? Is this the hill? Is this the kirk? Is this mine own countree? We drifted o'er the harbour - bar, And I with sobs did pray -- O let me be awake, my God! Or let me sleep alway.
The rotten remains of the ship sink in a whirlpool, leaving only the mariner behind. A hermit on the mainland had seen the approaching ship and had come to meet it with a pilot and his boy, in a boat. When they pull him from the water, they think he is dead, but when he opens his mouth, the pilot has a fit. The hermit prays, and the mariner picks up the oars to row. The pilot 's boy goes crazy and laughs, thinking the mariner is the devil, and cries, "The Devil knows how to row ''. As penance for shooting the albatross, the mariner, driven by guilt, is forced to wander the earth, telling his story over and over, and teaching a lesson to those he meets:
He prayeth best, who loveth best All things both great and small; For the dear God who loveth us, He made and loveth all.
After relaying the story, the mariner leaves, and the wedding guest returns home, and wakes the next morning "a sadder and a wiser man ''.
The poem received mixed reviews from critics, and Coleridge was once told by the publisher that most of the book 's sales were to sailors who thought it was a naval songbook. Coleridge made several modifications to the poem over the years. In the second edition of Lyrical Ballads, published in 1800, he replaced many of the archaic words.
"Ah! well a-day! what evil looks Had I from old and young! Instead of the cross, the Albatross About my neck was hung. ''
The poem may have been inspired by James Cook 's second voyage of exploration (1772 -- 1775) of the South Seas and the Pacific Ocean; Coleridge 's tutor, William Wales, was the astronomer on Cook 's flagship and had a strong relationship with Cook. On this second voyage Cook crossed three times into the Antarctic Circle to determine whether the fabled great southern continent existed. Critics have also suggested that the poem may have been inspired by the voyage of Thomas James into the Arctic.
According to William Wordsworth, the poem was inspired while Coleridge, Wordsworth, and Wordsworth 's sister Dorothy were on a walking tour through the Quantock Hills in Somerset. The discussion had turned to a book that Wordsworth was reading, A Voyage Round The World by Way of the Great South Sea (1726) by Captain George Shelvocke. In the book, a melancholy sailor, Simon Hatley, shoots a black albatross:
We all observed, that we had not the sight of one fish of any kind, since we were come to the Southward of the streights of le Mair, nor one sea - bird, except a disconsolate black Albatross, who accompanied us for several days... till Hattley, (my second Captain) observing, in one of his melancholy fits, that this bird was always hovering near us, imagin 'd, from his colour, that it might be some ill omen... He, after some fruitless attempts, at length, shot the Albatross, not doubting we should have a fair wind after it.
As they discussed Shelvocke 's book, Wordsworth proffers the following developmental critique to Coleridge, which importantly contains a reference to tutelary spirits: "Suppose you represent him as having killed one of these birds on entering the south sea, and the tutelary spirits of these regions take upon them to avenge the crime. '' By the time the trio finished their walk, the poem had taken shape.
Bernard Martin argues in The Ancient Mariner and the Authentic Narrative that Coleridge was also influenced by the life of Anglican clergyman John Newton, who had a near - death experience aboard a slave ship.
The poem may also have been inspired by the legends of the Wandering Jew, who was forced to wander the earth until Judgement Day for a terrible crime, found in Charles Maturin 's Melmoth the Wanderer, M.G. Lewis ' The Monk (a novel Coleridge reviewed) and the Flying Dutchman.
It is claimed that the harbour at Watchet in Somerset was the primary inspiration for the poem, although some time before, John Cruikshank, a local acquaintance of Coleridge 's, had related a dream about a skeleton ship manned by spectral sailors. In September 2003, a commemorative statue, by Alan B Herriot of Penicuik, Scotland, was unveiled at Watchet harbour.
In Biographia Literaria, Coleridge wrote:
The thought suggested itself (to which of us I do not recollect) that a series of poems might be composed of two sorts. In the one, incidents and agents were to be, in part at least, supernatural, and the excellence aimed at was to consist in the interesting of the affections by the dramatic truth of such emotions, as would naturally accompany such situations, supposing them real. And real in this sense they have been to every human being who, from whatever source of delusion, has at any time believed himself under supernatural agency. For the second class, subjects were to be chosen from ordinary life... In this idea originated the plan of the ' Lyrical Ballads '; in which it was agreed, that my endeavours should be directed to persons and characters supernatural, or at least Romantic; yet so as to transfer from our inward nature a human interest and a semblance of truth sufficient to procure for these shadows of imagination that willing suspension of disbelief for the moment, which constitutes poetic faith... With this view I wrote the ' Ancient Mariner '.
In Table Talk, Coleridge wrote:
Mrs Barbauld once told me that she admired The Ancient Mariner very much, but that there were two faults in it -- it was improbable, and had no moral. As for the probability, I owned that that might admit some question; but as to the want of a moral, I told her that in my own judgement the poem had too much; and that the only, or chief fault, if I might say so, was the obtrusion of the moral sentiment so openly on the reader as a principle or cause of action in a work of such pure imagination. It ought to have had no more moral than the Arabian Nights ' tale of the merchant 's sitting down to eat dates by the side of a well, and throwing the shells aside, and lo! a genie starts up, and says he must kill the aforesaid merchant, because one of the date shells had, it seems, put out the eye of the genie 's son.
Wordsworth wrote to Joseph Cottle in 1799:
From what I can gather it seems that the Ancient Mariner has upon the whole been an injury to the volume, I mean that the old words and the strangeness of it have deterred readers from going on. If the volume should come to a second Edition I would put in its place some little things which would be more likely to suit the common taste.
However, when Lyrical Ballads was reprinted, Wordsworth included it despite Coleridge 's objections, writing:
The Poem of my Friend has indeed great defects; first, that the principal person has no distinct character, either in his profession of Mariner, or as a human being who having been long under the control of supernatural impressions might be supposed himself to partake of something supernatural; secondly, that he does not act, but is continually acted upon; thirdly, that the events having no necessary connection do not produce each other; and lastly, that the imagery is somewhat too laboriously accumulated. Yet the Poem contains many delicate touches of passion, and indeed the passion is every where true to nature, a great number of the stanzas present beautiful images, and are expressed with unusual felicity of language; and the versification, though the metre is itself unfit for long poems, is harmonious and artfully varied, exhibiting the utmost powers of that metre, and every variety of which it is capable. It therefore appeared to me that these several merits (the first of which, namely that of the passion, is of the highest kind) gave to the Poem a value which is not often possessed by better Poems.
Upon its release, the poem was criticized for being obscure and difficult to read. The use of archaic spelling of words was seen as not in keeping with Wordsworth 's claims of using common language. Criticism was renewed again in 1815 -- 16, when Coleridge added marginal notes to the poem that were also written in an archaic style. These notes or glosses, placed next to the text of the poem, ostensibly interpret the verses much like marginal notes found in the Bible. There were many opinions on why Coleridge inserted the gloss. Charles Lamb, who had deeply admired the original for its attention to "Human Feeling '', claimed that the gloss distanced the audience from the narrative, weakening the poem 's effects. The entire poem was first published in the collection of Lyrical Ballads. Another version of the poem was published in the 1817 collection entitled Sibylline Leaves (see 1817 in poetry).
On a surface level the poem explores a violation of nature and the resulting psychological effects on the mariner and on all those who hear him. According to Jerome McGann the poem is like a salvation story. The poem 's structure is multi-layered text based on Coleridge 's interest in Higher Criticism. "Like the Iliad or Paradise Lost or any great historical product, the Rime is a work of transhistorical rather than so - called universal significance. This verbal distinction is important because it calls attention to a real one. Like The Divine Comedy or any other poem, the Rime is not valued or used always or everywhere or by everyone in the same way or for the same reasons. ''
George Whalley, in his 1946 -- 47 essay, "The Mariner and the Albatross '', suggests that the Ancient Mariner is an autobiographical portrait of Coleridge himself, comparing the mariner 's loneliness with Coleridge 's own feelings of loneliness expressed in his letters and journals.
In addition to being referred to in several other notable works, due to the popularity of the poem the phrase "albatross around one 's neck '' has become an English language idiom referring to "a heavy burden of guilt that becomes an obstacle to success ''.
The phrase "Water, water, every where, Nor any drop to drink '' has appeared widely in popular culture, but usually given in a more natural modern phrasing as "Water, water, everywhere But not a drop to drink ''; some such appearances have, in turn, played on the frequency with which these lines are misquoted.
The poem is referenced in the script of the 1939 film The Adventures of Sherlock Holmes.
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who wrote the quote never judge a book by its cover | Do n't judge a book by its cover - Wikipedia
The English idiom "do n't judge a book by its cover '' is a metaphorical phrase which means "you should n't prejudge the worth or value of something by its outward appearance alone ''. For example "That man may look very small and insignificant, but do n't judge a book by its cover -- he 's a very powerful man in his circle ''.
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do irish citizens need a visa for france | Visa requirements for Irish citizens - Wikipedia
Visa requirements for Irish citizens are administrative entry restrictions by the authorities of other states placed on citizens of Ireland. As of May 2018, Irish citizens had visa - free or visa on arrival access to 185 countries and territories, ranking the Irish passport 5th in terms of travel freedom (tied with Belgian, Canadian, Danish and Swiss passports) according to the Henley Passport Index.
Visa requirements for Irish citizens for visits to various territories, disputed areas, partially recognized countries and restricted zones:
Holders of diplomatic or official passports of Ireland have additional visa - free access to Kuwait. Holders of diplomatic or service passports of any country have visa - free access to Cape Verde, Ethiopia, Mali and Zimbabwe.
Many countries have entry restrictions on foreigners that go beyond the common requirement of having either a valid visa or a visa exemption. Such restrictions may be health related or impose additional documentation requirements on certain classes of people for diplomatic or political purposes.
In the absence of specific bilateral agreements, countries requiring passports to be valid at least 6 months on arrival include Afghanistan, Algeria, Anguilla, Bahrain, Bhutan, Botswana, British Virgin Islands, Brunei, Cambodia, Cameroon, Cape Verde, Cayman Islands, Central African Republic, Chad, Comoros, Costa Rica, Côte d'Ivoire, Curaçao, Ecuador, Egypt, El Salvador, Equatorial Guinea, Fiji, Gabon, Guinea Bissau, Guyana, Haiti, Indonesia, Iran, Iraq, Israel, Jordan, Kenya, Kiribati, Kuwait, Laos, Madagascar, Malaysia, Maldives, Marshall Islands, Mongolia, Myanmar, Namibia, Nepal, Nicaragua, Nigeria, Oman, Palau, Papua New Guinea, Philippines, Rwanda, Samoa, Saudi Arabia, Singapore, Solomon Islands, Somalia, Sri Lanka, Sudan, Suriname, Tanzania, Thailand, Timor - Leste, Tokelau, Tonga, Tuvalu, Uganda, United Arab Emirates, Vanuatu, Venezuela and Vietnam.
Turkey requires passports to be valid for at least 150 days upon entry.
Countries requiring passports valid for at least 4 months on arrival include Micronesia and Zambia.
Countries requiring passports valid for at least 3 months beyond the period of intended stay include European Union countries (except the Republic of Ireland and the United Kingdom), Iceland, Liechtenstein, Norway and Switzerland (and always excepting EU / EEA / Swiss nationals), Azerbaijan, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro, Nauru, Moldova, New Zealand and 3 months validity on arrival in Albania, Honduras, Macedonia, Panama, Qatar and Senegal.
Bermuda requires passports to be valid for at least 45 days upon entry.
Countries that require a passport validity of at least one month beyond the period of intended stay include Eritrea, Hong Kong, Lebanon, Macau and South Africa.
Other countries require either a passport valid on arrival or a passport valid throughout the period of the intended stay. Some countries have bilateral agreements with other countries to shorten the period of passport validity required for each other 's citizens or even accept passports that have already expired (but not been cancelled).
Many countries require a minimum number of blank pages in the passport being presented, generally one or two pages. Endorsement pages, which often appear after the visa pages, are not counted as being available.
Many African countries, including Angola, Benin, Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Central African Republic, Chad, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Republic of the Congo, Côte d'Ivoire, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Ghana, Guinea, Liberia, Mali, Mauritania, Niger, Rwanda, São Tomé and Príncipe, Senegal, Sierra Leone, Uganda, and Zambia, require all incoming passengers to have a current International Certificate of Vaccination.
Some other countries require vaccination only if the passenger is coming from an infected area or has recently visited one.
Kuwait, Lebanon, Libya, Saudi Arabia, Sudan, Syria and Yemen do not allow entry to people with passport stamps from Israel or whose passports have either a used or an unused Israeli visa, or where there is evidence of previous travel to Israel such as entry or exit stamps from neighbouring border posts in transit countries such as Jordan and Egypt.
To circumvent this Arab League boycott of Israel, the Israeli immigration services have now mostly ceased to stamp foreign nationals ' passports on either entry to or exit from Israel. Since 15 January 2013, Israel no longer stamps foreign passports at Ben Gurion Airport, giving passengers a card instead that reads: "Since January 2013 a pilot scheme has been introduced whereby visitors are given an entry card instead of an entry stamp on arrival. You should keep this card with your passport until you leave. This is evidence of your legal entry into Israel and may be required, particularly at any crossing points into the Occupied Palestinian Territories. '' Passports are still (as of 22 June 2017) stamped at Erez when travelling into and out of Gaza. Also, passports are still stamped (as of 22 June 2017) at the Jordan Valley / Sheikh Hussein and Yitzhak Rabin / Arava land borders with Jordan.
Iran refuses admission to holders of passports containing an Israeli visa or stamp that is less than 12 months old.
Due to a state of war existing between Armenia and Azerbaijan, the government of Azerbaijan not only bans entry of citizens from Armenia, but also all citizens and nationals of any other country who are of Armenian descent, to the Republic of Azerbaijan (although there have been exceptions, notably for Armenia 's participation at the 2015 European Games held in Azerbaijan).
Azerbaijan also strictly bans any visit by foreign citizens to the separatist region of Nagorno - Karabakh (the de facto independent Republic of Artsakh), its surrounding territories and the Azerbaijani exclaves of Karki, Yuxarı Əskipara, Barxudarlı and Sofulu which are de jure part of Azerbaijan but under control of Armenia, without the prior consent of the government of Azerbaijan. Foreign citizens who enter these occupied territories will be permanently banned from entering the Republic of Azerbaijan and will be included in their "list of personae non gratae ''. As of April 2018 the list contains 710 persons.
Upon request, the authorities of the largely unrecognized Republic of Artsakh may attach their visa and / or stamps to a separate piece of paper in order to avoid detection of travel to their country.
Some countries (for example: Australia, Canada, Fiji, New Zealand and the United States) routinely deny entry to non-citizens who have a criminal record.
The government of a country can declare a diplomat persona non grata, banning their entry into that country. In non-diplomatic use, the authorities of a country may also declare a foreigner persona non grata permanently or temporarily, usually because of unlawful activity. Attempts to enter the Gaza strip by sea may attract a 10 - year ban on entering Israel.
Several countries mandate that all travellers, or all foreign travellers, be fingerprinted on arrival and will refuse admission to or even arrest those travellers that refuse to comply. In some countries, such as the United States, this may apply even to transit passengers who merely wish to quickly change planes rather than go landside.
Fingerprinting countries include Afghanistan, Argentina, Brunei, Cambodia, China when entering through Shenzhen airport, Ethiopia, Ghana, India, Japan, Malaysia upon entry and departure, Paraguay, Saudi Arabia, Singapore, South Korea, and Taiwan.
Additionally, the United Arab Emirates conducts iris scanning on visitors who need to apply for a visa.
The Republic of Ireland and the United Kingdom, together with its Crown Dependencies of Guernsey, Jersey and the Isle of Man make up a Common Travel Area where:
However, there are occasionally checks on coaches and trains moving between Northern Ireland and the Republic of Ireland. Citizens of third countries must have passports and, if required, visas to travel between the United Kingdom and Republic of Ireland.
British visas do n't enable travel to Ireland for people without agreement with Ireland, and vice versa. (Although both the UK and the Republic are members of the European Union, neither are members of the Schengen Area so Schengen visas are not valid for travel to the Common Travel Area. Air and sea passengers travelling between the Common Travel Area and the Schengen Area are subject to systematic passport / identity checks.)
As citizens of the European Union, all Irish citizens have the right to seek consular assistance and protection from embassies of fellow EU member states when they are in a non-EU country without an Irish embassy.
See also List of diplomatic missions of Ireland.
British Overseas Territories. Open border with Schengen Area. Russia is a transcontinental country in Eastern Europe and Northern Asia. The majority of its population (80 %) lives in European Russia, therefore Russia as a whole is included as a European country here. Turkey is a transcontinental country in the Middle East and Southeast Europe. Has part of its territory (3 %) in Southeast Europe called Turkish Thrace. Azerbaijan (Artsakh) and Georgia (Abkhazia; South Ossetia) are transcontinental countries. Both have part of their territories in the European part of the Caucasus. Kazakhstan is a transcontinental country. Has part of its territories located west of the Ural River in Eastern Europe. Armenia and Cyprus (Northern Cyprus; Akrotiri and Dhekelia) are entirely in Southwest Asia but having socio - political connections with Europe. Egypt is a transcontinental country in North Africa and the Middle East. Has part of its territory in the Middle East called Sinai Peninsula. Part of the Realm of New Zealand. Partially recognized. Unincorporated territory of the United States. Part of Norway, not part of the Schengen Area, special open - border status under Svalbard Treaty. Part of the Kingdom of Denmark, not part of the Schengen Area.
British Overseas Territories. Open border with Schengen Area. Russia is a transcontinental country in Eastern Europe and Northern Asia. The vast majority of its population (80 %) lives in European Russia. Turkey is a transcontinental country in the Middle East and Southeast Europe. Has a small part of its territory (3 %) in Southeast Europe called Turkish Thrace. Abkhazia, Azerbaijan, Georgia, and South Ossetia are often regarded as transcontinental countries. Both have a small part of their territories in the European part of the Caucasus. Kazakhstan is a transcontinental country. Has a small part of its territories located west of the Urals in Eastern Europe. Armenia, Artsakh, Cyprus, and Northern Cyprus are entirely in Southwest Asia but having socio - political connections with Europe. Egypt is a transcontinental country in North Africa and the Middle East. Has a small part of its territory in the Middle East called Sinai Peninsula. Partially recognized.
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heart of the crystal gems steven universe episode list | List of Steven Universe episodes - wikipedia
Steven Universe is an American animated television series created by Rebecca Sugar for Cartoon Network. The series revolves around Steven Universe (voiced by Zach Callison), who protects his hometown of Beach City alongside Garnet (voiced by Estelle), Amethyst (voiced by Michaela Dietz) and Pearl (voiced by Deedee Magno Hall), three magical alien guardians known as the Crystal Gems. The series was renewed for a fourth and fifth season on March 30, 2016. As of 28 August 2018, no sixth season has yet been announced; but on July 21, 2018, it was announced that a Steven Universe television film, Steven Universe: The Movie, was in production.
As of July 6, 2018, 152 episodes of Steven Universe have aired. Episodes have variously been broadcast once a week (most recently on Monday nights), in blocks of multiple new episodes in the course of a week, which are marketed as "Stevenbombs '', or back - to - back as specials with an umbrella title.
The following lists are ordered according to the list on the official website of the series, which reflects the intended watching order of the creators. While similar to the original broadcast order, three episodes from the first season were not broadcast until the second season.
The supervising director for this season is Ian Jones - Quartey.
Season One initially aired weekly on Monday nights, switching to Thursday nights from "Steven the Sword Fighter ''. "Rose 's Scabbard '' and "The Message '' through to Season Two 's "Full Disclosure '' aired over five nights as the first "Stevenbomb ''.
"Sworn to the Sword '' through to "Chille Tid '', "Cry for Help '' to "Friend Ship '', and "The Answer '' to "Log Date 7 15 2 '' all aired daily over three five - night "Stevenbombs ''.
"Super Watermelon Island '' through to "Hit the Diamond '' aired weekly as the event "In Too Deep '', while the remaining episdes (and the first two of Season Four) aired every weekday as part of the four - week event "Summer Adventures ''.
The series moved to Fridays from "The New Crystal Gems ''. "Steven 's Dream '' through to "That Will Be All '', and "Lion 4: Alternate Ending '' to "I Am My Mom '' each aired daily as two four - night events (the former titled "Out of This World '').
Episodes moved to Mondays from "Your Mother and Mine ''. "Stuck Together '' through to "Lars ' Head '', and "Lars of the Stars '' to "Jungle Moon '' both aired back - to - back as events, titled "Wanted '' and "Stranded '' respectively; "Now We 're Only Falling Apart '' through to "Reunited '' aired daily as a five - night event titled "Heart of the Crystal Gems ''.
Stevonnie crash - lands in a jungle on an alien moon and, unable to contact Lars, must fend for themself. They discover that the moon houses an abandoned Gem base and orbits a former Gem colony, and have a strange dream involving Yellow Diamond and Pink Diamond.
A film based on the series, Steven Universe: The Movie, was announced on July 21, 2018 through the use of a teaser trailer uploaded to the Cartoon Network YouTube channel. It is to be made available on Cartoon Network at an unknown date.
All six digital shorts combined make up one full production code of season 2 (1031 - 058).
All five of these shorts combined make up one full production code of season 4 (1040 - 112).
Depending on the customer 's region, Steven Universe is available through various video on demand services such as Hulu, Google Play, iTunes, Amazon Video, and Microsoft Movies & TV.
Episodes on the Steven Universe DVDs are not always presented in original broadcast order. In the table below, the episodes are listed in the order they appear on the DVD, and are numbered according to the intended watching order.
In North America, Warner Home Video has released several single - disc compilation DVDs featuring select episodes, as well as a "complete season '' DVD set. In Australia, Madman Entertainment has followed a similar pattern, and releases their "season '' sets on both Blu - ray and DVD format; the series has yet to see any Blu - ray releases in the North American market.
While the Australian Season DVDs use the intended broadcast order, the American "Season One '' uses the aired order, omitting "Shirt Club '' and "Story for Steven '' but including the Season Two episodes "Full Disclosure '' and "Joy Ride ''. The American Season One DVD also includes special features not available in the previous Australian release.
Extra: Pilot episode ("The Time Thing '') (Region 1 only)
Extra: Pilot episode ("The Time Thing '')
Extras: Online Shorts
Extras: ' Behind the Music ', ' Listening Party ', Music Video Performances (' Something Entirely New ', ' It 's Over, Is n't It? ', ' Love Like You ', ' Here Comes a Thought ' and ' What 's the Use of Feeling (Blue)? '), Song Demos (' Be Wherever You Are ' and ' Full Disclosure ') and Animatics (' Gem Glow ', ' Full Disclosure ', ' Steven the Sword Fighter ', ' Steven and the Stevens ' and ' Island Adventure ')
Extras: Online shorts
Extras: Pilot ("The Time Thing ''), Online shorts
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explain the use of the filter paper in this experiment | Filter paper - wikipedia
Filter paper is a semi-permeable paper barrier placed perpendicular to a liquid or air flow. It is used to separate fine substances from liquids or air.
Filter paper comes in various porosities and grades depending on the applications it is meant for. The important parameters are wet strength, porosity, particle retention, volumetric flow rate, compatibility, efficiency and capacity.
There are two mechanisms of filtration with paper; volume and surface. By volume filtration the particles are caught in the bulk of the filter paper. By surface filtration the particles are caught on the paper surface. Filter paper is mostly used because even a small piece of filter paper will absorb a significant volume of liquid
The raw materials are different paper pulps. The pulp may be from softwood, hardwood, fiber crops, mineral fibers. For high quality filters, dissolving pulp and mercerised pulp are used. Most filter papers are made on small paper machines. For laboratory filters the machines may be as small as 50 cm width. The paper is often crêped to improve porosity. The filter papers may also be treated with reagents or impregnation to get the right properties.
The main application for air filters are combustion air to engines. The filter papers are transformed into filter cartridges, which then is fitted to a holder. The construction of the cartridges mostly requires that the paper is stiff enough to be self - supporting. A paper for air filters needs to be very porous and have a weight of 100 - 200 g / m. Normally particularly long fibrous pulp that is mercerised is used to get these properties. The paper is normally impregnated to improve the resistance to moisture. Some heavy duty qualities are made to be rinsed and thereby extend the life of the filter.
Coffee filters of paper are made from about 100 g / m crêped paper. The crêping allows the coffee to flow freely between the filter and the filtration funnel. The raw materials (pulp) for the filter paper are coarse long fiber, often from fast growing trees. Both bleached and unbleached qualities are made. Coffee filters are made in different shapes and sizes to fit into different holders. Important parameters are strength, compatibility, efficiency and capacity.
The paper used for fuel filters is a crêped paper with controlled porosity, which is pleated and wound to cartridges. The raw material for filter paper used in fuel filters are made of a mixture of hardwood and softwood fibres. The basis weight of the paper is 50 - 80 g / m.
Filter papers are widely used in laboratory experiments across many different fields, from biology to chemistry. The type of filter used will differ according to the purpose of the procedure and the chemicals involved. Generally, filter papers are used with laboratory techniques such as gravity or vacuum filtration.
Qualitative filter paper is used in qualitative analytical techniques to determine materials. There are different grades of qualitative filter paper according to different pore size. There are total 13 different grades of qualitative filter paper. The largest pore size is grade 4; the smallest pore size is grade 602 h; the most commonly used grades are grade 1 to grade 4.
Grade 1 qualitative filter paper has the pore size of 11 μm. This grade of filter paper is widely used for many different fields in agricultural analysis, air pollution monitoring and other similar experiments.
Grade 2 qualitative filter paper has the pore size of 8 μm. This grade of filter paper requires more filtration time than Grade 1 filter paper. This filter paper is used for monitoring specific contaminants in the atmosphere and soil testing.
Grade 3 qualitative filter paper has the pore size of 6 μm. This grade of filter paper is very suitable for carrying samples after filtration.
Grade 4 qualitative filter paper has the pore size of 20 ~ 25 μm. This grade of filter paper has the largest pore size among all standard qualitative filter papers. It is very useful as rapid filter for cleanup of geological fluids or organic extracts during experiment.
Grade 602 h qualitative filter paper has the pore size of 2 μm. This grade of filter paper has the smallest pore size among all standard qualitative filter papers. It is used for collecting or removing fine particles.
Quantitative filter paper, also called ash - free filter paper, is used for quantitative and gravimetric analysis. During the manufacturing, producer use acid to make the paper ash-less and achieve high purity.
Chromatography is a method chemists use to separate compounds. This type of filter paper has specific water flow rate and absorption speed to maximize the result of paper chromatography. The absorption speed of this type of filter paper is from 6 cm to 18 cm and the thickness is from 0.17 mm from 0.93 mm.
Extraction thimbles are rod - shape filter paper often used in Soxhlet extractors or atomized extractors. It is ideal for very sensitive detection, the performance it depends on the thickness of inner diameter. Also, it is usually used in areas of food control and environmental monitoring.
Glass fiber filter has the pore size of 1 μm, it is useful for filtering highly contaminated solutions or difficult - to - filter solution. Also, glass fiber filter has extends filter life, wide range of particulate loads and can prevent sample contamination. In addition, different types of glass fiber filter are suitable for different filtration situation. There are 7 different types of glass fiber filters and the major difference is thickness.
Quartz fiber filter paper is high resistance chemical, does not absorb NOx and SOx dioxides, unaffected by humidity and easily sterilized. Thus, it is mostly use for air pollution analysis.
PTFE filter has wide operating temperature (- 120 ° C ~ 260 ° C) with high air permeability. The resistance of high temperature makes PTFE filter paper autoclavable. It is often use for filter hot oils, strong solvents and collecting airborne particulates.
Engine oil is filtered to remove impurities. Filtration of oil is normally done with volume filtration. Filter papers for lubrication oils are impregnated to resist high temperatures.
Tea bags are made from abacá fibers, a very thin and long fiber manilla hemp. Often the paper is augmented with a minor portion of synthetic fibers. The bag paper is very porous and thin and has high wet strength.
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what does the letters in sos stand for | SOS - wikipedia
SOS is the International Morse code distress signal (▄ ▄ ▄ ▄ ▄ ▄ ▄ ▄ ▄ ▄ ▄ ▄ ▄ ▄ ▄ ▄ ▄ ▄ ▄ ▄ ▄ ▄ ▄ ▄ ▄ ▄); the bar over it indicates to omit the normal gaps between the letters. It is used as a start - of - message mark for transmissions requesting help when loss of life or catastrophic loss of property is imminent, as opposed to CT = KA which precedes a routine message. Other prefixes are assigned for mechanical breakdowns and requests for medical assistance.
This distress signal was first adopted by the German government radio regulations effective 1 April 1905, and became the worldwide standard under the second International Radiotelegraphic Convention, which was signed on 3 November 1906, and became effective on 1 July 1908. SOS remained the maritime radio distress signal until 1999, when it was replaced by the Global Maritime Distress and Safety System. SOS is still recognized as a visual distress signal.
The SOS distress signal is a continuous sequence of three dots, three dashes, and three dots, with no spaces between the letters (notated by the overbar). In International Morse Code, three dots form the letter S, and three dashes make the letter O, so "S O S '' became a way to remember the order of the dots and dashes. In modern terminology, SOS is a Morse "procedural signal '' or "prosign '', and the formal way to write it is with a bar above the letters or enclosed in angle brackets: SOS or < SOS >.
In popular usage, SOS became associated with such phrases as "Save our Souls '' and "Save our Ship ''. SOS is only one of several ways that the combination could have been written; IWB or V7, for example, would both produce exactly the same sound; SOS is just easier to remember.
The use of the SOS signal was first introduced in Germany as part of a set of national radio regulations, effective 1 April 1905. These regulations introduced three new Morse code sequences, including the SOS distress signal.
In 1906, at the second International Radiotelegraphic Convention in Berlin, an extensive collection of Service Regulations was developed to supplement the main agreement, which was signed on 3 November 1906, becoming effective on 1 July 1908. Article XVI of the regulations adopted Germany 's Notzeichen (distress signal) as the international standard, reading: "Ships in distress shall use the following signal: ▄ ▄ ▄ ▄ ▄ ▄ ▄ ▄ ▄ ▄ ▄ ▄ ▄ ▄ ▄ ▄ ▄ ▄ ▄ ▄ ▄ ▄ ▄ ▄ ▄ ▄ repeated at brief intervals ''. The first ship to transmit an SOS distress call appears to have been either the Cunard liner RMS Slavonia on 10 June 1909, according to "Notable Achievements of Wireless '' in the September 1910 Modern Electrics, or the steamer SS Arapahoe on 11 1909. The signal of the Arapahoe was received by the United Wireless Telegraph Company station at Hatteras, North Carolina, and forwarded to the steamer company 's offices. However, there was some resistance among the Marconi operators to the adoption of the new signal, and, as late as the April 1912 sinking of the RMS Titanic, the ship 's Marconi operators intermixed CQD and SOS distress calls. However, in the interests of consistency and water safety, the use of CQD appears to have died out thereafter.
In both the 1 April 1905, German law, and the 1906 International regulations, the distress signal was specified as a continuous Morse code sequence of three - dots / three - dashes / three - dots, with no mention of any alphabetic equivalents. However, in International Morse, three dots comprise the letter "S '', and three dashes the letter "O ''. It therefore soon became common to refer to the distress signal as "S O S ''. An early report on "The International Radio - Telegraphic Convention '' in the 12 January 1907, Electrical World stated that "Vessels in distress use the special signal, SOS, repeated at short intervals. '' (In American Morse code, which was used by many coastal ships in the United States through the first part of the twentieth century, three dashes stood for the numeral "5 '', so in a few cases the distress signal was informally referred to as "S 5 S ''.)
In contrast to CQD, which was sent as three separate letters with spaces between each letter, the SOS distress call has always been transmitted as a continuous sequence dits and dahs, and not as individual letters. There was no problem as long as operators were aware that "SOS '' was technically just a convenient way for remembering the proper sequence of the distress signal 's total of nine dits and dahs. In later years, the number of special Morse symbols increased. In order to designate the proper sequence of dits and dahs for a long special symbol, the standard practice is to list alphabetic characters that contain the same dits and dahs in the same order, with a bar atop the character sequence to indicate that the sequence is a digraph and there should not be any internal spaces in the transmission. Thus, under the modern notation, the distress signal becomes SOS (In International Morse Code, VTB, IJS, VGI, SMB, and VZE (among others) would all correctly convert to the ▄ ▄ ▄ ▄ ▄ ▄ ▄ ▄ ▄ ▄ ▄ ▄ ▄ ▄ ▄ ▄ ▄ ▄ ▄ ▄ ▄ ▄ ▄ ▄ ▄ ▄ distress - call sequence, but traditionally only SOS is used.)
It has also sometimes been used as a visual distress signal -- consisting of three short, three long, and three more short flashes of light, such as from a survival mirror, or with "S O S '' spelled out in individual letters (for example, stamped in a snowbank or formed out of logs on a beach). The fact that the letters "S O S '' can be read right side up as well as upside down (as an ambigram) became important for visual recognition if viewed from above.
Additional warning and distress signals followed the introduction of SOS. On January 20, 1914, the London International Convention on Safety of Life at Sea adopted the Morse code signal TTT (▄ ▄ ▄ ▄ ▄ ▄ ▄ ▄ ▄ ▄ ▄ ▄ ▄ ▄ ▄ ▄ ▄ ▄), three letter Ts (▄ ▄ ▄ ▄ ▄ ▄) spaced correctly as three letters so as not to be confused with the letter O (▄ ▄ ▄ ▄ ▄ ▄ ▄ ▄ ▄ ▄ ▄ ▄ ▄ ▄), as the "Safety Signal '', used for messages to ships "involving safety of navigation and being of an urgent character ''.
With the development of audio radio transmitters, there was a need for a spoken distress phrase, and "Mayday '' (from French m'aidez "help me '') was adopted by the 1927 International Radio Convention as the equivalent of SOS. For TTT, the equivalent audio signal is "Sécurité '' (from French sécurité "safety '') for navigational safety, while "Pan-pan '' (from French panne "breakdown '') signals an urgent but not immediately dangerous situation. French was the international language at the time that these were formalized.
During World War II, additional codes were employed to include immediate details about attacks by enemy vessels, especially in the Battle of the Atlantic. The signal SSS signaled attacked by submarines, while RRR warned of an attack by a surface raider, QQQ warned of an unknown raider (usually an auxiliary cruiser), and AAA indicated an attack by aircraft. They were usually sent in conjunction with the SOS distress signal. All of these codes later switched from three repeats of the letter to four repeats, e.g., "RRRR ''.
None of these signals were used on their own. Sending SOS as well as the urgency signal (XXX in CW, and PAN-PAN in voice) and safety signal (TTT in CW, and SECURITE in voice) used similar procedures for effectiveness. These were always followed correctly. Here is an example of an SOS signal; the portions in parentheses are an explanation only.
SOS SOS SOS (urgent distress call follows)
DE (from) GBTT GBTT GBTT (GBTT identifies the Queen Elizabeth 2 radio room, repeated 3 times) (Ship) QUEEN ELIZABETH 2 PSN (position) 49 06 30 N (North latitude) 04 30 20 W (West longitude) (Our ship is) ON FIRE (and the crew is) ABANDONING SHIP AR (End of Message) K (reply, anyone)
Ships and coastal stations would normally have required quiet times twice an hour to listen for priority signals, for 3 minutes, at different times for 500 kHz and 2182 kHz.
Since many merchant vessels carried only one or two radio operators, no one might hear a distress signal when both operators were off - duty. Eventually, equipment was invented to summon operators by ringing an alarm in the operator 's cabin, and on the bridge, and the only switch able to disable the alarm was only permitted to be in the wireless telegraph room. The alarm was sent by the operator on the ship in distress transmitting the radiotelegraph alarm signal (auto - alarm) signal -- twelve extra-long dashes, each lasting four seconds with a one - second gap between them, and transmitted in A2 (modulated CW). The alarm signal was normally sent with a mechanical or electronic timing circuit to ensure it was sent accurately. However, ships radio room clocks typically had markings on the dial to guide operators in sending the signal manually. The regulations for the auto - alarm were defined in the 1927 Safety Of Life At Sea (SOLAS) international maritime regulations, and in Article 19, § 21, of the General Regulations annexed to the International Radiotelegraph Convention, 1927.5 5.
The Auto Alarm receivers were designed to activate upon receiving four such dashes. Once four valid dashes are detected, the automatic alarm is activated. The distressed ship 's operator would then delay sending the SOS message itself to give off - watch radio operators time to reach their radio room.
The radiotelephony equivalent of the radiotelegraph alarm signal is the radiotelephony alarm signal, which is the transmission of alternating tones of 2200 Hz and 1300 Hz, with each tone having a duration of 250 ms. Automatic alarm systems aboard ships must activate when such a signal is received and the receiving vessel is within 500 nmi (930 km) of the receiving vessel 's position, or if the distress position is in the polar areas (latitude greater than 70 ° N or 70 ° S). The alarm should also activate when the call is received and the distance between the vessel in distress and the receiving vessel can not be determined.
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how old was ronaldo when he started playing football | Cristiano Ronaldo - wikipedia
Portuguese professional footballer
Namesakes
Films
Cristiano Ronaldo dos Santos Aveiro GOIH ComM (European Portuguese: (kɾiʃˈtjɐnu ʁoˈnaɫdu); born 5 February 1985) is a Portuguese professional footballer who plays as a forward for Italian club Juventus and the Portugal national team. Often considered the best player in the world and regarded by many as one of the greatest players of all time, Ronaldo has a record - tying five Ballon d'Or awards, the most for a European player, and is the first player to win four European Golden Shoes. He has won 26 trophies in his career, including five league titles, five UEFA Champions League titles and one UEFA European Championship. A prolific goalscorer, Ronaldo holds the records for most official goals scored in Europe 's top - five leagues (395), the UEFA Champions League (120), the UEFA European Championship (9), as well as those for most assists in the UEFA Champions League (34) and the UEFA European Championship (6). He has scored over 670 senior career goals for club and country.
Born and raised on the Portuguese island of Madeira, Ronaldo was diagnosed with a racing heart at age 15. He underwent an operation to treat his condition, and began his senior club career playing for Sporting CP, before signing with Manchester United at age 18 in 2003. After winning his first trophy, the FA Cup, during his first season in England, he helped United win three successive Premier League titles, a UEFA Champions League title, and a FIFA Club World Cup. By age 22, he had received Ballon d'Or and FIFA World Player of the Year nominations and at age 23, he won his first Ballon d'Or and FIFA World Player of the Year awards. In 2009, Ronaldo was the subject of the most expensive association football transfer when he moved from Manchester United to Real Madrid in a transfer worth € 94 million (£ 80 million).
In Madrid, Ronaldo won 15 trophies, including two La Liga titles, two Copas del Rey, four UEFA Champions League titles, two UEFA Super Cups, and three FIFA Club World Cups. Real Madrid 's all - time top goalscorer, Ronaldo scored a record 34 La Liga hat - tricks, including a record - tying eight hat - tricks in the 2014 -- 15 season and is the only player to reach 30 goals in six consecutive La Liga seasons. After joining Madrid, Ronaldo finished runner - up for the Ballon d'Or three times, behind Lionel Messi, his perceived career rival, before winning back - to - back Ballons d'Or in 2013 and 2014. After winning the 2016 and 2017 Champions Leagues, Ronaldo secured back - to - back Ballons d'Or again in 2016 and 2017. A historic third consecutive Champions League followed, making Ronaldo the first player to win the trophy five times. In 2018, he signed for Juventus in a transfer worth € 100 million, the highest fee ever paid for a player over 30 years old, and the highest ever paid by an Italian club.
A Portuguese international, Ronaldo was named the best Portuguese player of all time by the Portuguese Football Federation in 2015. He made his senior debut for Portugal in 2003 at age 18, and has since had over 150 caps, including appearing and scoring in eight major tournaments, becoming Portugal 's most capped player and his country 's all - time top goalscorer. He scored his first international goal at Euro 2004 and helped Portugal reach the final. He took over full captaincy in July 2008, leading Portugal to their first - ever triumph in a major tournament by winning Euro 2016, and received the Silver Boot as the second - highest goalscorer of the tournament, before becoming the highest European international goalscorer of all - time. One of the most marketable athletes in the world, he was ranked the world 's highest - paid athlete by Forbes in 2016 and 2017, as well as the world 's most famous athlete by ESPN in 2016, 2017 and 2018.
Cristiano Ronaldo dos Santos Aveiro was born in São Pedro, Funchal, Portugal and grew up in the Funchal parish of Santo António, as the youngest child of Maria Dolores dos Santos Aveiro, a cook, and José Dinis Aveiro, a municipal gardener and a part - time kit man. His second given name, "Ronaldo '', was chosen after then - U.S. president Ronald Reagan. He has one older brother, Hugo, and two older sisters, Elma and Liliana Cátia. His great - grandmother on his father 's side, Isabel da Piedade, was from São Vicente, Cape Verde. Ronaldo grew up in a Catholic and impoverished home, sharing a room with his brother and sisters.
As a child, Ronaldo played for amateur team Andorinha from 1992 to 1995, where his father was the kit man, and later spent two years with Nacional. In 1997, aged 12, he went on a three - day trial with Sporting CP, who signed him for a fee of £ 1,500. He subsequently moved from Madeira to Alcochete, near Lisbon, to join Sporting 's other youth players at the club 's football academy. By age 14, Ronaldo believed he had the ability to play semi-professionally, and agreed with his mother to cease his education in order to focus entirely on football. While popular with other students at school, he had been expelled after throwing a chair at his teacher, who he said had "disrespected '' him. However, one year later, he was diagnosed with a racing heart, a condition that could have forced him to give up playing football. Ronaldo underwent heart surgery where a laser was used to cauterise multiple cardiac pathways, altering his resting heart rate. He was discharged from the hospital hours after the procedure and resumed training a few days later.
At age 16, Ronaldo was promoted from Sporting 's youth team by first - team manager László Bölöni, who was impressed with his dribbling. He subsequently became the first player to play for the club 's under - 16, under - 17 and under - 18 teams, the B team, and the first team, all within a single season. A year later, on 7 October 2002, Ronaldo made his debut in the Primeira Liga, against Moreirense, and scored two goals in their 3 -- 0 win. Over the course of the 2002 -- 03 season, his representatives suggested the player to Liverpool manager Gérard Houllier and Barcelona president Joan Laporta. Manager Arsène Wenger, who was interested in signing the winger, met with him at Arsenal 's grounds in November to discuss a possible transfer.
Manchester United manager Alex Ferguson, however, determined to acquire Ronaldo on a permanent move urgently, after Sporting defeated United 3 -- 1 at the inauguration of the Estádio José Alvalade in August 2003. Initially, United had just planned to sign Ronaldo and then loan him back to Sporting for a year. Having impressed the Manchester United players, however, they urged Ferguson to sign him. After the game, Ferguson agreed to pay Sporting £ 12.24 million for what he considered to be "one of the most exciting young players '' he had ever seen. A decade after his departure from the club, in April 2013, Sporting honoured Ronaldo by selecting him to become their 100,000 th member.
Ronaldo became Manchester United 's first - ever Portuguese player when he signed before the 2003 -- 04 season. His transfer fee of £ 12.24 million made him, at the time, the most expensive teenager in English football history. Although he requested the number 28, his number at Sporting, he received the number 7 shirt, which had previously been worn by such United players as George Best, Eric Cantona and David Beckham. Wearing the number 7 became an extra source of motivation for Ronaldo. A key element in his development during his time in England proved to be his manager, Alex Ferguson, of whom he later said, "He 's been my father in sport, one of the most important and influential factors in my career. ''
Ronaldo made his debut in the Premier League in a 4 -- 0 home victory over Bolton Wanderers on 16 August 2003, receiving a standing ovation when he came on as a 60th - minute substitute for Nicky Butt. His performance earned praise from George Best, who hailed it as "undoubtedly the most exciting debut '' he had ever seen. Ronaldo scored his first goal for Manchester United with a free - kick in a 3 -- 0 win over Portsmouth on 1 November. Three other league goals followed in the second half of the campaign, the last of which came against Aston Villa on the final day of the season, a match in which he also received his first red card. Ronaldo ended his first season in English football by scoring the opening goal in United 's 3 -- 0 victory over Millwall in the FA Cup final, earning his first trophy.
At the start of 2005, Ronaldo played two of his best matches of the 2004 -- 05 season, producing a goal and an assist against Aston Villa and scoring twice against rivals Arsenal. He played the full 120 minutes of the decisive match against Arsenal in the FA Cup final, which ended in a goalless draw, and scored his attempt in the lost penalty shootout. He scored Manchester United 's 1000th Premier League goal on 29 October, their only strike in a 4 -- 1 loss to Middlesbrough. Midway through the season, in November, he signed a new contract which extended his previous deal by two years to 2010. Ronaldo won his second trophy in English football, the Football League Cup, after scoring the third goal in United 's 4 -- 0 final victory over Wigan Athletic.
During his third season in England, Ronaldo was involved in several incidents. He had a one - match ban imposed on him by UEFA for a "one - fingered gesture '' towards Benfica fans, and was sent off in the Manchester derby -- a 3 -- 1 defeat -- for kicking Manchester City 's former United player Andy Cole. Ronaldo clashed with a teammate, striker Ruud van Nistelrooy, who took offence at the winger 's showboating style of play. Following the 2006 FIFA World Cup, in which he was involved in an incident where club teammate Wayne Rooney was sent off, Ronaldo publicly asked for a transfer, lamenting the lack of support he felt he had received from the club over the incident. United, however, denied the possibility of him leaving the club.
Although his World Cup altercation with Rooney resulted in Ronaldo being booed throughout the 2006 -- 07 season, it proved to be his breakout year, as he broke the 20 - goal barrier for the first time and won his first Premier League title. An important factor in this success was his one - to - one training by first - team coach René Meulensteen, who taught him to make himself more unpredictable, improve his teamwork, call for the ball, and capitalise on goalscoring opportunities rather than waiting for the chance to score the aesthetically pleasing goals for which he was already known. He scored three consecutive braces at the end of December, against Aston Villa -- a victory which put United on top of the league -- Wigan Athletic, and Reading. Ronaldo was named the Premier League Player of the Month in November and December, becoming only the third player to receive consecutive honours.
At the quarter - final stage of the 2006 -- 07 UEFA Champions League, Ronaldo scored his first - ever goals in the competition, finding the net twice in a 7 -- 1 victory over Roma. He subsequently scored four minutes into the first semi-final leg against Milan, which ended in a 3 -- 2 win, but was marked out of the second leg as United lost 3 -- 0 at the San Siro. He also helped United reach the FA Cup final, but the decisive match against Chelsea ended in a 1 -- 0 defeat. Ronaldo scored the only goal in the Manchester derby on 5 May 2007 -- his 50th goal for the club -- as Manchester United claimed their first Premier League title in four years. As a result of his performances, he amassed a host of personal awards for the season. He won the Professional Footballers ' Association 's Player 's Player, Fans ' Player, and Young Player of the Year awards, as well as the Football Writers ' Association 's Footballer of the Year award, becoming the first player to win all four main PFA and FWA honours. His club wages were concurrently upgraded to £ 120,000 a week (£ 31 million total) as part of a five - year contract extension with United.
Ronaldo scored a total of 42 goals in all competitions during the 2007 -- 08 season, his most prolific campaign during his time in England. He missed three matches after headbutting a Portsmouth player at the start of the season, an experience he said taught him not to let opponents provoke him. At the end of 2007, Ronaldo was named runner - up to Kaká for the Ballon d'Or, and came third, behind Kaká and Lionel Messi, in the running for the FIFA World Player of the Year award.
Ronaldo scored his first and only hat - trick for Manchester United in a 6 -- 0 win against Newcastle United on 12 January 2008, bringing United up to the top of the Premier League table. A month later, on 19 March, he captained United for the first time in a home win over Bolton, and scored both goals of the match. His second goal was his 33rd of the campaign, which bettered George Best 's total of 32 goals in the 1967 -- 68 season, thus setting the club 's new single - season record by a midfielder. His 31 league goals earned him the Premier League Golden Boot, as well as the European Golden Shoe, which made him the first winger to win the latter award.
In the knockout stage of the Champions League, Ronaldo scored the decisive goal against Lyon, which helped United advance to the quarter - finals 2 -- 1 on aggregate, and, while playing as a striker, scored with a header in the 3 -- 0 aggregate victory over Roma. United advanced to the final against Chelsea in Moscow, where, despite his opening goal being negated by an equaliser and his penalty being saved in the shoot - out, Manchester United emerged victorious. As the Champions League top scorer, Ronaldo was named the UEFA Club Footballer of the Year. He additionally received the PFA Players ' Player of the Year and FWA Footballer of the Year awards for the second consecutive season.
As rumours circulated of Ronaldo 's interest in moving to Real Madrid, United filed a tampering complaint with governing body FIFA over Madrid 's alleged pursuit of their player, but they declined to take action. FIFA president Sepp Blatter asserted that the player should be allowed to leave his club, describing the situation as "modern slavery ''. Despite Ronaldo publicly agreeing with Blatter, he remained at United for another year. Ahead of the 2008 -- 09 season, on 7 July, he underwent ankle surgery, which kept him out of action for 10 weeks. Following his return, he scored his 100th goal in all competitions for United with the first of two free kicks in a 5 -- 0 win against Stoke City on 15 November, which meant he had now scored against all 19 opposition teams in the Premier League at the time. At the close of 2008, Ronaldo helped United win the FIFA Club World Cup in Japan, assisting the final - winning goal against Liga de Quito and winning the Silver Ball in the process. He subsequently became United 's first Ballon d'Or winner since George Best in 1968, and the first Premier League player to be named the FIFA World Player of the Year.
His match - winning goal in the second leg against Porto, a 40 - yard strike, earned him the inaugural FIFA Puskás Award, presented by FIFA in recognition of the best goal of the year; he later called it the best goal he had ever scored. United advanced to the final in Rome, where he made little impact in United 's 2 -- 0 defeat to Barcelona. Ronaldo ended his time in England with nine trophies, as United claimed their third successive Premier League title and a Football League Cup. He finished the campaign with 26 goals in all competitions, 16 goals fewer than the previous season, in four more appearances. His final ever goal for Manchester United came on 10 May 2009 with a free kick in the Manchester derby at Old Trafford.
Ahead of the 2009 -- 10 season, Ronaldo joined Real Madrid for a world record transfer fee at the time, of £ 80 million (€ 94 million). His contract, which ran until 2015, was worth € 11 million per year and contained a € 1 billion buy - out clause. At least 80,000 fans attended his presentation at the Santiago Bernabéu, surpassing the 25 - year record of 75,000 fans who had welcomed Diego Maradona at Napoli. Since club captain Raúl already wore the number 7, the number Ronaldo wore at Manchester United, Ronaldo received the number 9 shirt, which was presented to him by former Madrid player Alfredo Di Stéfano.
Ronaldo made his debut in La Liga on 29 August 2009, against Deportivo La Coruña, and scored from the penalty spot in Madrid 's 3 -- 2 home win. He scored in each of his first four league fixtures with the club, the first Madrid player to do so. His first Champions League goals for the club followed with two free kicks in the first group match against Zürich. His strong start to the season, however, was interrupted when he suffered an ankle injury in October while on international duty, which kept him sidelined for seven weeks. A week after his return, he received his first red card in Spain in a match against Almería. Midway through the season, Ronaldo placed second in the running for the Ballon d'Or and the FIFA World Player of the Year award, behind Lionel Messi of Barcelona, Madrid 's historic rivals. He finished the campaign with 33 goals in all competitions, including a hat - trick in a 4 -- 1 win against Mallorca on 5 May 2010, his first in the Spanish competition. His first season at Real Madrid ended trophyless.
Following Raúl 's departure, Ronaldo was handed the number 7 shirt for Real Madrid before the 2010 -- 11 season. His subsequent return to his Ballon d'Or - winning form was epitomised when, for the first time in his career, he scored four goals in a single match during a 6 -- 1 rout against Racing Santander on 23 October. His haul concluded a goalscoring run of six consecutive matches -- three in La Liga, one in the Champions League, and two for Portugal -- totalling 11 goals, the most he had scored in a single month. Ronaldo subsequently scored further hat - tricks against Athletic Bilbao, Levante, Villarreal, and Málaga. Despite his performance, he failed to make the podium for the inaugural FIFA Ballon d'Or at the end of 2010.
During a historical series of four Clásicos against rivals Barcelona in April 2011, Ronaldo scored twice to equal his personal record of 42 goals in all competitions in a single season. Although he failed to find the net during Madrid 's eventual elimination in the Champions League semi-finals, he equalised from the penalty spot in the return league game and scored the match - winning goal in the 103rd minute of the Copa del Rey final, winning his first trophy in Spain. Over the next two weeks, Ronaldo scored another four - goal haul against Sevilla, a hat - trick against Getafe, and a brace of free kicks against Villarreal, taking his league total to 38 goals, which equalled the record for most goals scored in a season held by Telmo Zarra and Hugo Sánchez. His two goals in the last match of the season, against Almería, made him the first player in La Liga to score 40 goals. In addition to the Pichichi Trophy, Ronaldo consequently won the European Golden Shoe for a second time, becoming the first player to win the award in two different leagues. He ended his second season at Real Madrid with a total of 53 goals in all competitions.
During the following campaign, the 2011 -- 12 season, Ronaldo surpassed his previous goalscoring feats to achieve a new personal best of 60 goals across all competitions. His 100th goal for Real Madrid came at Camp Nou in the Supercopa de España, though Barcelona claimed the trophy 5 -- 4 on aggregate. He regained a place on the FIFA Ballon d'Or podium, as runner - up to Messi, after scoring hat - tricks against Real Zaragoza, Rayo Vallecano, Málaga, Osasuna, and Sevilla, the last of which put Madrid on top of the league by the season 's midway point. Despite two goals from Ronaldo, Madrid were subsequently defeated by Barcelona 4 -- 3 on aggregrate in the quarter - finals of the Copa del Rey. He again scored twice, including a penalty, in the Champions League semi-finals against Bayern Munich, resulting in a 3 -- 3 draw, but his penalty kick in the shootout was saved by Manuel Neuer, leading to Madrid 's elimination.
Ronaldo found greater team success in the league, as he helped Real Madrid win their first La Liga title in four years, with a record 100 points. Following a hat - trick against Levante, further increasing Madrid 's lead over Barcelona, he scored his 100th league goal for Madrid in a 5 -- 1 win over Real Sociedad on 24 March 2012, a milestone he reached in just 92 matches across three seasons, breaking the previous club record held by Ferenc Puskás. Another hat - trick in the Madrid derby against Atlético Madrid brought his total to 40 league goals, equalling his record of the previous season. His final league goal of the campaign, against Mallorca, took his total to 46 goals, four short of the new record set by Messi, and earned him the distinction of being the first player to score against all 19 opposition teams in a single season in La Liga.
Ronaldo began the 2012 -- 13 season by lifting the Supercopa de España, his third trophy in Spain. With a goal in each leg by the Portuguese, Madrid won the Spanish Super Cup on away goals following a 4 -- 4 aggregate draw against Barcelona. Although Ronaldo publicly commented that he was unhappy with a "professional issue '' within the club, prompted by his refusal to celebrate his 150th goal for Madrid, his goalscoring rate did not suffer. After netting a hat - trick, including two penalties, against Deportivo La Coruña, he scored his first hat - trick in the Champions League in a 4 -- 1 victory over Ajax. Four days later, he became the first player to score in six successive Clásicos when he hit a brace in a 2 -- 2 draw at Camp Nou. His performances in 2012 again saw Ronaldo voted second in the running for the FIFA Ballon d'Or, finishing runner - up to four - time winner Messi.
Following the 2012 -- 13 winter break, Ronaldo captained Real Madrid for the first time in an official match, scoring a brace to lift 10 - man Madrid to a 4 -- 3 victory over Real Sociedad on 6 January. He subsequently became the first non-Spanish player in 60 years to captain Madrid in El Clásico on 30 January, a match which also marked his 500th club appearance. Three days prior, he had scored his 300th club goal as part of a perfect hat - trick against Getafe. Following hat - tricks against Celta Vigo and Sevilla, he scored his 200th goal for Real Madrid on 8 May in a 6 -- 2 win against Málaga, reaching the landmark in 197 games. He helped Madrid reach the Copa del Rey final by scoring a brace in El Clásico, which marked the sixth successive match at Camp Nou in which he had scored, a Real Madrid record. In the final, he headed the opening goal of an eventual 2 -- 1 defeat to Atlético Madrid, but was shown a straight red card in the 114th minute for violent conduct. Real Madrid also failed to defend their La Liga title, finishing runners up to Barcelona.
In the first knockout round of the Champions League, Ronaldo faced his former club Manchester United for the first time. After scoring the equaliser in a 1 -- 1 draw at the Santiago Bernabéu, he scored the match - winning goal in a 2 -- 1 victory at Old Trafford, his first return to his former home ground. Ronaldo scored three goals in Madrid 's 5 -- 3 aggregate victory over Galatasaray to see them advance to the semi-finals, He scored Madrid 's only goal in the 4 -- 1 away defeat to Borussia Dortmund, but failed to increase his side 's 2 -- 0 victory in the second leg, as they were eliminated at the semi-final stage for the third consecutive year. Ronaldo had scored 12 goals, finishing as the Champions League top goalscorer for a second time in his career. Accounting for all competitions, he ended the season with a total of 55 goals.
Real Madrid 's failure to win major silverware and reports of division among the players prompted speculation regarding Ronaldo 's future at the club. At the start of the 2013 -- 14 season, however, he signed a new contract that extended his stay by three years to 2018, with a salary of € 17 million net, making him briefly the highest - paid player in football. He was joined at the club by winger Gareth Bale, whose world record transfer fee of € 100 million surpassed the fee Madrid had paid for Ronaldo four years prior. Together with striker Karim Benzema, they formed an attacking trio popularly dubbed "BBC '', an acronym of Bale, Benzema, and Cristiano, and a play off the name of the public service broadcaster. After enjoying a strong goalscoring run during the first half of the campaign, Ronaldo suggested that he was in the best form of his career. By late November, he had scored 32 goals from 22 matches played for both club and country, including hat - tricks against Galatasaray, Sevilla, Real Sociedad, Northern Ireland, and Sweden. He ended 2013 with a total of 69 goals in 59 appearances, his highest year - end goal tally. His efforts earned him the FIFA Ballon d'Or, an amalgamation of the Ballon d'Or and the FIFA World Player of the Year award, for the first time in his career.
Concurrently with his individual achievements, Ronaldo enjoyed his greatest team success in Spain to date, as he helped Real Madrid win La Décima, their tenth European Cup. In the knockout phase of the competition, he scored a brace in each leg of a 9 -- 2 aggregate win against Schalke 04, helping Madrid advance to the quarter - finals. His goal in a 3 -- 0 home win over Borussia Dortmund -- his 100th Champions League match -- took his total for the season to 14 goals, equalling the record Messi had set two years before. After hitting a brace in a 4 -- 0 defeat of Bayern Munich at the Allianz Arena, he scored from the penalty spot in the 120th minute of the 4 -- 1 final victory over Atlético Madrid, becoming the first player to score in two European Cup finals for two different winning teams. His overall performance in the final was subdued as a result of patellar tendinitis and related hamstring problems, which had plagued him in the last months of the campaign. Ronaldo played the final against medical advice, later commenting: "In your life you do not win without sacrifices and you must take risks. '' As the Champions League top goalscorer for the third time, with a record 17 goals, he was named the UEFA Best Player in Europe.
In the Copa del Rey, Ronaldo helped Madrid reach the final by scoring a brace of penalties against Atlético Madrid at the Vicente Calderón, the first of which meant he had now scored in every single minute of a 90 - minute football match. His continued issues with his knee and thigh caused him to miss the final, where Real Madrid defeated Barcelona 2 -- 1 to claim the trophy. While Madrid were less successful in La Liga, finishing third, Ronaldo was unmatched as a goalscorer. He scored 31 goals in 30 league games, which earned him the Pichichi and the European Golden Shoe, receiving the latter award jointly with Liverpool striker Luis Suárez. Among his haul was his 400th career goal, in 653 appearances for club and country, which came with a brace against Celta Vigo on 6 January; he dedicated his goals to compatriot Eusébio, who had died two days before. A last - minute, backheeled volley scored against Valencia on 4 May -- his 50th goal in all competitions -- was recognised as the best goal of the season by the Liga de Fútbol Profesional, which additionally named Ronaldo the Best Player in La Liga.
During the next campaign, the 2014 -- 15 season, Ronaldo set a new personal best of 61 goals in all competitions, starting with both goals in Real Madrid 's 2 -- 0 victory over Sevilla in the UEFA Super Cup. He subsequently achieved his best - ever goalscoring start to a league campaign, with a record 15 goals in the first eight rounds of La Liga, including a four - goal haul against Elche and hat - tricks against Deportivo La Coruña and Athletic Bilbao. His record 23rd hat - trick in La Liga, scored against Celta Vigo on 6 December, made him the fastest player to reach 200 goals in the Spanish league, as he reached the milestone in only his 178th game. After lifting the FIFA Club World Cup with Madrid in Morocco, again winning the Silver Ball, Ronaldo received a second successive FIFA Ballon d'Or, joining Johan Cruyff, Michel Platini, and Marco van Basten as a three - time Ballon d'Or winner.
Following the winter break, Ronaldo 's form faltered, concurrently with a decline in performance by his team. A 2 -- 1 defeat against Valencia in the first match of 2015, despite his opening goal, ended Real Madrid 's Spanish record winning streak of 22 matches in all competitions. Their season continued unsuccessfully as they failed to win a major trophy, earning a second - place league finish and a semi-final exit in Europe. In the latter competition, Ronaldo extended his run of scoring away to a record 12 matches with his strike in a 2 -- 0 win against Schalke 04, before hitting a brace in the 3 -- 4 return defeat that allowed Madrid to progress to the quarter - finals. He then scored both of his side 's goals in the semi-finals against Juventus, where Madrid were eliminated 2 -- 3 on aggregate. With 10 goals, he finished the campaign as top scorer for a third consecutive season, alongside Messi and Neymar.
In La Liga, where Madrid finished second, Ronaldo went on a prolific goalscoring run towards the very end of the season. For the first time in his career, he scored five goals in one game, including an eight - minute hat - trick, in a 9 -- 1 rout of Granada on 5 April. His 300th goal for his club followed three days later in a 2 -- 0 win against Rayo Vallecano. Subsequent hat - tricks against Sevilla, Espanyol, and Getafe took his number of hat - tricks for Real Madrid to 31, surpassing Di Stéfano 's club record of 28 trebles. As a result, Ronaldo finished the season with 48 goals, two ahead of his total in the 2011 -- 12 season, despite having missed two matches in February for assaulting a Córdoba player. In addition to a second consecutive Pichichi, he won the European Golden Shoe for a record fourth time.
At the start of his seventh season at Real Madrid, the 2015 -- 16 campaign, Ronaldo became the club 's all - time top scorer, first in the league and then in all competitions. His five - goal haul in a 6 -- 0 away win over Espanyol on 12 September took his tally in La Liga to 230 goals in 203 games, surpassing the club 's previous recordholder, Raúl. A month later, on 17 October, he again surpassed Raúl when he scored the second goal in a 3 -- 0 defeat of Levante at the Bernabéu to take his overall total for the club to 324 goals. Ronaldo also became the all - time top scorer in the Champions League with a hat - trick in the first group match against Shakhtar Donetsk, having finished the previous season level with Messi on 77 goals. A brace against Malmö FF, scoring in a 2 -- 0 away win on 30 September, saw him reach the milestone of 500 career goals for both club and country. He subsequently became the first player to score double figures in the competition 's group stage, setting the record at 11 goals, including another four - goal haul against Malmö.
Despite finishing runner - up to Messi for the FIFA Ballon d'Or, Ronaldo received criticism for his form and performances against top teams, with 14 of his goals coming against Espanyol and Malmö. However, during the second half of the season, his form gradually improved. By scoring four goals in a 7 -- 1 home win over Celta de Vigo on 5 March 2016, Ronaldo arrived at 252 goals in La Liga to become the competition 's second - highest scorer in history behind Messi. After netting the match - winning goal for 10 - man Madrid in a 2 -- 1 Clásico victory on 2 April, he scored a hat - trick against VfL Wolfsburg to send his club into the Champions League semi-finals despite a 2 -- 0 first - leg defeat. The treble took his tally in the competition to 16 goals, making him the top scorer for the fourth consecutive season, and the fifth overall. Suffering apparent fitness issues, Ronaldo gave a poorly - received performance in the final against Atlético Madrid, in a repeat of the 2014 final, though his penalty in the subsequent shoot - out secured La Undécima, Madrid 's 11th victory. For the sixth successive year, he ended the season having scored more than 50 goals across all competitions. For his efforts during the season, he received the UEFA Best Player in Europe Award for a second time.
Ronaldo missed Real Madrid 's first three matches of the 2016 -- 17 season, including the 2016 UEFA Super Cup against Sevilla, as he continued to rehabilitate the knee injury he suffered against France in the final of Euro 2016. On 6 November, Ronaldo signed a new contract set to keep him with Madrid until 2021. On 19 November, he scored a hat - trick in a 3 -- 0 away win against Atlético Madrid, making him the all - time top scorer in the Madrid derby with 18 goals. On 15 December, Ronaldo scored his 500th club career goal in the 2 -- 0 victory over Club América in the semi-finals of the FIFA Club World Cup. He then scored a hat - trick in the 4 -- 2 win over Japanese club Kashima Antlers in the final. Ronaldo finished the tournament as top scorer with four goals and was also named the best player of the tournament. He won the Ballon d'Or for a fourth time and the inaugural Best FIFA Men 's Player, a revival of the former FIFA World Player of the Year, largely owing to his success with Portugal in winning Euro 2016.
In Real Madrid 's 3 -- 2 away win against Villarreal on 27 February 2017, Ronaldo overtook Hugo Sánchez as the most prolific penalty - kick scorer in La Liga history. As a result of the penalty scored by Ronaldo, Real Madrid reached its 5,900 th goal in the history of the league and became the first team to do so. On 12 April, in the 2016 -- 17 UEFA Champions League quarter - final against Bayern Munich, Ronaldo scored two goals in a 2 -- 1 away win to give Madrid the win and the lead going into the second leg. The two goals saw him make history in becoming the first player to reach 100 goals in UEFA club competition. During the second leg of the quarter - finals, Ronaldo scored a perfect hat - trick and reached his 100th UEFA Champions League goal, becoming the first player to do so as Real Madrid again defeated Bayern 4 -- 2 after extra-time. On 2 May, Ronaldo scored another hat - trick in the following Champions League match, as Real Madrid defeated Atlético Madrid 3 -- 0 in the semi-final first leg. His hat - trick made him the first player to reach 50 goals in the knockout stage of the competition.
On 17 May, Ronaldo overtook Jimmy Greaves as the all - time top scorer in the top five European leagues, scoring a brace against Celta de Vigo. He finished the season with 42 goals in all competitions as he helped Madrid to win their first La Liga title since 2012 and the first team to win back - to - back finals in the Champions League era; the first to win consecutive European titles in the competition since Milan in 1989 and 1990, when the tournament was known as the European Cup. In the 2017 final, he scored two goals in the victory against Juventus and became the top goalscorer for the fifth - straight season, and sixth overall, with 12 goals, while also becoming the first person to score in three finals in the Champions League era as well as reaching his 600th senior career goal. Real Madrid 's title was its 12th, also known as La Duodécima, extending its record, and its third in four years.
At the start of the 2017 -- 18 season, Ronaldo scored Madrid 's second goal in a 3 -- 1 Supercopa de España first - leg victory over Barcelona at Camp Nou. Having received a yellow card for taking his shirt off during his goal celebration, he was sent off for a second yellow card offence minutes later before he shoved the referee lightly to depict his dissatisfaction. He was issued a five - match suspension following the match. In his 400th game for Real Madrid, Ronaldo scored two goals away to Borussia Dortmund in the Champions League, taking his club tally to 411 goals. On 23 October, his performances in the first half of 2017 saw him claim his fifth FIFA Player of the Year award by receiving The Best FIFA Men 's Player award for the second consecutive year. On 6 December, he became the first player to score in all six Champions League group stage matches with a curling strike at home to Borussia Dortmund. A day later, Ronaldo won the Ballon d'Or for a fifth time, receiving the award on the Eiffel Tower in Paris. On 3 March 2018, he scored two goals in a 3 -- 1 home win over Getafe, his first being his 300th La Liga goal in his 286th La Liga appearance, making him the fastest player to reach this landmark and only the second player to do so after Lionel Messi. On 18 March, he reached his 50th career hat - trick, scoring four goals in a 6 -- 3 win against Girona.
On 3 April, Ronaldo scored the first two goals in a 3 -- 0 away win against Juventus in the quarter - finals of the 2017 -- 18 UEFA Champions League, with his second goal being an acrobatic bicycle kick. The goal, described as a "PlayStation goal '' by Juventus defender Andrea Barzagli, garnered him a standing ovation from the Juventus fans in the stadium, as well as a plethora of plaudits from peers, pundits and coaches. The goal was also his 119th in European competition, more than 465 other clubs which have participated in the competition; if he were a club, it would be the tenth - highest scorer in Champions League history. He would score his 650th career goal in a 1 -- 1 draw against Atlético Madrid on 8 April. On 11 April, he scored the goal Real Madrid needed to advance to the semi-final, in the second leg of the Champions League quarter - final at home to Juventus, from a 98th - minute injury time penalty in a 3 -- 1 defeat, with an overall 4 -- 3 aggregate win. It was also his tenth goal against Juventus, a Champions League record against a single club. In the final of the tournament, on 26 May, Real Madrid defeated Liverpool 3 -- 1, winning Ronaldo his fifth Champions League title as Real Madrid completed their third consecutive Champions League triumph, becoming the first team to do so. He finished as the top scorer of the tournament for the sixth consecutive season, ending the campaign with 15 goals. After the final, Ronaldo referred to his time with the Champions League winners in the past tense, sparking speculation that he could leave Real Madrid.
After a week of transfer speculation, on 10 July 2018, Ronaldo signed a four - year contract with Italian club Juventus after completing a € 100 million transfer, plus solidarity contributions to Ronaldo 's youth clubs and an additional € 12 million in other fees. The transfer was the highest ever for a player over 30 years old, and the highest ever paid by an Italian club. Upon signing, Ronaldo cited his need for a new challenge as his rationale for departing Real Madrid. Ronaldo made his official debut for Juventus in their opening Serie A match on 18 August, a 3 -- 2 away win over Chievo.
Ronaldo began his international career with Portugal at the 2001 European Youth Summer Olympic Festival, debuting in a 3 -- 1 defeat to Finland. The following year he would represent his country under - 17 side at the 2002 UEFA European Under - 17 Football Championship, where they failed to progress past the group stage. Ronaldo also featured in the Olympic squad at the 2004 Summer Olympics, scoring one goal in the tournament, though the team was eliminated in the first round, finishing bottom of their group with three points after 4 -- 2 defeats to eventual semi-finalists Iraq and quarter - finalists Costa Rica. During his international youth career, Ronaldo would go on to represent the under - 15 team, under - 17, under - 20, under - 21, and under - 23 national sides, amassing 34 youth caps and scoring 18 goals overall.
At age 18, Ronaldo made his first senior appearance for Portugal in a 1 -- 0 victory over Kazakhstan on 20 August 2003. He was subsequently called up for UEFA Euro 2004, held in his home country, and scored his first international goal in a 2 -- 1 group stage loss to eventual champions Greece. After converting his penalty in a shootout against England at the quarter - final stage, he helped Portugal reach the final by scoring the opening goal in a 2 -- 1 win over the Netherlands, but the crucial last match ended in a 0 -- 1 defeat. He was featured in the team of the tournament, having provided two assists in addition to his two goals.
Ronaldo was the second - highest scorer in the European qualification for the 2006 FIFA World Cup with seven goals. During the tournament, he scored his first World Cup goal against Iran with a penalty kick in Portugal 's second match of the group stage. In the quarter - finals against England, his Manchester United teammate Wayne Rooney was sent off for stamping on Portugal defender Ricardo Carvalho. Although the referee later clarified that the red card was only due to Rooney 's infraction, the English media speculated that Ronaldo had influenced his decision by aggressively complaining, after which he was seen in replays winking at Portugal 's bench following Rooney 's dismissal. Ronaldo went on to score the vital winning penalty during the penalty shoot out which sent Portugal into the semi-finals. Ronaldo was subsequently booed during their 1 -- 0 semi-final defeat to France. FIFA 's Technical Study Group overlooked him for the tournament 's Best Young Player award and handed it to Germany 's Lukas Podolski, citing his behaviour as a factor in the decision. Following the 2006 World Cup, Ronaldo would go on to represent Portugal in four qualifying games for Euro 2008, scoring two goals in the process.
One day after his 22nd birthday, Ronaldo captained Portugal for the first time in a friendly game against Brazil on 6 February 2007, as requested by Portuguese Football Federation president Carlos Silva, who had died two days earlier. Ahead of Euro 2008, he was given the number 7 shirt for the first time. While he scored eight goals in the qualification, the second - highest tally, he scored just one goal in the tournament, netting the second goal of their 3 -- 1 win in the group stage match against the Czech Republic; in the same game, he also set - up Portugal 's third goal in injury time, which was scored by Quaresma, and was named man of the match for his performance. Portugal were eliminated in the quarter - finals with a 3 -- 2 loss against eventual finalists Germany.
After Portugal 's unsuccessful performance in the European Championship, Luiz Felipe Scolari was replaced as coach by Carlos Queiroz, formerly the assistant manager at United. Queiroz made Ronaldo the squad 's permanent captain in July 2008. Ronaldo failed to score a single goal in the qualification for the 2010 World Cup, as Portugal narrowly avoided a premature elimination from the tournament with a play - off victory over Bosnia. At the group stage of the World Cup, he was named man of the match in all three matches against Côte d'Ivoire, North Korea, and Brazil. His only goal of the tournament came in their 7 -- 0 rout of North Korea, which marked his first international goal in 16 months. Portugal 's World Cup ended with a 1 -- 0 loss against eventual champions Spain in the round of 16.
Ronaldo scored seven goals in the qualification for Euro 2012, including two strikes against Bosnia in the play - offs, to send Portugal into the tournament, where they were drawn in a "group of death ''. After the opening 0 -- 1 defeat to Germany, he also failed to score in the 3 -- 2 win against Denmark, missing two clear one - on - one chances. In the last group stage game against the Netherlands, Ronaldo scored twice to secure a 2 -- 1 victory. He scored a header in the quarter - finals against the Czech Republic to give his team a 1 -- 0 win. In both games against the Netherlands and the Czech Republic he was named man of the match. After the semi-finals against Spain ended scoreless, with Ronaldo having sent three shots over the bar, Portugal were eliminated in the penalty shootout. Ronaldo did not take a penalty as he had been slated to take the unused fifth, a decision that drew criticism. As the joint top scorer with three goals, alongside five other players, he was again included in the team of the tournament.
During the qualification for the 2014 World Cup, Ronaldo scored a total of eight goals. A qualifying match on 17 October 2012, a 1 -- 1 draw against Northern Ireland, earned him his 100th cap. His first international hat - trick also came against Northern Ireland, when he found the net three times in a 15 - minute spell of a 4 -- 2 qualifying victory on 6 September 2013. After Portugal failed to qualify during the regular campaign, Ronaldo scored all four of the team 's goals in the play - offs against Sweden, which ensured their place at the tournament. His hat - trick in the second leg took his international tally to 47 goals, equaling Pauleta 's record. Ronaldo subsequently scored twice in a 5 -- 1 friendly win over Cameroon on 5 March 2014 to become his country 's all - time top scorer.
Ronaldo took part in the tournament despite suffering from patellar tendinitis and a related thigh injury, potentially risking his career. Ronaldo later commented: "If we had two or three Cristiano Ronaldos in the team I would feel more comfortable. But we do n't. '' Despite ongoing doubts over his fitness, being forced to abort practice twice, Ronaldo played the full 90 minutes of the opening match against Germany, though he was unable to prevent a 4 -- 0 defeat. After assisting an injury - time 2 -- 2 equaliser against the United States, he scored a late match - winning goal in a 2 -- 1 victory over Ghana. His 50th international goal made him the first Portuguese to play and score in three World Cups. Portugal were eliminated from the tournament at the close of the group stage on goal difference.
Ronaldo scored five goals, including a hat - trick against Armenia, in the qualification for Euro 2016. With the only goal in another victory over Armenia on 14 November 2014, he reached 23 goals in the European Championship, including qualifying matches, to become the competition 's all - time leading goalscorer. At the start of the tournament, however, Ronaldo failed to convert his chances in Portugal 's draws against Iceland and Austria, despite taking a total of 20 shots on goal. In the latter match, he overtook Luís Figo as his nation 's most capped player with his 128th international appearance, which ended scoreless after he missed a penalty in the second half. With two goals and an assist in the last match of the group stage, a 3 -- 3 draw against Hungary, Ronaldo became the first player to score in four European Championships, having made a record 17 appearances in the tournament. Though placed third in their group behind Hungary and Iceland, his team qualified for the knockout round as a result of the competition 's newly expanded format.
In Portugal 's first knockout match, Ronaldo 's only attempt on goal was parried by Croatia 's goalkeeper into the path of Ricardo Quaresma, whose finish then secured a 1 -- 0 victory late in extra time. After his team progressed past Poland on penalties, Ronaldo became the first player to participate in three European Championship semi-finals; he scored the opening goal and assisted a second in a 2 -- 0 win against Wales, equaling Michel Platini as the competition 's all - time top scorer with nine goals. In the final against hosts France, Ronaldo was forced off after just 25 minutes following a challenge from Dimitri Payet. After multiple treatments and attempts to play on, he was stretchered off the pitch and replaced by Quaresma. During extra time, substitute Eder scored in the 109th minute to earn Portugal a 1 -- 0 victory. As team captain, Ronaldo later lifted the trophy in celebration of his country 's first - ever triumph in a major tournament. He was awarded the Silver Boot as the joint second - highest goalscorer, with three goals and three assists, and was named to the team of the tournament for the third time in his career.
Following the Euro 2016 success, Ronaldo scored four goals against Andorra in the 2018 FIFA World Cup qualifiers on 8 October 2016. His four goals against a nine - man team marked the highest number of goals he has scored in an international match. On 13 November, Ronaldo scored two goals (while also missing a penalty) in another qualifier against Latvia, which ended in a 4 -- 1 home victory. These goals brought his international tally to 68 goals, putting level with Gerd Müller and Robbie Keane as the fourth - highest European international goalscorer of all - time. He played his first professional match on his home island of Madeira on 28 March 2017 at age 32, opening a 2 -- 3 friendly defeat to Sweden at the Estádio dos Barreiros. With the goal, he tied with Miroslav Klose on 71 goals as the third - highest scoring European in international football.
In Portugal 's opening match of the 2017 FIFA Confederations Cup against Mexico on 17 June, Cristiano Ronaldo set - up Quaresma 's opening goal in a 2 -- 2 draw. Three days later, he scored in a 1 -- 0 win over hosts Russia. On 24 June, he scored from a penalty in a 4 -- 0 win over New Zealand, which saw Portugal top their group and advance to the semi-finals of the competition. With his 75th international goal, Ronaldo also equalled Sándor Kocsis as the second - highest European international goalscorer of all - time, behind only Ferenc Puskás. He was named man of the match in all three of Portugal 's group stage matches. Ronaldo left the competition early: after Chile defeated Portugal 3 -- 0 on penalties in the semi-finals, he was allowed to return home to be with his newborn children. Therefore, he missed Portugal 's third - place play - off match in which Portugal defeated Mexico 2 -- 1 after extra time.
On 31 August 2017, Ronaldo scored a hat - trick in a 5 -- 1 win in a World Cup qualifier over the Faroe Islands, which saw him overtake Pelé and equal Hussein Saeed as the joint - fifth - highest goalscorer in international football with 78 goals. These goals brought his tally in the 2018 World Cup qualifiers to 14, equalling Predrag Mijatović 's record for most goals in a single UEFA senior men 's qualifying campaign, and also saw him break the record for the most goals scored in a single European qualifying group, overtaking the previous record of 13 goals set by David Healy and Robert Lewandowski. Ronaldo 's hat - trick took his World Cup qualifying goals total to 29, making him the highest scorer in European World Cup qualifiers, ahead of Andriy Shevchenko, and the highest goalscorer in World Cup qualifying and finals matches combined, with 32 goals, ahead of Miroslav Klose. Ronaldo later added to this tally by scoring a goal against Andorra in a 2 -- 0 victory.
In the build - up to the 2018 World Cup, Portugal hosted friendlies against Tunisia, Belgium and Algeria. Ronaldo featured in the final of the three matches in which he made his 150th international appearance. On 15 June 2018, Ronaldo became the oldest player ever to score a hat - trick in a World Cup match, helping Portugal secure a 3 -- 3 draw against Spain in their opening match at the World Cup. In doing so, he also became the first Portuguese player to score a goal in four World Cups and one of four players to do so in total. His third goal saw him curl in a 30 yard free kick with two minutes remaining for the equaliser. His hat - trick also drew him level with Ferenc Puskás as the highest European goalscorer of all - time, with 84 international goals. In Portugal 's second game on 20 June, Ronaldo scored the only goal in a 1 -- 0 victory against Morocco, breaking Puskás ' record. In the final group match against Iran on 25 June, Ronaldo missed a penalty in an eventual 1 -- 1 draw which saw Portugal progress to the second round as group runners - up behind Spain. On 30 June, Portugal were eliminated following a 2 -- 1 defeat to Uruguay in the last 16.
A versatile attacker, Ronaldo is capable of playing on either wing as well as through the centre of the pitch, and, while ostensibly right - footed, is very strong with both feet. He ranks among the world 's fastest footballers, both with and without the ball. Tactically, Ronaldo has undergone several evolutions throughout his career. While at Sporting and during his first season at Manchester United, he was typically deployed as a traditional winger on the right side of midfield, where he regularly looked to deliver crosses into the penalty area. In this position, he was able to use his pace and acceleration, agility, and technical skills to take on opponents in one - on - one situations. Ronaldo became noted for his dribbling and flair, often displaying an array of tricks and feints, such as the step overs that became his trademark.
As Ronaldo matured, he underwent a major physical transformation, developing a muscular body type that allows him to retain possession of the ball. His strength, combined with his elevation and height of 1.85 m (6 ft 1 in), gives him an edge in winning aerial challenges for balls. These attributes allow him to function as a target - man, and makes him an aerial goal threat in the penalty area; consequently, many of his goals have been headers. Allied with his increased stamina and work - rate, his goalscoring ability improved drastically on the left wing where he was given the positional freedom to move into the centre to finish attacks. He also increasingly played a creative role for his team, often dropping deep to pick up the ball, participate in the build - up of plays, and create chances for his teammates, courtesy of his good vision and passing ability.
In his final seasons at United, Ronaldo played an even more attacking and central role, functioning both as a striker and as a supporting forward, or even as an attacking midfielder on occasion. He developed into a prolific goalscorer, capable of finishing well both inside the penalty area and from distance with an accurate and powerful shot, courtesy of his striking ability. An accurate penalty kick taker, he also became a set piece specialist, renowned for his powerful, bending free kicks, though his ability in this regard deteriorated later on in his career.
At Real Madrid, Ronaldo continued to play a more offensive role, while his creative and defensive duties became more limited, although not entirely diminished. Initially deployed as a centre forward, he was later moved back onto the left wing, though in a free tactical role; this position allowed him to drift into the centre at will to get onto the end of crosses and score, or draw out defenders with his movement off the ball and leave space for teammates to exploit. Madrid 's counter-attacking style of play also allowed him to become a more efficient and consistent player, as evidenced by his record - breaking goalscoring feats. However, while he mainly drew praise in the media for his prolific goalscoring, he also demonstrated his ability as an effective creator in this role. From 2013 onwards, he effectively adapted his style to the physical effects of ageing with increasingly reduced off - the - ball movement and general involvement, completing fewer dribbles and passes per game, and instead focusing on short - distance creating and goalscoring. Since 2017, Ronaldo has adapted his style of play yet again to become more of a free - roaming centre forward, a role in which he has continued to excel and maintain a prolific goalscoring record; in this position, he has earned praise in the media for his intelligent movement, excellent positional sense, link - up play, clinical finishing, and opportunism, as well as his ability to lose or anticipate his markers, find space in the box, and score from few opportunities.
-- Former manager Alex Ferguson, January 2013
Ronaldo is widely regarded as one of the two best players of his generation, alongside Lionel Messi. Ronaldo quickly established himself among the world 's best players in his early 20s, featuring as the core component for Manchester United in the mid-to - late 2000s. However, after winning his first Ballon d'Or by a record - high vote count at age 23, the public debate regarding his qualities as a player moved beyond his status in contemporary football to the possibility that he was one of the greatest players in history. Universally acclaimed for his prolific and consistent goalscoring ability, he is considered a decisive player, who stands out in games and who can be a game changer, especially in important and high - pressured situations. Ronaldo is noted for his work ethic, elite body conditioning, and dedication to improvement on the training pitch, as well being regarded as a natural leader. His drive and determination to succeed are fuelled by a desire to be talked about alongside Pelé and Diego Maradona once retiring.
Ronaldo has at times, however, been criticised for simulating when tackled. In addition to this, he was also occasionally criticised early in his career by manager Alex Ferguson, teammates and the media for being a selfish or overly flamboyant player.
During his career, Ronaldo has also been described as having an "arrogant image '' on the pitch, with Ronaldo stating that he had become a "victim '', because of how he was portrayed in the media. He is often seen moaning, gesticulating and scowling while trying to inspire his team to victory, with Ronaldo insisting that his competitive nature should not be mistaken for arrogance. His managers, teammates and various journalists have commented that this reputation has caused an unfair image of him. In 2014, Ronaldo told France Football that he had made a "mistake '' when he said in 2011, "People are jealous of me as I am young, handsome and rich '', adding that he had matured since then and fans understood him better.
Both players have scored in at least two UEFA Champions League finals and have regularly broken the 50 - goal barrier in a single season. Sports journalists and pundits regularly argue the individual merits of both players in an attempt to argue who they believe is the best player in modern football. It has been compared to sports rivalries such as the Muhammad Ali -- Joe Frazier rivalry in boxing, the Borg -- McEnroe rivalry in tennis, and the Ayrton Senna -- Alain Prost rivalry from Formula One motor racing.
-- Cristiano Ronaldo commenting on his rivalry with Messi.
Some commentators choose to analyse the differing physiques and playing styles of the two, while part of the debate revolves around the contrasting personalities of the two players: Ronaldo is sometimes depicted as an arrogant and theatrical showoff, while Messi is portrayed as a shy, humble character.
In a 2012 interview, Ronaldo commented on the rivalry, saying "I think we push each other sometimes in the competition, this is why the competition is so high '', while Ronaldo 's manager during his time at Manchester United, Alex Ferguson, opined that "I do n't think the rivalry against each other bothers them. I think they have their own personal pride in terms of wanting to be the best ''. Messi himself denied any rivalry, saying that it was "only the media, the press, who wants us to be at loggerheads but I 've never fought with Cristiano ''. Responding to the claims that he and Messi do not get on well on a personal level, Ronaldo commented, "We do n't have a relationship outside the world of football, just as we do n't with a lot of other players '', before adding that in years to come he hopes they can laugh about it together, stating; "We have to look on this rivalry with a positive spirit, because it 's a good thing. '' Representing archrivals Barcelona and Real Madrid, the two players faced each other at least twice every season in the world 's biggest club game, El Clásico, which is among the world 's most viewed annual sporting events.
In a debate at Oxford Union in October 2013, when asked whether FIFA president Sepp Blatter preferred Messi or Ronaldo, Blatter paid tribute to the work ethic of the Argentine before taking a swipe at Ronaldo, claiming "one of them has more expenses for the hairdresser than the other ''. Real Madrid demanded -- and promptly received -- a full apology, and the Portuguese issued his own riposte with a mock - salute celebration after scoring a penalty against Sevilla, after Blatter had described him as a "commander '' on the pitch.
As his reputation grew from his time at Manchester United, Ronaldo has signed many sponsorship deals for consumer products, including sportswear, football boots (since November 2012 Ronaldo has worn the Nike Mercurial Vapor personalized CR7 edition), soft drinks, clothing, automotive lubricants, financial services, electronics and computer video games. Ronaldo was featured as the cover athlete of EA Sports ' FIFA video game FIFA 18 and was heavily involved in the game 's promotion. He was also the face of Pro Evolution Soccer, appearing on the cover in 2008, 2012 and 2013.
Forbes has twice ranked Ronaldo first on its list of the world 's highest - paid football players; his combined income from salaries, bonuses and non-football earnings was $73 million in 2013 -- 14 and $79 million in 2014 -- 15. The latter earnings saw him listed behind only boxer Floyd Mayweather, Jr. on the magazine 's list of The World 's Highest - Paid Athletes. In 2016, he became the first footballer to top the Forbes list of highest - earning athletes, with a total income of $88 million from his salary and endorsements in 2015 -- 16. He topped the list for the second straight year with earnings of $93 million in 2016 -- 17. Ronaldo is one of the world 's most marketable athletes: SportsPro rated him the fifth most marketable athlete in 2012, and eighth most marketable athlete in 2013, with Brazilian footballer Neymar topping both lists. Sports market research company Repucom named Ronaldo the most marketable and most recognised football player in the world in May 2014. He was additionally named in the 2014 Time 100, Time 's annual list of the most influential people in the world. ESPN named Ronaldo the world 's most famous athlete in 2016, 2017 and 2018.
Ronaldo has established a strong online presence; the most popular sportsperson on social media, he counted 158 million total followers across Facebook, Twitter and Instagram by June 2015. As of June 2015, he has the world 's biggest Facebook fanbase with 103 million followers: he became the first sportsperson to reach 50 million followers in August 2010, and in October 2014, he became the first sportsperson, and the second person after Shakira, to reach 100 million followers. By June 2017, Ronaldo had 277 million followers across social media. His sponsors earned $936 million in media value across his social media accounts between June 2016 to June 2017. Ronaldo has released two mobile apps: in December 2011, he launched an iPhone game called Heads Up with Cristiano, created by developer RockLive, and in December 2013, he launched Viva Ronaldo, a dedicated social networking website and mobile app. Computer security company McAfee produced a 2012 report ranking footballers by the probability of an internet search for their name leading to an unsafe website, with Ronaldo 's name first on the list.
Ronaldo 's life and person have been the subject of several works. His autobiography, titled Moments, was published in December 2007. His sponsor Castro produced the television film Ronaldo: Tested to the Limit, in which he is physically and mentally tested in several areas; his physical performance was consequently subject to scrutiny by world media upon the film 's release in September 2011. Cristiano Ronaldo: The World at His Feet, a documentary narrated by the actor Benedict Cumberbatch, was released via Vimeo in June 2014. A documentary film about his life and career, titled Ronaldo, was released worldwide on 9 November 2015. Directed by BAFTA - winner Anthony Wonke, the film is produced and distributed by Universal Pictures, while Asif Kapadia is the executive producer.
Ronaldo opened his first fashion boutique under the name CR7 (his initials and shirt number) on the island of Madeira, Portugal, in 2006. Ronaldo expanded his business with a second clothes boutique in Lisbon in 2008. In partnership with Scandinavian manufacturer JBS Textile Group and the New York fashion designer Richard Chai, Ronaldo co-designed a range of underwear and sock line, released in November 2013. He later expanded his CR7 fashion brand by launching a line of premium shirts and shoes by July 2014. In September 2015, Ronaldo -- in a partnership with Eden Parfums -- released his own fragrance, "Legacy ''.
In 2007, C.D. Nacional renamed its youth campus Cristiano Ronaldo Campus Futebol (Cristiano Ronaldo Football Campus). In December 2013, Ronaldo opened a museum, Museu CR7, in his hometown of Funchal, Madeira, to house trophies and memorabilia of his life and playing career; the museum is an official sponsor of the local football team União da Madeira. At a ceremony held at the Belém Palace in January 2014, President of Portugal Aníbal Cavaco Silva raised Ronaldo to the rank of Grand Officer of the Order of Prince Henry, "to distinguish an athlete of world renown who has been a symbol of Portugal globally, contributing to the international projection of the country and setting an example of tenacity for future generations ''. A bronze statue of Ronaldo, designed by artist Ricardo Madeira Veloso, was unveiled in Funchal on 21 December 2014.
In June 2010, during the build - up to the World Cup, Ronaldo became the fourth footballer -- after Steven Gerrard, Pelé and David Beckham -- to be represented as a waxwork at Madame Tussauds London. Another waxwork of him was presented at the Madrid Wax Museum in December 2013. In June 2015, astronomers led by David Sobral from Lisbon and Leiden discovered a galaxy which they named CR7 (Cosmos Redshift 7) in tribute to Ronaldo.
On 23 July 2016, following Portugal 's triumph at Euro 2016, Madeira Airport in Funchal was renamed the Cristiano Ronaldo International Airport. The unveiling of the rebranded terminal took place on 29 March 2017, which included a bust of his head being presented. The bust and the name change were controversial, with the lack of the bust 's likeness to Ronaldo being ridiculed by comedians, including Saturday Night Live, while the name change was subject to much debate locally by some politicians and citizens, who even started a petition against the move, an action criticised by President of Madeira Miguel Albuquerque. A year later, sports website Bleacher Report commissioned sculptor Emanuel Santos to create another bust. However, this bust was never used; instead, a new one was made by a Spanish sculptor, shown to the public on 15 June 2018.
Ronaldo 's father, José Dinis Aveiro, died of an alcoholism - related liver condition at age 52 in September 2005 when Ronaldo was 20. Ronaldo has said that he does not drink alcohol, and he received libel damages over a Daily Mirror article that reported him drinking heavily in a nightclub while recovering from an injury in July 2008.
Ronaldo became father to a son in June 2010, announcing that he had full custody of the child and would not be publicly revealing the identity of his son 's mother. In January 2015, Ronaldo announced his five - year relationship with Russian model Irina Shayk ended.
In June 2017, Ronaldo announced he had become the father to twins, a daughter Eva Maria and a son Mateo. Five months later, his girlfriend Georgina Rodríguez gave birth to their daughter Alana Martina.
Ronaldo has made contributions to various charitable causes throughout his career. Television footage of the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami showed an eight - year - old boy survivor named Martunis wearing a number 7 Portuguese football shirt who was stranded for 19 days after his family was killed. Following this, Ronaldo visited Aceh, Indonesia, to raise funds for rehabilitation and reconstruction. After accepting undisclosed damages from a libel case against The Sun newspaper in 2008, Ronaldo donated the damages to a charity in Madeira. In 2009, Ronaldo donated £ 100,000 to the hospital that saved his mother 's life in Madeira following her battle with cancer, so that they could build a cancer centre on the island. In support of the victims of the 2010 Madeira flood, Ronaldo pledged to play in a charity match in Madeira between Primeira Liga club Porto and players from Madeiran - based clubs Marítimo and Nacional.
In 2012, Ronaldo and his agent paid for specialist treatment for a nine - year - old Canarian boy with apparently terminal cancer. In November 2012, Ronaldo sold the golden boot he had won in 2011 for € 1.5 million and gave the money to fund schools for children in Gaza. In December 2012, Ronaldo joined FIFA 's "11 for Health '' programme to raise awareness amongst kids of how to steer clear of conditions including drug addiction, HIV, malaria and obesity.
In January 2013, Ronaldo became Save the Children 's new Global Artist Ambassador, in which he hopes to help fight child hunger and obesity. In March, Ronaldo agreed to be the ambassador for The Mangrove Care Forum in Indonesia, an organisation aiming to raise awareness of mangrove conservation.
In November 2014, Ronaldo appeared in FIFA 's "11 against Ebola '' campaign with a selection of top football players from around the world, including Neymar, Gareth Bale, Xavi and Didier Drogba. Under the slogan "Together, we can beat Ebola '', FIFA 's campaign was done in conjunction with the Confederation of African Football and health experts, with the players holding up 11 messages to raise awareness of the disease and ways to combat it. He was named the world 's most charitable sportsperson in 2015. In June 2016, Ronaldo donated the entirety of his € 600,000 Champions League bonus after Real Madrid won the 2015 -- 16 UEFA Champions League.
In August 2016, Ronaldo launched CR7Selfie, a selfie app for charity to help Save the Children that lets participants take a selfie with him in one of several different outfits and poses. In the app, fans can select from among 68 photos of Ronaldo in different outfits and poses, and scroll through 39 filters to apply to their selfies.
In April 2017, a story was published by Der Spiegel based on leaked documents provided by Football Leaks relating to an alleged rape by Ronaldo, stating the alleged assault occurred in 2009 but that a legal agreement and accompanying non-disclosure agreement was entered into, resulting in the alleged charges being dropped. Ronaldo 's agent Jorge Mendes denied the claims, labelling them "journalistic fiction '', with Ronaldo stating it was consensual sex. Der Spiegel published a further story in response to the denial, alleging that text messages sent by Ronaldo showed he was aware of the legal negotiations. According to Der Spiegel, the woman received US $375,000 in the settlement.
In July 2017, Ronaldo was charged with fraudulently evading almost € 15 million in tax between 2011 and 2014, a claim he denies. In May 2018, Spanish tax authorities rejected Ronaldo 's settlement offer of € 14 million. It was reported on 15 June, just before Spain played Portugal in the 2018 World Cup, Ronaldo had been sentenced to two years in jail (suspended) and fined € 18.8 million after reaching a deal with Spanish authorities. The sentence can be served under probation, without any jail time, so long as he does not reoffend. On 15 June 2018, Ronaldo paid $21.7 million in restitution regarding his past tax frauds in order to avoid jail time. The Spanish government would later reduce the amount by € 2 million.
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when will the king of thailand be cremated | Death and funeral of Bhumibol Adulyadej - wikipedia
King Bhumibol Adulyadej of Thailand died at the age of 88, on 13 October 2016, after a long illness. A year - long period of mourning was subsequently announced. A royal cremation ceremony took place over five days at the end of October 2017. The actual cremation, which was not broadcast on television, was held in the late evening of 26 October 2017. Following cremation his remains and ashes were taken to the Grand Palace and were enshrined at the Chakri Maha Phasat Throne Hall (royal remains), the Royal Cemetery at Wat Ratchabophit and the Wat Bowonniwet Vihara Royal Temple (royal ashes). Following burial, the mourning period officially ended on midnight of 30 October 2017 and Thais have resumed wearing regular colours, while awaiting the future coronation of King Vajiralongkorn, which will be set at a later date.
King Bhumibol Adulyadej had been treated at Siriraj Hospital since 3 October 2014. The king had a high fever due to sepsis, which improved following antibiotics treatment. Until 28 September 2016, King Bhumibol developed a low grade fever as a consequence of pneumonitis and required further treatment with antibiotics. The king subsequently developed organ failure owing to hypotension and became dependent on hemodialysis due to kidney failure. King Bhumibol 's condition became significantly unstable due to evolving acute hepatitis.
The king died at Siriraj Hospital on 13 October 2016 at 15: 52 local time, as announced by the Bureau of the Royal Household on the same date.
On 14 October 2016, the body of the late king was carried by an autocade from Siriraj Hospital to the Grand Palace. His body left Gate 8 of the hospital around 16: 30. As the cortege passed Arun Ammarin Road, Phra Pin Klao Bridge, and Ratchadamnoen Road, crowds of Thais, most clad in black and many openly sobbing, paid homage. Led by Somdej Phra Vanarata (Chun Brahmagutto), the abbot of Wat Bowonniwet Vihara, the autocade entered the palace via Thewaphirom Gate. Upon arrival at the palace, the body was given the bathing rite, presided over by the late king 's son, King Vajiralongkorn. The event was live broadcast on television by the television pool of Thailand.
The general public were allowed to take part in a symbolic bathing rite in front of the king 's portrait at Sahathai Samakhom Pavilion within the Grand Palace later that day.
The king 's body lay in state in the Dusit Maha Prasat Throne Hall of the Grand Palace for a period of one year, with daily rites for a period of 100 days. As in the funerals of the king 's mother and sister, the king 's body was not physically placed in the royal funerary urn (kot) as was customary; instead, the coffin which housed the body was placed behind the pedestal displaying the royal urn. Special rites attended by King Vajiralongkorn were held to mark the 7th, 15th, 50th and 100th days since the king 's death. After the 15th day, the public were allowed to pay their respects and attend the lying - in - state in the Grand Palace. By the end of the allowed public attendance on 30 September 2017 (later pushed forward to 5 October the same year), over 12 million people had paid their respects in person, a historic record crowd that, including foreign tourists and expats living in Thailand, broke all - time attendance records and left an estimated 890 million baht in donations for the royal charity activities.
The foreign dignitaries who attended the lying - in - state or paid respect at the Grand Palace were as follows (by order of their visit):
Special nationwide services in all Buddhist temples together with a general 100th day memorial service were held to mark the 100 day mark since his death on 20 January 2017 with HM King Vajiralongkorn presiding over the national service.
On 28 February 2017, a special Royal Kong Tek (Gongde) ceremony was held, presided by HM King Vajiralongkorn at the Dusit Maha Prasat Throne Hall and was led by monks from the Thai Chinese Buddhist community in the Bangkok area. The service was in keeping with Chinese Buddhist rites and customs regarding the dead. The Kong Tek ceremony was a Buddhist religious ceremony unique to the Chinese wherein the deceased, together with his personal effects and clothing, was transferred ceremonially to the next life, with special prayers and chants sung by monks. The event was unprecedented since it was the first time such a ritual was held for any member of the Thai royal family in an official capacity.
The public square Sanam Luang will be used as the cremation ground, where the construction of an elaborate, temporary crematorium was started in early 2017 and was expected to take more than one year to complete. The government granted one billion baht, deducted from central budget, to cover the construction. Once the cremation is over, the crematorium will be torn down.
Designs for the cremation complex were officially unveiled on 28 October 2016, and a special ceremony was held on 19 December for the royal funeral chariots to be used at the Bangkok National Museum. The construction work for the complex will officially commence on 27 February 2017 with the building of the central column with a September target completion date. The crematorium, when built, will be the biggest, largest and tallest yet since the state cremation rites for King Rama V (Chulalongkorn) in 1911, and unlike past state cremations, will be at the larger northern segment of the Sanam Luang Royal Square instead of the southern segment where cremations were held before.
On 19 November the Ministry of Culture 's Fine Arts Department head Anant Chuchote visited Nakhon Pathom, where the royal funeral urns have been manufactured for centuries out of old sandalwood trees. He asked for public support and assistance for the making of the royal urn alongside 150 artisans from the Traditional Arts Office. The department issued a job hiring call in the middle of January 2017 for prospective workers in the Sanam Luang royal crematorium complex and for the needed chariot repair and upgrading works.
As of 12 February 2017, the government pavilion and the Buddhist chapel were under construction. Concurrently, the Royal Thai Army began manufacturing a new royal cannon chariot for the state cremation ceremonies, a first after many years, timed to be completed in April 2017 for delivery to the Fine Arts Department of the Ministry of Culture. The designs of the buildings combine both Thai traditional and modern building design and construction methods.
The construction process for the royal crematiorium itself commenced with due ceremony on the morning of 27 February 2017 in the Sanam Luang Plaza, in the presence of the Prime Minister of Thailand Gen (ret) Prayut Chan - o - cha. At the right moment, the central steel beam of the building was hoisted using a crane towards its spot in the plaza worksite after a Buddhist blessing was bestowed on it.
By 1 April, the crematorium complex area had seen construction work faster than the usual practice for royal cremations, with all buildings in the middle of the construction phrase earlier than expected. The FAD had also been tasked to undergo a major design remodeling for the main royal urn to be used in the ceremonies and an October date is expected to be chosen for the events. The cannon chariot which was based on those used in British state and royal funerals was officially finished by the end of the month and delivered to the FAD so that the decoration process can begin in time for their debut in the funeral events later in the year.
The national cremation in the Sanam Luang Plaza took place on 26 October 2017, 13 days after the 1st anniversary of the King 's death. Just as in past state cremations since 1995, a special Khon performance was held in the plaza grounds, organized by The Foundation of the Promotion of Supplementary Occupations and Related Techniques of Her Majesty Queen Sirikit of Thailand (SUPPORT) and the Bunditphatthanasilpa Institute. Given the huge importance of such an event, the official practice runs for this began as early as 15 -- 16 May with the RTA Ordnance Division spearheading the runs simulating the funeral procession of the major chariots at Saraburi province, with two military vehicles to serve as simulators. For the royal puppet show, it was the first ever to feature a woman performer in keeping with the modern age - Ancharika Noosingha, 43 years old, who was the first lady royal puppeter in history, keeping a historic tradition from the Ayutthaya period. The Fine Arts Department Royal Music and Drama Office organized the puppet play and its personnel form part of the cast who will perform on the cremation night.
The Nation reported on 11 May that the funeral crematorium and the monastic pavilion are almost ready for an early completion, the fastest yet for royal funerals in the modern era, and the prefabrication processes for the decorations to be used in the buildings are at the final stage. At the same time, the sandalwood corn flowers used for state funerals were made to be used by citizens and foreign attendants attending the services, as the kalamet flowers, protected by law, will only be used in the royal crematorium. The practice of making flowers from corn leaves, through, was a modern practice which began in 1925 during the state funeral of King Vajiravudh (Rama VI).
As of 24 September more than 5,500 people signed up to volunteer to serve during the cremation days. To encourage greater public participation, several Thai provincial capitals had been building replica crematoriums to serve people who can not be in Bangkok to pay their last respects on the cremation date while both the public and tourists joining the events rode the Bangkok MRT system and the BTS Skytrain lines during the cremation days free of charge, as well as on the public ferries at Khlong Phadung Krung Kasem (Hua Lamphong - Thewarat Market) and Khlong Pasicharoen (Phetchkasem 69 - Pratunam Pasicharoen) and the Bangkok BRT. The Ministry of Public Health was expected to deploy huge numbers of medical personnel to serve the public and foreign visitors during these days and provide medical assistance. While social media live reports are prohibited for the TV networks (which broadcast the bilingual coverage of the events via the state Television Pool of Thailand and was aired via satellite and streamed worldwide online in both English and Thai via the official funeral webpage, the RTA Thai Global Network, NBT World and the YouTube channel of Thai PBS, the first time this has ever been done), people will still post live feeds but with difficulty and the national and international press have been given a special media center at the Thammasat University.
In early August, plans were finalized to open the cremation site for public and tourist visitation after the cremation ceremonies.
Foreign Minister Don Pramudwinai said of the 42 countries represented, 24 countries had their royal heads of states, heads of states and royal family members attending the ceremony, and 18 countries will have had their deputy heads of states, government leaders, and special representatives attending the ceremony.
to be livestreamed both in Thai and English via the official funeral website and FB page, NBT World and the Thai PBS and Channel 9 MCOT HD YouTube pages
The government declared a year - long mourning period for Bhumibol. Citizens were asked to refrain from participating in "joyful events '' and entertainment for 30 days following his death; as a result, a number of events, including sports (such as the Thai League football season, which ended entirely), were cancelled or postponed. Entertainment outlets such as cinemas, nightclubs and theatres announced that they would shut down or operate under reduced hours during this period. The mourning period prompted concerns from Thailand 's tourism industry, which felt that the mood of the country, as well as the cancelled events, would reduce interest in visiting Thailand.
Upon the announcement of his death, all television channels suspended regular programming and simulcast special programmes from the television pool of Thailand, which consisted of monochrome videos and photos of Bhumibol, and coverage of royal events. International channels were also blacked out and replaced by this programming. Following the funeral procession on 14 October 2016, the channels continued to air the pooled tribute content until midnight local time, after which they were allowed to resume regular programming. However, for the remainder of the 30 - day mourning period, all broadcasters were forbidden from broadcasting programmes that featured "any element of entertainment, dancing, joy, violence, impoliteness or overly expressed emotion '', nor any non-official information, speculation or criticism related to the deceased King and his successor. Most Thai media outlets and websites switched to greyscale colour schemes as well. After a brief return to monochrome for the King 's 1st death anniversary on 13 October 2017, colour television broadcasts, with the same restrictions are before, resumed on 19 October the same year.
Out of respect for the mourning, many Thai malls, including all Central Pattana and The Mall Group properties, chose not to install extensive Christmas displays and decorations for the holiday season. Some installed memorials to Bhumibol instead.
Since the death of the king, ultra-royalists in Thailand have criticized and harassed those who did not wear mourning black. They also subjected to witch - hunts people whom they accused of disrespecting the deceased monarch. On 14 October 2016, angry ultra-royalist groups in Phuket Province thronged the residence of a man who posted on social media a number of comments which they thought offensive to the late king and violated the lèse - majesté law, despite the local police having declared that the comments were not in breach of the law. The groups dispersed after the police agreed to prosecute the man for the crime of lèse - majesté. Similar incidents happened on the following day in Phang Nga Province.
In November 2016, Nangrong School in Buriram Province seized colourful winter jackets from students and required them to wear those in mourning colours only. The students were reportedly distressed to lose their jackets due to the cold weather, and many did not own multiple warm articles of clothing.
On 28 November, the director of a public school in Ranong Province was removed from office for not wearing mourning black on her first day at work.
The National Council for Peace and Order, the junta ruling Thailand, also announced after the death of Bhumibol that it will hunt down lèse - majesté fugitives.
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who was involved in the creation of nato | NATO - wikipedia
The North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO / ˈneɪtoʊ /; French: Organisation du Traité de l'Atlantique Nord; OTAN), also called the North Atlantic Alliance, is an intergovernmental military alliance between 29 North American and European countries. The alliance is based on the North Atlantic Treaty that was signed on 4 April 1949. NATO constitutes a system of collective defence whereby its independent member states agree to mutual defence in response to an attack by any external party. NATO Headquarters are located in Haren, Brussels, Belgium, while the headquarters of Allied Command Operations is near Mons, Belgium.
NATO was little more than a political association until the Korean War galvanized the organization 's member states, and an integrated military structure was built up under the direction of two US Supreme Commanders. The course of the Cold War led to a rivalry with nations of the Warsaw Pact which formed in 1955. Doubts over the strength of the relationship between the European states and the United States ebbed and flowed, along with doubts over the credibility of the NATO defense against a prospective Soviet invasion -- doubts that led to the development of the independent French nuclear deterrent and the withdrawal of France from NATO 's military structure in 1966 for 30 years. After the fall of the Berlin Wall in Germany in 1989, the organization conducted its first military interventions in Bosnia from 1992 to 1995 and later Yugoslavia in 1999 during the breakup of Yugoslavia. Politically, the organization sought better relations with former Warsaw Pact countries, several of which joined the alliance in 1999 and 2004.
Article 5 of the North Atlantic treaty, requiring member states to come to the aid of any member state subject to an armed attack, was invoked for the first and only time after the September 11 attacks, after which troops were deployed to Afghanistan under the NATO - led ISAF. The organization has operated a range of additional roles since then, including sending trainers to Iraq, assisting in counter-piracy operations and in 2011 enforcing a no - fly zone over Libya in accordance with UN Security Council Resolution 1973. The less potent Article 4, which merely invokes consultation among NATO members, has been invoked five times following incidents in the Iraq War, Syrian Civil War, and annexation of Crimea.
Since its founding, the admission of new member states has increased the alliance from the original 12 countries to 29. The most recent member state to be added to NATO is Montenegro on 5 June 2017. NATO currently recognizes Bosnia and Herzegovina, Georgia, Macedonia and Ukraine as aspiring members. An additional 21 countries participate in NATO 's Partnership for Peace program, with 15 other countries involved in institutionalized dialogue programs. The combined military spending of all NATO members constitutes over 70 % of the global total. Members have committed to reach or maintain defense spending of at least 2 % of GDP by 2024.
The Treaty of Brussels was a mutual defence treaty against the Soviet threat at the start of the Cold War. It was signed on 17 March 1948 by Belgium, the Netherlands, Luxembourg, France, and the United Kingdom. It was the precursor to NATO. The Soviet threat became immediate with the Berlin Blockade in 1948, leading to the creation of a multinational defence organization, the Western Union Defence Organisation, in September 1948. However, the parties were too weak militarily to counter the Soviet Armed Forces. In addition, the 1948 Czechoslovak coup d'état by the Communists had overthrown a democratic government and British Foreign Minister Ernest Bevin reiterated that the best way to prevent another Czechoslovakia was to evolve a joint Western military strategy. He got a receptive hearing in the United States, especially considering American anxiety over Italy (and the Italian Communist Party).
In 1948, European leaders met with US defence, military and diplomatic officials at the Pentagon, under US Secretary of State George C. Marshall 's orders, exploring a framework for a new and unprecedented association. Talks for a new military alliance resulted in the North Atlantic Treaty, which was signed by US President Harry S. Truman in Washington on 4 April 1949. It included the five Treaty of Brussels states plus the United States, Canada, Portugal, Italy, Norway, Denmark and Iceland. The first NATO Secretary General, Lord Ismay, stated in 1949 that the organization 's goal was "to keep the Russians out, the Americans in, and the Germans down ''. Popular support for the Treaty was not unanimous, and some Icelanders participated in a pro-neutrality, anti-membership riot in March 1949. The creation of NATO can be seen as the primary institutional consequence of a school of thought called Atlanticism which stressed the importance of trans - Atlantic cooperation.
The members agreed that an armed attack against any one of them in Europe or North America would be considered an attack against them all. Consequently, they agreed that, if an armed attack occurred, each of them, in exercise of the right of individual or collective self - defence, would assist the member being attacked, taking such action as it deemed necessary, including the use of armed force, to restore and maintain the security of the North Atlantic area. The treaty does not require members to respond with military action against an aggressor. Although obliged to respond, they maintain the freedom to choose the method by which they do so. This differs from Article IV of the Treaty of Brussels, which clearly states that the response will be military in nature. It is nonetheless assumed that NATO members will aid the attacked member militarily. The treaty was later clarified to include both the member 's territory and their "vessels, forces or aircraft '' above the Tropic of Cancer, including some overseas departments of France.
The creation of NATO brought about some standardization of allied military terminology, procedures, and technology, which in many cases meant European countries adopting US practices. The roughly 1300 Standardization Agreements (STANAG) codified many of the common practices that NATO has achieved. Hence, the 7.62 × 51mm NATO rifle cartridge was introduced in the 1950s as a standard firearm cartridge among many NATO countries. Fabrique Nationale de Herstal 's FAL, which used the 7.62 mm NATO cartridge, was adopted by 75 countries, including many outside of NATO. Also, aircraft marshalling signals were standardized, so that any NATO aircraft could land at any NATO base. Other standards such as the NATO phonetic alphabet have made their way beyond NATO into civilian use.
The outbreak of the Korean War in June 1950 was crucial for NATO as it raised the apparent threat of all Communist countries working together and forced the alliance to develop concrete military plans. Supreme Headquarters Allied Powers Europe (SHAPE) was formed to direct forces in Europe, and began work under Supreme Allied Commander Dwight D. Eisenhower in January 1951. In September 1950, the NATO Military Committee called for an ambitious buildup of conventional forces to meet the Soviets, subsequently reaffirming this position at the February 1952 meeting of the North Atlantic Council in Lisbon. The Lisbon conference, seeking to provide the forces necessary for NATO 's Long - Term Defence Plan, called for an expansion to ninety - six divisions. However this requirement was dropped the following year to roughly thirty - five divisions with heavier use to be made of nuclear weapons. At this time, NATO could call on about fifteen ready divisions in Central Europe, and another ten in Italy and Scandinavia. Also at Lisbon, the post of Secretary General of NATO as the organization 's chief civilian was created, and Lord Ismay was eventually appointed to the post.
In September 1952, the first major NATO maritime exercises began; Exercise Mainbrace brought together 200 ships and over 50,000 personnel to practice the defence of Denmark and Norway. Other major exercises that followed included Exercise Grand Slam and Exercise Longstep, naval and amphibious exercises in the Mediterranean Sea, Italic Weld, a combined air - naval - ground exercise in northern Italy, Grand Repulse, involving the British Army on the Rhine (BAOR), the Netherlands Corps and Allied Air Forces Central Europe (AAFCE), Monte Carlo, a simulated atomic air - ground exercise involving the Central Army Group, and Weldfast, a combined amphibious landing exercise in the Mediterranean Sea involving American, British, Greek, Italian and Turkish naval forces.
Greece and Turkey also joined the alliance in 1952, forcing a series of controversial negotiations, in which the United States and Britain were the primary disputants, over how to bring the two countries into the military command structure. While this overt military preparation was going on, covert stay - behind arrangements initially made by the Western European Union to continue resistance after a successful Soviet invasion, including Operation Gladio, were transferred to NATO control. Ultimately unofficial bonds began to grow between NATO 's armed forces, such as the NATO Tiger Association and competitions such as the Canadian Army Trophy for tank gunnery.
In 1954, the Soviet Union suggested that it should join NATO to preserve peace in Europe. The NATO countries, fearing that the Soviet Union 's motive was to weaken the alliance, ultimately rejected this proposal.
On 17 December 1954, the North Atlantic Council approved MC 48, a key document in the evolution of NATO nuclear thought. MC 48 emphasized that NATO would have to use atomic weapons from the outset of a war with the Soviet Union whether or not the Soviets chose to use them first. This gave SACEUR the same prerogatives for automatic use of nuclear weapons as existed for the commander - in - chief of the US Strategic Air Command.
The incorporation of West Germany into the organization on 9 May 1955 was described as "a decisive turning point in the history of our continent '' by Halvard Lange, Foreign Affairs Minister of Norway at the time. A major reason for Germany 's entry into the alliance was that without German manpower, it would have been impossible to field enough conventional forces to resist a Soviet invasion. One of its immediate results was the creation of the Warsaw Pact, which was signed on 14 May 1955 by the Soviet Union, Hungary, Czechoslovakia, Poland, Bulgaria, Romania, Albania, and East Germany, as a formal response to this event, thereby delineating the two opposing sides of the Cold War.
Three major exercises were held concurrently in the northern autumn of 1957. Operation Counter Punch, Operation Strikeback, and Operation Deep Water were the most ambitious military undertaking for the alliance to date, involving more than 250,000 men, 300 ships, and 1,500 aircraft operating from Norway to Turkey.
NATO 's unity was breached early in its history with a crisis occurring during Charles de Gaulle 's presidency of France. De Gaulle protested against the United States ' strong role in the organization and what he perceived as a special relationship between it and the United Kingdom. In a memorandum sent to President Dwight D. Eisenhower and Prime Minister Harold Macmillan on 17 September 1958, he argued for the creation of a tripartite directorate that would put France on an equal footing with the US and the UK.
Considering the response to be unsatisfactory, de Gaulle began constructing an independent defence force for his country. He wanted to give France, in the event of an East German incursion into West Germany, the option of coming to a separate peace with the Eastern bloc instead of being drawn into a larger NATO -- Warsaw Pact war. In February 1959, France withdrew its Mediterranean Fleet from NATO command, and later banned the stationing of foreign nuclear weapons on French soil. This caused the United States to transfer two hundred military aircraft out of France and return control of the air force bases that it had operated in France since 1950 to the French by 1967.
Though France showed solidarity with the rest of NATO during the Cuban Missile Crisis in 1962, de Gaulle continued his pursuit of an independent defence by removing France 's Atlantic and Channel fleets from NATO command. In 1966, all French armed forces were removed from NATO 's integrated military command, and all non-French NATO troops were asked to leave France. US Secretary of State Dean Rusk was later quoted as asking de Gaulle whether his order included "the bodies of American soldiers in France 's cemeteries? '' This withdrawal forced the relocation of SHAPE from Rocquencourt, near Paris, to Casteau, north of Mons, Belgium, by 16 October 1967. France remained a member of the alliance, and committed to the defence of Europe from possible Warsaw Pact attack with its own forces stationed in the Federal Republic of Germany throughout the Cold War. A series of secret accords between US and French officials, the Lemnitzer -- Ailleret Agreements, detailed how French forces would dovetail back into NATO 's command structure should East - West hostilities break out.
When de Gaulle announced his decision to withdraw from the integrated NATO command, President Lyndon Johnson suggested that when de Gaulle "comes rushing down like a locomotive on the track, why the Germans and ourselves, we just stand aside and let him go on by, then we are back together again. '' The vision came true. France announced their return to full participation at the 2009 Strasbourg -- Kehl summit.
During most of the Cold War, NATO 's watch against the Soviet Union and Warsaw Pact did not actually lead to direct military action. On 1 July 1968, the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons opened for signature: NATO argued that its nuclear sharing arrangements did not breach the treaty as US forces controlled the weapons until a decision was made to go to war, at which point the treaty would no longer be controlling. Few states knew of the NATO nuclear sharing arrangements at that time, and they were not challenged. In May 1978, NATO countries officially defined two complementary aims of the Alliance, to maintain security and pursue détente. This was supposed to mean matching defences at the level rendered necessary by the Warsaw Pact 's offensive capabilities without spurring a further arms race.
On 12 December 1979, in light of a build - up of Warsaw Pact nuclear capabilities in Europe, ministers approved the deployment of US GLCM cruise missiles and Pershing II theatre nuclear weapons in Europe. The new warheads were also meant to strengthen the western negotiating position regarding nuclear disarmament. This policy was called the Dual Track policy. Similarly, in 1983 -- 84, responding to the stationing of Warsaw Pact SS - 20 medium - range missiles in Europe, NATO deployed modern Pershing II missiles tasked to hit military targets such as tank formations in the event of war. This action led to peace movement protests throughout Western Europe, and support for the deployment wavered as many doubted whether the push for deployment could be sustained.
The membership of the organization at this time remained largely static. In 1974, as a consequence of the Turkish invasion of Cyprus, Greece withdrew its forces from NATO 's military command structure but, with Turkish cooperation, were readmitted in 1980. The Falklands War between the United Kingdom and Argentina did not result in NATO involvement because article 6 of the North Atlantic Treaty specifies that collective self - defence is only applicable to attacks on member state territories north of the Tropic of Cancer. On 30 May 1982, NATO gained a new member when the newly democratic Spain joined the alliance; Spain 's membership was confirmed by referendum in 1986. At the peak of the Cold War, 16 member nations maintained an approximate strength of 5,252,800 active military, including as many as 435,000 forward deployed US forces, under a command structure that reached a peak of 78 headquarters, organized into four echelons.
The Revolutions of 1989 and the dissolution of the Warsaw Pact in 1991 removed the de facto main adversary of NATO and caused a strategic re-evaluation of NATO 's purpose, nature, tasks, and their focus on the continent of Europe. This shift started with the 1990 signing in Paris of the Treaty on Conventional Armed Forces in Europe between NATO and the Soviet Union, which mandated specific military reductions across the continent that continued after the dissolution of the Soviet Union in December 1991. At that time, European countries accounted for 34 percent of NATO 's military spending; by 2012, this had fallen to 21 percent. NATO also began a gradual expansion to include newly autonomous Central and Eastern European nations, and extended its activities into political and humanitarian situations that had not formerly been NATO concerns.
The first post-Cold War expansion of NATO came with German reunification on 3 October 1990, when the former East Germany became part of the Federal Republic of Germany and the alliance. This had been agreed in the Two Plus Four Treaty earlier in the year. To secure Soviet approval of a united Germany remaining in NATO, it was agreed that foreign troops and nuclear weapons would not be stationed in the east. Whilst there was no formal commitment in the agreement not to expand NATO to the east, there are diverging views on whether negotiators gave informal commitments regarding further NATO expansion. Jack Matlock, American ambassador to the Soviet Union during its final years, said that the West gave a "clear commitment '' not to expand, and declassified documents indicate that Soviet negotiators were given the impression that NATO membership was off the table for countries such as Czechoslovakia, Hungary, or Poland. Hans - Dietrich Genscher, the West German foreign minister at that time, said in a conversation with Eduard Shevardnadze that "(f) or us, however, one thing is certain: NATO will not expand to the east. '' In 1996, Gorbachev wrote in his Memoirs, that "during the negotiations on the unification of Germany they gave assurances that NATO would not extend its zone of operation to the east, '' and repeated this view in an interview in 2008. However in 2014 Gorbachev stated the opposite -- that "The topic of ' NATO expansion ' was not discussed at all (in 1990), and it was n't brought up in those years. I say this with full responsibility. Western leaders did n't bring it up, either. '' According to Robert Zoellick, a State Department official involved in the Two Plus Four negotiating process, this appears to be a misperception, and no formal commitment regarding enlargement was made. Harvard University historian Mark Kramer also rejects that an informal agreement existed.
As part of post-Cold War restructuring, NATO 's military structure was cut back and reorganized, with new forces such as the Headquarters Allied Command Europe Rapid Reaction Corps established. The changes brought about by the collapse of the Soviet Union on the military balance in Europe were recognized in the Adapted Conventional Armed Forces in Europe Treaty, which was signed in 1999. The policies of French President Nicolas Sarkozy resulted in a major reform of France 's military position, culminating with the return to full membership on 4 April 2009, which also included France rejoining the NATO Military Command Structure, while maintaining an independent nuclear deterrent.
Between 1994 and 1997, wider forums for regional cooperation between NATO and its neighbors were set up, like the Partnership for Peace, the Mediterranean Dialogue initiative and the Euro - Atlantic Partnership Council. In 1998, the NATO -- Russia Permanent Joint Council was established. On 8 July 1997, three former communist countries, Hungary, the Czech Republic, and Poland, were invited to join NATO, an invitation which was accepted by all three, with Hungarian acceptance being endorsed in a a referendum in which 85.3 % of voters supported joining NATO.
Czech President Vaclav Havel welcomed the expansion, stating that "Never have we been part of such a broad, solid and binding security alliance, which at the same time respects in its essence the sovereignty and will of our nation. '' Polish foreign minister Bronislaw Geremek also welcomed the expansion saying that "Poland forever returns where she has always belonged: the free world ''. Hungarian foreign minister Janos Martonyi stated that the expansion showed that Hungary was returning "to her natural habitat. '' The expansion was also welcomed by US foreign secretary Madeleine Albright who stated that the expansion would do "for Europe 's east what NATO has already helped to do for Europe 's west: steadily and systematically, we will continue erasing -- without replacing -- the line drawn in Europe by Stalin 's bloody boot. ''
Expansion was criticised in the US by some policy experts as a "a policy error of historic proportions. '' According to George F. Kennan, an American diplomat and an advocate of the containment policy, this decision "may be expected to have an adverse effect on the development of Russian democracy; to restore the atmosphere of the cold war to East - West relations, to impel Russian foreign policy in directions decidedly not to our liking. ''
Membership went on expanding with the accession of seven more Central and Eastern European countries to NATO: Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Slovenia, Slovakia, Bulgaria, and Romania. They were first invited to start talks of membership during the 2002 Prague summit, and joined NATO on 29 March 2004, shortly before the 2004 Istanbul summit. Slovenian membership was endorsed in a referendum in which 66.02 % of voters supported joining.
New NATO structures were also formed while old ones were abolished. In 1997, NATO reached agreement on a significant downsizing of its command structure from 65 headquarters to just 20. The NATO Response Force (NRF) was launched at the 2002 Prague summit on 21 November, the first summit in a former Comecon country. On 19 June 2003, a further restructuring of the NATO military commands began as the Headquarters of the Supreme Allied Commander, Atlantic were abolished and a new command, Allied Command Transformation (ACT), was established in Norfolk, United States, and the Supreme Headquarters Allied Powers Europe (SHAPE) became the Headquarters of Allied Command Operations (ACO). ACT is responsible for driving transformation (future capabilities) in NATO, whilst ACO is responsible for current operations. In March 2004, NATO 's Baltic Air Policing began, which supported the sovereignty of Latvia, Lithuania and Estonia by providing jet fighters to react to any unwanted aerial intrusions. Eight multinational jet fighters are based in Lithuania, the number of which was increased from four in 2014. Also at the 2004 Istanbul summit, NATO launched the Istanbul Cooperation Initiative with four Persian Gulf nations.
The 2006 Riga summit was held in Riga, Latvia, and highlighted the issue of energy security. It was the first NATO summit to be held in a country that had been part of the Soviet Union. At the April 2008 summit in Bucharest, Romania, NATO agreed to the accession of Croatia and Albania and both countries joined NATO in April 2009. Ukraine and Georgia were also told that they could eventually become members. The issue of Georgian and Ukrainian membership in NATO prompted harsh criticism from Russia, as did NATO plans for a missile defence system. Studies for this system began in 2002, with negotiations centered on anti-ballistic missiles being stationed in Poland and the Czech Republic. Though NATO leaders gave assurances that the system was not targeting Russia, both presidents Vladimir Putin and Dmitry Medvedev criticized it as a threat.
In 2009, US President Barack Obama proposed using the ship - based Aegis Combat System, though this plan still includes stations being built in Turkey, Spain, Portugal, Romania, and Poland. NATO will also maintain the "status quo '' in its nuclear deterrent in Europe by upgrading the targeting capabilities of the "tactical '' B61 nuclear bombs stationed there and deploying them on the stealthier Lockheed Martin F - 35 Lightning II. Following the 2014 annexation of Crimea by Russia, NATO committed to forming a new "spearhead '' force of 5,000 troops at bases in Estonia, Lithuania, Latvia, Poland, Romania, and Bulgaria.
The Russian intervention in Crimea in 2014 lead to strong condemnation by NATO nations, and Poland invoked Article 4 meetings. At the subsequent 2014 Wales summit, the leaders of NATO 's member states formally committed for the first time spend the equivalent of at least 2 % of their gross domestic products on defence by 2024, which had previously been only an informal guideline. In 2015, five of its 28 members met that goal. At the beginning of 2018, eight of the 29 members either were meeting the target or were close to it; six others had laid out plans to reach the target by 2024 as promised; and Norway and Denmark had unveiled plans to substantially boost defense spending (including Norway 's planned purchase 52 new F - 35 fighter jets.
On 15 June 2016, NATO officially recognized cyberwarfare as an operational domain of war, just like land, sea and aerial warfare. This means that any cyber attack on NATO members can trigger Article 5 of the North Atlantic Treaty. Montenegro became the 29th and newest member of NATO on 5 June 2017, amid strong objections from Russia.
No military operations were conducted by NATO during the Cold War. Following the end of the Cold War, the first operations, Anchor Guard in 1990 and Ace Guard in 1991, were prompted by the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait. Airborne early warning aircraft were sent to provide coverage of southeastern Turkey, and later a quick - reaction force was deployed to the area.
The Bosnian War began in 1992, as a result of the breakup of Yugoslavia. The deteriorating situation led to United Nations Security Council Resolution 816 on 9 October 1992, ordering a no - fly zone over central Bosnia and Herzegovina, which NATO began enforcing on 12 April 1993 with Operation Deny Flight. From June 1993 until October 1996, Operation Sharp Guard added maritime enforcement of the arms embargo and economic sanctions against the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. On 28 February 1994, NATO took its first wartime action by shooting down four Bosnian Serb aircraft violating the no - fly zone.
On 10 and 11 April 1994, during the Bosnian War, the United Nations Protection Force called in air strikes to protect the Goražde safe area, resulting in the bombing of a Bosnian Serb military command outpost near Goražde by two US F - 16 jets acting under NATO direction. This resulted in the taking of 150 U.N. personnel hostage on 14 April. On 16 April a British Sea Harrier was shot down over Goražde by Serb forces. A two - week NATO bombing campaign, Operation Deliberate Force, began in August 1995 against the Army of the Republika Srpska, after the Srebrenica massacre.
NATO air strikes that year helped bring the Yugoslav wars to an end, resulting in the Dayton Agreement in November 1995. As part of this agreement, NATO deployed a UN-mandated peacekeeping force, under Operation Joint Endeavor, named IFOR. Almost 60,000 NATO troops were joined by forces from non-NATO nations in this peacekeeping mission. This transitioned into the smaller SFOR, which started with 32,000 troops initially and ran from December 1996 until December 2004, when operations were then passed onto European Union Force Althea. Following the lead of its member nations, NATO began to award a service medal, the NATO Medal, for these operations.
In an effort to stop Slobodan Milošević 's Serbian - led crackdown on KLA separatists and Albanian civilians in Kosovo, the United Nations Security Council passed Resolution 1199 on 23 September 1998 to demand a ceasefire. Negotiations under US Special Envoy Richard Holbrooke broke down on 23 March 1999, and he handed the matter to NATO, which started a 78 - day bombing campaign on 24 March 1999. Operation Allied Force targeted the military capabilities of what was then the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. During the crisis, NATO also deployed one of its international reaction forces, the ACE Mobile Force (Land), to Albania as the Albania Force (AFOR), to deliver humanitarian aid to refugees from Kosovo.
Though the campaign was criticized for high civilian casualties, including bombing of the Chinese embassy in Belgrade, Milošević finally accepted the terms of an international peace plan on 3 June 1999, ending the Kosovo War. On 11 June, Milošević further accepted UN resolution 1244, under the mandate of which NATO then helped establish the KFOR peacekeeping force. Nearly one million refugees had fled Kosovo, and part of KFOR 's mandate was to protect the humanitarian missions, in addition to deterring violence. In August -- September 2001, the alliance also mounted Operation Essential Harvest, a mission disarming ethnic Albanian militias in the Republic of Macedonia. As of 1 December 2013, 4,882 KFOR soldiers, representing 31 countries, continue to operate in the area.
The US, the UK, and most other NATO countries opposed efforts to require the UN Security Council to approve NATO military strikes, such as the action against Serbia in 1999, while France and some others claimed that the alliance needed UN approval. The US / UK side claimed that this would undermine the authority of the alliance, and they noted that Russia and China would have exercised their Security Council vetoes to block the strike on Yugoslavia, and could do the same in future conflicts where NATO intervention was required, thus nullifying the entire potency and purpose of the organization. Recognizing the post-Cold War military environment, NATO adopted the Alliance Strategic Concept during its Washington summit in April 1999 that emphasized conflict prevention and crisis management.
The September 11 attacks in the United States caused NATO to invoke Article 5 of the NATO Charter for the first time in the organization 's history. The Article says that an attack on any member shall be considered to be an attack on all. The invocation was confirmed on 4 October 2001 when NATO determined that the attacks were indeed eligible under the terms of the North Atlantic Treaty. The eight official actions taken by NATO in response to the attacks included Operation Eagle Assist and Operation Active Endeavour, a naval operation in the Mediterranean Sea which is designed to prevent the movement of terrorists or weapons of mass destruction, as well as enhancing the security of shipping in general which began on 4 October 2001.
The alliance showed unity: On 16 April 2003, NATO agreed to take command of the International Security Assistance Force (ISAF), which includes troops from 42 countries. The decision came at the request of Germany and the Netherlands, the two nations leading ISAF at the time of the agreement, and all nineteen NATO ambassadors approved it unanimously. The handover of control to NATO took place on 11 August, and marked the first time in NATO 's history that it took charge of a mission outside the north Atlantic area.
ISAF was initially charged with securing Kabul and surrounding areas from the Taliban, al Qaeda and factional warlords, so as to allow for the establishment of the Afghan Transitional Administration headed by Hamid Karzai. In October 2003, the UN Security Council authorized the expansion of the ISAF mission throughout Afghanistan, and ISAF subsequently expanded the mission in four main stages over the whole of the country.
On 31 July 2006, the ISAF additionally took over military operations in the south of Afghanistan from a US - led anti-terrorism coalition. Due to the intensity of the fighting in the south, in 2011 France allowed a squadron of Mirage 2000 fighter / attack aircraft to be moved into the area, to Kandahar, in order to reinforce the alliance 's efforts. During its 2012 Chicago Summit, NATO endorsed a plan to end the Afghanistan war and to remove the NATO - led ISAF Forces by the end of December 2014. ISAF was disestablished in December 2014 and replaced by the follow - on training Resolute Support Mission
In August 2004, during the Iraq War, NATO formed the NATO Training Mission -- Iraq, a training mission to assist the Iraqi security forces in conjunction with the US led MNF - I. The NATO Training Mission - Iraq (NTM - I) was established at the request of the Iraqi Interim Government under the provisions of United Nations Security Council Resolution 1546. The aim of NTM - I was to assist in the development of Iraqi security forces training structures and institutions so that Iraq can build an effective and sustainable capability that addresses the needs of the nation. NTM - I was not a combat mission but is a distinct mission, under the political control of NATO 's North Atlantic Council. Its operational emphasis was on training and mentoring. The activities of the mission were coordinated with Iraqi authorities and the US - led Deputy Commanding General Advising and Training, who was also dual - hatted as the Commander of NTM - I. The mission officially concluded on 17 December 2011.
Turkey invoked the first Article 4 meetings in 2003 at the start of the Iraq War. Turkey also invoked this article twice in 2012 during the Syrian Civil War, after the downing of an unarmed Turkish F - 4 reconnaissance jet, and after a mortar was fired at Turkey from Syria, and again in 2015 after threats by Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant to its territorial integrity.
Beginning on 17 August 2009, NATO deployed warships in an operation to protect maritime traffic in the Gulf of Aden and the Indian Ocean from Somali pirates, and help strengthen the navies and coast guards of regional states. The operation was approved by the North Atlantic Council and involves warships primarily from the United States though vessels from many other nations are also included. Operation Ocean Shield focuses on protecting the ships of Operation Allied Provider which are distributing aid as part of the World Food Programme mission in Somalia. Russia, China and South Korea have sent warships to participate in the activities as well. The operation seeks to dissuade and interrupt pirate attacks, protect vessels, and abetting to increase the general level of security in the region.
During the Libyan Civil War, violence between protestors and the Libyan government under Colonel Muammar Gaddafi escalated, and on 17 March 2011 led to the passage of United Nations Security Council Resolution 1973, which called for a ceasefire, and authorized military action to protect civilians. A coalition that included several NATO members began enforcing a no - fly zone over Libya shortly afterwards, beginning with Opération Harmattan by the French Air Force on March 19.
On 20 March 2011, NATO states agreed on enforcing an arms embargo against Libya with Operation Unified Protector using ships from NATO Standing Maritime Group 1 and Standing Mine Countermeasures Group 1, and additional ships and submarines from NATO members. They would "monitor, report and, if needed, interdict vessels suspected of carrying illegal arms or mercenaries ''.
On 24 March, NATO agreed to take control of the no - fly zone from the initial coalition, while command of targeting ground units remained with the coalition 's forces. NATO began officially enforcing the UN resolution on 27 March 2011 with assistance from Qatar and the United Arab Emirates. By June, reports of divisions within the alliance surfaced as only eight of the 28 member nations were participating in combat operations, resulting in a confrontation between US Defense Secretary Robert Gates and countries such as Poland, Spain, the Netherlands, Turkey, and Germany to contribute more, the latter believing the organization has overstepped its mandate in the conflict. In his final policy speech in Brussels on 10 June, Gates further criticized allied countries in suggesting their actions could cause the demise of NATO. The German foreign ministry pointed to "a considerable (German) contribution to NATO and NATO - led operations '' and to the fact that this engagement was highly valued by President Obama.
While the mission was extended into September, Norway that day announced it would begin scaling down contributions and complete withdrawal by 1 August. Earlier that week it was reported Danish air fighters were running out of bombs. The following week, the head of the Royal Navy said the country 's operations in the conflict were not sustainable. By the end of the mission in October 2011, after the death of Colonel Gaddafi, NATO planes had flown about 9,500 strike sorties against pro-Gaddafi targets. A report from the organization Human Rights Watch in May 2012 identified at least 72 civilians killed in the campaign. Following a coup d'état attempt in October 2013, Libyan Prime Minister Ali Zeidan requested technical advice and trainers from NATO to assist with ongoing security issues.
NATO has twenty - nine members, mainly in Europe and North America. Some of these countries also have territory on multiple continents, which can be covered only as far south as the Tropic of Cancer in the Atlantic Ocean, which defines NATO 's "area of responsibility '' under Article 6 of the North Atlantic Treaty. During the original treaty negotiations, the United States insisted that colonies such as the Belgian Congo be excluded from the treaty. French Algeria was however covered until their independence on 3 July 1962. Twelve of these twenty - nine are original members who joined in 1949, while the other seventeen joined in one of seven enlargement rounds.
From the mid-1960s to the mid-1990s, France pursued a military strategy of independence from NATO under a policy dubbed "Gaullo - Mitterrandism ''. Nicolas Sarkozy negotiated the return of France to the integrated military command and the Defence Planning Committee in 2009, the latter being disbanded the following year. France remains the only NATO member outside the Nuclear Planning Group and unlike the United States and the United Kingdom, will not commit its nuclear - armed submarines to the alliance. Few members spend more than two percent of their gross domestic product on defence, with the United States accounting for three quarters of NATO defense spending.
New membership in the alliance has been largely from Central and Eastern Europe, including former members of the Warsaw Pact. Accession to the alliance is governed with individual Membership Action Plans, and requires approval by each current member. NATO currently has two candidate countries that are in the process of joining the alliance: Bosnia and Herzegovina and the Republic of Macedonia. In NATO official statements, the Republic of Macedonia is always referred to as the "former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia '', with a footnote stating that "Turkey recognizes the Republic of Macedonia under its constitutional name ''. Though Macedonia completed its requirements for membership at the same time as Croatia and Albania, who joined NATO in 2009, its accession was blocked by Greece pending a resolution of the Macedonia naming dispute. In order to support each other in the process, new and potential members in the region formed the Adriatic Charter in 2003. Georgia was also named as an aspiring member, and was promised "future membership '' during the 2008 summit in Bucharest, though in 2014, US President Barack Obama said the country was not "currently on a path '' to membership.
Russia continues to oppose further expansion, seeing it as inconsistent with understandings between Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev and European and American negotiators that allowed for a peaceful German reunification. NATO 's expansion efforts are often seen by Moscow leaders as a continuation of a Cold War attempt to surround and isolate Russia, though they have also been criticised in the West. A June 2016 Levada poll found that 68 % of Russians think that deploying NATO troops in the Baltic states and Poland -- former Eastern bloc countries bordering Russia -- is a threat to Russia. Ukraine 's relationship with NATO and Europe has been politically divisive, and contributed to "Euromaidan '' protests that saw the ousting of pro-Russian President Viktor Yanukovych in 2014. In March 2014, Prime Minister Arseniy Yatsenyuk reiterated the government 's stance that Ukraine is not seeking NATO membership. Ukraine 's president subsequently signed a bill dropping his nation 's nonaligned status in order to pursue NATO membership, but signaled that it would hold a referendum before seeking to join. Ukraine is one of eight countries in Eastern Europe with an Individual Partnership Action Plan. IPAPs began in 2002, and are open to countries that have the political will and ability to deepen their relationship with NATO.
A 2006 study in the journal Security Studies argued that NATO enlargement contributed to democratic consolidation in Central and Eastern Europe.
The Partnership for Peace (PfP) programme was established in 1994 and is based on individual bilateral relations between each partner country and NATO: each country may choose the extent of its participation. Members include all current and former members of the Commonwealth of Independent States. The Euro - Atlantic Partnership Council (EAPC) was first established on 29 May 1997, and is a forum for regular coordination, consultation and dialogue between all fifty participants. The PfP programme is considered the operational wing of the Euro - Atlantic Partnership. Other third countries also have been contacted for participation in some activities of the PfP framework such as Afghanistan.
The European Union (EU) signed a comprehensive package of arrangements with NATO under the Berlin Plus agreement on 16 December 2002. With this agreement, the EU was given the possibility to use NATO assets in case it wanted to act independently in an international crisis, on the condition that NATO itself did not want to act -- the so - called "right of first refusal ''. For example, Article 42 (7) of the 1982 Treaty of Lisbon specifies that "If a Member State is the victim of armed aggression on its territory, the other Member States shall have towards it an obligation of aid and assistance by all the means in their power ''. The treaty applies globally to specified territories whereas NATO is restricted under its Article 6 to operations north of the Tropic of Cancer. It provides a "double framework '' for the EU countries that are also linked with the PfP programme.
Additionally, NATO cooperates and discusses its activities with numerous other non-NATO members. The Mediterranean Dialogue was established in 1994 to coordinate in a similar way with Israel and countries in North Africa. The Istanbul Cooperation Initiative was announced in 2004 as a dialog forum for the Middle East along the same lines as the Mediterranean Dialogue. The four participants are also linked through the Gulf Cooperation Council.
Political dialogue with Japan began in 1990, and since then, the Alliance has gradually increased its contact with countries that do not form part of any of these cooperation initiatives. In 1998, NATO established a set of general guidelines that do not allow for a formal institutionalisation of relations, but reflect the Allies ' desire to increase cooperation. Following extensive debate, the term "Contact Countries '' was agreed by the Allies in 2000. By 2012, the Alliance had broadened this group, which meets to discuss issues such as counter-piracy and technology exchange, under the names "partners across the globe '' or "global partners ''. Australia and New Zealand, both contact countries, are also members of the AUSCANNZUKUS strategic alliance, and similar regional or bilateral agreements between contact countries and NATO members also aid cooperation. Colombia is the NATO 's latest partner and Colombia has access to the full range of cooperative activities NATO offers to partners; Colombia became the first and only Latin American country to cooperate with NATO.
The main headquarters of NATO is located on Boulevard Léopold III / Leopold III - laan, B - 1110 Brussels, which is in Haren, part of the City of Brussels municipality. A new € 750 million headquarters building began construction in 2010, was completed in summer 2016, and was dedicated on 25 May 2017. The 250,000 square metres (2,700,000 sq ft) complex was designed by Jo Palma and home to a staff of 3800. Problems in the original building stemmed from its hurried construction in 1967, when NATO was forced to move its headquarters from Porte Dauphine in Paris, France following the French withdrawal.
The staff at the Headquarters is composed of national delegations of member countries and includes civilian and military liaison offices and officers or diplomatic missions and diplomats of partner countries, as well as the International Staff and International Military Staff filled from serving members of the armed forces of member states. Non-governmental citizens ' groups have also grown up in support of NATO, broadly under the banner of the Atlantic Council / Atlantic Treaty Association movement.
The cost of the new headquarters building escalated to about € 1.1 billion or $1.23 billion.
Like any alliance, NATO is ultimately governed by its 29 member states. However, the North Atlantic Treaty and other agreements outline how decisions are to be made within NATO. Each of the 29 members sends a delegation or mission to NATO 's headquarters in Brussels, Belgium. The senior permanent member of each delegation is known as the Permanent Representative and is generally a senior civil servant or an experienced ambassador (and holding that diplomatic rank). Several countries have diplomatic missions to NATO through embassies in Belgium.
Together, the Permanent Members form the North Atlantic Council (NAC), a body which meets together at least once a week and has effective governance authority and powers of decision in NATO. From time to time the Council also meets at higher level meetings involving foreign ministers, defence ministers or heads of state or government (HOSG) and it is at these meetings that major decisions regarding NATO 's policies are generally taken. However, it is worth noting that the Council has the same authority and powers of decision - making, and its decisions have the same status and validity, at whatever level it meets. France, Germany, Italy, the United Kingdom and the United States are together referred to as the Quint, which is an informal discussion group within NATO. NATO summits also form a further venue for decisions on complex issues, such as enlargement.
The meetings of the North Atlantic Council are chaired by the Secretary General and, when decisions have to be made, action is agreed upon on the basis of unanimity and common accord. There is no voting or decision by majority. Each nation represented at the Council table or on any of its subordinate committees retains complete sovereignty and responsibility for its own decisions.
The body that sets broad strategic goals for NATO is the NATO Parliamentary Assembly (NATO - PA) which meets at the Annual Session, and one other time during the year, and is the organ that directly interacts with the parliamentary structures of the national governments of the member states which appoint Permanent Members, or ambassadors to NATO. The NATO Parliamentary Assembly is made up of legislators from the member countries of the North Atlantic Alliance as well as thirteen associate members. Karl A. Lamers, German Deputy Chairman of the Defence Committee of the Bundestag and a member of the Christian Democratic Union, became president of the assembly in 2010. It is however officially a different structure from NATO, and has as aim to join together deputies of NATO countries in order to discuss security policies on the NATO Council.
The Assembly is the political integration body of NATO that generates political policy agenda setting for the NATO Council via reports of its five committees:
These reports provide impetus and direction as agreed upon by the national governments of the member states through their own national political processes and influencers to the NATO administrative and executive organizational entities.
NATO 's military operations are directed by the Chairman of the NATO Military Committee with the Deputy Chairman, and split into two Strategic Commands commanded by a senior US officer and (currently) a senior French officer assisted by a staff drawn from across NATO. The Strategic Commanders are responsible to the Military Committee for the overall direction and conduct of all Alliance military matters within their areas of command.
Each country 's delegation includes a Military Representative, a senior officer from each country 's armed forces, supported by the International Military Staff. Together the Military Representatives form the Military Committee, a body responsible for recommending to NATO 's political authorities those measures considered necessary for the common defence of the NATO area. Its principal role is to provide direction and advice on military policy and strategy. It provides guidance on military matters to the NATO Strategic Commanders, whose representatives attend its meetings, and is responsible for the overall conduct of the military affairs of the Alliance under the authority of the Council. The Chairman of the NATO Military Committee is Air Chief Marshal Stuart Peach of the United States, since 2018, and the Deputy Chairman is Steven Shepro of the United States, since 2016.
Like the Council, from time to time the Military Committee also meets at a higher level, namely at the level of Chiefs of Defence, the most senior military officer in each nation 's armed forces. Until 2008 the Military Committee excluded France, due to that country 's 1966 decision to remove itself from the NATO Military Command Structure, which it rejoined in 1995. Until France rejoined NATO, it was not represented on the Defence Planning Committee, and this led to conflicts between it and NATO members. Such was the case in the lead up to Operation Iraqi Freedom. The operational work of the Committee is supported by the International Military Staff.
The structure of NATO evolved throughout the Cold War and its aftermath. An integrated military structure for NATO was first established in 1950 as it became clear that NATO would need to enhance its defences for the longer term against a potential Soviet attack. In April 1951, Allied Command Europe and its headquarters (SHAPE) were established; later, four subordinate headquarters were added in Northern and Central Europe, the Southern Region, and the Mediterranean.
From the 1950s to 2003, the Strategic Commanders were the Supreme Allied Commander Europe (SACEUR) and the Supreme Allied Commander Atlantic (SACLANT). The current arrangement is to separate responsibility between Allied Command Transformation (ACT), responsible for transformation and training of NATO forces, and Allied Command Operations (ACO), responsible for NATO operations worldwide. Starting in late 2003 NATO has restructured how it commands and deploys its troops by creating several NATO Rapid Deployable Corps, including Eurocorps, I. German / Dutch Corps, Multinational Corps Northeast, and NATO Rapid Deployable Italian Corps among others, as well as naval High Readiness Forces (HRFs), which all report to Allied Command Operations.
In early 2015, in the wake of the War in Donbass, meetings of NATO ministers decided that Multinational Corps Northeast would be augmented so as to develop greater capabilities, to, if thought necessary, prepare to defend the Baltic States, and that a new Multinational Division Southeast would be established in Romania. Six NATO Force Integration Units would also be established to coordinate preparations for defence of new Eastern members of NATO.
Multinational Division Southeast was activated on 1 December 2015. Headquarters Multinational Division South -- East (HQ MND - SE) is a North Atlantic Council (NAC) activated NATO military body under operational command (OPCOM) of Supreme Allied Commander Europe (SACEUR) which may be employed and deployed in peacetime, crisis and operations by NATO on the authority of the appropriate NATO Military Authorities by means of an exercise or operational tasking issued in accordance with the Command and Control Technical Arrangement (C2 TA) and standard NATO procedures.
During August 2016, it was announced that 650 soldiers of the British Army would be deployed on an enduring basis in Eastern Europe, mainly in Estonia with some also being deployed to Poland. This British deployment forms part of a four - battle group (four - battalion) deployment by various allies, NATO Enhanced Forward Presence, one each spread from Poland (the Poland - deployed battle group mostly led by the US) to Estonia.
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the tehri hydropower complex is located in the state of | Tehri dam - Wikipedia
The Tehri Dam is the Highest dam in India and one of the highest in the world. It is a multi-purpose rock and earth - fill embankment dam on the Bhagirathi River near Tehri in Uttarakhand, India. It is the primary dam of the THDC India Ltd. and the Tehri hydroelectric complex. Phase 1 was completed in 2006, the Tehri Dam withholds a reservoir for irrigation, municipal water supply and the generation of 1,000 megawatts (1,300,000 hp) of hydroelectricity. The dam 's 1,000 MW variable - speed pumped - storage scheme is currently under construction with expected commissioning in May 2018.
A preliminary investigation for the Tehri Dam Project was completed in 1961 and its design was completed in 1972 with a 600 MW capacity power plant based on the study. Construction began in 1978 after feasibility studies but was delayed due to financial, environmental and social impacts. In 1986, technical and financial assistance was provided by the USSR but this was interrupted years later with political instability. India was forced to take control of the project and at the first it was placed under the direction of the Irrigation Department of Uttar Pradesh. However, in 1988 the Tehri Hydro Development Corporation was formed to manage the dam and 75 % of the funding would be provided by the federal government, 25 % by the state. Uttar Pradesh would finance the entire irrigation portion of the project. In 1990, the project was reconsidered and the design changed to its current multi-purpose. Construction of the Tehri Dam was complete in 2006 while the second part of the project, the Koteshwar Dam was completed in 2012.
The dam is a 260.5 m (855 ft) high rock and earth - fill embankment dam. Its length is 575 m (1,886 ft), crest width 20 m (66 ft), and base width 1,128 m (3,701 ft). The dam creates a reservoir of 4.0 cubic kilometres (3,200,000 acre ⋅ ft) with a surface area of 52 km (20 sq mi). The installed hydrocapacity is 1,000 MW along with an additional 1,000 MW of pumped storage hydroelectricity. The lower reservoir for the pumped - storage plant is created by the Koteshwar Dam downstream.
The Tehri Dam and the Tehri Pumped Storage Hydroelectric Power Plant are part of the Tehri Hydropower Complex which also includes the 400 MW Koteshwar Dam. Power is distributed to Uttar Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Punjab, Delhi, Haryana, Jammu & Kashmir, Chandigarh, Rajasthan and Himachal Pradesh. The complex will afford irrigation to an area of 270,000 hectares (670,000 acres), irrigation stabilization to an area of 600,000 hectares (1,500,000 acres), and a supply of 270 million imperial gallons (1.2 × 10 ^ m) of drinking water per day to the industrialized areas of Delhi, Uttar Pradesh and Uttarakhand. The total expenditure for this project was USD 1 billion. The Indian National Trust for Art and Cultural Heritage (INTACH), a cost benefit analysis was commissioned and was concluded that the construction cost of the dam twice the projected benefits.
The Scheduling and Dispatch of the Tehri Hydro Power plant is done by Northern Regional Load Dispatch Center which is the apex body to ensure the integrated operation of the power system grid in the Northern region and comes under Power System Operation Corporation Limited (POSOCO). At present, THDC India Ltd. is generating around 3,000 GWh annually from this dam.
The Tehri Dam has been the object of protests by environmental organizations and local people of the region. Mr. V.D. Saklani, lawyer and founder of the Anti-Tehri Dam Struggle Committee, was quick to point out the consequences associated to the large project. Environmental activist Sunderlal Bahuguna led the Anti-Tehri Dam movement for years, from 1980s till 2004. The protest was against the displacement of town inhabitants and environmental consequence of the weak ecosystem.
In addition to the human rights concerns, the project has spurred concerns about the environmental consequences of locating such a large dam in the fragile ecosystem of the Himalayan foothills. There are further concerns regarding the dam 's geological stability. The Tehri dam is located in the Central Himalayan Seismic Gap, a major geologic fault zone. This region was the site of a 6.8 magnitude earthquake in October 1991, with an epicenter 53 km (33 mi) from the location of the dam. Dam proponents claim that the complex is designed to withstand an earthquake of 8.4 magnitude, but some seismologists say that earthquakes with a magnitude of 8.5 or more could occur in this region. Were such a catastrophe to occur, the potentially resulting dam - break would submerge numerous towns downstream, whose populations total near half a million.
The relocation of more than 100,000 people from the area has led to protracted legal battles over resettlement rights, and ultimately resulted in the project 's delayed completion.
Since 2005, filling of the reservoir has led to the reduced flow of Bhagirathi water from the normal 1,000 cu ft / s (28 m / s) to a mere 200 cu ft / s (5.7 m / s). This reduction has been central to local protest against the dam, since the Bhagirathi is considered part of the sacred Ganges whose waters are crucial to Hindu beliefs. At some points during the year, the tampering with Bhagirathi waters means this tributary stops flowing. This has created resentments among many Hindus, who claim that the sanctity of the Ganges has been compromised for the generation of electricity. Though the officials say that when the reservoir is filled to its maximum capacity the flow of the river will again become normal. In spite of concerns and protestation, operation of the Tehri Dam continues.
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who won the soccer game monterrey or tigres | Tigres UANL - wikipedia
Club de Fútbol Tigres de la Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León, or simply Tigres UANL, is a Mexican football club based in San Nicolás de los Garza, a city in the Monterrey metropolitan area, Mexico and one of the most successful teams of the Liga MX in recent years. Founded in 1960, the club has spent most of its history in Liga MX, the top tier of the Mexican football league system.
The club had their first major success in the 1975 -- 76 season, becoming the first team from the state of Nuevo Leon to win a trophy by conquering the Copa MX. In the 1977 -- 78, they won their first Liga MX championship. Tigres has won the Liga MX six times and the Copa MX three times. The team was the 2015 Copa Libertadores runner - up, losing the finals against River Plate.
Tigres is the official team of the public University of the state of Nuevo León, the Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León. Their home is the 41,650 capacity Estadio Universitario, located inside the University complex in San Nicolás de los Garza. The team 's traditional kit colours are gold and blue.
It is one of the two professional football teams of Nuevo León. Tigres have a fierce rivalry with Monterrey, with whom they have contested the Clásico Regiomontano since 1974.
Club de Fútbol Tigres de la Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León was founded on 7 March 1960. They previously were named the Jabatos de Nuevo León. In 1967, their venue, the Estadio Universitario was built. In the 1973 -- 74 season, José "Ché '' Gómez guided the team to the title and promotion to the Primera División de México, now Liga MX. They defeated the Leones Negros de la Universidad de Guadalajara for 3 -- 2. In the 1975 -- 76, Tigres won their first domestic cup, the Copa México (now Copa MX), against América after winning 3 -- 2.
Under the command of Uruguayan coach Carlos Miloc and players such as Tomás Boy and Geronimo Barbadillo, for the 1977 -- 78 season Tigres aimed to the league championship. In the quarter - finals of the liguilla (play - offs), they defeated Estudiantes Tecos by 1 -- 0 and 3 -- 2 (4 -- 2). In the semi-finals Tigres defeated Cruz Azul 0 -- 1 and 3 -- 0 (3 -- 1). In the finals they defeated UNAM 2 -- 0 and 1 -- 1 (3 -- 1). Tigres made their best season ever with 48 points in the 1978 -- 79, but did not reach the finals.
In the 1979 - 80 season, Tigres made it to the finals against Cruz Azul. In the first leg, Cruz Azul won 1 -- 0 at the Estadio Universitario, and in the second leg, at the Estadio Azteca, Tigres, although down 3 -- 0 at one point, rallied back to ensure a 3 -- 3 draw. Nonetheless, Tigres still lost the finals by an aggregate scoreline of 4 -- 3. In the 1981 -- 82 season, they won their second League championship against Atlante at the Estadio Azteca. In the quarter - finals of postseason, they tied with Guadalajara 1 -- 1 and 1 -- 1 (2 -- 2). In the semi-finals, they defeated América 2 -- 0 and 0 -- 1 (2 -- 1), and in the finals they tied 2 -- 1 and 0 -- 1 (2 -- 2) against Atlante. Tigres won by penalty shoot - out ending 3 -- 1 (5 -- 3 global). In the 1983 -- 84, they lost in quarter - finals against Pumas UNAM 1 -- 0; 0 -- 3 (1 -- 3). In the 1986 -- 87 season, they lost in the semi-finals against Monarcas Morelia 3 -- 2 and 0 -- 2 (3 -- 4). In the 1989 -- 90 season, meanwhile, Tigres finished the tournament as the first place of their group with 40 points and went to liguilla. They lost in quarter - finals by 3 -- 2 and 1 -- 3 (4 -- 5) against Club Universidad de Guadalajara. In 1990, Tigres lost the finals of the 1989 -- 90 Copa Mexico against Puebla. In the 1992 -- 93 season, they earned 44 points and went to play - offs. In the quarter - finals, Tigres lost 0 -- 2 and 2 -- 4 (2 -- 6) against Club León.
In 1996, Tigres hired the Chilean international forward Claudio Núñez and after several years of ups and downs the team won their second domestic cup defeating Atlas by 2 -- 1 but were relegated to Primera División A, now Ascenso MX, because of negative results of past seasons. Note that the Mexican League uses a percentage - based relegation system, in which the team with the worst performance percentage by year (instead of the worst team in the season) is relegated. Under the command of Victor Manuel Vucetich, the team qualified to play - offs in 1996 but because of the relegation they were unable to compete. After some negotiations, the administration of the team was given for ten years to Sinergia Deportiva, a trust - holder run by CEMEX. In 1997, after two consecutive Primera División A championships, the team returned to the Primera División. In 1998, Tigres hired international striker Luis Hernández.
Under the command of the Brazilian coach Ricardo Ferretti, Tigres finished the Verano 2001 season in the fourth place with 27 points and secured postseason. In the quarter - finals Tigres lost by 3 -- 1 and 2 -- 2 (5 -- 3) against Puebla. In the Invierno 2001 season, Tigres finished the tournament as leader with 36 points. In the play - offs, they beat Santos Laguna in the quarter - finals 1 -- 1 and 3 -- 0 (4 -- 1). In the semi-finals, they tied with Cruz Azul 1 -- 1 (0 -- 1 and 1 -- 0), and because of the 36 points they achieved in the tournament, they went to the next stage. In the finals, Tigres lost 2 -- 0 and 1 -- 1 (3 -- 1) against Pachuca in the Estadio Universitario. In June 2002, the talented Argentine attacking midfielder Walter Gaitán was hired, a player that later would become an icon of the team. In the Clausura 2003, Tigres finished the tournament as the fourth place with 34 points, and went to postseason. In the quarter - finals, they defeated Toluca by 2 -- 1 and 2 -- 2 for an aggregate of 4 -- 3. In the semi-finals, Tigres lost against arch - rival Monterrey. In the first game they lost by 4 -- 1, while in the second Tigres won 2 -- 1 for an aggregate score of 5 -- 3. After the loss, coach Ricardo Ferretti was fired.
On the Apertura 2003, now under the command of Argentine coach Nery Pumpido (with a team that Ferretti build), Tigres finished the tournament as leader now with 38 points. In the play - offs, they tied 1 -- 0 and 1 -- 2 (2 -- 2) with Cruz Azul in the quarter - finals. In the semi-finals, they faced Toluca, who was now under the command of Ricardo Ferretti, and defeated them 0 -- 1 and 2 -- 0 (2 -- 1). In the finals, Tigres lost 1 -- 3 and 1 -- 0 (3 -- 2) once more against Pachuca in the Estadio Universitario. In the Clausura 2004, Argentine striker Andrés Silvera finished the tournament as one of the top goal scorers, but Tigres ended in 12th place and missed the play - offs. That same tournament they scored the biggest result in a Clásico Regiomontano, beating archrival Monterrey 6 -- 2.
In October 2004, Sinergia Deportiva purchased the rights to a franchise in the MISL called the "Monterrey Tigres ''. However, due to conflicts with the previous MISL franchise "Monterrey Fury '', the team elected not to complete the purchase of the team, and the MISL terminated the indoor franchise in December 2004. In the Clausura 2005, Tigres went to postseason and tied with Monarcas Morelia 2 -- 2 and 2 -- 2 (4 -- 4) in the quarter - finals, and Morelia went to the next stage because of the points they achieved in the regular season.
In the Apertura 2005, Walter Gaitán finished the season as the top scorer of the tournament and Tigres went to play - offs in 8th place. In the quarter - finals, under the command of the iconic Osvaldo Batocletti, Tigres played the historical "Aztecazo '', a way to describe a difficult victory over América or the Mexico national team in their venue, the Estadio Azteca. In the first game, Tigres lost in the Estadio Universitario by a 1 -- 3 score. Against all odds, however, they defeated América in the second game 4 -- 1 for an aggregate scorline of 5 -- 4, leaving América out of the postseason. In the semi-finals, Tigres drew Monterrey after 1 -- 0 and 1 -- 2 (2 -- 2) scorelines, although Monterrey progressed to the next round because of the points in the tournament.
On 3 August 2006, CEMEX, the company that controls Tigres, celebrated its first 100 years with a match between Tigres and Barcelona in Monterrey. The game ended with the locals losing by 3 -- 0. Sindey Balderas of Tigres scored an own goal, Ronaldinho scored with a free kick and later passed to Eiður Guðjohnsen for a third goal.
Tigres finished the Clausura 2007 season as eighth with 23 points, securing play - offs. Tigres lost in quarter - finals against Guadalajara 3 -- 1 and 3 -- 2 (6 -- 3). In December 2007, Tigres hired who would become the last idol of the team, the skilled Argentine attacking midfielder Lucas Lobos. On 19 July 2008, Tigres played Atlético Madrid as their official presentation for the Apertura 2008 tournament. Atlético opened the score with goals from John Heitinga and Diego Forlán for a sturdy 2 -- 0 in favour of the Spanish side. Tigres responded well to this for Blas Pérez and Manuel Viniegra tied the game 2 -- 2. In the Apertura 2008, under the command of Manuel Lapuente, Tigres ended the tournament as sixth place and qualified for the play - offs. They tied in the quarter - finals against Atlante 1 -- 1 and 1 -- 1 (2 -- 2), though Atlante progressed to semi-finals because they finished the regular season higher than Tigres, in third place.
In 2010, Santiago Martínez presided over the team 's worst season in the past few years. On 27 March 2010, after their seventh loss in the season, and with only 25 % effectiveness, the fans and media heavily criticized coach Daniel Guzmán. Eventually, Martínez was fired and replaced by a former president of the team, Alejandro Rodríguez. He signed Ricardo Ferretti as the head coach for the third time, upon which the face of the team changed completely. Tigres was saved from relegation and became one of the most competitive teams in the league. With the adherence of Argentine winger Damián Álvarez, Brazilian attacking midfielder Danilinho and Chilean striker Héctor Mancilla to captain Lucas Lobos, the offensive line of Tigres became the so - called "Cuatro Fantásticos '' ("Fantastic Four '').
In the Clausura 2011 season, Tigres finished the tournament as leader with 35 points and as the best defence in the history of the short seasons, allowing only 9 goals in 17 games. Tigres faced Guadalajara in the postseason. In the first leg of the quarter - finals, Tigres lost 3 -- 1, while in the second they tied to 1 -- 1 at the Estadio Universitario. With an aggregate score of 4 -- 2, Tigres was eliminated. On the Apertura 2011, Tigres hired Carlos Salcido and was the best defense again, this time allowing 13 goals in 17 games. In playoffs, they faced old rival Pachuca: In the first leg of quarter - finals, Tigres defeated Pachuca by 1 -- 0, while in the second they won 3 -- 0 at the Estadio Universitario for an aggregate score of 4 -- 0. In the semi-finals, Tigres beat Querétaro 1 -- 0 in the second leg after a 0 -- 0 draw in the first. In the finals, they faced Santos Laguna. In the first leg, Tigres won 1 -- 0 in Torreón with goal from Damián Álvarez. On 11 December 2011, with goals from Héctor Mancilla, Danilinho and Alan Pulido, Tigres won 3 -- 1 at the Estadio Universitario, becoming champion for the third time after 29 years.
For the Clausura 2012, Tigres hired Brazilian forward Edno and midfielder Elias Hernández. The season ended with Tigres in fifth place, securing postseason. In the quarter - finals, they beat Monarcas Morelia 1 -- 0 at the Estadio Universitario with goal from Héctor Mancilla, while in the second leg, they triumphed 4 -- 1 in Morelia with goals from Hugo Ayala, Edno, Lucas Lobos and Elias Hernández; the aggregate score was 5 -- 1. In semi-finals, they faced old rival Santos Laguna; in the first leg, at the Estadio Universitario, the teams drew 1 -- 1, with Lobos scoring for Tigres. In the second, after a total domain of Tigres, and winning 2 -- 0 with goals of Mancilla, Santos tied dramatically 2 -- 2 with goals from Oribe Peralta in the 87th and 90th minutes. With an aggregate score of 3 -- 3, Santos progressed to the next phase because they had finished the regular season in first place. In the Apertura 2012, Tigres replaced Héctor Mancilla with Spanish forward Luis García. Tigres finished in 12th place, thus missing play - offs.
Tigres brought in experienced Argentine striker Emanuel Villa while Danilinho returned from his loan to Brazil, giving the team a highly offensive power for the Clausura 2013 season. The regular season ended with Tigres as the leader with 35 points and only two defeats. Querétaro was the eighth - placed and meant to be the rival of Tigres, but was relegated to Ascenso MX, so Monterrey was dragged to postseason. In the away leg of quarter - finals, Monterrey defeated Tigres 1 -- 0 in a game where Monterrey had less ball possession and offensive plays. In the second game, Tigres had to win by 1 -- 0 or by a two - goal advantage because of the away goals rule (3 -- 1, 4 -- 2, 5 -- 3). Tigres came out aggressive and Danilinho scored a goal early in the game. Minutes later, with a game totally handled by Tigres, Israel Jiménez scored an own goal that tied the game at 1 -- 1, and Tigres lost with an aggregate score of 2 -- 1.
For the Apertura 2013 tournament, Tigres hired midfielders Guido Pizarro and Édgar Lugo. Finishing the tournament in eight place, the team went to playoffs. In quarter - finals, they faced América, leaders of the tournament and reigning champions. In the home game at the Estadio Universitario, they tied by 2 -- 2, with Guido Pizarro and Alan Pulido scoring for Tigres. In the away game, at the Estadio Azteca, the teams drew at 1 -- 1, leaving Tigres out of the postseason. After the game, coach Ricardo Ferretti criticized the work of the referee, claiming that América is the only team in the world that "plays with 12 men ''.
Tigres hired Colombian winger Hernán Darío Burban, defender Jorge Iván Estrada and Argentine striker Emanuel Herrera for the Clausura 2014 tournament, but finished the season in 14th place, missing the playoffs. On 9 April 2014, Tigres won the Clausura 2014 Copa MX against Alebrijes de Oaxaca 3 -- 0 at the Estadio Universitario. Ricardo Ferretti became the first coach in Mexico to win a league and cup title with the same team. By winning the Clausura 2014 Copa MX, Tigres secured the Supercopa MX and faced Monarcas Morelia, winners of the Apertura 2013 Copa MX. Tigres lost the 2014 Supercopa MX against Morelia and failed to qualify to the following year 's Copa Libertadores as "Mexico 3 ''.
For the Apertura 2014 tournament, Tigres hired the Argentine goalkeeper Nahuel Guzmán, American striker Herculez Gomez, Argentine striker Marco Ruben, Ecuadorian winger Joffre Guerrón, young defender Antonio Briseño and the international Uruguayan midfielder Egidio Arévalo Ríos. Tigres finished the regular season in second place with 31 points, securing postseason. In quarter - finals, Tigres tied by 1 -- 1 and 1 -- 1 against Pachuca for an aggregate of 2 -- 2. In semifinals, Tigres drew against Toluca 0 -- 0 in both games. On 11 December 2014, in the first match of the finals against América, Tigres won 1 -- 0 with goal of Joffre Guerrón at the Estadio Universitario. On 14 December, in the second game, Tigres lost 3 -- 0 at the Estadio Azteca in a controversial match where Hernán Darío Burbano, Damián Álvarez and goalkeeper Nahuel Guzmán were sent off on red cards, leaving Tigres with eight men. Tigres lost the finals by an aggregate of 3 -- 1.
Tigres hired Brazilian forward Rafael Sóbis and finished the Clausura 2015 regular season in first place with 29 points, earning a ticket to playoffs. In the away game of the quarter - finals against Santos Laguna, Tigres tied 1 -- 1 with goal of Guerrón at the Estadio Corona. In the home game, Tigres lost 1 -- 0; with an aggregate score of 1 -- 2, Tigres was eliminated.
For the Apertura 2015 season, the team brought in wingers Jürgen Damm and Javier Aquino and the international French striker André - Pierre Gignac. Tigres finished the season in fifth place with 28 points, best defense allowing 16 goals and securing playoffs. Gignac scored 11 goals in the regular season, the highest number for a Tigres player in the first season. In postseason, with goals from Gignac and Damián Álvarez, Tigres won the first quarter - final leg 2 -- 1 against Jaguares de Chiapas at the Estadio Universitario. In the second leg, they won 1 -- 0 at Chiapas again with a goal of Gignac. In the semi-finals against Toluca, Tigres won the away leg 2 -- 0 with goals of Damián Álvarez and Javier Aquino after a 0 -- 0 draw in the first. Tigres reached to the finals against UNAM. In the home leg, with goals of Gignac, via penalty kick, Aquino and Rafael Sóbis, Tigres won by 3 -- 0, while in the second leg, at the Estadio Olímpico Universitario, UNAM won 3 -- 0. With the aggregate score at 3 -- 3, the game went to extra time. In the 103rd minute Gignac scored the 1 -- 3 goal, making the aggregate scoreline 4 -- 3. With only one minute left of extra time remaining, however, UNAM scored the 4 -- 1 goal and equalized the aggregate scoreline at 4 -- 4, sending the match to a penalty shoot - out. Gignac shot the first for Tigres, converting, and with similar conversions from Juninho, Rivas and Israel Jiménez, Tigres prevailed 4 -- 2 to defeat Pumas and claim the Liga MX Apertura 2015 championship in dramatic fashion.
The team hired the Argentine attacking midfielder Lucas Zelarayán, Paraguayan striker Fernando Fernández and resigned Chilean striker Héctor Mancilla after his departure in 2012 for the Clausura 2016 season. Gignac scored 13 goals in regular season and finished as the top goal scorer of the tournament. Tigres finished the Clausura 2016 season in eight place with 24 points, securing playoffs, where they would face Monterrey. There, Tigres lost the home game 3 -- 1 and won the away game 2 -- 1, losing on an aggregate score of 4 -- 3.
For the Apertura 2016 season, Tigres signed Argentine forward Ismael Sosa and their second French striker Andy Delort. On 10 July 2016, Tigres won the 2016 edition of the Campeón de Campeones Cup against Pachuca FC by 1 - 0 at the StubHub Center in Carson, California. Tigres finished the Apertura 2016 regular season in third place with 30 points and tied with Tijuana as the best defense, allowing 13 goals in 17 games. In playoffs, Tigres tied the first leg of quartefinals in Mexico City against UNAM by 2 - 2. In the second leg, Tigres beat UNAM by 5 - 0 at the Estadio Universitario with a hat - trick of Gignac. At semifinals, Tigres faced León. In the first leg, Tigres won by 1 - 0 with a goal of Gignac after a cross from Ismael Sosa at the Estadio León. In the second leg, Tigres achieved a home victory of 2 - 1 with goals of Gignac and Zelarayán. In the finals against América, the teams tied 1 - 1 in the first leg at Estadio Azteca, Gignac scoring for Tigres. In the historical second leg played for the first time on 25 December, the teams tied 0 - 0 and went to overtime at the Estadio Universitario. At 95 ' Edson Álvarez scored the 1 - 0 for América and at 118 ' Jesús Dueñas tied dramatically and led the match to penalty shoot - out. Nahuel Guzmán stopped three shots and with Gignac, Juninho and Guido Pizarro scoring their own, Tigres became the Apertura 2016 champions.
For the Clausura 2017, Tigres hired Chilean international forward Eduardo Vargas. Tigres finished the Clausura 2017 season in seventh place with 25 points and the best defense allowing twelve goals in 17 games. In the first leg of playoffs at the Estadio Universitario, Tigres faced Monterrey and beat them by 4 - 1 with Gignac and Dueñas scoring twice each. In the second leg of quarterfinals at the Estadio BBVA, Gignac scored twice for the 2 - 0 victory. Tigres beat Monterrey by an aggregate of 6 - 1 and secured semifinals. In the first leg of semifinals, Tigres defeated Tijuana by 2 - 0 with goals of Aquino and Zelarayán at the Estadio Universitario. With goals of Aquino and Jürgen Damm, Tigres beat Tijuana by 2 - 0 in the second leg at the Estadio Caliente, for a 4 - 0 aggregate. In the home leg of the finals against Guadalajara, Gignac scored twice and matched the score to 2 - 2. Tigres lost the second leg by 2 - 1 at the Estadio Omnilife for an aggregate of 4 - 3, in a controversial match where press and audience claimed that referee Luis Santander, who had refereed all of the home games of Guadalajara in play - offs, did not penalize a foul of Guadalajara 's defeder Jair Pereira over Ismael Sosa inside the penalty area minutes before the end of the match. Santander would later recognized and apologized for the mistake.
For the Apertura 2017 season, Tigres acquired Ecuadorian forward Enner Valencia, Brazilian midfielder Rafael Carioca and French defender Timothée Kolodziejczak. On 16 July 2017, Tigres beat Guadalajara by 1 - 0 at the StubHub Center in Carson, California, becoming the back - to - back Champion of the Campeón de Campeones Cup by winning the 2017 and 2016 editions. Tigres finished the regular season of the Apertura 2017 as second place with 32 points. In playoffs, Tigres tied 1 - 1 in both legs against Club León and by an aggregate of 2 - 2, secured semifinals due table position. In semifinals, Tigres defeated Club América by 1 - 0 in the away game and 3 - 0 in home. Tigres played the historical final against archrival CF Monterrey. In the first leg the teams tied by 1 - 1 at the Estadio Universitario. In the Estadio BBVA Bancomer, Tigres beat Monterrey by 2 - 1 with goals of Edu Vargas and Francisco Meza. In the aftermatch, winger Jürgen Damm stated: "We knew we were facing the best team of the season, but, they were facing the best team of the decade. '' After the fourth title since 2010, Tigres was dubbed by the media as "The Team of the Decade ''.
In January 2005, the team won the InterLiga Championship in Houston, Texas. With this, they qualified for the prestigious Copa Libertadores de América. This was the first time the team qualified to any international tournament.
In the Copa Libertadores Tigres played their first ever game in that tournament against Alianza Lima in Peru on 15 February 2005 (away, score: 0 -- 0) and 3 May 2005 (home, score: 0 -- 0). Their first ever win on the tournament, on 23 February 2005, against Caracas, from Venezuela (home, score: 3 -- 1), and on 13 April 2005 (away, score: 2 -- 5). This last game is the biggest - scoring game the team has had in its history on the tournament. In the same group was also the Banfield. Tigres confronted them on 15 March (home, score: 2 -- 2) and on 6 April 2005 (away, score: 0 -- 3).
Tigres qualified (along with Banfield) into the next stage, where they met previous year champion Colombian team Once Caldas. On 19 May 2005, both teams tied (away, score: 1 -- 1) and then, Tigres won on the second game on 26 May 2005 (home, score: 2 -- 1) thus qualifying to quarter - finals against São Paulo, who later went on to become champion, and who only lost a match in this tournament against this team.
In the Quarter - Finals, the first game on 1 June 2005 was lost (away, score: 0 -- 4) and the next game on 15 June 2005 was won (home, score: 2 -- 1). The aggregate score was 5 -- 2 against, and the team was eliminated from the championship. With Tigres, Hugo Sánchez became the first person born in Monterrey to ever score in the tournament.
In January 2006, after defeating their arch - rival, Monterrey, at the Home Depot Center in California, Tigres won their second consecutive Interliga and became the first Mexican team to qualify to two consecutive Copa Libertadores de América.
In this edition, Tigres faced the Universidad Católica from Chile, the Corinthians, from Brazil, and Deportivo Cali, of Colombia.
This was a tougher group stage than they had had the previous year, and was one of the toughest in the tournament. However, Tigres qualified for the next round, but only by goal - difference advantage, and after a last minute goal by Carlos Ramírez.
Because of its intensity, this group staged produced a lot of memorable games, particularly against Universidad Católica and against Corinthians at home and away. Tigres ended second in the group due to goal difference advantage, in a last minute goal against Universidad Católica, and so qualified again for play - offs.
In summary, Tigres played 8 games, and produced 3 wins, 3 ties, and two defeats.
This performance at the beginning was considerably lacking, and it produced its first penalty kicks experience in Copa Libertadores.
On 5 August 2009, Tigres won the final of the 2009 North American SuperLiga against the Chicago Fire at their home stadium in the Chicago 's suburb of Bridgeview, Illinois.
After finishing 3rd in the regular season of the Apertura 2011 Tournament, they returned after a 6 - year absence to the 2012 Copa Libertadores, playing in the first stage. Tigres played home and away qualifying matches against Chile 's Unión Española. They played the first match in Chile, on 25 January 2012 at 6: 50pm local time (3: 50pm CST). Unión Española took the first game by a score of 1 -- 0, scoring at the 58th minute, after Tigres sent a reserve squad to play the match. They hosted their Chilean rival on 2 February 2012, at 8: 00pm CST. They tied 2 -- 2 and failed to qualify for the Group Stage. Coach Ricardo Ferretti was criticized by the media and fans for sending a reserve squad to play the matches.
After the championship of the Apertura 2011, Tigres qualified for the first time to the CONCACAF Champions League. They lost in quarterfinals against Seattle Sounders by 1 -- 0, 3 -- 1, for an aggregate of 2 -- 3. Ferretti was criticized again for sending a reserve squad to play the second match against the Sounders like he did in the Copa Libertadores.
By finishing the regular season of the Apertura 2014 as second place with 31 units, Tigres advanced to Copa Libertadores 2015 as Mexico 1 to play in Group 6 against River Plate, San José and Juan Aurich. On 18 February 2015, Tigres defeated Juan Aurich by 3 -- 0 at the Estadio Universitario with two goals of Joffre Guerrón and one of Jesús Dueñas. On 5 March, with goal of Guerrón, Tigres tied 1 -- 1 against River Plate at the Estadio Monumental. On 11 March, Tigres defeated San José by 1 -- 0 with goal of Amaury Escoto at the Estadio Jesús Bermúdez. Tigres won by 4 -- 0 against San José at the Estadio Universitario with two goals of Rafael Sóbis, and goals of Guerrón and Egidio Arévalo on 17 March. On 8 April, Tigres received River Plate for a high - profile match in the Estadio Universitario. River Plate needed to win or tie to remain in the fight for a ticket to the next phase. At 11 ' Egidio Arévalo scored the 1 - 0 for Tigres. The team kept the match under control and at 68 ' Damián Alvarez scored the 2 - 0. After a defensive mistake from José Rivas and Hugo Ayala, Teofilo Gutierrez scored the 1 - 2 at 86 ' for River Plate. Rodrigo Mora scored the 2 - 2 at the 89 '. On 15 April, Tigres played against Juan Aurich at the Estadio Elías Aguirre.
Tigres, first place of the group and already qualified to the next phase, sent a reserve squad. The decision was heavily criticized by the Argentinian press, that stated that River Plate would not get to the second stage if Tigres lost against Juan Aurich. With a hat - trick of Enrique Esqueda, and goals of Dieter Villalpando and Jonathan Espericueta, Tigres won by 5 - 4, eliminating Juan Aurich. Tigres played the round of 16 against Universitario de Sucre. In the first leg, Tigres defeated Universitario by 2 - 1 with goals of Damián Álvarez and Enrique Esqueda. On 5 May, in the second leg, Tigres tied by 1 - 1 with goal of Sobis vía penalty - kick for an aggregate of 3 - 2 earning a ticket to quarterfinals. In the first leg of the quarterfinals, Tigres lost against Emelec by 1 - 0 at the Estadio Jocay. In the second leg at Estadio Universitario on 26 May, Tigres won by 2 - 0 with goals of Rafael Sóbis and José Rivas for an aggregate of 2 - 1 reaching semifinals against S.C. Internacional. On 15 July, Tigres lost the first leg of the semifinals at the Estádio Beira - Rio by 2 - 1 with goal of Hugo Ayala. In the second leg, on 22 July, Tigres defeated Internacional by 3 - 1 at the Estadio Universitario, with goals of André - Pierre Gignac, Egidio Arévalo and an own goal of Geferson. With an aggregate of 4 - 3, Tigres became the third Mexican team ever to reach the finals of the Copa Libertadores. On 29 July, in the first leg of the finals against River Plate, the teams tied by 0 - 0 at the Estadio Universitario. Tigres lost by 3 - 0 in the second leg at the Estadio Monumental on 5 August.
As the runner - up of the Apertura 2014, Tigres qualified to the 2015 -- 16 CONCACAF Champions League, playing their first match of the tournament on 18 August, only thirteen days after the second leg of the final of the 2015 Copa Libertadores. In the group stage, Tigres defeated A.D. Isidro Metapán at the Estadio Universitario by 2 - 1, tied by 1 - 1 against C.S. Herediano at the Estadio Eladio Rosabal Cordero, defeated Isidro Metapan by 2 - 1 at the Estadio Jorge Calero Suárez and tied at the Estadio Universitario against Herediano by 0 - 0, securing quarterfinals. Tigres defeated Real Salt Lake by 2 - 0 in the first leg of quarterfinals and tied 1 - 1 in the second leg, for an aggregate of 3 - 1. After a 0 - 0 draw in the first leg of semifinals against Querétaro, in the second leg Tigres won by 2 - 0. In the finals against Club América, Tigres fell by 0 - 2 the first leg at the Estadio Universitario and by 1 - 2 in the second leg at the Estadio Azteca for an aggregate of 1 - 4.
Champions of the Mexican Apertura 2015 season, Tigres qualified to the 2016 -- 17 CONCACAF Champions League. The team won the first match of the group stage against Herediano on 4 August 2016, by 3 - 1 at the Estadio Eladio Rosabal Cordero. The second match was also a victory by 3 - 1, this time against Plaza Amador on 17 August at the Estadio Universitario. The third match, against Plaza Amador, Tigres fell by 0 - 1 on 28 September at the Estadio Maracaná. The last match of the group stage, Tigres won by 3 - 0 against Herediano at the Estadio Universitario. In knockout stage, Tigres beat Pumas UNAM by 1 - 1 in the home leg and by 3 - 0 in the away leg. In semifinals, Tigres defeated Vancouver Whitecaps by 2 - 0 in the home leg and 2 - 1 in the away leg. Tigres lost the finals against Pachuca FC by 1 - 1 in the first leg and 0 - 1 in the second leg.
Since the foundation of the club in 1960, its distinctive colours are light gold and dark blue. In the home jersey, light gold is always predominant than dark blue, but in the away jersey is the opposite, the dark blue is predominant. The third colour has been inconsistent, sometimes presented as black, white, red, green, copper or dark gold.
Tigres ' biggest rival is Monterrey. Their derby is called Clásico Regiomontano. On every Clásico the stadium is sold out as soon as tickets go on sale. It is known for being one of the most intense and competed derbies in Mexican football, and is widely regarded as the most important Mexican derby after the Clásico Nacional. Tigres and Monterrey played their first Clásico on 13 July 1974 at the Estadio Universitario, game that ended with a 3 -- 3 draw. The teams played an historical final for the Liga MX championship of the Apertura 2017 season. In the first leg the teams tied by 1 - 1 at the Estadio Universitario. In the Estadio BBVA Bancomer, Tigres beat Monterrey by 2 - 1 with goals of Edu Vargas and Francisco Meza, winning the first league final between the two.
Tigres claims to have Mexico 's most loyal supporting crowd. Every season Tigres play in front of a sold - out Estadio Universitario due to their over 39,000 season - ticket holders. Since the reactivation of the domestic cup (Copa MX) in 2012, the Estadio Universitario has registered a full attendance in the cup games as well. After getting relegated and made all of ther games Local - PPV in 1996, fans continued their unwavering support during the year it took the club to achieve promotion back to Liga MX. It was the only team in the Ascenso MX that registered a full attendance for every home game during that entire year. Its fan base expands to other states such as Coahuila, Durango, San Luis Potosí, Tamaulipas, Veracruz and Texas. Several Mexican sports media have ranked the Tigres ' fans as the best in the Liga MX, citing their loyalty during the club 's bad streaks. The fans, nicknamed "Incomparables '' (Incomparable ones), are the best known travelling support group due to the thousands of members chanting for the team in the away games. Founded in 1998, Libres y Lokos are the biggest group of ultras of the club. On 9 March 2013, over 23,000 fans traveled to the city of San Luis Potosí to support the team in a game against San Luis FC at the Estadio Alfonso Lastras.
2002 -- 2012
2012 -- 2015
2018 -- present
Note: Flags indicate national team as defined under FIFA eligibility rules. Players may hold more than one non-FIFA nationality.
Note: Flags indicate national team as defined under FIFA eligibility rules. Players may hold more than one non-FIFA nationality.
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once upon a time in america garbage truck | Once Upon a Time in America - Wikipedia
Once Upon a Time in America is a 1984 epic crime drama film co-written and directed by Italian filmmaker Sergio Leone and starring Robert De Niro and James Woods. The film is an Italian - American venture produced by The Ladd Company, Embassy International Pictures, PSO Enterprises, and Rafran Cinematografica, and distributed by Warner Bros. Based on Harry Grey 's novel The Hoods, it chronicles the lives of best friends David "Noodles '' Aaronson and Maximilian "Max '' Bercovicz as they lead a group of Jewish ghetto youths who rise to prominence in New York City 's world of organized crime. The film explores themes of childhood friendships; love, lust, greed, betrayal, loss, broken relationships, together with the rise of mobsters in American society.
It was the final film directed by Leone before his death five years later and the first feature film he had directed in 13 years. The cinematography was by Tonino Delli Colli, and the film score by Ennio Morricone. Leone originally envisaged two three - hour films, then a single 269 - minute (4 hours and 29 minutes) version, but was convinced by distributors to shorten it to 229 minutes (3 hours and 49 minutes). The film premiered on May 23, 1984 at the Cannes Film Festival in France, and was released as a shortened 139 minute (2 hours and 19 minutes) version on June 1, 1984 in the United States. While the original European release received positive reviews, the shortened version was a critical and commercial failure in the United States. The film is now generally acknowledged as a masterpiece and one of the greatest gangster films ever made.
Gangsters enter a Chinese puppet theater, looking for a marked man. The proprietors slip into a hidden opium den and warn a man named "Noodles '', but he pays no attention. In a flashback, he watches the police remove three disfigured corpses from a street. He successfully kills one of the three thugs that are after him but learns that the thugs have murdered his girlfriend while looking for him and finds that someone else has stolen his money. He leaves the city.
David "Noodles '' Aaronson struggles as a street kid in the Williamsburg section of Brooklyn in 1920. He and his friends Patrick "Patsy '' Goldberg, Phillip "Cockeye '' Stein, and little Dominic commit petty crimes under the supervision of the local boss Bugsy. Planning to rob a drunk at the moment a passing truck hides them from a policeman, they 're foiled by the older Max Bercovicz, who jumps off of the truck to rob the man himself. Noodles confronts Max but a crooked policeman steals the watch they were fighting over. Later Max 's camera enables them to blackmail the policeman, having sex with a teenage girl, and thus start their own gang independent of Bugsy, who had previously enjoyed the policeman 's corrupt protection. The boys establish a suitcase money fund, which they hide in a locker at the railway station, giving the key to Fat Moe, a reliable friend who 's not part of the operation. Noodles is in love with Fat Moe 's sister Deborah, who aspires to be a dancer and actress. One day, Bugsy ambushes the boys and shoots little Dominic, who dies in Noodles ' arms, who then stabs Bugsy to death and injures a police officer who tried to intervene. Noodles is arrested, and sentenced to 12 years in prison.
An adult Noodles is released from jail in 1932 and is reacquainted with his old gang: Max, Patsy, and Cockeye, who are now major players in the bootlegging industry during Prohibition. Noodles reunites with Deborah and tries to rekindle their relationship. Meanwhile, during a robbery, the gang meets Carol who soon becomes Max 's girlfriend. The gang prospers from bootlegging under Prohibition, providing muscle for union boss Jimmy Conway O'Donnell. Noodles tries to impress Deborah on an extravagant date, and rapes her on their way home in a limousine, after which he becomes remorseful.
The gang 's financial success ends with the repeal of Prohibition, when Max considers a suggestion to set up what was to become the teamsters ' union, which Noodles refuses and leaves. Max runs after him and they go to Florida together. While there, Max suggests robbing the New York Federal Reserve Bank, but Noodles sees it as suicidal. Carol, who also fears for Max 's life, convinces Noodles to call the police on his friend for a minor offence, just to keep him in jail for a short time. Noodles does this at an end - of - Prohibition party. Shortly after, Max, who has followed him to the office, knocks him unconscious for calling him crazy. Regaining consciousness, Noodles finds out that Max, Patsy, and Cockeye have been killed by the police, and is consumed with guilt over making that phone call which led to the scenes which begin the film. Noodles is then seen boarding the first bus to leave New York, going to Buffalo, where he will live in hiding under a fake identity for the next 35 years.
In 1968, Noodles receives a letter informing him that the cemetery where his friends are buried has been sold and asking him to make arrangements for their reburial. Realising that someone has deduced his identity, Noodles returns to Manhattan and stays with Fat Moe above his still - open restaurant. While visiting the new cemetery, Noodles finds there, visibly hung for him to take it, a key to the railway locker, once kept by the gang, and further notes the license plate of a car that is following him there. Opening that locker, he discovers a suitcase full of cash, like the one kept there and taken away, now with a note saying the money is a down payment on his next job. Noodles hears about the lavish estate of Secretary Bailey, an embattled political figure whose name has been mentioned in news reports of the car explosion which killed the District Attorney.
Noodles visits Carol, who lives at a retirement home run by the Bailey Foundation. She tells him that Max planted the idea of Carol and Noodles tipping off the police because he wanted to die rather than go insane like his father who died in an asylum. He opened fire on the police to ensure his own death. While at the home, Noodles sees a photo of Deborah at the institution 's dedication. Noodles tracks down Deborah, now a successful actress. He questions her about Secretary Bailey, telling her that he has received an invitation to a party at Bailey 's house. Deborah claims not to know much about Bailey, but Noodles already knows they have lived together for years. In the end Deborah tells him Bailey was a starving immigrant who married a very wealthy woman who died in childbirth. She begs him to not go to the party but leave via the back exit and not the main door of her dressing room, where a young man named David is waiting for her. Noodles leaves via the main door and Deborah explains the young man is Secretary Bailey 's son, named David (which is also Noodles ' given name). David bears an obvious resemblance to Max as a young man (and is played by the same actor) implying that Secretary Bailey is Max.
Secretary Bailey is revealed to be Max. Noodles meets with Max in his private room at the party. Max explains that corrupt policemen helped him fake his own death, so that he could steal the gang 's money and steal Noodles ' love interest Deborah, in order to begin a new life as Mr. Bailey, a man with contacts to the teamsters ' union. Now faced with ruin and the spectre of a teamster assassination, Max asks Noodles to kill him. Noodles refuses despite Max 's permission and goading, because, in his eyes, Max died with the gang. As Noodles leaves Bailey 's estate, he hears a garbage truck start up and looks back to see a man standing at the driveway 's gated entrance. As he begins to walk towards Noodles, the truck passes between them. The truck passes and Noodles sees its auger grinding down rubbish, the man nowhere to be seen.
In a flashback, a young adult Noodles enters the opium den after his gang 's murder, taking the drug and broadly grinning.
The cast also includes Robert Harper as Sharkey, Mario Brega as Mandy, Paul Herman as Monkey, Marcia Jean Kurtz as Max 's Mother, Estelle Harris as Peggy 's Mother, and Richard Foronji as Whitey. Louise Fletcher can also be seen in the 2012 restoration as the director of the cemetery Noodles visits in 1968.
During the mid-1960s, Sergio Leone read the novel The Hoods by Harry Grey, a pseudonym for the former gangster - turned - informant whose real name was Harry Goldberg. In 1968, after shooting Once Upon a Time in the West, Leone made many efforts to talk to Grey. Having enjoyed Leone 's Dollars Trilogy, Grey finally responded and agreed to meet with Leone at a Manhattan bar. Following that initial meeting, Leone met with Grey several times throughout the remainder of the 1960s and 1970s to understand America through Grey 's point of view. Intent on making another trilogy about America, Leone turned down an offer from Paramount Pictures to direct The Godfather to pursue his pet project.
Leone considered many actors for the film during the long development process. Originally in 1975, Gérard Depardieu, who was determined to learn English with a Brooklyn accent for the role, was cast as Max with Jean Gabin playing the older Max. Richard Dreyfuss was cast as Noodles with James Cagney playing the older Noodles. In 1980, Leone spoke of casting Tom Berenger as Noodles with Paul Newman playing the older Noodles. Among actors considered for the role of Max were Dustin Hoffman, Jon Voight, Harvey Keitel, John Malkovich, and John Belushi.
Early in 1981, Brooke Shields was offered the role of Deborah Gelly, after Leone had seen The Blue Lagoon, claiming that "she had the potential to play a mature character. '' A writers ' strike delayed the project, and Shields withdrew before auditions began. Elizabeth McGovern was cast as Deborah and Jennifer Connelly as her younger self.
Joe Pesci was among many to audition for Max. He got the smaller role of Frankie, partly as a favor to his friend De Niro. Danny Aiello auditioned for several roles and was ultimately cast as the police chief who (coincidentally) shares his surname. Claudia Cardinale (who appeared in Once Upon a Time in the West) wanted to play Carol, but Leone was afraid she would not be convincing as a New Yorker and turned her down.
The film was shot between June 14, 1982, and April 22, 1983. Leone tried, as he had with A Fistful of Dynamite, to produce the film with a young director under him. In the early days of the project he courted John Milius, a fan of his who was enthusiastic about the idea; but Milius was working on The Wind and the Lion and the script for Apocalypse Now, and could not commit to the project. For the film 's visual style, Leone used as references the paintings of such artists as Reginald Marsh, Edward Hopper, and Norman Rockwell, as well as (for the 1922 sequences) the photographs of Jacob Riis. F. Scott Fitzgerald 's novel The Great Gatsby influenced Noodles ' relationship with Deborah.
Most exteriors were shot in New York City (such as in Williamsburg along South 6th Street, where Fat Moe 's restaurant was based, and South 8th Street), but several key scenes were shot elsewhere. Most interiors were shot in Cinecittà in Rome. The beach scene where Max unveils his plan to rob the Federal Reserve was shot at the Don CeSar in St. Petersburg, Florida. The New York 's railway "Grand Central Station '' scene in the thirties flashbacks was filmed in the Gare du Nord in Paris. The interiors of the lavish restaurant where Noodles takes Deborah on their date were shot in the Hotel Excelsior in Venice, Italy. The gang 's hit on Joe was filmed in Quebec. The view of the Manhattan Bridge shown in the film 's poster can be seen from Washington Street in Brooklyn.
The shooting script, completed in October 1981 after many delays and a writers ' strike between April and July of that year, was 317 pages in length.
By the end of filming, Leone had eight to ten hours worth of footage. With his editor Nino Baragli, Leone trimmed this to almost six hours, and he originally wanted to release the film in two parts, each three hours. The producers refused, partly because of the commercial and critical failure of Bertolucci 's two - part 1900, and Leone was forced to further shorten it. The film was originally 269 minutes (4 hours and 29 minutes), but when the film premiered out of competition at the 1984 Cannes Film Festival, Leone had cut it to 229 minutes (3 hours and 49 minutes) to appease the distributors, which was the version shown in European cinemas. However, the American wide release was edited further to 139 minutes (2 hours and 19 minutes) by the studio, against the director 's wishes.
The musical score was composed by Leone 's long - time collaborator Ennio Morricone. The film 's long production resulted in Morricone finishing the composition of most of the soundtrack before many scenes had been filmed. Some of Morricone 's pieces were played on set as filming took place, a technique that Leone had used for Once Upon a Time in the West. "Deborah 's Theme '' was written for another film in the 1970s but rejected; Morricone presented the piece to Leone, who was initially reluctant to include it, considering it too similar to Morricone 's main title music for Once Upon a Time in the West. The score is also notable for Morricone 's incorporation of the music of Gheorghe Zamfir, who plays a pan flute. At times this music is used to convey remembrance, at other times terror. Zamfir 's flute music was used to similarly haunting effect in Peter Weir 's Picnic at Hanging Rock (1975). Morricone also collaborated with vocalist Edda Dell'Orso on the score.
A soundtrack album was released in 1984 by Mercury Records. This was followed by a special edition release in 1995, featuring four additional tracks.
Besides the original music, the film used source music, including:
Once Upon a Time in America premiered at the 1984 Cannes Film Festival on 23 May and received a "15 - minute standing ovation ''. In the United States, the film received a wide release in 894 theaters on June 1, 1984 and grossed $2.4 million during its opening weekend. It ended its box office run with a gross of just over $5.3 million on a $30 million budget, and became labeled as a box office flop. The financial and critical disaster of the American release almost bankrupted The Ladd Company. Eventually, the film premiered in Leone 's native Italy out of competition at the 41st Venice International Film Festival in September 1984. That same month, the film was released wide in Italy on September 28, 1984 in its 229 - minute version.
Several different versions of Once Upon a Time in America have been shown. The original European release version (1984, 229 minutes) was shown internationally.
The film was shown in limited release and for film critics in America, where it was slightly trimmed to secure an "R '' rating. Cuts were made to two rape scenes and some of the more graphic violence at the beginning. Noodles ' meeting with Bailey in 1968 was also excised. The film gained a mediocre reception at several sneak premieres in North America. Because of this early audience reaction, the fear of its length, its graphic violence, and the inability of theaters to have multiple showings in one day, the decision was made by The Ladd Company to make many edits and cut entire scenes without the supervision of Sergio Leone. This American wide release (1984, 139 minutes) was drastically different from the European release, as the non-chronological story was rearranged into chronological order. Other major cuts involved many of the childhood sequences, making the adult 1933 sections more prominent. Noodles ' 1968 meeting with Deborah was excised, and the scene with Bailey ends with him shooting himself (with the sound of a gunshot off screen), rather than the garbage truck conclusion of the 229 - minute version.
In the Soviet Union, the film was shown theatrically in the late 1980s, with other Hollywood blockbusters such as the two King Kong films. The story was rearranged in chronological order and the film was split in two, with the two parts shown as separate movies, one containing the childhood scenes and the other comprising the adulthood scenes. Despite the rearranging, no major scene deletions were made. It was rated "16 + '' by the Goskino.
A network television version was shown in the early to mid-1990s with a running time of almost three hours (excluding commercials). While it retained the film 's original non-chronological order, many key scenes involving violence and graphic content were left out. This version was a one - off showing, and no copies are known to exist.
In March 2011, it was announced that Leone 's original 269 - minute version was to be recreated by a film lab in Italy under the supervision of Leone 's children, who had acquired the Italian distribution rights, and the film 's original sound editor, Fausto Ancillai, for a premiere in 2012 at either the Cannes Film Festival or Venice Film Festival.
The restored film premiered at the 2012 Cannes Film Festival, but because of unforeseen rights issues for the deleted scenes, the restoration had a runtime of only 251 minutes. However, Martin Scorsese (whose Film Foundation helped with the restoration) stated that he is helping Leone 's children gain the rights to the final 24 minutes of deleted scenes to create a complete restoration of Leone 's envisaged 269 - minute version. On August 3, 2012, it was reported that after the premiere at Cannes, the restored film was pulled from circulation, pending further restoration work.
In North America, the heavily edited 139 - minute version was made available on DVD in the late 1990s. This was followed by a two - disc special edition release on June 10, 2003, featuring the 229 - minute version of the film. This special edition was rereleased on January 11, 2011, on both DVD and Blu - ray. On September 30, 2014, Warner Bros. released a two - disc Blu - ray and DVD set of the 2012 251 - minute restoration shown at the Cannes Film Festival, dubbed the Extended Director 's Cut. This version was previously released in Italy, on September 4, 2012.
The initial critical response to Once Upon a Time in America was mixed, because of the different versions released worldwide. While internationally the film was well received in its original form, American critics were much more dissatisfied with the 139 - minute version released in North America. This condensed version was a critical and financial disaster and many American critics, who knew of Leone 's original cut, attacked the short version. Some critics compared shortening the film to shortening Richard Wagner 's operas, saying that works of art that are meant to be long should be given the respect they deserve. Roger Ebert wrote in his 1984 review that the uncut version was "an epic poem of violence and greed '' but described the American theatrical version as a "travesty ''. Ebert 's television film critic partner Gene Siskel considered the uncut version to be the best film of 1984.
It was only after Leone 's death and the subsequent restoration of the original version that critics began to give it the kind of praise displayed at its original Cannes showing. The uncut original film is considered to be far superior to the edited version released in the US in 1984. Ebert, in his review of Brian De Palma 's The Untouchables, called the original uncut version of Once Upon a Time in America the best film depicting the Prohibition era. James Woods, who considers it to be Leone 's finest film, mentioned in the DVD documentary that one critic dubbed the film the worst of 1984, only to see the original cut years later and call it the best of the 1980s. The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reports a 89 % approval rating with an average rating of 8.6 / 10 based on 46 reviews. The website 's consensus reads, "Sergio Leone 's epic crime drama is visually stunning, stylistically bold, and emotionally haunting, and filled with great performances from the likes of Robert De Niro and James Woods. ''
The film has since been ranked as one of the best films of the gangster genre. When Sight & Sound asked several UK critics in 2002 what their favorite films of the last 25 years were, Once Upon a Time in America placed at number 10. In 2015, the film was ranked at number nine on Time Out 's list of the 50 best gangster films of all time.
As the film begins and ends in 1933, with Noodles hiding in an opium den from syndicate hitmen, and the last shot of the film is of Noodles in a smiling, opium - soaked high, the film can be interpreted as having been a drug - induced dream, with Noodles remembering his past and envisioning the future. In an interview by Noël Simsolo published in 1987, Leone confirms the validity of this interpretation, saying that the scenes set in the 1960s could be seen as an opium dream of Noodles. In the DVD commentary for the film, film historian and critic Richard Schickel states that opium users often report vivid dreams and that these visions have a tendency to explore the user 's past and future.
Many people (including Schickel) assume that the 1968 Frisbee scene, which has an immediate cut and gives no further resolution, was part of a longer sequence. Ebert stated that the purpose of the flying disc scene was to establish the 1960s time frame and nothing more.
Despite its modern critical success, the initial American release did not fare well with critics and received no Academy Award nominations. The film 's music was disqualified from Oscar consideration for a technicality, as the studio accidentally omitted the composer 's name from the opening credits when trimming its running time for the American release.
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who plays will conway on house of cards | Joel Kinnaman - wikipedia
Charles Joel Nordström Kinnaman (born 25 November 1979) is a Swedish American actor, best known in Sweden for playing the lead role in the Swedish film Easy Money, a role that earned him a Guldbagge Award in the "Best Actor '' category, and also for his roles as Frank Wagner in the Johan Falk film series and Governor Will Conway in the U.S. version of House of Cards. He starred as detective Stephen Holder on AMC 's The Killing, and played Alex Murphy in the 2014 RoboCop remake, and Rick Flag in the film adaptation of Suicide Squad (2016), based on the DC Comics anti-hero team of the same name.
Kinnaman was born and raised in Stockholm. His mother, Bitte, a therapist, is a Swedish citizen. His father, Steve Kinnaman (originally David Kinnaman), is an American who was drafted during the Vietnam War and deserted the military from his base in Bangkok. Kinnaman has both Swedish and American citizenship, because of his father 's American nationality. Kinnaman 's father, whose family was from the American Midwest, is of English, German, Irish, and Scottish descent, while Kinnaman 's mother is Ukrainian Jewish descent. He has five sisters, one of whom is actress Melinda Kinnaman (his half - sister). During his childhood, Kinnaman learned two languages as he "spoke English with my dad and Swedish with my mom. '' Kinnaman spent a year in Texas as a high school exchange student.
He originally started his career as a child actor in 1990, in the soap opera Storstad. His older sister was dating one of the show 's directors, and he asked Joel to try out for a role. After portraying Felix Lundström in 22 episodes, he stepped away from acting.
Kinnaman restarted his acting career in 2002, taking part in a thriller called The Invisible and enrolling in the Swedish Academic School of Drama in Malmö, where actors such as Michael Nyqvist have studied. He graduated in 2007, and afterwards attracted the attention of Swedish media in a stage adaptation of Crime and Punishment. Kinnaman then went on to star in nine Swedish movies in 14 months. He made his breakthrough in the 2009 film I skuggan av värmen and his success continued with a role in six films of the Johan Falk film series. He was then cast in the film Easy Money (released January 2010), which brought him attention in Sweden and the rest of the world. Looking to expand his acting career, Kinnaman hired an agent in the United States, the same agent that represents Johnny Depp. It was announced in the spring of 2010 that he would be making his international film debut in the thriller The Darkest Hour, which began filming in Moscow in June 2010 and was released in December 2011. Beginning in April 2011, Kinnaman had a starring role as Detective Stephen Holder in the AMC television series The Killing.
Kinnaman was one of the contenders for the lead roles in Thor (2011) and Mad Max: Fury Road (2015). He told the newspaper Östran that he "was really close to getting the lead role in Mad Max 4. It was between me and two others, and the one who got the role was Tom Hardy. (The director) was very pleased (with my performance) -- but they needed someone who seemed older. '' Regarding Thor, he has stated that "they wanted someone with a Scandinavian touch. There were only five candidates left in the end, but unfortunately I could n't fly over (to the United States) and do test shoots with Natalie Portman, because it would interfere with the filming of Easy Money. '' Although Kinnaman has said that he is eager to work and become recognized in America, he added that "I absolutely do n't feel that I have to take any role that I can get just because it is the United States. I 'm looking for something interesting, I 'm still young in my artistry, and I must dare to do things even when there 's a risk for failure ''.
Kinnaman reunited with Easy Money director Daniel Espinosa in his Hollywood debut, 2012 's Safe House. On 3 March 2012, it was confirmed that Kinnaman would play the lead role of Alex James Murphy / Robocop in the 2014 remake of 1987 's RoboCop. The film was released in February 2014. In 2015, he appeared in the drama Knight of Cups and starred in the thrillers Run All Night and Child 44. Kinnaman next played Rick Flag Jr. in the Warner Bros. and DC Comics adaptation of Suicide Squad (2016), directed by David Ayer.
In 2016, Kinnaman also starred in the independent drama - thriller film Edge of Winter. He plays Elliot Baker, a father of two who takes his children on a shooting trip that goes horribly wrong. The film was released on demand on 27 July, and in select theatres on 12 August. Joel has also been cast as the main protagonist in Netflix 's Altered Carbon, an adaption to Richard K. Morgan 's hardboiled cyberpunk science fiction novel of the same name. Netflix has ordered a 10 - episode season one. Kinnaman will portray Takeshi Kovacs, a native of the planet Harlan 's World. Kovacs is of Japanese and Eastern - European descent, and was a teenage gang member before enlisting in the military. After leaving the Envoy Corps, an elite military force, Kovacs returned to criminal life and became a mercenary, and was eventually imprisoned, his cortical "stack '' stored without a body for decades at a time as punishment before being paroled or hired out to work high - risk situations.
In mid-2014, Kinnaman began dating Swedish tattoo artist Cleo Wattenström. In April 2016, Kinnaman revealed he and Wattenström are married.
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when do they issue a small craft advisory | Small craft advisory - wikipedia
A small craft advisory is a type of warning issued by the National Weather Service in the United States. It is issued when winds have reached, or are expected to reach within 12 hours, a speed marginally less than gale force. A Small Craft Advisory may also be issued when sea or lake ice exists that could be hazardous to small boats.
The insignia that denotes a small craft advisory is one red, triangular flag (two such flags, one placed above the other, signify a gale warning).
Inland, this advisory is known as a wind advisory. A lake wind advisory is issued for winds just below this range, because unobstructed winds across the open waters of a lake are normally faster than across land.
The wind speed that triggers the advisory has changed over time. Until the late 1960s, the threshold was 32 to 38 miles per hour (or 28 to 33 knots). At some point, the lower limit was reduced to 23 miles per hour (20 knots). Today, however, most places have standardized on 25 to 38 miles per hour (22 to 33 knots), encompassing the combined ranges of forces 6 and 7 on the Beaufort scale. Winds strong enough to trigger a small craft advisory may be referred to as being advisory - force. Conversely, winds just above this intensity (39 - 57 miles per hour) are called gale - force, and have a separate associated warning.
Occasionally an informal lesser advisory, known as "small craft exercise caution '', is issued for wind speeds lighter than those that call for a small craft advisory. Criteria for this vary in different localities; sometimes a range of 19 to 24 miles per hour (17 to 21 knots) is observed, or in some places 17 to 23 miles per hour (15 to 19 knots) may be used.
The National Weather Service does not specifically identify what constitutes a "small craft ''. The size of the boat is only part of what a person should consider when venturing out under such a warning. Weight, displacement and hull design are also important factors and an even more important consideration is not only the craft, but the experience of the captain.
The next step above these advisories is a gale warning, known as a high wind warning when issued for inland locations. If the winds are associated with a tropical cyclone, then the next level above a small craft or wind advisory is a tropical storm warning. Occasionally, such bulletins may also be issued for areas above a particular elevation, as wind speeds tend to increase with altitude in the mountains.
As of 15 February 1989, the National Weather Service retired its Coastal Warning Display network nationwide.
For over 100 years, display stations were established at yacht clubs, marinas, and Coast Guard stations to hoist flags, pennants and colored lights to warn mariners of storms at sea. The display stations were individually notified by the National Weather Service to raise the signals and again to lower them when the hazards passed. The National Weather Service paid for the visual signals; however, the display stations were operated by other agencies or volunteers. Although the Coastal Warning Display program has been formally discontinued, U.S. Coast Guard and other stations may continue to display warning signals without the direct participation of the National Weather Service.
Beginning 1 June 2007, U.S. Coast Guard formally re-established a Coastal Warning Display program at selected small boat stations which will hoist display flags to warn of small craft advisories, gale warnings, tropical storm warnings, storm warnings, hurricane warnings, and hurricane force wind warnings.
The Coastal Warning Display program was de-emphasized in favor of frequently updated telephone recordings and NOAA Weather Radio. The latter covers the coastal areas of continental United States, Alaska, Hawaii, and the Mariana Islands with continuous weather broadcasts. The major shortcomings of the Coastal Warning Display program were that the displays reached only the small portion of the marine public within sight of them; it can not convey specific information on movement, intensity, and duration; and the time required to notify the sites by individual telephone calls takes the forecaster away from critical tasks associated with the weather. Further, when users perceive them to be a full substitute for NOAA Weather Radio, other radio broadcasts, and the telephone recordings, they are actually being a disservice.
A similar warning, known as a Strong Wind Warning, is issued by Environment Canada 's Meteorological Service of Canada from its different offices for the Pacific, Atlantic, and Arctic waters. These warnings are coordinated for the Great Lakes region with American neighboring offices.
Strong Wind Warning was previously referred to as Small Craft Warning and is still (2012) referred to as such in many publications. A Strong Wind Warning is issued for winds in the range 20 -- 33 knots and wave heights 2 -- 3 metres.
This is an example of a Small Craft Advisory from the National Weather Service Forecast Office in Los Angeles, California.
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who is regarded as the prophet of doom in the bible | Hosea - Wikipedia
In the Hebrew Bible, Hosea (/ ˌhoʊˈziːə / or / hoʊˈzeɪə /; Hebrew: הוֹשֵׁעַ , Modern Hoshea, Tiberian Hôšēăʻ, "Salvation ''; Greek Ὠσηέ, Ōsēe), son of Beeri, was an 8th - century BC prophet in Israel who authored the book of prophecies bearing his name. He is one of the Twelve Prophets of the Jewish Hebrew Bible, also known as the Minor Prophets of the Christian Old Testament. Hosea is often seen as a "prophet of doom '', but underneath his message of destruction is a promise of restoration. The Talmud (Pesachim 87a) claims that he was the greatest prophet of his generation. The period of Hosea 's ministry extended to some sixty years and he was the only prophet of Israel of his time who left any written prophecy.
The name "Hosea '', meaning "salvation '', or "He saves '', or "He helps '', seems to have been not uncommon, being derived from the auspicious verb from which we have the frequently recurring word "salvation ''. It may be a contraction of a larger form of which the divine name (YHWH) or its abbreviation formed a part, so as to signify "YHWH helps ''. According to the Bible Numbers 13: 8, 13: 16 that was the original name of Joshua, son of Nun, until Moses gave him the longer, theophoric name Yehoshua, "YHWH is salvation ''.
Although it is not expressly stated in the Book of Hosea, it is apparent from the level of detail and familiarity focused on northern geography, that Hosea conducted his prophetic ministries in the Northern Israel (Samaria) of which he was a native.
Little is known about the life or social status of Hosea. According to the Book of Hosea, he married the prostitute Gomer, the daughter of Diblaim, at God 's command. In Hosea 5: 8 ff., there is a reference to the wars which led to the capture of the kingdom by the Assyrians (c. 734 -- 732 BC). It is not certain if he had also experienced the destruction of Samaria, which is foreseen in Hosea 14: 1.
Hosea 's family life reflected the "adulterous '' relationship which Israel had built with polytheistic gods. The relationship between Hosea and Gomer parallels the relationship between God and Israel. Even though Gomer runs away from Hosea and sleeps with another man, he loves her anyway and forgives her. Likewise, even though the people of Israel worshipped false gods, God continued to love them and did not abandon his covenant with them.
Similarly, his children 's names made them like walking prophecies of the fall of the ruling dynasty and the severed covenant with God -- much like the prophet Isaiah a generation later. The name of Hosea 's daughter, Lo - ruhamah, which translates as "not pitied '', is chosen by God as a sign of displeasure with the people of Israel for following false gods. (In Hosea 2: 23 she is redeemed, shown mercy with the term Ruhamah.) The name of Hosea 's son, Lo - ammi, which translates as "not my people '', is chosen by the Lord as a sign of the Lord 's displeasure with the people of Israel for following those false gods (see Hosea 1: 8 -- 9).
One of the early writing prophets, Hosea used his own experience as a symbolic representation of God and Israel: God the husband, Israel the wife. Hosea 's wife left him to go with other men; Israel left the Lord to go with false gods. Hosea searched for his wife, found her and brought her back; God would not abandon Israel and brought them back even though they had forsaken him.
The Book of Hosea was a severe warning to the northern kingdom against the growing idolatry being practiced there; the book was a dramatic call to repentance. Christians extend the analogy of Hosea to Christ and the church: Christ the husband, his church the bride. Christians see in this book a comparable call to the church not to forsake the Lord Jesus Christ. Christians also take the buying back of Gomer as the redemptive qualities of Jesus Christ 's sacrifice on the cross.
Other preachers, like Charles Spurgeon, saw Hosea as a striking presentation of the mercy of God in his sermon on Hosea 1: 7 titled The LORD 's Own Salvation. "But I will have mercy upon the house of Judah, and will save them by the Lord their God, and will not save them by bow, nor by sword, nor by battle, by horses, nor by horsemen. '' -- Hosea 1: 7 in his sermon NO. 2057, December 16TH, 1888.
The Qur'an mentions only some prophets by name, but makes it clear that many were sent who are not mentioned. Therefore, many Muslim scholars, such as (Ibn Ishaq), speak of Hosea as one of the true Hebrew prophets of Israel. The Book of Hosea has also been used in Qur'anic exegesis by Abdullah Yusuf Ali, especially in reference to Qur'anic verses which speak of the backsliding of Israel.
He is commemorated with the other Minor prophets in the Calendar of saints of the Armenian Apostolic Church on July 31. He is commemorated on the Eastern Orthodox liturgical calendar, with a feast day on October 17 (for those churches which follow the Julian Calendar, October 17 currently falls on October 30 of the modern Gregorian Calendar). He is also commemorated on the Sunday of the Holy Fathers (the Sunday before the Nativity of the Lord).
The tomb of Hosea is a structure located in the Jewish cemetery of Safed, believed to be the final resting place of Hosea.
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who made the decisions in a family based community in west africa | Dogon people - wikipedia
The Dogon are an ethnic group living in the central plateau region of Mali, in West Africa, south of the Niger bend, near the city of Bandiagara, in the Mopti region. The population numbers between 400,000 and 800,000. They speak the Dogon languages, which are considered to constitute an independent branch of the Niger -- Congo language family.
The Dogon are best known for their religious traditions, their mask dances, wooden sculpture and their architecture. The past century has seen significant changes in the social organisation, material culture and beliefs of the Dogon, partly because Dogon country is one of Mali 's major tourist attractions.
The principal Dogon area is bisected by the Bandiagara Escarpment, a sandstone cliff of up to 500 m (1,640.42 ft) high, stretching about 150 km (90 miles). To the southeast of the cliff, the sandy Séno - Gondo Plains are found, and northwest of the cliff are the Bandiagara Highlands. Historically, Dogon villages were established in the Bandiagara area in consequence of the Dogon people 's collective refusal to convert to Islam a thousand years ago.
Dogon insecurity in the face of these historical pressures caused them to locate their villages in defensible positions along the walls of the escarpment. The other factor influencing their choice of settlement location is water. The Niger River is nearby and in the sandstone rock, a rivulet runs at the foot of the cliff at the lowest point of the area during the wet season.
Among the Dogon, several oral traditions have been recorded as to their origin. One relates to their coming from Mande, located to the southwest of the Bandiagara escarpment near Bamako. According to this oral tradition, the first Dogon settlement was established in the extreme southwest of the escarpment at Kani - Na. Archaeological and ethnoarchaeological studies in the Dogon region were especially revealing about the settlement and environmental history, and about social practices and technologies in this area over several thousands of years.
Over time, the Dogon moved north along the escarpment, arriving in the Sanga region in the 15th century. Other oral histories place the origin of the Dogon to the west beyond the river Niger, or tell of the Dogon coming from the east. It is likely that the Dogon of today combine several groups of diverse origin who migrated to escape Islamization.
It is often difficult to distinguish between pre-Muslim practices and later practices, though Islamic law classified them and many other ethnicities of the region, (Mossi, Gurma, Bobo, Busa and the Yoruba) as being within the non-canon dar al - harb and consequently fair game for slave raids organized by merchants. As the growth of cities increased, the demand for slaves across the region of West Africa also increased. The historical pattern has included the murder of indigenous males by Islamic raiders and enslavement of women and children.
Dogon art is primarily sculpture. Dogon art revolves around religious values, ideals, and freedoms (Laude, 19). Dogon sculptures are not made to be seen publicly, and are commonly hidden from the public eye within the houses of families, sanctuaries, or kept with the Hogon (Laude, 20). The importance of secrecy is due to the symbolic meaning behind the pieces and the process by which they are made.
Themes found throughout Dogon sculpture consist of figures with raised arms, superimposed bearded figures, horsemen, stools with caryatids, women with children, figures covering their faces, women grinding pearl millet, women bearing vessels on their heads, donkeys bearing cups, musicians, dogs, quadruped - shaped troughs or benches, figures bending from the waist, mirror - images, aproned figures, and standing figures (Laude, 46 -- 52).
Signs of other contacts and origins are evident in Dogon art. The Dogon people were not the first inhabitants of the cliffs of Bandiagara. Influence from Tellem art is evident in Dogon art because of its rectilinear designs (Laude, 24).
The blind Dogon elder, Ogotemmêli, taught the main symbols of the Dogon religion to the French anthropologist Marcel Griaule in October 1946. Griaule had lived amongst the Dogon people for fifteen years before this meeting with Ogotemmêli had taken place. Ogotemmêli taught Griaule the religious stories in the same way that Ogotemmêli had learned them from his father and grandfather; instruction which he had learned over the course of more than twenty years. What makes the record so important from a historical perspective is that the Dogon people were still living in their oral culture at the time their religion was recorded. They were one of the last people in Africa to lose their independence and come under French rule.
The Dogon people with whom the French anthropologists Griaule and Germaine Dieterlen worked with during the 1930s and 40s had a system of signs which ran into the thousands, including "their own systems of astronomy and calendrical measurements, methods of calculation and extensive anatomical and physiological knowledge, as well as a systematic pharmacopoeia. '' The religion embraced many aspects of nature, which some researchers associate with an African Traditional Religion.
The key spiritual figures in the religion were the Nummo / Nommo twins. According to Ogotemmêli 's description of them, the Nummo, whom he also referred to as the Serpent, were amphibians that were often compared to serpents, lizards, chameleons, and occasionally even sloths (because of their being slow moving and having a shapeless neck). They were also described as fish capable of walking on land; while they were on land, the Nummo stood upright on their tails. The Nummos ' skin was primarily green, but, like the chameleon, it sometimes changed colours. It was said to at times have all the colours of the rainbow.
In other instances, the Nummo were referred to as "Water Spirits. '' Although the Nummo were identified as being "Dieu d'eau '' (Gods of Water) by Marcel Griaule, Ogotemmêli identified the Nummo as hermaphrodites and they appeared on the female side of the Dogon sanctuary. '' They were primarily symbolized by the sun, which was a female symbol in the religion. In the Dogon language, the sun 's name, (nay), had the same root as "mother, '' (na), and "cow, '' (nā). They were symbolized by the colour red, a female symbol.
It was the problem of "twin births '' versus "single births, '' or androgyny versus single - sexed beings, that contributed to a disorder at the beginning of time. This theme became a significant basis of the Dogon religion. "The jackal was alone from birth, '' said Ogotemmêli, "and because of this he did more things than can be told. '' Dogon males were primarily associated with the single - sexed male Jackal and the Sigui festival, which was associated with death on the Earth. It was held once every sixty years and celebrated the white dwarf star Sirius B. The colour white was a symbol of males. The ritual language, "Sigi so, '' or "language of the Sigui, '' which was taught to male dignitaries of the Society of the Masks, ("awa ''), was considered a poor language, and only contained about a quarter of the vocabulary of "Dogo so, '' the Dogon word language. The "Sigi so '' was used to tell the story of creation of the universe, of human life, and the advent of death on the Earth, during funeral ceremonies and the rites of the "end of mourning '' ("dama '').
It was because of the birth of the single - sexed male Jackal, who was born without a soul, that all humans eventually had to be turned into single - sexed beings. This was to prevent a being like the Jackal from ever being born on Earth again. "The Nummo foresaw that the original rule of twin births was bound to disappear, and that errors might result comparable to those of the jackal, whose birth was single. For it was because of his solitary state that the first son of God acted as he did. '' The removal of the second sex and soul from humans is what the ritual of circumcision represents in the Dogon religion. "The dual soul is a danger; a man should be male, and a woman female. Circumcision and excision are once again the remedy. ''
The Dogon religion was centered on this loss of twinness or androgyny. Griaule describes it in this passage:
"Most of the conversations with Ogotemmêli had indeed turned largely on twins and on the need for duality and the doubling of individual lives. The Eight original Ancestors were really eight pairs... But after this generation, human beings were usually born single. Dogon religion and Dogon philosophy both expressed a haunting sense of the original loss of twin - ness. The heavenly Powers themselves were dual, and in their Earthly manifestations they constantly intervened in pairs... ''
The birth of human twins was celebrated in the Dogon culture in Griaule 's day because it recalled the "fabulous past, when all beings came into existence in twos, symbols of the balance between humans and the divine. '' According to Griaule, the celebration of twin - births was a cult that extended all over Africa.
Today, a significant minority of the Dogon practice Islam. Another minority practice Christianity. Today the Dogon record their ancestry through a patrilineal system. Each Dogon community, or enlarged family, is headed by one male elder. This chief head is the oldest living son of the ancestor of the local branch of the family. Polygynous marriages are allowed in the Dogon culture. Most men, however, have only one wife, and it is rare for a man to have more than two wives. Formally, wives join their husband 's household only after the birth of their first child. Women may leave their husbands early in their marriage, before the birth of their first child. After having children, divorce is a rare and serious matter, and it requires the participation of the whole village. An enlarged family can count up to a hundred persons and is called guinna.
The Dogon are strongly oriented toward harmony, which is reflected in many of their rituals. For instance, in one of their most important rituals, the women praise the men, the men thank the women, the young express appreciation for the old, and the old recognize the contributions of the young. Another example is the custom of elaborate greetings whenever one Dogon meets another. This custom is repeated over and over, throughout a Dogon village, all day.
During a greeting ritual, the person who has entered the contact answers a series of questions about his or her whole family, from the person who was already there. The answer is sewa, which means that everything is fine. Then the Dogon who has entered the contact repeats the ritual, asking the resident how his or her whole family is. Because the word sewa is so commonly repeated throughout a Dogon village, neighboring peoples have dubbed the Dogon the sewa people.
The Hogon is the spiritual leader of the village. He is elected from among the oldest men of the extended families of the village.
After his election, he has to follow a six - month initiation period, during which he is not allowed to shave or wash. He wears white clothes and nobody is allowed to touch him. A virgin who has not yet had her period takes care of him, cleans the house and prepares his meals. She returns to her home at night.
After his initiation, he wears a red fez. He has an armband with a sacred pearl that symbolises his function. The virgin is replaced by one of his wives, and she also returns to her home at night. The Hogon has to live alone in his house. The Dogon believe the sacred snake Lébé comes during the night to clean him and to transfer wisdom.
The Dogon maintain an agricultural mode of subsistence, and cultivate pearl millet, sorghum and rice, as well as onions, tobacco, peanuts, and some other vegetables. Marcel Griaule stimulated the construction of a dam near Sangha and incited the Dogon to cultivate onions. The economy of the Sangha region has doubled since then, and its onions are sold as far as the market of Bamako and even Ivory Coast. They also raise sheep, goats, and chickens. Grain is stored in granaries.
In Dogon thought, male and females are born with both sexual components. The clitoris is considered male, while the foreskin is considered female. (Originally, for the Dogon, man was endowed with a dual soul, and circumcision eliminates the superfluous one.) Rites of circumcision thus allow each sex to assume its proper physical identity.
Boys are circumcised in age groups of three years, counting for example all boys between 9 and 12 years old. This marks the end of their youth, and they are now initiated. The blacksmith performs the circumcision. Afterwards, they stay for a few days in a hut separated from the rest of the village people, until the wound has healed. The circumcision is a reason for celebration and the initiated boys go around and receive presents. They make music on a special instrument that is made of a rod of wood and calabashes that makes the sound of a rattle.
The newly circumcised men must walk around naked for a month after the procedure so that their achievement in age can be admired by the tribe. This practice has been passed down for generations and is always followed, even during winter.
They are one of several African ethnic groups that practices female circumcision including a type I circumcision, meaning that the clitoris is removed.
The village of Songho has a circumcision cave ornamented with red and white rock paintings of animals and plants. Nearby is a cave where music instruments are stored.
Due to the expense, their traditional funeral rituals or "damas '' are becoming very rare. They may be performed years after the death. Damas that are still performed today are not usually performed for their original intent, but instead are done as a source of entertainment for tourists interested in the Dogon way of life. The Dogon use this entertainment to gain profit by charging the tourists money for what masks they want to see and the ritual itself (Davis, 68).
The traditional dama consists of a masquerade that essentially leads the souls of the departed to their final resting places through a series of ritual dances and rites. Dogon damas include the use of many masks which they wore by securing them in their teeth, and statuettes. Each Dogon village may differ in the designs of the masks used in the dama ritual. Every village may have their own way of performing the dama rituals. The dama consists of an event, known as the Halic, immediately after the death of a person and lasts for one day (Davis, 68).
According to Shawn R. Davis, this particular ritual incorporates the elements of the yingim and the danyim. During the yincomoli ceremony, a gourd is smashed over the deceased 's wooden bowl, hoe, and bundukamba, (burial blanket), which announces the entrance of the masks used in this ceremony, while the deceased entrance to their home in the family compound is decorated with ritual elements (Davis, 72 -- 73).
Masks used during the yincomoli ceremony include the Yana Gulay mask, the Satimbe mask, the Sirige mask, and the Kanaga mask. The Yana Gulay mask 's purpose is to impersonate a Fulani woman, and is made from cotton cloth and cowell shells. The Satimbe mask represents the women ancestors, who are said to have discovered the purpose of the masks by guiding the spirits of the deceased into the afterlife. (Davis, 74) The Sirige mask is a tall mask that is used in funerals for only the men who were alive during the holding of the Sigui ceremony (see below) (Davis, 68). The Kanaga masqueraders, at one point, dance and sit next to the bundkamba, which represents the deceased.
The yingim and the danyim rituals each last a few days. These events are held annually to honor the elders that have died since the last Dama. The yingim consists of the sacrifice of cows, or other valuable animals, and large mock battles performed in order to help chase the spirit, known as the nyama, from the deceased body and village, and towards the path to the afterlife (Davis, 68).
The danyim then takes place a couple of months later. During the danyim, masqueraders perform dances every morning and evening for anytime up to six days depending on how that village performs this ritual. The masqueraders dance on the deceased 's rooftops, throughout the village, and the area of fields around the village (Davis, 68). Until the masqueraders have completed their dances, and every ritual has been performed, it is said that any misfortune can be blamed on the remaining spirits of the dead (Davis, 68).
Dogon society is composed of several different sects:
Dogon villages have different buildings:
Dogon has been frequently referred to as a single language. In reality, there are at least five distinct groups of dialects. The most ancient dialects being dyamsay and tombo, the former being most frequently used for traditional prayers and ritual chants. The Dogon language family is internally highly diverse, and many varieties are not mutually intelligible, actually amounting to some 12 dialects and 50 sub-dialects. There is also a secret ritual language sigi sǫ (language of Sigi), which is taught to dignitaries (olubarū) of the Society of the Masks during their enthronement at the Sigui ceremony. Women have no right to learn Sigui So.
It is generally accepted that the Dogon languages belong to the Niger -- Congo language family, though the evidence is weak. They have been linked to the Mande subfamily but also to Gur. In a recent overview of the Niger -- Congo family, Dogon is treated as an independent branch.
The Dogon languages show few remnants of a noun class system (one example is that human nouns take a distinct plural suffix), leading linguists to conclude that Dogon is likely to have diverged from Niger -- Congo very early. Another indication of this is the subject -- object -- verb basic word order, which Dogon shares with such early Niger -- Congo branches as Ijoid and Mande.
About 1,500 ethnic Dogon in seven villages in southern Mali speak the Bangime language, which is unrelated to the other Dogon languages and presumed to be an ancient, pre-Dogon language isolate.
Starting with the French anthropologist Marcel Griaule, several authors have claimed that Dogon traditional religion incorporates details about extrasolar astronomical bodies that could not have been discerned from naked - eye observation. This idea has entered the New Age and ancient astronaut literature as evidence that extraterrestrial aliens visited Mali in the distant past. Other authors have argued that previous 20th - century European visitors to the Dogon are a far more plausible source of such information, as well as disputing whether Griaule 's account accurately describes Dogon myths at all.
From 1931 to 1956, Griaule studied the Dogon in field missions ranging from several days to two months in 1931, 1935, 1937 and 1938 and then annually from 1946 until 1956. In late 1946, Griaule spent a consecutive thirty - three days in conversations with the Dogon wiseman Ogotemmêli, the source of much of Griaule and Dieterlen 's future publications. They reported that the Dogon believe that the brightest star in the night sky, Sirius (sigi tolo or "star of the Sigui ''), has two companion stars, pō tolo (the Digitaria star), and ęmmę ya tolo, (the female Sorghum star), respectively the first and second companions of Sirius A. Sirius, in the Dogon system, formed one of the foci for the orbit of a tiny star, the companionate Digitaria star. When Digitaria is closest to Sirius, that star brightens: when it is farthest from Sirius, it gives off a twinkling effect that suggests to the observer several stars. The orbit cycle takes 50 years. They also claimed that the Dogon appeared to know of the rings of Saturn, and the moons of Jupiter.
Griaule and Dieterlen were puzzled by this Sudanese star system, and prefaced their analysis with the disclaimer, "The problem of knowing how, with no instruments at their disposal, men could know the movements and certain characteristics of virtually invisible stars has not been settled, nor even posed. ''
In 1976, Robert K.G. Temple wrote a book called The Sirius Mystery arguing that the Dogon 's system reveals precise knowledge of cosmological facts known only by the development of modern astronomy, since they appear to know, from Griaule and Dieterlen 's account, that Sirius is part of a binary star system, whose second star, Sirius B, a white dwarf, is however completely invisible to the human eye (just as Digitaria has the smallest grain known to the Dogon) and that it takes 50 years to complete its orbit. The existence of Sirius B had only been inferred to exist through mathematical calculations undertaken by Friedrich Bessel in 1844. Temple then argued that the Dogon 's information, if traced back to ancient Egyptian sources and myth, indicates an extraterrestrial transmission of knowledge of the stars. Neither Griaule nor Dieterlen had ever made such bold claims about a putative esoteric source for the Dogon 's knowledge.
More recently, doubts have been raised about the validity of Griaule and Dieterlein 's work. In a 1991 article in Current Anthropology, anthropologist Walter van Beek concluded after his research among the Dogon that, "Though they do speak about sigu tolo (which is what Griaule claimed the Dogon called Sirius) they disagree completely with each other as to which star is meant; for some it is an invisible star that should rise to announce the sigu (festival), for another it is Venus that, through a different position, appears as sigu tolo. All agree, however, that they learned about the star from Griaule. ''
Griaule 's daughter Geneviève Calame - Griaule responded in a later issue, arguing that Van Beek did not go "through the appropriate steps for acquiring knowledge '' and suggesting that van Beek 's Dogon informants may have thought that he had been "sent by the political and administrative authorities to test the Dogon 's Muslim orthodoxy. '' An independent assessment is given by Andrew Apter of the University of California.
In a 1978 critique, skeptic Ian Ridpath concluded: "There are any number of channels by which the Dogon could have received Western knowledge long before they were visited by Griaule and Dieterlen. '' In his book Sirius Matters, Noah Brosch postulates that the Dogon may have had contact with astronomers based in Dogon territory during a five - week expedition, led by Henri - Alexandre Deslandres, to study the solar eclipse of 16 April 1893.
Robert Todd Carroll also states that a more likely source of the knowledge of the Sirius star system is from contemporary, terrestrial sources who provided information to interested members of the tribes. James Oberg, however, citing these suspicions notes their completely speculative nature, writing that, "The obviously advanced astronomical knowledge must have come from somewhere, but is it an ancient bequest or a modern graft? Although Temple fails to prove its antiquity, the evidence for the recent acquisition of the information is still entirely circumstantial. '' Additionally, James Clifford notes that Griaule sought informants best qualified to speak of traditional lore, and deeply mistrusted converts to Christianity, Islam, or people with too much contact with whites.
Oberg points out a number of errors contained in the Dogon beliefs, including the number of moons possessed by Jupiter, that Saturn was the furthest planet from the sun, and the only planet with rings. Intrigue of other seemingly falsifiable claims, namely concerning a red dwarf star orbiting around Sirius (not hypothesized until the 1950s) led him to entertain a previous challenge by Temple, asserting that "Temple offered another line of reasoning. ' We have in the Dogon information a predictive mechanism which it is our duty to test, regardless of our preconceptions. ' One example: ' If a Sirius - C is ever discovered and found to be a red dwarf, I will conclude that the Dogon information has been fully validated. '
This alludes to reports that the Dogon knew of another star in the Sirius system, Ęmmę Ya, or a star "larger than Sirius B but lighter and dim in magnitude. '' In 1995, gravitational studies indeed showed the possible presence of a brown dwarf star orbiting around Sirius (a Sirius - C) with a six - year orbital period. A more recent study using advanced infrared imaging concluded that the probability of the existence of a triple star system for Sirius is "now low '' but could not be ruled out because the region within 5 AU of Sirius A had not been covered.
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who proposed the rebuilding of the temples on the acropolis | Acropolis of Athens - wikipedia
The Acropolis of Athens is an ancient citadel located on a rocky outcrop above the city of Athens and contains the remains of several ancient buildings of great architectural and historic significance, the most famous being the Parthenon. The word acropolis is from the Greek words ἄκρον (akron, "highest point, extremity '') and πόλις (polis, "city ''). Although the term acropolis is generic and there are many other acropoleis in Greece, the significance of the Acropolis of Athens is such that it is commonly known as "The Acropolis '' without qualification. During ancient times it was known also more properly as Cecropia, after the legendary serpent - man, Cecrops, the first Athenian king.
While there is evidence that the hill was inhabited as far back as the fourth millennium BC, it was Pericles (c. 495 -- 429 BC) in the fifth century BC who coordinated the construction of the site 's most important present remains including the Parthenon, the Propylaia, the Erechtheion and the Temple of Athena Nike. The Parthenon and the other buildings were damaged seriously during the 1687 siege by the Venetians during the Morean War when gunpowder being stored in the Parthenon was hit by a cannonball and exploded.
The Acropolis is located on a flattish - topped rock that rises 150 m (490 ft) above sea level in the city of Athens, with a surface area of about 3 hectares (7.4 acres). While the earliest artifacts date to the Middle Neolithic era, there have been documented habitations in Attica from the Early Neolithic period (6th millennium BC). There is little doubt that a Mycenaean megaron palace stood upon the hill during the late Bronze Age. Nothing of this megaron survives except, probably, a single limestone column - base and pieces of several sandstone steps. Soon after the palace was constructed, a Cyclopean massive circuit wall was built, 760 meters long, up to 10 meters high, and ranging from 3.5 to 6 meters thick. This wall would serve as the main defense for the acropolis until the 5th century. The wall consisted of two parapets built with large stone blocks and cemented with an earth mortar called emplekton (Greek: ἔμπλεκτον). The wall uses typical Mycenaean conventions in that it followed the natural contour of the terrain and its gate, which was towards the south, was arranged obliquely, with a parapet and tower overhanging the incomers ' right - hand side, thus facilitating defense. There were two lesser approaches up the hill on its north side, consisting of steep, narrow flights of steps cut in the rock. Homer is assumed to refer to this fortification when he mentions the "strong - built House of Erechtheus '' (Odyssey 7.81). At some time before the 13th century BC, an earthquake caused a fissure near the northeastern edge of the Acropolis. This fissure extended some 35 meters to a bed of soft marl in which a well was dug. An elaborate set of stairs was built and the well served as an invaluable, protected source of drinking water during times of siege for some portion of the Mycenaean period. There is no conclusive evidence for the existence of a Mycenean palace on top of the Athenian Acropolis. However, if there was such a palace, it seems to have been supplanted by later building activity.
Not much is known about the architectural appearance of the Acropolis until the Archaic era. During the 7th and the 6th centuries BC, the site was controlled by Kylon during the failed Kylonian revolt, and twice by Peisistratos; all attempts directed at seizing political power by coups d'état. Apart from the Hekatompedon mentioned later, Peisistratos also built an entry gate or Propylaea. Nevertheless, it seems that a nine-gate wall, the Enneapylon, had been built around the biggest water spring, the Clepsydra, at the northwestern foot.
A temple to Athena Polias, the tutelary deity of the city, was erected between 570 -- 550 BC. This Doric limestone building, from which many relics survive, is referred to as the Hekatompedon (Greek for "hundred -- footed ''), Ur - Parthenon (German for "original Parthenon '' or "primitive Parthenon ''), H -- Architecture or Bluebeard temple, after the pedimental three - bodied man - serpent sculpture, whose beards were painted dark blue. Whether this temple replaced an older one, or just a sacred precinct or altar, is not known. Probably, the Hekatompedon was built where the Parthenon now stands.
Between 529 -- 520 BC yet another temple was built by the Peisistratids, the Old Temple of Athena, usually referred to as the Arkhaios Neōs (ἀρχαῖος νεώς, "ancient temple ''). This temple of Athena Polias was built upon the Dörpfeld foundations, between the Erechtheion and the still - standing Parthenon. Arkhaios Neōs was destroyed by the Persian invasion during 480 BC; however, the temple was probably reconstructed during 454 BC, since the treasury of the Delian League was transferred in its opisthodomos. The temple may have been burnt down during 406 / 405 BC as Xenophon mentions that the old temple of Athena was set afire. Pausanias does not mention it in his 2nd century AD Description of Greece.
Around 500 BC the Hekatompedon was dismantled to make place for a new grander building, the "Older Parthenon '' (often referred to as the Pre-Parthenon, "early Parthenon ''). For this reason, Athenians decided to stop the construction of the Olympieion temple which was connoted with the tyrant Peisistratos and his sons and, instead, used the Piraeus limestone destined for the Olympieion to build the Older Parthenon. In order to accommodate the new temple, the south part of the summit was cleared, made level by adding some 8,000 two - ton blocks of limestone, a foundation 11 m (36 ft) deep at some points, and the rest was filled with soil kept in place by the retaining wall. However, after the victorious Battle of Marathon in 490 BC, the plan was revised and marble was used instead. The limestone phase of the building is referred to as Pre-Parthenon I and the marble phase as Pre-Parthenon II. In 485 BC, construction stalled to save resources as Xerxes became king of Persia and war seemed imminent. The Older Parthenon was still under construction when the Persians indeed invaded and sacked the city in 480 BC. The building was burned and looted, along with the Ancient Temple and practically everything else on the rock. After the Persian crisis had subsided, the Athenians incorporated many architectural parts of the unfinished temple (unfluted column drums, triglyphs, metopes, etc.) into the newly built northern curtain wall of the Acropolis, where they served as a prominent "war memorial '' and can still be seen today. The devastated site was cleared of debris. Statuary, cult objects, religious offerings and unsalvageable architectural members were buried ceremoniously in several deeply dug pits on the hill, serving conveniently as a fill for the artificial plateau created around the classic Parthenon. This "Persian debris '' is the richest archaeological deposit excavated on the Acropolis.
After winning at Eurymedon during 468 BC, Cimon and Themistocles ordered the reconstruction of the southern and northern walls of the Acropolis. Most of the major temples, including the Parthenon, were rebuilt by order of Pericles during the so - called Golden Age of Athens (460 -- 430 BC). Phidias, an Athenian sculptor, and Ictinus and Callicrates, two famous architects, were responsible for the reconstruction.
During 437 BC, Mnesicles started building the Propylaea, a monumental gate at the western end of the Acropolis with Doric columns of Pentelic marble, built partly upon the old propylaea of Peisistratos. These colonnades were almost finished during 432 BC and had two wings, the northern one decorated with paintings by Polygnotus. About the same time, south of the Propylaea, building started on the small Ionic Temple of Athena Nike in Pentelic marble with tetrastyle porches, preserving the essentials of Greek temple design. After an interruption caused by the Peloponnesian War, the temple was finished during the time of Nicias ' peace, between 421 BC and 409 BC.
Construction of the elegant temple of Erechtheion in Pentelic marble (421 -- 406 BC) was in accordance with a complex plan which took account of the extremely uneven ground and the need to circumvent several shrines in the area. The entrance, facing east, is lined with six Ionic columns. Unusually, the temple has two porches, one on the northwest corner borne by Ionic columns, the other, to the southwest, supported by huge female figures or Caryatids. The eastern part of the temple was dedicated to Athena Polias, while the western part, serving the cult of the archaic king Poseidon - Erechtheus, housed the altars of Hephaestus and Voutos, brother of Erechtheus. Little is known about the original plan of the interior which was destroyed by fire during the first century BC and has been rebuilt several times.
During the same period, a combination of sacred precincts including the temples of Athena Polias, Poseidon, Erechtheus, Cecrops, Herse, Pandrosos and Aglauros, with its Kore Porch (Porch of the Maidens) or Caryatids ' balcony was begun. Between the temple of Athena Nike and the Parthenon, there was the Sanctuary of Artemis Brauronia (or the Brauroneion), the goddess represented as a bear and worshipped in the deme of Brauron. According to Pausanias, a wooden statue or xoanon of the goddess and a statue of Artemis made by Praxiteles during the 4th century BC were both in the sanctuary.
Behind the Propylaea, Phidias ' gigantic bronze statue of Athena Promachos ("Athena who fights in the front line ''), built between 450 BC and 448 BC, dominated. The base was 1.50 m (4 ft 11 in) high, while the total height of the statue was 9 m (30 ft). The goddess held a lance the gilt tip of which could be seen as a reflection by crews on ships rounding Cape Sounion, and a giant shield on the left side, decorated by Mys with images of the fight between the Centaurs and the Lapiths. Other monuments that have left almost nothing visible to the present day are the Chalkotheke, the Pandroseion, Pandion 's sanctuary, Athena 's altar, Zeus Polieus 's sanctuary and, from Roman times, the circular temple of Augustus and Rome.
During the Hellenistic and Roman periods, many of the existing buildings in the area of the Acropolis were repaired, due to damage from age, and occasionally, war. Monuments to foreign kings were erected, notably those of the Attalid kings of Pergamon Attalos II (in front of the NW corner of the Parthenon), and Eumenes II, in front of the Propylaia. These were rededicated during the early Roman Empire to Augustus or Claudius (uncertain), and Agrippa, respectively. Eumenes was also responsible for constructing a stoa on the South slope, not unlike that of Attalos in the Agora below.
During the Julio - Claudian period, the Temple of Rome and Augustus, a small, round edifice, about 23 meters from the Parthenon, was to be the last significant ancient construction on the summit of the rock. Around the same time, on the North slope, in a cave next to the one dedicated to Pan since the classical period, a sanctuary was founded where the archons dedicated to Apollo on assuming office. During 161 AD, on the South slope, the Roman Herodes Atticus built his grand amphitheatre or Odeon. It was destroyed by the invading Herulians a century later but was reconstructed during the 1950s.
During the 3rd century, under threat from a Herulian invasion, repairs were made to the Acropolis walls, and the "Beulé Gate '' was constructed to restrict entrance in front of the Propylaia, thus returning the Acropolis to use as a fortress.
During the Byzantine period, the Parthenon was used as a church, dedicated to the Virgin Mary. During the Latin Duchy of Athens, the Acropolis functioned as the city 's administrative center, with the Parthenon as its cathedral, and the Propylaia as part of the Ducal Palace. A large tower was added, the "Frankopyrgos '', demolished during the 19th century.
After the Ottoman conquest of Greece, the Parthenon was used as the garrison headquarters of the Turkish army, and the Erechtheum was turned into the Governor 's private Harem. The buildings of the Acropolis suffered significant damage during the 1687 siege by the Venetians in the Morean War. The Parthenon, which was being used as a gunpowder magazine, was hit by artillery shot and damaged severely.
During subsequent years, the Acropolis was a site of bustling human activity with many Byzantine, Frankish, and Ottoman structures. The dominant feature during the Ottoman period was a mosque inside the Parthenon, complete with a minaret. After the Greek War of Independence, most features that dated from the Byzantine, Frankish and Ottoman periods were cleared from the site in an attempt to restore the monument to its original form, "cleansed '' of all later additions.
The entrance to the Acropolis was a monumental gateway termed the Propylaea. To the south of the entrance is the tiny Temple of Athena Nike. At the centre of the Acropolis is the Parthenon or Temple of Athena Parthenos (Athena the Virgin). East of the entrance and north of the Parthenon is the temple known as the Erechtheum. South of the platform that forms the top of the Acropolis there are also the remains of the ancient, though often remodelled, Theatre of Dionysus. A few hundred metres away, there is the now partially reconstructed Odeon of Herodes Atticus.
All the valuable ancient artifacts are situated in the Acropolis Museum, which resides on the southern slope of the same rock, 280 metres from the Parthenon.
Site plan of the Acropolis at Athens showing the major archaeological remains
The Project began during 1975 but as of 2017 has almost ground to a halt. The goal of the restoration was to reverse the decay of centuries of attrition, pollution, destruction stemming from military use, and misguided past restorations. The project included collection and identification of all stone fragments, even small ones, from the Acropolis and its slopes and the attempt was made to restore as much as possible using reassembled original material (anastylosis), with new marble from Mount Penteli used sparingly. All restoration was made using titanium dowels and is designed to be completely reversible, in case future experts decide to change things. A combination of cutting - edge modern technology and extensive research and reinvention of ancient techniques were used.
The Parthenon colonnades, largely destroyed by Venetian bombardment during the 17th century, were restored, with many wrongly assembled columns now properly placed. The roof and floor of the Propylaea were partly restored, with sections of the roof made of new marble and decorated with blue and gold inserts, as in the original. Restoration of the Temple of Athena Nike was completed in 2010.
A total of 2,675 tons of architectural members were restored, with 686 stones reassembled from fragments of the originals, 905 patched with new marble, and 186 parts made entirely of new marble. A total of 530 cubic meters of new Pentelic marble were used.
Every four years, the Athenians had a festival called the Panathenaea that rivaled the Olympic Games in popularity. During the festival, a procession (believed to be depicted on the Parthenon frieze) traveled through the city via the Panathenaic Way and culminated on the Acropolis. There, a new robe of woven wool (peplos) was placed on either the statue of Athena Polias in the Erechtheum (during a regular Panathenaea) or on the statue of Athena Parthenos in the Parthenon (during the Great Panathenaea, held every four years).
Within the later tradition of Western Civilization and classical revival the Acropolis, from at least the mid-18th century on, has often been invoked as a key symbol of the Greek legacy and of the glories of Classical Greece.
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in mahabharat who is 8 son of his parents | Shantanu - Wikipedia
In the epic Mahabharata, Shantanu was a Kuru king of Hastinapura. He was a descendant of the Bharata race, of the lunar dynasty and great - grandfather of the Pandavas and Kauravas. He was the youngest son of King Pratipa of Hastinapura and had been born in the latter 's old age. The eldest son Devapi had leprosy and gave up his inheritance to become a hermit. The middle son Bahlika (or Vahlika) abandoned his paternal kingdom and started living with his maternal uncle in Balkh and inherited the kingdom from him. Shantanu became the king of Hastinapura by default.
Etymology Shantanu or Santanu is derived from Sanskrit meaning "Wholesome ''. He is best known for being the father of Bhishma, one of the mightiest warriors of all time.
In his previous birth, Shantanu was a powerful king of the Ikshvaku dynasty named Mahabhisha. Mahabhisha possessed many virtuous qualities, and after performing a thousand Ashwamedha Yagnas and a hundred Rajasuya Yagnas (to qualify as emperor), he had attained heaven after his death. Once he got an opportunity to visit the court of Brahma where all the Devas and Ganga were also present. While the celestials were worshipping Brahma, a wind blew and displaced Ganga 's clothes revealing her body. Everybody present there bashfully bent their heads except Mahabhisha who kept on gazing at her body. Upon seeing this act, Brahma lost his temper and cursed him to be born as mortals and that Ganga will cause much emotional pain to him. Mahabhisha then requested Brahma to be born as the son of Kuru king Pratipa and his wish was granted by Brahma.
The Kuru king Pratipa was once meditating, in atonement for the crimes he had committed in seizing the throne of Hastinapur. At that time Ganga took the form of a beautiful woman, approached the king and sat on his right thigh. When he asked her what she wanted, Ganga requested him to become her husband. Pratipa however refused since he had taken a vow not to lust for anybody, and also that she had sat on his right thigh and according to traditions a man 's right thigh was for his daughter or daughter - in - law while the left thigh was for his wife. He then proposed that she marry his son, to which she agreed.
A child was born to Pratipa and his wife in their old age. He was named Shantanu because when he was born his father had controlled his passions by ascetic penances. Pratipa then installed Shantanu as king of Hastinapura and retired into the woods to perform penances. Bahlika who was elder than Shantanu also gave permission to him for becoming the king of Hastinapura.
Shantanu saw a beautiful woman on the banks of the river Ganges (Ganga) and asked her to marry him. She agreed but with one condition: that Shantanu would not ask any questions about her actions. They married and she later gave birth to a son. But she drowned the child. Shantanu could not ask her the reason, because of his promise, lest she would leave him. One by one, seven sons were born to them and were drowned by Ganga. When Ganga was about to drown the eighth son, Shantanu, devastated, could not restrain himself and confronted her. Finally, Ganga explained to King Shantanu about Brahma 's curse given to Mahabhisha and her. Then she told him that their eight children were Eight Vasus who were cursed by Vasishtha to be born on earth as mortal humans however when they pacified him, he limited his curse and told them that they would be freed from this curse within a year of their birth as humans. So she released the seven of them from this life by drowning them all. However the Vasu Dyaus was cursed to live a long life and to never have a wife or have children. But the sage also gave a boon to him that he would be virtuous, conversant with all the holy scriptures and will be an obedient son to his father. that she will take him to the heavens to train him properly for the King 's throne and status. With these words she disappeared along with the child while Shantanu was struck with grief thinking about spending the rest of his life without her.
Shantanu, filled with grief from the loss of his wife and son, began to practise Brahmacharya and ruled his kingdom extremely well. By merely adopting virtuous behaviour, Shantanu was easily able to conquer the entire world without lifting weapons. All the kings declared Shantanu as Emperor and his reign was a peaceful one. Shantanu gave up hunting and gained popularity from his subjects.
One day, while walking along the banks of the Ganga, Shantanu saw that the river had become shallow. While searching for the cause of this phenomenon, he came across a handsome young boy who had checked the river 's flow with his celestial weapon. The young boy was his son however he did n't recognize this because of only having seen him for a few moments after his birth. The boy recognized that he was his father however did n't reveal it to him instead disappearing in his very sight using his powers of illusion. Shantanu upon seeing this wondered whether the boy was actually his son and called upon Ganga to show the boy to him. Ganga thus appeared. She then revealed to him that the boy was actually his son Devavrata and that he was taught the knowledge of the holy scriptures by the sage Vasishtha and the art of warfare by Parshurama. After revealing the truth about Devavrata she told Shantanu to take him back with to Hastinapura. Upon reaching the capital Shantanu crowned Devavrata as the heir - apparent to the throne.
Four years later, Shantanu while travelling near the banks of Yamuna smelled a sweet scent coming from an unknown direction. While searching for the cause of the scent, he came across Satyavati from whom the smell of scent was coming. Satyavati was an adopted daughter of the chief of the fishermen of her village. Upon seeing her, Shantanu fell in love with her and desired to her. Upon asking for his consent, her father agreed to the marriage on condition that Satyavati 's son would inherit the throne of Hastinapura.
King Shantanu was unable to give his word on accession as his eldest son Devavrata was the heir to the throne. However, Devavrata came to know about this and for the sake of his father, gave his word to the chief that he would renounce all his claims to the throne, in favour of Satyavati 's children. To reassure the skeptical chief, further he also vowed lifelong celibacy to ensure that future generations borne of Satyavati would also not be challenged by his offsprings. Upon hearing this vow he immediately agreed to the marriage of Satyavati and Shantanu. Devavrata was named as Bhishma (one who has taken a terrible vow) by the celestials because of the terrible oath he took. Upon returning with Satyavati to Hastinapura he told about his vow to his father. Upon hearing about this Shantanu became highly impressed and gave him a boon that he will only die if he chooses so. Shantanu and Satyavati went on to have two sons, Chitrāngada and Vichitravirya. After Shantanu 's death, Vichitravirya became the king of Hastinapura because Chitrangada was killed by a gandharva of same name when Shantanu was still alive.
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old soldiers don't die they just fade away | Old soldiers never die - wikipedia
"Old soldiers never die '' is an English language catchphrase, with the full version being "Old soldiers never die, they simply fade away ''. It is made from a stanza from the soldiers ' folklore song Old Soldiers Never Die:
The song itself is a British Army 's parody of the gospel song Kind Thoughts Can Never Die.
In the United States, the phrase gained its popularity after general Douglas MacArthur uttered it in his April 19, 1951 farewell address to the U.S. Congress (which has become known the "Old Soldiers Never Die '' speech):
... but I still remember the refrain of one of the most popular barrack ballads of that day which proclaimed most proudly that "old soldiers never die; they just fade away. ''
And like the old soldier of that ballad, I now close my military career and just fade away, an old soldier who tried to do his duty as God gave him the light to see that duty.
The phrase generated a host of joke snowclones, such as:
In a 1980 interview with Barbara Walters on ABC 's program 20 / 20, former president Richard Nixon paraphrased MacArthur and the catchphrase for himself by saying "Old politicians usually die, but they never fade away. ''
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when did the first kingdom hearts come out | Kingdom Hearts - Wikipedia
Kingdom Hearts (Japanese: キングダム ハーツ, Hepburn: Kingudamu Hātsu) is a series of crossover action role - playing games owned by Disney and developed and published by Square Enix (originally by Square). It is a collaboration between Disney Interactive and Square Enix, and is under the direction of Tetsuya Nomura, a longtime Square Enix character designer.
Kingdom Hearts is a crossover of various Disney properties based in a fictional universe tailored to the game narrative. The series centers on the main character Sora and his journey and experiences with various Disney, Final Fantasy, The World Ends with You and Pixar characters, while stopping the various incarnations of the primary antagonist Xehanort throughout the series. All characters and worlds original to the Kingdom Hearts franchise are owned by The Walt Disney Company.
The series consists of nine games available for multiple platforms, and future titles are planned. Most of the games in the series have been positively received and commercially successful. As of November 2017, the Kingdom Hearts series has shipped more than 24 million copies worldwide. A wide variety of related merchandise has been released along with the games, including soundtracks, figurines, companion books, light novels and manga series.
Though Kingdom Hearts III will be the end of the "Dark Seeker Saga '' centered on Xehanort, it has already been decided where certain characters will end up, in order to potentially continue their story in future games.
Both Square Enix and Disney have released a wide variety of Kingdom Hearts merchandise including toys, figurines, clothing, and jewelry. Two of the games, Kingdom Hearts and Kingdom Hearts II, had a soundtrack released to coincide with the video games. These were followed by a nine CD complete set which featured both soundtracks and unreleased tracks. Kingdom Hearts has been adapted as a trading card game by the Tomy corporation of Japan. An English version of the game was released in November 2007 by Fantasy Flight Games. The video games have also been adapted into manga and novel series.
Like the Final Fantasy games, a series of "Ultimania '' books were released in Japan for many of the games. These books include game walkthroughs, interviews, and extra information from the developers. Kingdom Hearts - Another Report - was released along with Kingdom Hearts II Final Mix+ and features game information, visuals by Shiro Amano, and a director interview. In North America, Brady Games released strategy guides for each game. For Kingdom Hearts II, they released two versions, a standard version and a limited edition version. The limited edition was available in four different covers and included a copy of Jiminy 's Journal along with 400 stickers.
A manga based on the Kingdom Hearts storyline has been released in Japan and the United States. The story and art are done by Shiro Amano, who is also known for his manga adaptation of the Legend of Mana video game. The story follows the events that took place in the video games with differences to account for the loss of interactivity a video game provides. The manga was originally serialized in Japan by Square Enix 's Monthly Shōnen Gangan and eventually released in tankōbon format. The first tankōbon was released in Japan in October 2003. The manga was released in the USA by Tokyopop two years later in October 2005. Yen Press now holds the rights to publish the books for the USA market. The first series, Kingdom Hearts, consists of four volumes, while the second series, Kingdom Hearts: Chain of Memories, has two volumes. The third series, Kingdom Hearts II, has had five volumes published and is currently on hiatus. A fourth series based on Kingdom Hearts 358 / 2 Days is being serialized. The games have also been adapted as a light novel series, written by Tomoco Kanemaki and illustrated by Shiro Amano. Like the manga series, it is divided into separate series based on the games. Kingdom Hearts is divided into two volumes; "The First Door '' and "Darkness Within ''. Kingdom Hearts: Chain of Memories is divided into two volumes. Kingdom Hearts II is divided into four volumes; "Roxas -- Seven Days '', "The Destruction of Hollow Bastion '', "Tears of Nobody '', and "Anthem -- Meet Again / Axel Last Stand ''.
Kingdom Hearts features a mixture of familiar Disney and Square Enix characters, as well as several new characters designed and created by Nomura. In addition to original locations, the Kingdom Hearts series features many worlds from Disney films. Sora must visit these worlds and interact with various Disney characters to protect them from enemies. Often, his actions in these worlds closely follow the storylines of their respective Disney films. The main characters try not to interfere with the affairs of other worlds, as it could negatively affect the universe 's order. Moogles, small creatures from the Final Fantasy series, are another common element in the games. They provide the player with a synthesis shop in order to create and purchase items used in the game. The main cast from The World Ends with You also makes an appearance in the series in Dream Drop Distance, and the upcoming Kingdom Hearts III will feature characters from Pixar 's Toy Story series and Monsters, Inc...
The series starts with Kingdom Hearts, where a 14 - year - old boy named Sora is separated from his friends Riku and Kairi when their world, Destiny Islands, is invaded by creatures known as the Heartless. During the invasion, Sora obtains a weapon called the Keyblade that allows him to fight the Heartless. He soon arrives in another world, Traverse Town, where he meets Donald Duck and Goofy, two emissaries from Disney Castle sent to find the Keyblade wielder under orders from their missing king, Mickey Mouse. The three band together and travel to different Disney - themed worlds, sealing the hearts of the worlds to prevent them from being devoured by the Heartless as they search for their companions. Along the way, they encounter a group of Disney villains led by Maleficent, who are controlling the Heartless to capture seven maidens called the Princesses of Heart, who possess the power to open the door to Kingdom Hearts, the heart of all worlds. Though they eventually defeat Maleficent, the three discover a sentient Heartless named Ansem to be the true orchestrator of the worlds ' destruction. The three defeat Ansem and seal the door to Kingdom Hearts, but remain separated from Riku and King Mickey while Kairi remains home to await her friends ' return.
In Kingdom Hearts: Chain of Memories, Sora, Donald and Goofy 's search for Riku and Mickey leads them to Castle Oblivion, a fortress controlled by a mysterious group of non-existent "Nobodies '' called Organization XIII, who use the power of a girl named Naminé to manipulate the trio 's memories. After defeating the Organization, the three are put to sleep for a year by Naminé to allow them to regain their memories, though they must lose the memories of their experience in Castle Oblivion. Meanwhile, Riku arrives in the basement of the castle and ascends to the surface with the aid of Mickey. Discovering Sora 's sleeping state, Riku helps Naminé keep him safe until he is awoken. In Kingdom Hearts 358 / 2 Days, a snag in the plan over the year forces Riku to capture Roxas -- Sora 's Nobody, who is born when Sora briefly becomes a Heartless in the first game -- in order to enable Sora 's reawakening.
In Kingdom Hearts II, Sora and friends awaken from their sleep and resume their search for Riku and King Mickey, learning of the Nobodies and becoming re-familiarized with Organization XIII. Sora once again travels to many Disney - themed worlds and resolves issues caused by the Heartless and Nobodies, and Maleficent 's servant Pete. They reunite with King Mickey and encounter Xemnas, the leader of Organization XIII and Nobody of Xehanort, revealed to be the human form of the Heartless Ansem. The Organization 's plan is also revealed: they seek to regain their lost hearts by creating their own version of Kingdom Hearts from the sum of all the hearts released from the Heartless slain by Sora 's Keyblade. The three arrive at the headquarters of Organization XIII and team up with their friends. Ansem the Wise uses a device that dissipates some of Kingdom Hearts ' power, but it self - destructs, engulfing Ansem. At the top of the Castle that Never Was, Sora and his friends battle Xemnas. After Sora and Riku defeat Xemnas, they get trapped in the realm of darkness, but a letter from Kairi summons a gateway for them, and the two are reunited with their friends at their home.
Sometime later, Sora, Riku, and Kairi receive a letter from King Mickey. The letter, written by Mickey during the events of Kingdom Hearts Coded, describes the parts of their past that Naminé learned while restoring Sora 's memory. As they read the letter, they learn about the fates of three Keyblade wielders at the hands of Xehanort during the events of Kingdom Hearts Birth by Sleep: Terra, who is possessed by Xehanort; Ventus, who sacrifices his heart to prevent Xehanort from creating the legendary χ - blade, hiding it within a four - year - old Sora 's heart; and new Keyblade Master Aqua, who becomes trapped in the realm of darkness after sacrificing herself to save Terra. King Mickey also discovers that the destruction of "Ansem '' and Xemnas has led to the reconstruction of Xehanort. To combat the new threat Xehanort poses, Sora and Riku take an exam to attain the Mark of Mastery that will allow them to become Keyblade Masters themselves.
During the test in Kingdom Hearts 3D: Dream Drop Distance, Sora and Riku enter the realm of sleep, where they encounter a young version of Xehanort with the ability to travel through time. The two Keyblade wielders also learn of Xehanort 's true goal: assembling thirteen vessels and incarnations of himself (Organization XIII) and pitting them against seven hearts of pure light (the Princesses of Heart) in an ultimate battle to recreate the χ - blade. Sora is narrowly saved from becoming Xehanort 's final vessel, and Riku learns about data that Ansem the Wise had implanted within Sora during his year - long sleep, which may be used to save those connected to Sora. At the end of the exam, Riku is declared a Keyblade Master; in Kingdom Hearts HD 2.8 Final Chapter Prologue, Sora embarks on another journey to regain his missing power, while Yen Sid assembles any available Keyblade users to defend the Princesses of Heart and combat Xehanort 's thirteen vessels.
The Kingdom Hearts games contain elements of action role - playing video games with hack - and - slash elements. The games are driven by a linear progression from one story event to the next, usually shown in the form of a cutscene, though there are numerous side quests available that provide bonus benefits to the characters. In most games, the player primarily controls the principal protagonist of the series, Sora. Sora is usually accompanied by Donald Duck and Goofy, who are artificial intelligence - controlled non-playable characters that aid Sora in battle. In the first and third game, their behavior can be altered to suit different combat objectives. The games feature real - time combat that incorporates physical attacks, magic, and summonings, though each game handles battles differently. The game also allows for items to be used on the field of battle to heal oneself or one 's party members.
Gummi Ships are another common element of the series, which serve as the main mode of transportation between worlds in the games. The gameplay for the Gummi Ship sections is more akin to a rail shooter. Because it received negative criticism in the first game, it was modified in the third title. Most games also feature a journal which is accessible from the main menu. This journal keeps track of information regarding the story, characters, enemies, and locations. In the first three games, the journal is kept by Jiminy Cricket, who was appointed by Queen Minnie as the royal chronicler. In 358 / 2 Days, Birth by Sleep and Dream Drop Distance, the main characters write their own journal entries.
The games are influenced by their parent franchise, Final Fantasy, and carry its gameplay elements over into their own action - based, hack - and - slash system. Like many traditional role - playing games, Kingdom Hearts features an experience point system which determines character development. As enemies are defeated, the player gains experience which culminates in a "level - up '', where the characters grow stronger and gain access to new abilities. The amount of experience is shared with all party members and each character grows stronger as experience is gained.
The music for the series has been primarily composed by Yoko Shimomura. Kaoru Wada works as the arranger for orchestral music, including orchestral renditions of the main vocal themes and the ending themes. The orchestral music was performed by the New Japan Philharmonic Orchestra and the Tokyo Philharmonic Orchestra. Soundtracks were released for the first and third installments following the release of their respective games. A compilation soundtrack was later released that included soundtracks for the entire series, including reworked tracks for the re-released Kingdom Hearts Re: Chain of Memories.
While the themes for some of the Disney - based worlds are taken directly from their Disney film counterparts, most of them are given entirely original musical scores. In addition to each world having unique background music, each is given its own battle theme rather than having a common theme to cover all fights. Several of the main characters have themes, and the final boss of each game has several themes played in the various phases of those fights. The fights with Sephiroth feature a modified version of Nobuo Uematsu 's "One - Winged Angel '' from Final Fantasy VII.
The main theme songs for the Kingdom Hearts games were written and performed by Japanese pop star, Hikaru Utada. The three main themes are "Hikari '', originally from Kingdom Hearts,, "Passion '', from Kingdom Hearts II, and "Oath '' from Kingdom Hearts III. Each song has an English counterpart, "Simple and Clean '', "Sanctuary '', and "Do n't Think Twice '' respectively, for the North American and European releases. Utada was the only singer Tetsuya Nomura had in mind for the first Kingdom Hearts theme song. This marked the first time Utada had produced a song for a video game. Both of the first two theme songs reached notable popularity; on weekly Oricon charts, "Hikari '' reached No. 1 in 2002 and "Passion '' reached No. 4 in 2005.
The initial idea for Kingdom Hearts began with a discussion between Shinji Hashimoto and Hironobu Sakaguchi about Super Mario 64. They were planning to make a game with freedom of movement in three dimensions like Super Mario 64 but lamented that only characters as popular as Disney 's could rival a Mario game. Tetsuya Nomura, overhearing their conversation, volunteered to lead the project and the two producers agreed to let him direct. A chance meeting between Hashimoto and a Disney executive in an elevator -- Square and Disney had previously worked in the same building in Japan -- allowed Hashimoto to pitch the idea directly to Disney. Development began in February 2000 with Nomura as director and Hashimoto as producer. While Nomura had done previous work in the Final Fantasy series as monster designer and graphic director, he did not gain widespread recognition until he was the lead character designer for Final Fantasy VII. Kingdom Hearts marked his transition into a directorial position, though he also served as the game 's character designer. Scenarios were provided by Kazushige Nojima who was a scenario writer for Square from Final Fantasy VII until he left in 2003. Originally the development focused on the gameplay with a simple story to appeal to Disney 's target age range. After Kingdom Hearts executive producer Hironobu Sakaguchi told Nomura the game would be a failure if it did not aim for the same level as the Final Fantasy series, he began to develop the story further. In June 2013, Nomura stated the name of the game came from him thinking about Disney Theme Parks, especially Animal Kingdom. However, Nomura could not get the IP with just "Kingdom '', so the development team began to think about "heart '' as a core part of the story, so they decided to combine the two to form "Kingdom Hearts ''.
Nomura placed a secret trailer in Kingdom Hearts in hopes that fans would want a sequel. He was unsure if fans would want a sequel and felt that if they did not, then it would be best to leave certain events in the first game unexplained. After Kingdom Hearts Final Mix was completed, development for Kingdom Hearts II began. There were several obstacles to clear before development could begin on a sequel. One was the development team 's desire to showcase Mickey Mouse more; Mickey 's inclusion in the first game was restricted to a very small role. Nomura had planned for the sequel to take place a year after the first and originally intended for the events of that year to be left unexplained. To bridge the gap between the two games, Kingdom Hearts: Chain of Memories was developed. Nomura was hesitant about releasing a game on the Game Boy Advance because he felt the 3D graphics of the original game would not translate well into 2D. He changed his position after hearing that children wanted to play Kingdom Hearts on the handheld system.
Though Disney gave Nomura freedom in the characters and worlds used for the games, he and his staff tried to stay within the established roles of characters and boundaries of the worlds. Nomura has stated that though many of the Disney characters are not normally dark and serious, there were not many challenges making them so for the story, and despite this, their personalities shine because they maintain their own characteristics. He also felt managing and keeping multiple worlds was problematic. When deciding which worlds to include in the game, the development staff tried to take into account worlds with Disney characters that would be interesting and made an effort to minimize any overlap in the overall look and feel of each world.
The inclusion of specific Final Fantasy characters was based on the opinions of both fans and staff. Another criterion for inclusion was whether the staff felt the characters would fit into the storyline and in the Kingdom Hearts universe. Initially, Nomura was hesitant to use characters he did not design, because he was unfamiliar with the backstory of such characters. For Kingdom Hearts II, he changed his mind after receiving pressure from his staff. Throughout the development of the games, Nomura has often left certain events and connections between characters unexplained until the release of future games. Nomura does this because he feels that games should have room for fans to speculate and use their imagination. He has stated that with speculation, even though a game gets old, people can still be happy with it.
The first Kingdom Hearts was announced at E3 in May 2001. Initial details were that it would be a collaboration between Square and Disney Interactive, and would feature worlds developed by both companies and Disney characters. New characters were designed by Nomura and include Sora, Riku, Kairi, and the Heartless. On May 14, 2002, a press release announced a list of the English voice actors. The list included Haley Joel Osment, David Gallagher, and Hayden Panettiere as the three new characters introduced into the game. It was also announced that many of the Disney characters would be voiced by the official voice actors from their respective Disney films.
A secret trailer in the first Kingdom Hearts and Kingdom Hearts Final Mix hinted at the possibility of a sequel. Rumors for a sequel on the PlayStation 2 were spurred in Japan when a Japanese video game site, Quiter, stated that "an internal (and anonymous) source at Square Japan '' confirmed that development of Kingdom Hearts II had begun. It was not until Kingdom Hearts II was announced, along with Kingdom Hearts: Chain of Memories, at the Tokyo Game Show in September 2003 that rumors were confirmed. Initial details were that it would take place some time after Kingdom Hearts: Chain of Memories, which takes place directly after the first game. Other details included the return of Sora, Donald, and Goofy, as well as new costumes. At the 2004 Square Enix E3 press conference, the producer, Shinji Hashimoto, stated that many mysteries of the first game would be answered.
To help market the games, websites were set up for each game and demos were on display at gaming events. Each game in the main series was also re-released in Japan with additional content and served as canonical updates to the series. The additional content foreshadowed later plot elements in the series. The rereleases of the main series games had the term "Final Mix '' added after the title, while Kingdom Hearts: Chain of Memories and Kingdom Hearts Coded were re-released as Kingdom Hearts Re: Chain of Memories and Kingdom Hearts Re: coded and released on the PlayStation 2 and Nintendo DS, respectively, with 3D graphics, voice overs during some cutscenes, and new game content.
The Kingdom Hearts series has been critically and commercially successful. As of March 2014, the series has sold over 20 million copies worldwide. The three main games in the series all met with positive sales at the time of their releases. In the first two months since the North American release of Kingdom Hearts, it was one of the top three highest - selling video games. Chain of Memories sold 104,000 units in 48 hours in Japan, a record for a Game Boy Advance title at the time. Its positive debut sales placed it in the top spot of sales charts in Japan. In the first month of its North American release, it was ranked 1st on GameSpot 's ChartSpot for portable systems and 6th for all consoles. Within three days of the Kingdom Hearts II release in Japan, it shipped 1 million copies, selling through within a month. By the end of March 2006, the NPD Group reported that Kingdom Hearts II was the highest - selling console game in North America, with 614,000 copies. In the month after its release in North America, Kingdom Hearts II sold an estimated 1 million copies. As of November 2017, the Kingdom Hearts series has shipped more than 24 million copies worldwide.
The games have also received high ratings and positive comments from reviewers. All of the main games in the series have scored a 36 out of 40 or higher from the Japanese gaming magazine Famitsu, known for its harsh grading. All six games have been praised for their visuals. Game Informer considers the series the eleventh "must - play PlayStation 2 '' series. The individual games have also won several awards. GameSpot commented that the concept of mixing the serious elements of Final Fantasy with the lighter elements of Disney seemed impossible, but was pulled off quite well. Because of that they awarded Kingdom Hearts "Best Crossover Since Capcom vs. SNK '' in their 2002 Best and Worst of the Year awards. IGN named Kingdom Hearts "Best Art Style / Direction '' in their 2003 list of "Best Looking Games on PS2 ''. G4 awarded it "Best Story '' at their 2003 G - Phoria awards show. Electronic Gaming Monthly awarded Kingdom Hearts II "Best Sequel '' of 2006. It tied with Resident Evil 4 as Famitsu 's Game of the Year 2005. The manga series has also been well received. Several of the manga volumes were listed on USA Today 's "Top 150 best sellers ''. The highest ranked volume was Kingdom Hearts volume 4 at # 73. Every volume listed stayed on the list for at least two weeks; Kingdom Hearts volume 4 stayed the longest at four weeks.
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where does the last name granger come from | Granger (name) - wikipedia
Granger is a surname of English and French origin. It is an occupational name for a farm bailiff. The farm bailiff oversaw the collection of rent and taxes from the barns and storehouses of the lord of the manor. This officer 's Anglo - Norman title was grainger, and Old French grangier, which are both derived from the Late Latin granicarius (a derivative of granica, meaning "granary '').
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the necessary and proper clause allows congress to increase the scope of its authority | Necessary and Proper Clause - wikipedia
The Necessary and Proper Clause, also known as the Elastic Clause, the Basket Clause, the Coefficient Clause, and the Sweeping Clause, is a provision in Article One of the United States Constitution, located at section 8, clause 18.
The Necessary and Proper Clause is as follows:
The Congress shall have Power... To make all Laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying into Execution the foregoing Powers, and all other Powers vested by this Constitution in the Government of the United States, or in any Department or Officer thereof.
According to the Articles of Confederation, "Each state retains its sovereignty, freedom, and independence, and every power, jurisdiction, and right, which is not by this Confederation expressly delegated '' (emphasis added). Thus, the Continental Congress had no powers incidental to those which were "expressly delegated '' by the Articles of Confederation. By contrast, the Necessary and Proper Clause expressly confers incidental powers upon Congress, while no other clauses in the Constitution do so by themselves.
The draft Necessary and Proper Clause provoked controversy during discussions of the proposed constitution, and its inclusion became a focal point of criticism for those opposed to the Constitution 's ratification. While Anti-Federalists expressed concern that the clause would grant the federal government boundless power, Federalists argued that the clause would only permit execution of power already granted by the Constitution. Alexander Hamilton spoke vigorously for this second interpretation in The Federalist Papers. At this time James Madison concurred with Hamilton, arguing in Federalist No. 44 that without this clause, the constitution would be a "dead letter ''. At the Virginia Ratifying Convention, Patrick Henry took the opposing view, saying that the clause would lead to limitless federal power that would inevitably menace individual liberty.
For several decades after the Constitution was ratified, the interpretation of the Necessary and Proper Clause continued to be a powerful bone of contention between the Democratic - Republican Party and the Federalist Party, and several other political parties in the United States. The first practical example of this contention came in 1791, when Hamilton used the clause to defend the constitutionality of the creation of the First Bank of the United States, the first federal bank in the new nation 's history. Concerned that monied Northern aristocrats would take advantage of the bank to exploit the South, Madison argued that Congress lacked the constitutional authority to charter a bank. Hamilton countered that the bank was a reasonable means of carrying out powers related to taxation and the borrowing of funds, claiming the clause applied to activities reasonably related to constitutional powers, not just those that were absolutely necessary to carry out said powers. To embarrass Madison, his contrary claims from The Federalist Papers were read aloud in Congress:
"No axiom is more clearly established in law or in reason than wherever the end is required, the means are authorized; wherever a general power to do a thing is given, every particular power for doing it is included. ''
Eventually, Southern opposition to the bank and to Hamilton 's plan to have the federal government assume the war debts of the states was mollified by the transfer of the nation 's capital from its temporary seat in Philadelphia to a more southerly permanent seat on the Potomac, and the bill, along with the establishment of a national mint, was passed by Congress and signed by President Washington.
This clause, as justification for the creation of a national bank, was put to the test in 1819 in the case of McCulloch v. Maryland, wherein the state of Maryland had attempted to impede the operations of the Second Bank of the United States by imposing a tax on out - of - state banks, of which the Second Bank of the United States was the only one. The court ruled against Maryland, and Chief Justice John Marshall, Hamilton 's longtime Federalist ally, wrote the opinion, which stated that while the Constitution did not explicitly give permission to create a federal bank, it conferred upon Congress an implied power to do so under the Necessary and Proper Clause so that Congress could realize or fulfill its express taxing and spending powers. The case reaffirmed Hamilton 's view that legislation reasonably related to express powers was constitutional. Marshall wrote:
We admit, as all must admit, that the powers of the Government are limited, and that its limits are not to be transcended. But we think the sound construction of the Constitution must allow to the national legislature that discretion with respect to the means by which the powers it confers are to be carried into execution which will enable that body to perform the high duties assigned to it in the manner most beneficial to the people. Let the end be legitimate, let it be within the scope of the Constitution, and all means which are appropriate, which are plainly adapted to that end, which are not prohibited, but consistent with the letter and spirit of the Constitution, are constitutional.
The court in McCulloch v. Maryland held that federal laws could be necessary without being "absolutely necessary '', and noted that "The clause is placed among the powers of Congress, not among the limitations on those powers. '' At the same time, the court retained the power of judicial review established in Marbury v. Madison, declaring that it had the power to strike down laws that departed from those powers: "Should Congress, in the execution of its powers, adopt measures which are prohibited by the Constitution, or should Congress, under the pretext of executing its powers, pass laws for the accomplishment of objects not intrusted to the Government, it would become the painful duty of this tribunal, should a case requiring such a decision come before it, to say that such an act was not the law of the land. ''
As Chief Justice Marshall put it, the Necessary and Proper Clause "purport (s) to enlarge, not to diminish the powers vested in the government. It purports to be an additional power, not a restriction on those already granted. '' Without this clause in the Constitution, there would have been a dispute about whether the express powers imply incidental powers, whereas this clause resolved that dispute by making the incidental powers express instead of implied.
In a related case following the Civil War, the clause was employed (in combination with other enumerated powers) to give the federal government virtually complete control over currency.
The clause has been paired with the Commerce Clause to provide the constitutional basis for a wide variety of federal laws. For instance, various reforms involved in the New Deal were found to be necessary and proper enactments of the objective of regulating interstate commerce.
Indeed, the influence of the Necessary and Proper Clause and its broader interpretation under McCulloch v. Maryland in American jurisprudence can be seen in cases generally thought to simply involve the Commerce Clause.
In Wickard v. Filburn, the Supreme Court upheld a federal statute making it a crime for a farmer to produce more wheat than was allowed under price controls and production controls, even if the excess production was for the farmer 's own personal consumption. The Necessary and Proper Clause was used to justify the regulation of production and consumption.
Also, in addition to this combination of clauses being used to uphold federal laws affecting economic activity, they also were used to justify federal criminal laws. For example, Congress in the Federal Kidnapping Act made it a federal crime to transport a kidnapped person across state lines, because the transportation would be an act of interstate activity over which the Congress has power. It has also provided justification for a wide range of criminal laws relating to interference with the federal government 's rightful operation, including federal laws against assaulting or murdering federal employees.
In National Federation of Independent Business v. Sebelius, the Supreme Court ruled that the individual mandate of the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act can not be upheld under the Necessary and Proper Clause. Chief Justice John Roberts wrote in his ruling that the mandate can not "be sustained under the Necessary and Proper Clause as an integral part of the Affordable Care Act 's other reforms. Each of this Court 's prior cases upholding laws under that Clause involved exercises of authority derivative of, and in service to, a granted power. (...) The individual mandate, by contrast, vests Congress with the extraordinary ability to create the necessary predicate to the exercise of an enumerated power and draw within its regulatory scope those who would otherwise be outside of it. Even if the individual mandate is "necessary '' to the Affordable Care Act 's other reforms, such an expansion of federal power is not a "proper '' means for making those reforms effective. ''
According to its proponents, this ruling in NFIB v. Sebelius returns the Necessary and Proper clause to its original interpretation outlined by John Marshall in McCulloch v. Maryland. According to David Kopel, the clause "simply restates the background principle that Congress can exercise powers which are merely ' incidental ' to Congress 's enumerated powers. ''
The specific term "Necessary and Proper Clause '' was coined in 1926 by Associate Justice Louis Brandeis, writing for the majority in the Supreme Court decision in Lambert v. Yellowley, 272 U.S. 581 (1926), wherein the court upheld a law restricting medicinal use of alcohol as a necessary and proper exercise of power under the 18th Amendment establishing Prohibition in the United States.
This phrase has become the label of choice for this constitutional clause, and it was universally adopted by the courts, and it received Congress 's imprimatur in Title 50 of the United States Code, section 1541 (b) (1994), in the purpose and policy of the War Powers Resolution.
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what structure consists of a 9+2 arrangement of microtubules and can be found on sperm cells | Microtubule - wikipedia
Microtubules (micro - + tube + - ule) are a component of the cytoskeleton, found throughout the cytoplasm. These tubular polymers of tubulin can grow as long as 50 micrometres and are highly dynamic. The outer diameter of a microtubule is about 24 nm while the inner diameter is about 12 nm. They are found in eukaryotic cells, as well as some bacteria, and are formed by the polymerization of a dimer of two globular proteins, alpha and beta tubulin.
Microtubules are very important in a number of cellular processes. They are involved in maintaining the structure of the cell and, together with microfilaments and intermediate filaments, they form the cytoskeleton. They also make up the internal structure of cilia and flagella. They provide platforms for intracellular transport and are involved in a variety of cellular processes, including the movement of secretory vesicles, organelles, and intracellular macromolecular assemblies (see entries for dynein and kinesin). They are also involved in chromosome separation (mitosis and meiosis), and are the major constituents of mitotic spindles, which are used to pull apart eukaryotic chromosomes.
Microtubules are nucleated and organized by microtubule organizing centers (MTOCs), such as the centrosome found in the center of many animal cells or the basal bodies found in cilia and flagella, or the spindle pole bodies found in most fungi.
There are many proteins that bind to microtubules, including the motor proteins kinesin and dynein, severing proteins like katanin, and other proteins important for regulating microtubule dynamics. Recently an actin - like protein has been found in a gram - positive bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis, which forms a microtubule - like structure and is involved in plasmid segregation.
Tubulin and microtubule - mediated processes, like cell locomotion, were seen by early microscopists, like Leeuwenhoek (1677). However, the fibrous nature of flagella and other structures were discovered two centuries later, with improved light microscopes, and confirmed in the 20th with electron microscope and biochemical studies.
In eukaryotes, microtubules are long, hollow cylinders made up of polymerised α - and β - tubulin dimers. The inner space of the hollow microtubule cylinders is referred to as the lumen. The α and β - tubulin subunits are approximately 50 % identical at the amino acid level, and each have a molecular weight of approximately 50 kDa.
These α / β - tubulin dimers polymerize end - to - end into linear protofilaments that associate laterally to form a single microtubule, which can then be extended by the addition of more α / β - tubulin dimers. Typically, microtubules are formed by the parallel association of thirteen protofilaments, although microtubules composed of fewer or more protofilaments have been observed in vitro.
Microtubules have a distinct polarity that is critical for their biological function. Tubulin polymerizes end to end, with the β - subunits of one tubulin dimer contacting the α - subunits of the next dimer. Therefore, in a protofilament, one end will have the α - subunits exposed while the other end will have the β - subunits exposed. These ends are designated the (−) and (+) ends, respectively. The protofilaments bundle parallel to one another with the same polarity, so, in a microtubule, there is one end, the (+) end, with only β - subunits exposed, while the other end, the (−) end, has only α - subunits exposed. While microtubule elongation can occur at both the (+) and (-) ends, it is significantly more rapid at the (+) end.
The lateral association of the protofilaments generates a pseudo-helical structure, with one turn of the helix containing 13 tubulin dimers, each from a different protofilament. In the most common "13 - 3 '' architecture, the 13th tubulin dimer interacts with the next tubulin dimer with a vertical offset of 3 tubulin monomers due to the helicity of the turn. There are other alternative architectures, such as 11 - 3, 12 - 3, 14 - 3, 15 - 4, or 16 - 4, that have been detected at a much lower occurrence. Microtubules can also morph into other forms such as helical filaments, which are observed in protist organisms like foraminifera. There are two distinct types of interactions that can occur between the subunits of lateral protofilaments within the microtubule called the A-type and B - type lattices. In the A-type lattice, the lateral associations of protofilaments occur between adjacent α and β - tubulin subunits (i.e. an α - tubulin subunit from one protofilament interacts with a β - tubulin subunit from an adjacent protofilament). In the B - type lattice, the α and β - tubulin subunits from one protofilament interact with the α and β - tubulin subunits from an adjacent protofilament, respectively. Experimental studies have shown that the B - type lattice is the primary arrangement within microtubules. However, in most microtubules there is a seam in which tubulin subunits interact α - β.
Some species of Prosthecobacter also contain microtubules. The structure of these bacterial microtubules is similar to that of eukaryotic microtubules, consisting of a hollow tube of protofilaments assembled from heterodimers of bacterial tubulin A (BtubA) and bacterial tubulin B (BtubB). Both BtubA and BtubB share features of both α - and β - tubulin. Unlike eukaryotic microtubules, bacterial microtubules do not require chaperones to fold. In contrast to the 13 protofilaments of eukaryotic microtubules, bacterial microtubules comprise only five.
Microtubules are part of a structural network (the cytoskeleton) within the cell 's cytoplasm. Roles of the microtubule cytoskeleton include mechanical support, organization of the cytoplasm, transport, motility and chromosome segregation. A microtubule is capable of growing and shrinking in order to generate force, and there are motor proteins that allow organelles and other cellular components to be carried along a microtubule. This combination of roles makes microtubules important for organizing and moving intracellular constituents.
The organization of microtubules in the cell is cell - type specific. In epithelia, the minus - ends of the microtubule polymer are anchored near the site of cell - cell contact and organized along the apical - basal axis. After nucleation, the minus - ends are released and then re-anchored in the periphery by factors such as ninein and PLEKHA7. In this manner, they can facilitate the transport of proteins, vesicles and organelles along the apical - basal axis of the cell. In fibroblasts and other mesenchymal cell - types, microtubules are anchored at the centrosome and radiate with their plus - ends outwards towards the cell periphery (as shown in the first figure). In these cells, the microtubules play important roles in cell migration. Moreover, the polarity of microtubules is acted upon by motor proteins, which organize many components of the cell, including the endoplasmic reticulum and the Golgi apparatus.
Nucleation is the event that initiates the formation of microtubules from the tubulin dimer. Microtubules are typically nucleated and organized by organelles called microtubule - organizing centres (MTOCs). Contained within the MTOC is another type of tubulin, γ - tubulin, which is distinct from the α - and β - subunits of the microtubules themselves. The γ - tubulin combines with several other associated proteins to form a lock washer - like structure known as the "γ - tubulin ring complex '' (γ - TuRC). This complex acts as a template for α / β - tubulin dimers to begin polymerization; it acts as a cap of the (−) end while microtubule growth continues away from the MTOC in the (+) direction.
The centrosome is the primary MTOC of most cell types. However, microtubules can be nucleated from other sites as well. For example, cilia and flagella have MTOCs at their base termed basal bodies. In addition, work from the Kaverina group at Vanderbilt, as well as others, suggests that the Golgi apparatus can serve as an important platform for the nucleation of microtubules. Because nucleation from the centrosome is inherently symmetrical, Golgi - associated microtubule nucleation may allow the cell to establish asymmetry in the microtubule network. In recent studies, the Vale group at UCSF identified the protein complex augmin as a critical factor for centrosome - dependent, spindle - based microtubule generation. It that has been shown to interact with γ - TuRC and increase microtubule density around the mitotic spindle origin.
Some cell types, such as plant cells, do not contain well defined MTOCs. In these cells, microtubules are nucleated from discrete sites in the cytoplasm. Other cell types, such as trypanosomatid parasites, have a MTOC but it is permanently found at the base of a flagellum. Here, nucleation of microtubules for structural roles and for generation of the mitotic spindle is not from a canonical centriole - like MTOC.
Following the initial nucleation event, tubulin monomers must be added to the growing polymer. The process of adding or removing monomers depends on the concentration of αβ - tubulin dimers in solution in relation to the critical concentration, which is the steady state concentration of dimers at which there is no longer any net assembly or disassembly at the end of the microtubule. If the dimer concentration is greater than the critical concentration, the microtubule will polymerize and grow. If the concentration is less than the critical concentration, the length of the microtubule will decrease.
Dynamic instability refers to the coexistence of assembly and disassembly at the ends of a microtubule. The microtubule can dynamically switch between growing and shrinking phases in this region. Tubulin dimers can bind two molecules of GTP, one of which can be hydrolyzed subsequent to assembly. During polymerization, the tubulin dimers are in the GTP - bound state. The GTP bound to α - tubulin is stable and it plays a structural function in this bound state. However, the GTP bound to β - tubulin may be hydrolyzed to GDP shortly after assembly. The assembly properties of GDP - tubulin are different from those of GTP - tubulin, as GDP - tubulin is more prone to depolymerization. A GDP - bound tubulin subunit at the tip of a microtubule will tend to fall off, although a GDP - bound tubulin in the middle of a microtubule can not spontaneously pop out of the polymer. Since tubulin adds onto the end of the microtubule in the GTP - bound state, a cap of GTP - bound tubulin is proposed to exist at the tip of the microtubule, protecting it from disassembly. When hydrolysis catches up to the tip of the microtubule, it begins a rapid depolymerization and shrinkage. This switch from growth to shrinking is called a catastrophe. GTP - bound tubulin can begin adding to the tip of the microtubule again, providing a new cap and protecting the microtubule from shrinking. This is referred to as "rescue ''.
In 1986, Marc Kirschner and Tim Mitchison proposed that microtubules use their dynamic properties of growth and shrinkage at their plus ends to probe the three dimensional space of the cell. Plus ends that encounter kinetochores or sites of polarity become captured and no longer display growth or shrinkage. In contrast to normal dynamic microtubules, which have a half - life of 5 -- 10 minutes, the captured microtubules can last for hours. This idea is commonly known as the "search and capture '' model. Indeed, work since then has largely validated this idea. At the kinetochore, a variety of complexes have been shown to capture microtubule (+) - ends. Moreover, a (+) - end capping activity for interphase microtubules has also been described. This later activity is mediated by formins, the adenomatous polyposis coli protein, and EB1, a protein that tracks along the growing plus ends of microtubules.
Although most microtubules have a half - life of 5 - 10 min, certain microtubules can remain stable for hours. These stabilized microtubules accumulate post-translational modifications on their tubulin subunits by the action of microtubule - bound enzymes. However, once the microtubule depolymerizes, most of these modifications are rapidly reversed by soluble enzymes. Since most modification reactions are slow while their reverse reactions are rapid, modified tubulin is only detected on long - lived stable microtubules. Most of these modifications occur on the C - terminal region of alpha - tubulin. This region, which is rich in negatively charged glutamate, forms relativey unstructured tails that project out from the microtubule and form contacts with motors. Thus, it is believed that tubulin modifications regulate the interaction of motors with the microtubule. Since these stable modified microtubules are typically oriented towards the site of cell polarity in interphase cells, this subset of modified microtubules provide a specialized route that helps deliver vesicles to these polarized zones. These modifications include:
Tubulin is also known to be phosphorylated, ubiquitinated, sumoylated, and palmitoylated.
A wide variety of drugs are able to bind to tubulin and modify its assembly properties. These drugs can have an effect at intracellular concentrations much lower than that of tubulin. This interference with microtubule dynamics can have the effect of stopping a cell 's cell cycle and can lead to programmed cell death or apoptosis. However, there are data to suggest that interference of microtubule dynamics is insufficient to block the cells undergoing mitosis. These studies have demonstrated that suppression of dynamics occurs at concentrations lower than those needed to block mitosis. Suppression of microtubule dynamics by tubulin mutations or by drug treatment have been shown to inhibit cell migration. Both microtubule stabilizers and destabilizers can suppress microtubule dynamics.
The drugs that can alter microtubule dynamics include:
Expression of β3 - tubulin has been reported to alter cellular responses to drug - induced suppression of microtubule dynamics. In general the dynamics are normally suppressed by low, subtoxic concentrations of microtubule drugs that also inhibit cell migration. However, incorporating β3 - tubulin into microtubules increases the concentration of drug that is needed to suppress dynamics and inhibit cell migration. Thus, tumors that express β3 - tubulin are not only resistant to the cytotoxic effects of microtubule targeted drugs, but also to their ability to suppress tumor metastasis. Moreover, expression of β3 - tubulin also counteracts the ability of these drugs to inhibit angiogenesis which is normally another important facet of their action.
Microtubule polymers are extremely sensitive to various environmental effects. Very low levels of free calcium can destabilize microtubules and this prevented early researchers from studying the polymer in vitro. Cold temperatures also cause rapid depolymerization of microtubules. In contrast, heavy water promotes microtubule polymer stability.
MAPs have been shown to play a crucial role in the regulation of microtubule dynamics in - vivo. The rates of microtubule polymerization, depolymerization, and catastrophe vary depending on which microtubule - associated proteins (MAPs) are present. The originally identified MAPs from brain tissue can be classified into two groups based on their molecular weight. This first class comprises MAPs with a molecular weight below 55 - 62 kDa, and are called τ (tau) proteins. In - vitro, tau proteins have been shown to directly bind microtubules, promote nucleation and prevent disassembly, and to induce the formation of parallel arrays. Additionally, tau proteins have also been shown to stabilize microtubules in axons and have been implicated in Alzheimer 's disease. The second class is composed of MAPs with a molecular weight of 200 - 1000 kDa, of which there are four known types: MAP - 1, MAP - 2, MAP - 3 and MAP - 4. MAP - 1 proteins consists of a set of three different proteins: A, B and C. The C protein plays an important role in the retrograde transport of vesicles and is also known as cytoplasmic dynein. MAP - 2 proteins are located in the dendrites and in the body of neurons, where they bind with other cytoskeletal filaments. The MAP - 4 proteins are found in the majority of cells and stabilize microtubules. In addition to MAPs that have a stabilizing effect on microtubule structure, other MAPs can have a destabilizing effect either by cleaving or by inducing depolymerization of microtubules. Three proteins called katanin, spastin, and fidgetin have been observed to regulate the number and length of microtubules via their destabilizing activities. Furthermore, KIAA1211L is predicted to be localized to the microtubules.
Plus end tracking proteins are MAP proteins which bind to the tips of growing microtubules and play an important role in regulating microtubule dynamics. For example, + TIPs have been observed to participate in the interactions of microtubules with chromosomes during mitosis. The first MAP to be identified as a + TIP was CLIP170 (cytoplasmic linker protein), which has been shown to play a role in microtubule depolymerization rescue events. Additional examples of + TIPs include EB1, EB2, EB3, p150Glued, Dynamitin, Lis1, CLIP115, CLASP1, and CLASP2.
Microtubules can act as substrates for motor proteins that are involved in important cellular functions such as vesicle trafficking and cell division. Unlike other microtubule - associated proteins, motor proteins utilize the energy from ATP hydrolysis to generate mechanical work that moves the protein along the substrate. The major motor proteins that interact with microtubules are kinesin, which usually moves toward the (+) end of the microtubule, and dynein, which moves toward the (−) end.
Some viruses (including retroviruses, herpesviruses, parvoviruses, and adenoviruses) that require access to the nucleus to replicate their genomes attach to motor proteins.
Microtubule plus ends are often localized to particular structures. In polarized interphase cells, microtubules are disproportionately oriented from the MTOC toward the site of polarity, such as the leading edge of migrating fibroblasts. This configuration is thought to help deliver microtubule - bound vesicles from the Golgi to the site of polarity.
Dynamic instability of microtubules is also required for the migration of most mammalian cells that crawl. Dynamic microtubules regulate the levels of key G - proteins such as RhoA and Rac1, which regulate cell contractility and cell spreading. Dynamic microtubules are also required to trigger focal adhesion disassembly, which is necessary for migration. It has been found that microtubules act as "struts '' that counteract the contractile forces that are needed for trailing edge retraction during cell movement. When microtubules in the trailing edge of cell are dynamic, they are able to remodel to allow retraction. When dynamics are suppressed, microtubules can not remodel and, therefore, oppose the contractile forces. The morphology of cells with suppressed microtubule dynamics indicate that cells can extend the front edge (polarized in the direction of movement), but have difficulty retracting their trailing edge. On the other hand, high drug concentrations, or microtubule mutations that depolymerize the microtubules, can restore cell migration but there is a loss of directionality. It can be concluded that microtubules act both to restrain cell movement and to establish directionality
A notable structure composed largely of microtubules is the mitotic spindle, used by eukaryotic cells to segregate their chromosomes during cell division. The mitotic spindle includes the spindle microtubules, microtubule - associated proteins (MAPs), and the MTOC. The microtubules originate in the MTOC and fan out into the cell; each cell has two MTOCs, as shown in the diagram.
The process of mitosis is facilitated by three main subgroups of microtubules, known as astral, polar, and kinetochore microtubules. An astral microtubule is a microtubule originating from the MTOC that does not connect to a chromosome. Astral microtubules instead interact with the cytoskeleton near the cell membrane and function in concert with specialized dynein motors. Dynein motors pull the MTOC toward the cell membrane, thus assisting in correct positioning and orientation of the entire apparatus.
Kinetochore microtubules directly connect to the chromosomes, at the kinetochores. To clarify the terminology, each chromosome has two chromatids, and each chromatid has a kinetochore. The two kinetochores associated with a region of the chromosome called the centromere. The polar microtubules from one MTOC intertwine with the microtubules from the other MTOC; motor proteins make them push against each other and assist in the separation of the chromosomes to the two daughter cells.
Cell division in a typical eukaryote finishes with the generation of a final cytoplasmic bridge between the two daughter cells termed the midbody. This structure is built of microtubules that originally made up part of the mitotic spindle.
Microtubules have a major structural role in eukaryotic cilia and flagella. Cilia and flagella always extend directly from a MTOC, in this case termed the basal body. The action of the dynein motor proteins on the various microtubule strands that run along a cilium or flagellum allows the organelle to bend and generate force for swimming, moving extracellular material, and other roles. Prokaryotes possess tubulin - like proteins including FtsZ. However, prokaryotic flagella are entirely different in structure from eukaryotic flagella and do not contain microtubule - based structures.
The cytoskeleton formed by microtubules is essential to the morphogenetic process of an organism 's development. For example, a network of polarized microtubules is required within the oocyte of Drosophila melanogaster during its embryogenesis in order to establish the axis of the egg. Signals sent between the follicular cells and the oocyte (such as factors similar to epidermal growth factor) cause the reorganization of the microtubules so that their (-) ends are located in the lower part of the oocyte, polarizing the structure and leading to the appearance of an anterior - posterior axis. This involvement in the body 's architecture is also seen in mammals.
Another area where microtubules are essential is the formation of the nervous system in higher vertebrates, where tubulin 's dynamics and those of the associated proteins (such as the MAPs) is finely controlled during the development of the nervous system.
The cellular cytoskeleton is a dynamic system that functions on many different levels: In addition to giving the cell a particular form and supporting the transport of vesicles and organelles, it can also influence gene expression. However, the signal transduction mechanisms involved in this communication are little understood. Notwithstanding this, the relationship between the drug - mediated depolymerization of microtubules and the specific expression of transcription factors has been described, which has provided information on the differential expression of the genes depending on the presence of these factors. This communication between the cytoskeleton and the regulation of the cellular response is also related to the action of growth factors: for example, this relation exists for connective tissue growth factor.
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when did we change from julian to gregorian calendar | Gregorian calendar - wikipedia
The Gregorian calendar is the most widely used civil calendar in the world. It is named after Pope Gregory XIII, who introduced it in October 1582. The calendar spaces leap years to make the average year 365.2425 days long, approximating the 365.2422 day tropical year that is determined by the Earth 's revolution around the Sun. The rule for leap years is as follows:
Every year that is exactly divisible by four is a leap year, except for years that are exactly divisible by 100, but these centurial years are leap years if they are exactly divisible by 400. For example, the years 1700, 1800, and 1900 are not leap years, but the year 2000 is.
The calendar was developed as a correction to the Julian calendar, shortening the average year by 0.0075 days to stop the drift of the calendar with respect to the equinoxes. To deal with the 10 days difference (between calendar and reality) that this drift had already reached, the date was advanced so that 4 October 1582 was followed by 15 October 1582. There was no discontinuity in the cycle of weekdays or of the Anno Domini calendar era. The reform also altered the lunar cycle used by the Church to calculate the date for Easter (computus), restoring it to the time of the year as originally celebrated by the early Church.
The reform was adopted initially by the Catholic countries of Europe and their overseas possessions. Over the next three centuries, the Protestant and Eastern Orthodox countries also moved to what they called the Improved calendar, with Greece being the last European country to adopt the calendar in 1923. To unambiguously specify a date during the transition period, dual dating is sometimes used to specify both Old Style and New Style dates. Due to globalization in the 20th century, the calendar has also been adopted by most non - "Western '' countries for civil purposes. The calendar era carries the alternative secular name of "Common Era ''.
Christopher Clavius (1538 -- 1612), one of the main authors of the reform.
Pope Gregory XIII in an early 17th - century engraving.
The Gregorian calendar is a solar calendar with 12 months of 28 -- 31 days each. A regular Gregorian year consists of 365 days, but in certain years known as leap years, a leap day is added to February. Gregorian years are identified by consecutive year numbers. A calendar date is fully specified by the year (numbered according to a calendar era, in this case Anno Domini or Common Era), the month (identified by name or number), and the day of the month (numbered sequentially starting from 1). Although the calendar year currently runs from 1 January to 31 December, at previous times year numbers were based on a different starting point within the calendar (see the "beginning of the year '' section below).
In the Julian calendar, a leap year occurred every 4 years, and the leap day was inserted by doubling 24 February. The Gregorian reform omitted a leap day in three of every 400 years and left the leap day unchanged. However, it has become customary in the modern period to number the days sequentially with no gaps, and 29 February is typically considered as the leap day. Before the 1969 revision of the Roman Calendar, the Roman Catholic Church delayed February feasts after the 23rd by one day in leap years; Masses celebrated according to the previous calendar still reflect this delay.
Calendar cycles repeat completely every 400 years, which equals 146,097 days. Of these 400 years, 303 are regular years of 365 days and 97 are leap years of 366 days. A mean calendar year is 365 97 / 400 days = 365.2425 days, or 365 days, 5 hours, 49 minutes and 12 seconds.
The Gregorian calendar was a reform of the Julian calendar. It was instituted in 1582 by Pope Gregory XIII, after whom the calendar was named, by papal bull Inter gravissimas dated 24 February 1582. The motivation for the adjustment was to bring the date for the celebration of Easter to the time of year in which it was celebrated when it was introduced by the early Church. The error in the Julian calendar (its assumption that there are exactly 365.25 days in a year) had led to the date of the equinox according to the calendar drifting from the observed reality, and thus an error had been introduced into the calculation of the date of Easter. Although a recommendation of the First Council of Nicaea in 325 specified that all Christians should celebrate Easter on the same day, it took almost five centuries before virtually all Christians achieved that objective by adopting the rules of the Church of Alexandria (see Easter for the issues which arose).
Because the date of Easter was tied to the Spring Equinox, the Roman Catholic Church considered the seasonal drift in the date of Easter undesirable. The Church of Alexandria celebrated Easter on the Sunday after the 14th day of the moon (computed using the Metonic cycle) that falls on or after the vernal equinox, which they placed on 21 March. However, the Church of Rome still regarded 25 March (Lady Day) as the equinox (until 342), and used a different cycle to compute the day of the moon. In the Alexandrian system, since the 14th day of the Easter moon could fall at earliest on 21 March its first day could fall no earlier than 8 March and no later than 5 April. This meant that Easter varied between 22 March and 25 April. In Rome, Easter was not allowed to fall later than 21 April, that being the day of the Parilia or birthday of Rome and a pagan festival. The first day of the Easter moon could fall no earlier than 5 March and no later than 2 April.
Easter was the Sunday after the 15th day of this moon, whose 14th day was allowed to precede the equinox. Where the two systems produced different dates there was generally a compromise so that both churches were able to celebrate on the same day. By the 10th century all churches (except some on the eastern border of the Byzantine Empire) had adopted the Alexandrian Easter, which still placed the vernal equinox on 21 March, although Bede had already noted its drift in 725 -- it had drifted even further by the 16th century.
Worse, the reckoned Moon that was used to compute Easter was fixed to the Julian year by a 19 - year cycle. That approximation built up an error of one day every 310 years, so by the 16th century the lunar calendar was out of phase with the real Moon by four days.
European scholars had been well aware of the calendar drift since the early medieval period. Bede, writing in the 8th century, showed that the accumulated error in his day was more than three days. Roger Bacon in c. 1200 estimated the error at seven or eight days. Dante, writing c. 1300, was aware of the need of a calendar reform. The first attempt to go forward with such a reform was undertaken by Pope Sixtus IV, who in 1475 invited Regiomontanus to the Vatican for this purpose. However, the project was interrupted by the death of Regiomontanus shortly after his arrival in Rome. The increase of astronomical knowledge and the precision of observations towards the end of the 15th century made the question more pressing. Numerous publications over the following decades called for a calendar reform, among them two papers sent to the Vatican by the University of Salamanca in 1515 and 1578, but the project was not taken up again until the 1540s, and implemented only under Pope Gregory XIII (r. 1572 -- 1585).
In 1545, the Council of Trent authorized Pope Paul III to reform the calendar, requiring that the date of the vernal equinox be restored to that which it held at the time of the First Council of Nicaea in 325 and that an alteration to the calendar be designed to prevent future drift. This would allow for a more consistent and accurate scheduling of the feast of Easter.
In 1577, a Compendium was sent to expert mathematicians outside the reform commission for comments. Some of these experts, including Giambattista Benedetti and Giuseppe Moleto, believed Easter should be computed from the true motions of the sun and moon, rather than using a tabular method, but these recommendations were not adopted. The reform adopted was a modification of a proposal made by the Calabrian doctor Aloysius Lilius (or Lilio).
Lilius 's proposal included reducing the number of leap years in four centuries from 100 to 97, by making three out of four centurial years common instead of leap years. He also produced an original and practical scheme for adjusting the epacts of the moon when calculating the annual date of Easter, solving a long - standing obstacle to calendar reform.
Ancient tables provided the sun 's mean longitude. Christopher Clavius, the architect of the Gregorian calendar, noted that the tables agreed neither on the time when the sun passed through the vernal equinox nor on the length of the mean tropical year. Tycho Brahe also noticed discrepancies. The Gregorian leap year rule (97 leap years in 400 years) was put forward by Petrus Pitatus of Verona in 1560. He noted that it is consistent with the tropical year of the Alfonsine tables and with the mean tropical year of Copernicus (De revolutionibus) and Reinhold (Prutenic tables). The three mean tropical years in Babylonian sexagesimals as the excess over 365 days (the way they would have been extracted from the tables of mean longitude) were 14, 33, 9, 57 (Alphonsine), 14, 33, 11, 12 (Copernicus) and 14, 33, 9, 24 (Reinhold). All values are the same to two places (14: 33) and this is also the mean length of the Gregorian year. Thus Pitatus ' solution would have commended itself to the astronomers.
Lilius 's proposals had two components. Firstly, he proposed a correction to the length of the year. The mean tropical year is 365.24219 days long.) (A commonly used value, In Lilius 's time, from the Alfonsine tables, is 365.2425463 days. As the average length of a Julian year is 365.25 days, the Julian year is almost 11 minutes longer than the mean tropical year. The discrepancy results in a drift of about three days every 400 years. Lilius 's proposal resulted in an average year of 365.2425 days (see Accuracy). At the time of Gregory 's reform there had already been a drift of 10 days since the Council of Nicaea, resulting in the vernal equinox falling on 10 or 11 March instead of the ecclesiastically fixed date of 21 March, and if unreformed it would drift further. Lilius proposed that the 10 - day drift should be corrected by deleting the Julian leap day on each of its ten occurrences over a period of forty years, thereby providing for a gradual return of the equinox to 21 March.
Lilius 's work was expanded upon by Christopher Clavius in a closely argued, 800 - page volume. He would later defend his and Lilius 's work against detractors. Clavius 's opinion was that the correction should take place in one move, and it was this advice which prevailed with Gregory.
The second component consisted of an approximation which would provide an accurate yet simple, rule - based calendar. Lilius 's formula was a 10 - day correction to revert the drift since the Council of Nicaea, and the imposition of a leap day in only 97 years in 400 rather than in 1 year in 4. The proposed rule was that years divisible by 100 would be leap years only if they were divisible by 400 as well.
The 19 - year cycle used for the lunar calendar was also to be corrected by one day every 300 or 400 years (8 times in 2500 years) along with corrections for the years that are no longer leap years (i.e., 1700, 1800, 1900, 2100, etc.). In fact, a new method for computing the date of Easter was introduced.
When the new calendar was put in use, the error accumulated in the 13 centuries since the Council of Nicaea was corrected by a deletion of 10 days. The Julian calendar day Thursday, 4 October 1582 was followed by the first day of the Gregorian calendar, Friday, 15 October 1582 (the cycle of weekdays was not affected).
Although Gregory 's reform was enacted in the most solemn of forms available to the Church, the bull had no authority beyond the Catholic Church and the Papal States. The changes that he was proposing were changes to the civil calendar, over which he had no authority. They required adoption by the civil authorities in each country to have legal effect.
The bull Inter gravissimas became the law of the Catholic Church in 1582, but it was not recognised by Protestant Churches, Eastern Orthodox Churches, Oriental Orthodox Churches, and a few others. Consequently, the days on which Easter and related holidays were celebrated by different Christian Churches again diverged.
A month after having decreed the reform, the pope with a brief of 3 April 1582 granted to Antonio Lilio, the brother of Luigi Lilio, the exclusive right to publish the calendar for a period of ten years. The Lunario Novo secondo la nuova riforma printed by Vincenzo Accolti, one of the first calendars printed in Rome after the reform, notes at the bottom that it was signed with papal authorization and by Lilio (Con licentia delli Superiori... et permissu Ant (onii) Lilij). The papal brief was later revoked, on 20 September 1582, because Antonio Lilio proved unable to keep up with the demand for copies.
On 29 September 1582, Philip II of Spain decreed the change from the Julian to the Gregorian calendar. This affected much of Roman Catholic Europe, as Philip was at the time ruler over Spain and Portugal as well as much of Italy. In these territories, as well as in the Polish -- Lithuanian Commonwealth (ruled by Anna Jagiellon) and in the Papal States, the new calendar was implemented on the date specified by the bull, with Julian Thursday, 4 October 1582, being followed by Gregorian Friday, 15 October 1582. The Spanish and Portuguese colonies followed somewhat later de facto because of delay in communication.
Many Protestant countries initially objected to adopting a Catholic innovation; some Protestants feared the new calendar was part of a plot to return them to the Catholic fold. For example, the British could not bring themselves to adopt the Catholic system explicitly: the Annexe to their Calendar (New Style) Act 1750 established a computation for the date of Easter that achieved the same result as Gregory 's rules, without actually referring to him.
Britain and the British Empire (including the eastern part of what is now the United States) adopted the Gregorian calendar in 1752. Sweden followed in 1753.
Prior to 1917, Turkey used the lunar Islamic calendar with the Hegira era for general purposes and the Julian calendar for fiscal purposes. The start of the fiscal year was eventually fixed at 1 March and the year number was roughly equivalent to the Hegira year (see Rumi calendar). As the solar year is longer than the lunar year this originally entailed the use of "escape years '' every so often when the number of the fiscal year would jump. From 1 March 1917 the fiscal year became Gregorian, rather than Julian. On 1 January 1926 the use of the Gregorian calendar was extended to include use for general purposes and the number of the year became the same as in most other countries.
1582: Spain, Portugal, France, Poland, Italy, Catholic Low Countries, Luxemburg, and colonies 1584: Kingdom of Bohemia
1610: Prussia 1648: Alsace 1682: Strasbourg
1700: ' Germany ', Swiss Cantons, Protestant Low Countries, Norway, Denmark 1752: Great Britain and colonies 1753: Sweden and Finland
1873: Japan 1875: Egypt 1896: Korea
1912: China, Albania 1915: Latvia, Lithuania 1916: Bulgaria 1918: Russia, Estonia 1919: Romania, Yugoslavia 1923: Greece 1926: Turkey
Since the introduction of the Gregorian calendar, the difference between Gregorian and Julian calendar dates has increased by three days every four centuries (all date ranges are inclusive):
This section always places the intercalary day on 29 February even though it was always obtained by doubling 24 February (the bissextum (twice sixth) or bissextile day) until the late Middle Ages. The Gregorian calendar is proleptic before 1582 (assumed to exist before 1582).
The following equation gives the number of days (actually, dates) that the Gregorian calendar is ahead of the Julian calendar, called the secular difference between the two calendars. A negative difference means the Julian calendar is ahead of the Gregorian calendar.
where D (\ displaystyle D) is the secular difference and Y (\ displaystyle Y) is the year using astronomical year numbering, that is, use (year BC) − 1 for BC years. ⌊ x ⌋ (\ displaystyle \ left \ lfloor (x) \ right \ rfloor) means that if the result of the division is not an integer it is rounded down to the nearest integer. Thus during the 1900s, 1900 / 400 = 4, while during the − 500s, − 500 / 400 = − 2.
The general rule, in years which are leap years in the Julian calendar but not the Gregorian, is as follows:
Up to 28 February in the calendar you are converting from add one day less or subtract one day more than the calculated value. Remember to give February the appropriate number of days for the calendar you are converting into. When you are subtracting days to move from Julian to Gregorian be careful, when calculating the Gregorian equivalent of 29 February (Julian), to remember that 29 February is discounted. Thus if the calculated value is − 4 the Gregorian equivalent of this date is 24 February.
The year used in dates during the Roman Republic and the Roman Empire was the consular year, which began on the day when consuls first entered office -- probably 1 May before 222 BC, 15 March from 222 BC and 1 January from 153 BC. The Julian calendar, which began in 45 BC, continued to use 1 January as the first day of the new year. Even though the year used for dates changed, the civil year always displayed its months in the order January to December from the Roman Republican period until the present.
During the Middle Ages, under the influence of the Catholic Church, many Western European countries moved the start of the year to one of several important Christian festivals -- 25 December (supposed Nativity of Jesus), 25 March (Annunciation), or Easter (France), while the Byzantine Empire began its year on 1 September and Russia did so on 1 March until 1492 when the new year was moved to 1 September.
In common usage, 1 January was regarded as New Year 's Day and celebrated as such, but from the 12th century until 1751 the legal year in England began on 25 March (Lady Day). So, for example, the Parliamentary record lists the execution of Charles I on 30 January as occurring in 1648 (as the year did not end until 24 March), although later histories adjust the start of the year to 1 January and record the execution as occurring in 1649.
Most Western European countries changed the start of the year to 1 January before they adopted the Gregorian calendar. For example, Scotland changed the start of the Scottish New Year to 1 January in 1600 (this means that 1599 was a short year). England, Ireland and the British colonies changed the start of the year to 1 January in 1752 (so 1751 was a short year with only 282 days) though in England the start of the tax year remained at 25 March (O.S.), 5 April (N.S.) until 1800, when it moved to 6 April. Later in 1752 in September the Gregorian calendar was introduced throughout Britain and the British colonies (see the section Adoption). These two reforms were implemented by the Calendar (New Style) Act 1750.
In some countries, an official decree or law specified that the start of the year should be 1 January. For such countries a specific year when a 1 January - year became the norm can be identified. In other countries the customs varied, and the start of the year moved back and forth as fashion and influence from other countries dictated various customs.
Neither the papal bull nor its attached canons explicitly fix such a date, though it is implied by two tables of saint 's days, one labelled 1582 which ends on 31 December, and another for any full year that begins on 1 January. It also specifies its epact relative to 1 January, in contrast with the Julian calendar, which specified it relative to 22 March. The old date was derived from the Greek system: the earlier Supputatio Romana specified it relative to 1 January.
During the period between 1582, when the first countries adopted the Gregorian calendar, and 1923, when the last European country adopted it, it was often necessary to indicate the date of some event in both the Julian calendar and in the Gregorian calendar, for example, "10 / 21 February 1750 / 51 '', where the dual year accounts for some countries already beginning their numbered year on 1 January while others were still using some other date. Even before 1582, the year sometimes had to be double dated because of the different beginnings of the year in various countries. Woolley, writing in his biography of John Dee (1527 -- 1608 / 9), notes that immediately after 1582 English letter writers "customarily '' used "two dates '' on their letters, one OS and one NS.
"Old Style '' (OS) and "New Style '' (NS) are sometimes added to dates to identify which calendar reference system is used for the date given. In Britain and its Colonies, where the Calendar Act of 1750 altered the start of the year, and also aligned the British calendar with the Gregorian calendar, there is some confusion as to what these terms mean. They can indicate that the start of the Julian year has been adjusted to start on 1 January (NS) even though contemporary documents use a different start of year (OS); or to indicate that a date conforms to the Julian calendar (OS), formerly in use in many countries, rather than the Gregorian calendar (NS).
Extending the Gregorian calendar backwards to dates preceding its official introduction produces a proleptic calendar, which should be used with some caution. For ordinary purposes, the dates of events occurring prior to 15 October 1582 are generally shown as they appeared in the Julian calendar, with the year starting on 1 January, and no conversion to their Gregorian equivalents. For example, the Battle of Agincourt is universally considered to have been fought on 25 October 1415 which is Saint Crispin 's Day.
Usually, the mapping of new dates onto old dates with a start of year adjustment works well with little confusion for events that happened before the introduction of the Gregorian calendar. But for the period between the first introduction of the Gregorian calendar on 15 October 1582 and its introduction in Britain on 14 September 1752, there can be considerable confusion between events in continental western Europe and in British domains in English language histories.
Events in continental western Europe are usually reported in English language histories as happening under the Gregorian calendar. For example, the Battle of Blenheim is always given as 13 August 1704. Confusion occurs when an event affects both. For example, William III of England set sail from the Netherlands on 11 November 1688 (Gregorian calendar) and arrived at Brixham in England on 5 November 1688 (Julian calendar).
Shakespeare and Cervantes seemingly died on exactly the same date (23 April 1616), but Cervantes predeceased Shakespeare by ten days in real time (as Spain used the Gregorian calendar, but Britain used the Julian calendar). This coincidence encouraged UNESCO to make 23 April the World Book and Copyright Day.
Astronomers avoid this ambiguity by the use of the Julian day number.
For dates before the year 1, unlike the proleptic Gregorian calendar used in the international standard ISO 8601, the traditional proleptic Gregorian calendar (like the Julian calendar) does not have a year 0 and instead uses the ordinal numbers 1, 2,... both for years AD and BC. Thus the traditional time line is 2 BC, 1 BC, AD 1, and AD 2. ISO 8601 uses astronomical year numbering which includes a year 0 and negative numbers before it. Thus the ISO 8601 time line is − 0001, 0000, 0001, and 0002.
The Gregorian calendar continued to employ the Julian months, which have Latinate names and irregular numbers of days:
Europeans sometimes attempt to remember the number of days in each month by memorizing some form of the traditional verse "Thirty Days Hath September ''. It appears in Latin, Italian, and French, and belongs to a broad oral tradition but the earliest currently attested form of the poem is the English marginalia inserted into a calendar of saints c. 1425:
Thirti dayes hath novembir April june and Septembir. Of xxviij is but oon And alle the remenaunt xxx and j
Thirty days have November, April, June, and September. Of 28 is but one And all the remnant 30 and 1.
Variations appeared in Mother Goose and continue to be taught at schools. The unhelpfulness of such involved mnemonics has been parodied as "Thirty days hath September / But all the rest I ca n't remember '' but it has also been called "probably the only sixteenth - century poem most ordinary citizens know by heart ''. A common nonverbal alternative is the knuckle mnemonic, considering the knuckles of one 's hands as months with 31 days and the lower spaces between them as the months with fewer days. Using two hands, one may start from either pinkie knuckle as January and count across, omitting the space between the index knuckles (July and August). The same procedure can be done using the knuckles of a single hand, returning from the last (July) to the first (August) and continuing through. A similar mnemonic is to move up a piano keyboard in semitones from an F key, taking the white keys as the longer months and the black keys as the shorter ones.
In conjunction with the system of months there is a system of weeks. A physical or electronic calendar provides conversion from a given date to the weekday, and shows multiple dates for a given weekday and month. Calculating the day of the week is not very simple, because of the irregularities in the Gregorian system. When the Gregorian calendar was adopted by each country, the weekly cycle continued uninterrupted. For example, in the case of the few countries that adopted the reformed calendar on the date proposed by Gregory XIII for the calendar 's adoption, Friday, 15 October 1582, the preceding date was Thursday, 4 October 1582 (Julian calendar).
Opinions vary about the numbering of the days of the week. ISO 8601, in common use worldwide, starts with Monday = 1; printed monthly calendar grids often list Mondays in the first (left) column of dates and Sundays in the last. In North America, the week typically begins on Sunday and ends on Saturday.
The Gregorian calendar improves the approximation made by the Julian calendar by skipping three Julian leap days in every 400 years, giving an average year of 365.2425 mean solar days long. This approximation has an error of about one day per 3,030 years with respect to the current value of the mean tropical year. However, because of the precession of the equinoxes, which is not constant, and the movement of the perihelion (which affects the Earth 's orbital speed) the error with respect to the astronomical vernal equinox is variable; using the average interval between vernal equinoxes near 2000 of 365.24237 days implies an error closer to 1 day every 7,700 years. By any criterion, the Gregorian calendar is substantially more accurate than the 1 day in 128 years error of the Julian calendar (average year 365.25 days).
In the 19th century, Sir John Herschel proposed a modification to the Gregorian calendar with 969 leap days every 4000 years, instead of 970 leap days that the Gregorian calendar would insert over the same period. This would reduce the average year to 365.24225 days. Herschel 's proposal would make the year 4000, and multiples thereof, common instead of leap. While this modification has often been proposed since, it has never been officially adopted.
On time scales of thousands of years, the Gregorian calendar falls behind the astronomical seasons because the slowing down of the Earth 's rotation makes each day slightly longer over time (see tidal acceleration and leap second) while the year maintains a more uniform duration.
This image shows the difference between the Gregorian calendar and the astronomical seasons.
The y - axis is the date in June and the x-axis is Gregorian calendar years.
Each point is the date and time of the June solstice in that particular year. The error shifts by about a quarter of a day per year. Centurial years are ordinary years, unless they are divisible by 400, in which case they are leap years. This causes a correction in the years 1700, 1800, 1900, 2100, 2200, and 2300.
For instance, these corrections cause 23 December 1903 to be the latest December solstice, and 20 December 2096 to be the earliest solstice -- about 2.35 days of variation compared with the seasonal event.
The following are proposed reforms of the Gregorian calendar:
Precursors of the Gregorian reform
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once upon a time in india title of which film | Lagaan - Wikipedia
Lagaan (English: Taxation; also called Lagaan: Once Upon a Time in India) is a 2001 Indian epic sports - drama film written and directed by Ashutosh Gowariker. Aamir Khan, who was also the producer, stars along with Gracy Singh; British actors Rachel Shelley and Paul Blackthorne play the supporting roles. Made on a then - unprecedented budget of ₹ 250 million (equivalent to ₹ 700 million or US $11 million in 2016), the film was shot in an ancient village near Bhuj, India.
The film is set in the Victorian period of India 's colonial British Raj. The story revolves around a small village whose inhabitants, burdened by high taxes, find themselves in an extraordinary situation as an arrogant officer challenges them to a game of cricket as a wager to avoid the taxes. The narrative spins around this situation as the villagers face the arduous task of learning the alien game and playing for a result that will change their village 's destiny.
Lagaan received critical acclaim and awards at international film festivals, as well as many Indian film awards. It became the third Indian film to be nominated for the Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film after Mother India (1957) and Salaam Bombay! (1988). It was one of the biggest box office hits of 2001. In 2010, the film was ranked No. 55 in Empire magazines "The 100 Best Films of World Cinema ''. In 2011, it was listed in Time magazine 's special "The All - TIME 25 Best Sports Movies ''. The film was screened retrospective as the Closing Film on August 18, 2016 at the Independence Day Film Festival jointly presented by the Indian Directorate of Film Festivals and Ministry of Defense, commemorating 70th Indian Independence Day.
In the small town of Champaner (in the state of Gujarat, western India) during the height of the British empire in India in 1893, Captain Andrew Russell (Paul Blackthorne), the commanding officer of the Champaner cantonment, has imposed high taxes ("Lagaan '') on people from the local villages that they are unable to pay due to a prolonged drought. Led by Bhuvan (Aamir Khan), the villagers beg Raja Puran Singh (Kulbhushan Kharbanda) to help them. He tells them that, much to his regret, he is bound by British law.
After their visit to the Raja, the villagers witness a cricket match. Bhuvan mocks the game and gets into an argument with one of the British officers. Taking an instant dislike to Bhuvan, Russell offers to cancel the taxes of the whole province "for three years '' if the villagers can beat his men in a game of cricket. If the villagers lose, however, they will have to pay three times their normal taxes. Bhuvan accepts this wager on behalf of the villages in the province, without their consent. When the other villagers learn about the bet, they are furious with Bhuvan. He argues that it is important for everyone to fight against British rule.
Bhuvan begins to prepare the villagers for the match. He initially finds only five people willing to join the team. He is aided in his efforts by Russell 's sister Elizabeth (Rachel Shelley) who feels that her brother has mistreated the villagers. As she teaches them the rules of the game, she falls in love with Bhuvan, much to the anguish of Gauri (Gracy Singh) who is also in love with him. After Bhuvan reassures Gauri of his feelings for her, the woodcutter Lakha (Yashpal Sharma) becomes enraged as he is in love with Gauri.
In an attempt to discredit Bhuvan, Lakha offers himself as a spy for Russell and joins the villagers ' team to destroy it. Eventually the villagers realise that winning equals freedom. As a few of them are insulted by the British, they join the team. Short one player, Bhuvan invites an untouchable, Kachra (Aditya Lakhia), who can bowl spinners. The villagers, conditioned by long - term prejudice against Dalits, refuse to play if Kachra joins the team. Bhuvan chastises the villagers, shaming them into accepting Kachra.
On the first day, Russell wins the toss and elects to bat, giving the British officers a strong start. Bhuvan brings Kachra into the match only to find that Kachra has somehow lost his ability to spin the ball -- new cricket balls do not spin as well as worn - down ones (which the team have been practising with). In addition, as part of his agreement with Russell, Lakha deliberately drops many catches. Later that evening, Elizabeth sees Lakha meeting with her brother. She races to the village and informs Bhuvan of Lakha 's deception. Rather than allow the villagers to kill him, Bhuvan offers Lakha the chance to redeem himself.
The next day as part of his promise to Bhuvan, Lakha takes a diving one - handed catch. However, the British score almost 300 runs, losing only three wickets by the lunch break. Kachra is brought back to bowl and, bowling with a now - worn ball, takes a hat - trick, which sparks the collapse of the British batting side. The villagers soon start their innings. Bhuvan and Deva (a Sikh, who has played cricket earlier when he was a British sepoy) give their team a solid start. Deva misses out on his half - century when a straight - drive from Bhuvan ricochets off the bowler 's hand onto the stumps at the non-striker's end, where Deva is backing up too far. When Lakha comes on to bat, he is hit on the head by a bouncer and falls onto his stumps. Other batsmen get out rashly trying to score a boundary off each delivery. Ismail (Raj Zutshi), a good batsman, retires hurt as he is hit on the leg. The villagers ' team ends the day with four batsmen out of action with barely a third of the required runs on board.
On the third and final day, Bhuvan passes his century, while most of the later wickets fall. Ismail returns to bat with the help of a runner and passes his half - century, reducing the required runs to an attainable total. The game comes down to the last over with Kachra on strike. With one ball remaining and the team down five runs, Kachra knocks the ball a short distance, managing a single. However, the umpire signals no ball. Bhuvan returns to bat and swings extremely hard at the next ball, hitting the ball high in the air towards the boundary. Russell backpedals and catches it, gleefully believing that the British team has won -- until he realises that he has caught the ball beyond the boundary, giving six runs, and therefore victory, to Bhuvan 's team. Even as they celebrate the victory, the drought ends as a rainstorm erupts.
Bhuvan 's defeat of the British team leads to the disbanding of the humiliated cantonment. In addition, Russell is forced to pay the taxes for the whole province and is transferred to Central Africa. After realising that Bhuvan loves Gauri, Elizabeth returns to London. Heartbroken, she remains unmarried for the rest of her life. It is revealed during epilogue, that Bhuvan went on to marry Gauri with great pomp and show. And despite the historic triumph, Bhuvan 's name was lost in the pages of history.
Director Ashutosh Gowariker has stated that it was almost impossible to make Lagaan. Gowariker went to Aamir, who agreed to participate after hearing the detailed script. Even after securing Khan, Ashutosh had trouble finding a producer. Producers who showed interest in the script wanted budget cuts as well as script modifications. Eventually, Aamir agreed to Ashutosh 's suggestion that he 'd produce the film. Aamir corroborated this by saying that the faith he had in Ashutosh, the story and script of the film, and the opportunity of starting his own production company inspired him to produce Lagaan. He also said that by being a producer himself, he was able to give greater creative freedom to Ashutosh. He cited an example:
"If the director tells the producer that he wants 50 camels, the latter will probably say, ' Why not 25? Ca n't you manage with 25 camels? ' Whereas, if he is telling me the same thing... I will not waste time asking him questions because I am also creatively aware why he needs them. ''
Jhamu Sughand co-produced the film because he liked the emotional and patriotic story.
One of the first members to join the production team was Nitin Chandrakant Desai, the art director, with whom Ashutosh set out for extensive location hunt throughout India, to find the setting for the fictional town of Champaner, in late 1998. After searching through Rajasthan, Nasik, UP, they zeroed in on an ancient village near Bhuj, located in Gujarat 's Kutch district, by May 1999, where the film was primarily shot.
The script demanded a dry location: an agricultural village where it had not rained in several years. To depict the 1890s era, the crew also required a village which lacked electricity, communication and automobiles. Kutch faced the same problems at that time and hence the village of Kunariya, located a few miles away from Bhuj, was chosen. During the filming of Lagaan, it did not rain at all in the region. However, a week after the shoot finished, it rained heavily bringing relief to Bhuj, which had a lean monsoon the previous year. The typical old Kutch hamlet was built by the local people four months before the arrival of the crew. The 2001 Gujarat earthquake devastated this region and displaced many locals. The crew, including the English, contributed to their cause by donating ₹ 250,000 (equivalent to ₹ 700,000 or US $11,000 in 2016), with further contributions during the year.
Avadhi, which is a dialect of Hindi, is primarily from a region in Uttar Pradesh. It was chosen to give the feel of the language spoken during that era. However, the language was diluted, and modern viewers can understand it. The dialogues, which were a combination of three dialects (Avadhi, Bhojpuri and Braj Bhasha) were penned by Hindi writer K.P. Saxena.
Bhanu Athaiya, an Oscar winner for Gandhi, was the costume designer for the film. With a large number of extras, it was difficult for her to make enough costumes. She spent a lot of time researching to lend authenticity to the characters.
Pre-planning for a year, including ten months for production issues and two months for his character, was tiring for Aamir. As a first - time producer, he obtained a crew of about 300 people for six months. Due to the lack of comfortable hotels in Bhuj, he hired a newly constructed apartment and furnished it completely for the crew. Security was set up and a special housekeeping team was brought to take care of the crew 's needs. Most of the 19th century tools and equipment depicted in the film were lent to the crew by the local villagers. Initially, they did not want to part with their equipment, but after much coaxing, they gave in. They then travelled to different parts of the country to collect the musical instruments used in that day and era.
During the shooting, Ashutosh suffered from a slipped disc and had to rest for 30 days. During this period, he had his bed next to the monitor and continued with his work.
The filming schedule spanned the winter and summer, commencing in early January and finishing in mid-June. This was physically challenging for many, with the temperatures ranging from 0 to 50 ° C (32 to 122 ° F). The actors had to drink frequently and sit in the shade. The schedule was strict. The day began at 6 am, changing into costumes and getting onto the actors ' bus, which took them to the sets in Kanuria. The actors, including Aamir, all travelled on the same bus. If anyone missed it, it was up to them to reach the sets. One day, Aamir was late and missed the actors ' bus. That day, his wife Reena, the executive producer, reprimanded him for being late. She told him he had to set an example for the rest of the crew. "If he started coming late, how could she tell the others to come on time? '' While on the sets, the actors were given call sheets with the day 's timetable such as breakfast, hair styling, make - up, costumes, etc.
Before its worldwide release, Aamir Khan kept a promise to screen the film to the locals of Bhuj. Lagaan clashed with Sunny Deol 's Gadar: Ek Prem Katha at the box office. The film made it to the UK Top 10 after its commercial release. It was the first Indian film to have a nationwide release in China and had its dubbed version released in Italy. With favourable reviews from the French press, Lagaan premiered in Paris on 26 June 2002 and continued to have an unprecedented nine weeks of screening with over 45,000 people watching. It was released in the United States, France, Germany, Japan, Malaysia, Hong Kong, South Africa and the Middle East with respective vernacular subtitles. The film took a cumulative of $2.5 million at the international box - office and ₹ 380 million (equivalent to ₹ 1.1 billion or US $17 million in 2016) at the domestic box - office.
In 2001, Lagaan had a world premiere at the International Indian Film Academy Awards (IIFA) weekend in Sun City, South Africa. The Locarno International Film Festival authorities published the rules of cricket before the film was screened to a crowd which reportedly danced to its soundtrack in the aisles. Lagaan was shown four times due to public demand as against the usual norm of showcasing films once at the festival. It subsequently won the Prix du Public award at the festival. After the film 's publicity in Locarno, the director, Ashutosh Gowarikar said that distributors from Switzerland, Italy, France, Netherlands, North Africa, Finland and Germany were wanting to purchase the distribution rights. Special screenings were held in Russia, where people were keen to watch the film after its Oscar nomination.
Apart from these screenings, it was shown at the Sundance Film Festival, Cairo International Film Festival, Stockholm International Film Festival, Helsinki Film Festival and the Toronto International Film Festival.
Lagaan was met with high critical acclaim. The film currently scores a 95 % "Certified Fresh '' approval rating on review aggregate site Rotten Tomatoes, based on 59 reviews, with an average rating of 7.9 / 10. The site 's critical consensus is, "Lagaan is lavish, rousing entertainment in the old - fashioned tradition of Hollywood musicals. '' Derek Elley of Variety suggested that it "could be the trigger for Bollywood 's long - awaited crossover to non-ethnic markets ''. Somni Sengupta of The New York Times, described it as "a carnivalesque genre packed with romance, swordplay and improbable song - and - dance routines '' Roger Ebert gave three and half out of four stars and said, "Lagaan is an enormously entertaining movie, like nothing we 've ever seen before, and yet completely familiar... At the same time, it 's a memory of the films we all grew up on, with clearly defined villains and heroes, a romantic triangle, and even a comic character who saves the day. Lagaan is a well - crafted, hugely entertaining epic that has the spice of a foreign culture. '' Peter Bradshaw of The Guardian described the film as "a lavish epic, a gorgeous love story, and a rollicking adventure yarn. Larger than life and outrageously enjoyable, it 's got a dash of spaghetti western, a hint of Kurosawa, with a bracing shot of Kipling. '' Kuljinder Singh of the BBC stated that "Lagaan is anything but standard Bollywood fodder, and is the first must - see of the Indian summer. A movie that will have you laughing and crying, but leaving with a smile. '' Kevin Thomas of the Los Angeles Times argued that the film is "an affectionate homage to a popular genre that raises it to the level of an art film with fully drawn characters, a serious underlying theme, and a sophisticated style and point of view. '' Sudish Kamath of The Hindu suggested that "the movie is not just a story. It is an experience. An experience of watching something that puts life into you, that puts a cheer on your face, however depressed you might be. '' The Times of India wrote, "Lagaan has all the attractions of big - sounding A.R. Rahman songs, excellent performances by Aamir Khan... and a successful debut for pretty Gracy Singh. In addition, there is the celebrated David vs Goliath cricket match, which has audiences screaming and clapping. '' Perhaps one of the most emphatic recommendations for the movie, coming 10 years later, is by John Nugent of the Trenton Independent, who wrote "a masterpiece... and what better way to learn a bit about India 's colonial experience! History and great entertainment, all rolled in to one (albeit long) classic film. ''
Lagaan was listed as number 14 on Channel 4 's "50 Films to See Before you Die '' and was the only Indian film to be listed.
Aamir Khan and Gowariker went to Los Angeles to generate publicity for the Academy Awards. Khan said, "We just started showing it to whoever we could, even the hotel staff. '' About India 's official entry to the 2002 Oscars, The Daily Telegraph wrote, "A Bollywood film that portrays the British in India as ruthless sadists and Mafia - style crooks has been chosen as Delhi 's official entry to the Academy Awards. '' It added that the film was expected to win the nomination.
On 12 February 2002, Lagaan was nominated for the best foreign language film at the Academy Award nominations ceremony. After the nomination, Khan reacted by saying, "To see the name of the film and actually hear it being nominated was very satisfying ''. Post-nomination reactions poured in from several parts of the world. The USA Today wrote "Hooray for Bollywood, and India 's Lagaan ''. With Sony Pictures Classics distributing the film and Oscar - winning director Baz Luhrmann praising it, Lagaan had a chance to win. The BBC commented that the nomination raised Bollywood hopes that Indian films would become more popular in the US. In India, the nomination was celebrated with news reports about a win bringing in "a great boost for the Indian film industry '' and "a Bharat Ratna for Aamir Khan and the status of a ' national film ' for Lagaan ''.
When Lagaan lost the award to the Bosnian film No Man 's Land, there was disappointment in India. Khan said, "Certainly we were disappointed. But the thing that really kept us in our spirits was that the entire country was behind us. '' Filmmaker Mahesh Bhatt criticised the "American film industry '' as "insular and the foreign category awards were given just for the sake of it. '' Gowariker added that "Americans must learn to like our films ''.
The film won a number of national awards including eight National Film Awards, nine Filmfare Awards, nine Screen Awards and ten IIFA Awards. Apart from these major awards, it also won awards at other national and international ceremonies.
There were two releases for the DVD. The first, as a 2 - DVD set, was released on 27 May 2002 in limited regions. It contained subtitles in Arabic, English, Hebrew, Hindi, Turkish and several European languages. It is available in 16: 9 Anamorphic widescreen, Dolby Digital 5.1 Surround, progressive 24 frame / s, widescreen and NTSC format. It carried an additional fifteen minutes of deleted scenes, filmographies and trailers.
The second was released as anniversary edition three - disc DVD box after six years of the theatrical release. This also included Chale Chalo which was a documentary on the making of Lagaan, a curtain raiser on the making of the soundtrack, deleted scenes, trailers, along with other collectibles. After its release, it became the highest selling DVD in India beating Sholay (1975).
In the anniversary DVD edition, a National Film Award - winning documentary, Chale Chalo -- the lunacy of film making, 11 collector cards, a collectible Lagaan coin embossed with the character of Bhuvan, a 35 mm CinemaScope filmstrip hand - cut from the film 's filmstrip were bundled with the film.
A comic book, Lagaan: The Story, along with two colouring books, a mask book and a cricket board game were subsequently released to the commercial market. The comic book, available in English and Hindi, was targeted at children between the ages of six and 14. At the book 's launch, Aamir Khan said that they were keen to turn the film into a comic strip during the pre-production phase itself.
In March 2002, a book titled The Spirit of Lagaan -- The Extraordinary Story of the Creators of a Classic was published. It covers the making of the film, describing in detail the setbacks and obstacles that the crew faced while developing the film from concept to its release.
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what gunman was holding the dead mans hand | Dead man 's hand - wikipedia
The makeup of poker 's dead man 's hand has varied through the years. Currently, it is described as a two - pair poker hand consisting of the black aces and black eights. These and an unknown hole card were reportedly held by Old West folk hero, lawman, and gunfighter Wild Bill Hickok when he was murdered.
The expression "dead man 's hand '' appears to have had some currency in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, although no one connected it to Hickok until the 1920s. The earliest detailed reference to it was 1886, where it was described as a "full house consisting of three jacks and a pair of tens ''. Jacks and sevens are called the dead man 's hand in the 1903 Encyclopaedia of Superstitions, Folklore, and the Occult Sciences. Edmond Hoyle refers to it as Jacks and eights in 1907.
What is considered the dead man 's hand card combination of today gets its notoriety from a legend that it was the five - card stud hand held by James Butler Hickok (better known as "Wild Bill '' Hickok) when he was shot in the back of the head by Jack McCall on August 2, 1876, in Nuttal & Mann 's Saloon at Deadwood, Dakota Territory. Reportedly, Hickok 's final hand included the aces and eights of both black suits.
According to a book by Western historian Carl W. Breihan, the cards were retrieved from the floor by a man named Neil Christy, who then passed them on to his son. The son, in turn, told Mr. Breihan of the composition of the hand. "Here is an exact identity of these cards as told to me by Christy 's son: the ace of diamonds with a heel mark on it; the ace of clubs; the two black eights, clubs and spades, and the queen of hearts with a small drop of Hickock 's blood on it. ''
Hickok biographer Joseph Rosa wrote about the make - up of the hand: "The accepted version is that the cards were the ace of spades, the ace of clubs, two black eights, and the queen of clubs as the ' kicker '. '' However, Rosa said that no contemporaneous source can be found for this exact hand. The solidification in gamers parlance of the dead man 's hand as two pairs, aces and eights, did n't come about until after the 1926 publication of Frank Wilstach 's book Wild Bill Hickok: The Prince of Pistoleers -- 50 years after Hickok 's death.
The Las Vegas Metropolitan Police Department Homicide Division, the Los Angeles Police Department CRASH squad, and the Armed Forces Medical Examiner System all use the dead man 's hand in their insignia. The western - themed collectible card game Doomtown makes it the highest rank in the game, with the Jack of diamonds as the fifth card.
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what is the oldest age to get wisdom teeth | Wisdom tooth - wikipedia
A wisdom tooth or third molar is one of the three molars per quadrant of the human dentition. It is the most posterior of the three. Wisdom teeth generally erupt between the ages of 17 and 25. Most adults have four wisdom teeth, one in each of the four quadrants, but it is possible to have none, fewer, or more, in which case the extras are called supernumerary teeth. Wisdom teeth commonly affect other teeth as they develop, becoming impacted. They are often extracted when or even before this occurs.
Agenesis of wisdom teeth differs by population, ranging from practically zero in Aboriginal Tasmanians to nearly 100 % in indigenous Mexicans (see research paper with world map showing prevalence). The difference is related to the PAX9, and MSX1 gene (and perhaps other genes).
Wisdom teeth are vestigial third molars that helped human ancestors to grind plant tissue. It is thought that the skulls of human ancestors had larger jaws with more teeth, which possibly helped to chew foliage to compensate for a lack of ability to efficiently digest the cellulose that makes up a plant cell wall. After the advent of agriculture over 10,000 years ago, soft human diets became the norm, including carbohydrate and high energy foods. Such diets typically result in jaws growing with less forward growth than our paleolithic ancestors and not enough room for the wisdom teeth.
Wisdom teeth (often notated clinically as M3 for third molar) have long been identified as a source of problems and continue to be the most commonly impacted teeth in the human mouth. The oldest known impacted wisdom tooth belonged to a European woman of the Magdalenian period (18,000 -- 10,000 BCE). A lack of room to allow the teeth to erupt results in a risk of periodontal disease and dental cavities that increases with age. Less than 2 % of adults age 65 years or older maintain the teeth without cavities or periodontal disease and 13 % maintain unimpacted wisdom teeth without cavities or periodontal disease.
Impacted wisdom teeth are classified by the direction and depth of impaction, the amount of available space for tooth eruption and the amount soft tissue or bone that covers them. The classification structure allows clinicians to estimate the probabilities of impaction, infections and complications associated with wisdom teeth removal. Wisdom teeth are also classified by the presence of symptoms and disease.
Treatment of an erupted wisdom tooth is the same as any other tooth in the mouth. If impacted, treatment can be localized to the infected tissue overlying the impaction, extraction or coronectomy.
Although formally known as third molars, the common name is wisdom teeth because they appear so late -- much later than the other teeth, at an age where people are presumably "wiser '' than as a child, when the other teeth erupt. The term probably came as a translation of the Latin dens sapientiae. Their eruption has been known to cause dental issues for millennia; it was noted at least as far back as Aristotle:
The last teeth to come in man are molars called ' wisdom - teeth ', which come at the age of twenty years, in the case of both sexes. Cases have been known in women upwards of eighty years old where at the very close of life the wisdom - teeth have come up, causing great pain in their coming; and cases have been known of the like phenomenon in men too. This happens, when it does happen, in the case of people where the wisdom - teeth have not come up in early years.
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when was the oslo trading building in norway built | Architecture of Norway - wikipedia
The architecture of Norway has evolved in response to changing economic conditions, technological advances, demographic fluctuations and cultural shifts. While outside architectural influences are apparent in much of Norwegian architecture, they have often been adapted to meet Norwegian climatic conditions, including: harsh winters, high winds and, in coastal areas, salt spray.
Norway 's architectural trends are also seen to parallel political and societal changes in Norway over the centuries. Prior to the Viking Age, wooden structures developed into a sophisticated craft evident in the elegant and effective construction of the Viking longships. Following that, the ascent of Christianity introduced Romanesque architecture in cathedrals and churches, with characteristically slightly pointed arches, barrel vaults, cruciform piers supporting vaults, and groin vaults; in large part as a result of religious influence from England.
During the Middle Ages, the geography dictated a dispersed economy and population. As a result, the traditional Norwegian farm culture remained strong, and Norway differed from most European countries in never adopting feudalism. This, combined with the ready availability of wood as a building material, ensured that relatively few examples of the Baroque, Renaissance, and Rococo architecture styles so often built by the ruling classes elsewhere in Europe, were constructed in Norway.
Instead, these factors resulted in distinctive traditions in Norwegian vernacular architecture, which have been preserved in existing farms in the many Norwegian open - air museums that showcase buildings from the Middle Ages through to the 19th century; prominent examples include the Norsk Folkemuseum in Oslo and Maihaugen in Lillehammer, as well as extant buildings still in service on farms such as those in the Heidal valley.
In the 20th century, Norwegian architecture has been characterized by its connection with Norwegian social policy on the one hand, and innovation on the other. Norwegian architects have been recognized for their work, both within Norway -- where architecture has been considered an expression of social policy -- and outside Norway, in several innovative projects.
Construction in Norway has always been characterized by the need to shelter people, animals, and property from harsh weather, including predictably cold winters and frost, heavy precipitation in certain areas, wind and storms; and to make the most of scarce building resources. Until modern times, transportation infrastructure was also primitive, and builders largely had to rely on locally available materials.
The earliest traces of human habitation in Norway are dated to about 9000 BC, in mountainous regions near Store Myrvatn in contemporary Rogaland, where excavations have found portable dwellings most likely kept by nomadic reindeer hunters. Traces of such tents have also been found other places along the western coast; at Fosenstraumen near Radøy in Hordaland archeological evidence indicates that tents in use at about 6500 BC were of similar design to those still in use by the Sami nomads
Over time, such tents became semi-permanent through the introduction of a simple foundation. Traces of these can be found at the Vega archipelago, an area that is now a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
The first permanent dwellings were probably built between 3000 and 2000 BC, with the introduction of agriculture to Norway. Available evidence indicates that wood was the most used building material for these structures. Iron Age dwellings typically combined shelter for animals and humans in long houses in order to preserve heat. Remains of structures from the Stone Age through the Bronze Age and the Iron Age have been excavated at Forsand in Ryfylke, near Stavanger and several other locations. Most prehistoric long houses had pairs of roof - bearing posts dividing the interior into three naves, and walls of palisades, wattle and daub or turf. Similar buildings have been excavated all over Northwestern Europe.
Two distinctive timber building traditions found their confluence in Norwegian architecture. One was the practice of log building with horizontal logs notched at the corners, a technique thought to have been imported from the peoples to the east of Scandinavia. The other was the stave building tradition (typically found in stave churches), possibly based on improvements on the prehistoric long houses that had roof - bearing posts dug into the ground. Although there is scant archaeological evidence of actual buildings from the earliest permanent structures, finds of Viking ships (e.g., the Oseberg ship) suggest significant mastery of woodworking and engineering. In the Lofoten archipelago in Northern Norway, a Viking chieftain 's holding has been reconstructed at the Lofotr Viking Museum.
Not counting the 28 remaining stave churches, at least 250 wooden houses predating the Black Death in 1350 are preserved more or less intact in Norway. Most of these are log houses, some with added stave - built galleries or porches.
As the political power in Norway was consolidated and had to contend with external threats, larger structures were built in accordance with military technology at the time. Fortresses, bridges, and ultimately churches and manors were built with stone and masonry. These structures followed the European styles of their time.
Possibly more than 1000 stave churches were built in Norway during the Middle Ages, most of them during the 12th and 13th centuries. Until the beginning of the 19th century, as many as 150 stave churches still existed. Many were destroyed as part of a religious movement that favored simple, puritan lines, and today only 28 remain, though a large number were documented and recorded by measured drawings before they were demolished.
The stave churches owe their longevity to architectural innovations that protected these large, complex wooden structures against water rot, precipitation, wind, and extreme temperatures. Most important was the introduction of massive sills underneath the staves (posts) to prevent them from rotting. Over the two centuries of stave church construction, this building type evolved to an advanced art and science. After the Reformation, however, no new stave churches were built. New churches were mainly of stone or horizontal log buildings with notched corners. Most old stave churches disappeared because of redundancy, neglect or deterioration, or because they were too small to accommodate larger congregations, and too impractical according to later standards.
The first stone churches in Norway were Romanesque, built under the influence of Anglo - Saxon missionaries, particularly bishop Nicholas Breakspear. Later churches were influenced by Continental architecture. Examples include the churches at Ringsaker, Kviteseid, and elsewhere. Many of these churches have either been lost or rebuilt in the Gothic style, but numerous examples still exist, notably the Trondenes Churchat Trondenesin Troms.
Several churches that were originally built as Romanesque structures were modified or extended during the Gothic period. Among these are the cathedral of Hamar, now in ruins, the Stavanger Cathedral, and the renowned Nidaros Cathedral, one of the most important pilgrim destinations in medieval Europe.
In the late Middle Ages, the Norwegian state was severely weakened. In 1389 Norway entered into a personal union with Denmark and Sweden in the Kalmar Union. As the kings resided in Denmark, Norway was gradually reduced to a provincial status, and after the Reformation most of its separate institutions were abolished. The Danish government in Copenhagen regarded Norway as a backward province to be exploited, but not worthy of investment in monumental architecture. Hence, ambitious Renaissance architecture is unusual in Norway compared to other European countries.
Fortresses, such as Akershus in Oslo, Vardøhus in Vardø, Tønsberghus in Tønsberg, the Kongsgården in Trondheim and Bergenhus with the Rosenkrantz Tower in Bergen were built in stone in accordance with standards for defensive fortifications of their time. Many of these were modernized and rebuilt through the years.
The Hanseatic League also built unique commercial buildings at Bryggen in Bergen, starting in the 16th century. They were log buildings combining native and German traditions.
After the Black Death, monumental construction in Norway came to a standstill, except for vernacular building, only to be resumed in the 16th and 17th centuries under Danish administration. There are few examples of Renaissance architecture in Norway, the most prominent being the Rosenkrantz Tower in Bergen, Barony Rosendal in Hardanger, and the contemporary Austråt manor near Trondheim, and parts of Akershus Fortress.
Christian IV undertook a number of projects in Norway that were largely based on Renaissance architecture He established mining operations in Kongsberg and Røros, now a World Heritage Site. After a devastating fire in 1624, the town of Oslo was moved to a new location and rebuilt as a fortified city with an orthogonal layout surrounded by ramparts, and renamed Christiania. King Christian also founded the trading city of Kristiansand, naming it after himself.
As Norway became a strategic part of the Danish - Norwegian kingdom, Danish kings built fortifications along borders and the seacoast. Over time, many of the fortifications at border areas and ports were modernized in line with Baroque military practice.
Although most residences were built according to local vernacular traditions, some manors (such as Austråt and Rosendal) exhibit the influence of Baroque architecture. Only the city of Christiania (Oslo) had a building code that prohibited wooden houses, and a number of large town houses modeled after Continental building types were constructed. Some large churches were constructed with brick walls, notably in Bergen, Christiania, Røros and Kongsberg.
Probably the most famous Baroque structure in Norway is Stiftsgården, the Royal residence in Trondheim, a residential building that is one of the largest wooden structure in Northern Europe.
Rococo provided a brief but significant interlude in Norway, appearing primarily in the decorative arts, and mainly in interiors, furniture and luxury articles such as table silver, glass and stoneware. In some country districts folk artists produced the distinctly Norwegian craft of decorative painting, rosemaling, and related wood carving style. In polite architecture, a few wooden town houses and manors show rococo influence, notably in Trondheim and Bergen, Damsgård Manor in Bergen being the most significant.
In towns and central country districts during the 18th century, log walls were increasingly covered by weatherboards, a fashion made possible by sawmill technology. These buildings were better insulated and better protected against the harsh climate. But the main reason for the rapid adoption of this custom was the more fashionable appearance of boarded walls, which were more suitable than bare log walls as a background to details and ornaments borrowed from classical architecture.
The Napoleonic Wars led to the separation of Norway and Denmark. Norway was restored in 1814 as an autonomous kingdom in a personal union with Sweden. The two states had separate institutions, except for the king and the foreign service. Regained statehood required new public buildings, mainly in the capital of Christiania. During the following century, the country experienced an impressive growth in wealth and population, resulting in a need for new infrastructure and buildings.
At the dawn of the 19th century, less than a handful of academically trained architects were active in Norway, most of them military officers having studied civil engineering. The market for architects was limited in a sparsely inhabited country with no capital city, no court and no important government institutions. Architecture was of interest mainly to a limited group of wealthy merchants and landowners. However, toward the close of the previous century, this group saw a remarkable increase in prosperity. Large fortunes were made by a few, who then sought to surround themselves with buildings and gardens appropriate to their social position. Well connected internationally, these people were acquainted with the latest trends in architecture. Neoclassical structures were much in demand.
Architect Carl Frederik Stanley (1769 -- 1805), educated in Copenhagen, spent some years in Norway around the turn of the 19th century. He did minor works for wealthy patrons in and around Oslo, but his major achievement was the renovation of the only seat of higher education in Christiania, the Oslo Katedralskole, completed in 1800. He added a classical portico to the front of an older structure, and a semi-circular auditorium that was sequestered by Parliament in 1814 as a temporary place to assemble, now preserved at Norsk Folkemuseum as a national monument.
Christian Collett (1771 -- 1833), a graduate of the Mining Academy at Kongsberg, designed the splendid Ulefoss manor, built between 1802 and 1807 by sawmill owner Niels Aall. This is one of the few brick houses in Norway, boasting a palladian layout, a central cupola, and a classical colonnade. Collett designed several other manors and town houses.
The same period saw the erection of a large number of splendid neo-classisist houses in and around all towns along the coast, notably in Halden, Oslo, Drammen, Arendal, Bergen and Trondheim, mainly wooden buildings dressed up as stone architecture. By far the largest private house in Norway is the Jarlsberg manor, renovated 1812 - 1814 by the Danish architect Løser for count Herman Wedel - Jarlsberg.
Christiania, promoted to the status of a capital city in 1814, had practically no buildings suitable for the many new government institutions. An ambitious building program was initiated, but realised very slowly because of a strained economy. The first major undertaking was the Royal Palace, designed by Hans Linstow and built between 1824 and 1848. Linstow also planned Karl Johans gate, the avenue connecting the Palace and the city, with a monumental square halfway to be surrounded by buildings for the University, the Parliament (Storting) and other institutions. But only the University buildings were realised according to this plan. Christian Heinrich Grosch, one of the first fully educated architects in Norway, designed the original building for the Oslo Stock Exchange (1826 -- 1828), the local branch of the Bank of Norway (1828), Christiania Theatre (1836 -- 1837), and the first campus for the University of Oslo (1841 -- 1856). For the University buildings, he sought the assistance of the renowned German architect Karl Friedrich Schinkel.
The German architectural influence persisted in Norway, and many wooden buildings followed the principles of Neoclassicism.
Norwegian romantic nationalism also had an influence on Norwegian architecture from around 1840. Following the German lead, many classicist architects designed red - brick buildings in a revival of medieval styles. Romanesque and Gothic examples were considered eminently suitable for churches, public institutions and factories. Linstow was the first Norwegian architect to be inspired by the Middle Ages in his proposal of 1837 for a square to be surrounded by public building, bisected by an avenue between Christiania and the new Royal Palace. On the north side, planned buildings for the University were to be "composed in some Medieval or Florentine style '', with exposed brick - work. His classicist colleague Grosch was the first to convert to historicism and realize a number of red - brick buildings, after his 1838 visit to Berlin, where he met the famous architect Karl Friedrich Schinkel. The first major historicist work by Grosch was the neo-romanesque Bazaars and the adjacent firestation near the Oslo Cathedral, begun in 1840 and extended in several stages until 1859. Other architects followed, notably Heinrich Ernst Schirmer with the Botsfengselet (penitentiary) (1844 -- 1851), the Gaustad Hospital (1844 -- 1855) and the Railway Station (1854) (with von Hanno). Also in Oslo, the German architect Alexis de Chateauneuf (1799 - 1853) designed Trefoldighetskirken, the first neo-gothic church, completed by von Hanno in 1858.
Most urban apartment buildings and villas continued to be built in the classical tradition, with plastered brick walls. The repertoire of historic styles was expanded in Homansbyen, Oslo 's first residential development of detached villas, planned by Georg Andreas Bull. He designed most of the early villas built from 1858 until 1862 in a variety of styles, ranging from medieval to classicist and exotic.
From around 1840, architects started to design wooden buildings in a new style, the so - called Swiss chalet style. The style and its name originated in Germany, where Swiss popular culture was much admired by the romanticists. Elements such as projecting roofs, verandas and emphasis on gables were inspired from Alpine vernacular buildings. But the style may more correctly be termed historicism in wood, a term introduced by Jens Christian Eldal. A number of residential, institutional, and commercial buildings were built in this style, characterized by ornate, projecting details. Railway stations and churches, designed by trained architects, were distributed all in rural districts and helped to make this style popular and to keep it alive in the vernacular tradition long after it went out of fashion among architects.
The Swiss chalet style evolved into a Scandinavian variation, known in Norway as the "dragon style '', which combined motifs from Viking and medieval art with vernacular elements from the more recent past. The most renowned practitioner of this style was the architect Holm Hansen Munthe, who designed a number of tourist resorts, exhibition pavilions and churches in the 1880s and 1890s. These caught the eye of the German emperor Wilhelm II, who visited Norway annually. He commissioned Munthe to design his "Matrosenstation '' near Potsdam and a hunting lodge with at "stave church '' in Rominten in East Prussia. These last buildings were destroyed during World War II.
Architects abandoned both the "Swiss '' and the "dragon '' styles shortly after 1900, but elements of the "Swiss style '' survived in vernacular buildings for some decades. In the recent past, producers of pre-fabricated family homes have increasingly reintroduced motifs from the "Swiss '' style in their repertoire.
Until the 20th century, most Norwegians lived and worked in buildings that were designed and built according to vernacular building traditions, what in Norwegian is known as byggeskikk. These practices varied somewhat by region and climatic conditions and evolved over time, but were largely based on use of wood and other locally available resources.
Since the Middle Ages, most dwellings were log houses with notched corners, carefully crafted to ensure protection against the elements. Centrally placed open - hearth fires with smoke vents in the roofs gave way to stone stoves and chimneys in early modern times. Specialized buildings became commonplace, organized around farmyards or gårdstun. The introduction of exterior boarding (weatherboarding) in the 18th century improved housing standards considerably and gave rise to larger houses.
Building practices along the coast also included boathouses, fishing cottages, piers, etc. Here, houses for livestock and people were typically built up from the actual shoreline. A typical medium - sized farm in the inland of Norway would include a dwelling house (våningshus), hay barn (låve), livestock barn (fjøs), one or more food storage houses (stabbur), a stable, and occasionally separate houses for poultry, pigs, etc. Houses that had separate heat sources, e.g., washing houses (eldhus) and smithies were usually kept separate from the other houses to prevent fires. Outhouses were typically separate, small structures. If the farm housed craftsmen, there would also be separate houses for carpentry, wheel making, shoemaking, etc.
In Eastern inland Norway and Trøndelag, the houses around a tun were typically organized in a square (firkanttun); in Gudbrandsdal, there was a distinction between inntun (inner tun) and uttun (outer tun). The configuration of houses also depended on whether the farm was situated on a hill or in flatter terrain.
Depending upon the size and economic well - being of the farm, there might also be a feast hall (oppstue), a house for the retired farmers (føderådstue), farm hands ' dormitory (drengstue), carriage house (vognskjul), and even distillery (brenneskur). Smaller, poorer farms might combine barns and dwelling houses, have simpler storage areas, and use the facilities of other farms for activities they could not afford to build houses for.
Building traditions varied by region and type of structure. Food storage houses - stabbur - were usually built on stilts in ways that made it difficult for mice and rats, but not cats, to get in. Exterior cladding varied by region, often to take into account local climate conditions. Roofs were often covered with birch bark and sod.
Many places in Norway farms also maintained mountain farms (seter / støl), where cows, goats, and sheep would put out to pasture during the summer months. These would typically include a small dwelling house and a dairy for making and storing cheese, sour cream, etc.
Modern Norwegian farms often maintain many building traditions but no longer need the many and varied buildings of the past. However, many of the traditions have been carried on in more recently built vacation cabins in the mountains and along the coast.
The German influence brought into Norway by neo-classicism abated when Norway gained full independence in 1905. A new generation of Norwegian architects educated in Sweden took the lead in developing a distinctly national architecture, endeavouring to break the German historicist tradition. However, German modernism and town planning continued to influence early 20th - century architecture. As the Norwegian Institute of Technology was founded in 1910 and began to teach architecture in Trondheim, there also emerged a distinctly Norwegian collegium of architects that has contributed to a Norwegian regional architecture, discussed by the art historian Sigfried Giedeon.
The Jugendstil, a variant of Art Nouveau, had a certain influence on much of the new construction in Norway around the turn of the 20th century. The city of Ålesund, after burning to the ground in 1904, was rebuilt almost entirely in this style and continues to be a prominent example, along with Riga and Brussels. Trondheim also has numerous art nouveau buildings. In the capital Oslo, few art nouveau buildings were erected, due to a local economic crisis and a stagnant building trade during the first decade of the century. However, some public buildings were constructed in this style, such as the Historical Museum and the Government office building. In Bergen, the main theatre Den Nationale Scene is a monumental example.
Changing demographics and a growing social awareness led to increased political and architectural interest in providing cost - effective, sanitary, and comfortable residential space to the growing urban population in general and the working class in particular. This was known as boligsaken ("the housing cause '') in Norwegian popular culture and continues to play a role to this day.
Not unlike other countries during the evolution of their economies, Architecture became a tool for and manifestation of social policy, with architects and politicians determining just what features were adequate for the intended residents of housing projects. As late as in 1922, there were many who felt that working - class families had no need for their own bath; apartments and small houses only included a small kitchen and one or two rooms.
Before World War II, a number of cooperative investment projects known as "egne hjem '' (roughly "our own homes '') resulted in a handful of developments, but after the war these gave way to cooperative organizations that were formed to finance and build large - scale residential complexes. The largest -- Oslo Bolig og Sparelag, known as OBOS -- built its first complex Etterstad in Oslo, but there were similar initiatives throughout the country. These co-ops set standards for housing, hired architects to design solutions, and contracted to have them built. Entire sections, known as drabantbyer - or "satellite cities '' - were built in the outskirts of major cities. The first of these - Lambertseter - introduced an entirely new phenomenon in the eastern areas of Oslo such as in Groruddalen, but similar areas also emerged in Bergen, Trondheim, and other cities. The apex of this trend was reached in 1966 with the massive buildings in Ammerudlia.
This era -- which had spent most of its force by the mid-1970s -- led to an increased awareness of the physical and emotional needs of city dwellers. Some of the issues under debate were.
The perceived shortcomings of the mass housing movement led to efforts to create cost - effective housing solutions that were more varied, more integrated with natural surroundings, and above all more customized to families ' needs. In 1973, the Parliament of Norway recommended a shift toward small residential houses rather than large apartment buildings. The Norwegian State Housing Bank (Husbanken) provided citizens with the ability to fund construction of their homes, and an entire construction industry formed to build these needs.
As a result of the pioneering efforts by Olav Selvaag and others, archaic and otherwise unnecessary restrictions were relaxed, improving opportunities for more Norwegians to build housing to suit their individual needs and preferences. Norwegians often undertake home improvement projects on their own, and many have built most of their own homes.
In the late 1920s, Modernism (or the International style) was taken up by Scandinavian architects. In Scandinavia this architectural trend was called Functionalism (or colloquially in Sweden and Norway "funkis ''). Modernism found many adherents among young architects, especially in Norway. Its definite breakthrough was the Stockholm Exhibition in 1930, after which the majority of architects all over Scandinavia converted to the modern movement. Nowhere else did Modernism become so firmly established as the mainstream trend in architecture. It maintained its dominant position until about 1940.
A number of landmark structures, particularly in Oslo, were built in the functionalist style, the first one being the Skansen restaurant (1925 -- 1927) by Lars Backer, demolished in 1970. Backer also designed the restaurant at Ekeberg, opened in 1929. The art gallery Kunstnernes Hus by Gudolf Blakstad and Herman Munthe - Kaas (1930) still shows influence from the preceding classicist trend of the 1920s. Hvalstrand bath (1934) is one of several public seaside bath facilities in Norway, by André Peters. A year before, Ingierstrand Bad was designed by Ole Lind Schistad (1891 - 1979) and Eivind Moestue (1893 - 1977). Other great names of Norwegian functionalist architecture are Ove Bang, Fridtjof Reppen, Nicolai Beer (1885 - 1950) and Per Grieg (1897 - 1962).
Following the scorched earth tactics of retreating Wehrmacht troops, large areas in Northern Norway needed to be rebuilt. In 1945, there was an overwhelming need for housing. An architectural competition produced several designs for simple, cost - effective, and rapidly assembled housing. The resulting houses were Spartan and broke with building standards, but met an immediate need for shelter.
The Museum of Reconstruction in Hammerfest is dedicated to the reconstruction.
As Norway gained full independence in 1905, the national government determined to establish institutions consistent with the newly formed state 's ambitions as a modern society. The first prime minister made it a priority to modernize the Royal Palace in Oslo, building among other things, some of the country 's first water toilets, providing hot and cold water, and granting the Royal Family 's wish of providing a common apartment for the king, queen, and their son.
In the early years, such public works were limited to structures needed for the national government 's own administrative needs, but an increasing number of large - scale projects were conceived, designed, and completed since 1905 to meet various needs, such as:
The architectural designs of these projects have reflected not only the style currents of their time, but the societal debate over the purpose they were intended to serve. Nationalistic ambitions early on gave way to austere designs based on functionalism, and then to designs that emphasized human and ecological needs. To a great extent, Norwegian architects have found the opportunity to develop their signature styles through these projects, and thereby also a Norwegian architectural dialect.
Many of the projects have been controversial, and the resulting creative tension has probably served to advance the state of architectural arts in Norway. National and local governments and governmental institutions will continue to be among the largest customers of architects in coming years.
A number of trends influence contemporary architecture in Norway, among them:
A number of architectural prizes are awarded in Norway, including Houens fonds diplom, Treprisen, Statens byggeskikkpris, Sundts premie, Betongelementprisen, Betongtavlen, Glassprisen, Murverksprisen, Stenprisen, and Stålkonstruksjonsprisen.
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