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virat kohli highest score in odi against sri lanka | List of international cricket centuries by Virat Kohli - wikipedia
Virat Kohli is an Indian cricketer and the current captain of the national team. A right - handed middle order batsman, he has made 49 centuries in international cricket -- 17 in Test cricket and 32 in One Day Internationals (ODI) -- as of October 2017. In a 2013 interview, former West Indies cricketer Vivian Richards described Kohli as someone whose batting reminds him of himself.
Kohli made his ODI debut against Sri Lanka in August 2008, and scored his first century the following year when he made 107 against the same team at Eden Gardens, Kolkata. His 86 - ball 133 not out against Sri Lanka in February 2012 led India to the second highest run - chase by any team in Australia. Former Australian cricketer Dean Jones described the innings as "one of the greatest ODI knocks of all time ''. Kohli 's highest score of 183 came against Pakistan during the 2012 Asia Cup; India successfully chased a target of 330 set by Pakistan and Kohli was adjudged man of the match. Following that in 2013, he made his first century as a captain while playing against the West Indies in a tri-nation tournament. In the bilateral series against Australia in October 2013, Kohli made two centuries in successful run chases. The first of the two, 100 not out, was scored off 52 balls and remains the fastest ODI century by an Indian. The next century, which came off 61 balls, remains the third - fastest by an Indian as of October 2017. Out of his 32 ODI centuries, 19 have come in the second innings, and India have lost only four ODIs when he made a century. As of October 2017, Kohli has the most ODI centuries for an active player and is only next to Sachin Tendulkar (49) in the all - time list.
After making his Test debut against the West Indies in 2011, Kohli scored his first century in the format during the Australian tour in January 2012. In the first Test of the 2014 -- 15 Border - Gavaskar Trophy, he made 115 and 141, and became the fourth Indian player to score centuries in both the innings of a Test match. He was appointed as the captain of the Test team during the series and became the first player to score centuries in each of his first three Test innings as captain. In 2016, Kohli scored three double centuries including a career - best 235 against England. He became the fifth player to score three or more double centuries in a calendar year. Ten of his seventeen centuries in the format have been scored at venues outside India. Since his debut Twenty20 International match in 2010, Kohli is yet to score a century in the format; his highest score in the format is 90 not out against Australia in 2016.
Note: Italics denote the players who are currently active at international level
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where did the term fore in golf originated | Fore (golf) - Wikipedia
"Fore! '', originally an Australian interjection, is used to warn anyone standing or moving in the flight of a golf ball. The mention of the term in an 1881 Australian Golf Museum indicates that the term was in use at least as early as that period.
It is believed to come from the military "beware before '', which an artilleryman about to fire would yell alerting nearby infantrymen to drop to the ground to avoid the shells overhead. (Before may mean "in front of (the gun being fired) ''; fore may mean "(look) ahead ''.)
Other possible origins include the term being derived from the term "fore - caddie '', a caddie waiting down range from the golfer to find where the ball lands. These caddies were often warned about oncoming golf balls by a shout of the term "fore - caddie '' which was eventually shortened to just "fore! ''. The Colonel Bogey March is based on the descending minor third which the original Colonel Bogey whistled instead of yelling Fore around 1914.
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ok google who invented the ballpoint pen in 1944 | Ballpoint pen - wikipedia
A ballpoint pen, also known as a biro or ball pen, is a pen that dispenses ink (usually in paste form) over a metal ball at its point, i.e. over a "ball point ''. The metal commonly used is steel, brass, or tungsten carbide. It was conceived and developed as a cleaner and more reliable alternative to dip pens and fountain pens, and it is now the world 's most - used writing instrument: millions are manufactured and sold daily. As a result, it has influenced art and graphic design and spawned an artwork genre.
Pen manufacturers produce designer ballpoint pens for the high - end and collectors ' markets.
The Bic Cristal is a popular disposable type of ballpoint pen whose design is recognised by its place in the permanent collection of the Museum of Modern Art, New York.
The concept of using a ball point within a writing instrument as a method of applying ink to paper has existed since the late 19th century. In these inventions, the ink was placed in a thin tube whose end was blocked by a tiny ball, held so that it could not slip into the tube or fall out of the pen.
The first patent for a ballpoint pen was issued on 30 October 1888 to John J. Loud, who was attempting to make a writing instrument that would be able to write "on rough surfaces - such as wood, coarse wrapping - paper, and other articles '' which then - common fountain pens could not. Loud 's pen had a small rotating steel ball, held in place by a socket. Although it could be used to mark rough surfaces such as leather, as Loud intended, it proved to be too coarse for letter - writing. With no commercial viability, its potential went unexploited and the patent eventually lapsed.
The manufacture of economical, reliable ballpoint pens as we know them arose from experimentation, modern chemistry, and precision manufacturing capabilities of the early 20th century. Patents filed worldwide during early development are testaments to failed attempts at making the pens commercially viable and widely available. Early ballpoints did not deliver the ink evenly; overflow and clogging were among the obstacles inventors faced toward developing reliable ballpoint pens. If the ball socket was too tight, or the ink too thick, it would not reach the paper. If the socket was too loose, or the ink too thin, the pen would leak or the ink would smear. Ink reservoirs pressurized by piston, spring, capillary action, and gravity would all serve as solutions to ink - delivery and flow problems.
László Bíró, a Hungarian newspaper editor frustrated by the amount of time that he wasted filling up fountain pens and cleaning up smudged pages, noticed that inks used in newspaper printing dried quickly, leaving the paper dry and smudge free. He decided to create a pen using the same type of ink. Bíró enlisted the help of his brother György, a chemist, to develop viscous ink formulae for new ballpoint designs.
Bíró 's innovation successfully coupled ink - viscosity with a ball - socket mechanism which acted compatibly to prevent ink from drying inside the reservoir while allowing controlled flow. Bíró filed a British patent on 15 June 1938.
In 1941, the Bíró brothers and a friend, Juan Jorge Meyne, fled Germany and moved to Argentina, where they formed Bíró Pens of Argentina and filed a new patent in 1943. Their pen was sold in Argentina as the Birome (portmanteau of the names Bíró and Meyne), which is how ballpoint pens are still known in that country. This new design was licensed by the British, who produced ballpoint pens for RAF aircrew as the Biro. Ballpoint pens were found to be more versatile than fountain pens, especially at high altitudes, where fountain pens were prone to ink - leakage.
Bíró 's patent, and other early patents on ballpoint pens often used the term "ball - point fountain pen ''.
Following World War II, many companies vied to commercially produce their own ballpoint pen design. In post-war Argentina, success of the Birome ballpoint was limited, but in mid-1945, the Eversharp Co., a maker of mechanical pencils, teamed up with Eberhard Faber Co. to license the rights from Birome for sales in the United States.
During the same period, American entrepreneur Milton Reynolds came across a Birome ballpoint pen during a business trip to Buenos Aires, Argentina. Recognizing commercial potential, he purchased several ballpoint samples, returned to the United States, and founded Reynolds International Pen Company. Reynolds bypassed the Birome patent with sufficient design alterations to obtain an American patent, beating Eversharp and other competitors to introduce the pen to the U.S. market. Debuting at Gimbels department store in New York City on 29 October 1945, for US $12.50 each (1945 US dollar value, about $170 in 2017 dollars), Reynolds Rocket became the first commercially successful ballpoint pen. Reynolds went to great extremes to market the pen, with great success; Gimbel 's sold many thousands of pens within one week. In Britain, the Miles Martin pen company was producing the first commercially successful ballpoint pens there by the end of 1945.
Neither Reynolds ' nor Eversharp 's ballpoint lived up to consumer expectations in America. Ballpoint pen sales peaked in 1946, and consumer interest subsequently plunged due to market - saturation. By the early 1950s the ballpoint boom had subsided and Reynolds ' company folded.
Paper Mate pens, among the emerging ballpoint brands of the 1950s, bought the rights to distribute their own ballpoint pens in Canada. Facing concerns about ink - reliability, Paper Mate pioneered new ink formulas and advertised them as "banker - approved ''. In 1954, Parker Pens released The Jotter -- the company 's first ballpoint -- boasting additional features and technological advances which also included the use of tungsten - carbide textured ball - bearings in their pens. In less than a year, Parker sold several million pens at prices between three and nine dollars. In the 1960s, the failing Eversharp Co. sold its pen division to Parker and ultimately folded.
Marcel Bich also introduced a ballpoint pen to the American marketplace in the 1950s, licensed from Bíró and based on the Argentine designs. Bich shortened his name to Bic in 1953, becoming the ballpoint brand now recognised globally. Bic pens struggled until the company launched its "Writes The First Time, Every Time! '' advertising campaign in the 1960s. Competition during this era forced unit prices to drop considerably.
Ballpoint pen ink is normally a paste containing around 25 to 40 per cent dye. The dyes are suspended in a solvent of "oil ''. The most common of the oils are benzyl alcohol or phenoxyethanol, which mix with the dyes to create a smooth paste that dries quickly. The dyes used in blue and black ballpoint pens are basic dyes based on triarylmethane and acid dyes derived from diazo compounds or phthalocyanine. Common dyes in blue (and black) ink are Prussian blue, Victoria blue, methyl violet, crystal violet and phthalocyanine blue. The dye eosin is commonly used for red ink.
The inks, upon drying are resistant to water, but will be defaced by solvents such as alcohols, acetone etc.
Ballpoint pens are produced in both disposable and refillable models. Refills allow for the entire internal ink reservoir, including a ballpoint and socket, to be replaced. Such characteristics are usually associated with designer - type pens or those constructed of finer materials. The simplest types of ballpoint pens are disposable and have a cap to cover the tip when the pen is not in use, or a mechanism for retracting the tip, which varies between manufacturers but is usually a spring - or screw - mechanism.
Rollerball pens employ the same ballpoint mechanics, but with the use of water - based inks instead of oil - based inks. Compared to oil - based ballpoints, rollerball pens are said to provide more fluid ink - flow, but the water - based inks will blot if held stationary against the writing surface. Water - based inks also remain wet longer when freshly applied and are thus prone to smearing -- posing problems to left - handed people (or right handed people writing right - to - left script) -- and running, should the writing surface become wet.
Some ballpoint pens use a hybrid ink formulation whose viscosity is lower than that of standard ballpoint ink, but greater than rollerball ink. The ink dries faster than a standard ballpoint to prevent smearing when writing. These pens are better suited for left handed persons. Examples are the Uni Jetstream and Pilot Acroball ranges. These pens are also labelled "extra smooth '', as they offer a smoother writing experience compared to normal ballpoint pens.
Because of a ballpoint pen 's reliance on gravity to coat the ball with ink, most can not be used to write upside - down. However, technology developed by Fisher pens in the United States resulted in the production of what came to be known as the "Fisher Space Pen ''. Space Pens combine a more viscous ink with a pressurised ink reservoir that forces the ink toward the point. Unlike standard ballpoints, the rear end of a Space Pen 's pressurized reservoir is sealed, eliminating evaporation and leakage, thus allowing the pen to write upside - down, in zero - gravity environments, and reportedly underwater. Astronauts have made use of these pens in outer space.
Ballpoint pens with "erasable ink '' were pioneered by the Paper Mate pen company. The ink formulas of erasable ballpoints have properties similar to rubber cement, allowing the ink to be literally rubbed clean from the writing surface before drying and eventually becoming permanent. Erasable ink is much thicker than standard ballpoint inks, requiring pressurised cartridges to facilitate inkflow -- meaning they can also write upside - down. Though these pens are equipped with erasers, any eraser will suffice.
The inexpensive, disposable Bic Cristal (also simply Bic pen or Biro) is reportedly the most widely sold pen in the world. It was the Bic company 's first product and is still synonymous with the company name. The Bic Cristal is part of the permanent collection at the Museum of Modern Art in New York City, acknowledged for its industrial design. Its hexagonal barrel mimics that of a wooden pencil and is transparent, showing the ink level in the reservoir. Originally a sealed streamlined cap, the modern pen cap has a small hole at the top to meet safety standards, helping to prevent suffocation if children suck it into the throat.
Multipens are pens that feature multiple varying colored ballpoint refills. Sometimes ballpoint refills are combined with another non-ballpoint refill.
Sometimes ballpoint pens combine a ballpoint tip on one end and touchscreen stylus on the other.
Ballpoint pens are sometimes provided free by businesses, such as hotels, as a form of advertising -- printed with a company 's name; a ballpoint pen is a relatively low cost advertisement that is highly effective (customers will use, and therefore see, a pen daily). Businesses and charities include ballpoint pens in direct mail campaigns to increase a customer 's interest in the mailing. Ballpoints have also been produced to commemorate events, such as a pen commemorating the 1963 assassination of President John F. Kennedy.
Ballpoint pens have proven to be a versatile art medium for professional artists as well as amateur doodlers. Low cost, availability, and portability are cited by practitioners as qualities which make this common writing tool a convenient, alternative art supply. Some artists use them within mixed - media works, while others use them solely as their medium - of - choice.
Effects not generally associated with ballpoint pens can be achieved. Traditional pen - and - ink techniques such as stippling and cross-hatching can be used to create half - tones or the illusion of form and volume. For artists whose interests necessitate precision line - work, ballpoints are an obvious attraction; ballpoint pens allow for sharp lines not as effectively executed using a brush. Finely applied, the resulting imagery has been mistaken for airbrushed artwork and photography, causing reactions of disbelief which ballpoint artist Lennie Mace refers to as the Wow Factor.
Famous 20th - century artists such as Andy Warhol, among others, have utilised ballpoint pens to some extent during their careers. Ballpoint pen artwork continues to attract interest in the 21st century, with contemporary artists gaining recognition for their specific use of ballpoint pens; for their technical proficiency, imagination, and innovation. Korean - American artist Il Lee has been creating large - scale, ballpoint - only abstract artwork since the late 1970s. Since the 1980s, Lennie Mace creates imaginative, ballpoint - only artwork of varying content and complexity, applied to unconventional surfaces including wood and denim. The artist coined terms such as PENtings and Media Graffiti to describe his varied output. More recently, British artist James Mylne has been creating photo - realistic artwork using mostly black ballpoints, sometimes with minimal mixed - media color. In the mid-2000s (decade), Juan Francisco Casas generated Internet attention for a series of large - scale, photo - realistic ballpoint duplications of his own snapshots of friends, utilising only blue pens.
Using ballpoint pens to create artwork is not without limitations. Color availability and sensitivity of ink to light are among concerns of ballpoint pen artists. Mistakes pose greater risks to ballpoint artists; once a line is drawn, it generally can not be erased. Additionally, "blobbing '' of ink on the drawing surface and "skipping '' of ink - flow require consideration when using ballpoint pens for artistic purposes. Although the mechanics of ballpoint pens remain relatively unchanged, ink composition has evolved to solve certain problems over the years, resulting in unpredictable sensitivity to light and some extent of fading.
Although designs and construction vary between brands, basic components of all ballpoint pens are universal. Standard components of a ballpoint tip include the freely rotating ball itself (distributing the ink on the writing surface), a socket holding the ball in place, small ink channels that provide ink to the ball through the socket, and a self - contained ink reservoir supplying ink to the ball. In modern disposable pens, narrow plastic tubes contain the ink, which is compelled downward to the ball by gravity. Brass, steel, or tungsten carbide are used to manufacture the ball bearing - like points, then housed in a brass socket.
The function of these components can be compared with the ball - applicator of roll - on antiperspirant; the same technology at a larger scale. The ball point tip delivers the ink to the writing surface while acting as a buffer between the ink in the reservoir and the air outside, preventing the quick - drying ink from drying inside the reservoir. Modern ballpoints are said to have a two - year shelf life, on average.
A ballpoint tip that can write comfortably for a long period of time is not easy to produce as it requires high - precision machinery and thin high grade steel alloy plates. China, which currently (2017) produces about 80 percent of the world 's ballpoint pens, relied up to 2017 on imported ballpoint tips and metal alloys.
The common ballpoint pen is a product of mass production, with components produced separately on assembly lines. Basic steps in the manufacturing process include production of ink formulas, moulding of metal and plastic components, and assembly. Marcel Bich was involved in developing the production of inexpensive ballpoint pens.
The International Organization for Standardization has published standards for ball point and roller ball pens:
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where does the name of a ship go | Wikipedia: naming conventions (ships) - Wikipedia
This guideline describes Wikipedia 's conventions for naming articles about ships and for referring to ships in the body of articles. See Wikipedia: Article titles for more general naming conventions. See WikiProject Ships for more guidance on writing articles about ships.
Ships share names with people, places, animals and other things. Articles about ships must be named to distinguish them from other similarly - named ships, as well as from other things with which they share a name.
Civilian ship articles should follow standard Wikipedia naming conventions. These rules apply to named boats and yachts as well as to ships.
A typical civilian ship article name has the following form:
Military ship articles should follow standard Wikipedia naming conventions. These rules apply to both named and unnamed vessels.
A typical military ship article name has the following form:
Many military ships and boats were not named and are known only by their hull or pennant number. See § Ships with hull number only.
Some navies do n't use standard ship prefixes. See § Ships from navies without ship prefixes
Do not use prefixes that predate their use, even though some authors sometimes "backdate '' prefixes in this way. In particular, do not use the HMS prefix for English ships from before 1660. The term "His Majesty 's Ship '' was introduced around 1660 and was routinely abbreviated HMS from about 1780 onwards.
Some navies or nations do n't use standard ship prefixes. Titles for articles about these ships have the form:
Do not make up a ship prefix for a navy that did not use one. Thus:
Some authors use invented prefixes for consistency with "USS '', "HMS '' etc. It was not a mistake for these authors to do that in their own works, but at Wikipedia we choose not to do so. To forestall attempts to move articles to the wrong place, you might want to add redirects from popular invented ship prefixes.
Many types of ship, such as American PT boats and German U-boats, are officially known only by a hull number. In these cases, it can be best to spell out the ship type (e.g. German submarine U-238), but be sure the ship type name is correct. In many cases, the designation is not an abbreviation and may not relate directly to a ship 's class or even type. For example, PT - 658 can be a redirect to the main article Motor Torpedo Boat PT - 658, but U-238 must be disambiguated, because U-238 also refers to Uranium 238.
Articles about vessels with a numerical name should be titled like HMS A1, HMS E11, HMS M1 etc.
Articles about a ship class should follow standard Wikipedia naming conventions.
A typical ship class article name has the following form:
Uses of the class name as a noun are not hyphenated, while adjectival references are hyphenated. Article names that follow the form just described are adjectival because the compound phrase made up of < class name > and "class '' modifies the noun < ship type >. As such, article titles should be hyphenated.
In article titles and in article text, use a hyphen; do not use an en dash (--) or em dash (--).
A ship 's name is always italicized. Prefixes, hull or pennant numbers, and disambiguation are rendered in normal upright font.
Use the ship 's prefix the first time you introduce the ship, thereafter, omit it. You need not give the prefix at all if it is obvious from the context (for example, in a list of ships of the Royal Navy there is no need to repeat "HMS '' each time). In case of civilian ships, consider omitting common prefixes (e.g. "MS '') from the article body as italicizing the ship 's name is often enough to identify it as a ship.
Do not use the definite article ("the '') before a prefix or when introducing a ship for the first time; e.g., at the beginning of the lead section:
Generally, a definite article is not needed before a ship 's name, although its use is not technically wrong:
Make a link from the first mention of each ship in an article, even if Wikipedia does not yet have an article about that ship. If you do not know how to disambiguate it, link to the index page for its name: this will allow the link to be found and fixed later.
Do not give the hull number or other disambiguation information unless it is immediately relevant. Someone who needs to know can follow the link:
Always use the full name of the ship unless there exists a widely used shortening akin to a nickname. Do not omit parts of the name just because they are, for example, common for all ships of a shipping company.
When using the possessive form of a ship 's name in articles, use the ((')) template to provide proper styling and avoid coding problems that can occur when an apostrophe follows italicized text. The apostrophe and "s '' are not italicized:
Ships may be referred to by either feminine pronouns ("she '', "her '') or neuter pronouns ("it '', "its ''). Either usage is acceptable, but each article should be internally consistent and employ one or the other exclusively. As with all optional styles, articles should not be changed from one style to another unless there is a substantial reason to do so.
A ship class can take the name of a class member or it can take a name that is thematically common to all members of the class. When the class takes its name from a member of the class, the name is italicized:
Thematically common class names are rendered in normal font:
Additionally, ship class names have a noun form and an adjectival form:
When creating links to ship - class articles, useful editing shortcut templates are: ((sclass)) (italicized font); ((sclass -)) (italicized font, hyphenated); ((sclass2)) (normal font); and ((sclass2 -)) (normal font, hyphenated). See the template documentation for usage guidelines.
Use the noun form when the class name does not modify another noun:
Use the adjectival form when the class name modifies another noun:
It is extremely common for many ships to share a name. Therefore disambiguation needs special attention.
For older ships predating the modern pennant / hull number system, the most widely recognisable fact about the ship is its date of launch or construction. This is a unique identifier for a ship with a particular name in navies where names are customarily re-used and is applicable generally to all ships, unlike local naval identification numbers:
In a few cases, one ship is so much better - known than her namesakes that she need not be disambiguated:
It should be noted that European navies reuse pennant numbers, so ships of the same name may have the same pennant numbers; the second and third RFA Sir Galahad (L3005), for example are disambiguated by launch year:
Make an index page that lists all the ships in a navy with the same name:
For well - known names that are shared between navies, or between military and civilian ships, also disambiguate at the usual Wikipedia disambiguation page for the name:
An article about a ship that changed name or nationality should be placed at the best - known name, with a redirect from the other name:
But if the ship had significant careers in two navies, it may be best to create two articles with one ending at the transfer and the other beginning then, depending on how long the articles are and how extensive the transformation of the ship.
If an entire class of ships was reclassified (such as in the 1975 USN ship reclassification), be consistent and make the decision once for all the ships of the class:
Articles about a ship class should be named (Lead ship name) - class (type); for example, Ohio - class submarine. Do not be overly specific in the type; for example, use "aircraft carrier '', not "light escort fleet assault carrier ''. Use the singular form of the ship type; for example, "submarine '', not "submarines ''.
Uses of the class as a noun are not hyphenated, while adjectival references are hyphenated, as in Ohio - class submarine: if in doubt, do not hyphenate. Note the separation of submarine as a separate link; this is not required, but does allow the reader to look up the general term directly instead of being plunged into the technical discussion of a ship class.
When the class is named after a member of the class, italicize the class name, for example the Lion class of battlecruisers is named after HMS Lion. But when the class is not named after a member of the class, the class name is not italicized, for example the Battle class of destroyers is named after battles; there is no HMS Battle that is a member of that class.
Ship classes may need to be disambiguated:
Articles which name the country or navy in the article title should conform to the country - specific guidelines. This states that:
In general, country - specific articles should be named using the form: "(item) of (country) ''... This will usually hold true in other geography - specific topics, such as for cities, continents, provinces, states, etc.
Note navies are country or geography - specific.
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why south african legal system is classified as mixed legal system | Law of South Africa - Wikipedia
South Africa has a ' hybrid ' or ' mixed ' legal system, formed by the interweaving of a number of distinct legal traditions: a civil law system inherited from the Dutch, a common law system inherited from the British, and a customary law system inherited from indigenous Africans (often termed African Customary Law, of which there are many variations depending on the tribal origin). These traditions have had a complex interrelationship, with the English influence most apparent in procedural aspects of the legal system and methods of adjudication, and the Roman - Dutch influence most visible in its substantive private law. As a general rule, South Africa follows English law in both criminal and civil procedure, company law, constitutional law and the law of evidence; while Roman - Dutch common law is followed in the South African contract law, law of delict (tort), law of persons, law of things, family law, etc. With the commencement in 1994 of the interim Constitution, and in 1997 its replacement, the final Constitution, another strand has been added to this weave.
Besides South Africa itself, South African law, especially its civil law and common law elements, also forms the basis of the laws of Botswana, Lesotho, Namibia, Swaziland and Zimbabwe, which were introduced during the process of colonisation. Basutoland (Lesotho) received the law of the Cape Colony in 1884, and Bechuanaland (Botswana) and Southern Rhodesia (Zimbabwe) received it in 1891. Swaziland received the law of the Transvaal Colony in 1904, and South - West Africa (Namibia) received the law of the Cape Province in 1920, after its conquest by South Africa.
The South African court system is organized in a clear hierarchically by Chapter 8 of the Constitution of the Republic of South Africa, specifically s166, and consists of (from lowest to highest legal authority):
Firstly, a number of Magistrates ' Courts (both smaller Regional and larger District).
Secondly, a single High Court with multiple divisions across the country, both regional (having jurisdiction over the entire province) and smaller local division (having a geographically smaller jurisdiction, usually over a heavily populated regions) introduced by the Superior Courts Act, 2013. This is clearly seen in Gauteng which has both the High Court of South Africa Gauteng Division, Pretoria which sits in Pretoria, and the High Court of South Africa Gauteng Local Division, Johannesburg which sits in Johannesburg. All High Court names have been clarified by the Chief Justice and can be read on page 14 of the South African Government Gazette No. 37390, 28 February 2014.
Thirdly, the Supreme Court of Appeal (SCA), a purely appellate court (court of second instance). While previously both the SCA and Constitutional Court held joint apex jurisdiction / position; the Sixth Amendment of the Constitution of South Africa, altered the hierarchy so that the Constitutional Court sitting in Johannesburg is the apex court, with the SCA below it, and the High Court below the SCA.
And finally, the Constitutional Court, which is the highest authority in constitutional matters, and since the Sixth Amendment of the Constitution of South Africa, the highest court in the land for both constitutional matters and all other matters. This position is legally confirmed and constitutionally entrenched by Section 167 (3) (b) (ii) of the Constitution of South Africa which states that the Constitutional Court may decide "any other matter, if the Constitutional Court grants leave to appeal on the grounds that the matter raises an arguable point of law of general public importance which ought to be considered by that Court ''. The Constitutional Court has final authority to decide whether an issue is Constitutional or not; s167 (3) (c) of the Constitution of South Africa.
In addition, a number of specialized courts have also been created by the legislation in order to deal with specialized areas of law important to the public as well as to avoid a backlog in the main legal administration infrastructure. These courts exist alongside the court hierarchy; their decisions are thus subject to the same process of appeal and review through the normal courts, starting at a specific level depending on the specialized court in question. Within these specialized courts, there exist, to name a few, the Competition Appeal Court, the Electoral Court, the Land Claims Court, and the Labour and Labour Appeal Court.
In addition, African indigenous courts, which deal exclusively with the indigenous law, also exist. A draft Traditional Courts Bill aimed at introducing a Traditional Court below, or on the same level as the Magistrates Courts has been penned, but awaits parliamentary introduction, reading and debate.
Until 1795, the Seven United Provinces of Holland was a sovereign independent state. Together with the other territories of the Netherlands, it was organised into a fairly free commonwealth of nations known as the Republiek der Vereenigde Nederlanden (Republic of the United Netherlands). It was originally a rural territory, but the rapid speed of development during the 15th century changed it into a trading centre. The old Germanic customary law was no longer able to settle the disputes which arose in everyday trade, and the Dutch turned to the more advanced Roman law. They took it over and changed it to suit their lives, to such an extent that at the beginning of the 17th century, the great Dutch jurist Hugo de Groot (Grotius) could describe this fusion (or joining together) of Dutch and Roman principles as a "new '' legal system with its own contents. This was how Roman - Dutch Law began. It was later to form the basis of the present common law in South Africa in a form that had been expanded by what were called the placaaten which was the legislation of that period.
With the failure of the successive Dutch and British colonial governments to record the laws of pre-colonial southern Africa, there is a dearth of information about laws prior to the colonisation of South Africa. However, the current South African legal system has recognised the significance of these, and they have been incorporated into the overall legal system, functioning as district / local courts where appropriate.
From the 6 April 1652 landing of the Dutch in the Cape of Good Hope, the Roman - Dutch legal system and its legislation and laws took increasing hold, holding sway until the Union of South Africa as a dominion of the British Empire was formed on 31 May 1910. Even after this and to date, wherever English law does not stand, Roman - Dutch law forms the bedrock to which South Africa turns in its search for clarity in its law.
From the union of the Cape Colony, Natal, Transvaal and Orange Free State in 1910 as a dominion within the British Empire called the Union of South Africa, and prior to the formation of the Republic of South Africa in 1961, much of English law was incorporated into or formed the basis of South African law. The jury system was abolished in 1969, and cases are decided by a judge alone, sometimes assisted by two assessors. English law and the Roman - Dutch law which held sway prior to this period form the bedrock to which South Africa even now turns in its search for clarity in its law, and where there is a vacuum in its law.
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when is next version of microsoft office coming out | Microsoft Office 2019 - Wikipedia
Microsoft Office 2019 is a version of Microsoft Office, a productivity suite, succeeding Office 2016. It was announced on 6 September 2017 at Microsoft Ignite. It is scheduled to be released on 1 October 2018.
Some features that previously have been restricted to Office 365 subscribers will be available in this release. On 27 April 2018, Microsoft released Office 2019 Commercial Preview for Windows 10. On 12 June 2018, Microsoft released a preview for macOS.
Office 2019 will include all of the features of Office 365, along with improved inking features, new animation features in PowerPoint including the morph and zoom features, and new formulae and charts in Excel for data analysis. OneNote will be retired from the suite starting in Office 2019. OneNote 2016 can be installed as an optional feature on the Office Installer; however, the only OneNote app for PC desktops going forward will be the Universal Windows App that is currently available for Windows 10. For Mac users, Focus Mode will be brought to Word, 2D maps will be brought to Excel and new Morph transitions, SVG support and 4K video exports will be coming to Powerpoint, amidst other features.
Office 2019 will only run on Windows 10, Windows Server 2016 or macOS. In addition, Office 2019 will not be receiving 10 years of support like most earlier versions. It will receive 5 years of mainstream support, but will only get two years of extended support.
For Office 2013 and Office 2016, various editions containing the client apps were available in both Click To Run (Microsoft App - V) and traditional Windows Installer setup formats. For Office 2019, Microsoft has announced that the client apps will only have a Click - to - Run installer and only the server apps will have the traditional MSI installer. As with Office 2016, the Office 2019 apps will also be available to install through the Microsoft Store app. Mac installations can be acquired from the Microsoft website.
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who sang the theme tune to absolutely fabulous | Absolutely Fabulous - wikipedia
Absolutely Fabulous, also known as Ab Fab, is a BBC sitcom created by, written by and starring Jennifer Saunders. It is based on a 1990 French & Saunders sketch created by Saunders and Dawn French.
The series features Saunders as Edina Monsoon, a heavy - drinking, drug - abusing PR agent who spends her time chasing bizarre fads in a desperate attempt to stay young and "hip ''. Edina is joined in her quest by magazine fashion director Patsy Stone (played by Joanna Lumley), her best friend and enabler, whose drug abuse, alcohol consumption, and promiscuity far eclipse Edina 's comparatively mild self - destructive behaviour. Despite being a middle - aged, twice - divorced career woman, Edina is reliant upon the support of her daughter Saffron (Julia Sawalha), a secondary school pupil (and later university student) whose constant care of her mother has left her a bitter cynic. The series also stars June Whitfield as Edina 's sarcastic and thieving mother, and Jane Horrocks as Edina 's brainless personal assistant.
Absolutely Fabulous returned for three special episodes which were originally broadcast on 25 December 2011, 1 January 2012 and 23 July 2012 to mark the show 's 20th anniversary. The episode broadcast on 23 July 2012 featured the 2012 Summer Olympics which were being held in London that week. A film based on the series was released to theatres on 1 July 2016. On 28 November 2016, Jennifer Saunders announced that the series is finished.
The show has had an extended and sporadic run. The first three series were broadcast on the BBC from 1992 to 1995, followed by a series finale in the form of a two - part television film entitled The Last Shout in 1996. Creator Jennifer Saunders revived the show for a fourth series in 2001, after having written and submitted a pilot entitled Mirrorball, which recruited nearly all of the original cast in new roles. The pilot was intended to be turned into a series of episodes. However, Saunders felt the characters were far too rich and interesting to put aside, and were far better suited for her new story ideas. Instead of Mirrorball, a new series of Absolutely Fabulous was proposed to the BBC, which later commissioned the fourth series in 2001. From 2001 to 2004, two full series were produced, along with three one - off hour - long specials; Gay (retitled and issued as Absolutely Fabulous in New York for the United States) in 2002, Cold Turkey, a Christmas special in 2003, and White Box (another series finale), which aired in 2004. A Comic Relief sketch was broadcast in 2005.
In August 2011, Lumley confirmed the planned filming of three new episodes. In 2011, plans for a 20th anniversary revival were welcomed in The Guardian, which applauded the show as "prophetic ''. The first new special was broadcast on 25 December with the second episode being shown on 1 January 2012. The third, and final special coincided with the 2012 Summer Olympics, with Stella McCartney appearing in a cameo role. A film version of the series was released in summer 2016.
In the United States, the first of the three new 20th anniversary specials aired in January 2012 for broadcast by both BBC America and Logo Channel. Both channels also co-produced the 20th Anniversary episodes, although Logo removed some scenes for its airings. BBC America broadcast it in full. Both channels aired the episode in a 40 - minute block to allow for commercial interruptions.
Absolutely Fabulous is ranked as the 17th greatest British TV show of all time by the British Film Institute. A scene from the show was included in the 100 Greatest TV Moments programme broadcast by Channel 4. In 1997, the pilot episode, "Fashion '', was ranked number 47 on TV Guide 's "100 Greatest Episodes of All - Time '' list. In 2004 and 2007, the series was ranked number 24 and number 29 on TV Guide 's Top Cult Shows Ever list.
Absolutely Fabulous evolved from a French & Saunders sketch called "Modern Mother and Daughter '' (from series 3 episode 6), which starred Saunders as the mother (named ' Adrianna ') and French as the daughter, already named Saffron. The sketch revolved around a middle - aged, single mother who acted like a teenager, and was reliant upon the emotional and financial support of her teenage daughter, who behaved like a middle - aged woman. It has no connection, other than the character 's name, to the earlier film Eddie Monsoon: A Life?, a comedy play written by Saunders ' husband Adrian Edmondson in 1984 for the TV series The Comic Strip Presents... The name "Edina Monsoon '' is derived from Edmondson 's name and "Eddy Monsoon '' is a nickname of his.
According to an article published in The Times, the character of Edina was based on Lynne Franks. Franks believed Saunders had observed her and her children in detail after joining them on a family holiday. Josh Howie, Franks ' son, reported that his mother was upset because one of her best friends "had taken the piss out of her '' in a TV show. Saunders revealed in 2012 that she was also inspired by pop band Bananarama with whom she and Dawn French had become friends after their Comic Relief collaboration in 1989. "The nights with Bananarama were some of the best nights of my life, and I got a lot of gags from Bananarama because they were big vodka drinkers... when I started doing AbFab, I remembered all of the falls that I saw Bananarama do. I once saw one of them coming out of a cab bottom first and hitting the road, and I thought ' that 's class '. Although Ab Fab was produced by Saunders and French 's production company, Dawn French appeared on the show only once, in a cameo in the first - series episode "Magazine '', before making a brief cameo on the 2016 film.
Three new specials were announced to celebrate the show 's 20th anniversary with the first special, "Identity '' airing on 25 December 2011. Jon Plowman, executive producer and original producer of the series, said: "Viewers have been fantastically loyal in their devotion to our show, so we 're really thrilled to say that it 's coming back for three new shows to celebrate our 20th anniversary. All of the originals who are back together again are still truly absolutely fabulous and the new adventures of Edina, Patsy, Saffy, Bubble and Mother, plus a few surprising guests, will be a real treat for viewers. '' Saunders announced in November 2011 that she had begun work on a film version of the series.
Edina "Eddy '' Monsoon (Saunders) and Patricia "Patsy '' Stone (Lumley) are a pair of high - powered career women on the London fashion scene. Eddy runs her own PR firm, and Patsy holds a sinecure position at a top British fashion magazine. The two women use their considerable financial resources to indulge in alcohol and recreational drugs and to chase the latest fads in an attempt to maintain their youth and recapture their glory days as Mods in Swinging London. In 2011, they are still chain - smokers. The partnership is largely driven by Patsy, who is both co-dependent and enabler to Eddy. Their lifestyle inevitably leads to a variety of personal crises, which are invariably resolved by Eddy 's daughter, Saffron Monsoon (Julia Sawalha), whose constant involvement in their exploits has left her increasingly bitter and cynical.
Eddy 's mother (June Whitfield) is also present in their routines, often helping Saffy with the cooking and cleaning at home; despite this, though, Eddy and Mother have a strained relationship, rarely being left alone together and disagreeing on virtually everything. Also recurring in their lives are both of Eddy 's ex-husbands, Marshall (Christopher Ryan) and Justin (Christopher Malcolm), and their respective new partners, the American hippie Bo (Mo Gaffney), and the acidic Oliver (Gary Beadle).
Also present is Bubble (Jane Horrocks), Eddy 's personal secretary, a Lancastrian with a unique dress sense and a childish outlook on and attitude towards the business and life in general.
Absolutely Fabulous first aired on 12 November 1992 and ran for three series, until 4 May 1995, when the sixth episode of series 3 was billed as the last ever episode. However, the following year in November 1996, two specials called "The Last Shout '' were broadcast and were also billed as the last ever episodes. Both episodes featured end sequences with flashes to the future. However, after writing Mirrorball, Jennifer Saunders decided she had more ideas, leading to a fourth series, which premiered on 31 August 2001, while a subsequent special airing in 2002. A fifth series premiered on 17 October 2003, and another special, which aired on 25 December 2004. This was followed by a short special for Comic Relief in March 2005. In July 2005, Saunders announced she would not be writing or playing Edina again, stating "The 6am calls to go to make - up and all the promotional work wear you down. I would like to write and direct -- that would be my joy ''. However, in November 2010, Lumley revealed to Playbill magazine that she had recently spoken to Saunders about the possibility of filming a new series. Lumley and Saunders reunited for the M&S Christmas advert in 2009, along with other stars such as Twiggy and Stephen Fry.
On 29 August 2011, it was announced that a further series of three programmes was being made to celebrate the 20th anniversary of the original production. The first of these, "Identity '', was shown on Christmas Day 2011 and the second, "Job '', was shown on New Year 's Day 2012. The last, entitled "Olympics '', aired on 23 July 2012. The episodes were jointly co-produced by Logo, and BBC America in the US.
On 3 January 2012, following the success of the 20th Anniversary Specials, it was rumoured that Saunders was set to write another Christmas special for 2012. The BBC were rumoured to also be urging her to write a sixth series for 2013. Saunders denied the reports of additional episodes via her Twitter account.
On 29 November 2016, Jennifer Saunders confirmed that "She was done '' with Absolutely Fabulous and it would not be returning to television for another series, or specials, nor would a sequel to the film be made. Saunders now wishes to focus on new projects and spend more time with her family.
In 2011, prior to the release of the new episodes for 2011 / 2012, Deadline Hollywood reported that Saunders planned to begin writing a script for a film of Absolutely Fabulous in 2012. The film would begin with Edina and Patsy waking up on an oligarch 's deserted yacht, drifting in the ocean. Saunders later said that the film will be set on the French Riviera. In March 2012, Saunders confirmed that she was working on the script. She said of the film 's plotline:
Eddy and Patsy are looking for what they imagine glamorous life should be. They 're constantly searching for that perfect place to sit or that perfect pair of sunglasses. It 's Shangri - La and it just might be round the next corner. In the meantime, they decide to take Saffy 's (Julia Sawalha) daughter off her -- she calls her Jane, I call her Lola -- but then they lose her.
Saunders also stated that now that she had announced plans for a feature, there was no going back. She would do it for no other reason than to have her alter - ego and Patsy walk down the red carpet at the film 's premiere. In April 2013 Saunders said on the Alan Carr Chatty Man show that she had doubts about the film as she felt the cast were "too old ''. She felt pressure to write it and did n't want to commit herself to it at this early stage.
On 4 January 2014 whilst appearing on The Jonathan Ross Show, Saunders officially confirmed that the movie will definitely be happening, as she felt obliged to write a script for a film adaptation after threatening it for so long. Saunders was quoted as saying: "Joanna Lumley kept announcing it and saying, ' Yes she 's going to do it, ' and then Dawn French on our radio show at Christmas said, ' I bet £ 100,000 that you do n't write it, ' so now I have to write it, otherwise I have to pay her £ 100,000 ' ''. In April 2014, Saunders again confirmed on BBC Breakfast that she was in the process of writing the film, and gave a prospective release date of sometime during 2015.
Principal photography on the film began on 12 October 2015 in the south of France.
Many celebrities, mainly British or American, appeared in the series, most of them as themselves. They include:
The theme song for Absolutely Fabulous is "This Wheel 's on Fire '', written by Bob Dylan and Rick Danko and performed by Julie Driscoll and Saunders ' husband Adrian Edmondson. The song was also sung by Marianne Faithfull and P.P. Arnold for the "Last Shout '' special in 1996. Hermine Demoriane sang a French version of the theme song over the closing credits of the episode "Paris ''. At the end of the episode "Birthday '', Edina and Patsy sang the song together using a karaoke machine. More recently, it has been sung by Debbie Harry, who also guest - starred in the 2002 Christmas special "Gay ''. For series four, a line sung by David Bowie, "Ziggy played guitar '', from the song "Ziggy Stardust '' played at the end of each episode.
Due to copyright issues, the theme song is missing from many of the US Region 1 DVDs, being replaced by an instrumental version of the song. Also excised from the US DVD release is the musical number from Chicago performed by Horrocks, Gaffney, and Ryan, during a dream sequence in the series 5 episode "Birthin ' ''.
In addition to the official theme song, in 1994, Pet Shop Boys recorded a song for Comic Relief using excerpts of dialogue from the series put to dance music. The single was attributed to "Absolutely Fabulous produced by Pet Shop Boys ''. It peaked at number 6 in the UK Singles Chart in July 1994. The music video featured clips from the show and specially recorded footage of the Pet Shop Boys with Patsy and Edina.
On 10 June 2016, Kylie Minogue released her version of "This Wheel 's on Fire '' for Absolutely Fabulous: The Movie, prior to the film 's release in July 2016.
In the United States, Absolutely Fabulous has been broadcast on Comedy Central, some public television stations, but not as part of the PBS program offerings, BBC America, Oxygen Network, and as of 2011, Logo, a gay - oriented channel. In Canada, the programme has appeared on the BBC Canada, the CBC, The Comedy Network, and VisionTV. In Australia, all series were originally shown on the ABC, and on cable on UK.TV, and moved to The Comedy Channel in 2007. Repeats of the first three series were also shown on the Seven network. The ABC continues to show it sporadically and shows Christmas Specials and occasional repeats of series 5 episodes. ABC2 also shows repeats of the show. As of August 6 -- 7, 2016 the series was shown on Nine Network 's sister channel 9Gem to promote the upcoming film adaption. In New Zealand all five series were broadcast on TVNZ. In India, all five series, including the specials, have been shown on BBC Entertainment.
In Portugal, Ab Fab has been shown on RTP2. In Serbia, the first series was aired in 1998, through a network of local television stations. In 2004 the series was aired in its entirety on B92, while in the Czech Republic all episodes have been shown. In the Republic of Macedonia, all episodes have been shown a couple of times on Sitel. In the Netherlands and Flanders, the series is popular, still being regularly re-broadcast by the VPRO and Canvas, respectively. In Sweden, all episodes were first broadcast by SVT, but reruns have later appeared on other channels. In Germany, it was broadcast by the Franco - German TV network Arte and gay - oriented channel TIMM. In France, before it was rerun on terrestrial TV arte, it was successively premiered on pay TV channel Canal +, cable channel Jimmy, and is now broadcast on France 4. In Finland, the series was broadcast by YLE TV1. In Estonia, the series was broadcast by ETV. In Brazil, it was aired on GNT. In Poland, two series were broadcast by Wizja Jeden, later by TVP3, TVN7 and BBC Entertainment. In Israel, some of the series was aired on Yes Plus and on BBC Entertainment.
Absolutely Fabulous inspired a French feature film, called Absolument fabuleux, in 2001. It was written and directed by Gabriel Aghion, and starred Josiane Balasko as Eddy and Nathalie Baye as Patsy. Saunders had a small cameo alongside Catherine Deneuve as a spectator at a fashion show. Amanda Lear was asked to play the part of Patsy but turned it down laughingly, saying she 'd "already lived it ''.
A proposed American remake that would have starred Carrie Fisher and Barbara Carrera was put into motion by Roseanne Barr but never got off the ground. However, Barr did incorporate many elements of the show into the final season of her eponymous show Roseanne, in which her character wins the lottery: Saunders and Lumley reprised their characters Edina and Patsy, and Mo Gaffney also appeared in the episode, but not as her character Bo. Two later American sitcoms, Cybill and High Society, also adapted elements of Absolutely Fabulous for the American audience.
It was announced on 7 October 2008 that an American version of the series was in the works. The series was to be relocated to Los Angeles. Saturday Night Live writer Christine Zander worked on the new scripts and would have been executive producer along with Saunders and BBC Worldwide 's Ian Moffitt. Sony Pictures Television, BBC Worldwide, and indie Tantamount were producing the new series for Fox, which greenlighted the pilot as a possible Fall 2009 entry with Kathryn Hahn as Eddy and Kristen Johnston as Patsy. In May 2009, Fox decided not to commission a full series.
The stage for the kitchen in Ab Fab is now used as the stage for the shop in the British comedy Miranda. Miranda Hart, creator of the show, had previously appeared on Absolutely Fabulous.
Mirrorball was a pilot set in the London theatre scene, starring the cast of Absolutely Fabulous as alternative characters. While writing and filming the show, Saunders was inspired to revive Absolutely Fabulous for a fourth series, which resulted in her abandoning Mirrorball. It was eventually aired as a television special, and is included as a special feature on the DVD of the fourth season.
There are currently no plans for Absolutely Fabulous to return to television for a new series, specials, nor film as the planned sequel to the 2016 feature film was cancelled. Although the series was intended to end in 1995 following the third series, an official finale, "The Last Shout '', which was broadcast in 1996 and marked a closure for the series. However, it was revived in 2001. It was again mentioned that the series would not return following the 2004 Christmas special, "White Box '', but three 20th Anniversary specials were screened some time later with speculation that a new series would be broadcast in the future. On 28 November 2016, it was announced that Absolutely Fabulous was finished, as Jennifer Saunders said that "I 'm not doing anything more with Ab Fab. That 's it, it 's over now. I ca n't see the point of doing anything else with it, really. ''
Absolutely Fabulous was initially released on VHS in the UK by BBC Video ending with the 8 - VHS box set Series 1 -- 4 in November 2002. In the United States, Series 1 and Series 2 were released together on Laserdisc by CBS / FOX in a boxed set in 1995, followed by Series 3, released by CBS / FOX the following year and "The Last Shout '' released by Image Entertainment in 1997. All episodes were later released on DVD, including a five - DVD box set titled The Complete DVD Collection: Series 1 -- 4 in 2002. All releases were distributed by BBC Video and 2 Entertain (post 2004) except for The Last Shout which was released by Vision Video and Universal Studios. The entire series is also available on demand on iTunes. When the first three series were re-released on DVD, they did not include corresponding cover photography to their series: Series 1 included an image from the Series 3 episode "Jealous '', Series 2 had an image from Series 3 episode "Doorhandle '' and Series 3 is from the Series 2 episode "Poor ''. All other releases included imagery from the correct series, as do the original VHS releases.
In North America, all episodes have been released on DVD by BBC Video and Warner Home Video, including a complete collection named Absolutely Everything. The Last Shout and Gay (which were released in the UK individually) were released as a collection called Absolutely Special in 2003. Another feature - length special White Box was released exclusively to the American market. It was eventually released in the United Kingdom on 15 November 2010 with its inclusion in the Absolutely Everything box set.
Other releases include Absolutely Not, a bloopers and outtakes collection, and Absolutely Fabulous: A Life, a mockumentary including 15 minutes of new material interspersed with clips from the series. Both were only released on VHS in the UK; the latter was also released as a special feature on the box set release Absolutely Everything in America.
Save for "The Last Shout '', and the specials "Gay '' (aka "Absolutely Fabulous in New York ''), and "White Box '', the entire series is available to stream via Hulu. The series is also available on Netflix.
In the United Kingdom, VHS releases were distributed by BBC Video, except The Last Shout which was released by Vision Video, the final release being in 2002.
All episodes have now been released on DVD in the United Kingdom. "White Box '' which was released in North America, was never available individually in the UK and was not available until its inclusion in the 2010 Absolutely Fabulous: Absolutely Everything box set. The North American release Absolutely Special has been released in the UK as two separate releases: The Last Shout and Gay. All releases in the UK were distributed by BBC Video except The Last Shout which was released by Vision Video.
In North America, every episode of the series has been released. All releases are distributed by BBC Video and Warner Home Video.
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when is the last time the dodgers won a world series | Los Angeles Dodgers - wikipedia
The Los Angeles Dodgers are an American professional baseball team based in Los Angeles, California. The Dodgers compete in Major League Baseball (MLB) as a member club of the National League (NL) West division. Established in 1883 in Brooklyn, New York, the team moved to Los Angeles before the 1958 season. They played for four seasons at the Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum before moving to their current home of Dodger Stadium in 1962.
The Dodgers as a franchise have won six World Series titles and 22 National League pennants. 11 NL MVP award winners have played for the Dodgers, winning a total of 13 MVP Awards, Eight Cy Young Award winners have pitched for the Dodgers, winning a total of twelve Cy Young Awards. The team has also produced 18 Rookie of the Year Award winners, twice as many as the next closest team, including four consecutive from 1979 to 1982 and five consecutive from 1992 to 1996.
In the early 20th century, the team, then known as the Robins, won league pennants in 1916 and 1920, losing the World Series both times, first to Boston and then Cleveland. In the 1930s, the team changed its name to the Dodgers, named after the Brooklyn pedestrians who dodged the streetcars in the city. In 1941, the Dodgers captured their third National League pennant, only to lose to the New York Yankees. This marked the onset of the Dodgers -- Yankees rivalry, as the Dodgers would face them in their next six World Series appearances. Led by Jackie Robinson, the first black Major League Baseball player of the modern era; and three - time National League Most Valuable Player Roy Campanella, also signed out of the Negro Leagues, the Dodgers captured their first World Series title in 1955 by defeating the Yankees for the first time, a story notably described in the 1972 book The Boys of Summer.
Following the 1957 season the team left Brooklyn. In just their second season in Los Angeles, the Dodgers won their second World Series title, beating the Chicago White Sox in six games in 1959. Spearheaded by the dominant pitching style of Sandy Koufax and Don Drysdale, the Dodgers captured three pennants in the 1960s and won two more World Series titles, sweeping the Yankees in four games in 1963, and edging the Minnesota Twins in seven in 1965. The 1963 sweep was their second victory against the Yankees, and their first against them as a Los Angeles team. The Dodgers won four more pennants in 1966, 1974, 1977 and 1978, but lost in each World Series appearance. They went on to win the World Series again in 1981, thanks in part to pitching sensation Fernando Valenzuela. The early 1980s were affectionately dubbed "Fernandomania. '' In 1988, another pitching hero, Orel Hershiser, again led them to a World Series victory, aided by one of the most memorable home runs of all time, by their injured star outfielder Kirk Gibson coming off the bench to pinch hit with two outs in the bottom of the ninth inning of game 1, in his only appearance of the series.
The Dodgers share a fierce rivalry with the San Francisco Giants, the oldest rivalry in baseball, dating back to when the two franchises played in New York City. Both teams moved west for the 1958 season. The Brooklyn Dodgers and Los Angeles Dodgers have collectively appeared in the World Series 19 times, while the New York Giants and San Francisco Giants have collectively appeared 20 times and have been invited 21 times. The Giants have won two more World Series (8); the Dodgers have won 22 National League pennants, while the Giants hold the record with 23. Although the two franchises have enjoyed near equal success, the city rivalries are rather lopsided and in both cases, a team 's championships have predated to the other 's first one in that particular location. When the two teams were based in New York, the Giants won five World Series championships, and the Dodgers one. After the move to California, the Dodgers have won five in Los Angeles, the Giants have won three in San Francisco.
The Dodgers were founded in 1883 as the Brooklyn Atlantics, taking the name of a defunct team that had played in Brooklyn before them. The team joined the American Association in 1884 and won the AA championship in 1889 before joining the National League in 1890. They promptly won the NL Championship their first year in the League. The team was known alternatively as the Bridegrooms, Grooms, Superbas, Robins, and Trolley Dodgers before officially becoming the Dodgers in the 1930s.
In Brooklyn, the Dodgers won the NL pennant several times (1890, 1899, 1900, 1916, 1920, 1941, 1947, 1949, 1952, 1953, 1955, 1956) and the World Series in 1955. After moving to Los Angeles, the team won National League pennants in 1959, 1963, 1965, 1966, 1974, 1977, 1978, 1981, 1988, and 2017, with World Series championships in 1959, 1963, 1965, 1981 and 1988. In all, the Dodgers have appeared in 19 World Series: 9 in Brooklyn and 10 in Los Angeles.
For most of the first half of the 20th century, no Major League Baseball team employed an African American player. Jackie Robinson became the first African American to play for a Major League Baseball team when he played his first major league game on April 15, 1947, as a member of the Brooklyn Dodgers. This was mainly due to general manager Branch Rickey 's efforts. The deeply religious Rickey 's motivation appears to have been primarily moral, although business considerations were also a factor. Rickey was a member of The Methodist Church, the antecedent denomination to The United Methodist Church of today, which was a strong advocate for social justice and active later in the American Civil Rights Movement.
This event was the harbinger of the integration of professional sports in the United States, the concomitant demise of the Negro Leagues, and is regarded as a key moment in the history of the American Civil Rights movement. Robinson was an exceptional player, a speedy runner who sparked the team with his intensity. He was the inaugural recipient of the Rookie of the Year award, which is now named the Jackie Robinson Award in his honor. The Dodgers ' willingness to integrate, when most other teams refused to, was a key factor in their 1947 -- 1956 success. They won six pennants in those 10 years with the help of Robinson, three - time MVP Roy Campanella, Cy Young Award winner Don Newcombe, Jim Gilliam and Joe Black. Robinson would eventually go on to become the first African - American elected to the Baseball Hall of Fame in 1962.
Real estate businessman Walter O'Malley acquired majority ownership of the Dodgers in 1950, when he bought the 25 percent share of co-owner Branch Rickey and became allied with the widow of the another equal partner, Mrs. John L. Smith. Before long, he was working to buy new land in Brooklyn to build a more accessible and better arrayed ballpark than Ebbets Field. Beloved as it was, Ebbets Field was no longer well - served by its aging infrastructure and the Dodgers could no longer sell out the park even in the heat of a pennant race, despite largely dominating the National League from 1946 to 1957.
O'Malley wanted to build a new, state of the art stadium in Brooklyn. But City Planner Robert Moses and New York politicians refused to grant him the eminent domain authority required to build pursuant to O'Malley's plans. To put pressure on the city, during the 1955 season, O'Malley announced that the team would play seven regular season games and one exhibition game at Jersey City 's Roosevelt Stadium in 1956. Moses and the City considered this an empty threat, and did not believe O'Malley would go through with moving the team from New York City.
After teams began to travel to and from games by air instead of train, it became possible to include locations in the far west. Los Angeles officials attended the 1956 World Series looking to the Washington Senators to move to the West Coast. When O'Malley heard that LA was looking for a club, he sent word to the Los Angeles officials that he was interested in talking. LA offered him what New York would not: a chance to buy land suitable for building a ballpark, and own that ballpark, giving him complete control over all revenue streams. When the news came out, NYC Mayor Robert F. Wagner, Jr. and Moses made an offer to build a ballpark on the World 's Fair Grounds in Queens that would be shared by the Giants and Dodgers. However, O'Malley was interested in his park only under his conditions, and the plans for a new stadium in Brooklyn seemed like a pipe dream. O'Malley decided to move the Dodgers to California, convincing Giants owner Horace Stoneham to move to San Francisco instead of Minneapolis to keep another team on the West Coast to ease approval of the moves. There was no turning back: the Dodgers were heading for Hollywood.
The Dodgers played their final game at Ebbets Field on September 24, 1957, which the Dodgers won 2 -- 0 over the Pittsburgh Pirates.
New York would remain a one - team town with the New York Yankees until 1962, when Joan Payson founded the New York Mets and brought National League baseball back to the city. The blue background used by the Dodgers, would be adopted by the Mets, honoring their New York NL forebears with a blend of Dodgers blue and Giants orange.
The Dodgers were the first Major League Baseball team to ever play in Los Angeles. On April 18, 1958, the Dodgers played their first LA game, defeating the former New York and now new San Francisco Giants, 6 -- 5, before 78,672 fans at the Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum. Catcher Roy Campanella, left partially paralyzed in an off - season accident, was never able to play in Los Angeles.
Construction on Dodger Stadium was completed in time for Opening Day 1962. With its clean, simple lines and its picturesque setting amid hills and palm trees, the ballpark quickly became an icon of the Dodgers and their new California lifestyle. O'Malley was determined that there would not be a bad seat in the house, achieving this by cantilevered grandstands that have since been widely imitated. More importantly for the team, the stadium 's spacious dimensions, along with other factors, gave defense an advantage over offense and the Dodgers moved to take advantage of this by assembling a team that would excel with its pitching.
Since moving to Los Angeles, the Dodgers have won 10 more National League Championships and five World Series rings.
The Dodgers ' official history reports that the term "Trolley Dodgers '' was attached to the Brooklyn ballclub due to the complex maze of trolley cars that weaved its way through the borough of Brooklyn.
In 1892, the city of Brooklyn (Brooklyn was an independent city until annexed by New York City in 1898) began replacing its slow - moving, horse - drawn trolley lines with the faster, more powerful electric trolley lines. Within less than three years, by the end of 1895, electric trolley accidents in Brooklyn had resulted in more than 130 deaths and maimed well over 500 people. Brooklyn 's high - profile, the significant number of widely reported accidents, and a trolley strike in early 1895, combined to create a strong association in the public 's mind between Brooklyn and trolley dodging.
Sportswriters started using the name "trolley dodgers '' to refer to the Brooklyn team early in the 1895 season. The name was shortened to, on occasion, the "Brooklyn Dodgers '' as early as 1898.
Sportswriters in the early 20th century began referring to the Dodgers as the "Bums '', in reference to the team 's fans and possibly because of the "street character '' nature of Jack Dawkins, the "Artful Dodger '' in Charles Dickens ' Oliver Twist. Newspaper cartoonist Willard Mullin used a drawing of famous clown Emmett Kelly to depict "Dem Bums '': the team would later use "Weary Willie '' in promotional images, and Kelly himself was a club mascot during the 1950s.
Other team names used by the franchise were the Atlantics, Grays, Grooms, Bridegrooms, Superbas and Robins. All of these nicknames were used by fans and sportswriters to describe the team, but not in any official capacity. The team 's legal name was the Brooklyn Base Ball Club. However, the Trolley Dodger nickname was used throughout this period, simultaneously with these other nicknames, by fans and sportswriters of the day. The team did not use the name in any formal sense until 1932, when the word "Dodgers '' appeared on team jerseys. The "conclusive shift '' came in 1933, when both home and road jerseys for the team bore the name "Dodgers ''.
Examples of how the many popularized names of the team were used are available from newspaper articles before 1932. A New York Times article describing a game in 1916 starts out: "Jimmy Callahan, pilot of the Pirates, did his best to wreck the hopes the Dodgers have of gaining the National League pennant '', but then goes on to comment: "the only thing that saved the Superbas from being toppled from first place was that the Phillies lost one of the two games played ''. What is interesting about the use of these two nicknames is that most baseball statistics sites and baseball historians generally now refer to the pennant - winning 1916 Brooklyn team as the Robins. A 1918 New York Times article uses the nickname in its title: "Buccaneers Take Last From Robins '', but the subtitle of the article reads: "Subdue The Superbas By 11 To 4, Making Series An Even Break ''.
Another example of the use of the many nicknames is found on the program issued at Ebbets Field for the 1920 World Series, which identifies the matchup in the series as "Dodgers vs. Indians '' despite the fact that the Robins nickname had been in consistent use for around six years. The "Robins '' nickname was derived from the name of their Hall of Fame manager, Wilbert Robinson, who led the team from 1914 to 1931.
The Dodgers ' uniform has remained relatively unchanged since the 1930s. The home jersey is white with "Dodgers '' written in script across the chest in royal. The road jersey is gray with "Los Angeles '' written in script across the chest in royal. The word "Dodgers '' was first used on the front of the team 's home jersey in 1933; the uniform was then white with red pinstripes and a stylized "B '' on the left shoulder. The Dodgers also wore green outlined uniforms and green caps throughout the 1937 season but reverted to blue the following year.
The current design was created in 1939, and has remained the same ever since with only cosmetic changes. In 1952, the home uniform added a red uniform number under the "Dodgers '' script. The road jersey also has a red uniform number under the script. When the franchise moved from Brooklyn to Los Angeles, the city name on the road jersey changed, and the stylized "B '' was replaced with the interlocking "LA '' on the caps in 1958. In 1970, the Dodgers removed the city name from the road jerseys and had "Dodgers '' on both the home and away uniforms. The city script returned to the road jerseys in 1999, and the tradition - rich Dodgers flirted with an alternate uniform for the first time since 1944 (when all - blue satin uniforms were introduced). These 1999 alternate jerseys had a royal top with the "Dodgers '' script in white across the chest, and the red number on the front. These were worn with white pants and a new cap with silver brim, top button and Dodger logo. These alternates proved unpopular and the team abandoned them after only one season. In 2014, the Dodgers introduced an alternate road jersey: a gray version with the "Dodgers '' script instead of the city name. In 2018, the Dodgers will be wearing their 60th anniversary patch to honor the 60 years of being in Los Angeles.
Current logo using "Dodgers '' Script
Los Angeles Dodgers Script on Dodger Blue
The Dodgers have been groundbreaking in their signing of players from Asia; mainly, Japan, South Korea, and Taiwan. Former owner Peter O'Malley began reaching out in 1980 by starting clinics in China and South Korea, building baseball fields in two Chinese cities, and in 1998 becoming the first major league team to open an office in Asia. The Dodgers were the second team to start a Japanese player in recent history, pitcher Hideo Nomo, the first team to start a South Korean player, pitcher Chan Ho Park, and the first Taiwanese player, Chin - Feng Chen. In addition, they were the first team to send out three Asian pitchers, from different Asian countries, in one game: Park, Hong - Chih Kuo of Taiwan, and Takashi Saito of Japan. In the 2008 season, the Dodgers had the most Asian players on its roster of any major league team with five. They included Japanese pitchers Takashi Saito and Hiroki Kuroda; South Korean pitcher Chan Ho Park; and Taiwanese pitcher Hong - Chih Kuo and infielder Chin - Lung Hu. In 2005, the Dodgers ' Hee Seop Choi became the first Asian player to compete in the Home Run Derby. For the 2013 season, the Dodgers signed starting pitcher Hyun - Jin Ryu with a six - year, $36 million contract, after posting a bid of nearly $27 million to acquire him from the KBO 's Hanhwa Eagles. For the 2016 season, the Dodgers signed starting pitcher Kenta Maeda with an eight - year, $25 million contract, after posting a bid of $20 million to acquire him from the NPB 's Hiroshima Toyo Carp.
The Dodgers ' rivalry with the San Francisco Giants dates back to the 19th century, when the two teams were based in New York; the rivalry with the New York Yankees took place when the Dodgers were based in New York, but was revived with their East Coast / West Coast World Series battles in 1963, 1977, 1978, and 1981. The Dodgers rivalry with the Philadelphia Phillies also dates back to their days in New York, but was most fierce during the 1970s, 1980s, and 2000s. The Dodgers also had a heated rivalry with the Cincinnati Reds during the 1970s, 1980s and early 1990s. The rivalry with the Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim and the San Diego Padres dates back to the Angels ' and Padres ' respective inaugural seasons (Angels in 1961, Padres in 1969). Regional proximity is behind the rivalries with both the Angels and the Padres.
The Dodgers -- Giants rivalry is one of the longest - standing rivalries in American baseball.
The feud between the Dodgers and the San Francisco Giants began in the late 19th century when both clubs were based in New York City, with the Dodgers playing in Brooklyn and the Giants playing at the Polo Grounds in Manhattan. After the 1957 season, Dodgers owner Walter O'Malley moved the team to Los Angeles for financial and other reasons. Along the way, he managed to convince Giants owner Horace Stoneham -- who was considering moving his team to Minnesota -- to preserve the rivalry by bringing his team to California as well. New York baseball fans were stunned and heartbroken by the move. Given that the cities of Los Angeles and San Francisco have been bitter rivals in economic, cultural, and political arenas for over a century and a half, the new venue in California became fertile ground for its transplantation.
Each team 's ability to endure for over a century while moving across an entire continent, as well as the rivalry 's leap from a cross-city to a cross-state engagement, have led to the rivalry being considered one of the greatest in sports history.
Unlike many other historic baseball match - ups in which one team remains dominant for most of their history, the Dodgers -- Giants rivalry has exhibited a persistent balance in the respective successes of the two teams. While the Giants have more wins in franchise history, and lead all NL teams with 23 National League pennants, the Dodgers are just one behind, having won 22; the Giants have won eight World Series titles, while the Dodgers have won six. The 2010 World Series was the Giants ' first championship since moving to California, while the Dodgers had won five World Series titles since their move, their last title coming in the 1988 World Series.
This rivalry refers to a series of games played with the Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim. The Freeway Series takes its name from the massive freeway system in the greater Los Angeles metropolitan area, the home of both teams; one could travel from one team 's stadium to the other simply by traveling along Interstate 5. The term is akin to Subway Series which refers to meetings between New York City baseball teams. The term "Freeway Series '' also inspired the official name of the regions ' NHL rivalry: the Freeway Face - Off
The Dodgers -- Yankees rivalry is one of the most well - known rivalries in Major League Baseball. The two teams have met eleven times in the World Series, more times than any other pair from the American and National Leagues. The initial significance was embodied in the two teams ' proximity in New York City, when the Dodgers initially played in Brooklyn. After the Dodgers moved to Los Angeles in 1958, the rivalry retained its significance as the two teams represented the dominant cities on each coast of the United States, and since the 1980s, the two largest cities in the United States.
Although the rivalry 's significance arose from the two teams ' numerous World Series meetings, the Yankees and Dodgers have not met in the World Series since 1981. They would not play each other in a non-exhibition game until 2004, when they played a three - game interleague series. Their last meeting was in September 2016, when the Dodgers won two out of three games in New York.
The Dodgers have a loyal fanbase, evidenced by the fact that the Dodgers were the first MLB team to attract more than 3 million fans in a season (in 1978), and accomplished that feat six more times before any other franchise did it once. The Dodgers drew at least 3 million fans for 15 consecutive seasons from 1996 to 2010, the longest such streak in all of MLB. On July 3, 2007, Dodgers management announced that total franchise attendance, dating back to 1901, had reached 175 million, a record for all professional sports. In 2007, the Dodgers set a franchise record for single - season attendance, attracting over 3.8 million fans. In 2009, the Dodgers led MLB in total attendance. The Dodger baseball cap is consistently in the top three in sales. During the 2011 -- 2012 season, Frank McCourt, the owner of the Dodgers at that time, was going through a rough divorce with his wife over who should be the owner of the Dodger team. Instead, Frank McCourt paid $131 million to his wife as part of the divorce settlement. As a result, the team payroll was financially low for a big - budget team crippling the Dodgers in the free - agent market. Collectively, the team performance waned due to the distracting drama in the front office resulting in low attendance numbers.
Given the team 's proximity to Hollywood, numerous celebrities can often be seen attending home games at Dodger Stadium. Celebrities such as co-owner Magic Johnson, Mary Hart, Larry King, Tiger Woods, Alyssa Milano and Shia LaBeouf are known to sit at field box seats behind home plate where they sign autographs for fellow Dodger fans. Actor Bryan Cranston is a lifelong Dodger fan.
The Dodgers set the world record for the largest attendance for a single baseball game during an exhibition game against the Boston Red Sox on March 28, 2008 at the Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum in honor of the Dodgers 50th anniversary, with 115,300 fans in attendance. All proceeds from the game benefited the official charity of the Dodgers, ThinkCure! which supports cancer research at Children 's Hospital Los Angeles and City of Hope. Primarily Dodgers fans are from their own location in southern California and also parts of southern Nevada; however there are also strong pockets of Dodger support in Mexico and throughout Asia, and their away games throughout the US will usually attract substantial numbers of expat and traveling fans.
Vin Scully had called Dodgers games from 1950 to 2016. His longtime partners were Jerry Doggett (1956 -- 1987) and Ross Porter (1977 -- 2004). In 1976, he was selected by Dodgers fans as the Most Memorable Personality (on the field or off) in the team 's history. He is also a recipient of the Baseball Hall of Fame 's Ford C. Frick Award for broadcasters (inducted in 1982). Unlike the modern style in which multiple sportscasters have an on - air conversation (usually with one functioning as play - by - play announcer and the other (s) as color commentator), Scully, Doggett and Porter generally called games solo, trading with each other inning - by - inning. In the 1980s and 1990s, Scully would call the entire radio broadcast except for the third and seventh inning, allowing the other Dodger commentators to broadcast an inning.
When Doggett retired after the 1987 season, he was replaced by Hall - of - Fame Dodgers pitcher Don Drysdale, who previously broadcast games for the California Angels and Chicago White Sox. Drysdale died in his hotel room following a heart attack before a game in Montreal in 1993. This was a difficult broadcast for Scully and Porter who could not mention it on - air until Drysdale 's family had been notified and the official announcement made. He was replaced by former Dodgers outfielder Rick Monday. Porter 's tenure ended after the 2004 season, after which the format of play - by - play announcers and color commentators was installed, led by Monday and newcomer Charley Steiner. Scully, however, continued to announce solo.
Scully called roughly 100 games per season (all home games and road games in California and Arizona) for both flagship radio station KLAC and on television for SportsNet LA. Scully was simulcast for the first three innings of each of his appearances, then announced only for the TV audience. If Scully was calling the game, Steiner took over play - by - play on radio beginning with the fourth inning, with Monday as color commentator. If Scully was not calling the game, Steiner and Orel Hershiser called the entire game on television while Monday and Kevin Kennedy did the same on radio. In the event the Dodgers were in post-season play, Scully called the first three and last three innings of the radio broadcast alone and Steiner and Monday handled the middle innings. Vin Scully retired from calling games in 2016. His tenure with the Dodgers was the longest with any single sports team at 67 years.
The Dodgers also broadcast on radio in Spanish, and the play - by - play is voiced by another Frick Award winner, Jaime Jarrín, who has been with the Dodgers since 1959. The color analyst for some games is former Dodger pitcher Fernando Valenzuela, for whom Jarrin once translated post-game interviews. The Spanish - language radio flagship station is KTNQ.
Dave Bancroft Dan Brouthers Roy Campanella Max Carey Kiki Cuyler Leo Durocher Burleigh Grimes
Ned Hanlon Billy Herman Waite Hoyt Hughie Jennings Willie Keeler Joe Kelley George Kelly
Tony Lazzeri Freddie Lindstrom Ernie Lombardi Al López Heinie Manush Rabbit Maranville Rube Marquard Tommy McCarthy
Joe McGinnity Joe Medwick Pee Wee Reese Jackie Robinson Wilbert Robinson Duke Snider Casey Stengel
Dazzy Vance Arky Vaughan Lloyd Waner Paul Waner John Montgomery Ward Zack Wheat Hack Wilson
Walter Alston Jim Bunning Gary Carter
Don Drysdale Rickey Henderson Sandy Koufax Tommy Lasorda
Greg Maddux Juan Marichal Pedro Martínez
Eddie Murray Walter O'Malley Mike Piazza Frank Robinson
Don Sutton Jim Thome Joe Torre Hoyt Wilhelm
Red Barber
Ernie Harwell
Jaime Jarrín
Vin Scully
Koufax, Campanella, and Robinson were the first Dodgers to have their numbers retired, in a ceremony at Dodger Stadium on June 4, 1972. This was the year in which Koufax was inducted into the Baseball Hall of Fame; Robinson and Campanella were already Hall - of - Famers.
Alston 's number was retired in the year following his retirement as the Dodgers manager, six years before he was inducted into the Hall of Fame.
Gilliam died suddenly in 1978 after a 28 - year career with the Dodgers organization. The Dodgers retired his number two days after his death, prior to Game 1 of the 1978 World Series. As of 2018, he is the only non-Hall - of - Famer to have his number retired by the Dodgers (Alston 's number was retired before he was elected to the Hall of Fame).
Beginning in 1980, the Dodgers have retired the numbers of longtime Dodgers (Snider, Reese, Drysdale, Lasorda, and Sutton) during the seasons in which each was inducted into the Hall of Fame.
In 1997, 50 years after he broke the color barrier and 25 years after the Dodgers retired his number, Robinson 's No. 42 was retired throughout Major League Baseball. Robinson is the only major league baseball player to have this honor bestowed upon him. Starting in the 2007 season, Jackie Robinson Day (April 15, commemorating Opening Day of Robinson 's rookie season of 1947) has featured many or all players and coaches wearing the number 42 as a tribute to Robinson.
The Dodgers have not issued the number 34 since the departure of Fernando Valenzuela in 1991, although it has not been officially retired.
Pitchers Starting rotation
Bullpen
Closer
Catchers
Infielders
Outfielders
Pitchers
Catchers
Infielders
Outfielders
Manager
Coaches
60 - day disabled list
7 - or 10 - day disabled list Suspended list Personal leave Roster and coaches updated August 25, 2018 Transactions Depth chart
Since 1884, the Dodgers have used a total of 31 Managers, the most current being Dave Roberts, who was appointed following the 2015 postseason, after the departure of Don Mattingly.
Over the nearly 43 years from 1954 to mid-1996, the Dodgers employed only two managers, Walter Alston and Tommy Lasorda, both of whom are in the Hall of Fame. During this entire time period of extraordinary stability, the Dodgers were family owned by Walter O'Malley and then his son Peter O'Malley. It was during this era that the Dodgers won 11 of their 21 pennants, and all six of their World Series championships.
The managers of the Los Angeles Dodgers (1958 -- present) are as follows:
From the Dodgers ' move to Los Angeles from Brooklyn in 1958, the Dodgers employed a handful of well - known public address announcers; the most famous of which was John Ramsey, who served as the PA voice of the Dodgers from 1958 until his retirement in 1982; as well as announcing at other venerable Los Angeles venues, including the Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum and Sports Arena, and the Forum. Ramsey died in 1990.
From 1958 to 1982, Doug Moore, a local businessman; Philip Petty, an Orange County Superior Court Judge; and Dennis Packer; served as back - up voices for John Ramsey for the Dodgers, California Angels, Los Angeles Chargers, USC football and Los Angeles Rams. Packer was Ramsey 's primary backup for the Los Angeles Lakers and Los Angeles Kings until Ramsey 's retirement from the Forum in 1978. Thereafter, Packer became the public address announcer for the Lakers, Kings, indoor soccer and indoor tennis events at the Forum.
Nick Nickson, a radio broadcaster for the Los Angeles Kings, replaced John Ramsey as the Dodger Stadium public address announcer in 1983 and served in that capacity through the 1989 season to work with the Kings full - time.
Dennis Packer and Pete Arbogast were emulators of John Ramsey, using the same stentorian style of announcing Ramsey was famous for. Packer and Arbogast shared the stadium announcing chores for the 1994 FIFA World Cup matches at the Rose Bowl. Arbogast won the Dodgers job on the day that Ramsey died on January 25, 1990, by doing a verbatim imitation of Ramsey 's opening and closing remarks that were standard at each game. His replacement, in 1993 was Mike Carlucci, who remained as the Dodgers ' PA voice until 2003 to concentrate on his voiceover and acting career along with his Olympics announcing duties.
Through 2014, the Dodgers public address announcer was Eric Smith, who also announces for the Los Angeles Clippers and USC Trojans.
On April 3, 2015 the Dodgers announced that former radio broadcaster Todd Leitz would become their new public address announcer. Leitz was an anchor and news reporter in Los Angeles at KNX 1070 AM for 10 years, and a news reporter at KABC 790 for two years.
During their time in Brooklyn, stadium organist Gladys Gooding became so well known that fans would joke that she was "the only Dodger who played every game without an error ''. Until 2015, Nancy Bea enjoyed a similar level of popularity behind the Dodger Stadium keyboard. Her replacement and current organist is Dieter Ruehle, who also plays at Staples Center for Los Angeles Kings games.
Vin Scully is permanently honored in the Hall 's "Scribes & Mikemen '' exhibit as a result of winning the Ford C. Frick Award in 1982. As with all Frick Award recipients, he is not officially considered an inducted member of the Hall of Fame.
Sue Falsone, served as the first female physical therapist in Major League baseball, and from 2012 to 2013, was the first female head athletic trainer.
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who is the all time leading goal scorer for the socceroos | Australia national soccer team records - wikipedia
The following details the Australia national soccer team records, as made by an individual or the team.
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when were the railroads built in the us | Timeline of United States railway history - wikipedia
The Timeline of U.S.A Railway History depends upon the definition of a railway, as follows: A means of conveyance of passengers and goods on wheeled vehicles running on rails, also known as tracks.
Inspired by the speedy success of the Stockton and Darlington Railway (1825) in England 's railway historical record, capitalists in the United States -- already embarking upon great public works infrastructure projects to connect the new territories of the United States with the older seaboard cities industries by the canals of America 's Canal Age, almost overnight began dreaming up projects using railroads -- a technology in its infancy, but one employing steam engines which were rapidly becoming widely known from their successful use on steamboats. American Steam engine pioneers were willing to experiment with Heat Engines using higher pressures than the mainly Atmospheric engines still fashionable in Great Britain. The rest of the world lagged the two English speaking nations. Railroads began to be proposed where canals would n't do, or would be too costly and with an increase in rolling stock tonnage capacity, locomotive power, and a growing confidence born of experience and new materials in less than three decades, the United States generally would discard canals as the principal design choice in favor of far more capable freight haulage technologies.
During the summer of 1827, a railroad was built from the mines at Summit Hill to Mauch Chunk. With one or two unimportant exceptions, this was the first railroad in the United States.
The resultant Summit Hill & Mauch Chunk Railroad, where mules rode special cars down as well after the coal hoppers, then returned empties up the nine mile return trip became the first U.S. railway to carry passengers in the same year of 1827. In less than two years the railway was attracting so many visitors, it began charging fares, and then added and operated special tourism excursions on Sunday as a tourist road -- which role it carried into 1932 as the world 's acknowledged first roller coaster. In 1847 the cable railway return track was constructed with planes climbing two prominences along Pisgah Ridge, shortening the up trip to twenty minutes from nearly four hours by mule.
Railroads gradually replace canals as the first - choice mode of transportation infrastructure to champion and build, while canals hold a whip hand on economy for decades more, but falter on flexible destinations, speed, and where they suffer seasonal stoppages yet service year round needs. By the 1860s, in any case, where all the important older canals were to be found any canal with functions satisfiable by parallel railways (excepting by definition, ship canals) is eyed by investors to be supplanted by a competing railroad. The idea of a rail network in the USA, which is by then showing early signs some areas have overbuilt in the Eastern United States is still not a common business model. Cut throat competitive capitalism, not co-operation are the rule, and the decade kicks off the forty years or so of the robber barons and excesses in capitalism.
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who is the monster and who is the man | Monster Man - wikipedia
Monster Man may refer to:
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when does it rain the most in england | Climate of the United Kingdom - wikipedia
The United Kingdom straddles the higher mid-latitudes between 49 ° and 61 ° N. It is on the western seaboard of Afro - Eurasia, the world 's largest land mass. Since the UK is always in or close to the path of the polar front jet stream, frequent changes in pressure and unsettled weather are typical. Many types of weather can be experienced in a single day. In general the climate of the UK is cool and often cloudy, and hot temperatures are infrequent.
The climate in the United Kingdom is defined as a temperate oceanic climate, or Cfb on the Köppen climate classification system, a classification it shares with most of north - west Europe. Regional climates are influenced by the Atlantic Ocean and latitude. Northern Ireland, Wales and western parts of England and Scotland, being closest to the Atlantic Ocean, are generally the mildest, wettest and windiest regions of the UK, and temperature ranges here are seldom extreme. Eastern areas are drier, cooler, less windy and also experience the greatest daily and seasonal temperature variations. Northern areas are generally cooler, wetter and have slightly larger temperature ranges than southern areas.
The UK is mostly under the influence of the maritime polar air mass from the north - west. Northern Ireland and the west of Scotland are the most exposed to the maritime polar air mass which brings cool moist air; the east of Scotland and north - east England are more exposed to the continental polar air mass which brings cold dry air. South and south - east of England are the least exposed to Polar air masses from the north - west, and on occasion see continental tropical air mass from the south, which brings warm dry air in the summer.
If the air masses are strong enough in their respective areas during the summer, there can sometimes be a large difference in temperature between the far north of Scotland (including the Islands) and south - east of England -- often a difference of 10 -- 15 ° C (18 - 27 ° F) but sometimes of as much as 20 ° C (36 ° F) or more. In the height of summer the Northern Isles could have temperatures around 15 ° C (59 ° F) and areas around London could reach 30 ° C (86 ° F).
England generally has higher maximum & minimum temperatures than the other areas of the UK, though Wales has higher minima from November to February, and Northern Ireland has higher maxima from December to February. England is also sunnier throughout the year, but unlike Wales, Northern Ireland & Scotland, the sunniest month is July, totalling 193.5 hours. It rains on fewer days in every month throughout the year than the rest of the UK, and rainfall totals are less in every month, with the driest month, May, averaging 58.4 mm (2.30 in). The climate of south - west England displays a seasonal temperature variation, although it is less extreme than most of the United Kingdom. Gales are less common in England compared to Scotland; however on some occasions there can be strong winds, and rarely, the remains of Atlantic hurricanes and tropical storms. Some events such as the Great Storm of 1987 occurred near to the UK and caused damage in England. The prevailing wind direction for England is from the south - west.
Northern Ireland is warmer than Scotland throughout the year. Maximum temperatures are milder than in Wales from December to April, and milder than in England from December to February, but Northern Ireland is cooler during the rest of the year. Sunshine totals in every month are more than those of Scotland, but less than those of the rest of Great Britain. Northern Ireland is drier and has fewer rainy days than Scotland throughout the year, except in May, when it rains on more days. Northern Ireland is also drier than Wales in every month, yet it rains on more days. The rainiest month is January, when 17.8 days have more than 1 mm (0.04 in) of rain on average.
Scotland has the coolest weather of any country in the United Kingdom throughout the year (with the climate at altitude varying into Cfc), with average minimum temperatures in January of − 0.2 ° C (31.6 ° F). Scotland is also the wettest country in every month, apart from May, June and December, when Wales is wetter. The wettest month is January, with 170.5 mm (6.71 in) on average. Scotland is also the cloudiest country throughout the year, apart from June and July, when Northern Ireland is.
Wales has warmer temperatures throughout the year than Scotland, and has milder winter minima than England, but cooler winter maxima than Northern Ireland. Wales is wetter throughout the year than Northern Ireland and England, but has fewer rainy days than Northern Ireland; meaning that rainfall tends to be more intense. Wales is also drier than Scotland in every month apart from May, June and December, and there are fewer days with rain than in Scotland. Sunshine totals throughout the year are more than that of Scotland and Northern Ireland, but less than that of neighbouring England. May is the sunniest month, averaging 186.8 hours.
Spring is the period from March to May. Spring is generally a calm, cool season, particularly because the Atlantic has lost much of its heat throughout the autumn and winter. As the sun rises higher in the sky and the days get longer, temperatures slowly rise, but the solar effect is mitigated somewhat by the effect of the cool ocean waters and westerly winds that blow across them.
There is a fair chance of snow earlier in the season when temperatures are colder - often in March. Some of the country 's heaviest snowfalls of recent years have happened in the first half of March, and snow showers can occur infrequently until mid-April. They have been known to develop as late as mid-May over some areas of the country, such as in 2013 when snow was recorded on 14 May over parts of Staffordshire, Herefordshire and Wales. Snow was also recorded at lower levels in early June 1975. More recently, there was a disruptive snow event between 26 and 29 April 2016 across much of Northern England and Scotland, which was unusually the only significant snow event of the winter 2015 / 16. Snow, frost and ice can be disruptive and damaging to flowering plants, particularly later in the spring.
Early spring can be quite cold, and occasionally the lowest temperatures of the year can occur in March, as it did at Heathrow Airport on 5 March 2001, 4 March 2006 and 8 March 2011. Temperatures below freezing are not unusual in March, even in the south of the UK. On the other hand, high temperatures above 30 ° C are generally rare but can occur on occasion; most recently on 25 May 2012. It was even hotter on 27 May 2005, when 31.9 ° C was recorded in London. Rarely, the hottest day of the year can be in spring. As stated below, 27 May was the hottest day of the year in 2012 in most parts of the UK. In Aberdaron, the hottest day of 2011 was very early on in the year on 21 April. Temperatures in March seldom reach 20 ° C, as they did in 1990, 1993, 2012 and 2017, and this temperature is usually reached for the first time in April or May. Throughout spring, there can be very dramatic temperature swings between day night. On 9 April 2017, night - time temperatures fell to just 3 ° C at Northolt, but 25 ° C was reached in the afternoon. Warmth in Spring depends almost entirely on the strength of the sun, and can trigger thunderstorms and downpours.
Mean temperatures in Spring are markedly influenced by latitude. Most of Scotland and the mountains of Wales and northern England are the coolest areas of the UK, with average temperatures ranging from − 0.6 to 5.8 ° C (30.9 to 42.4 ° F). The southern half of England experiences the warmest spring temperatures of between 8.8 and 10.3 ° C (47.8 and 50.5 ° F).
Summer lasts from June to August and is the warmest and usually the sunniest season. Rainfall totals can have a wide local variation due to localised thundershowers. These thundershowers mainly occur in southern, eastern, and central England and are less frequent and severe in the north and west.. Climatic differences at this time of year are more influenced by latitude and proximity to the ocean. Temperatures are the highest in southern and central areas and lowest in the north. Southern portions of the UK are the warmest, with average highs in London 21.2 to 23.8 ° C (70.2 to 74.8 ° F)) from June through August, while northern areas like Scotland and northern England have the coolest summers (average means: 12.2 to 14.8 ° C (54.0 to 58.6 ° F)). Hot weather above 27 ° C in most places and in most years only occurs on a few days per year, but more frequently in London and south - east England and rarely in parts of Scotland. The record maximum is 38.5 ° C (101.3 ° F) recorded in Faversham, Kent on 10 August 2003.
Autumn in the United Kingdom lasts from September to November. The season is notorious for being unsettled -- as cool polar air moves southwards following the sun, it meets the warm air of the tropics and produces an area of great disturbance along which the country lies. This combined with the warm ocean due to heating throughout the spring and summer, produces the unsettled weather of autumn. In addition, when the air is particularly cold temperatures on land may be colder than the ocean, resulting in significant amounts of condensation and clouds which bring rain to the country.
Atlantic depressions during this time can become intense and winds of hurricane force (greater than 119 km / h or 74 mph) can be recorded. Western areas, being closest to the Atlantic, experience these severe conditions to a significantly greater extent than eastern areas. As such, autumn, particularly the latter part, is often the stormiest time of the year. One particularly intense depression was the Great Storm of 1987. A very severe storm affected the UK on 27 October 2002 which, at Mumbles head near Swansea, recorded maximum sustained wind speeds of over 123km / h, equivalent to a category 1 hurricane. The autumn of 2013 was also littered with severe storms, including the St. Jude 's Storm on 28 October 2013.
Autumn can also be a cold season at times - in recent years, very low temperatures and heavy snowfall have been recorded during November 1985, November 1993 & November 2010, which set a new record low of - 18.0 ° C in Wales on 28 November 2010. At Northolt, the coldest temperature of the year 2016 was set on 30 November. Snow also fell rather widely across the UK on 28 & 29 October 2008, causing traffic problems where it settled on the M4. Even further south, low temperatures can be recorded, with temperatures well below freezing as far south as Heathrow Airport between 29 & 31 October 1997 - for context, the low of 30 October 1997 recorded was lower than any recorded at this station in March, November or December 1997 and even the following January, 1998 - only the low temperatures on 2 & 4 February 1998 prevented it from being the lowest temperature of the winter at this station. The first frosts of the winter are usually recorded between October & December, but they are quite unusual in September except on high ground when the surrounding ocean is at or near its warmest. It is not particularly unusual for September to be warmer than June, as it was in 1999.
However, the United Kingdom sometimes experiences an ' Indian Summer ', where temperatures particularly by night can be very mild and rarely fall below 10 ° C (50 ° F). Such events are aided by the surrounding Atlantic Ocean and seas being at their warmest, keeping the country in warm air, despite the relatively weak sun. Examples of this were in 1985, 1999, 2005, 2006, 2011 and 2016 where September saw above average temperatures which felt more like a continuation of summer than autumn. Autumns since 2000 have generally been very mild with notable extremes of precipitation; the UK has seen some of its wettest and driest autumns since the millennium. 2011 and 2016 were notable as many areas of the country recorded their highest temperatures of the year in September and October (for example, 28.2 ° C at Hawarden on 1 October, 26.3 ° C at St. Athan on 2 October 2011 and the UK 's highest temperature of 2016 on 13 September with 34.4 ° C at Gravesend).
Coastal areas in the southern half of England have on average the warmest autumns, with mean temperatures of 10.7 to 13.0 ° C (51.3 to 55.4 ° F). Mountainous areas of Wales and northern England, and almost all of Scotland, experience mean temperatures between 1.7 and 7.5 ° C (35.1 and 45.5 ° F).
Winter in the UK is defined as lasting from December to February. The season is generally cool, wet, windy, and cloudy. Temperatures at night rarely drop below − 10 ° C (14 ° F) and in the day rarely rise above 15 ° C (59 ° F). Precipitation is plentiful throughout the season, though snow is relatively infrequent despite the country 's high latitude: The only areas with significant snowfall are the Scottish Highlands and the Pennines, where at higher elevations a colder climate determines the vegetation, mainly temperate coniferous forest, although deforestation has severely decreased forest area. For a majority of the landmass snow is possible but not frequent, apart from the higher altitudes, where snow can lie 1 -- 5 months or even beyond 6 months.
Towards the later part of the season the weather usually stabilises with less wind, less precipitation and lower temperatures. This change is particularly pronounced near the coasts mainly because the Atlantic ocean is often at its coldest during this time after being cooled throughout the autumn and the winter. The early part of winter however is often unsettled and stormy; often the wettest and windiest time of the year.
Snow falls intermittently and mainly affects northern and eastern areas, high ground in Wales and especially the mountains of Scotland, where there is often enough snow lying to permit skiing at some of the five Scottish ski resorts. These resorts usually operate between December and April, depending on the snowfall. Frequently in the mountains potent depressions may move in from the north in the form of ' polar lows ', introducing heavy snow and often blizzard - like conditions to parts of the United Kingdom, particularly Scotland. Blizzards have become rarer in the 21st century, although much of England was affected by one on 30 January 2003. During periods of light winds and high pressure frost and fog can become a problem and can pose a major hazard for drivers on the roads.
Mean winter temperatures in the UK are most influenced by proximity to the sea. The coldest areas are the mountains of Wales and northern England, and inland areas of Scotland, averaging − 3.6 to 2.3 ° C (25.5 to 36.1 ° F). Coastal areas, particularly those in the south and west, experience the mildest winters, on average 5 to 8.7 ° C (41.0 to 47.7 ° F). Hardiness zones in the UK are high, ranging from zone 7 in the Scottish Highlands, the Pennines and Snowdonia, to zone 10 on the Isles of Scilly. Most of the UK lies in zones 8 or 9. In zone 7, the average lowest temperature each year is between − 17.7 and − 12.3 ° C (0.1 and 9.9 ° F), and in zone 10, this figure is between − 1.1 and 4.4 ° C (30.0 and 39.9 ° F).
Snow in the UK falls almost every year, but in small quantities. The UK can suffer extreme winters like 1684, 1740, 1795 (when London received its record lowest temperature of − 21.1 ° C (− 6.0 ° F)), 1947 and 1963. In 1963 it snowed on Boxing Day, and snow lasted in most areas until 6 March, with blizzards through February, which had significant and documented effects on the FA Cup - Wrexham were forced to play on sand for one tie. In modern times snow has generally become rarer, but the UK can still get heavy falls, such as in 1978 / 79, 1981 / 82, 1986 / 87 and 1990 / 91. The winter of 2008 / 09 produced the heaviest snowfall since 1991 between 1 and 3 February, and the winter of 2009 - 10 was even more severe, with many parts of the United Kingdom experiencing the coldest and snowiest winters since 1978 / 79; temperatures plummeted to − 22.3 ° C (− 8.1 ° F) at Altnaharra, Sutherland -- close to the − 22.9 ° C (− 9.2 ° F) recorded at the southernmost part of the globe in the same period. The lowest temperature ever recorded in the UK was − 27.2 ° C (− 17.0 ° F) which was recorded on 10 January 1982 and 11 February 1895 in Braemar, Scotland and on 30 December 1995 in Altnaharra, Scotland. December 2010 was the coldest December in 120 years; the CET (Central England Temperature) was - 0.7 ° C; it was the coldest month since February 1986, and the coldest December since 1890. Many places had heavy snowfall and extreme cold, temperatures regularly fell below − 10.0 ° C (14.0 ° F)) across many areas. However, the cold subsided after Christmas Day, 2010. November 2010 saw an extremely severe cold snap, with lows of − 18.0 ° C (− 0.4 ° F)) in Llysdinam on 28 November. The month saw temperatures below average, despite what was actually a very mild first half. Spring 2013 was also notoriously cold: March 2013 was the coldest month of the winter (and indeed 2013 as a whole), which is quite striking given that December 2012, January and February 2013 were all also below average in terms of temperature. The following winter was the opposite - in many places, only on 11 and 12 January was any snow recorded (some places having no snow at all), and the entire country was battered by a series of severe depressions and storms. The St Jude 's Day storm first affected the UK on 26 October 2013, and many places saw no respite until a high swept across the country on 2 March 2014. Parts of the Somerset levels remained under water for most of the winter and well into spring. Record - equalling gusts of 142 mph were recorded off the north coast of Scotland on 5 December 2013, with notably severe storms also recorded on 2 November 2013, 24 December 2013, 3 January 2014 and 14 February 2014.
In the 1990s and 2000s, most of the winters were milder and usually wetter than average with daytime temperatures going below freezing a rare occurrence. In fact, the winter of 1995 / 1996 was the only one which was defined as below average in terms of the UK as a whole, although February 1991 saw heavy snowfall & January 1997 was cold in the South. The winters of 2008 / 09, 2009 / 10 and 2010 / 11 have however seen a different pattern with these three winters being defined as below or well below average with large snowfall amounts widespread and very low temperatures; this was the first time three consecutive cold winters in the UK have occurred since the 1960s. Since the winter of 2012 / 2013, winters have been mild (exceptionally so in 2013 / 2014 and 2015 / 2016), although exceptionally wet. The winter of 2014 / 2015 was an oddity, in that it was generally quiet and sunny. December 2014 & January 2015 were a little milder than the average, February 2015 was close to normal. The winter of 2016 / 17 was very nearly a very cold winter owing to the presence and position of high pressure, although ultimately only November 2016 was cold widely as a whole. Early December 2016 was cool and January 2017 was cold in the south - east, with much of the rest of England and Wales near the 1961 - 1990 average. At Northolt, the average minimum for January 2017 was below freezing for the first time since December 2010.
December 2015 became the wettest calendar month ever recorded in the United Kingdom, with January 2016 becoming the second wettest. In these months, some northern and western parts had 2 to 4 times as much rainfall as normal. December 2015 was also the warmest December averaged over the whole UK, and had the highest positive anomaly for any month in the Central England temperature series which began in 1659 (CET was 9.7 ° C, this is warmer than even any March). Most areas of southern England had average monthly temperatures 5 - 6 ° C above normal. Some plants flowered that would normally do so in the Spring or even Summer. Hardly any stations in Wales and Southern England recorded any air frosts and temperatures were often comparable to those of April or May. The maximum recorded temperature was 17.2 ° C at Teignmouth in Devon and Plockton and Achnagart in the highlands of Scotland on 16th. The lowest daily mean temperature during December 2015 at Heathrow Airport was still 8.2 ° C on 9 December, comparable to the average daily high for the calendar month. Remarkably, December 2015 did not break any national records for high temperatures, just failing to reach the maximum England temperature of 17.7 ° C recorded on 2 December 1985 in Chivenor, Devon and on 11 December 1994 in Penkridge, Staffordshire. Despite the warmth, it was the dullest December since 1989.
The average total annual sunshine in the United Kingdom is 1339.7 hours, which is just under 30 % of the maximum possible (The maximum hours of sunshine possible in one year is approximately 4476 hours). Generally the United Kingdom sees frequent cloudy skies due to its high latitude and oceanic controlled climate. The lowest sunshine hours are found in northern parts of the country and the highest in the southern parts and southern coast of England. The counties of Dorset, Hampshire, Sussex and Kent are the sunniest areas, which have annual average totals of around 1,750 hours of sunshine per year. Northern, western and mountainous areas are generally the cloudiest areas of the UK, with some mountainous areas receiving fewer than 1,000 hours of sunshine a year.
Valley areas such as the South Wales Valleys, due to their north - south orientation, receive less sunshine than lowland areas because the mountains on either side of the valley obscure the sun in the early morning and late evening. This is noticeable in winter where there are only a few hours of sunshine. The mountains of Wales, northern England and Scotland can be especially cloudy with extensive mist and fog. Near the coast, sea fog may develop in the spring and early summer. Radiation fog may develop over inland areas of Great Britain and can persist for hours or even days in the winter and can pose a major hazard for drivers and aircraft.
On occasions blocking anticyclones (high pressure systems) may move over the United Kingdom, which can persist for weeks or even months. The subsided, dry air often results in clear skies and few clouds, bringing frosty nights in winter and warm days in the summer.
Average hours of sunshine in winter range from 38 -- 108 hours in some mountainous areas and western Scotland, up to 217 hours in the south and east of England; while average hours of sunshine in summer range from 294 -- 420 hours in northern Scotland and Northern Ireland, to 600 -- 760 hours in southern English coastal counties. The most sunshine recorded in one month was 383.9 hours at Eastbourne (East Sussex) in July 1911.
One of the greatest influences on the climate of the UK is the Atlantic Ocean and especially the Gulf Stream, which carries warm water up from lower latitudes and modifies the high latitude air masses that pass across the UK. This thermohaline circulation has a powerful moderating and warming effect on the country 's climate. This warm water current warms the climate to such a great extent that if the current did not exist then temperatures in winter would be about 10 ° C (18 ° F) lower than they are today and similar to eastern Russia or Canada near the same latitude. The current allows England to have vineyards at the same latitude that Canada has polar bears. These warm ocean currents also bring substantial amounts of humidity which contributes to the notoriously wet climate that western parts of the UK experience.
The extent of the Gulf Stream 's contribution to the actual temperature in western Europe is a matter of dispute. It has been argued that atmospheric waves that bring warm air northwards contribute to the warmer temperatures than thermohaline circulation.
The high latitude and proximity to a large ocean to the west means that the United Kingdom experiences strong winds. The prevailing wind is from the south - west, but it may blow from any direction for sustained periods of time. Winds are strongest near westerly facing coasts and exposed headlands.
Gales -- which are defined as winds with speeds of 51 to 101 km / h (32 to 63 mph) -- are strongly associated with the passage of deep depressions across the country. The Hebrides experience on average 35 days of gale a year (a day where there are gale - force winds) while inland areas in England and Wales receive fewer than 5 days of gale a year. Areas of high elevation tend to have higher wind speeds than low elevations, and Great Dun Fell in Cumbria (at 857 m or 2,812 ft) averaged 114 days of gale a year during the period 1963 to 1976. The highest gust recorded at a low level in England was 191 km / h (119 mph) at Gwennap Head in Cornwall on 15 December 1979, and a 115 mph gust was also recorded at Shoreham - By - Sea on 16 October 1987. A disputed 122 mph gust was recorded on 16 October 1987 at Gorleston in Norfolk during the Great Storm of 1987. In Scotland, Fraserburgh in Aberdeenshire recorded 229 km / h (142 mph) on 13 February 1989, which was equalled during Cyclone Xaver on 5 December 2013. Wales ' highest wind speed gust of 200 km / h (124 mph) was set at Rhoose, Vale of Glamorgan on 28 October 1989. Especially potent storm systems typically affect the UK during autumn and winter, with the winters of 1989 / 1990 and 2013 / 2014 particularly notable for the frequency and potency of storm systems.
An unofficial gust of 194 mph was recorded on the Shetland Isles during the New Year 's Day Storm on 1 January 1992, and an equal unofficial 194 mph wind gust is claimed to have been set in the Cairngorm Mountains on 19 December 2008.
Barometric pressure plays a role in storm systems. For the United Kingdom, record figures for barometric pressure recordings are:
Highest - 1053.6 mb (Aberdeen, 31 January 1902)
Lowest - 925.6 mb (Ochtertyre, 26 January 1884)
Notably a low pressure storm system affected the UK with a central pressure of 914.0 mb on 10 January 1993, however this figure is not recorded over the UK but out in the Atlantic, despite the system affecting the UK.
Rainfall amounts can vary greatly across the United Kingdom and generally the further west and the higher the elevation, the greater the rainfall. The mountains of Wales, Scotland, the Pennines in Northern England and the moors of South West England are the wettest parts of the country, and in some of these places as much as 4,577 millimetres (180.2 in) of rain can fall annually, making these locations some of the wettest in Europe. The wettest spot in the United Kingdom is Crib Goch, in Snowdonia, which has averaged 4,473 millimetres (176.1 in) rain a year over the past 30 years. Most rainfall in the United Kingdom comes from North Atlantic depressions which roll into the country throughout the year from the west or southwest and are particularly frequent and intense in the autumn and winter. They can on occasions bring prolonged periods of heavy rain, and flooding is quite common.
Parts of England are surprisingly dry, which is contrary to the stereotypical view -- London receives just below 650 millimetres (25.6 in) per annum, which is less than Rome, Sydney, or New York City. In East Anglia it typically rains on about 113 days per year. Most of the south, south - east and East Anglia receive less than 700 millimetres (27.6 in) of rain per year. The English counties of Essex, Cambridgeshire - as well as parts of North Yorkshire, the East Riding of Yorkshire, Suffolk and Norfolk - are amongst the driest in the UK, with an average annual rainfall of around 600 millimetres (23.6 in). This is due to a mild rainshadow effect, due to mountainous parts of the South West, Wales and Cumbria blocking the moist airflow across the country to the east. In some years rainfall totals in Essex and South Suffolk can be below 450 millimetres (17.7 in) (especially areas around Colchester, Clacton and Ipswich) - less than the average annual rainfall in Jerusalem, Beirut and even some semi-arid parts of the world.
Parts of the United Kingdom have had drought problems in recent years, particularly in 2004 - 2006. Fires broke out in some areas, even across the normally damp higher ground of north - west England and Wales. The landscape in much of England and east Wales became very parched, even near the coast; water restrictions were in place in some areas.
July 2006 was the hottest month on record for the United Kingdom and much of Europe, however England has had warmer spells of 31 days which did not coincide with a calendar month -- in 1976 and 1995. As well as low rainfall, drought problems were made worse by the fact that the driest parts of England also have the highest population density, and therefore highest water consumption. The drought problems ended in the period from October 2006 to January 2007, which had well above average rainfall.
December 2015 was the wettest month ever recorded in the United Kingdom. The average rainfall for the month was almost doubled.
Generally the United Kingdom has cool to mild winters and warm summers with moderate variation in temperature throughout the year. In England the average annual temperature varies from 8.5 ° C (47.3 ° F) in the north to 11 ° C (51.8 ° F) in the south, but over the higher ground this can be several degrees lower. This small variation in temperature is to a large extent due to the moderating effect the Atlantic ocean has -- water has a much greater specific heat capacity than air and tends to heat and cool slowly throughout the year. This has a warming influence on coastal areas in winter and a cooling influence in summer.
The ocean is at its coldest in February or early March, thus around coastal areas February is often the coldest month, but inland there is little to choose between February and January as the coldest. Temperatures tend to drop lowest on late winter nights inland, in the presence of high pressure, clear skies, light winds and when there is snow on the ground. On occasions, cold polar or continental air can be drawn in over the United Kingdom to bring very cold weather.
The floors of inland valleys away from warming influence of the sea can be particularly cold as cold, dense air drains into them. A temperature of − 26.1 ° C (− 15.0 ° F) was recorded under such conditions at Edgmond in Shropshire on 10 January 1982, the coldest temperature recorded in England and Wales. The following day the coldest maximum temperature in England, at − 11.3 ° C (11.7 ° F), was recorded at the same site.
On average the warmest winter temperatures occur on the south and west coasts, however, warm temperatures occasionally occur due to a foehn wind warming up downwind after the crossing the mountains. Temperatures in these areas can rise to 15 ° C (59 ° F) in winter on rare occasions This is a particularly notable event in northern Scotland, mainly Aberdeenshire, where these high temperatures can occur in midwinter when the sun only reaches about 10 ° above the horizon.
July is on average the warmest month, and the highest temperatures tend to occur away from the Atlantic in southern, eastern and central England, where summer temperatures can rise above 30 ° C (86 ° F). It soared to 38.5 ° C (101.3 ° F) in Faversham, Kent on 10 August 2003: the highest temperature ever recorded in the United Kingdom.
While the United Kingdom is not particularly noted for extreme weather, it does sometimes occur, and events such as floods and drought may be experienced. The summer of 1976, for example, experienced temperatures as high as 35 ° C (95 ° F), and it was so dry the country suffered drought and water shortages.
Extended periods of extreme weather, such as the droughts of 1975 -- 1976, summer 2006, and spring 2012, the long hot summers of 1911, 1976, 2003 and 2006, and the winters of 1946 -- 1947, 1962 -- 1963, 2009 -- 2010, and 2010 -- 2011 are often caused by blocking anti-cyclones which can persist for several days, weeks, or even months. In winter they can bring long periods of cold dry weather and in summer long periods of hot dry weather.
There have also been occurrences of severe flash floods caused by intense rainfall; the most severe was the Lynmouth disaster of 1952 in which 34 people died and 38 houses and buildings were completely destroyed. In the summer of 2004, a severe flash flood devastated the town of Boscastle in Cornwall. However, the worst floods in the United Kingdom in modern times occurred in the North Sea flood of 1953. A powerful storm from the Atlantic moved around Scotland and down the east coast of England. As it moved south it produced a storm surge which was magnified as the North Sea became narrower further south. By the time the storm affected south - east England and the Netherlands, the surge had reached the height of 3.6 metres (12 ft). Over 300 people were killed by the floods in eastern England.
Thunderstorms are most common in southern and eastern England, and least common in the north and west. In London, thunderstorms occur on average 14 -- 19 days a year, while in most of Northern Ireland and the west of Scotland thunderstorms occur on around 3 days a year. Occasionally, thunderstorms can be severe and produce large hailstones as seen in Ottery St Mary, Devon in October 2008, where drifts reached 1.8 metres (5 ft 11 in).
Strong winds occur mainly in the autumn and winter months associated with low pressure systems and Scotland experiences hurricane - force winds in most winters. The Gale of January 1976, Great Storm of 1987 (23 fatalities) and the Burns ' Day storm of 1990 (97 fatalities) are particularly severe examples; Scotland saw winds of 142 mph during Cyclone Xaver in 2013.
The most rain recorded to fall on a single day was 279 mm at Martinstown (Dorset) on 18 July 1955, but also 243 mm fell at Bruton, Somerset on 28 June 1917. Heavy rain also fell between 20 and 25 June in 2007; some areas experienced a month 's rainfall in one day. Four people died in the flooding and over £ 1.5 billion of damage to businesses and properties was caused. On 19 August 1993, London Heathrow Airport recorded 257mm of rainfall.
Tropical cyclones themselves do not affect the UK due to the seas being too cold -- they need temperatures above 26.5 ° C (79.7 ° F) to remain active. The waters near the UK, the Atlantic Ocean, only have temperatures of 2 to 18 ° C (36 to 64 ° F), so any tropical cyclone that does come anywhere near the UK has said to have undergone a process called extratropical transition. This now means it is an extratropical cyclone, which the UK frequently experiences. The Great Storm of 1987 was a very deep depression which formed in the Bay of Biscay, which also contained the remnants of Hurricane Floyd. Hurricane Lili of 1996 and Hurricane Gordon of 2006 both crossed the UK as strong extratropical cyclones with tropical storm - force winds, causing transport closures, power - cuts and flooding in Northern Ireland, Scotland and South West England. In 2011, the remnants of Hurricane Katia passed over northwestern Scotland with winds near 70 mph (110 km / h).
It is internationally recognised that the United Kingdom has a higher incidence of tornadoes, measured by unit area of land, than any other country in the world. Dr T. Theodore Fujita (inventor of the Fujita scale), an American meteorologist, was the first to recognise the UK as the top site for tornadoes in 1973. The United Kingdom has at least 33 tornadoes per year, more than any other country in the world relative to its land area. Although most tornadoes are weak, there are occasional destructive events, for example, the Birmingham tornado of 2005 and the London tornado of 2006. Both registered F2 on the Fujita scale and both caused significant damage and injury. The largest ever recorded was thought to have been an F4, again in London in 1091. The most deadly occurred on 28 December 1879. All 74 lives were lost when a passenger train plunged from the Tay Bridge (Tayside) into the Tay Estuary, when the middle section of the bridge collapsed. Although the bridge was poorly constructed and had already been weakened in earlier gales (including the pre-existing winds at the time of the tragedy), the ultimate failure is believed to have been caused by two or three waterspouts which were sighted close to the bridge immediately before the accident. A tornado also developed in London on 3 July 2007.
The UK also holds the title for the highest known ' outbreak ' of tornadoes outside of the United States. The largest tornado outbreak in Britain is also the largest tornado outbreak known anywhere in Europe. On 23 November 1981, 105 tornadoes were spawned by a cold front in the space of 5.25 hours. Excepting Derbyshire, every county in a triangular area from Gwynedd to Humberside to Essex was hit by at least one tornado, while Norfolk was hit by at least 13. Very fortunately most tornadoes were short - lived and also weak (the strongest was around T5 on the TORRO Tornado Scale) and no deaths occurred.
The climate of the United Kingdom has not always been the way it is today. During some periods it was much warmer and in others it was much colder. The last glacial period was a period of extreme cold weather that lasted for tens of thousands of years and ended about 10,000 years ago. During this period the temperature was so low that much of the surrounding ocean froze and a great ice sheet extended over all of the United Kingdom except the south of England (connected to mainland Europe via the dry English Channel) and southern coastal areas of Wales.
The cold period from the 16th to the mid-19th centuries is known as the Little Ice Age.
The temperature records in England are continuous back to the mid 17th century. The Central England temperature (CET) record is the oldest in the world, and is a compound source of cross-correlated records from several locations in central England. Precipitation records date back to the eighteenth century and the modern England and Wales Precipitation series begins in 1766.
A detailed narrative account of the weather of every year from 1913 to 1942, with photographs of plants taken on the same day in each of those years, may be found in Willis (1944).
As with many parts of the world, over the last century the United Kingdom has reported a warming trend in temperatures. While some of this may be due to a recovery from the cooler period of climate mid 20th century (particularly the 1960s) the last 20 years has nonetheless seen an unprecedented level of warm weather. This rise in temperatures is illustrated by the most recent dataset (1981 -- 2010) for Belfast and Cambridge Botanical Gardens, and the same data 50 years previous (1931 -- 1960).
As the above tables show, all months except December at Belfast exhibit warming when both maximum and minimum temperatures are taken into account.
Again, a similar warming trend is shown for the South East of England, albeit slightly more pronounced with no month recording a fall in overall mean temperatures.
A disputed temperature of 42 ° C was set at an airfield in Wisley, Surrey on 18 July 2006. It has been suggested that the reading for this temperature should in fact have been 32 ° C. It is worth noting that the Met Office expected temperatures to surpass the August 2003 record during the July 2006 heatwave, and it is still speculated that both heatwaves did set higher temperatures than those officially recorded.
Central estimates produced by the Met Office predict average annual temperature to increase by 2 ° C (4 ° F) and the warmest summer day to increase by 3 ° C (6 ° F) by the 2050s. Average winter rainfall is also likely to increase and most areas will see a slight decrease in annual rainfall.
According to the Met Office, in the UK, the decade from 2000 - 2009 was the warmest since instrumental record dating started in 1850.
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effects of the seven years war on france | France in the Seven Years ' war - wikipedia
France was one of the leading participants in the Seven Years ' War which lasted between 1754 and 1763. France entered the war with the hope of achieving a lasting victory against Prussia, Britain and their German allies and with the hope of expanding its colonial possessions. (1)
While the first few years of war proved successful for the French, in 1759 the situation reversed and they suffered defeats on several continents. In an effort to reverse their losses, France concluded an alliance with their neighbor, Spain, in 1761. In spite of this the French continued to suffer defeats throughout 1762 eventually forcing them to sue for peace. The 1763 Treaty of Paris confirmed the loss of French possessions in North America and Asia to the British. France also finished the war with very heavy debts, which they struggled to repay for the remainder of the 18th century.
The previous major conflict in Europe, the War of the Austrian Succession, ended in 1748 with the Treaty of Aix - la - Chapelle. This peace agreement was very unpopular with the French populace who saw the terms as excessively lenient to France 's enemies, specifically Britain and the Dutch Republic, and many regarded it as a breathing space before war resumed.
France and Britain were engaged in an intensifying global rivalry after they superseded Spain as the leading colonial powers. Hoping to establish supremacy, both countries engaged in several minor wars in North America. French colonies in Louisiana, Illinois, and Canada had largely surrounded British colonies strung out in a narrow strip along the coast. All the French needed to totally envelop the British was control of the Ohio Country. Attempting to gain control of this territory, France built a complex system of alliances with the area 's Native American tribes and brought them into conflict with Britain.
In the mid-18th century, France was an absolute monarchy: all power resided with the King. Louis XV was a weak personality easily manipulated by his advisors and confidants. Chief amongst them was Madame Pompadour, his mistress who exercised enormous influence over appointments and matters of grand strategy. Other advisors rose and fell with rapid succession, continuing the lack of the stability which had plagued the monarchy in the early 18th century.
While the war began in North America, in 1756 France became drawn into a major war in Europe. Allied to Austria, Sweden and Russia the French tried to defeat the Prussians who had only the British as major allies. Despite repeated attempts between 1757 and 1762, the French and their allies failed to win the conclusive victory against Prussia despite a constant war of attrition. They were partly frustrated by an army led by the Duke of Brunswick made up of British forces and troops from the smaller German states which operated in West Germany.
France had opened the war against Britain in Europe by capturing Menorca and until 1759 they believed they held the upper hand. The British navy, however, had initiated a tight blockade of the French coast which prevented supplies and troops moving freely and sapped morale. Realizing that Prussia was unlikely to be defeated until its ally Britain was, the French foreign minister, Choiseul developed a plan to invade Britain in three separate places at Portsmouth, Essex and Scotland. He oversaw the construction of a massive fleet of transports to convey the troops during 1759. Defeats of the French navy at Lagos and Quiberon Bay put an end to these plans and he was forced to call off the invasion in the late autumn. A diversionary force under François Thurot had managed to land in Northern Ireland before he was hunted down and killed by the British navy. In the wake of the disaster at Quiberon, Thurot was lionised as a hero in France.
By this stage France 's finances were in a poor state, despite the efforts of Silhouette to keep down expenditure, and France was only kept afloat by a major loan from neutral Spain. Despite the Spanish government 's official policy of neutrality, they were slowly shifting towards supporting an outright pro-French position, encouraged by Choiseul. In December 1761, war finally broke out between Britain and Spain - but the Spanish involvement did not provide the relief to the French that had been hoped. Instead French troops were needed to bolster Spanish efforts to invade Portugal, and became bogged down there. Spain also suffered defeats in Cuba and the Philippines in 1762, and by the end of the year both Spain and France were urgently seeking peace.
France began asserting control over the Ohio Country as early as 1749, issuing warnings and threats to British colonial traders active in the region. When the French began constructing a series of forts in the Ohio River watershed in 1753, the British responded with claims and demands of their own. In 1754, George Washington sparked the beginning of the war with an attack on a French scouting party near present - day Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. When they learned that the British were planning to send regular army troops to the area for the 1755 campaign, the French sent a large body of troops to New France before the British could blockade their ports. These troops, combined with a strong alliances with native tribes and poor British military administration, gave France a string of victories from 1755 to 1757; its only significant loss was Acadia, whose remaining territories fell into British hands after the 1755 Battle of Fort Beauséjour, inaugurating the expulsion of the Acadians. France was able to maintain control of the Ohio Country as well as the strategically important Great Lakes. After their initial successes in North America, however, France began to starve the theatre of forces and supplies, preferring to concentrate on the war in Europe rather than risk large numbers of troops on expeditions across the British - dominated Atlantic Ocean.
This contrasted sharply with the British, who put great emphasis on the war for control of North America. In 1758 the British launched several major offensives, capturing Louisbourg, Fort Duquesne, and Fort Frontenac, although they were stopped at Fort Carillon. The following year a large force under General Jeffery Amherst took Carillon and Fort Niagara, while a second large force under General Wolfe sailed up the St Lawrence River to besiege Quebec City. The French commander in Quebec, Louis - Joseph de Montcalm, had orders to try to hold out until the winter spell, with the promise that major reinforcements would arrive from Europe the following year. Montcalm almost achieved this, delaying British attempts to capture Quebec until the autumn, when the British finally won the Battle of Quebec and captured the city. In spite of this, a large force of French escaped westwards, intent on resuming the campaign the following year.
In 1760 the French launched a surprise effort to re-capture Quebec, which succeeded in blunting one British advance on Montreal. Other British armies advanced on Montreal from the south and west, completing the Conquest of Canada. In the West Indies the French saw the valuable sugar islands of Guadeloupe and Martinique captured by British forces. A final attempt to capture Newfoundland from the British failed in late 1762.
The French position in India had been severely weakened following the Second Carnatic War, which had ended in 1754 with the Treaty of Pondicherry. In spite of this they held several strong trading posts, particularly that at Pondicherry and they maintained relations with several major Indian Princes who were also enemies of the British.
The French war in India started badly, with the loss of the Chandalore which saw the last French trading post in Bengal destroyed. A major French force under the Comte De Lally was despatched from Europe, and it threatened to turn the balance in India. However, an attempt to seize Madras failed, while Lally 's force was unable to prevent the eventual British capture of Pondicherry and a comprehensive British victory in India. In the wake of Britain 's domination of India, they were able to launch an expedition from Madras to the Philippines which captured Manila from France 's ally Spain - further weakening the Bourbon position in Asia.
The Mughals led by Shah Alam II were joined by Jean Law and 200 Frenchmen and waged a campaign against the British during the Seven Years ' War.
Lally at Pondicherry.
Jean Law 's Memoire: Mémoires sur quelques affaires de l'Empire Mogol 1756 - 1761 contains detailed information about the campaign of the Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II and his French allies against the British East India Company.
In April 1758 a British expedition conceived by the merchant Thomas Cumming and authorised by Pitt captured the French settlement of Saint - Louis in Senegal. The scheme had been so successful and profitable that two further expeditions were despatched the same year which captured the island of Gorée and the French trading station on the Gambia.
The loss of these valuable colonies further weakened France 's finances. In 1762 a force was prepared to retake the Senegal territories, but had to be abandoned.
The French began negotiations in Paris in late 1762. Because of a change in the British government, they were offered more lenient terms than might otherwise have been expected. While they lost Canada to the British, Martinique and Guadeloupe were returned to them in exchange for Menorca.
The French defeat had a devastating impact on French political life, and a number of senior figures were forced out of public office. Realizing the deficiency in the French navy, Louis XV began a massive rebuilding programme to match British naval strength. Choiseul drew up a long - term plan to gain victory over the British which was partially put into action during the American War of Independence after France joined the conflict in 1778.
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poove poochudava serial title song lyrics in tamil | Poove Poochudava (TV series) - Wikipedia
Poove Poochudava (Tamil: பூவே பூச்சூடவா) is an 2017 Indian - Tamil Language Romance Family Series starring Dinesh, Reshma, Uma Padmanabhan, Yuvarani, Krithika Laddu and Madhan Pandian. It is a remake of the Telugu language television series Varudhini Parinayam which aired on Zee Telugu from 2013 - 2016. It started airing on 24 April 2017 on Zee Tamil every Monday to Friday at 8: 00 PM (IST). The show is directed by G. Manikanda Kumar and developed by Abdhulla.
Is the story of Shakthi (Reshma) Hard - working Girl is from a lower middle class family and the daughter of a bus conductor and Her mother (Uma Padmanabhan) runs a catering business and she is second one amongst four sisters. She is the smartest child among the four sisters with high self - respect.
Shiva (Dinesh G) is from rich family and business man. Shiva, being brought up by his aunt after losing his mother in an accident, respects the only women in the form of her aunt (Yuvarani). Shiva is least bothered about others feelings except for his aunt and his brother (Madhan Pandian).
Shiva 's brother falls in love with Shakand it so happens that both Shakthi and Shiva gets married for the happiness of their siblings despite of their hatred towards each other. The series is about how Shakthi and Shiva manage to keep the marriage for the happiness of their respective families.
as Karthik
On 22 March 2017, the first promo of the show ' Introduced ' Song was released by Zee Tamil on Facebook, YouTube and Zee Official Website Page. This Promo it quickly gained popularity and received positive feedback from viewers.
The Series first Photo was released officially on 4 February 2017 in at the Dance Jodi Dance Final Episode host by Deepak Dinkar. Second Cast interview on Puthandu 14 April 2017 in the Chithirai Puthandu special Programs hosted by Deepak Dinkar and Archana.
Series is a Love story produced by Abdhulla, that airs on Zee Tamil. Actress Reshma landed in lead role, This is First serial. Who is known for her one of the Dance Jodi Dance contestants dons the role of Shakthi. Dinesh G, who was also cast in Vijay TV Series Pirivom Santhippom and Mahan, was selected to portray the lead role of Shiva. Dinesh made his comeback after Mr & Mrs Khiladis. Actress Uma Padmanabhan was selected to the role of Kothavari (Shakthi and Meenaskshi Mother) and Yuvarani (Shiva Mother) who played an important role. Actress Krithika Laddu was cast to play the role of Meenakshi, Madhan played the role of Sundar.
It was written by lyricist Daa. Ko, composed Kiran sung by Vishal Chanthierasekhar and Rita with the right feel which touched people.
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what was the canal in newton heath used for | Rochdale Canal - wikipedia
The Rochdale Canal is a navigable broad canal in Northern England, between Manchester and Sowerby Bridge, part of the connected system of the canals of Great Britain. Its name refers to the town of Rochdale, in Greater Manchester, through which it passes.
The Rochdale is a broad canal because its locks are wide enough to allow vessels of 14 feet width. The canal runs for 32 miles (51 km) across the Pennines from the Bridgewater Canal at Castlefield Basin in Manchester to join the Calder and Hebble Navigation at Sowerby Bridge in West Yorkshire.
As built, the canal had 92 locks. Whilst the traditional lock numbering has been retained on all restored locks, and on the relocated locks, the canal now has 91. Locks 3 and 4 have been replaced with a single deep lock, Tuel Lane Lock, which is numbered 3 / 4.
The Rochdale Canal was conceived in 1776, when a group of 48 men from Rochdale raised £ 237 and commissioned James Brindley to conduct a survey of possible routes between Sowerby Bridge and Manchester. Brindley proposed a route similar to the one built, and another more expensive route via Bury. Further progress was not made until 1791, when John Rennie was asked to make a new survey in June, and two months later to make surveys for branches to Rochdale, Oldham and to a limeworks near Todmorden. Rennie at the time had no experience of building canals.
The promoters, unsure as to whether to build a wide or a narrow canal, postponed the decision until an Act of Parliament had been obtained. The first attempt to obtain an act was made in 1792, but was opposed by mill owners, concerned about water supply. Rennie proposed using steam pumping engines, three in Yorkshire, eight in Lancashire, and one on the Burnley Branch, but the mill owners argued that 59 mills would be affected by the scheme, resulting in unemployment, and the bill was defeated. In September 1792, William Crosley and John Longbotham surveyed the area in an attempt to find locations for reservoirs which would not affect water supplies to the mills. A second bill was presented to Parliament, for a canal which would have a 3,000 - yard (2,700 m) tunnel and 11 reservoirs. Again the bill was defeated, this time by one vote. The promoters, in an attempt to understand the mill owners ' position, asked William Jessop to survey the parts of the proposed canal that were causing most concern. Jessop gave evidence to the Parliamentary committee, and on 4 April 1794 an act was obtained which created the Rochdale Canal Company and authorised construction.
Rennie 's estimated cost in the second bill was £ 291,000, and the company was empowered to raise the money by issuing shares, with powers to raise a further £ 100,000 if required. The estimate was for a narrow canal, whereas the act authorised a broad canal, and so the capital was never going to be adequate. The summit tunnel was abandoned in favour of 14 additional locks saving £ 20,000. Jessop proposed constructing each lock with a drop of 10 feet (3.0 m), resulting in efficient use of water and the need to manufacture only one size of lock gate.
The canal opened in stages as sections were completed, with the Rochdale Branch the first in 1798 and further sections in 1799. The bottom nine locks opened in 1800 and boats using the Ashton Canal could reach Manchester. Officially, the canal opened in 1804, but construction work continued for three more years. A 1.5 - mile (2.4 km) branch from Heywood to Castleton opened in 1834.
As a result of having no summit tunnel, there were more locks, and the summit pound was very short, at just 0.8 miles (1.3 km). To the north and east, 36 locks descended to Sowerby Bridge, while to the south and west, another 56 locks descended to Castlefield Junction, on the edge of Manchester. The summit pound is 600 feet (183 m) above sea level, and is one of the highest summit pounds in Britain. Blackstone Edge Reservoir, covering 50 acres (20 ha) and Chelburn Reservoir, covering 16 acres (6.5 ha), were the first two reservoirs built to supply the water for all these locks. They were completed in 1798, and Hollingworth Lake, covering 130 acres (53 ha), was finished in 1800. It was lower than the summit pound, and so a steam pumping engine was installed to raise the water into a 4 - mile (6.4 km) feeder, which connected to the summit. The feeder was about 45 feet (14 m) above the level of the lake, and the pumping engine was used until 1910, when the installation was demolished. Another Act of Parliament obtained in 1807 enabled the 92 - acre (37 ha) Whiteholme Reservoir and the 30 - acre (12 ha) Light Hazzles Reservoir to be constructed, to ensure that supplies remained adequate as trade increased.
Because of its width, the canal was more successful than the Huddersfield Narrow Canal and became the main highway of commerce between Lancashire and Yorkshire. Cotton, wool, coal, limestone, timber, salt and general merchandise were transported. Between 1830 and 1832, the canal carried 539,081 tons per year, which generated £ 40,123 in toll revenue. In 1839, this had risen to 875,436 tons, generating £ 62,712 in tolls, but the opening of the Manchester and Leeds Railway in 1841 caused a significant drop in trade. The following year, £ 27,266 was earned from the carriage of 667,311 tons, and although a programme of toll reductions succeeded in restoring the trade, the income remained at a similar level for many years. The highest volume of traffic was in 1845, when 979,443 tons were carried.
In 1839, the Manchester and Salford Junction Canal opened, which provided a link between a private branch of the Rochdale Canal and the Mersey and Irwell Navigation. It had been built because around 30,000 tons of goods a year were being transferred between the two waterways by cart, through the streets of Manchester, and the charges for this service did not meet the costs of providing it. It opened on 20 September, but was not a success, as the enabling Act of Parliament had also authorised the Bridgewater Canal to build the Hulme Cut, which linked their canal to the Irwell by three locks, and provided a more convenient route. The eastern end of the canal, with its connection to the Rochdale Canal, closed in 1875, the rest was disused by 1922, and it was abandoned in 1936.
In 1855, the company agreed the terms of a lease with four railway companies, with the largest stake of 73 per cent held by the Lancashire and Yorkshire Railway. The railways paid £ 37,652 per year for a 21 - year period, which allowed the canal company to pay a 4 per cent dividend to its shareholders and still have £ 15,000 for maintenance work. During the lease period, traffic increased a little, from 754,421 tons to 878,651 tons, and toll revenue also increased, from £ 23,048 to £ 28,579. At the end of the 21 years, the arrangement was continued for another fourteen, and four final half - yearly payments of £ 15,000 were made by way of compensation when the agreement ended. One surprising development was that Hollingworth Lake became a pleasure resort, with steamers operating on it six days a week in 1865. Allegations of "immoralities which it is stated take place in connection with the dancing stages at Hollingworth '' in November of that year were strenuously denied by the company in January 1866.
By cutting tolls, the canal managed to retain trade and remain profitable. A series of administrative changes took place, sanctioned by Acts of Parliament. The title of the company changed from the Company of Proprietors of the Rochdale Canal to the Rochdale Canal Company, and they were also empowered to sell water. In 1905, cargo moving between the canal and the Bridgewater Canal at the Manchester end amounted to 418,716 tons, most of it connected with the Manchester Ship Canal trade. During the First World War, the government took control of the canals, and when they were handed back in August 1920, the Rochdale was in financial trouble. Sunday and Saturday afternoon working was no longer acceptable, wages had risen and working hours had reduced. In 1923, the Oldham and Rochdale Corporations Water Act paved the way for the transfer of its eight reservoirs, Blackstone Edge, Easterly Gaddings Dam, Higher and Lower Chelburn, Hollingworth Lake, Light Hazzles, Warland and Whiteholme, to those corporations to supply drinking water. They received £ 396,667 for the sale, of which some was paid to the Manchester Ship Canal, since it would no longer receive water from the Rochdale, and made a net profit of £ 298,333. They could still draw water from some nearby streams, and could also draw some from the reservoirs under certain conditions.
Apart from a short profitable section in Manchester linking the Bridgewater and Ashton Canals, most of the length was closed in 1952 when an act of parliament was obtained to ban public navigation. The last complete journey had taken place in 1937, and by the mid 1960s the remainder was almost unusable. Construction of the M62 motorway in the late 1960s took no account of the canal, cutting it in two.
When an Act of Parliament was sought in 1965, to authorise the abandonment of the canal, the Inland Waterways Association petitioned against it, and when it was finally passed, it contained a clause that ensured the owners would maintain it until the adjacent Ashton Canal was abandoned. In early 1971, a boat rally was organised on the canal, and later that year, there was public debate over the high cost of a project which had infilled part of the canal to create a shallow water park, when restoring the section for navigation would have been cheaper. Discussion of the relative merits of restoring the canal or the Huddersfield Narrow Canal in 1973 led the formation of societies to promote both schemes in 1974. The Rochdale Canal Society wanted to see the canal fully re-opened, as part of a proposed Pennine Park. The Ashton Canal, which joins the canal above lock 84, reopened in 1974, and the nine locks on the Rochdale Canal between the junction and the Bridgewater Canal were restored at that time.
The canal benefited from the activities of the Manpower Services Commission in 1975, when £ 40,000 was allocated under the Job Creation Scheme to fund work on the Rochdale town section of the canal. The following year, another 150 jobs were created when a further £ 208,000 grant was made. Despite the progress, there were plans to sever the route with a low - level crossing by the proposed M66 motorway in 1979, and to build a supermarket on it at Sowerby Bridge in 1980, both of which were met with opposition. One benefit of the Job Creation Scheme was that the perception of the restoration changed in official circles. The local council was responsible for the young people employed on the scheme, which ran for twelve years, and found itself having to negotiate with the canal company. At its height, there were 450 people working on the canal, and since no - one could work on the scheme for more than a year, several thousand people learnt practical restoration skills, and many retained an interest in canals afterwards. The section from Todmorden to Hebden Bridge was completed in 1983, and opened on 20 May.
The Rochdale Canal Society worked hard both to protect the line of the canal and to begin the process of refurbishing it. A new organisational structure was created in 1984, with the formation of the Rochdale Canal Trust Ltd, who leased the canal from the owning company. A proposed extension to the M66 motorway created a new threat to the canal in 1985, but Greater Manchester Council began to look at ways to remove blockages in the following year, particularly the M62 embankment which blocked the route at Failsworth. Calderdale Council managed a £ 1 million scheme to remove three culverts and restore two locks later that year, with some funding coming from the European Economic Commission. The MSC - funded restoration was approaching Sowerby Bridge, where planners were proposing a tunnel and deep lock to negotiate a difficult road junction at Tuel Lane, so that a connection could be made with the Calder and Hebble Navigation. The entire eastern section from Sowerby Bridge to the summit at Longlees was open by 1990, although it remained isolated from the canal network.
In 1991, an Ecotec Report looked at the costs and benefits of completing the restoration. It estimated that another £ 15.9 million was needed, but for a total expenditure of £ 17.3 million, some £ 30 million of benefits would be gained by the region, including 1,028 full - time jobs. Some of this money would come from Derelict Land Grants. The re-fashioned link with the Calder and Hebble Canal (which had never closed) was funded by £ 2.5 million from this source. The initial plan included a lock that was only 57.5 feet (17.5 m) long, but space was eventually found for a standard 72 - foot (22 m) lock. The first boat to pass between the restored Rochdale Canal and the Calder and Hebble Navigation did so on 11 April 1996, although the official opening did not take place until 3 May. Tuel Lane Lock is nearly 20 feet (6.1 m) deep, making it one of the candidates for the deepest lock on the British canal system.
In 1997, the Rochdale Canal Trust was restructured, in response to announcements that there might be large grants available as part of the millennium celebrations. The canal was still at this point owned by a private company, and the Millennium Commission would not make grants to a scheme which was for private profit, rather than public benefit. The restructuring would allow the Trust to take over responsibility for the canal from the Rochdale Canal Company. However, the plan was rejected by the Commission, and in order to access the grant of £ 11.3 million, the Waterways Trust took over ownership of the canal. Additional funding to make up a £ 23.8 million investment package came from English Partnerships and the councils of Oldham and Rochdale. As restoration proceeded, boats could travel further and further west, and the restoration of the sections through Failsworth and Ancoats were a significant part of the re-development of the north Manchester districts. The restored sections joined up with the section in Manchester below the Ashton Canal junction, which had never been closed, and on 1 July 2002 the canal was open for navigation along its entire length.
The Rochdale is significant for leisure boating in that it is one of the three canals which cross the Pennines and thus join north - western canals with the waterways of the North East, as well as opening the possibilities of touring various Pennine Rings (the Huddersfield Narrow Canal had reopened the year before, and the Leeds and Liverpool Canal had never closed).
A great attraction of the Rochdale Canal for the leisure boater lies in the fact that (unlike the Leeds and Liverpool and the Huddersfield Narrow) it climbs high over the Pennine moors rather than tunnelling through them, and the boater is surrounded by scenery which is correspondingly more spectacular (with the "penalty '' of having to work more locks).
The Rochdale is at the heart of several important leisure boating routes
East from Manchester, it crosses the Pennines via the hill towns and villages of Littleborough, Summit, Todmorden, Hebden Bridge, Mytholmroyd and Luddendenfoot (where Branwell Brontë was a railway booking clerk). Finally, at Sowerby Bridge, its connection with the Calder and Hebble gives boats access to all the north - eastern waterways including the Aire and Calder Navigation, the Sheffield and South Yorkshire Navigation, and the rivers Ouse and Trent (and, for boaters who wish to do a "ring '', the eastern ends of the Huddersfield Narrow and Leeds and Liverpool canals).
The Rochdale has had many problems since reopening (often related to a shortage of water, because the canal 's reservoirs had been sold off in 1923). In April 2005 the canal bank was breached between lock 60 and lock 63, near the River Irk. A large volume of water surged down the river towards the nearby town of Middleton, echoing the great Middleton canal tragedy of 1927, when a breach occurred at the aqueduct, and three people were drowned. The canal re-opened in Summer 2006, but had problems throughout the season.
The high frequency of navigation restrictions (and the need to book passage through Tuel Lane lock, and across the summit pound) means that anyone planning to use the canal should consult the British Waterways website.
Route map: Google
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who played sherlock holmes in hound of the baskervilles | List of actors who have played Sherlock Holmes - wikipedia
Sherlock Holmes is the most portrayed literary character in film and television history, having appeared on screen 254 times as of 2012.
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number of countries in south and central america | Central America - wikipedia
Central America (Spanish: América Central or Centroamérica) is the southernmost, isthmian portion of the North American continent, which connects with the South American continent on the southeast. Central America is bordered by Mexico to the north, Colombia to the southeast, the Caribbean Sea to the east, and the Pacific Ocean to the west. Central America consists of seven countries: Belize, Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua, and Panama. The combined population of Central America is between 41,739,000 (2009 estimate) and 42,688,190 (2012 estimate).
Central America is a part of the Mesoamerican biodiversity hotspot, which extends from northern Guatemala through to central Panama. Due to the presence of several active geologic faults and the Central America Volcanic Arc, there is a great deal of seismic activity in the region. Volcanic eruptions and earthquakes occur frequently; these natural disasters have resulted in the loss of many lives and much property.
In the Pre-Columbian era, Central America was inhabited by the indigenous peoples of Mesoamerica to the north and west and the Isthmo - Colombian peoples to the south and east. Soon after Christopher Columbus 's voyages to the Americas, the Spanish began to colonize the Americas. From 1609 until 1821, most of the territory within Central America -- except for the lands that would become Belize and Panama -- was governed by the Viceroyalty of New Spain from Mexico City as the Captaincy General of Guatemala. After New Spain achieved independence from Spain in 1821, some of its provinces were annexed to the First Mexican Empire, but soon seceded from Mexico to form the Federal Republic of Central America, which lasted from 1823 to 1838. The seven states finally became independent autonomous states: beginning with Nicaragua, Honduras, Costa Rica, and Guatemala (1838); followed by El Salvador (1841); then Panama (1903); and finally Belize (1981). Even today, though, people in Central America sometimes still refer to their nations as though they are provinces of a Central American state (e.g. it is still common to write "C.A. '' after the country names, in formal and informal contexts)...
"Central America '' may mean different things to various people, based upon different contexts:
In the Pre-Columbian era, the northern areas of Central America were inhabited by the indigenous peoples of Mesoamerica. Most notable among these were the Mayans, who had built numerous cities throughout the region, and the Aztecs, who had created a vast empire. The pre-Columbian cultures of eastern El Salvador, eastern Honduras, Caribbean Nicaragua, most of Costa Rica and Panama were predominantly speakers of the Chibchan languages at the time of European contact and are considered by some culturally different and grouped in the Isthmo - Colombian Area.
Following Christopher Columbus 's voyages to the Americas, the Spanish sent many expeditions to the region, and they began their conquest of Maya territory in 1523. Soon after the conquest of the Aztec Empire, Spanish conquistador Pedro de Alvarado commenced the conquest of northern Central America for the Spanish Empire. Beginning with his arrival in Soconusco in 1523, Alvarado 's forces systematically conquered and subjugated most of the major Maya kingdoms, including the K'iche ', Tz'utujil, Pipil, and the Kaqchikel. By 1528, the conquest of Guatemala was nearly complete, with only the Petén Basin remaining outside the Spanish sphere of influence. The last independent Maya kingdoms -- the Kowoj and the Itza people -- were finally defeated in 1697, as part of the Spanish conquest of Petén.
In 1538, Spain established the Real Audiencia of Panama, which had jurisdiction over all land from the Strait of Magellan to the Gulf of Fonseca. This entity was dissolved in 1543, and most of the territory within Central America then fell under the jurisdiction of the Audiencia Real de Guatemala. This area included the current territories of Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua, and the Mexican state of Chiapas, but excluded the lands that would become Belize and Panama. The president of the Audiencia, which had its seat in Antigua Guatemala, was the governor of the entire area. In 1609 the area became a captaincy general and the governor was also granted the title of captain general. The Captaincy General of Guatemala encompassed most of Central America, with the exception of present - day Belize and Panama.
The Captaincy General of Guatemala lasted for more than two centuries, but began to fray after a rebellion in 1811 which began in the intendancy of San Salvador. The Captaincy General formally ended on 15 September 1821, with the signing of the Act of Independence of Central America. Mexican independence was achieved at virtually the same time with the signing of the Treaty of Córdoba and the Declaration of Independence of the Mexican Empire, and the entire region was finally independent from Spanish authority by 28 September 1821.
From its independence from Spain in 1821 until 1823, the former Captaincy General remained intact as part of the short - lived First Mexican Empire. When the Emperor of Mexico abdicated on 19 March 1823, Central America again became independent. On 1 July 1823, the Congress of Central America peacefully seceded from Mexico and declared absolute independence from all foreign nations, and the region formed the Federal Republic of Central America.
The Federal Republic of Central America was a representative democracy with its capital at Guatemala City. This union consisted of the provinces of Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Los Altos, Mosquito Coast, and Nicaragua. The lowlands of southwest Chiapas, including Soconusco, initially belonged to the Republic until 1824, when Mexico annexed most of Chiapas and began its claims to Soconusco. The Republic lasted from 1823 to 1838, when it disintegrated as a result of civil wars.
The territory that now makes up Belize was heavily contested in a dispute that continued for decades after Guatemala achieved independence (see History of Belize (1506 -- 1862). Spain, and later Guatemala, considered this land a Guatemalan department. In 1862, Britain formally declared it a British colony and named it British Honduras. It became independent as Belize in 1981.
Panama, situated in the southernmost part of Central America on the Isthmus of Panama, has for most of its history been culturally linked to South America. Panama was part of the Province of Tierra Firme from 1510 until 1538 when it came under the jurisdiction of the newly formed Audiencia Real de Panama. Beginning in 1543, Panama was administered as part of the Viceroyalty of Peru, along with all other Spanish possessions in South America. Panama remained as part of the Viceroyalty of Peru until 1739, when it was transferred to the Viceroyalty of New Granada, the capital of which was located at Santa Fé de Bogotá. Panama remained as part of the Viceroyalty of New Granada until the disestablishment of that viceroyalty in 1819. A series of military and political struggles took place from that time until 1822, the result of which produced the republic of Gran Colombia. After the dissolution of Gran Colombia in 1830, Panama became part of a successor state, the Republic of New Granada. From 1855 until 1886, Panama existed as Panama State, first within the Republic of New Granada, then within the Granadine Confederation, and finally within the United States of Colombia. The United States of Colombia was replaced by the Republic of Colombia in 1886. As part of the Republic of Colombia, Panama State was abolished and it became the Isthmus Department. Despite the many political reorganizations, Colombia was still deeply plagued by conflict, which eventually led to the secession of Panama on 3 November 1903. Only after that time did some begin to regard Panama as a North or Central American entity.
By the 1930s the United Fruit Company owned 3.5 million acres of land in Central America and the Caribbean and was the single largest land owner in Guatemala. Such holdings gave it great power over the governments of small countries. That was one of the factors that led to the coining of the phrase Banana Republic.
After more than two hundred years of social unrest, violent conflict and revolution, Central America today remains in a period of political transformation. Poverty, social injustice and violence are still widespread. Nicaragua is the second poorest country in the western hemisphere (only Haiti is poorer).
Central America is the tapering isthmus of southern North America, with unique and varied geographic features. The Pacific Ocean lies to the southwest, the Caribbean Sea lies to the northeast, and the Gulf of Mexico lies to the north. Some physiographists define the Isthmus of Tehuantepec as the northern geographic border of Central America, while others use the northwestern borders of Belize and Guatemala. From there, the Central American land mass extends southeastward to the Isthmus of Panama, where it connects to the Pacific Lowlands in northwestern South America.
Of the many mountain ranges within Central America, the longest are the Sierra Madre de Chiapas, the Cordillera Isabelia and the Cordillera de Talamanca. At 4,220 meters (13,850 ft), Volcán Tajumulco is the highest peak in Central America. Other high points of Central America are as listed in the table below:
High points in Central America
Between the mountain ranges lie fertile valleys that are suitable for the raising of livestock and for the production of coffee, tobacco, beans and other crops. Most of the population of Honduras, Costa Rica and Guatemala lives in valleys.
Trade winds have a significant effect upon the climate of Central America. Temperatures in Central America are highest just prior to the summer wet season, and are lowest during the winter dry season, when trade winds contribute to a cooler climate. The highest temperatures occur in April, due to higher levels of sunlight, lower cloud cover and a decrease in trade winds.
Central America is part of the Mesoamerican biodiversity hotspot, boasting 7 % of the world 's biodiversity. The Pacific Flyway is a major north - south flyway for migratory birds in the Americas, extending from Alaska to Tierra del Fuego. Due to the funnel - like shape of its land mass, migratory birds can be seen in very high concentrations in Central America, especially in the spring and autumn. As a bridge between North America and South America, Central America has many species from the Nearctic and the Neotropic ecozones. However the southern countries (Costa Rica and Panama) of the region have more biodiversity than the northern countries (Guatemala and Belize), meanwhile the central countries (Honduras, Nicaragua and El Salvador) have the least biodiversity. The table below shows recent statistics:
Biodiversity in Central America (number of different species of terrestrial vertebrate animals and vascular plants)
Over 300 species of the region 's flora and fauna are threatened, 107 of which are classified as critically endangered. The underlying problems are deforestation, which is estimated by FAO at 1.2 % per year in Central America and Mexico combined, fragmentation of rainforests and the fact that 80 % of the vegetation in Central America has already been converted to agriculture.
Efforts to protect fauna and flora in the region are made by creating ecoregions and nature reserves. 36 % of Belize 's land territory falls under some form of official protected status, giving Belize one of the most extensive systems of terrestrial protected areas in the Americas. In addition, 13 % of Belize 's marine territory are also protected. A large coral reef extends from Mexico to Honduras: the Mesoamerican Barrier Reef System. The Belize Barrier Reef is part of this. The Belize Barrier Reef is home to a large diversity of plants and animals, and is one of the most diverse ecosystems of the world. It is home to 70 hard coral species, 36 soft coral species, 500 species of fish and hundreds of invertebrate species. So far only about 10 % of the species in the Belize barrier reef have been discovered.
From 2001 to 2010, 5,376 square kilometers (2,076 sq mi) of forest were lost in the region. In 2010 Belize had 63 % of remaining forest cover, Costa Rica 46 %, Panama 45 %, Honduras 41 %, Guatemala 37 %, Nicaragua 29 %, and El Salvador 21 %. Most of the loss occurred in the moist forest biome, with 12,201 square kilometers (4,711 sq mi). Woody vegetation loss was partially set off by a gain in the coniferous forest biome with 4,730 square kilometers (1,830 sq mi), and a gain in the dry forest biome at 2,054 square kilometers (793 sq mi). Mangroves and deserts contributed only 1 % to the loss in forest vegetation. The bulk of the deforestation was located at the Caribbean slopes of Nicaragua with a loss of 8,574 square kilometers (3,310 sq mi) of forest in the period from 2001 to 2010. The most significant regrowth of 3,050 square kilometers (1,180 sq mi) of forest was seen in the coniferous woody vegetation of Honduras.
The Central American pine - oak forests ecoregion, in the tropical and subtropical coniferous forests biome, is found in Central America and southern Mexico. The Central American pine - oak forests occupy an area of 111,400 square kilometers (43,000 sq mi), extending along the mountainous spine of Central America, extending from the Sierra Madre de Chiapas in Mexico 's Chiapas state through the highlands of Guatemala, El Salvador, and Honduras to central Nicaragua. The pine - oak forests lie between 600 -- 1,800 metres (2,000 -- 5,900 ft) elevation, and are surrounded at lower elevations by tropical moist forests and tropical dry forests. Higher elevations above 1,800 metres (5,900 ft) are usually covered with Central American montane forests. The Central American pine - oak forests are composed of many species characteristic of temperate North America including oak, pine, fir, and cypress.
Laurel forest is the most common type of Central American temperate evergreen cloud forest, found in almost all Central American countries, normally more than 1,000 meters (3,300 ft) above sea level. Tree species include evergreen oaks, members of the laurel family, and species of Weinmannia, Drimys, and Magnolia. The cloud forest of Sierra de las Minas, Guatemala, is the largest in Central America. In some areas of southeastern Honduras there are cloud forests, the largest located near the border with Nicaragua. In Nicaragua, cloud forests are situated near the border with Honduras, but many were cleared to grow coffee. There are still some temperate evergreen hills in the north. The only cloud forest in the Pacific coastal zone of Central America is on the Mombacho volcano in Nicaragua. In Costa Rica, there are laurel forests in the Cordillera de Tilarán and Volcán Arenal, called Monteverde, also in the Cordillera de Talamanca.
The Central American montane forests are an ecoregion of the tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests biome, as defined by the World Wildlife Fund. These forests are of the moist deciduous and the semi-evergreen seasonal subtype of tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests and receive high overall rainfall with a warm summer wet season and a cooler winter dry season. Central American montane forests consist of forest patches located at altitudes ranging from 1,800 -- 4,000 metres (5,900 -- 13,100 ft), on the summits and slopes of the highest mountains in Central America ranging from Southern Mexico, through Guatemala, El Salvador, and Honduras, to northern Nicaragua. The entire ecoregion covers an area of 13,200 square kilometers (5,100 sq mi) and has a temperate climate with relatively high precipitation levels.
Ecoregions are not only established to protect the forests themselves but also because they are habitats for an incomparably rich and often endemic fauna. Almost half of the bird population of the Talamancan montane forests in Costa Rica and Panama are endemic to this region. Several birds are listed as threatened, most notably the resplendent quetzal (Pharomacrus mocinno), three - wattled bellbird (Procnias tricarunculata), bare - necked umbrellabird (Cephalopterus glabricollis), and black guan (Chamaepetes unicolor). Many of the amphibians are endemic and depend on the existence of forest. The golden toad that once inhabited a small region in the Monteverde Reserve, which is part of the Talamancan montane forests, has not been seen alive since 1989 and is listed as extinct by IUCN. The exact causes for its extincition are unknown. Global warming may have played a role, because the development of fog that is typical for this area may have been compromised. Seven small mammals are endemic to the Costa Rica - Chiriqui highlands within the Talamancan montane forest region. Jaguars, cougars, spider monkeys, as well as tapirs, and anteaters live in the woods of Central America. The Central American red brocket is a brocket deer found in Central America 's tropical forest.
Central America is geologically very active, with volcanic eruptions and earthquakes occurring frequently, and tsunamis occurring occasionally. Many thousands of people have died as a result of these natural disasters.
Most of Central America rests atop the Caribbean Plate. This tectonic plate converges with the Cocos, Nazca, and North American plates to form the Middle America Trench, a major subduction zone. The Middle America Trench is situated some 60 -- 160 kilometers (37 -- 99 mi) off the Pacific coast of Central America and runs roughly parallel to it. Many large earthquakes have occurred as a result of seismic activity at the Middle America Trench. For example, subduction of the Cocos Plate beneath the North American Plate at the Middle America Trench is believed to have caused the 1985 Mexico City earthquake that killed as many as 40,000 people. Seismic activity at the Middle America Trench is also responsible for earthquakes in 1902, 1942, 1956, 1982, 1992, 2001, 2007, 2012, 2014, and many other earthquakes throughout Central America.
The Middle America Trench is not the only source of seismic activity in Central America. The Motagua Fault is an onshore continuation of the Cayman Trough which forms part of the tectonic boundary between the North American Plate and the Caribbean Plate. This transform fault cuts right across Guatemala and then continues offshore until it merges with the Middle America Trench along the Pacific coast of Mexico, near Acapulco. Seismic activity at the Motagua Fault has been responsible for earthquakes in 1717, 1773, 1902, 1976, 1980, and 2009.
Another onshore continuation of the Cayman Trough is the Chixoy - Polochic Fault, which runs parallel to, and roughly 80 kilometers (50 mi) to the north, of the Motagua Fault. Though less active than the Motagua Fault, seismic activity at the Chixoy - Polochic Fault is still thought to be capable of producing very large earthquakes, such as the 1816 earthquake of Guatemala.
Managua, the capital of Nicaragua, was devastated by earthquakes in 1931 and 1972.
Volcanic eruptions are also common in Central America. In 1968 the Arenal Volcano, in Costa Rica, erupted killing 87 people as the 3 villages of Tabacon, Pueblo Nuevo and San Luis were buried under pyroclastic flows and debris. Fertile soils from weathered volcanic lava have made it possible to sustain dense populations in the agriculturally productive highland areas.
The population of Central America is estimated at 47,448,333 as of 2016. With an area of 523,780 square kilometers (202,230 sq mi), it has a population density of 81 per square kilometer (210 / sq mi).
The official language majority in all Central American countries is Spanish, except in Belize, where the official language is English. Mayan languages constitute a language family consisting of about 26 related languages. Guatemala formally recognized 21 of these in 1996. Xinca and Garifuna are also present in Central America.
This region of the continent is very rich in terms of ethnic groups. The majority of the population is mestizo, with sizable Mayan and White populations present, including Xinca and Garifuna minorities. The immigration of Arabs, Jews, Chinese, Europeans and others brought additional groups to the area.
The predominant religion in Central America is Christianity (95.6 %). Beginning with the Spanish colonization of Central America in the 16th century, Roman Catholicism became the most popular religion in the region until the first half of the 20th century. Since the 1960s, there has been an increase in other Christian groups, particularly Protestantism, as well as other religious organizations, and individuals identifying themselves as having no religion.
Sistema de Integración Centroamericana Central American Integration System
Motto: "Peace, Development, Liberty and Democracy '' Anthem: La Granadera
Central America is currently undergoing a process of political, economic and cultural transformation that started in 1907 with the creation of the Central American Court of Justice.
In 1951 the integration process continued with the signature of the San Salvador Treaty, which created the ODECA, the Organization of Central American States. However, the unity of the ODECA was limited by conflicts between several member states.
In 1991, the integration agenda was further advanced by the creation of the Central American Integration System (Sistema para la Integración Centroamericana, or SICA). SICA provides a clear legal basis to avoid disputes between the member states. SICA membership includes the 7 nations of Central America plus the Dominican Republic, a state that is traditionally considered part of the Caribbean.
On 6 December 2008 SICA announced an agreement to pursue a common currency and common passport for the member nations. No timeline for implementation was discussed.
Central America already has several supranational institutions such as the Central American Parliament, the Central American Bank for Economic Integration and the Central American Common Market.
On 22 July 2011 President Mauricio Funes of El Salvador became the first president pro tempore to SICA. El Salvador also became the headquarters of SICA with the inauguration of a new building.
Until recently, all Central American countries have maintained diplomatic relations with Taiwan instead of China. President Óscar Arias of Costa Rica, however, established diplomatic relations with China in 2007, severing formal diplomatic ties with Taiwan. After breaking off relations with the Republic of China in 2017, Panama established diplomatic relations with the People 's Republic of China.
The Central American Parliament (also known as PARLACEN) is a political and parliamentary body of SICA. The parliament 's beginnings started at around 1980, and its primary goal was to solve wars in Nicaragua, Guatemala, and El Salvador. Although the group was disbanded in 1986, ideas of unity of Central Americans still remained, so a treaty was signed in 1987 to create the Central American Parliament and other political bodies. Its original members were Guatemala, El Salvador, Nicaragua and Honduras. The parliament is the political organ of Central America, and is part of SICA. New members have since then joined including Panama and the Dominican Republic.
Signed in 2004, the Central American Free Trade Agreement (CAFTA) is an agreement between the United States, Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua, and the Dominican Republic. The treaty is aimed at promoting free trade among its members.
Guatemala has the largest economy in the region. Its main exports are coffee, sugar, bananas, petroleum, clothing, and cardamom. Of its 10.29 billion dollar annual exports, 40.2 % go to the United States, 11.1 % to neighboring El Salvador, 8 % to Honduras, 5.5 % to Mexico, 4.7 % to Nicaragua, and 4.3 % to Costa Rica.
Economic growth in Central America is projected to slow slightly in 2014 -- 15, as country - specific domestic factors offset the positive effects from stronger economic activity in the United States.
Tourism in Belize has grown considerably in more recent times, and it is now the second largest industry in the nation. Belizean Prime Minister Dean Barrow has stated his intention to use tourism to combat poverty throughout the country. The growth in tourism has positively affected the agricultural, commercial, and finance industries, as well as the construction industry. The results for Belize 's tourism - driven economy have been significant, with the nation welcoming almost one million tourists in a calendar year for the first time in its history in 2012. Belize is also the only country in Central America with English as its official language, making this country a comfortable destination for English - speaking tourists.
Costa Rica is the most visited nation in Central America. Tourism in Costa Rica is one of the fastest growing economic sectors of the country, having become the largest source of foreign revenue by 1995. Since 1999, tourism has earned more foreign exchange than bananas, pineapples and coffee exports combined. The tourism boom began in 1987, with the number of visitors up from 329,000 in 1988, through 1.03 million in 1999, to a historical record of 2.43 million foreign visitors and $1.92 - billion in revenue in 2013. In 2012 tourism contributed with 12.5 % of the country 's GDP and it was responsible for 11.7 % of direct and indirect employment.
Tourism in Nicaragua has grown considerably recently, and it is now the second largest industry in the nation. Nicaraguan President Daniel Ortega has stated his intention to use tourism to combat poverty throughout the country. The growth in tourism has positively affected the agricultural, commercial, and finance industries, as well as the construction industry. The results for Nicaragua 's tourism - driven economy have been significant, with the nation welcoming one million tourists in a calendar year for the first time in its history in 2010.
The Inter-American Highway is the Central American section of the Pan-American Highway, and spans 5,470 kilometers (3,400 mi) between Nuevo Laredo, Mexico, and Panama City, Panama. Because of the 87 kilometers (54 mi) break in the highway known as the Darién Gap, it is not possible to cross between Central America and South America in an automobile.
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whats the difference between malt liqour and beer | Malt liquor - wikipedia
Malt liquor, in North America, is beer with high alcohol content. Legally, it often includes any alcoholic beverage with 5 % or more alcohol by volume made with malted barley. In common usage, it refers to beers containing a high alcohol content, generally above 6 %, which are made with ingredients and processes resembling those for American - style lagers.
In parts of Canada, the term "malt liquor '' (French: liqueur de malt) is used to refer to any malt beverages in general.
In order to highlight the potency of malt liquor, American malt liquor brand names and advertisements have stressed themes of power and sexual dominance. Brewers ' use of target marketing in advertising malt liquor primarily to young, male African - American residents of inner city areas in the United States has been controversial, due to the drink having higher alcohol content than ordinary beer and the perceived vulnerability of the target audience.
Malt liquor is a strong lager or ale in which sugar, corn or other adjuncts are added to the malted barley to boost the total amount of fermentable sugars in the wort, and thus boost the final alcohol concentration without creating a heavier or sweeter taste. These beers tend to be mildly hopped; that is, they are not very bitter.
Malt liquor is typically straw to pale amber in color. While typical beer is made primarily from barley, water, and hops, malt liquors tend to make much greater use of inexpensive adjuncts such as corn, rice, or dextrose. Use of these adjuncts, along with the addition of special enzymes, results in a higher percentage of alcohol than an average beer. Higher alcohol versions, sometimes called "high - gravity '' or just "HG '', may contain high levels of fusel alcohols, which gives off solvent - or fuel - like aromas and flavors.
The confusing and inconsistent use of the term "malt liquor '' has to do with the vagaries of American alcoholic beverage regulations, which can vary from state to state. In some states, "malt liquor '' refers to any alcoholic beverage made by fermenting grain and water; in these states a non-alcoholic beer may also be called a non-alcoholic or non-intoxicating malt liquor. In some states, products labeled "beer '' must fall below a certain alcohol content, and beers that exceed the mark must be labeled as "malt liquor ''. While ordinary beers in the United States average around 5 % alcohol by volume, malt liquors typically range from 6 % up to 9 % alcohol by volume. A typical legal definition is Colorado 's Rev. Stat. ss. 12 - 47 - 103 (19), which provides that:
"Malt Liquors '' includes beer and shall be construed to mean any beverage obtained by the alcoholic fermentation of any infusion or decoction of barley, malt, hops or any other similar products, or any combination thereof, in water containing more than three and two - tenths percent of alcohol by weight.
Alcohol percentages measured by weight translate into larger figures when re-expressed as alcohol percentages by volume, because ethanol is less dense than water.
The term "malt liquor '' is documented in England in 1690 as a general term encompassing both beer and ale. The first mention of the term in North America appears in a patent issued by the Canadian government on July 6, 1842, to one G. Riley for "an improved method of brewing ale, beer, porter, and other maltliquors. ''
While Colt 45, St. Ides, Mickey 's, Steel Reserve, King Cobra, and Olde English 800 are most closely associated with malt liquors in the United States, the beverage itself is older than these products. Clix is often credited as the first malt liquor made in the United States, granted a patent in 1948. The first widely successful malt liquor brand in America was Country Club, which was produced in the early 1950s by the M.K. Goetz Brewing Company in St. Joseph, Missouri.
The core market for malt liquor brewers in the United States has been the African - American and Hispanic populations. Brewers ' use of target marketing in advertising malt liquor primarily to young, inner - city, African - American males has been controversial, due to the drink 's higher alcohol content and the perceived vulnerability of the target audience. Brewers and advertisers have stated that they simply advertise to those who already buy their products. Critics have objected to the targeting of a segment of the population suffering disproportionately from alcohol - related disease and poor access to medical care.
In order to highlight the potency of malt liquor, brand names have stressed powerful imagery such as Colt 45, Big Bear, and Power Master, and used slogans such as "It 's got more '' or "The Real Power ''. Power and sexual dominance have been common themes in advertising. Ads for Power Master were eventually banned in the United States due to regulations against advertising the strength of alcoholic beverages.
The National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (NIAAA) has reported that African Americans suffer disproportionate rates of cirrhosis of the liver and other alcohol - related health problems. In light of such statistics, African - American community leaders and some health officials have concluded that targeting high - alcohol beverage ads at this segment of the population is unethical and socially irresponsible. In 1991, U.S. Surgeon General Antonia Novello criticized all alcoholic beverage companies for "unabashedly targeting teenagers '' with "sexual imagery, cartoons, and rock and rap music '' in television and print ads.
In the American vernacular, a forty - ounce or simply forty is a glass or plastic bottle that holds 40 fluid ounces (1.18 litres, or 2.5 U.S. pints) of malt liquor. Malt liquors are commonly sold in 40 fluid ounce bottles, among other sizes, as opposed to the standard twelve ounce (355 mL) bottle that contains a single serving of beer, although many malt liquors are offered in varying volumes.
After the introduction of 40 - ounce containers, which contain roughly the same amount of alcohol as five regular cocktails, "40s '' became a favorite high of many youth in inner - city areas. When American suburban youth adopted the habit of drinking malt liquor, drug counselors began to refer to "40s '' as "liquid crack '' and "date - rape brew ''.
Examples of malt liquors sold in forty ounce bottles include Olde English 800, Colt 45, Mickey 's, Camo 40, Black Fist, Country Club, Black Bull, Labatt Blue Dry 6.1 / 7.1 / 8.1 / 9.1 / 10.1, WildCat, Molson Dry 6.5 / 7.5 / 8.5 / 10.1, Private Stock, Big Bear, St. Ides, Steel Reserve 211, B40 Bull Max, King Cobra, Jeremiah Weed, and Hurricane. Dogfish Head Brewery has sporadically produced a high - end bottle - conditioned forty called "Liquor de Malt ''. Ballantine markets its ale in a forty - ounce bottle as well.
Forties are often mentioned in hip - hop and rap culture by rap stars endorsing the "40 '' Ounce tradition. A similar trend was common around the late 1990s ' and early 2000s ' punk scene, with such songs as "40. oz Casualty '' by The Casualties and "Rock the 40. Oz. '' by Leftöver Crack; and "40oz. to Freedom '' by Sublime.
At least for a brief period in the mid-1990s, some brands of malt liquor, including Olde English 800, Colt 45, and Mickey 's, were available in even larger, 64 - ounce glass bottles. Forty - ounce bottles are not permitted in some US states, such as Florida, where the largest container that a malt beverage may be sold at retail is 32 US fluid ounces.
While American malt liquor brands are rarely, if ever, exported to Europe, similar inexpensive high - alcohol beers are available in many areas there; these include the "super-strength lagers '' such as Tennent 's Super and Carlsberg Special Brew in the United Kingdom, and in France the "bières fortes '' Amsterdam Navigator, Amsterdam Maximator and Bavaria 8.6; Arboga 10.2 % of Sweden or Olvi Tuplapukki and Karhu Tosi Vahva in Finland.
Another example of an imported beer labeled as "malt liquor '' is German brewer Spaten 's Optimator, a doppelbock that weighs in at 7.6 ABV.
There was a short lived fashion for brewing American style malt liquors in Britain in the late 1970s and early 1980s. Some of these were genuine American brands brewed under license, notably Colt 45, and some were simply inspired by the style. They generally contained 5 % ABV. These beers were heavily marketed for a few years but failed to make a lasting impact and are no longer produced.
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where did the name funnel cake come from | Funnel cake - wikipedia
Funnel cake (Drechderkuche in Pennsylvania German) is a regional food popular in North America at carnivals, fairs, sporting events, and seaside resorts.
The concept of the funnel cake dates back to the early medieval Persian world, where similar yeast - risen dishes were first prepared and later spread to Europe. Pennsylvania Dutch immigrants brought the yeast dish, known as Drechderkuche, to America and around 1879 developed the baking powder version along with its new name, funnel cake.
Funnel cakes are made by pouring batter into hot cooking oil in a circular pattern and deep frying the overlapping mass until golden - brown. The batter is commonly poured through a funnel creating its texture and giving its name. When made at concession stands, a pitcher with an integral funnel spout is employed. Alton Brown recommends they be baked with choux pastry, which expands from steam produced by its high water content.
Funnel cakes are typically served plain with powdered sugar, but can also be served with jam / jelly, cinnamon, chocolate, fresh fruit, or other toppings.
They are similar in recipe to angel wings, the difference being the density of the mix. The dough for angel wings is viscous enough to be cut into shapes and dropped into the oil by hand.
In south German cuisine the equivalent is called Strauben or Strieble and is made and served similarly. In Finnish cuisine the analogous tippaleipä is traditionally served at May Day (Vappu) celebrations. In Lithuania it is called skruzdėlynas, which literal translation is the ant nest, normally it is made at early spring to empty stock of last year honey and make more space for the new one and at the first harvest of honey.
In the Indian subcontinent a similar dessert, with a crystallized sugary exterior coating, is called jalebi; in Iran this is known as zulbia and is a popular dessert. These differ from funnel cake in using no baking powder, which results in a somewhat chewy texture.
It is called "shakoy '' in the Southern Philippines where it is shaped into twisted strips covered in sugar after frying.
In North America, funnel cakes were originally associated with Pennsylvania Dutch Country. It is one of the first North American fried foods, which is associated with the Pennsylvania Dutch, German immigrants who came to Pennsylvania in the 17th and 18th centuries. The Pennsylvania Dutch called the first funnel cakes drechter kuche. The name "funnel '' later came from the technique used to make the cakes, in which the pancake - like batter is poured into hot oil through a funnel.
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who plays reid's mom on criminal minds | Spencer Reid - Wikipedia
Spencer Reid is a fictional character from the CBS crime drama Criminal Minds, portrayed by Matthew Gray Gubler. Reid is a genius with an IQ of 187 and can read 20,000 words per minute with an eidetic memory (meaning that he can remember an exceedingly large amount of information with extraordinary detail.) He is the youngest member of the FBI 's Behavioral Analysis Unit (BAU), has three BAs and three PhDs, and specializes in statistics and geographic profiling.
Reid was born in 1981 and is a genius and autodidact who graduated from a Las Vegas public high school at age 12. He has an IQ of 187, an eidetic memory, and can read 20,000 words per minute (an average American adult reads prose text at 200 -- 300 words per minute). He holds B.A.s in Psychology, Sociology, and Philosophy, a Ph. D. in Chemistry and Engineering as well as a Ph. D. in Mathematics from Caltech.
Reid is 23 in the pilot episode, having joined the unit when he was 22. His fellow team members almost always introduce him as Dr. Reid. Hotch reveals in the first season that Gideon insists on introducing him as Dr. Reid because Gideon fears that, because of his age, Reid will not be taken seriously as an FBI agent. This was a genuine concern, both for in - universe and for audience acceptance, since in real life the minimum age to become an FBI Special Agent is 23, with at least three more years to obtain Supervisory Special Agent status, and appointments to the BAU do not usually occur until after at least eight to ten years in the FBI. While filming the pilot, the show 's FBI consultant informed Matthew Gray Gubler that there was nothing realistic about his character.
Before Gubler was cast in the role, the character was envisioned as more like Data from Star Trek. However, the producers liked Gubler 's softer interpretation, despite telling the actor he was wrong for the part. After several callbacks, he was hired.
During October 2012, series creator Jeff Davis tweeted that Reid was originally envisioned to be bisexual, but the network shut the idea down by the fourth episode when Reid develops a crush on his colleague, Jennifer "JJ '' Jareau.
As a common characteristic of people with Asperger 's syndrome, Reid is socially awkward. Reid has a hard time dealing with his emotions. He often fixates on things (prompting Morgan and other team members to have to tell him to be quiet), and misses social cues at times (for example, unknowingly changing the subject of a conversation). The Unknown Subject ("UnSub '') in "Broken Mirror '' notes this, and Gubler stated in an interview in the show 's second season "(Reid) 's an eccentric genius, with hints of schizophrenia and minor autism, Asperger 's syndrome. Reid is 24 years old with three Ph. D.s and one can not usually achieve that without some form of autism. '' Writer Sharon Lee Watson stated in a Twitter chat that Reid 's Asperger traits make the character more lovable.
Gubler has commented on the differences between Reid and similarly odd character Penelope Garcia: "She represents everything he 's not, she 's very tech oriented and I would like to imagine he is more like 1920s smart, books and reading etc ''. Kirsten Vangsness agreed, adding that Garcia is more extroverted and available emotionally, whereas Reid struggles with his emotions. Reid is a technophobe, using neither email nor the new iPads. Gubler tweeted that Reid is also germaphobic. In general, Reid dislikes shaking hands, and shows adverse reactions when touched by strangers. It is speculated the character may also have slight obsessive compulsive disorder, particularly from a scene in "Out of the Light '' where Derek Morgan slightly moves an item in the home of an UnSub afflicted with OCD, and Reid immediately places it back to its previous spot.
Reid is a good map - reader, and therefore does the geographic profiling and map - related activities for the team. He also has a talent with words, and is the team 's go - to linguistic profiler, as well as their unofficial discourse analyst. He is rarely seen behind the wheel -- one time when Morgan hands him the keys, JJ and Emily exchange horrified expressions -- but in "Lo - Fi '' he is seen getting into the driver 's side of a vehicle and even driving that same vehicle in one scene, as well as driving to Gideon 's cabin in "In Name and Blood, '' and in "Nelson 's Sparrow. '' However, he is usually seen as a backseat passenger during car scenes, and he commutes to work using the Metro, and presumably the VRE.
Spencer Walter Reid was born in Las Vegas to William Reid (Taylor Nichols), a lawyer, and Diana Reid (Jane Lynch), a former professor of 15th century literature. Diana also has paranoid schizophrenia, and went off her medication during her pregnancy. Reid and his mother have a very close relationship despite her condition.
At age four, Spencer was approached by a man, Gary Michaels, while playing chess at a local park. Although Spencer was unharmed, Diana insisted the family move because she believed her son was in danger. Shortly thereafter, Spencer 's six - year - old neighbor, Riley Jenkins, was sexually abused and murdered. Diana told Lou Jenkins, Riley 's father, about the park incident. Diana then followed Jenkins and witnessed him beat Michaels to death with a baseball bat, getting blood on her clothes in the process. In order to protect his wife, William burned Diana 's clothes, which Spencer inadvertently witnessed. Jenkins avoided arrest because Michaels "disappeared '', and as he had a criminal history as a sexual predator, the police did n't look very hard into the case. Years later, Reid starts having nightmares about the incident, initially leading him to believe his own father was Riley 's killer. Rossi and Morgan help him investigate. After undergoing hypnosis to recover his memories, Reid mistakenly believes he saw his father burning Riley 's clothes, not Diana 's. He pursues his father as a suspect, even after it becomes clear that Michaels is the more likely perpetrator. Michaels ' body is found, and DNA confirms his killer was Lou Jenkins, who is arrested. While Reid is interviewing Jenkins, demanding to know how his father was involved, his parents interrupt and confess to their son the whole story.
At ten years old, Reid 's father abandoned the family. The Michaels incident had already started the rift, and as Diana 's mental state continued to deteriorate due to her paranoid schizophrenia, William left, refusing to take Spencer with him. He moved ten miles away, and never contacted his son. Reid finds out his father 's address from Lou Jenkins seventeen years later, as well as the fact that his father never changed jobs. William later states that the reason he never returned was because he was too ashamed, and felt too much time had passed for him to re-enter Reid 's life, although he did keep electronic tabs on his son. When his father was leaving, young Spencer tried to convince him to stay by using a statistic that children of parents who remain together receive more education. This angered William: "We 're not statistics. '' Reid states that one way he gets back at his father is to collect more educational degrees.
Due to his young age and genius IQ, Reid was a victim of severe bullying in high school. In "Elephant 's Memory '', he recounts one instance where he was stripped naked and tied to a goalpost in front of other students, remaining there for hours. In "L.D.S.K. '', Hotchner is forced to kick Reid in order to allow him access to a gun in order to shoot a suspect. When Hotch says he is sorry if he hurt him, Reid points out that he was a child prodigy in a Las Vegas school and tells Hotch, "you kick like a nine - year - old girl ''. Reid 's social standing as a child increased when he started winning games as the coach of his high school 's basketball team, using statistics to break down the opposing teams ' shooting strategies.
At age twelve, Reid graduated from high school. He attended Caltech, where he rode his bike to classes. He finished his undergraduate degree at sixteen, and received his first doctorate (in Mathematics) the following year. It has also been stated that he attended MIT, but episode writer Breen Frazier admitted the MIT line was a mistake, although it has not yet been corrected onscreen. Yale University was Reid 's "safety school ''. Between the ages of 17 and 21, he completed two more doctorates (Chemistry and Engineering), and two more Bachelor 's degrees (psychology and sociology).
When Reid was eighteen, he realized his mother 's condition had deteriorated to the point where she could no longer take care of herself and had her committed involuntarily to a psychiatric institution, Bennington Sanitarium. Diana still resides in the same institution, and Reid says that he sends her letters every day, in part because of the guilt he feels for not visiting her. He worries about the fact that his mother 's illness can be passed on genetically; telling Morgan: "I know what it 's like to be afraid of your own mind ''.
Currently, Reid resides in an apartment in the District of Columbia, possibly near the Van Ness - UDC Metro stop.
Reid joined the FBI at either the age 21 or 22, depending upon what age he entered the FBI Academy. While there was "no psychological exam or test the FBI could put in front of him he could not ace inside of an hour '', he did struggle with the more physical aspects of training, and ultimately received waivers for those requirements. Even after a year in the field, Reid still struggles to pass his gun qualifications. He is often left behind during takedowns, has never given chase, and jokes that it 's Morgan 's job to kick down the doors. This does not bother the team, because while he has shown an ability to physically disarm unsubs, his true talent is psychologically disarming them, as well as his abilities to solve the cases behind the scenes.
Profiling is the only profession Reid considered, and he was groomed specifically for the BAU. Upon graduation from the Academy, he was placed in the BAU at age 22, and given the title Supervisory Special Agent. His first case in the field was the Blue Ridge Strangler.
Gideon is Reid 's closest confidante on the team during the first two seasons, and often serves as a mentor to Reid. Gideon 's departure affects Reid deeply. He tries playing all possible chess moves in order to understand.
Reid is close to JJ, Morgan, and Emily Prentiss. JJ asks him to be godfather to her new born son Henry, and is the only one on the team who calls him "Spence. '' It is implied in "Plain Sight '' that Reid may have a slight crush on JJ, and Gideon even prods him to ask out JJ after giving him Washington Redskins football tickets for his birthday, but nothing comes from it, and they continue with their brother - sister relationship. However, Reid is very protective of her, and often blames himself if she is injured; even if there was nothing he could have done to prevent it. In "Closing Time '', after she arrests an unsub, but gets hurt in the process, Spencer is seen counting her injuries as she sits in the ambulance and tells the paramedic that she should be going to get a CAT scan. Reid also shares a brotherly friendship with Derek Morgan. In season seven, he is comfortable enough to start a joke war with him, something that he probably would never do with anyone else, and he occasionally confides his secrets to Morgan. It is suggested in the episode "Epilogue '' that Reid told Derek details about what Tobias Hankel did to him when he makes a remark about seeing the afterlife before Tobias saved him. Morgan looks surprised and says "You never told me that. '' In the episode "Elephant 's Memory '', when approached by a fully armed Owen Savage, the unsub whom Reid identifies with, Reid gives Prentiss his gun and trusts her enough to back him up and not shoot at Owen as he tries talking Owen down. Although not shown, it is implied Reid and Prentiss spend time together outside of work heavily, along with riding the train home together when they return from cases. Prentiss is the only one who has beat Reid at poker, even correcting his statistic about her particular poker move. Reid and Prentiss are held hostage by a cult led by Benjamin Cyrus (portrayed by Luke Perry). Though he is not injured, Reid struggles with guilt over "allowing '' Prentiss 's beating at the hands of Cyrus in "Minimal Loss ''. Reid later becomes close to Alex Blake, whose forensic linguistics class he guest lectures in. Blake serves as a maternal figure within the BAU.
Reid contracts anthrax during an outbreak in Maryland, and is later shot in the leg protecting a doctor whose life is being threatened.
During "Corazon '', Reid begins to suffer from severe headaches and hallucinations. He goes to see a doctor in order to find out the source of his headaches, but the doctor says there is no physical cause for his headaches, and they may be psychosomatic. Reid refuses to believe this, afraid that he may be suffering from the same illness as his mother. It is not mentioned again until "Coda '', when he is seen once again wearing sunglasses and is carrying a book on migraines. In the same episode, Reid bonds with a young autistic boy, Sammy Sparks. A cut line from the episode has Rossi stating that Sammy and Reid are two of the most fascinating minds he 's ever encountered. In the episode "Valhalla '', Reid tells Prentiss about his headaches. By then, Reid has gone to several doctors, but no one has been able to diagnose what is wrong with him. He tells Prentiss that he has not told any of the team members because he is afraid that they will "make him feel like a baby. ''
In "Lauren '', it is Reid and Garcia who react most strongly to the news of Emily 's death. Reid 's reaction is to run out of the room, and he ends up sobbing into JJ 's shoulder telling her that he "never got a chance to say goodbye. '' In season seven, when Emily returns and Reid discovers Hotch and JJ faked her death, he is upset, especially with JJ. He tells her he feels betrayed because he came to her house "for 10 weeks in a row, crying over losing a friend '' and "not once did you have the decency to tell me the truth. '' She does n't say anything. He asks J.J. "what if '' he had started using Dilaudid again after Emily "died. ''
In "True Genius '', Reid doubts his reasons for being in the BAU and wonders if he should be doing more with his ' genius '. This is caused by the unsub sending him taunting messages and challenging Reid to find him. In this episode, he also reveals that the team missed his 30th birthday. At the end of the episode, the team throw him a mini birthday party.
After being kidnapped by a serial killer with multiple personalities, Tobias Hankel (James Van Der Beek), Reid is tortured and drugged over the course of two days in "Revelations ''. This leads him to develop an addiction to the narcotic painkiller Dilaudid. While the BAU team members have their suspicions about Spencer 's addiction, none of them confront him about it. An old friend of Reid 's in New Orleans is also aware that Reid suffers from ' problems ' in "Jones ''.
Reid gets clean and attends a support group meeting for addicts in law enforcement in "Elephant 's Memory '', at which he admits struggling with cravings as well as with traumatic memories, including a young adult suspect 's shooting death in his presence. When he contracts anthrax in "Amplification '', he strictly refused to take any narcotic painkillers in an attempt to remain clean. Memories of his torture under Hankel later allow him to empathize with other victims.
Throughout the show, Reid shows a lack of interest when interacting with women. The only three exceptions are Lila Archer, a young actress he is assigned to protect; Austin (Courtney Ford), a bartender he "woos '' with magic tricks while showing her a sketch of a potential suspect; and Maeve, a geneticist he first meets through correspondence, then later weekly phone calls. In "Memoriam '', a prostitute hits on Reid in a Las Vegas casino, but he is oblivious to her intentions.
In "Somebody 's Watching '', with the team on a case to protect a TV starlet, Reid saves Lila Archer (Amber Heard) from being harmed by a serial killer. Reid and Lila kindle a short - lived romance, beginning when Lila pulls Reid, fully clothed, into her pool for a kiss. At the end of the episode, they go their separate ways, and Lila is not seen in further episodes.
In another episode, Reid and Morgan are in a nightclub trying to find a serial murderer who picks up women in nightclubs. Reid is having trouble talking to the women in these clubs, especially since he is spouting facts about club - related deaths, but Morgan helps him out. Reid starts a conversation with the female bartender, and proceeds to do a magic trick in which he appears to jab a pen through the eye of a police sketch, but pulls it through, leaving the paper unscathed. She expresses interest in him, and he gives her his business card in case she hears something about the killer. Later, she sees the killer with another potential victim and intentionally spills her drink on the lady, pulling her away. The killer seems to disappear, and while the bartender goes outside to phone Reid, he grabs her. The team responds quickly and saves her before she is harmed. At the end of the episode, she and Reid are talking over the phone, and he opens a package at his desk that contains the card that he gave her -- with a lipstick kiss on the back.
In "God Complex '', Reid begins calling a mystery woman on a pay phone and they talk about his progress with his headaches and sleep deprivation. It is revealed that she is in danger and does n't want someone to know about her and Reid. While on a case in New Mexico, Alex Blake drops Reid off at a phone booth, unaware that he is going to call the mystery woman. Blake later returns and questions his motives. The two agents have a heated discussion, and he tells her the mystery woman is a geneticist he contacted about his headaches during season six, whom he believes can help on the case. Thanks to her, they are able to find the unsub and save his latest victim. At the end of the episode, Reid thanks her for her help and tells her that he and the BAU can help her in her situation. However, she refuses because she does n't want him to hurt Reid. She ends the phone call by telling him that she loves him. Left shocked and speechless, he starts walking to his left but then turns around and walks to his right. Sometime after "The Lesson '', Reid continues calling his mystery woman, and it is revealed that her name is Maeve (portrayed by Beth Riesgraf). She tells Reid that her stalker might be gone and because of this, she wants to meet him. During a case in Arizona, Blake confronts him about "phone booth girl ''. Reid tells Blake that he 's nervous to meet her because he already believes she 's the most beautiful girl in the world, and he is afraid that she wo n't like him because of his looks. Blake encourages him to meet her. After Reid gets back from the case, they plan to meet at a fancy restaurant until Reid sees a man gazing over at him. Thinking him to be Maeve 's stalker, Reid calls her to cancel while she is right outside. Spencer realizes that the man is not the stalker, and Maeve has already left. The hostess gives him a bag that she left for him. It turns out to be the very same book he was going to give to her by Sir Arthur Conan Doyle. Inside, she has written a quote by Thomas Merton; "Love is our true destiny. We do not find the meaning of life by ourselves alone. We find it with another. ''
In "Zugzwang '', Reid discovers that Maeve has been kidnapped by her stalker. In the investigation, he meets Maeve 's former fiance, the man he believed to be her stalker. Reid becomes more and more distressed by the situation and discovers that her kidnapper is not her ex-fiance, but the man 's girlfriend. Reid searches excessively to find her, and even offers to take her place. He discovers that the stalker wants attention from him and to be seen as an equal. He gets a clue from the stalker leading him to her location, where he tricks the unsub into believing that he is in love with her. Reid finally meets Maeve face - to - face during the situation and is able to briefly subdue the stalker, only to have her hold Maeve at gunpoint. He once again offers to take Maeve 's place, but the unsub kills herself and Maeve in one shot.
Reid spends two weeks alone in his apartment after Maeve 's death. The team constantly tries to help him, but he refuses to answer the door. While Reid remains at home, the team travel to another case. They call him for help a few times before he joins the team in person. Once the case is complete, Reid asks Morgan, Penelope, and JJ to help clean up his apartment. He picks up The Narrative of John Smith (given to him by Maeve) with the Thomas Merton quote and places it on the bookshelf.
In the months following, Reid throws himself into his work when he is not able to sleep because of a recurring dream where Maeve asks him to dance with her, but forces himself to wake up before he answers. By the end of "Alchemy '', Reid is able to complete the dream by accepting Maeve 's request to dance with her. In "The Inspiration '', Reid admits that, had Maeve not died, he might have had kids. In the season nine finale, it is revealed that he still carries a copy of The Narrative of John Smith in his bag.
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when does the next episode of adventure time come out | Adventure Time (season 10) - wikipedia
The tenth and final season of Adventure Time, an American animated television series created by Pendleton Ward, premiered on Cartoon Network on September 17, 2017. It is set to conclude sometime in 2018 and would wrap up the entire series. The season was produced by Cartoon Network Studios and Frederator Studios. The season follows the final adventures of Finn, a human boy, and his best friend and adoptive brother Jake, a dog with magical powers to change shape and size at will. Finn and Jake live in the post-apocalyptic Land of Ooo, where they interact with the other main characters of the show: Princess Bubblegum, The Ice King, Marceline the Vampire Queen, Lumpy Space Princess, BMO, and Flame Princess.
A set containing the entire season is scheduled to be released on September 4, 2018.
The series follows the adventures of Finn the Human, a human boy, and his best friend Jake, a dog with magical powers to change shape, grow, and shrink at will. Finn and Jake live in the post-apocalyptic Land of Ooo, wherein they interact with the other major characters, including: Princess Bubblegum, The Ice King, Marceline the Vampire Queen, Lumpy Space Princess, BMO, and Flame Princess. Common storylines revolve around Finn and Jake discovering strange creatures, dealing with the antagonistic but misunderstood Ice King, and battling monsters in order to help others. Multi-episode story arcs for this season include Princess Bubblegum confronting her antagonistic Uncle Gumbald, Finn dealing with Fern 's embrace of the dark side, and Betty trying to turn the Ice King back into Simon Petrikov.
On July 21, 2016, lead writer Kent Osborne posted an image on Twitter that suggested Adventure Time had been renewed for an additional season. At the time, the season was intended to be the show 's ninth. However, the season divisions were later re-arranged by Cartoon Network, and "The Wild Hunt '' became the first episode of season ten. This season 's episodes were produced in a process similar to previous seasons. First, the episodes began as simple two - to - three - page outlines that contained the necessary plot information. These outlines were then handed off to storyboard artists, who then expanded the rough outline into a full storyboard. The episodes ' design and coloring were done in Burbank, California. Animation was handled overseas in South Korea, by Rough Draft Korea and by Saerom Animation.
Storyboard artists who worked on this season include (but are not limited to) Sam Alden, Polly Guo, Seo Kim, Somvilay Xayaphone, Steve Wolfhard, Tom Herpich, Graham Falk, Kent Osborne, Hanna K. Nyström, Aleks Sennwald, Erik Fountain, and Patrick McHale. In regards to other aspects of production, Ghostshrimp -- the series ' former lead background designer -- returned to the series to work on episodes comprising the "final story arc of Adventure Time ''. Ghostshrimp had retired from the show after the fourth season, but had previously returned to draw backgrounds for the seventh - season miniseries Stakes and the ninth - season episodes "Abstract '', "Fionna and Cake and Fionna '', and "Whispers ''. Additionally, Andy Ristaino (a former character designer, storyboard artist, and background designer for the show) returned as a revisionist for this season.
On September 29, 2016, it was confirmed by Cartoon Network that this season would be the show 's last. When asked in an interview with Skwigly about his feelings concerning the end of the series, Osborne said:
It 's weird because I 've never been on a show this long, and I do n't think Cartoon Network has done a show with this many episodes -- for the past few seasons we 've been surprised I think every time it gets picked up. And I think a lot of us were thinking in the back of our minds, ' When is this going to end? Am I gon na be 80 and still writing this?! ' It is sad, and everyone 's kind of grieving, but it 's hard to feel too bad about it, because... they have so many episodes in the bank that it 's gon na play for another couple years.
Osborne did note that Cartoon Network provided the writers with "an opportunity to spend a lot of time thinking about the finale. '' According to a speech given by Pendarvis, storyline writing for the series wrapped up mid-November 2016, with the last storyline meeting being held on November 21. A tweet by Osborne revealed that the show 's final script was pitched to storyboarders Sam Alden and Hanna K. Nyström on November 28. This episode was then pitched to the show 's producers during the third week of December 2016. Voice recording for the season and series ended on January 31, 2017, as confirmed by a number of voice actors, including Maria Bamford and Andy Milonakis.
Production on the series officially ended with a wrap party hosted by Cartoon Network on November 16, 2017. Cast and crew members who had worked on the show since its beginning were invited to the festivities, which, among other things, featured a DJ booth shaped like Finn and Jake 's tree fort, a live band, and Adventure Time - related food items. Following the season 's completion, several crewmembers were hired to work on the upcoming Cartoon Network series Summer Camp Island, which was created by Adventure Time storyline writer Julia Pott.
The voice actors for the season include: Jeremy Shada (Finn the Human), John DiMaggio (Jake the Dog), Tom Kenny (The Ice King), Hynden Walch (Princess Bubblegum), and Olivia Olson (Marceline the Vampire Queen). Ward himself provides the voice for several minor characters, including Lumpy Space Princess. Former storyboard artist Niki Yang voices the sentient video game console BMO in English, as well as Jake 's girlfriend Lady Rainicorn in Korean. Polly Lou Livingston, a friend of Pendleton Ward 's mother, Bettie Ward, plays the voice of the small elephant Tree Trunks. Jessica DiCicco voices Flame Princess, Finn 's ex-girlfriend and the sovereign of the Fire Kingdom. Andy Milonakis voices N.E.P.T.R., a sentient robot who makes and throws pies. The Lich, the series ' principal antagonist, is portrayed by Ron Perlman in his demonic form. The Adventure Time cast records their lines together as opposed to doing it individually. This is to capture more natural sounding dialogue among the characters. Hynden Walch has described these group session as akin to "doing a play reading -- a really, really out there play. ''
In addition to the regular cast members, episodes feature guest voices from many ranges of professions, including actors, musicians, and artists. "The Wild Hunt '', "Always BMO Closing '', "Bonnibel Bubblegum '', "Seventeen '', and "Gumbaldia '' feature Fred Melamed voicing Princess Bubblegum 's Uncle Gumbald. In "The Wild Hunt '', Jenny Slate reprises her role as Huntress Wizard. "Son of Rap Bear '' sees Dumbfoundead voices the titular character, Rekstizzy voices Rap Bear, Keith David reprise his role as Flame King, Paul Scheer reprises his role as Toronto, and Open Mike Eagle voices a gingerbread man. In "Bonnibel Bubblegum '', Livvy Stubenrauch voices the younger Princess Bubblegum, and former supervising director Andres Salaff reprises his role as Neddy.
In "Seventeen '' and "Gumbaldia '' Brad Neely plays the Green Knight. "Ring of Fire '' features David Herman as Randy, Raza Jaffrey as Danny, and Andy Daly as Wyatt. In, "Marcy & Hunson '', Martin Olson reprises his role as Hunson Abadeer, the father of Marceline. In "The First Investigation '', Marc Evan Jackson reprises his role as Kim Kil Whan, and Dave Foley voices the shape - shifter. Foley would reprise this role in the episode "Jake the Starchild ''. The episode "Temple of Mars '' features Felicia Day reprising her role as Betty; the episode also sees the return of Tom Scharpling as Jermaine the dog.
Various other characters are voiced by Dee Bradley Baker, Maria Bamford, Steve Little, and Melissa Villaseñor.
Much like the sixth, seventh, eighth, and ninth seasons, the tenth season of Adventure Time featured several episode "bombs '', or instances wherein large amounts of episodes debuted within a relatively short timeframe. The first of these occurred on September 17, 2017, when "The Wild Hunt '', "Always BMO Closing '', "Son of Rap Bear '', and "Bonnibel Bubblegum '' aired. The second of these occurred on December 17, 2017 when "Seventeen '', "Ring of Fire '', "Marcy and Hunson '' and "The First Investigation '' aired. The third of these occurred on March 18, 2018, when "Blenanas '', "Jake the Starchild '', "Temple of Mars '', and "Gumbaldia '' aired.
The tenth season of Adventure Time debuted on television on September 17, 2017, with the episode "The Wild Hunt ''. It was watched by 0.77 million viewers and scored a 0.24 Nielsen rating in the 18 - to 49 - year - old demographic. Nielsen ratings are audience measurement systems that determine the audience size and composition of television programming in the United States, which means that the episodes were seen by 0.24 percent of all households aged 18 to 49 years old at the time of the episode 's airing. In terms of viewers, this marked a decrease when compared to the season nine finale, "Three Buckets '' (which was seen by 0.85 million individuals), but an increase when compared to the previous season 's premiere, "Orb '' (which was viewed by 0.71 million).
While the tenth season aired, Entertainment Weekly named Adventure Time the tenth - best series of 2018, writing, "All the episodes (that aired in 2018) shined with Adventure Time 's eccentric trademarks: sweet fairy - tale logic, twisted dark humor, full - blown cosmic adventure, an ability to create and puncture myths in under 11 minutes. ''
A DVD set that includes season ten along with seasons eight and nine is scheduled for release on September 4, 2018.
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national gallery of modern art in new delhi is in front of | National Gallery of Modern Art - wikipedia
Coordinates: 28 ° 36 ′ 36 '' N 77 ° 14 ′ 04 '' E / 28.610083 ° N 77.234399 ° E / 28.610083; 77.234399
The National Gallery of Modern Art (NGMA) is the premier art gallery under Ministry of Culture, Government of India. The main museum at Jaipur House in New Delhi was established on March 29, 1954 by the Government of India, with subsequent branches at Mumbai and Bangalore. Its collection of more than 14,000 works includes works by artists such as Thomas Daniell, Raja Ravi Verma, Abanindranath Tagore, Rabindranath Tagore, Gaganendranath Tagore, Nandalal Bose, Jamini Roy, Amrita Sher - Gil as well as foreign artists, apart from sculptures by various artists. Some of the oldest works preserved here date back to 1857. With 12,000 square meters of exhibition space, the Delhi branch is one of the world 's largest modern art museums.
Situated at the end of Rajpath, in the Central Hexagon around the India Gate, the building was a former residential palace of the Maharaja of Jaipur, hence known as Jaipur House. The butterfly - shaped building with a central dome and built in 1936, and designed by Sir Arthur Blomfield, after the construction of Lutyens ' Delhi. The Central Hexagon around the India Gate, where the buildings of leading princely states were situated, was itself designed by Sir Edwin Lutyens.
Though the idea of the National Gallery was floated in 1949, it was formally inaugurated by Vice-president Dr S. Radhakrishnan in 1954, in the presence of Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru. Hermann Goetz (1898 -- 1976), a noted German art historian became its first curator and in time it added new facilities such as Art restoration services, an Art reference Library and a Documentation Centre.
Then in 2009, a new wing of the National Gallery of Modern Art was inaugurated adding almost six times the space to the existing gallery, plus it has a new auditorium, a preview theatre, conservation laboratory, library and academic section as well as a cafeteria and museum shop.
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who played lal on star trek the next generation | The Offspring (Star Trek: the Next Generation) - wikipedia
"The Offspring '' is the 16th episode of the third season of the American science fiction television series Star Trek: The Next Generation, and the 64th episode of the series overall.
The android Data creates a "child '' of his own named Lal and tries to raise her, while Picard takes on Starfleet Research to keep them from taking her away.
Data invites Deanna Troi, Wesley Crusher, and Geordi La Forge to his lab and surprises them by introducing a featureless humanoid android, whom he created based on his own structural design and recent advances in Federation cybernetics technology, describing it as his child. He names the android Lal (after the Hindi word for "beloved '') and encourages it to select a gender and appearance. With Troi 's assistance and considering many of the on - board species as well as the databanks, Lal narrows down to four possibilities, including a Klingon male, which, as Troi points out, would make it "a friend for Worf '', but in the end selects the appearance of a young female human.
Data first aids Lal with cognitive and standard behavioral algorithms, as well encourages her to interact with other members of the crew to learn behavioral and social customs. After a failed attempt to place her in school, due to the other children being intimidated by her, he places her under Guinan 's care at Ten - Forward. This leads to some awkward moments, such as Lal misunderstanding the concept of flirting and kissing, which she first interpreted as "attacking '' until Guinan makes an effort at explaining the practice. Intrigued by this, Lal engages in suddenly dragging and kissing Commander Riker over the bar, leaving him baffled and earning him a fatherly scolding à la "what are your intentions towards my daughter? '' when Data walks in on them. Lal nevertheless adapts very quickly, even, to everyone 's amazement, surpassing Data as stated by her ability to use contractions, something Data never achieved.
Captain Jean - Luc Picard, being informed about Lal and her progress, expresses concern to Data for constructing Lal in secrecy, but Data reminds him that he would not express such concern were two human crewmembers to decide to procreate, to which the captain has little argument. Nevertheless, Picard, as per general orders, reports to Starfleet, prompting Admiral Haftel to arrive to evaluate Lal. From the outset, Haftel is determined to transfer Lal to a Starfleet science facility. He interviews Lal, where she reveals her desire to remain on the Enterprise with her father, but Haftel is unmoved.
Upon leaving the meeting, Lal visits Troi in the counselor 's quarters. Lal is clearly confused and distraught, and to Troi 's amazement, reveals that she is feeling fear. Experiencing an overload of information and emotions, Lal soon stops speaking and wanders off, eventually returning to Data 's lab (as she is programmed to do in the event of a malfunction).
In the meantime, Haftel meets with Data and orders him to release Lal into Starfleet 's custody. Though Data moves to comply, Picard orders him to stand fast and reminds him and the Admiral that Data is a sentient life form with defined rights and can not be ordered to turn what is in essence his child over to the state. But before the discussion can get any more tense, they are interrupted by a call from Troi who explains what has happened to Lal and asks everyone to come to Data 's lab at once.
Upon arriving, Data 's diagnostics find Lal 's emotional outburst is a symptom of a cascade failure in her positronic brain, and they must work fast to stop it. Haftel, seeing Data 's sincerity, offers to assist Data, who accepts. Some time later, a worn - out Haftel leaves the lab and informs Troi, Wesley, and Geordi that they have failed. Visibly moved at Data 's determination to save his child, Haftel explains the failure was irreparable. He is visibly overwhelmed himself, concluding that Lal will not survive for long. Data apologizes to Lal that he could not save her, but Lal thanks Data for her creation. She lets him know she loves him and will feel the emotion for both of them. Data returns to the bridge, and Picard conveys the crew 's condolences, but Data reveals that he has downloaded Lal 's memories into his own neural net, allowing Lal 's memories and experiences to live on.
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enumerate the effect of parent teacher association in school administration | Parent - Teacher Association - wikipedia
A parent - teacher association / organization (PTA / PTO) or parent - teacher - student association (PTSA) is a formal organization composed of parents, teachers and staff that is intended to facilitate parental participation in a school.
In Australia, the function of PTAs is filled by Parents and Citizens Associations, which are governed by both state and national organisational bodies.
Indian schools have PTAs and the government has run initiatives to create awareness of PTAs amongst parents, teachers and school management. There is no national PTA organisation.
A 1992, "Program on Action '' for the 1986 National Policy on Education encouraged ' giving pre-eminence to people 's involvement including association of non-governmental and voluntary effort '.
Government education schemes such as Rashtriya Madhyamik Shiksha Abhiyan (RMSA) and Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA) have advocated community mobilisation and involvement. Under RMSA every school should have a PTA. State District Management Committees (SDMCs) should co-exist with PTAs and leverage their functions. PTAs which should conduct meetings at least once a month and present SDMCs with a register of complaints, suggestions and actions taken. In 2013 - 14 37.54 % of the schools in India had a PTA. A 2010 study suggested that 50 % of parents in rural areas and 45 % in urban areas were aware of the existence of school PTAs.
In 1996, the Maharashtra government declared PTAs mandatory in all schools within the state. By 2014 50 % of the schools had a PTA. State guidelines for PTAs included:
The government of Delhi made PTAs mandatory in government - aided and private unaided schools. All parents are members of the PTA. PTA elections should be every other year and the PTA should hold a general meeting at least once a year. 78.21 % of the schools in Delhi have a PTA.
Decentralisation of school management was promoted though the setting up of PTAs under SSA. A 2016 government ewport stated that 25 % of parents were aware of the existence of PTAs, 43 % of the schools had PTAs and 39 % of PTAs met regularly.
Tamil Nadu government policy includes the demand that PTAs should work towards pupil enrollment and attendance and assist in enhancing the quality of teaching and learning.
A 2010 survey of parents of schoolchildren for the government of India reported that 50 % of respondents were aware of PTAs or MTAs (Mother Teacher Associations) and 16 % were members.
There are plans to organize a PTA in the United Arab Emirates at governmental schools such as ATHS (Applied Technology High School). They are present in the United States, the United Kingdom, and Japan.
In the United Kingdom Parent Teacher Associations are common, being present in the majority of schools (sometimes called Home School Associations). A 2007 NFER study found that 83 per cent of primary schools in England and Wales and 60 per cent of secondary schools had a "PTA or equivalent ''. In England, Wales and Northern Ireland PTAs may choose to join PTA - UK which describes itself as "The national charity representing over 13,750 PTAs across England, Wales and Northern Ireland '' which seeks "To advance education by encouraging the fullest co-operation between home and school, education authorities, central government and all other interested parties and bodies. '' Unlike the USA the fact that a body is called a PTA does not, in itself, imply membership of any national organisation. There is a separate, similar body for Scotland. "The Scottish Parent Teacher Council '' PTAs are, in general not involved in the Governance of Schools, that is a matter for the school governing bodies, but in practice parents who are active in the PTA will tend to engage in the elections of parent representatives (Parent Governors). PTA+ is the leading provider of fundraising advice and support in the UK, publishing the PTA+ Magazine, the www.pta.co.uk website and managazine the PTA+ Facebook page and PTA County Groups on Facebook.
In the U.S., groups which use the PTA acronym are part of the National Parent Teacher Association (National PTA), a non-profit organization based in Alexandria, Virginia. It is the largest and oldest volunteer organization working exclusively on behalf of children and youth.
PTA 's commitment to unified advocacy on behalf of all the nation 's children is best reflected in its motto: Every child. One voice. The overall purpose of PTA is to make every child 's potential a reality by engaging and empowering families and communities to advocate for all children. Groups going by the PTA acronym at the local level are linked to the state PTA and the national PTA organization (National PTA), with the entire PTA network working on behalf of all children and youth. Every person who joins a local PTA automatically becomes a member of both the state and National PTAs, and PTA membership -- including the number of affiliated units and of individual members -- is close to 5 million.
PTA takes an active role in developing programs, advocacy and training, operating at the school building, district, state and national levels and working on policy that supports the educational needs of children and promotes family engagement and strong partnerships between schools and the communities they serve. Local PTA units set their own goals and missions, but they also join together to advocate and partner as a larger group. PTA is membership based and uses money from dues to offer staff support and grants and to develop national programs like the Reflections Arts in Education program and the Standards for Family - School Partnerships implementation guide.
Most public and private elementary and middle schools have a PTA, a Parent Teacher Organization or an equivalent local organization. These organizations also occur (though less frequently) at high schools and preschools. Every person who joins a local PTA automatically becomes a member of both the state and National PTAs. PTA membership -- including the number of affiliated units and of individual members -- has been declining for several decades.
Today, there are 54 PTA congresses: U.S. states, the District of Columbia, the U.S. Virgin Islands, Puerto Rico and Europe (military families, through the U.S. Department of Defense). There are 23,000 local organizations recognized by the National PTA in the United States.
The National Parent Teacher Association was founded on February 17, 1897, in Washington, DC, as the National Congress of Mothers by Alice McLellan Birney and Phoebe Apperson Hearst at a meeting of over 2,000 parents, teachers, workers, and legislators. In 1908, the organization changed its name to the National Congress of Mothers and Parent - Teacher Associations...
Alice Birney 's original vision and Phoebe Hearst 's (wife of California U.S. Senator George Hearst and mother of publisher William Randolph Hearst) social and financial assistance came together in a burst of synergy that drew 2,000 people from across the country to discuss the issues affecting their children at the three - day event. The National Congress of Mothers quickly fanned out into a grassroots organization at state, local and nation levels.
From an annual gathering of delegates determined to serve the nation 's children through an enlightened approach to education, home, environment, health and safety the National Congress of Mothers, now National Parent Teacher Association fanned out into a grassroots organization that took hold on the state and local levels as well as nationally. There were pamphlets written and distributed advising on how to organize "parents ' auxiliaries '' in the public schools and offering suggestions on the best ways to form and meet, and collections of loaned materials on child - development and parenting skills were made available to parents.
The role of PTA has always been to advocate for improvements in the lives of children and youth. The PTA 's strength has helped institute countless positive changes, from the institution of school lunch and inoculation programs to the institution of child labor laws to the promotion of transportation safety, sex education, tobacco and alcohol education, and more. Even today, PTA is actively involved in working toward common goals, fighting for increased federal education funding and against school vouchers.
National PTA 's annual public policy agenda outlines policy priorities and recommendations for Congress. The priorities are selected based on the timeliness of issue, opportunities for National PTA to provide leadership and expertise to Congress, alignment to National PTA 's mission and resolution and ability to achieve a meaningful policy change that will produce positive results for children and their families.
The first issue of National Parent Teacher Association 's Our Children Magazine -- then named The National Congress of Mothers Magazine -- was printed in November 1906. The purpose of the magazine was to give voice to National PTA 's ambitions and to spread the word of its work and mission.
The magazine 's title was changed in December 1909 to Child Welfare, when its focus was solely on the organization 's main concern. By the 1930s, the sophistication of the magazine grew tremendously as it then featured in - depth articles by leading experts in fields such as education, health and child welfare. These works were illustrated by bountiful photos and lively pen - and - ink illustrations. Starting in September 1934, the magazine received another makeover where it was published in an oversized format and renamed as the National Parent - Teacher, "to more definitely associate the publication with the parent - teacher movement. ''
More changes came in 1961 with another new name -- The PTA Magazine -- under the editorial leadership of Eva Grant. She led the magazine to its period of widest influence and greatest circulation from 1939 - 1972. During that time, the magazine featured prominent regular contributors such as J. Edgar Hoover and Margaret Mead, and offered more information for parents than ever before.
In 1975, The PTA Magazine was replaced by PTA Today, a more modest publication that evolved out of the former National PTA Bulletin and appeared in tabloid form during its first three years. Eventually, PTA Today returned to a typical magazine format that was circulated mostly to local PTA units and kept them abreast of National PTA events and programs and provided useful parenting information.
The final major makeover took place in September 1995 when it was made more colorful and became Our Children in line with the founders ' theme of the first convention that "All Children Are Our Children. '' In recent years, Our Children was published bi-monthly, five times per year and distributed to local and state PTA presidents, state PTA board members, state office personnel and a limited number of paid subscribers.
In fall 2015, Our Children was moved to a digital online format geared towards parents. It is now a monthly online publication, with one print edition distribution in the spring.
A Parent Teacher Organization (PTO) is a formal organization that consists of parents, teachers and school staff. The organization 's goals may vary from organization to organization, but essentially the goals include volunteerism of parents, encouragement of teachers and students, community involvement, and welfare of students and families. It is not affiliated with Parent - Teacher Association (PTA) or Parent - Teacher - Student Association (PTSA.) PTA is a national association of millions of members and thousands of local units that provides leadership training and staff support.
Individual organizations typically establish goals and / or a mission statement. Here is a sample PTO Mission Statement from the New Franklin School PTO:
The New Franklin School PTO is a nonprofit parent / teacher organization whose membership includes all parents, legal guardians and staff at New Franklin Elementary School.
The PTO 's mission is to promote open communication and understanding between parents and staff of the New Franklin Elementary School. Our efforts serve to enhance and maximize the education of every child while aiding them in achieving their highest potential.
The PTO sponsors assistance to teachers in classroom setting, holds fund - raisers for supplemental educational materials and experiences, supports school and family social interaction, and provides a non-biased forum for sharing information on issues that impact our children.
It is our belief that the team effort of a parent teacher organization offers the best possible learning environment for our children.
A PTO generally consists of a board. These members may include a president, vice president, secretary and treasurer. They may also include various specialty positions, such as hospitality or programs. The board typically governs the PTO by creating and voting on meeting dates, general meeting programs, etc.
A PTO is not the same as Parent - Teacher Association (PTA). They are similar in that both promote parent participation, but PTA takes a more active role in developing programs, advocacy and training. PTA operates at the school building, district, state and national levels and works on policy to better support children. Local PTA units set their own goals and missions, but they also join together to advocate and partner as a larger group. PTA is membership based and uses money from dues to offer staff support and grants, and to develop national programs, such as their Reflections arts in education program and their Standards for Family - School Partnerships implementation guide. A PTO is unaffiliated, local and does not pay dues to a national umbrella organization.
PTO 's encourage parent, teacher and community involvement by providing programs that facilitate so these activities may include bicycle safety, drug awareness, energy conservation, reading programs, science programs, math programs and pedestrian safety.
PTO parents get involved by supporting their students, teachers and staff. Parents can volunteer to be room parents to assist with class parties or field trips. They can help set up at a carnival or health fair. They can help teachers and staff by making copies for the class.
Teachers and staff may become involved by helping to plan events that encourage the education of the students. These may include workshops, tutoring or special family nights (math, science, reading).
The students reap the benefits by the involvement and support of all the adults involved in the PTO. The PTO supports the educational goals of the school, thus extending those goals to the students.
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when did filming for the last jedi begin | Star Wars: the Last Jedi - wikipedia
Star Wars: The Last Jedi (also known as Star Wars: Episode VIII -- The Last Jedi) is a 2017 American epic space opera film written and directed by Rian Johnson. It is the second installment of the Star Wars sequel trilogy and the eighth main installment of the Star Wars franchise, following Star Wars: The Force Awakens (2015). It was produced by Lucasfilm and distributed by Walt Disney Studios Motion Pictures. The ensemble cast includes Mark Hamill, Carrie Fisher, Adam Driver, Daisy Ridley, John Boyega, Oscar Isaac, Andy Serkis, Lupita Nyong'o, Domhnall Gleeson, Anthony Daniels and Gwendoline Christie in returning roles, with Kelly Marie Tran, Laura Dern and Benicio del Toro joining the cast. The film features the final film performance by Fisher, who died in December 2016, and it is dedicated to her memory. The plot follows Rey as she receives Jedi training from Luke Skywalker, in hopes of turning the tide for the Resistance in the fight against Kylo Ren and the First Order.
The Last Jedi was part of a new trilogy of films announced after Disney 's acquisition of Lucasfilm in October 2012. It was produced by Lucasfilm President Kathleen Kennedy and Ram Bergman, with Force Awakens director J.J. Abrams as an executive producer. John Williams, composer for the previous films, returned to compose the score. Scenes that required shooting at Skellig Michael in Ireland were filmed during pre-production in September 2015, with principal photography beginning at Pinewood Studios in England in February 2016 and ending in July 2016. Post-production wrapped in September 2017.
The Last Jedi had its world premiere in Los Angeles on December 9, 2017, and was released in the United States on December 15, 2017. It has grossed over $1.2 billion worldwide, making it the highest - grossing film of 2017, the 6th - highest - grossing film in North America and the 9th - highest - grossing film of all time, as well as the second - highest - grossing film of the Star Wars franchise. It received positive reviews from critics, who praised it for its ensemble cast, special effects, score, action and emotional weight; some considered it the best Star Wars film since The Empire Strikes Back. A sequel, provisionally titled Star Wars: Episode IX, is scheduled for release on December 20, 2019.
The Resistance, led by General Leia Organa flee D'Qar when a First Order fleet arrives. A costly counterattack led by Poe Dameron destroys a First Order dreadnought, but after escaping to hyperspace, the First Order tracks them and attacks the Resistance convoy. Kylo Ren, Leia 's son, hesitates to fire on the lead Resistance ship after sensing his mother 's presence, but a TIE fighter attack incapacitates Leia. Disapproving of new leader Vice Admiral Holdo 's passive strategy, Poe helps Finn, BB - 8, and mechanic Rose Tico embark on a secret mission to disable the tracking device.
Meanwhile, Rey arrives on Ahch - To, with Chewbacca and R2 - D2 aboard the Millennium Falcon, to recruit Luke Skywalker to the Resistance. Disillusioned by his failure to help Kylo become a Jedi and under self - imposed exile from the Force, Luke refuses to help -- even after he learns of Han Solo 's death -- and believes that the Jedi should become extinct. Unbeknownst to Luke, Rey and Kylo communicate through the Force, puzzling the two enemies. As the rival Force users learn about each other, each has future visions of themselves as partners.
R2 - D2 persuades Luke to train Rey. After Kylo tells Rey about what happened between him and Luke that caused him to choose the dark side of the Force, Luke confesses that he momentarily contemplated killing Kylo upon sensing that Supreme Leader Snoke had corrupted him, causing Kylo to destroy Luke 's new Jedi Order in retaliation. Convinced that Kylo can be redeemed, Rey leaves Ahch - To to confront Kylo without Luke. Luke prepares to burn down the Ahch - To Jedi temple and library, but hesitates. Yoda 's ghost appears and destroys the temple, claiming Rey has all she needs to learn, and encourages Luke to learn from his failure.
Holdo reveals her plan to discreetly evacuate the remaining Resistance members using small transports. Believing her actions cowardly and risky, Poe leads a mutiny. Finn, Rose, and BB - 8 travel to the Canto Bight casino and acquire the help of the hacker DJ, who says he can help them disable the tracking device. They infiltrate Snoke 's ship but are captured by Captain Phasma, though BB - 8 escapes. Meanwhile, Rey lands on the ship, and Kylo brings her to Snoke, who reveals that he facilitated the mental connection between her and Kylo as part of a plan to destroy Luke. Ordered to kill Rey, Kylo instead kills Snoke and with Rey defeats Snoke 's guards. Rey believes that Kylo has returned to the light side of the Force but he invites her to rule the galaxy with him; Rey refuses. They use the Force to fight for possession of Anakin Skywalker 's lightsaber, which splits in two.
Leia recovers and stuns Poe, allowing the evacuation to begin. Holdo remains on the ship to mislead Snoke 's fleet as the others flee to an abandoned Rebel Alliance base on Crait. DJ reveals the Resistance 's plan to the First Order, and the evacuation transports are slowly destroyed. Holdo sacrifices herself by ramming Snoke 's fleet at lightspeed; Rey escapes in the chaos, while Kylo declares himself Supreme Leader. BB - 8 frees Finn and Rose, who escape after defeating Captain Phasma, and join survivors on Crait. When the First Order arrives, Poe, Finn, and Rose attack with old speeders. Rey draws the TIE fighters away with the Falcon, while Rose prevents Finn from completing a suicide run against the enemy siege cannon, which penetrates the Resistance fortress.
Luke appears and confronts the First Order so surviving Resistance members can escape. Kylo orders the First Order forces to fire on Luke to no effect, then attempts to engage Luke in a lightsaber duel. Kylo strikes Luke but realizes he has been fighting Luke 's Force projection. Luke tells Kylo he will not be the last Jedi, while Rey uses the Force to help the Resistance escape on the Falcon. An exhausted Luke dies on Ahch - To, but Leia tells surviving rebels that the Resistance has all it needs to rise again; Rey has the Jedi temple library with her. At Canto Bight, one of the children who helped Finn and Rose escape grabs a broom with the Force and gazes into space.
Joonas Suotamo appears as Chewbacca, taking over the role from Peter Mayhew after previously serving as his body double for The Force Awakens. Mayhew, who was 73 years old and suffering from chronic knee and back pain, is credited as "Chewbacca consultant. '' Billie Lourd, Mike Quinn, and Timothy D. Rose reprise their roles as Lieutenant Connix, Nien Nunb, and Admiral Ackbar respectively from previous films. Amanda Lawrence appears as Commander D'Acy, and Mark Lewis Jones and Adrian Edmondson play Captains Canady and Peavey respectively. BB - 8 is controlled by puppeteers Dave Chapman and Brian Herring, with initial voice work by Ben Schwartz and final sound effects voiced by Bill Hader modulated through a synthesizer. Jimmy Vee portrays R2 - D2. Veronica Ngo portrays Rose 's sister Paige Tico, a Resistance gunner who sacrifices her life to destroy a First Order dreadnought.
Justin Theroux plays the master codebreaker, while Lily Cole plays his companion. Joseph Gordon - Levitt has a voice cameo as Slowen Lo. Warwick Davis plays Wodibin. Gareth Edwards, director of the Star Wars Anthology film Rogue One, has a cameo appearance as a Resistance Soldier, as does Gary Barlow. Directors Edgar Wright and Joe Cornish also cameo in the film. Hermione Corfield appears as Tallie Lintra, a Resistance A-Wing pilot and squad leader. Noah Segan and Jamie Christopher appear as Resistance pilots Starck and Tubbs. Hamill 's children, Griffin, Nathan, and Chelsea, cameo as Resistance soldiers. Prince William, Duke of Cambridge and Prince Harry filmed cameo appearances as stormtroopers. Tom Hardy also filmed an appearance as a stormtrooper, but his cameo was ultimately dropped from the final cut. Hugh Skinner cameos as a Resistance Officer.
In October 2012, Star Wars creator George Lucas sold his production company Lucasfilm, and with it the Star Wars franchise, to The Walt Disney Company. Disney announced a new trilogy of Star Wars films. J.J. Abrams was named director of the first episode in the trilogy, The Force Awakens, in January 2013. In June 2014, director Rian Johnson was reported to be in talks to write and direct its sequel, dubbed Episode VIII, and to write a treatment for the third film, Episode IX, with Ram Bergman producing both films. Johnson confirmed in August 2014 that he would direct Episode VIII. In September, filmmaker Terry Gilliam asked Johnson about what it felt like to take over something that was made famous by another filmmaker, to which Johnson responded:
I 'm just starting into it, but so far, honestly, it 's the most fun I 've ever had writing. It 's just joyous. But also for me personally, I grew up not just watching those movies but playing with those toys, so as a little kid, the first movies I was making in my head were set in this world. A big part of it is that direct connection, almost like an automatic jacking back into childhood in a weird way. But I do n't know, ask me again in a few years and we 'll be able to talk about that.
The story begins immediately after the last scene of The Force Awakens. He had his story group watch films such as Twelve O'Clock High, The Bridge on the River Kwai, Gunga Din, Three Outlaw Samurai, Sahara, and Letter Never Sent for inspiration while developing ideas. He felt it was difficult to work on the film while The Force Awakens was being finished.
In December 2015, Lucasfilm president Kathleen Kennedy stated that "we have n't mapped out every single detail (of the sequel trilogy) yet ''. She said that Abrams was collaborating with Johnson and that Johnson would in turn work with (then) Episode IX director Colin Trevorrow to ensure a smooth transition. Abrams is an executive producer along with Jason McGatlin and Tom Karnowski. Lucasfilm announced the film 's title, Star Wars: The Last Jedi, on January 23, 2017.
In September 2015, Disney shortlisted the female cast members to Gina Rodriguez, Tatiana Maslany, and Olivia Cooke. Later that month, Benicio del Toro confirmed that he would play a villain in the film, and Mark Hamill was also confirmed. In October 2015, Gugu Mbatha - Raw was rumored to have been cast in the film. In November, Jimmy Vee was cast as R2 - D2. In November, Kennedy announced at the London premiere for The Force Awakens that the entire cast would return for Episode VIII, along with "a handful '' of new cast members. In February 2016, at the start of filming, it was confirmed that Laura Dern and Kelly Marie Tran had been cast in unspecified roles. In April 2017, at Star Wars Celebration Orlando, Lucasfilm announced that Tran plays Resistance maintenance worker Rose Tico, which Johnson described as the film 's largest new role. To keep Frank Oz 's return as Yoda a secret, producers excluded Oz 's name in the billing for the film 's marketing and ensured that Oz stayed on set during filming.
Second unit photography began during pre-production at Skellig Michael in Ireland on September 14, 2015, due to the difficulties of filming at that location during other seasons. It would have lasted four days, but filming was canceled for the first day due to poor weather and rough conditions. In November 2014, Ivan Dunleavy, chief executive of Pinewood Studios, confirmed that the film would be shot at Pinewood, with additional filming in Mexico. In September 2015, del Toro revealed that principal photography would begin in March 2016; Kennedy later stated that filming would begin in January 2016. The production began work on the 007 Stage at Pinewood Studios on November 15, 2015. Rick Heinrichs served as production designer.
In January 2016, production of Episode VIII was delayed until February 2016, due to script rewrites. Additionally, filming was potentially in danger of being delayed further due to an upcoming strike between the Producers Alliance for Cinema and Television and the Broadcasting, Entertainment, Cinematograph and Theatre Union. On February 10, 2016, Disney CEO Bob Iger confirmed that principal photography had begun, under the working title Space Bear. Additional filming took place in Dubrovnik, Croatia from March 9 to 16, 2016, as well as in Ireland in May. Malin Head in County Donegal and a mountain headland, Ceann Sibeal in County Kerry, served as additional filming locations. To increase the scenes ' intimacy Driver and Ridley were both present when filming Kylo and Rey 's Force visions. Location filming for the battle scenes on the planet Crait took place in July 2016 at the Salar de Uyuni salt flats in Bolivia.
Principal photography wrapped on July 22, 2016, though as of early September 2016, Nyong'o had not filmed her scenes. In February 2017, it was announced that sequences from the film were shot in IMAX. Production designer Rick Heinrichs said the original screenplay called for 160 sets, double what might be expected, but that Johnson did some "trimming and cutting ''. Ultimately 125 sets were created on 14 sound stages at Pinewood Studios.
According to creature designer Neal Scanlan, The Last Jedi uses more practical effects than any Star Wars film, with 180 to 200 creatures created with practical effects, some cut from the final edit. For Yoda 's appearance in the film as a Force ghost, the character was created using puppetry, as was done in the original Star Wars trilogy (as opposed to computer - generated imagery, which was used to create Yoda in most of the prequel trilogy).
The film 's Canto Bight sequence contains a reference to the 1985 Terry Gilliam film Brazil, in which Finn and Rose are arrested for committing parking violation 27B / 6.
In July 2013, Kennedy announced at Star Wars Celebration Europe that John Williams would return to score the Star Wars sequel trilogy. Williams confirmed his assignment for The Last Jedi at a Tanglewood concert in August 2016, stating he would begin recording the score "off and on '' in December 2016 until March or April 2017. On February 21, 2017, it was confirmed that recording was underway, with both Williams and William Ross conducting the sessions.
In lieu of a traditional spotting session with Johnson, Williams was provided a temp track of music from his previous film scores as a reference for scoring The Last Jedi. The score briefly quotes "Aquarela do Brasil '' by Ary Barroso in its "Canto Bight '' track as another reference to the film Brazil. It also contains a brief quote of Williams 's own theme for The Long Goodbye (co-composed by Johnny Mercer) during Finn and Rose 's escape, although this quote is not heard in the official soundtrack release.
The official soundtrack album was released by Walt Disney Records on December 15, 2017 in digipak CD, digital formats, and streaming services.
In January 2015, Disney CEO Bob Iger stated that Episode VIII would be released in 2017, and in March, Lucasfilm announced a release date of May 26, 2017. In January 2016, The Last Jedi was rescheduled for December 15, 2017 in 3D and IMAX 3D. On January 23, 2017, the film 's title was announced as Star Wars: The Last Jedi. Similarly to The Empire Strikes Back, Return of the Jedi and The Force Awakens, "Episode VIII '' was included in the film 's opening crawl, although not in its official title.
The Last Jedi had its world premiere in Los Angeles on December 9, 2017. The European premiere was held at London 's Royal Albert Hall on December 12, 2017, with a red carpet event.
A set of eight promotional postage stamps were released on October 12, 2017 in the UK by the Royal Mail with artwork by Malcolm Tween. On September 19, 2017, Australia Post released a set of stamp packs. Tie - in promotional campaigns were done with Nissan Motors and Bell Media, among others. Two main trailers were released, followed by numerous television spots. Figurines of many of the characters were released in October, and advance tickets for Last Jedi went on sale in October.
Several tie - in books were released on the same day of the North American release of the movie, including The Last Jedi: Visual Dictionary, the novelization, and various children 's reading and activity books. Related novelizations included the prequel book Cobalt Squadron, and the Canto Bight, a collection of novellas about the Canto Bight Casino.
As of January 21, 2018, Star Wars: The Last Jedi has grossed $604.3 million in the United States and Canada, and $692.2 million in other territories, for a worldwide total of $1.296 billion. It had a worldwide opening of $450.8 million, the fifth - biggest of all time, including $40.6 million that was attributed to IMAX screenings, the second biggest for IMAX. It was estimated that the film would needed to have grossed $800 million worldwide to break even.
Pre-sale tickets went on sale in the United States on October 9, 2017, and as with The Force Awakens and Rogue One, ticket service sites such as Fandango had their servers crash due to heavy traffic and demand. In the United States and Canada, industry tracking had The Last Jedi grossing around $200 million from 4,232 theaters in its opening weekend. The film made $45 million from Thursday night previews, the second - highest amount ever (behind The Force Awakens ' $57 million). It went on to make $104.8 million on its first day (including previews) and $220 million over the weekend, both the second - highest amounts of all time. The opening weekend figure included an IMAX opening - weekend of $25 million, the biggest IMAX opening of the year and the second biggest ever behind The Force Awakens. After dropping by 76 % on its second Friday, the worst Friday - to - Friday drop in the series, the film fell by a total of 67.5 % in its second weekend, grossing $71.6 million. It was the largest second - weekend drop of the franchise, although it remained atop the box office. It grossed an additional $27.5 million on Christmas day, the second biggest Christmas day gross of all time behind The Force Awakens ($49.3 million), for a four - day weekend total of $99 million. It made $52.4 million in its third weekend, again topping the box office. It also brought its domestic total to $517.1 million, overtaking fellow Disney vehicle Beauty and the Beast as the highest of 2017. It grossed $23.7 million and was dethroned the following weekend by Jumanji: Welcome to the Jungle (which was in its third week) and newcomer Insidious: The Last Key.
In its first two days of release the film made $60.8 million from 48 markets. The top countries were the United Kingdom ($10.2 million), Germany ($6.1 million), France ($6 million), Australia ($5.6 million) and Brazil ($2.5 million). By the end of the weekend, the film made $230.8 million outside North America, the ninth - highest of all time. This included $36.7 million in the UK (third - highest), $23.6 million in Germany (second - highest), $18.1 million in France, $15.9 million in Australia (second - highest), $14.4 million in Japan, $8.5 million in Russia, $8.3 million in Spain, $7.2 million in Brazil, $7 million in Italy and Mexico, $6.0 million in Sweden and $5.1 million in South Korea. On its second weekend, it grossed $76.1 million overseas and became the fourth - highest - grossing film of the year in Europe. As of January 7, the largest markets outside of the United States and Canada are the United Kingdom ($102.9 million), Germany ($73.5 million), France ($57.6 million), Japan ($52.2 million) and Australia ($39.8 million).
The film had a $28.7 million opening weekend in China, the lowest for a Star Wars film in that country since 2005. Star Wars: The Force Awakens opened to $52 million two years prior and Rogue One, which featured Chinese stars Donnie Yen and Jiang Wen, opened to $30 million in 2016. The Last Jedi added only $7 million during the week, to reach a total of $34.2 million in its first seven days. A week after its debut, China 's movie exhibitors dropped the film 's showtimes by 92 percent, from its 34.5 % percent share of the territory 's total screenings.
On review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, Star Wars: The Last Jedi has an approval rating of 90 % based on 357 reviews, with an average rating of 8.1 / 10. The website 's critical consensus reads, "Star Wars: The Last Jedi honors the saga 's rich legacy while adding some surprising twists -- and delivering all the emotion - rich action fans could hope for. '' On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 85 out of 100, based on 56 critics, indicating "universal acclaim ''. Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A '' on an A+ to F scale, while ComScore reported audiences gave an 89 % overall positive score and a 79 % definite recommend. An audience poll of U.S. adults conducted by SurveyMonkey on the first four days of release found that, out of all the respondents who said they had seen the film, 89 % said they either "loved '' or "liked '' it.
Matt Zoller Seitz of RogerEbert.com gave the film four out of four stars, praising the surprises and risks that it took, writing that "The movie works equally well as an earnest adventure full of passionate heroes and villains and a meditation on sequels and franchise properties... (The film) is preoccupied with questions of legacy, legitimacy and succession, and includes multiple debates over whether one should replicate or reject the stories and symbols of the past. '' Writing for Rolling Stone, Peter Travers gave the film 3.5 out of 4 stars, praising the cast and the direction: "You 're in hyper - skilled hands with Johnson who makes sure you leave the multiplex feeling euphoric. The middle part of the current trilogy, The Last Jedi ranks with the very best Star Wars epics (even the pinnacle that is The Empire Strikes Back) by pointing the way ahead to a next generation of skywalkers -- and, thrillingly, to a new hope. ''
Richard Roeper of the Chicago Sun - Times gave the film 3.5 / 4 stars, saying, "Star Wars: The Last Jedi... does n't pack quite the same emotional punch (as The Force Awakens) and it lags a bit in the second half, (but) this is still a worthy chapter in the Star Wars franchise, popping with exciting action sequences, sprinkled with good humor and containing more than a few nifty ' callbacks ' to previous characters and iconic moments. '' For The Hollywood Reporter, Todd McCarthy said, "Loaded with action and satisfying in the ways its loyal audience wants it to be, writer - director Rian Johnson 's plunge into George Lucas ' universe is generally pleasing even as it sometimes strains to find useful and / or interesting things for some of its characters to do. ''
Will Gompertz, arts editor of BBC News, gave the film 4 / 5 stars, writing "Rian Johnson... has not ruined your Christmas with a turkey. His gift to you is a cracker, a blockbuster movie packed with invention, wit, and action galore. '' Mark Kermode, British film critic, gave the film 4 / 5 stars saying Johnson "proves himself the master of the balancing act, keeping the warring forces of this intergalactic franchise in near - perfect harmony. '' The unpredictability of the plot was appreciated by reviewers such as Alex Leadbeater of Screen Rant, who commented specifically that the death of Snoke was "the best movie twist in years ''.
Conversely, Richard Brody of The New Yorker wrote, "Despite a few stunning decorative touches (most of which involve the color red) and that brief central sequence of multiple Reys, the movie comes off as a work that 's ironed out, flattened down, appallingly purified. Above all, it delivers a terrifyingly calculated consensus storytelling, an artificial universality that is achieved, in part, through express religious references. '' Kate Taylor of The Globe and Mail gave the film 2 / 4 stars, saying the film suffered from too many new additions and writing, "Nifty new animals, a maturing villain, a flagging heroine, muffled humour -- as it seeks to uphold a giant cultural legacy, this unfolding trilogy struggles to maintain a balance that often seems just out of reach. ''
Episode IX, the final installment of the sequel trilogy, is scheduled for release on December 20, 2019. Principal photography is set to begin in June 2018. Although Colin Trevorrow had been attached to direct the film, on September 5, 2017, Lucasfilm announced that Trevorrow had stepped down. A week later, Lucasfilm announced that J.J. Abrams would return to direct Episode IX and co-write it with Chris Terrio. Abrams and Terrio stated that Episode IX will bring together all three trilogies, with elements from the previous two films.
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is an attempt to avoid large currency reporting | Currency transaction report - wikipedia
A currency transaction report (CTR) is a report that U.S. financial institutions are required to file with FinCEN for each deposit, withdrawal, exchange of currency, or other payment or transfer, by, through, or to the financial institution which involves a transaction in currency of more than $10,000. Used in this context, currency means the coin and / or paper money of any country that is designated as legal tender by the country of issuance. Currency also includes U.S. silver certificates, U.S. notes, Federal Reserve notes, and official foreign bank notes.
When the first version of the CTR was introduced, the only way a suspicious transaction less than $10,000 was reported to the government was if a bank teller called law enforcement. This was primarily due to the financial industry 's concern about the right to financial privacy. The Bank Secrecy Act requires financial institutions to report currency transaction amounts of over $10,000.
When a transaction involving more than $10,000 in cash is processed, most banks have a system that automatically creates a CTR electronically. Tax and other information about the customer is usually pre-filled by the bank software. CTRs since 1996 include an optional checkbox at the top if the bank employee believes the transaction to be suspicious or fraudulent, commonly called a SAR, or Suspicious Activity Referral. A customer is not directly told about the $10,000 threshold unless they initiate the inquiry. A customer may decline to continue the transaction upon being informed about the CTR, but this would require the bank employee to file a SAR. Once a customer presents or asks to withdraw more than $10,000 in currency, the decision to continue the transaction must continue as originally requested and may not be reduced to avoid the filing of a CTR. For instance, if a customer reneges on their initial request to deposit or withdraw more than $10,000 in cash, and instead requests the same transaction for $9,999, the bank employee should deny such a request and continue the transaction as originally requested by filing a CTR. This sort of attempt is known as structuring, and is punishable by federal law against both the customer and the bank employee. Those who habitually run transactions just under the $10,000 threshold will likely subject themselves to scrutiny and / or the filing of a SAR.
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what are the three most populated states in the united states | List of U.S. States and territories by population - wikipedia
As of April 1, 2010, the date of the 2010 United States Census, the nine most populous U.S. states contain slightly more than half of the total population. The 25 least populous states contain less than one - sixth of the total population. California, the most populous state, contains more people than the 21 least populous states combined.
The United States Census counts most persons residing in the United States including citizens, non-citizen permanent residents, and non-citizen long - term visitors. Civilian and military federal employees serving abroad and their dependents are counted in their home state.
Based on data from the decennial census, each state is allocated a proportion of the 435 seats in the United States House of Representatives, although each state is guaranteed a minimum of one seat, regardless of population. This apportionment is based on the proportion of each state 's population to that of the Fifty States together (without regard to the populations of the District of Columbia, the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico or other U.S. dependencies). The Electoral College is the body that, every four years, elects the President and Vice President of the United States. Each state 's representation in the Electoral College is equal to that state 's total number of members in both houses of the United States Congress. The Twenty - third Amendment to the United States Constitution effectively grants the District of Columbia, which is separate from any state, three votes. More precisely, the district gets as many votes in the Electoral College as it would have if it were a state, with the caveat that the district can have no more votes than the least populous state (which is currently Wyoming). Currently, this caveat is a moot point since the District would only be entitled to one Representative if it were a state, and is more populous than only two of the seven states with a single member in the House since 2013. Since the Constitution guarantees every state at least one Representative and guarantees every state two Senators, it effectively guarantees every state (and, since the ratification of the 23rd Amendment, the District of Columbia) at least three electoral votes. Thus, the total representation in the College is 538 members (equal to 100 senators plus 435 representatives, plus 3 members for the District of Columbia).
The eleven most populous states, representing 56 % of the population, currently have a majority of the Electoral College votes, enough to elect the president. These eleven states have not voted for the same candidate in any presidential election since 1984. However, 56 % of the population if in agreement should be able to elect the President; that is, after all, democracy. Comparatively, the 22 least populous states, representing 12.3 % of the population with approximately a half million more people than California by itself, control 99 Electoral College votes or 18.4 % of the total against California 's equivalent population controlling 55 Electoral College votes. This gives voters in those 22 states the ability to sway the election toward any candidate well out of proportion to their percentage of the total populace.
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one of the main purposes of the freedmen's bureau was to | Freedmen 's Bureau - wikipedia
The Bureau of Refugees, Freedmen, and Abandoned Lands, usually referred to as simply the Freedmen 's Bureau, was an agency of the United States Department of War to "direct such issues of provisions, clothing, and fuel, as he may deem needful for the immediate and temporary shelter and supply of destitute and suffering refugees and freedmen and their wives and children. ''
The Freedmen 's Bureau Bill, which established the Freedmen 's Bureau on March 3, 1865, was initiated by President Abraham Lincoln and was intended to last for one year after the end of the Civil War. The Freedmen 's Bureau was an important agency of early Reconstruction, assisting freedmen in the South. The Bureau was made a part of the United States Department of War, as it was the only agency with an existing organization that could be assigned to the South. Headed by Union Army General Oliver O. Howard, the Bureau started operations in 1865. Throughout the first year, its representatives learned that these tasks would be very difficult, as Southern legislatures passed laws for Black Codes that restricted movement, conditions of labor, and other civil rights of African Americans, nearly duplicating conditions of slavery. The Freedmen 's Bureau controlled limited arable land.
The Bureau 's powers were expanded to help African Americans find family members from whom they had become separated during the war. It arranged to teach them to read and write, considered critical by the freedmen themselves as well as the government. Bureau agents also served as legal advocates for African Americans in both local and national courts, mostly in cases dealing with family issues. The Bureau encouraged former major planters to rebuild their plantations and urged freed blacks to return to work for them, kept an eye on contracts between the newly free laborers and planters, and pushed whites and blacks to work together as employers and employees rather than as masters and slaves.
In 1866, Congress renewed the charter for the Bureau. President Andrew Johnson, a Southerner who had succeeded to the office following Lincoln 's assassination, vetoed the bill because he believed that it encroached on states ' rights, relied inappropriately on the military in peacetime, and would prevent freed slaves from becoming independent by offering too much assistance. By 1869, the Bureau had lost most of its funding and as a result been forced to cut much of its staff. By 1870 the Bureau had been considerably weakened due to the rise of Ku Klux Klan violence in the South. In 1872, Congress abruptly abandoned the program, effectively shutting down the Bureau by refusing to approve renewal legislation. It did not inform Howard, who had been transferred to Arizona by President Ulysses S. Grant to settle hostilities between the Apache and settlers. Grant 's Secretary of War William W. Belknap, was hostile to Howard 's leadership and authority at the Bureau, and aroused controversy by his reassignment.
The Bureau helped solve everyday problems of the newly freed slaves, such as obtaining clothing, food, water, health care, communication with family members, and jobs. Between 1865 and 1869, it distributed 15 million rations of food to freed African Americans (as well as 5 million rations to impoverished whites), and set up a system where planters could borrow rations in order to feed freedmen they employed. Although the Bureau set aside $350,000 for this service, only $35,000 (10 %) was borrowed by planters.
Despite the good intentions, efforts, and limited success of the Bureau, medical treatment of the freedmen was severely deficient. Most southern white doctors and nurses would not treat freedmen, infrastructure had been destroyed by the war, and people had few means of improving sanitation. Blacks had not had much opportunity to develop their own medical personnel. In this period epidemics of cholera and yellow fever were carried along the river corridors, breaking out across the South.
Freedman 's Bureau agents, at first, complained that freedwomen were refusing to contract their labor. One of the first actions black families took was to withdraw women 's labor from fieldwork. The Bureau attempted to force freed women to work by insisting that their husbands sign contracts making the whole family available as field labor in the cotton industry, and by declaring that unemployed freed women should be treated as vagrants just as men were. The Bureau did allow some exceptions, such as married women with employed husbands, and some "worthy '' women who had been widowed or abandoned and had large families of small children to care for. "Unworthy '' women, meaning the unruly and prostitutes, were usually the ones subjected to punishment for vagrancy.
Under slavery, most marriages had been informal, as slaveholders refused to acknowledge slave marriages and they were not legally recognized, although planters often presided over marriage ceremonies for their slaves. After the war, the Freedmen 's Bureau performed numerous marriages for freed couples who asked for it. As many husbands and wives had been separated during wartime chaos, the Bureau agents helped families in their attempts to reunite after the war. The Bureau had an informal regional communications system that allowed agents to send inquiries and provide answers. It sometimes provided transportation to reunite families. Freedmen and freed women turned to the Bureau for assistance in resolving issues of abandonment and divorce.
The most widely recognized accomplishments of the Freedman 's Bureau were in education. Prior to the Civil War, no southern state had a system of universal, state - supported public education and prohibited slaves and free blacks from gaining education. Former slaves wanted public education while the wealthier whites opposed the idea. Freedmen had a strong desire to learn to read and write; some started schools at refugee camps; others worked hard to establish schools in their communities even prior to the advent of the Freedmen 's Bureau.
Oliver Otis Howard was appointed as the first Freedmen 's Bureau Commissioner. Through his leadership the bureau set up four divisions: Government - Controlled Lands, Records, Financial Affairs, and Medical Affairs. Education was considered part of the Records division. Howard turned over confiscated property including planters ' mansions, government buildings, books, and furniture to superintendents to be used in the education of freedmen, and provided transportation and room and board for teachers. Many Northerners came south to educate the freedmen.
By 1866, northern missionary and aid societies worked in conjunction with the Freedmen 's Bureau to provide education for former slaves. The American Missionary Association was particularly active, establishing eleven colleges in southern states for the education of freedmen. The primary focus of these groups was to raise funds to pay teachers and manage schools, while the secondary focus was the day - to - day operation of individual schools. After 1866, Congress appropriated some funds to operate the freedmen 's schools. The main source of educational revenue for these schools came through a Congressional Act that gave the Freedmen 's Bureau the power to seize Confederate property for educational use.
George Ruby, an African American, served as teacher and school administrator and as a traveling inspector for the Bureau, observing local conditions, aiding in the establishment of black schools, and evaluating the performance of Bureau field officers. Blacks supported him, but planters and other whites opposed him.
Overall, the Bureau spent $5 million to set up schools for blacks. By the end of 1865, more than 90,000 former slaves were enrolled as students in such public schools. Attendance rates at the new schools for freedmen were between 79 and 82 percent. Brigadier General Samuel Chapman Armstrong created and led Hampton Normal and Agricultural Institute in Virginia in 1868. It is now known as Hampton University.
The Freedmen 's Bureau published their own freedmen 's textbook. They emphasized the bootstrap philosophy, encouraging freedmen to believe that each person had the ability to work hard and to do better in life. These readers included traditional literacy lessons; as well as selections on the life and works of Abraham Lincoln, excerpts from the Bible focused on forgiveness, biographies of famous African Americans with emphasis on their piety, humbleness and industry; and essays on humility, the work ethic, temperance, loving your enemies, and avoiding bitterness.
By 1870, there were more than 1,000 schools for freedmen in the South. J.W. Alvord, an inspector for the Bureau, wrote that the freedmen "have the natural thirst for knowledge, '' aspire to "power and influence... coupled with learning, '' and are excited by "the special study of books. '' Among the former slaves, children and adults sought this new opportunity to learn. After the Bureau was abolished, some of its achievements collapsed under the weight of white violence against schools and teachers for blacks. After the 1870s, when white Democrats regained power of southern governments, they reduced funds available to fund public education, particularly for blacks. In the 1890s they passed a new state constitutions disenfranchising most blacks by creating barriers to voter registration. They passed Jim Crow laws establishing legal segregation of public places. Segregated schools and other services for blacks were consistently underfunded by the southern legislatures.
By 1871, Northerners ' interest in reconstructing the South with military power had waned. Northerners were beginning to tire of the effort that Reconstruction required, were discouraged at the high rate of continuing violence around elections, and were ready for the South to take care of itself. All of the southern states had created new constitutions that established universal, publicly funded education. Groups based in the North began to redirect their money toward universities and colleges founded to educate African - American leaders.
Accounts by northern women and missionary societies resulted in historians believing that most Bureau teachers were well - educated women from the North, motivated by religion and abolitionism to teach in the South. In the 21st century, new research finds that half the teachers were southern whites; one - third were blacks (mostly southern), and one - sixth were northern whites. Few were abolitionists; few came from New England. Men outnumbered women. The salary was the strongest motivation except for the northerners, who were typically funded by northern organizations and had a humanitarian motivation. As a group, the black cohort showed the greatest commitment to racial equality; and they were the ones most likely to remain teachers. The school curriculum resembled that of schools in the north.
The building and opening of schools of higher learning for African Americans coincided with the shift in focus for the Freedmen 's Aid Societies from supporting an elementary education for all African Americans to gaining a high school and college education for African - American leaders. Both of these events worked in concert with concern on the part of white officials working with African Americans in the South. These officials were concerned about the lack of a moral or financial foundation seen in the African - American community and traced that lack of foundation back to slavery.
Generally, they believed that blacks needed help to enter a free labor market and reconstruct stable family life. Heads of local American Missionary Associations sponsored various educational and religious efforts for African Americans. Later efforts for higher education were supported by such leaders as Samuel Chapman Armstrong of the Hampton Institute and Booker T. Washington of the Tuskegee Institute (from 1881). They said that black students should be able to leave home and "live in an atmosphere conducive not only to scholarship but to culture and refinement ''.
Most of these colleges, universities and normal schools combined what they believed were the best fundamentals of a college with that of the home, giving students a basic structure to build acceptable practices of upstanding lives. For instance, at the majority of these schools, students were expected to bathe a prescribed number of times per week, maintain an orderly living space, and present a particular appearance. At many of these institutions, Christian principles and practices were also part of the daily regime.
Despite the untimely dissolution of the Freedman 's Bureau, its legacy influenced the important historically black colleges and universities (HBCUs), which were the chief institutions of higher learning for blacks in the South through the decades of segregation into the mid-20th century. Under the direction and sponsorship of the Bureau, together with the American Missionary Association in many cases, from approximately 1866 until its termination in 1872, an estimated 25 institutions of higher learning for black youth were established. The leaders among them continue to operate as highly ranked institutions in the 21st century. (Examples include St. Augustine 's College, Fisk University, Johnson C. Smith University, Clark Atlanta University, Dillard University, Shaw University, Virginia Union University, and Tougaloo College).
As of 2009, there exist approximately 105 HBCUs that range in scope, size, organization and orientation. Under the Education Act of 1965, Congress officially defined an HBCU as "an institution whose principal missions were and are the education of Black Americans ''. HBCUs graduate over 50 % of African - American professionals, 50 % of African - American public school teachers, and 70 % of African - American dentists. In addition, 50 % of African Americans who graduate from HBCUs go on to pursue graduate or professional degrees. One in three degrees held by African Americans in the natural sciences, and half the degrees held by African Americans in mathematics, were earned at HBCUs.
Perhaps the best known of these institutions is Howard University, founded in Washington, D.C., in 1867, with the aid of the Freedmen 's Bureau. It was named for the commissioner of the Freedmen 's Bureau, General Oliver Otis Howard.
After the Civil War, control over existing churches was a contentious issue. The Methodist denomination had split into regional associations prior to the war. In some cities, Northern Methodists seized control of Southern Methodist buildings. Numerous northern denominations, including the independent black denominations of the African Methodist Episcopal (AME) and African Methodist Episcopal Zion, sent missionaries to the South to help the freedmen. By this time the independent black denominations were increasingly well organized and prepared to evangelize to the freedmen. Within a decade, the AME and AME Zion churches had gained hundreds of thousands of new members and were rapidly organizing new congregations.
Even before the war, blacks had established independent Baptist congregations in some cities and towns, such as Silver Bluff, Charleston, Petersburg, and Richmond. In many places, especially in more rural areas, they shared public services with whites. Often enslaved blacks met secretly to conduct their own services away from white supervision or oversight. After the war, freedmen mostly withdrew from the white - dominated congregations of the Baptist, Methodist and Presbyterian churches in order to be free to worship as they pleased away from white supervision. Within a short time, they were organizing black Baptist state association, and organized a national association in the 1890s.
Northern mission societies raised funds for land, buildings, teachers ' salaries, and basic necessities such as books and furniture. For years they used networks throughout their churches to raise money for freedmen 's education and worship.
Most of the assistant commissioners, realizing that African Americans would not receive fair trials in the civil courts, tried to handle black cases in their own Bureau courts. Southern whites objected that this was unconstitutional. In Alabama, state and county judges were commissioned as Bureau agents. They were to try cases involving blacks with no distinctions on racial grounds. If a judge refused, martial law could be instituted in his district. All but three judges accepted their unwanted commissions, and the governor urged compliance.
Perhaps the most difficult region was Louisiana 's Caddo - Bossier Parish. It had not experienced wartime devastation or Union occupation. Understaffed and weakly supported by federal troops, well - meaning Bureau agents found their investigations blocked and authority undermined at every turn by recalcitrant plantation owners. Murders of freedmen were common, and suspects in these cases went unprosecuted. Bureau agents did negotiate labor contracts, build schools and hospitals, and aid freedmen, but they struggled against the oppressive environment.
In March 1872, at the request of President Ulysses S. Grant and the Secretary of the Interior, Columbus Delano, General Howard was asked to temporarily leave his duties as Commissioner of the Bureau to deal with Indian affairs in the west. Upon returning from his assignment in November 1872, General Howard discovered that the Bureau and all of its activities had been officially terminated by Congress, effective as of June (Howard, 1907). While General Howard was dealing with Indian affairs in the west, the Freedmen 's Bureau was steadily losing its support. During the Bureau 's first year, Congress appropriated no money for the Bureau so it was forced to rely on the army for financial support. Because the Bureau had a lack of funding from the federal government, it was unable to carry out all of its initiatives to sustain the lives of the newly freed slaves and to ensure any real measure of racial equality. President Johnson was also opposed to the Freedmen 's Bureau and his opposition encouraged many people, especially white southerners, to challenge the Bureau. Congress was forced to dismantle the Bureau in 1872 due to pressure from white Southerners. In the South there was a never ending struggle to get the whites and blacks to work together and unfortunately, the Bureau was unable to change that. In his autobiography, General Howard expressed great frustration in regard to what had taken place without his knowledge, stating "the legislative action, however, was just what I desired, except that I would have preferred to close out my own Bureau and not have another do it for me in an unfriendly manner in my absence. '' All documents and matters pertaining to the Freedmen 's Bureau were transferred from the office of General Howard to the War Department of the United States Congress.
The Bureau began distributing rations in the summer of 1865. Drought conditions resulted in so much need that the state established its own Office of the Commissioner of the Destitute to provide additional relief. The two agencies coordinated their efforts starting in 1866. The Bureau established depots in eight major cities. Counties were allocated aid in kind each month based on the number of poor reported. The counties then were required to transport the supplies themselves. The ration was larger in winter and spring, and reduced in seasons when locally - grown food was available.
In 1866, the depot at Huntsville provided five thousand rations a day. The food was distributed without regard to race. Corruption and abuse was so great that in October 1866, the President ended in - kind aid in that state. One hundred twenty thousand dollars was given to the state to provide relief to the end of January 1867. Aid then ended in the state.
Records show that at the end of the program, four times more White people received aid than did Black people.
The Florida Bureau was assessed to be working effectively. Thomas Ward Osborne, the assistant commissioner of the Bureau for Florida, was an astute politician who collaborated with the leadership of both parties in the state. He was warmly praised by observers on all sides.
The Bureau played a major role in Georgia politics. It was especially active in setting up, monitoring, and enforcing labor contracts for both men and women. It also set up a new system of healthcare for the freedmen.
In North Carolina, the bureau employed: 9 contract surgeons, at $100 per month; 26 hospital attendants, at average pay each per month $11.25; 18 civilian employees, clerks, agents, etc., at an average pay per month of $17.20; 4 laborers, at an average pay per month of $11.90; enlisted men are detailed as orderlies, guards, etc., by commanding officers of the different military posts where officers of the Bureau are serving.
Some misconduct was reported to the bureau main office that bureau agents were using their posts for personal gains. Colonel E. Whittlesey was questioned but said he was not involved in nor knew of anyone involved in such activities. The bureau exercised what whites believed were arbitrary powers: making arrests, imposing fines, and inflicting punishments. They were considered to be disregarding the local laws and especially the statute of limitations. Their activities resulted in resentment among whites toward the federal government in general. These powers invoked negative feelings in many southerners that sparked many to want the agency to leave. In their review, Steedman and Fullerton repeated their conclusion from Virginia, which was to withdraw the Bureau and turn daily operations over to the military.
In South Carolina, the bureau employed, nine clerks, at average pay each per month $108.33, one rental agent, at monthly pay of $75.00, one clerk, at monthly pay of $50.00, one storekeeper, at monthly pay of $85.00, one counselor, at monthly pay of $125.00, one superintendent of education, at monthly pay of $150.00, one printer, at monthly pay of $100.00, one contract surgeon, at monthly pay of $100.00, twenty - five laborers, at average pay per month $19.20.
General Saxton was head of the bureau operations in South Carolina; he was reported by Steedman and Fullerton to have made so many "mistakes and blunders '' that he made matters worse for the freedmen. He was replaced by Brigadier General R.K. Scott. Steedman and Fullerton described Scott as energetic and a competent officer. It appeared that he took great pains to turn things around and correct the mistakes made by his predecessors.
The investigators learned of reported murders of freedmen by a band of outlaws. These outlaws were thought to be people from other states, such as Texas, Kentucky and Tennessee, who had been part of the rebel army (Ku Klux Klan chapters were similarly started by veterans in the first years after the war.) When citizens were asked why the perpetrators had not been arrested, many answered that the Bureau, with the support of the military, had the primary authority.
In certain areas, such as the Sea Islands, many freedmen were destitute. Many had tried to cultivate the land and began businesses with little to no success in the social disruption of the period.
Suffering much less damage in the war than some other Deep South states, Texas became a destination for some 200,000 refugee blacks from other parts of the South, in addition to 200,000 already in Texas. Slavery had been prevalent only in East Texas, and some freedmen hoped for the chance of new types of opportunity in the lightly populated but booming state. The Bureau 's political role was central, as was close attention to the need for schools.
The Freedmen 's Bureau had 58 clerks and superintendents of farms, paid average monthly wages $78.50; 12 assistant superintendents, paid average monthly wages 87.00; and 163 laborers, paid average monthly wages 11.75; as personnel in the state of Virginia. Other personnel included orderlies and guards.
During the war, slaves had escaped to Union lines and forts in the Tidewater, where contraband camps were established. Many stayed in that area after the war, seeking protection near the federal forts. The Bureau fed 9,000 to 10,000 blacks a month over the winter, explaining:
In 2000, the U.S. Congress passed the Freedmen 's Bureau Preservation Act, which directed the National Archivist to preserve the extensive records of the Bureau on microfilm, and work with educational institutions to index the records. In addition to those records of the Bureau headquarters, assistant commissioners, and superintendents of education, the National Archives now has records of the field offices, marriage records, and records of the Freedmen 's Branch of the Adjutant General on microfilm. They are being digitized and made available through online databases. These constitute a major source of documentation on the operations of the Bureau, political and social conditions in the Reconstruction Era, and the genealogies of freedpeople. The Freedmen 's Bureau Project (announced on June 19, 2015) was created as a set of partnerships between FamilySearch International and the National Archives and Records Administration (NARA), the Smithsonian 's National Museum of African American History and Culture, the Afro - American Historical and Genealogical Society (AAHGS), and the California African American Museum. Tens of thousands of volunteers are needed to make these records searchable online. No specific time commitment is required, and anyone may participate. Volunteers simply log on (http://www.discoverfreedmen.org/), pull up as many scanned documents as they like, and enter the names and dates into the fields provided. Once published, information for millions of African Americans will be accessible, allowing families to build their family trees and connect with their ancestors. As of February 2016, the project was 51 % complete.
In October 2006, Virginia governor Tim Kaine announced that Virginia would be the first state to index and digitize Freedmen 's Bureau records.
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what is the elevation of idaho falls idaho | Idaho Falls, Idaho - Wikipedia
Idaho Falls (often abbreviated as IF) is the county seat of Bonneville County, Idaho, United States, and the state 's largest city outside the Boise metropolitan area. As of the 2010 census, the population of Idaho Falls was 56,813 (2016 estimate: 60,211), with a metro population of 133,265.
Idaho Falls serves as the commercial, cultural, and healthcare hub for eastern Idaho, as well as parts of western Wyoming and southern Montana. It is served by the Idaho Falls Regional Airport and is home to the College of Eastern Idaho, Museum of Idaho, and the Idaho Falls Chukars minor league baseball team. It is the principal city of the Idaho Falls Metropolitan Statistical Area and the Idaho Falls - Blackfoot, Idaho Combined Statistical Area.
The area around Idaho Falls was first sparsely settled by cattle and sheep ranchers, but no significant development took place until 1864, when a man named Harry Rickets built and operated a ferry on the Snake River at 43 ° 36.112 ′ N 112 ° 3.528 ′ W / 43.601867 ° N 112.058800 ° W / 43.601867; - 112.058800. The ferry served a new tide of westward migration and travel on the Montana Trail following the Bear River Massacre of Shoshone Indians in 1863. The present - day site of Idaho Falls became a permanent settlement when freighter Matt Taylor built a timber - frame toll bridge across a narrow black basaltic gorge of the river 7 miles (11 km) downstream from the ferry. The bridge improved travel for settlers moving north and west, and for miners, freighters, and others seeking riches in the gold fields of Idaho and Montana -- especially the boom towns of Bannack and Virginia City.
By the end of 1865, a private bank, small hotel, livery stable, eating house, post office, and stage station had sprung up near the bridge. The settlement was initially known as Taylor 's Crossing, but postmarks indicate that by 1866, the emerging town had become known as Eagle Rock. The name was derived from an isolated basalt island in the Snake River near the ferry, where approximately twenty eagles nested.
In 1874, water rights were established on nearby Willow Creek and the first grain was harvested. Settlement was sparse and consisted of only a couple of families and small irrigation ditches. The first child of European descent was born at Eagle Rock in 1874.
Soon, the Utah and Northern Railway (U&NR) was built, stretching north from Utah through Eagle Rock and crossing the Snake River at the same narrow gorge as Taylor 's bridge. The railway would eventually connect to the large new copper mines at Butte, Montana. The U&NR had the backing of robber baron Jay Gould, as Union Pacific Railroad had purchased it a few years prior. Grading crews reached Eagle Rock in late 1878, and by early 1879, a wild camp - town with dozens of tents and shanties had moved to Eagle Rock with a collection of saloons, dance halls, and gambling halls. The railroad company had 16 locomotives and 300 train cars working between Logan, Utah at the once - quiet stage stop. A new iron railroad bridge was fabricated in Athens, Pennsylvania at a cost of $30,000 and shipped by rail to the site, where it was erected in April and May 1879. The bridge was 800 feet (240 m) long and had two spans, with an island in the center. The camp - town moved on, but Eagle Rock now had regular train service and several U&NR buildings, shops, and facilities, which expanded and transformed the town.
As soon as the railroad came through, settlers began homesteading the Upper Snake River Valley in earnest. The first new settlers carved out homesteads to the north at Egin (near present - day Parker) and at Pooles Island (near present - day Menan). The Utah & Northern Railway provided easy access, especially to homesteaders from Utah, who soon populated much of the areas surrounding Eagle Rock. Some of these men had initially worked building the railroad, then later returned with their families to stake out new farms. These Utah families brought irrigation know - how developed in Utah 's Great Basin settlements. Through their and others ' canal systems, water from the Snake River made the Upper Snake River Valley into one of the most successful irrigation projects in the Mountain West. Large - scale settlement ensued and within a decade, there appeared roads, bridges, and dams, which brought most of the Upper Snake River Valley under cultivation.
In 1887, following the construction of the Oregon Short Line and a railroad workers ' strike in Eagle Rock, most of the railroad facilities were moved to Pocatello, where the new line branched off the U&NR. This caused a sharp and immediate drop in population, which nearly killed the town. In 1891, in an effort to attract farmers wary of eagles and rocks, marketers convinced town leaders to change the name to Idaho Falls, in reference to the rapids below the bridge. Some years later, the construction of a retaining wall for a hydroelectric power plant enhanced the rapids into falls. In 1895, the world 's then - largest irrigation canal, the Great Feeder, began diverting water from the Snake River, helping to convert tens of thousands of more acres of desert into green farmland. The area grew sugar beets, potatoes, peas, grains, and alfalfa, and became one of the most productive regions of the United States. The city once again began to flourish, growing continuously into the 20th century.
In 1949, the Atomic Energy Commission opened the National Reactor Testing Station (NRTS) in the desert west of Idaho Falls, and on Dec. 20, 1951, a nuclear reactor produced useful electricity for the first time in history. There have been more than 50 unique nuclear reactors built at the facility for testing, although only three currently remain active.
NRTS was the scene of the only fatal nuclear reactor incident in U.S. history, on January 3, 1961. The event occurred at an experimental U.S. Army reactor plant known as the Argonne Low Power Reactor, which the Army called the Stationary Low - Power Reactor Number One (SL - 1). Due to poor design and maintenance procedures, a single control rod was manually pulled out too far from the reactor, causing the reactor to become prompt critical, and leading to a destructive power excursion. Three military, trained men had been working inside the reactor room when a mistake was made while reattaching a control rod to its motor assembly. With the central control rod nearly fully extended, the nuclear reactor rated at 3 MW rapidly increased power to 20 GW. This rapidly boiled the water inside the core. As the steam expanded, a pressure wave of water forcefully struck the top of the reactor vessel, upon which two of the men stood. The explosion was so severe that the reactor vessel was propelled nine feet into the air, striking the ceiling before settling back into its original position. One man was impaled by a shield plug and lodged into the ceiling, where he died instantly. The other men died from their injuries within hours. The three men were buried in lead coffins, and that entire section of the site was buried. Fortunately, the core meltdown caused no damage to the area, although some radioactive fission products were released into the atmosphere.
The site has since developed into the Idaho National Laboratory (INL), a national laboratory operated by the United States Department of Energy. INL and its contractors are a major economic engine for the Idaho Falls area, employing more than 8,000 people between the desert site and its research and education campus in Idaho Falls. Among other projects, INL operates and manages the world - famous Advanced Test Reactor (ATR).
According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 22.80 square miles (59.05 km), of which, 22.35 square miles (57.89 km) is land and 0.45 square miles (1.17 km) is water.
Natural disasters are rare in the area, although a F2 tornado hit the Idaho Falls area on April 7, 1978, causing up to $5 million in damage.
Idaho Falls has an extensive river walk (formerly known as the Greenbelt), featuring running and bike trails, art installations, and points of interest along several miles of the Snake River, which flows through the center of the city. It is maintained by the City of Idaho Falls, and often receives donations and grants which allow for expansion.
Notable Idaho Falls neighborhoods include:
As of the census of 2010, there were 56,813 people, 21,203 households, and 14,510 families residing in the city. The population density was 2,542.0 inhabitants per square mile (981.5 / km). There were 22,977 housing units at an average density of 1,028.1 per square mile (397.0 / km). The racial makeup of the city was 89.3 % White, 0.7 % African American, 1.0 % Native American, 1.0 % Asian, 0.1 % Pacific Islander, 5.6 % from other races, and 2.3 % from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 12.9 % of the population.
There were 21,203 households of which 37.1 % had children under the age of 18 living with them, 52.4 % were married couples living together, 11.3 % had a female householder with no husband present, 4.7 % had a male householder with no wife present, and 31.6 % were non-families. 26.5 % of all households were made up of individuals and 9.7 % had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.63 and the average family size was 3.20.
The median age in the city was 32.2 years. 29.3 % of residents were under the age of 18; 9.2 % were between the ages of 18 and 24; 26.5 % were from 25 to 44; 23.4 % were from 45 to 64; and 11.8 % were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 49.5 % male and 50.5 % female.
The 2000 census reported there were 50,730 people, 18,793 households, and 13,173 families residing in the city, though MSN real estate reports an area population of 110,220. The population density was 2,972.2 people per square mile (1,147.4 / km2). There were 19,771 housing units at an average density of 1,158.4 per square mile (447.2 / km2). The racial makeup of the city was 92.09 % White, 0.62 % African American, 0.76 % Native American, 1.05 % Asian, 0.06 % Pacific Islander, 3.81 % from other races, and 1.61 % from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 7.18 % of the population.
There were 18,793 households out of which 37.5 % had children under the age of 18 living with them, 56.5 % were married couples living together, 10.2 % had a female householder with no husband present, and 29.9 % were non-families. 25.3 % of all households were made up of individuals and 9.1 % had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.65 and the average family size was 3.21.
In the city, the population was spread out with 30.3 % under the age of 18, 10.1 % from 18 to 24, 27.6 % from 25 to 44, 20.9 % from 45 to 64, and 11.1 % who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 32 years. For every 100 females, there were 97.9 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 94.8 males.
The median income for a household in the city was $40,512, and the median income for a family was $47,431. Males had a median income of $39,082 versus $23,001 for females. The per capita income for the city was $18,857. About 7.8 % of families and 10.9 % of the population were below the poverty line, including 12.7 % of those under age 18 and 6.3 % of those age 65 or over.
The top five ethnic groups in Idaho Falls are:
Idaho Falls serves as a regional hub for health care, travel, and business in eastern Idaho.
The community 's economy was mostly agriculturally focused until the opening of the National Reactor Testing Station in the desert west of Idaho Falls in 1949. The city subsequently became largely dependent on high - income jobs from the Idaho National Laboratory (INL), known locally simply as "The Site. '' Since the 1990s, the city has added a significant retail, entertainment, and restaurant sector, and a regional medical center.
Idaho Falls was named by Business Week on the 2010 list of "Best Places to Raise Kids ''. Forbes.com selected Idaho Falls as one of the "2010 Best Small Places for Business & Careers ''. Money.CNN.com included Idaho Falls as one of their "Top 100 Cities in 2010 ''.
Idaho Falls hosts the headquarters of the United Potato Growers of Idaho and District 7 of the Idaho Department of Health and Welfare. It is the home to several small - to - medium - sized national corporations such as North Wind, Inc., Press - A-Print, and multi-level marketing company Melaleuca, Inc.
The median home price in Idaho Falls was $224,800 in January 2007.
Idaho Falls, Idaho / U.S. average:
The Willard Arts Center, The Colonial Theatre and Civic Auditorium host musical concerts, plays, and events.
The Museum of Idaho showcases local artifacts and history. It also brings in major traveling exhibits such as dinosaur bones, Gutenberg Bibles, Titanic remnants, and "Bodies: the Exhibition. ''
Downtown Idaho Falls once struggled as the city expanded eastward, but it has been revitalized in recent years due to the efforts of local business owners, the City of Idaho Falls, and other organizations such as the Downtown Development Corporation and the Idaho Falls Chamber of Commerce. Today, it is home to a handful of locally owned shops, stores, restaurants, galleries, theaters, and future revitalization efforts.
The city attracts many tourists visiting nearby Yellowstone and Grand Teton National Parks, Jackson Hole, and fishing on the Snake River. Due to its proximity to high - profile outdoor destinations, Idaho Falls was recently named to National Geographic 's list of "100 Best Adventure Towns ''.
Idaho Falls is home to a few higher education options, including College of Eastern Idaho. Originally established in 1969 as a vocational - technical college named Eastern Idaho Technical College, in May 2017, voters approved a measure to transition EITC into Eastern Idaho 's only community college. Stevens - Henager College and University of Phoenix have also opened local resource centers in order to aid students in online degree programs.
A unique satellite campus called University Place features dual enrollment for students in both Pocatello - based Idaho State University and Moscow - based University of Idaho. Students generally earn core classes at University Place and then transfer to ISU 's or UI 's main campus to finish their degrees. However, a few dozen degree programs, both undergraduate and graduate, are fully offered at University Place. The campus also boasts high - tech facilities such as the Center for Advanced Energy Studies (CAES). CAES is run by a partnership of Idaho 's three research universities (UI, ISU, Boise State) and Idaho National Laboratory (INL).
Idaho Falls is served by Idaho Falls School District # 91 and Bonneville Joint School District # 93. District # 91 covers the majority of urban Idaho Falls and a small portion of Bonneville County west of the city. District # 93 covers minimal parts of eastern Idaho Falls, and the remainder of Bonneville County with the exception of some remote areas that have independent elementary districts. All middle and high school students are transported in to District # 93 secondary schools.
Idaho Falls is home to eight public high schools, four public middle schools and 26 public elementary schools. It is also served by three public charter schools and three private schools.
Each fall, the varsity football teams of Idaho Falls and Skyline compete in a rival football game called the Emotion Bowl. Each year, after the game, the winning team and its fans traditionally paint the goalposts of the stadium in their school colors (orange for Idaho Falls and blue for Skyline). Bonneville and Hillcrest participate in a similar event, known as the Civil War.
The Post Register, a daily newspaper, serves the Idaho Falls area. The area is also served by 7 radio stations, 2 owned by local media group Sand Hill Media, and the Idaho Falls / Pocatello market is served by five major television stations. There are four major news outlets in the area; KIDK (CBS, also broadcast on sister Fox station KXPI - LD), KIFI - TV (ABC), KPVI - DT (NBC, licensed to Pocatello), and Idaho Public Television.
Idaho Falls has a sister city, as designated by Sister Cities International:
Fountain and sculpture on Utah Street in Idaho Falls
Geese on falls in Idaho Falls
Idaho State Vietnam Veterans Memorial in Freeman Park
War Memorial close - up
Sculpture of Snake River Fur Trapper by Roy Reynolds on the bank of the Snake River (along the River Walk) in Idaho Falls
Idaho Falls Library; sculpture by Marilyn Hoff Hansen dedicated to Wilson Rawls, author of Where the Red Fern Grows
Idaho Falls at night
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kyunki main jhoot nahi bolta hindi full movies | Kyo Kii... Main Jhuth Nahin Bolta - Wikipedia
Kyo Kii... Main Jhuth Nahin Bolta (translation: Because I do n't lie) is a 2001 Indian Hindi comedy film, starring Govinda, Sushmita Sen, Rambha, Anupam Kher, Satish Kaushik, Mohnish Bahl and Ashish Vidyarthi. It is directed by David Dhawan.
This movie is inspired by the Hollywood film Liar Liar (1997), starring Jim Carrey. The movie shares certain elements with Liar Liar, such as Govinda being a compulsive liar like Carrey 's character and his son wishing that his dad would stop lying. The movie is also inspired by superhit Marathi movie Dhangad Dhinga starring Mahesh Kothare and Laxmikant Berde. Some plot is inspired from Rakesh Roshan 's Kaamchor.
Coming from small - town Hoshiarpur to big city Bombay, conman and compulsive liar, Raj Malhotra (Govinda), a lawyer by profession, sets up shop with fellow lawyer, Mohan. He falls in love with Sonam (Sushmita Sen), daughter of a wealthy lawyer Tejpal. He devises a scheme to marry into this wealthy family, and he succeeds. Years later, he has a son, who wishes that his dad would stop lying; and a mistress, Tara. The son 's wish comes true, and all utterances from Raj 's mouth are truthful. This creates a crisis in his personal life, as he confesses about his mistress; as well as his professional life, when he starts telling the truth in court, especially with his underworld clients, who are now out to kill him.
The music has been composed by Anand Raj Anand. Tracks like ' Ek Ladki Chahiye ' and ' Paa Liya hain pyar tera ' became a rage soon after the release of the album. The whole album gained a lot of popularity. Akhlaq Hussain of Planet Bollywood rated the album 7 out of 10.
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what happened to the girl from the golden child | Charlotte Lewis - Wikipedia
Charlotte Lewis (born 7 August 1967) is an English actress.
Lewis attended Bishop Douglass School in Finchley. Her mother is of Irish - English extraction, while her father -- a physician whom she never met -- is half - Chilean and half - Iraqi.
Lewis made her film debut as a teenager in the 1986 Roman Polanski film Pirates. She followed it that same year with the female lead in The Golden Child alongside Eddie Murphy. Later appearances include the film Tripwire (1990) and Storyville (1992, opposite James Spader). She had a co-starring role in Men of War (1995, alongside Dolph Lundgren) and in the 1995 film Decoy. Lewis appeared in the 2003 film Hey DJ.
Lewis also appeared in a cover - featured pictorial in the July 1993 issue of Playboy magazine.
On 14 May 2010, Lewis and her Los Angeles - based attorney Gloria Allred accused Polanski of sexually assaulting the actress when she was 16 years old, while the two worked together on Pirates. Prosecutors in Los Angeles confirmed that they interviewed Lewis in connection with the allegations. According to Lewis, the alleged incident occurred at Polanski 's apartment in Paris. In 1999, however, Lewis gave a very different account of events in an interview with the UK 's News of the World, which was unearthed by the French daily Libération. In that interview, Lewis asserted that she actually had a six - month tryst with Polanski when she was 17. "I knew that Roman had done something bad in the United States, but I wanted to be his mistress, '' Lewis said, according to Liberation. "I wanted him probably more than he wanted me. '' Furthermore, Lewis never mentioned any sexual abuse, and she said that their relationship ended when Polanski introduced her to Warren Beatty, and she claimed that they soon began an affair. Furthermore, she appeared at the Cannes film festival on Polanski 's arm years after the alleged incident, and in an interview the year of the film 's release, Lewis asserted, "I 'd love to have had a romantic relationship with (Polanski), and a physical one. You ca n't help falling in love with him. But he did n't want me that way. ''
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the movement of earth in it's annual orbit around the sun | Earth 's rotation - Wikipedia
Earth 's rotation is the rotation of Planet Earth around its own axis. Earth rotates eastward, in prograde motion. As viewed from the north pole star Polaris, Earth turns counter clockwise.
The North Pole, also known as the Geographic North Pole or Terrestrial North Pole, is the point in the Northern Hemisphere where Earth 's axis of rotation meets its surface. This point is distinct from Earth 's North Magnetic Pole. The South Pole is the other point where Earth 's axis of rotation intersects its surface, in Antarctica.
Earth rotates once in about 24 hours with respect to the sun and once every 23 hours, 56 minutes and 4 seconds with respect to the stars (see below). Earth 's rotation is slowing slightly with time; thus, a day was shorter in the past. This is due to the tidal effects the Moon has on Earth 's rotation. Atomic clocks show that a modern - day is longer by about 1.7 milliseconds than a century ago, slowly increasing the rate at which UTC is adjusted by leap seconds. Analysis of historical astronomical records shows a slowing trend of 2.3 milliseconds per century since the 8th century BCE.
Among the ancient Greeks, several of the Pythagorean school believed in the rotation of the earth rather than the apparent diurnal rotation of the heavens. Perhaps the first was Philolaus (470 -- 385 BCE), though his system was complicated, including a counter-earth rotating daily about a central fire.
A more conventional picture was that supported by Hicetas, Heraclides and Ecphantus in the fourth century BCE who assumed that the earth rotated but did not suggest that the earth revolved about the sun. In the third century BCE, Aristarchus of Samos suggested the sun 's central place.
However, Aristotle in the fourth century BCE criticized the ideas of Philolaus as being based on theory rather than observation. He established the idea of a sphere of fixed stars that rotated about the earth. This was accepted by most of those who came after, in particular Claudius Ptolemy (2nd century CE), who thought the earth would be devastated by gales if it rotated.
In 499 CE, the Indian astronomer Aryabhata wrote that the spherical earth rotates about its axis daily, and that the apparent movement of the stars is a relative motion caused by the rotation of the Earth. He provided the following analogy: "Just as a man in a boat going in one direction sees the stationary things on the bank as moving in the opposite direction, in the same way to a man at Lanka the fixed stars appear to be going westward. ''
In the 10th century, some Muslim astronomers accepted that the Earth rotates around its axis. According to al - Biruni, Abu Sa'id al - Sijzi (d. circa 1020) invented an astrolabe called al - zūraqī based on the idea believed by some of his contemporaries "that the motion we see is due to the Earth 's movement and not to that of the sky. '' The prevalence of this view is further confirmed by a reference from the 13th century which states: "According to the geometers (or engineers) (muhandisīn), the earth is in constant circular motion, and what appears to be the motion of the heavens is actually due to the motion of the earth and not the stars. '' Treatises were written to discuss its possibility, either as refutations or expressing doubts about Ptolemy 's arguments against it. At the Maragha and Samarkand observatories, the Earth 's rotation was discussed by Tusi (b. 1201) and Qushji (b. 1403); the arguments and evidence they used resemble those used by Copernicus.
In medieval Europe, Thomas Aquinas accepted Aristotle 's view and so, reluctantly, did John Buridan and Nicole Oresme in the fourteenth century. Not until Nicolaus Copernicus in 1543 adopted a heliocentric world system did the contemporary understanding of earth 's rotation begin to be established. Copernicus pointed out that if the movement of the earth is violent, then the movement of the stars must be very much more so. He acknowledged the contribution of the Pythagoreans and pointed to examples of relative motion. For Copernicus this was the first step in establishing the simpler pattern of planets circling a central sun.
Tycho Brahe, who produced accurate observations on which Kepler based his laws, used Copernicus 's work as the basis of a system assuming a stationary earth. In 1600, William Gilbert strongly supported the earth 's rotation in his treatise on the earth 's magnetism and thereby influenced many of his contemporaries. Those like Gilbert who did not openly support or reject the motion of the earth about the sun are often called "semi-Copernicans ''. A century after Copernicus, Riccioli disputed the model of a rotating earth due to the lack of then - observable eastward deflections in falling bodies; such deflections would later be called the Coriolis effect. However, the contributions of Kepler, Galileo and Newton gathered support for the theory of the rotation of the Earth.
The earth 's rotation implies that the equator bulges and the poles are flattened. In his Principia, Newton predicted this flattening would occur in the ratio of 1: 230, and pointed to the 1673 pendulum measurements by Richer as corroboration of the change in gravity, but initial measurements of meridian lengths by Picard and Cassini at the end of the 17th century suggested the opposite. However measurements by Maupertuis and the French Geodesic Mission in the 1730s established the flattening, thus confirming both Newton and the Copernican position.
In the Earth 's rotating frame of reference, a freely moving body follows an apparent path that deviates from the one it would follow in a fixed frame of reference. Because of the Coriolis effect, falling bodies veer slightly eastward from the vertical plumb line below their point of release, and projectiles veer right in the northern hemisphere (and left in the southern) from the direction in which they are shot. The Coriolis effect is mainly observable at a meteorological scale, where it is responsible for the differing rotation direction of cyclones in the northern and southern hemispheres.
Hooke, following a 1679 suggestion from Newton, tried unsuccessfully to verify the predicted eastward deviation of a body dropped from a height of 8.2 meters, but definitive results were only obtained later, in the late 18th and early 19th century, by Giovanni Battista Guglielmini in Bologna, Johann Friedrich Benzenberg in Hamburg and Ferdinand Reich in Freiberg, using taller towers and carefully released weights. A ball dropped from a height of 158.5 m (520 ft) departed by 27.4 mm (1.08 in) from the vertical compared with a calculated value of 28.1 mm (1.11 in).
The most celebrated test of Earth 's rotation is the Foucault pendulum first built by physicist Léon Foucault in 1851, which consisted of a lead - filled brass sphere suspended 67 m from the top of the Panthéon in Paris. Because of the Earth 's rotation under the swinging pendulum, the pendulum 's plane of oscillation appears to rotate at a rate depending on latitude. At the latitude of Paris the predicted and observed shift was about 11 degrees clockwise per hour. Foucault pendulums now swing in museums around the world.
Earth 's rotation period relative to the Sun (solar noon to solar noon) is its true solar day or apparent solar day. It depends on the Earth 's orbital motion and is thus affected by changes in the eccentricity and inclination of Earth 's orbit. Both vary over thousands of years, so the annual variation of the true solar day also varies. Generally, it is longer than the mean solar day during two periods of the year and shorter during another two. The true solar day tends to be longer near perihelion when the Sun apparently moves along the ecliptic through a greater angle than usual, taking about 10 seconds longer to do so. Conversely, it is about 10 seconds shorter near aphelion. It is about 20 seconds longer near a solstice when the projection of the Sun 's apparent motion along the ecliptic onto the celestial equator causes the Sun to move through a greater angle than usual. Conversely, near an equinox the projection onto the equator is shorter by about 20 seconds. Currently, the perihelion and solstice effects combine to lengthen the true solar day near 22 December by 30 mean solar seconds, but the solstice effect is partially cancelled by the aphelion effect near 19 June when it is only 13 seconds longer. The effects of the equinoxes shorten it near 26 March and 16 September by 18 seconds and 21 seconds, respectively.
The average of the true solar day during the course of an entire year is the mean solar day, which contains 86,400 mean solar seconds. Currently, each of these seconds is slightly longer than an SI second because Earth 's mean solar day is now slightly longer than it was during the 19th century due to tidal friction. The average length of the mean solar day since the introduction of the leap second in 1972 has been about 0 to 2 ms longer than 86,400 SI seconds. Random fluctuations due to core - mantle coupling have an amplitude of about 5 ms. The mean solar second between 1750 and 1892 was chosen in 1895 by Simon Newcomb as the independent unit of time in his Tables of the Sun. These tables were used to calculate the world 's ephemerides between 1900 and 1983, so this second became known as the ephemeris second. In 1967 the SI second was made equal to the ephemeris second.
The apparent solar time is a measure of the Earth 's rotation and the difference between it and the mean solar time is known as the equation of time.
Earth 's rotation period relative to the fixed stars, called its stellar day by the International Earth Rotation and Reference Systems Service (IERS), is 86,164.098 903 691 seconds of mean solar time (UT1) (23 56 4.098 903 691, 0.997 269 663 237 16 mean solar days). Earth 's rotation period relative to the precessing or moving mean vernal equinox, named sidereal day, is 86,164.090 530 832 88 seconds of mean solar time (UT1) (23 56 4.090 530 832 88, 0.997 269 566 329 08 mean solar days). Thus the sidereal day is shorter than the stellar day by about 8.4 ms.
Both the stellar day and the sidereal day are shorter than the mean solar day by about 3 minutes 56 seconds. The mean solar day in SI seconds is available from the IERS for the periods 1623 -- 2005 and 1962 -- 2005.
Recently (1999 -- 2010) the average annual length of the mean solar day in excess of 86,400 SI seconds has varied between 0.25 ms and 1 ms, which must be added to both the stellar and sidereal days given in mean solar time above to obtain their lengths in SI seconds (see Fluctuations in the length of day).
The angular speed of Earth 's rotation in inertial space is (7.2921150 ± 0.0000001) × 10 radians per SI second (mean solar second). Multiplying by (180 ° / π radians) × (86,400 seconds / mean solar day) yields 360.9856 ° / mean solar day, indicating that Earth rotates more than 360 ° relative to the fixed stars in one solar day. Earth 's movement along its nearly circular orbit while it is rotating once around its axis requires that Earth rotate slightly more than once relative to the fixed stars before the mean Sun can pass overhead again, even though it rotates only once (360 °) relative to the mean Sun. Multiplying the value in rad / s by Earth 's equatorial radius of 6,378,137 m (WGS84 ellipsoid) (factors of 2π radians needed by both cancel) yields an equatorial speed of 465.1 m (1,526 ft) per second, or 1,674.4 km (1,040.4 mi) per hour. Some sources state that Earth 's equatorial speed is slightly less, or 1,669.8 km / h. This is obtained by dividing Earth 's equatorial circumference by 24 hours. However, the use of only one circumference unwittingly implies only one rotation in inertial space, so the corresponding time unit must be a sidereal hour. This is confirmed by multiplying by the number of sidereal days in one mean solar day, 1.002 737 909 350 795, which yields the equatorial speed in mean solar hours given above of 1,674.4 km / h.
The tangential speed of Earth 's rotation at a point on Earth can be approximated by multiplying the speed at the equator by the cosine of the latitude. For example, the Kennedy Space Center is located at latitude 28.59 ° N, which yields a speed of: cos 28.59 ° × 1,674.4 km / h (1,040.4 mph; 465.1 m / s) = 1,470.23 km / h (913.56 mph; 408.40 m / s)
The Earth 's rotation axis moves with respect to the fixed stars (inertial space); the components of this motion are precession and nutation. It also moves with respect to the Earth 's crust; this is called polar motion.
Precession is a rotation of the Earth 's rotation axis, caused primarily by external torques from the gravity of the Sun, Moon and other bodies. The polar motion is primarily due to free core nutation and the Chandler wobble.
Over millions of years, the Earth 's rotation slowed significantly by tidal acceleration through gravitational interactions with the Moon. In this process, angular momentum is slowly transferred to the Moon at a rate proportional to r − 6 (\ displaystyle r ^ (- 6)), where r (\ displaystyle r) is the orbital radius of the Moon. This process gradually increased the length of day to its current value and resulted in the Moon being tidally locked with the Earth.
This gradual rotational deceleration is empirically documented with estimates of day lengths obtained from observations of tidal rhythmites and stromatolites; a compilation of these measurements found the length of day to increase steadily from about 21 hours at 600Myr ago to the current 24 hour value. By counting the microscopic lamina that form at higher tides, tidal frequencies (and thus day lengths) can be estimated, much like counting tree rings, though these estimates can be increasingly unreliable at older ages.
The current rate of tidal deceleration is anomalously high, implying the Earth 's rotational velocity must have decreased more slowly in the past. Empirical data tentatively shows a sharp increase in rotational deceleration about 600Myr ago. Some models suggest that the Earth maintained a constant day length of 21 hours throughout much of the Precambrian. This day length corresponds to the semidiurnal resonant period of the thermally - driven atmospheric tide; at this day length, the decelerative lunar torque could have been canceled by an accelerative torque from the atmospheric tide, resulting in no net torque and a constant rotational period. This stabilizing effect could have been broken by a sudden change in global temperature. Recent computational simulations support this hypothesis and suggest the Marinoan or Sturtian glaciations broke this stable configuration about 600Myr ago, citing the resemblance of simulated results and existing paleorotational data.
Additionally, some large scale events, such as the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake, have caused the rotation to speed up by around 3 microseconds by affecting the Earth 's moment of inertia. Post-glacial rebound, ongoing since the last Ice age, is also changing the distribution of the Earth 's mass thus affecting the moment of inertia of the Earth and, by the conservation of angular momentum, the Earth 's rotation period.
The permanent monitoring of the Earth 's rotation is performed with very - long - baseline interferometry coordinated with the Global Positioning System, satellite laser ranging, and other satellite techniques. This provides an absolute reference for the determination of universal time, precession, and nutation.
There are preserved observations of solar and lunar eclipses from Babylonian astronomy and Chinese astronomy beginning from the 8th century BCE. These observations, as well as further astronomical historical records from astronomy in the medieval Islamic world and elsewhere, can be used to determine the actual changes in the rotation of the Earth over the last 27 centuries: The calculation to describe the place and time of eclipse is dependent on the rotation of the Earth. The ancient observations are consistent with the Earth having rotated a significant fraction of a total turn than would result from today 's value of the speed of rotation would indicate: The Earth was turning ever faster throughout the past. The cumulative effect of the faster turn, of a magnitude of milliseconds per day per century, 36,525 days per century, shows up in a magnitude of hours and thousands of kilometers in observations. Scholars have combed the ancient records and calculated by modern models the magnitude of the long term historical slowing down of the Earth 's rotation.
The Earth 's original rotation was a vestige of the original angular momentum of the cloud of dust, rocks, and gas that coalesced to form the Solar System. This primordial cloud was composed of hydrogen and helium produced in the Big Bang, as well as heavier elements ejected by supernovas. As this interstellar dust is heterogeneous, any asymmetry during gravitational accretion resulted in the angular momentum of the eventual planet.
However, if the giant - impact hypothesis for the origin of the Moon is correct, this primordial rotation rate would have been reset by the Theia impact 4.5 billion years ago. Regardless of the speed and tilt of the Earth 's rotation before the impact, it would have experienced a day some five hours long after the impact. Tidal effects would then have slowed this rate to its modern value.
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what were the buildings of pompeii made of | Pompeii - wikipedia
Pompeii was an ancient Roman town - city near modern Naples, in the Campania region of Italy, in the territory of the comune of Pompei. Pompeii, along with Herculaneum and many villas in the surrounding area, was mostly destroyed and buried under 4 to 6 m (13 to 20 ft) of volcanic ash and pumice in the eruption of Mount Vesuvius in AD 79.
Researchers believe that the town was founded in the 7th or 6th century BC by the Osci or Oscans. It came under the domination of Rome in the 4th century BC, and was conquered and became a Roman colony in 80 BC after it joined an unsuccessful rebellion against the Roman Republic. By the time of its destruction, 160 years later, its population was estimated at 11,000 people, and the city had a complex water system, an amphitheatre, a gymnasium, and a port.
The eruption destroyed the city, killing its inhabitants and burying it under tons of ash. Evidence for the destruction originally came from a surviving letter by Pliny the Younger, who saw the eruption from a distance and described the death of his uncle Pliny the Elder, an admiral of the Roman fleet, who tried to rescue citizens. The site was lost for about 1,500 years until its initial rediscovery in 1599 and broader rediscovery almost 150 years later by Spanish engineer Rocque Joaquin de Alcubierre in 1748. The objects that lay beneath the city have been preserved for more than a millennium because of the long lack of air and moisture. These artefacts provide an extraordinarily detailed insight into the life of a city during the Pax Romana. During the excavation, plaster was used to fill in the voids in the ash layers that once held human bodies. This allowed archaeologists to see the exact position the person was in when he or she died.
Pompeii has been a tourist destination for over 250 years. Today it has UNESCO World Heritage Site status and is one of the most popular tourist attractions in Italy, with approximately 2.5 million visitors every year.
Pompeii (pronounced (pɔmˈpɛjjiː)) in Latin is a second declension plural (Pompeiī, - ōrum). According to Theodor Kraus, "The root of the word Pompeii would appear to be the Oscan word for the number five, pompe, which suggests that either the community consisted of five hamlets or, perhaps, it was settled by a family group (gens Pompeia). ''
The ruins of Pompeii are located near the modern suburban town of Pompei (nowadays written with one ' i '). It stands on a spur formed by a lava flow to the north of the mouth of the Sarno River (known in ancient times as the Sarnus).
Today it is some distance inland, but in ancient times was nearer to the coast. Pompeii is about 8 km (5.0 mi) away from Mount Vesuvius. It covered a total of 64 to 67 hectares (170 acres) and was home to approximately 11,000 to 11,500 people on the basis of household counts. It was a major city in the region of Campania.
The archaeological digs at the site extend to the street level of the AD 79 volcanic event; deeper digs in older parts of Pompeii and core samples of nearby drillings have exposed layers of jumbled sediment that suggest that the city had suffered from other seismic events before the eruption. Three sheets of sediment have been found on top of the lava that lies below the city and, mixed in with the sediment, archaeologists have found bits of animal bone, pottery shards and plants. Carbon dating has placed the oldest of these layers from the 8th -- 6th centuries BC (around the time the city was founded). The other two strata are separated either by well - developed soil layers or Roman pavement, and were laid in the 4th century BC and 2nd century BC. It is theorised that the layers of the jumbled sediment were created by large landslides, perhaps triggered by extended rainfall.
The town was founded around the 7th -- 6th century BC by the Osci or Oscans, a people of central Italy, on what was an important crossroad between Cumae, Nola and Stabiae. It had already been used as a safe port by Greek and Phoenician sailors. According to Strabo, Pompeii was also captured by the Etruscans, and in fact recent excavations have shown the presence of Etruscan inscriptions and a 6th - century BC necropolis. Pompeii was captured for the first time by the Greek colony of Cumae, allied with Syracuse, between 525 and 474 BC.
In the 5th century BC, the Samnites conquered it (and all the other towns of Campania); the new rulers imposed their architecture and enlarged the town. After the Samnite Wars (4th century BC), Pompeii was forced to accept the status of socium of Rome, maintaining, however, linguistic and administrative autonomy. In the 4th century BC, it was fortified. Pompeii remained faithful to Rome during the Second Punic War.
The present Temple of Apollo was built in the 2nd century BC as the city 's most important religious structure.
Pompeii took part in the war that the towns of Campania initiated against Rome, but in 89 BC it was besieged by Sulla. Although the battle - hardened troops of the Social League, headed by Lucius Cluentius, helped in resisting the Romans, in 80 BC Pompeii was forced to surrender after the conquest of Nola, culminating in many of Sulla 's veterans being given land and property, while many of those who went against Rome were ousted from their homes. It became a Roman colony with the name of Colonia Cornelia Veneria Pompeianorum. The town became an important passage for goods that arrived by sea and had to be sent toward Rome or southern Italy along the nearby Appian Way.
It was fed with water by a spur from Aqua Augusta (Naples) built c. 20 BC by Agrippa; the main line supplied several other large towns, and finally the naval base at Misenum. The castellum in Pompeii is well preserved, and includes many details of the distribution network and its controls.
The excavated city offers a snapshot of Roman life in the 1st century, frozen at the moment it was buried on 24 August AD 79. The forum, the baths, many houses, and some out - of - town villas like the Villa of the Mysteries remain well preserved.
Details of everyday life are preserved. For example, on the floor of one of the houses (Sirico 's), a famous inscription Salve, lucru ("Welcome, profit '') indicates a trading company owned by two partners, Sirico and Nummianus (but this could be a nickname, since nummus means "coin; money ''). Other houses provide details concerning professions and categories, such as for the "laundry '' workers (Fullones). Wine jars have been found bearing what is apparently the world 's earliest known marketing pun (technically a blend), Vesuvinum (combining Vesuvius and the Latin for wine, vinum).
The numerous graffiti carved on the walls and inside rooms provides a wealth of information regarding Vulgar Latin, the form of Latin spoken colloquially rather than the literary language of the classical writers.
In 89 BC, after the final occupation of the city by Roman General Lucius Cornelius Sulla, Pompeii was finally annexed by the Roman Republic. During this period, Pompeii underwent a vast process of infrastructural development, most of which was built during the Augustan period. These include an amphitheatre, a palaestra with a central natatorium (cella natatoria) or swimming pool and an aqueduct that provided water for more than 25 street fountains, at least four public baths, and a large number of private houses (domūs) and businesses. The amphitheatre has been cited by modern scholars as a model of sophisticated design, particularly in the area of crowd control.
The aqueduct branched through three main pipes from the Castellum Aquae, where the waters were collected before being distributed to the city. In extreme drought, the water supply would first fail to reach the public baths (the least vital service), then private houses and businesses -- and if there were no water flow at all, the system would fail to supply the public fountains (the most vital service) in the streets of Pompeii. The pools in Pompeii were mostly for decoration.
The large number of well - preserved frescoes provide information on everyday life and have been a major advance in art history of the ancient world, with the innovation of the Pompeian Styles (First / Second / Third Style). Some aspects of the culture were distinctly erotic, including frequent use of the phallus as apotropaion or good - luck charm in various types of decoration. A large collection of erotic votive objects and frescoes were found at Pompeii. Many were removed and kept until recently in a secret collection at the University of Naples.
At the time of the eruption, the town may have had some 11,000 inhabitants, and was located in an area where Romans had holiday villas. William Abbott explains, "At the time of the eruption, Pompeii had reached its high point in society as many Romans frequently visited Pompeii on vacations. '' It is the only ancient town of which the whole topographic structure is known precisely as it was, with no later modifications or additions. Due to the difficult terrain, it was not distributed on a regular plan as most Roman towns were, but its streets are straight and laid out in a grid in the Roman tradition. They are laid with polygonal stones, and have houses and shops on both sides of the street. It followed its decumanus (main east / west road) and its cardo (main north / south road), centred on the forum.
Modern archaeologists have excavated garden sites and urban domains to reveal the agricultural staples in Pompeii 's economy prior to AD 79. Pompeii was fortunate to have a fruitful, fertile region of soil for harvesting a variety of crops. The soils surrounding Mount Vesuvius even preceding its eruption have been revealed to have good water - holding capabilities, implying access to productive agriculture. The Tyrrhenian Sea 's airflow provided hydration to the soil despite the hot, dry climate.
The rural areas surrounding Pompeii had abundant agricultural land that was very fertile and could produce much larger quantities of goods than the city needed. Some speculate that much of the flat land in Campania, surrounding the areas of Pompeii was dedicated to grain and wheat production. Cereal, barley, wheat, and millet were all produced by the locals in Pompeii. These grains, along with wine and olive oil, were produced in abundance for export to other regions.
Evidence of wine imported nationally from Pompeii in its most prosperous years can be found from recovered artefacts such as wine bottles in Rome. For this reason, vineyards were of utmost importance to Pompeii 's economy. Agricultural policymaker Columella suggested that each vineyard in Rome produced a quota of three cullei of wine per jugerum, otherwise the vineyard would be uprooted. The nutrient - rich lands near Pompeii were extremely efficient at this and were often able to exceed these requirements by a steep margin, therefore providing the incentive for local wineries to establish themselves. While wine was exported for Pompeii 's economy, the majority of the other agricultural goods were likely produced in quantities relevant to the city 's consumption.
Remains of large formations of constructed wineries were found in Forum Boarium, covered by cemented casts from the eruption of Vesuvius. It is speculated that these historical vineyards are strikingly similar in structure to the modern day vineyards across Italy. Water depressions have also been found in close proximity to the wineries and served as water wells for the produce and livestock.
Carbonised food plant remains, roots, seeds and pollens, have been found from gardens in Pompeii, Herculaneum and from the Roman villa at Torre Annunziata. They revealed that emmer wheat, Italian millet, common millet, walnuts, pine nuts, chestnuts, hazel nuts, chickpeas, bitter vetch, broad beans, olives, figs, pears, onions, garlic, peaches, carob, grapes, and dates were consumed. All except the dates could have been produced locally.
Besides the forum, many other services were found: the Macellum (great food market), the Pistrinum (mill), the Thermopolium (sort of bar that served cold and hot beverages), and cauponae (small restaurants). An amphitheatre and two theatres have been found, along with a palaestra or gymnasium. A hotel (of 1,000 square metres) was found a short distance from the town; it is now nicknamed the "Grand Hotel Murecine ''. Geothermal energy supplied channelled district heating for baths and houses. At least one building, the Lupanar, was dedicated to prostitution.
In 2002, another discovery at the mouth of the Sarno River near Sarno revealed that the port also was populated and that people lived in palafittes (stilt - houses), within a system of channels that suggested a likeness to Venice to some scientists.
The inhabitants of Pompeii had long been used to minor quaking (indeed, the writer Pliny the Younger wrote that earth tremors "were not particularly alarming because they are frequent in Campania ''), but on 5 February 62, a severe earthquake did considerable damage around the bay, and particularly to Pompeii. It is believed that the earthquake would have registered between about 5 and 6 on the Richter magnitude scale.
On that day in Pompeii, there were to be two sacrifices, as it was the anniversary of Augustus being named "Father of the Nation '' and also a feast day to honour the guardian spirits of the city. Chaos followed the earthquake. Fires, caused by oil lamps that had fallen during the quake, added to the panic. Nearby cities of Herculaneum and Nuceria were also affected.
Temples, houses, bridges, and roads were destroyed. It is believed that almost all buildings in the city of Pompeii were affected. In the days after the earthquake, anarchy ruled the city, where theft and starvation plagued the survivors. In the time between 62 and the eruption in 79, some rebuilding was done, but some of the damage had still not been repaired at the time of the eruption. Although it is unknown how many, a considerable number of inhabitants moved to other cities within the Roman Empire while others remained and rebuilt.
An important field of current research concerns structures that were being restored at the time of the eruption (presumably damaged during the earthquake of 62). Some of the older, damaged paintings could have been covered with newer ones, and modern instruments are being used to catch a glimpse of the long hidden frescoes. The probable reason why these structures were still being repaired around 17 years after the earthquake was the increasing frequency of smaller quakes that led up to the eruption.
By the 1st century AD, Pompeii was one of a number of towns near the base of the volcano, Mount Vesuvius. The area had a substantial population, which had grown prosperous from the region 's renowned agricultural fertility. Many of Pompeii 's neighbouring communities, most famously Herculaneum, also suffered damage or destruction during the 79 eruption. The eruption occurred on 24 August AD 79, just one day after Vulcanalia, the festival of the Roman god of fire, including that from volcanoes.
A multidisciplinary volcanological and bio-anthropological study of the eruption products and victims, merged with numerical simulations and experiments, indicates that at Pompeii and surrounding towns heat was the main cause of death of people, previously believed to have died by ash suffocation. The results of the study, published in 2010, show that exposure to at least 250 ° C (482 ° F) hot surges (known as pyroclastic flows) at a distance of 10 kilometres (6 miles) from the vent was sufficient to cause instant death, even if people were sheltered within buildings.
The people and buildings of Pompeii were covered in up to 12 different layers of tephra, in total 25 metres (82.0 ft) deep, which rained down for about six hours. Pliny the Younger provided a first - hand account of the eruption of Mount Vesuvius from his position across the Bay of Naples at Misenum, in a version he wrote 25 years after the event. His uncle, Pliny the Elder, with whom he had a close relationship, died while attempting to rescue stranded victims. As admiral of the fleet, Pliny the Elder had ordered the ships of the Imperial Navy stationed at Misenum to cross the bay to assist evacuation attempts. Volcanologists have recognised the importance of Pliny the Younger 's account of the eruption by calling similar events "Plinian ''.
The eruption was documented by contemporary historians and is generally accepted as having started on 24 August 79, relying on one version of the text of Pliny 's letter. However the archeological excavations of Pompeii suggest that the city was buried about three months later. This is supported by another version of the letter, which gives the date of the eruption as November 23.
People buried in the ash appear to have been wearing heavier clothing than the light summer clothes typical of August. The fresh fruit and vegetables in the shops are typical of October -- and conversely the summer fruit typical of August was already being sold in dried, or conserved form. Wine fermenting jars had been sealed, which would have happened around the end of October. Coins found in the purse of a woman buried in the ash include one with a 15th imperatorial acclamation among the emperor 's titles. These coins could not have been minted before the second week of September. There is no definitive theory as to why there should be such an apparent discrepancy.
After thick layers of ash covered Pompeii and Herculaneum, they were abandoned and eventually their names and locations were forgotten. The first time any part of them was unearthed was in 1599, when the digging of an underground channel to divert the river Sarno ran into ancient walls covered with paintings and inscriptions. The architect Domenico Fontana was called in; he unearthed a few more frescoes, then covered them over again, and nothing more came of the discovery. A wall inscription had mentioned a decurio Pompeii ("the town councillor of Pompeii '') but its reference to the long - forgotten Roman city was missed.
Fontana 's covering over the paintings has been seen both as a broad - minded act of preservation for later times, and as censorship in view of the frequent sexual content of such paintings, as he would have known that paintings of the hedonistic kind later found in some Pompeian villas were not considered in good taste in the climate of the counter-reformation.
Herculaneum was properly rediscovered in 1738 by workmen digging for the foundations of a summer palace for the King of Naples, Charles of Bourbon. Pompeii was rediscovered as the result of intentional excavations in 1748 by the Spanish military engineer Rocque Joaquin de Alcubierre. These towns have since been excavated to reveal many intact buildings and wall paintings. Charles of Bourbon took great interest in the findings even after becoming king of Spain because the display of antiquities reinforced the political and cultural power of Naples.
Karl Weber directed the first real excavations; he was followed in 1764 by military engineer Franscisco la Vega. Franscisco la Vega was succeeded by his brother, Pietro, in 1804. During the French occupation Pietro worked with Christophe Saliceti.
Giuseppe Fiorelli took charge of the excavations in 1863. During early excavations of the site, occasional voids in the ash layer had been found that contained human remains. It was Fiorelli who realised these were spaces left by the decomposed bodies and so devised the technique of injecting plaster into them to recreate the forms of Vesuvius 's victims. This technique is still in use today, with a clear resin now used instead of plaster because it is more durable, and does not destroy the bones, allowing further analysis.
The discovery of erotic art in Pompeii and Herculaneum left the archaeologists with a dilemma -- between the mores of sexuality in ancient Rome and in Counter-Reformation Europe lay a clash of cultures. An unknown number of discoveries were hidden away again. A wall fresco depicting Priapus, the ancient god of sex and fertility, with his extremely enlarged penis, was covered with plaster. An older reproduction was locked away "out of prudishness '' and opened only on request -- and only rediscovered in 1998 due to rainfall.
A large number of artifacts from the buried cities are preserved in the Naples National Archaeological Museum. In 1819, when King Francis visited the Pompeii exhibition there with his wife and daughter, he was so embarrassed by the erotic artwork that he decided to have it locked away in a so - called "secret cabinet '' (gabinetto segreto), a gallery within the museum accessible only to "people of mature age and respected morals ''. Re-opened, closed, re-opened again and then closed again for nearly 100 years, the Naples "Secret Museum '' was briefly made accessible again at the end of the 1960s (the time of the sexual revolution) and was finally re-opened for viewing in 2000. Minors are still allowed entry only in the presence of a guardian or with written permission.
Pompeii has been a popular tourist destination for over 250 years; it was on the Grand Tour. By 2008, it was attracting almost 2.6 million visitors per year, making it one of the most popular tourist sites in Italy. It is part of a larger Vesuvius National Park and was declared a World Heritage Site by UNESCO in 1997. To combat problems associated with tourism, the governing body for Pompeii, the Soprintendenza Archaeological di Pompei, have begun issuing new tickets that allow for tourists to also visit cities such as Herculaneum and Stabiae as well as the Villa Poppaea, to encourage visitors to see these sites and reduce pressure on Pompeii.
Pompeii is also a driving force behind the economy of the nearby town of Pompei. Many residents are employed in the tourism and hospitality business, serving as taxi or bus drivers, waiters or hotel operators. The ruins can be easily reached on foot from the Circumvesuviana train stop called Pompei Scavi, directly at the ancient site. There are also car parks nearby.
Excavations in the site have generally ceased due to the moratorium imposed by the superintendent of the site, Professor Pietro Giovanni Guzzo. Additionally, the site is generally less accessible to tourists, with less than a third of all buildings open in the 1960s being available for public viewing today. Nevertheless, the sections of the ancient city open to the public are extensive, and tourists can spend several days exploring the whole site.
Objects buried beneath Pompeii were well - preserved for almost 2,000 years. The lack of air and moisture let objects remain underground with little to no deterioration. Once excavated, the site provided a wealth of source material and evidence for analysis, giving detail into the lives of the Pompeiians. However, once exposed, Pompeii has been subject to both natural and man - made forces, which have rapidly increased deterioration.
Weathering, erosion, light exposure, water damage, poor methods of excavation and reconstruction, introduced plants and animals, tourism, vandalism and theft have all damaged the site in some way. Two - thirds of the city has been excavated, but the remnants of the city are rapidly deteriorating.
The concern for conservation has continually troubled archaeologists. The ancient city was included in the 1996 World Monuments Watch by the World Monuments Fund, and again in 1998 and in 2000. In 1996 the organisation claimed that Pompeii "desperately need (ed) repair '' and called for the drafting of a general plan of restoration and interpretation. The organisation supported conservation at Pompeii with funding from American Express and the Samuel H. Kress Foundation.
Today, funding is mostly directed into conservation of the site; however, due to the expanse of Pompeii and the scale of the problems, this is inadequate in halting the slow decay of the materials. An estimated US $335 million is needed for all necessary work on Pompeii. A recent study has recommended an improved strategy for interpretation and presentation of the site as a cost - effective method of improving its conservation and preservation in the short term.
In June 2013 UNESCO declared: If restoration and preservation works "fail to deliver substantial progress in the next two years, '' Pompeii could be placed on the List of World Heritage in Danger.
Fencing in the temple of Venus prevents vandalism of the site, as well as theft.
Indian art also found its way into Pompeii, within the context of Indo - Roman trade: in 1938 the Pompeii Lakshmi was found in the ruins of Pompeii.
The 2,000 - year - old Schola Armatorum (House of the Gladiators) collapsed on 6 November 2010. The structure was not open to visitors, but the outside was visible to tourists. There was no immediate determination as to what caused the building to collapse, although reports suggested water infiltration following heavy rains might have been responsible. There has been fierce controversy after the collapse, with accusations of neglect.
Pompeii was the setting for the British comedy television series Up Pompeii! and the movie of the series. Pompeii also featured in the second episode of the fourth season of revived BBC science fiction series Doctor Who, named The Fires of Pompeii, which featured Caecilius as a character.
In 1971, the rock band Pink Floyd recorded the live concert film Pink Floyd: Live at Pompeii, performing six songs in the ancient Roman amphitheatre in the city. The audience consisted only of the film 's production crew and some local children.
Pompeii is a song by the British band Bastille, released 24 February 2013. The lyrics refer to the city and the eruption of Mount Vesuvius.
Pompeii is a 2014 German - Canadian historical disaster film produced and directed by Paul W.S. Anderson.
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john mayer keith urban til summer comes around lyrics | Til Summer Comes Around - wikipedia
"' Til Summer Comes Around '' is a song co-written and recorded by Australian country music singer Keith Urban. It was released in November 2009 as the fourth single from his album Defying Gravity. The song peaked at number 3 on the US Billboard Hot Country Songs chart. Urban wrote this song with Monty Powell.
The narrator compares a quiet boardwalk in the wintertime to something "empty as (his) broken heart, '' remembering the times that he and his lover had at the carnival rides there while the boardwalk was open in the summertime. As the song progresses, it is revealed that he has remained in the town for several years, waiting for her to return, as promised, in the summer. It is accompanied mostly by electric guitar and organ.
The music video, directed by Noble Jones, was released on January 12, 2010. It won the Male Video of the Year Award at the 2010 CMT Music Awards. It debuted on CMT 's Top Twenty Countdown at number 12 on the week of January 22, 2010, and has since reached number 3. It was filmed in Santa Monica, CA.
Thom Jurek of Allmusic referred to the song as "haunting, nocturnal, and dreamily textured '' in his review of the album. Bobby Peacock of Roughstock said that it was "more substantial '' than the album 's other three singles and "a standout even among (Urban 's) many great ballads. '' Chris Neal of Country Weekly gave it four - and - a-half stars out of five, saying that "(t) he words paint a vivid picture of a setting that perfectly mirrors the narrator 's emotional state '' and calling it "one of (Urban 's) best (singles) to date. ''
"' Til Summer Comes Around '' debuted at number 41 on the Billboard Hot Country Songs charts dated November 28, 2009. Before the song 's release, a Keith Urban fan blog called Urban Country Blog had started a petition to release the song as a single. It also debuted at number 92 on the Billboard Hot 100 and has peaked at number 58. It reached a peak of number three on the Hot Country Songs charts in 2010.
The song won the 2011 Grammy Award for Best Male Country Vocal Performance on February 13, 2011.
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tv shows based on books by stephen king | List of adaptations of works by Stephen King - wikipedia
This is a list of media based on work by Stephen King (including the Richard Bachman titles). Note that aside from Creepshow 2 and It: Chapter Two, the sequels are only tangentially related to Stephen King 's work.
The Lawnmower Man
Creepshow
The Dark Tower
The Stand
The Talisman
N.
Road Rage
The Little Green God of Agony
There have also been dramatizations of many of King 's short stories, including "Nona '', "Quitters, Inc. '', "In the Deathroom '', "Strawberry Spring '', "Harvey 's Dream '', "The Man Who Loved Flowers '', "Mute '', "The Ten O'Clock People '' and King 's poem, "Paranoid: A Chant ''. There have also been alleged stage productions of Rage as well as several parody stage versions of The Shining.
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when did ted hughes wrote the iron man | The Iron Man (novel) - wikipedia
The Iron Man: A Children 's Story in Five Nights is a 1968 science fiction novel by British Poet Laureate Ted Hughes, first published by Faber and Faber in the UK with illustrations by George Adamson. Described by some as a modern fairy tale, it describes the unexpected arrival in England of a giant "metal man '' of unknown origin who rains destruction on the countryside by attacking industrial farm equipment, before befriending a small boy and defending the world from a monster from outer space. Expanding the narrative beyond a criticism of warfare and inter-human conflict, Hughes later wrote a sequel, The Iron Woman (1993), describing retribution based on environmental themes related to pollution.
The first North American edition was also published in 1968, by Harper & Row with illustrations by Robert Nadler. Its main title was changed to The Iron Giant, and internal mentions of the metal man changed to iron giant, to avoid confusion with the Marvel Comics character Iron Man. American editions have continued the practice inasmuch as Iron Man has become a multimedia franchise.
Faber and Faber published a new edition in 1985 with illustrations by Andrew Davidson, for which Hughes and Davidson won the Kurt Maschler Award, or the Emils. From 1982 to 1999 that award recognised one British "work of imagination for children, in which text and illustration are integrated so that each enhances and balances the other. '' The 1985 Davidson edition was published in Britain and America (retaining ' giant ') and there were re-issues with the Davidson illustrations, including some with other cover artists. Yet the novel has been re-illustrated by at least two others, Dirk Zimmer and Laura Carlin (current, Walker Books). Pete Townshend produced a musical adaptation in 1989.
The Iron Man arrives seemingly from nowhere, and his appearance is described in detail. To survive, he feeds on local farm equipment. When the farm hands discover their destroyed tractors and diggers, a trap is set consisting of a covered pit on which a red lorry is set as bait. Hogarth, a local boy, lures the Iron Man to the trap. The plan succeeds, and the Iron Man is buried alive. The next spring, the Iron Man digs himself free of the pit. To keep him out of the way, the boy Hogarth takes charge and brings the Iron Man to a metal scrap - heap to feast. The Iron Man promises not to cause further trouble for the locals, as long as no one troubles him.
Time passes, and the Iron Man is treated as merely another member of the community. However, astronomers monitoring the sky make a frightening new discovery; an enormous space - being, resembling a dragon, moving from orbit to land on Earth. The creature (soon dubbed the "Space - Bat - Angel - Dragon '') crashes heavily on Australia (which it is large enough to cover the whole of) and demands that humanity provide him with food.
Terrified, humans send their armies to destroy the dragon, but it remains unharmed. When the Iron Man hears of this global threat, he allows himself to be disassembled and transported to Australia where he challenges the creature to a contest of strength. If the Iron Man can withstand the heat of burning petroleum for longer than the space being can withstand the heat of the Sun, the creature must obey the Iron Man 's commands forevermore; if the Iron Man melts or is afraid of melting before the space being undergoes or fears pain in the Sun, the creature has permission to devour the whole Earth.
After playing the game two rounds, the dragon is so badly burned that he no longer appears physically frightening. The Iron Man by contrast has only a deformed ear - lobe to show for his pains. The alien creature admits defeat.
When asked why he came to Earth, the alien reveals that he is a peaceful "Star Spirit '' who experienced excitement about the ongoing sights and sounds produced by the violent warfare of humanity. In his own life, he was a singer of the "music of the spheres ''; the harmony of his kind that keeps the cosmos in balance in stable equilibrium.
The Iron Man orders the Star Spirit to sing to the inhabitants of Earth, flying just behind the sunset, to help soothe humanity toward a sense of peace. The beauty of his music distracts the population from its egocentrism and tendency to fight, causing the first worldwide lasting peace.
The story was featured several times on the BBC 's Jackanory, most recently in 1985 when it was read by Tom Baker.
In 1989, guitarist Pete Townshend, from the rock band The Who, released a rock opera adaptation, The Iron Man: A Musical.
In 1999, Warner Brothers released an animated film using the novel as a basis, entitled The Iron Giant, directed by Brad Bird and co-produced by Pete Townshend.
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where do you get married in gretna green | Gretna Green - wikipedia
Gretna Green is a village in the south of Scotland famous for runaway weddings. It is in Dumfries and Galloway, near the mouth of the River Esk and was historically the first village in Scotland, following the old coaching route from London to Edinburgh. Gretna Green railway station serves both Gretna Green and Gretna. The Quintinshill rail crash, the worst rail crash in British history (226 recorded deaths), occurred near Gretna Green in 1915.
Gretna Green sits alongside the main town of Gretna. Both are accessed from the A74 (M) motorway and are near the border of Scotland with England.
Gretna Green is one of the world 's most popular wedding destinations, due to its romantic wedding traditions dating back over centuries, which originated from cross-border elopements stemming from differences between Scottish marriage laws and those in neighbouring countries.
It has usually been assumed that Gretna 's famous "runaway marriages '' began in 1754 when Lord Hardwicke 's Marriage Act came into force in England. Under the Act, if a parent of a minor (i.e., a person under the age of 21) objected to the minor 's marriage, the parent could legally veto the union. The Act tightened the requirements for marrying in England and Wales but did not apply in Scotland, where it was possible for boys to marry at 14 and girls at 12 with or without parental consent (see Marriage in Scotland). It was, however, only in the 1770s, with the construction of a toll road passing through the hitherto obscure village of Graitney, that Gretna Green became the first easily reachable village over the Scottish border.
Scottish law allowed for "irregular marriages '', meaning that if a declaration was made before two witnesses, almost anybody had the authority to conduct the marriage ceremony. The blacksmiths in Gretna became known as "anvil priests '', culminating with Richard Rennison, who performed 5,147 ceremonies. The local blacksmith and his anvil became lasting symbols of Gretna Green weddings. Two in particular, The Old Blacksmith 's Shop, built around 1712, and Gretna Hall Blacksmith 's Shop (1710) became, in popular folklore at least, the focal tourist points for the marriage trade. The Old Blacksmith 's Shop opened to the public as a visitor attraction as early as 1887.
One of the keenest chroniclers of the Victorian era, Robert Smith Surtees, described Gretna Green at length in his 1848, New Monthly Magazine serial, The Richest Commoner in England:
Since 1929, both parties in Scotland have had to be at least 16 years old, but they still may marry without parental consent. In England and Wales, the age for marriage is now 16 with parental consent and 18 without. Of the three forms of "irregular marriage '' that had existed under Scottish law, the last was abolished by the Marriage (Scotland) Act 1939, which came in force from 1 July 1940. Prior to this act, any citizen was able to witness a public promise.
Gretna 's two blacksmiths ' shops and countless inns and smallholding became the backdrops for tens of thousands of weddings. Today there are several wedding venues in and around Gretna Green, from former churches to purpose - built chapels. The services at all the venues are always performed over an iconic blacksmith 's anvil. Gretna Green endures as one of the world 's most popular wedding venues, and thousands of couples from around the world come to be married ' over the anvil ' in Gretna Green.
In common law, a "Gretna Green marriage '' came to mean, in general, a marriage transacted in a jurisdiction that was not the residence of the parties being married, to avoid restrictions or procedures imposed by the parties ' home jurisdiction. A notable "Gretna '' marriage was the second marriage in 1826 of Edward Gibbon Wakefield to the young heiress Ellen Turner, called the Shrigley abduction (his first marriage was also to an heiress, but the parents wanted to avoid a public scandal). Other towns in which quick, often surreptitious marriages could be obtained came to be known as "Gretna Greens ''. In the United States, these have included Elkton, Maryland, Reno and, later, Las Vegas.
In 1856 Scottish law was changed to require 21 days ' residence for marriage, and a further law change was made in 1940. The residential requirement was lifted in 1977. Other Scottish border villages used for such marriages were Coldstream Bridge, Lamberton, Mordington and Paxton Toll.
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who plays the emt on grace and frankie | Grace and Frankie - Wikipedia
Grace and Frankie is an American comedy - drama web television series created by Marta Kauffman and Howard J. Morris for Netflix. The series stars Jane Fonda and Lily Tomlin in the title roles of Grace and Frankie, two unlikely friends who are brought together after their husbands announce that they are in love and plan to get married. Sam Waterston, Martin Sheen, Brooklyn Decker, Ethan Embry, June Diane Raphael, and Baron Vaughn co-star in supporting roles. It premiered on Netflix on May 8, 2015, with all 13 episodes of the first season released simultaneously. The second and third seasons, also consisting of 13 episodes each, have been released on May 6, 2016 and March 24, 2017, respectively.
Despite mixed reviews upon its debut, the series was met with a more positive critical reception towards its later seasons and has received several nominations, including four Primetime Emmy Award nominations for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Comedy Series and a Golden Globe Award nomination for Best Actress -- Television Series Musical or Comedy.
On April 12, 2017, Netflix renewed the series for a fourth season, set to premiere in 2018.
The series follows Grace, a retired cosmetics mogul, and Frankie, a hippie art teacher, whose husbands, Robert and Sol, are successful divorce lawyers in San Diego. Grace and Frankie 's lives are turned upside down when Robert and Sol announce that they are in love with each other and are leaving their wives. Now, the women, who have never particularly liked each other, are forced to live together and learn to unite and cope with difficulties.
In March 2014, Netflix finalized a deal for a 13 - episode straight - to - series order for Grace and Frankie, with Jane Fonda and Lily Tomlin attached to star in the lead roles. The series was written and created by Marta Kauffman and Howard J. Morris, who also serve as executive producers alongside Fonda, Tomlin, Paula Weinstein and Tate Taylor, and Skydance Productions ' Dana Goldberg, David Ellison and Marcy Ross.
On May 26, 2015, Netflix renewed the series for a second season which premiered on May 6, 2016.
On December 10, 2015, the series was renewed for a third season which premiered on March 24, 2017.
On April 12, 2017, the series was renewed for a fourth season, set to premiere in sometime 2018.
Casting announcements began in June 2014, with Martin Sheen cast in the role of Robert, Grace 's husband. The following month, Sam Waterston was cast in the role of Sol, Frankie 's husband. June Diane Raphael and Baron Vaughn were then added to the cast, with Raphael cast in the role of Brianna, Grace and Robert 's elder daughter, who rebels against Grace 's decorum. Vaughn signed onto the role of Nwabudike, Frankie and Sol 's son, who was adopted from Uganda at a young age. Shortly afterwards, Ethan Embry and Brooklyn Decker were cast in the remaining roles on the series. Embry joined in the role of Coyote, Frankie and Sol 's recovering drug addicted son (also adopted), while Decker signed onto the role of Mallory, Grace and Robert 's younger daughter. In October 2015, it was announced Sam Elliott would appear in the second season as Grace 's love interest. In April 2017, it was reported that Lisa Kudrow will appear in the fourth season as Sheree, Grace 's manicurist.
Production on season one of Grace and Frankie began in Los Angeles, California, in early August 2014, and ended in late November. Production on season two of the series began in July 2015, and ended in November the same year.
The first season of Grace and Frankie received mixed reviews from critics. On Rotten Tomatoes it has a rating of 50 %, based on 32 reviews, with an average rating of 6.2 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads, "Grace and Frankie 's stellar cast adds an undeniable appeal, although its sloppy dialogue and clichéd sitcom setup will still leave most viewers wanting. '' On Metacritic the season has a score of 58 out of 100, based on 27 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews ''.
The second season received more positive reception from critics. On Rotten Tomatoes, it has a rating of 89 %, based on 9 reviews, with an average rating of 7.2 / 10. On Metacritic, the season has a score of 62 out of 100, based on 6 critics, indicating "generally favourable reviews ''. Jasef Wisener of TVOvermind gave the second season a 4.5 / 5, calling it "heartfelt and hilarious '' and "a huge improvement over the sometimes sluggish first season. ''
The third season received critical acclaim. On Rotten Tomatoes, it has a rating of 100 %, based on 5 reviews, with an average rating of 7.5 / 10.
After the show 's release, Tomlin and Fonda expressed displeasure once it became public that their salaries were just equal to those of Sheen and Waterston, even though "the show is not ' Sol and Robert ', it 's ' Grace and Frankie, ' '' in the words of Lily Tomlin, and contended this constituted a significant pay inequity. Shortly thereafter, Sheen and Waterston went on the record to support their co-stars ' demands for a salary increase, with Waterston being quoted as saying: "I think they 're being cheated ''. After fans of the show gathered nearly 200,000 signatures on a petition protesting the disparity, the two actresses issued a public statement backing away from criticism, saying: "This just reminds us to be mindful of how things come across in interviews. We appreciate everyone 's support and the attention to this issue, but the structure of Grace and Frankie is fair, and we could n't be happier to work with Skydance, Netflix and the great cast of this show. '' Fonda and Tomlin made a statement to The Wrap that they were never unhappy with the salaries to start with and that they had "made a joke in an interview about our salaries, which was taken out of context. ''
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movie with a girl with a gun for a leg | Planet Terror - Wikipedia
Planet Terror is a 2007 American zombie film directed by Robert Rodriguez and starring Rose McGowan, Freddy Rodriguez, Josh Brolin, Marley Shelton, Naveen Andrews, Michael Biehn, Jeff Fahey, Stacy Ferguson, and Bruce Willis. It follows a group of people attempting to survive an onslaught of zombie - like creatures as they feud with a military unit. It was released theatrically in North America as part of a double feature with Quentin Tarantino 's Death Proof under the title Grindhouse, to emulate the experience of viewing exploitation films in a "grindhouse '' theater. In addition to directing the film, Rodriguez wrote the script, directed the cinematography, wrote the musical score, co-edited, and produced it.
Released on April 6, 2007, Grindhouse ticket sales were significantly below box office analysts expectations, despite mostly positive reviews. Outside the U.S and released separately, Planet Terror and Death Proof screened in extended versions. Two soundtracks were also released for the features and include music and audio snippets from the film. Planet Terror was released on DVD in the United States and Canada on October 23, 2007.
In rural Texas, go - go dancer Cherry Darling, resigning from her low - paying job, runs into her mysterious ex-boyfriend El Wray at the Bone Shack, a restaurant owned by brothers J.T. and Sheriff Hague. Meanwhile, the demented Lt. Muldoon and his men are making a transaction with chemical engineer Abby for mass quantities of DC2 (codename "Project Terror ''), a deadly biochemical agent. When Muldoon learns that Abby has an extra supply, he attempts to take Abby hostage. The latter intentionally releases the gas into the air, mutating most of the town 's residents into deformed zombies. The infected townspeople are treated by the sinister Dr. William Block and his unhappy, unfaithful, bisexual anesthesiologist wife, Dakota, at a local hospital.
Random attacks begin along the highway, causing El Wray, with Cherry, to crash his truck. In the aftermath, several zombies tear off Cherry 's right leg. At the hospital is another victim, Tammy, the former lover of Dakota. Block recognizes her and compares text messages on Tammy 's and his wife 's phones, realizing Dakota was about to leave him. He then stabs Dakota 's hands with her anesthetic syringe needles repeatedly, rendering them useless, before locking her in a closet to tend to other patients, including Cherry, who is still alive.
El Wray is detained by Sheriff Hague based on past encounters between the two. As the patients mutate, El Wray leaves the station and arrives at the hospital, attaching a wooden table leg to Cherry 's stump. As El Wray and Cherry fight their way out of the zombie - infested hospital, Dakota escapes in her car, despite accidentally breaking her left wrist as her hands are still numb. Meanwhile, Block becomes infected along with others, while Cherry and El Wray take refuge at the Bone Shack.
Dakota retrieves her son Tony and takes him to her father, Texas Ranger Earl McGraw. Tony, given a revolver by his mother, accidentally shoots himself in the face after being told not to point it at himself. Cherry and El Wray make love in J.T. 's bedroom. Due to a "missing reel '', what happens after this is unknown; When the film returns, Sheriff Hague has been shot in the neck by one of his officers, zombies are massing outside the burning Bone Shack and El Wray 's true identity is implied by Hague. Dakota, Earl, Cherry 's former boss Skip, and Tony 's crazed babysitter twins arrive at the Bone Shack. With Hague badly injured, the group decides to flee to the Mexican border, before being stopped by a large mass of zombies. Muldoon 's men arrive, killing the zombies before arresting them. Abby tells them that the soldiers are stealing the gas supply because they are infected, constant inhalation of the gas delays mutation. They also learn that a small percentage of the population is immune, suggesting a possible treatment, which is why Muldoon quarantined the survivors.
As Cherry and Dakota are taken away by two soldiers, the others defeat the security guards. J.T. sustains a gunshot wound in the process while the group searches for Muldoon. Discovered by El Wray and Abby, Muldoon explains that he killed Osama bin Laden before he and his men were infected and were ordered to protect the area. El Wray offers a respectful recognition of Muldoon 's military service before he and Abby shoot the mutating Muldoon.
Meanwhile, Cherry is forced to dance by the first soldier held at gunpoint. Eventually, she breaks her wooden leg across his face and stabs him in his eye with it. Dakota, after realizing her hands have regained feeling, quick - draws her syringe launcher and stuns the second soldier. El Wray and Abby arrive to rescue Cherry and Dakota, and El Wray replaces Cherry 's broken wooden leg with a modified M4 Carbine with an M203. She promptly kills the first soldier and several zombies with it.
J.T., wounded and lying beside his dying brother, stays behind to detonate explosives to eliminate the remaining zombies while the others flee. The survivors make plans to escape by stealing helicopters but must fight past the remaining zombies. Abby dies, along with hope for a cure, when a ballistic projectile blows his head up. The survivors use the blade tips of their helicopter to kill the rest. However, while saving Cherry from a zombie, El Wray is fatally wounded. In the epilogue, Cherry, now sporting a minigun leg, leads the group and many more survivors to the Caribbean beach at Tulum, where they start a peaceful new society during a world - wide zombie outbreak. It is also revealed that Cherry has given birth to El Wray 's daughter (alluded to earlier during El Wray 's final scene when he puts his hand on her stomach and restates his motto "I never miss '').
In a post-credits scene, Tony is sitting on the beach at the survivor 's "base '' playing with his turtle, scorpion and tarantula.
Robert Rodriguez first came up with the idea for Planet Terror during the production of The Faculty. "I remember telling Elijah Wood and Josh Hartnett, all these young actors, that zombie movies were dead and had n't been around in a while, but that I thought they were going to come back in a big way because they 'd been gone for so long, '' recalled Rodriguez, "I said, ' We 've got to be there first. ' I had (a script) I 'd started writing. It was about 30 pages, and I said to them, ' There are characters for all of you to play. ' We got all excited about it, and then I did n't know where to go with it. The introduction was about as far as I 'd gotten, and then I got onto other movies. Sure enough, the zombie (movie) invasion happened and they all came back again, and I was like, ' Ah, I knew that I should 've made my zombie film. ' '' The story was reapproached when the idea for Grindhouse was developed by Rodriguez and Quentin Tarantino.
Planet Terror is preceded by a fake trailer for a film titled Machete, starring Danny Trejo and Cheech Marin, as it had during the original "double feature '' presentation of Grindhouse. Rodriguez wrote Machete in 1993 as a full feature for Danny Trejo. "I had cast him in Desperado and I remember thinking, ' Wow, this guy should have his own series of Mexican exploitation movies like Charles Bronson or like Jean - Claude Van Damme. ' So I wrote him this idea of a federale from Mexico who gets hired to do hatchet jobs in the U.S. I had heard sometimes FBI or DEA have a really tough job that they do n't want to get their own agents killed on, they 'll hire an agent from Mexico to come do the job for $25,000. I thought, ' That 's Machete. He would come and do a really dangerous job for a lot of money to him but for everyone else over here it 's peanuts. ' But I never got around to making it. '' It was later announced that the trailer would be made as a feature film Machete. As for the reference to "Project Terror, '' Rodriguez paid homage to the late night horror show "Project Terror '' which aired in Rodriguez 's hometown of San Antonio, Texas on KENS - TV during the 1970s and early 1980s.
According to actress Marley Shelton, Rodriguez and Tarantino "really co-directed, at least Planet Terror. Quentin was on set a lot. He had notes and adjustments to our performances and he changed lines every once in a while. Of course, he always deferred to Robert on Planet Terror and vice versa for Death Proof. So it 's really both of their brainchild. '' Tarantino has stated, "I ca n't imagine doing Grindhouse with any other director in the way me and Robert did it because I just had complete faith and trust in him. So much so that we did n't actually see each other 's movie completed until three weeks before the film opened. It was as if we worked in little vacuums and cut our movies down, and then put them together and watched it all play, and then made a couple of little changes after that, and pretty much that was it. '' Rodriguez acted as cinematographer on Planet Terror, as he had done on some of his earlier films.
Many of the cast members had previously worked with Rodriguez. Before appearing in Grindhouse, Marley Shelton had auditioned for The Faculty, but Rodriguez chose not to cast her. She was eventually cast in the role of the Customer in the opening sequence of Sin City. Bruce Willis had appeared in Sin City. Tom Savini had previously acted in From Dusk Till Dawn, Michael Parks reprises the role of Earl McGraw, a role the actor first portrayed in From Dusk Till Dawn, and Quentin Tarantino himself appears in a small role, as he also does in Death Proof. Harvey Weinstein did not want Rose McGowan to be cast in the film, after he allegedly sexually assaulted her years earlier and then blacklisted her from being in any Miramax - related movies. Robert Rodriguez was dating McGowan and cast her knowing that it would enrage Harvey (and also that Bob Weinstein would make Harvey get lost if he tried to screw with his Dimension label releases), though Rodriguez later said that Harvey deliberately slashed the ad budget for the film in a (successful) effort to hurt it at the box office. McGowan accused Rodriguez of exploiting her, but Rodriguez -- while being supportive of McGowan 's statements about Harvey Weinstein -- noted that she signed on to the script that was filmed, and that sequences where McGowan 's character was threatened with sexual assault were there to then set up her attacking and killing predatory men.
The film uses various unconventional techniques to make Planet Terror appear more like the films that were shown in grindhouse theaters in the 1970s. Throughout the feature and the Machete trailer, the film is made to look damaged; five of the six 25,000 frame reels were edited with real film damage, plug - ins, and stock footage.
Planet Terror makes heavy use of digital effects throughout the film, mostly for Cherry 's fake leg. During post-production, the effects teams digitally removed McGowan 's right leg from the shots and replaced it with computer - generated props -- first a table leg and then an assault rifle. During shooting for these scenes, McGowan wore a special cast which restricted her leg movement to give her the correct motion.
During pre-production, Tarantino and Rodriguez came up with the idea of inserting a "missing reel '' into the film. "(Quentin) was about to show an Italian crime movie with Oliver Reed, '' Rodriguez recalls, "and he was saying, ' Oh, it 's got a missing reel in it. But it 's really interesting because after the missing reel, you do n't know if he slept with a girl or he did n't because she says he did and he says that he did n't. It leaves you guessing, and the movie still works with 20 minutes gone out of it. ' I thought, ' Oh, my God, that 's what we 've got to do. We 've got to have a missing reel! ' I 'm going to use it in a way where it actually says ' missing reel ' for 10 seconds, and then when we come back, you 're arriving in the third act... The late second acts in movies are usually the most predictable and the most boring, that 's where the good guy really turns out to be the bad guy, and the bad guy is really good, and the couple becomes friends. Suddenly, though, in the third act, all bets are off and it 's a whole new story anyway. ''
The music for Planet Terror was composed by Robert Rodriguez. Inspiration for his score came from John Carpenter, whose music was often played on set. A cover version of the Dead Kennedys ' "Too Drunk to Fuck '' performed by Nouvelle Vague was also featured in the film. A soundtrack album was released on April 3, 2007, alongside the soundtrack for Death Proof.
Planet Terror was released in the United States and Canada alongside Death Proof as part of a double feature under the title Grindhouse. Both films were released separately in extended versions internationally, approximately two months apart. The Dutch poster artwork for Planet Terror claimed that the film would feature "coming attractions '' from Quentin Tarantino. In the United Kingdom, Planet Terror was released in cinemas on November 9, 2007. In reaction to the possibility of a split in a foreign release, Tarantino stated, "Especially if they were dealing with non-English language countries, they do n't really have this tradition... not only do they not really know what a grind house is, they do n't even have the double feature tradition. So you are kind of trying to teach us something else. ''
With the exception of Grindhouse and Single Theatrical versions of the movie, Rodriguez shot an alternative version where Tony Block did not accidentally shoot himself and survives throughout the film. The official theatrical version features a snippet of Tony on the beach after the end credits and snippets of scenes from this version appears on Rodriguez 's 10 Minute Film School feature on Planet Terror DVD. Rodriguez mentioned that this version is especially made for his son Rebel, and has shown Rebel the film with the happy ending rather than the version where he is dead. He also mentioned that Tony 's death makes his "horror film... more horrifying in his way ''.
Planet Terror was released on DVD on October 16, 2007 in a two - disc special edition featuring the extended version of the film presented in a "flat '' 1.78: 1 screen ratio (the theatrical version in Grindhouse was matted to 2.35: 1), audio commentary with Rodriguez, an audience reaction track, several behind the scenes featurettes about casting and special effects, and a "10 Minute Film School '' segment, in which Rodriguez confirmed that a box set of the two films would be available soon, and that his 10 Minute Cooking School on Texas BBQ would appear on it.
The film was released on Blu - ray on December 16, 2008. This version ports over the features from the DVD special edition, and also includes a "scratch - free '' version of the movie, which does n't feature the aforementioned intentional "damaged '' look to the print. However, all American home video releases of the film are the extended version only and do not include the theatrical cut.
In mid-February 2009, Germany also released a steel box collector 's edition for Planet Terror which comes with the famous BBQ sauce recipe and two scratch - and - sniff discs of the film which smell like the BBQ sauce. The pack also contains a limited edition Planet Terror blood pack.
The Grindhouse double feature was released on Blu - ray Disc in October 2010.
Planet Terror is rated 77 % "fresh '' on the Rotten Tomatoes review aggregate based on 26 reviews.
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define international business what are the various factors affecting international business | International business - wikipedia
International business consists of trades and transactions at a global level. These include the trade of goods, services, technology, capital and / or knowledge.
It involves cross-border transactions of goods and services between two or more countries. Transactions of economic resources include capital, skills, and people for the purpose of the international production of physical goods and services such as finance, banking, insurance, and construction. International business is also known as globalization. Globalization refers to the international trade between countries, which in turn refers to the tendency of international trade, investments, information technology and outsourced manufacturing to weave the economies of diverse countries together. To conduct business overseas, multinational companies need to separate national markets into one global marketplace. In essence there are two macro factors that underline the trend of greater globalization. The first macro-factor consists of eliminating barriers to make cross-border trade easier, such as the free flow of goods and services, and capital. The second macro-factor is technological change, particularly developments in communication, information processing, and transportation technologies.
"International business '' is also defined as the study of the internationalization process of multinational enterprises. A multinational enterprise (MNE) is a company that has a worldwide approach to markets, production and / or operations in several countries. Well - known MNEs include fast - food companies such as: McDonald 's (MCD), YUM (YUM), Starbucks Coffee Company (SBUX), Microsoft (MSFT), etc. Other industrial MNEs leaders include vehicle manufacturers such as: Ford Motor Company, and General Motors (GMC). Some consumer - electronics producers such as Samsung, LG and Sony, and energy companies such as Exxon Mobil, and British Petroleum. Multinational enterprises range from any kind of business activity or market, from consumer goods to machinery manufacture; a company can become an international business. Therefore, to conduct business overseas, companies should be aware of all the factors that might affect any business activities, including, but not limited to: difference in legal systems, political systems, economic policy, language, accounting standards, labor standards, living standards, environmental standards, local cultures, corporate cultures, foreign - exchange markets, tariffs, import and export regulations, trade agreements, climate, education. Each of these factors may require changes in how companies operate from one country to the next. Each factor makes a difference and a connection.
One of the first scholars to engage in developing a theory of multinational companies was Stephen Hymer. Throughout his academic life, he developed theories that sought to explain foreign direct investment and why firms become multinational.
There were three phases according to Hymer 's work. The first phase of Hymer 's work was his dissertation in 1960 called the International Operations of National Firms. In this thesis, the author departs from neoclassical theory and opens up a new area of international production. At first, Hymer started analyzing neoclassical theory and the financial investment, where the main reason for capital movement is the difference in interest rates. Then, he started analyzing the characteristics of foreign investment by large companies for production and direct business purposes, calling this Foreign Direct Investment. By analyzing the two types of investments, Hymer distinguished financial investment from direct investment. The main distinguishing feature was control. Portfolio investment is a more passive approach, and the main purpose is financial gain, whereas foreign direct investment a firm has control over the operations abroad. So, the traditional theory of investment based on differential interest rates does not explain the motivations for foreign direct investment (FDI).
According to hymer, there are two main determinants of Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) where an imperfect market structure is the key element. The first is the firm - specific advantages which are developed at the specific companies home country and, profitably, used in the foreign country. The second determinant is the removal of control where Hymer wrote: "When firms are interconnected, they compete in selling in the same market or one of the firms may sell to the other, '' and because of this "it may be profitable to substitute centralized decision - making for decentralized decision - making ''.
The second phase is his neoclassical article in 1968 that includes a theory of internationalization and explains the direction of growth of the international expansion of firms. In a later stage, Hymer went to a more Marxist approach where he explains that MNC as agents of an international capitalist system causing conflict and contradictions, causing among other inequality and poverty in the world. Hymer is the father of the theory of MNE ", and explains the motivations for companies doing direct business abroad.
Among modern economic theories of multinationals and foreign direct investment are internalization theory and John Dunning 's OLI paradigm. Dunning was widely known for his research in economics of international direct investment and the multinational enterprise. His OLI paradigm, in particular, remains as the predominant theoretical contribution to study international business topics. Hymer and Dunning are considered founders of international business as a specialist field of study.
The conduct of international operations depends on a company 's objectives and the means with which they carry them out. The operations affect and are affected by the physical and societal factors and the competitive environment.
All firms that want to go international have one goal in common; the desire to increase their respective economic values when engaging in international trade transactions. To accomplish this goal, each firm must develop its individual strategy and approach to maximize value, lower costs, and increase profits. A firm 's value creation is the difference between V (the value of the product being sold) and C (the cost of production per each product sold).
Value creation can be categorized as: Primary activities (R&D, production, marketing and sales, customer service) and as Support activities (Information systems, logistics, human resources). All of these activities must be managed effectively and be consistent with the firm strategy. However, the success of firms that extend internationally depends on the goods or services sold and on the firm 's core competencies (Skills within the firm that competitors can not easily match or imitate). For a firm to be successful, the firm 's strategy must be consistent with the environment in which the firm operates. Therefore, the firm needs to change its organizational structure to reflect changes in the setting in which they are operating and the strategy they are pursuing.
Once a firm decides to enter a foreign market, it must decide on a mode of entry. There are six different modes to enter a foreign market, and each mode has pros and cons that are associated with it. The firm must decide which mode is most appropriately aligned with the company 's goals and objectives. The six different modes of entry are exporting, turnkey projects, licensing, franchising, establishing joint ventures with a host - country firm, or setting up a new wholly owned subsidiary in the host country.
The first entry mode is exporting. Exporting is manufacturing the product in a centralized location and exporting it to other national markets. In this way, the firm may realize a substantial scale of economies from its global sales revenue. As an example, many Japanese automakers made inroads into the U.S. market through exporting. There are two primary advantages to exporting: Avoidance of the high costs of establishing manufacturing in a host country and gaining an experience curve. Some possible disadvantages to exporting are high transport costs and high tariff barriers.
The second entry mode is a Turnkey project. In a turnkey project, an independent contractor is hired by the company to oversee all of the preparation for entering a foreign market. Once the preparation is complete and the end of the contract is reached, the plant is turned over to the company fully ready for operation.
Licensing and franchising are two additional entry modes that are similar in operation. Licensing allows a licensor to grant the rights to an intangible property to the licensee for a specified period of time for a royalty fee. Franchising, on the other hand, is a specialized form of licensing in which the franchisor sells the intangible property to the franchisee, and also forces the franchisee operate as dictated by the franchisor.
Lastly, a joint venture and wholly owned subsidiary are two more entry modes in international business. A joint venture is when a firm created is jointly owned by two or more companies (Most joint venture are 50 - 50 percent partnership). This is in contrast with a wholly owned subsidiary, when a firm owns 100 percent of the stock of a company in a foreign country because it has either set up a new operation or acquires an established firm in that country.
Exports and imports of merchandise:
Strategic variables impact the choice of entry mode for multinational corporation expansion beyond their domestic markets. These variables are global concentration, global synergies, and global strategic motivations of MNC.
To achieve success in penetrating a foreign market and remaining profitable, efforts must be directed towards the planning and execution of Phase I. The use of conventional SWOT analysis, market research, cultural researches, will give the firm the appropriate tools to reduce risk of failure abroad. Risks that arise from poor planning include: large expenses in marketing, administration and product development (with no sales), disadvantages derived from local or federal laws of a foreign country, lack of popularity because of a saturated market, vandalism of physical property due to instability of country, etc. There are also cultural risks when entering a foreign market, lack of research and understanding of local customs can lead to alienation of locals and brand dissociation. Strategic risks can be defined as the uncertainties and untapped opportunities embedded in your strategic intent and how well they are executed. As such, they are key matters for the board and impinge on the whole business, rather than just an isolated unit.
A company has to be conscious about the production costs to not waste time and money. If the expenditures and costs are controlled, it will create an efficient production and help the internationalization. Operational risk is the prospect of loss resulting from inadequate or failed procedures, systems or policies. Employee errors. Systems failures. Fraud or other criminal activity. Any event that disrupts business processes.
How a government governs a country can affect the operations of a firm. The government might be corrupt, hostile, totalitarian, etc., and has a negative image around the globe. A firm 's reputation can change if it operates in a country controlled by that type of government. Also, an unstable political situation can be a risk for multinational firms. Elections or any political event that is unexpected can change a country 's situation and put a firm in an awkward position. Political risks are the likelihood that politicalforces will cause drastic changes in a country 's business environment that hurt the profit and other goals of a business enterprise. Political risk tends to be greater in countries experiencing social unrest. When political risk is high, there is a high probability that a change will occur in the country 's political environment that will endanger foreign firms there. Corrupt foreign governments may also take over the company without warning as seen in Venezuela.
Technological progress brings many benefits, but some disadvantages, including "lack of security in electronic transactions, the cost of developing new technology... the fact that this new technology may fail, and, when all of these are coupled with the outdated existing technology, (the fact that) the result may create a dangerous effect in doing business in the international arena. ''
Companies that establish a subsidiary or factory abroad need to be conscious about the externalizations they will produce, as some may have negative effects such as noise or pollution. This may cause aggravation to the people living there, which in turn can lead to a conflict. People want to live in a clean and quiet environment, without pollution or unnecessary noise. If a conflict arises, this may lead to a negative change in customer 's perception of the company. Actual or potential threat of adverse effects on living organisms and environment by effluents, emissions, wastes, resource depletion, etc., arising out of an organization 's activities is considered to be risks of the environment. As new business leaders come to fruition in their careers, it will be increasingly important to curb business activities and externalizations that may hurt the environment.
These are the economic risks explained by Professor Okolo: "This comes from the inability of a country to meet its financial obligations. The changing of foreign - investment or / and domestic fiscal or monetary policies. The effect of exchange - rate and interest rate make it difficult to conduct international business. '' Moreover, it can be a risk for a company to operate in a country and they may experience an unexpected economic crisis after establishing the subsidiary. Economic risks is the likelihood that economic management will cause drastic changes in a country 's business environment that hurt the profit and other goals of a business enterprise. In practice, the biggest problem arising from economic mismanagement has been inflation. Historically many governments have expanded their domestic money supplying misguided attempts to stimulate economic activity.
According to Professor Okolo: "This area is affected by the currency exchange rate, government flexibility in allowing the firms to repatriate profits or funds outside the country. The devaluation and inflation will also impact the firm 's ability to operate at an efficient capacity and still be stable. '' Furthermore, the taxes that a company has to pay might be advantageous or not. It might be higher or lower in the host countries. Then "the risk that a government will indiscriminately change the laws, regulations, or contracts governing an investment -- or will fail to enforce them -- in a way that reduces an investor 's financial returns is what we call ' policy risk. ' ''
Terrorism is a voluntary act of violence towards a group (s) of people. In most cases, acts of terrorism is derived from hatred or ignorance of religious, political and cultural beliefs. An example was the infamous 9 / 11 attacks were labeled as terrorism due to the unacceptable of western culture by the radical Islamic groups. Terrorism not only affects civilians, but it also has a negative impact towards corporations and other businesses. These impacts may include: physical vandalism or destruction of property, sales declining due to frightened consumers and governments issuing public safety restrictions. Firms engaging in international business will find it difficult to operate in a country that has an uncertain assurance of safety from these attacks.
Bribery is the act of receiving or soliciting of any items or services of value to influence the actions of a party with public or legal obligations. This is considered to an unethical form of practicing business and can have legal repercussions. Firm that want to operate legally should instruct employees to not involve themselves or the company in such activities. Companies should avoid doing business in countries where unstable forms of government exist as it could bring unfair advantages against domestic business and / or harm the social fabric of the citizens.
There has been growth in globalization in recent decades due to (at least) the following eight factors:
Managers in international business must understand social science disciplines and how they affect different functional business fields.
To maintain and achieve successful business operations in foreign nations, you must understand how variations in culture and traditions across nations effect business practices. This idea is known as cultural literacy. Considering strategy when entering foreign markets can become complicated when you only have your own home country 's culture to refer to. This can create a blind spot during the decision making process and result in ethnocentrism. Education on international business introduces the student to new concepts that can be applicable in international dilemmas such as marketing and operations.
A considerable advantage in international business is gained through the knowledge and use of language. Advantages of being an international businessperson who is fluent in the local language include the following:
In many cases, it is truly impossible to gain an understanding of a culture 's buying habits without first taking the time to understand the culture. Examples of the benefit of understanding local culture include the following:
The international business standards focus on the following:
By focusing on these, students will gain a better understanding of Political economy. These are tools that would help future business people bridge the economic and political gap between countries.
There is an increasing amount of demand for business people with an education in international business. A survey conducted by Thomas Patrick from University of Notre Dame concluded that bachelor 's degree and master 's degree holders felt that the training received through education were very practical in the working environment. Increasingly, companies are sourcing their human resource requirement globally. Sony Corporation, for example has only fifty percent of its employees who are Japanese. Business people with an education in international business also had a significantly higher chance of being sent abroad to work under the international operations of a firm.
The following table provides descriptions of higher education in international business and its benefits.
- General or operations managers ($95,000) *
- Economists ($91,000) *
- Internship or study abroad program
- Foreign language requirement
- At least 12 more graduate level courses
- Ph. D. qualifier exams
- Dissertation prospectus (proposal)
- Dissertation
- Teaching requirement
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how do you type the square foot symbol | Square foot - wikipedia
The square foot (plural square feet; abbreviated sq. ft, sf, ft) is an imperial unit and U.S. customary unit (non-SI, non-metric) of area, used mainly in the United States and partially in Bangladesh, Canada, Ghana, Hong Kong, India, Malaysia, Nepal, Pakistan, Singapore and the United Kingdom. It is defined as the area of a square with sides of 1 foot.
Although the pluralisation is regular in the noun form, when used as an adjective, the singular is preferred. So, a flat measuring 700 square feet could be described as a 700 square - foot flat. This corresponds to common linguistic usage of foot.
1 square foot is equivalent to:
1 acre is equivalent to 43,560 square feet.
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discuss the factors that led to the capitalist economic development in europe | History of capitalism - wikipedia
The history of capitalism has diverse and much debated roots, but fully - fledged capitalism is generally thought to have emerged in north - west Europe, especially in the Low Countries (mainly present - day Flanders and Netherlands) and Britain, in the sixteenth to seventeenth centuries. Over the following centuries, capital has been accumulated by a variety of different methods, in a variety of scales, and associated with a great deal of variation in the concentration of economic power and wealth, and capitalism has gradually become the dominant economic system throughout the world. Much of the history of the past five hundred years is, therefore, concerned with the development of capitalism in its various forms.
It is an ongoing debate within the fields of economics and sociology as to what the past, current, and future stages of capitalism consist of. While ongoing disagreement about exact stages exists, many economists have posited the following general states. These states are not mutually exclusive and do not represent a fixed order of historical change, but do represent a broadly chronological trend.
The processes by which capitalism came about, evolved, and spread, are the subject of extensive research and debate among historians. Debates sometimes circle around how capitalism is defined, but a significant body of work has been able to bring substantive historical data to bear on key questions. Key parameters of debate include: how far capitalism is a natural human behaviour and how far it arises from specific historical circumstances; whether its origins lie in towns and trade or in rural property relations; the role of class conflict; the role of the state; how far it is a distinctively European innovation; its relationship with European imperialism; whether technological change is a driver or merely an epiphenomenon of capitalism; and whether or not it is the most beneficial way to organise human societies.
The historiography of capitalism can be divided into two broad schools. One is associated with economic liberalism, with the eighteenth - century economist Adam Smith as a foundational figure, and one with Marxism, drawing particular inspiration from the nineteenth - century economist Karl Marx. Liberals tend to view capitalism as an expression of natural human behaviours which have been in evidence for millennia, and the most beneficial way of promoting human wellbeing. They tend to see capitalism as originating in trade and commerce, and freeing people to exercise their entrepreneurial natures. Marxists tend to view capitalism as a historically unusual system of relationships between classes, which could be replaced by other economic systems which would serve human wellbeing better. They tend to see capitalism as originating in more powerful people taking control of the means of production, and compelling others to sell their labour as a commodity. For these reasons, much of the work on the history of capitalism has been broadly Marxist.
The origins of capitalism have been much debated (and depend partly on what you think the defining features of capitalism are). The traditional account, originating in classical eighteenth - century liberal economic thought and still often articulated, is the ' commercialization model '. This sees capitalism originating in trade. Since evidence for trade is found even in palaeolithic culture, it can be seen as natural to human societies. In this reading, capitalism emerged from earlier trade once merchants had acquired sufficient wealth (referred to as ' primitive capital ') to begin investing in increasingly productive technology. This account tends to see capitalism as a natural continuation of trade, arising when people 's natural entrepreneurialism was freed from the constraints of feudalism, partly by urbanization. Thus it traces capitalism to early forms of merchant capitalism practiced in Western Europe during the Middle Ages. It began to develop into its modern form during the Early Modern period in the Protestant countries of North - Western Europe, especially the Netherlands (Dutch Republic) and England: traders in Amsterdam and London created the first chartered joint - stock companies driving up commerce and trade, and the first stock exchanges and banking and insurance institutions were established. Foundational thinkers for this approach include Adam Smith, Max Weber, Fernand Braudel, Henri Pirenne, and Paul Sweezy.
However, the ' commercialization model ' has been questioned, with a leading competitor being the ' agrarian model '. This notes that traditional mercantilism focused on moving goods from markets where they were cheap to markets where they were expensive rather than investing in production, and that many cultures (including the early modern Dutch Republic) saw urbanisation, and merchants amassing great wealth, without capitalist production emerging. The ' agrarian model ' instead argues that capitalism arose from unique circumstances in English agrarianism.
The agrarian argument developed particularly through Karl Polanyi 's The Great Transformation (1944), Maurice Dobb 's Studies in the Development of Capitalism (1946), and Robert Brenner 's research in the 1970s, the discussion of which is known as the Brenner Debate. In the wake of the Norman Conquest, the English state was unusually centralised. This gave aristocrats relatively limited powers to extract wealth directly from their feudal underlings through political means (not least the threat of violence). England 's centralisation also meant that an unusual number of English farmers were not peasants (with their own land and thus direct access to subsistence) but tenants (renting their land). These circumstances produced a market in leases. Landlords, lacking other ways to extract wealth, were incentivised to rent to those tenants who could pay the most, while tenants, lacking security of tenure, were incentivised to farm as productively as possible to be able to win leases in a competitive market. This led to a cascade of effects whereby successful tenant farmers became agrarian capitalists; unsuccessful ones became wage - labourers, required to sell their labour in order to live; and landlords promoted the privatisation and renting out of common land, not least through the enclosures. In this reading, ' it was not merchants or manufacturers who drove the process that propelled the early development of capitalism. The transformation of social property relations was firmly rooted in the countryside, and the transformation of England 's trade and industry was result more than cause of England 's transition to capitalism '.
The present article includes both perspectives.
The twenty - first century has seen renewed interest in the history of capitalism, and "History of Capitalism '' has become a field in its own right, with courses in history departments. In the 2000s, Harvard University founded the Program on the Study of U.S. Capitalism; Cornell University established the History of Capitalism Initiative; and Columbia University Press launched a monograph series entitled Studies in the History of U.S. Capitialism. This field includes topics such as insurance, banking and regulation, the political dimension, and the impact on the middle classes, the poor and women and minorities. These initiatives incorporate formerly neglected questions of race, gender, and sexuality into the history of capitalism. They have grown in the aftermath of the financial crisis of 2007 -- 2008 and the associated Great Recession.
According to some historians, the modern capitalist system has its origin in the "crisis of the fourteenth century '', a conflict between the land - owning aristocracy and the agricultural producers, or serfs. Manorial arrangements inhibited the development of capitalism in a number of ways. Serfs had obligations to produce for lords and therefore had no interest in technological innovation; they also had no interest in cooperating with one another since they produced to sustain their own families. The lords who owned the land relied on force to guarantee that they were provided with sufficient food. Because lords were not producing to sell on the market, there was no competitive pressure for them to innovate. Finally, because lords expanded their power and wealth through military means, they spent their wealth on military equipment or on conspicuous consumption that helped foster alliances with other lords; they had no incentive to invest in developing new productive technologies.
The demographic crisis of the fourteenth century upset this arrangement. This crisis had several causes: agricultural productivity reached its technological limitations and stopped growing, bad weather led to the Great Famine of 1315 -- 1317, and the Black Death of 1348 -- 1350 led to a population crash. These factors led to a decline in agricultural production. In response, feudal lords sought to expand agricultural production by expanding their domains through warfare; they therefore demanded more tribute from their serfs to pay for military expenses. In England, many serfs rebelled. Some moved to towns, some purchased land, and some entered into favorable contracts to rent lands from lords who needed to repopulate their estates.
The collapse of the manorial system in England enlarged the class of tenant farmers with more freedom to market their goods and thus more incentive to invest in new technologies. Lords who did not want to rely on renters could buy out or evict tenant farmers, but then had to hire free labor to work their estates, giving them an incentive to invest in two very different kinds of commodity owners: those who had money, the means of production, and subsistence, who were eager to valorize the sum of value they had appropriated by buying the labor power of others; and the free workers, who sold their own labor power and, therefore, labor. The free workers were "free workers '' in the double sense that they neither formed part of the means of production nor did they own the means of production that transformed land and even money into what we now call "capital ''. Marx labeled this period the "pre-history of capitalism ''.
In effect, feudalism began to lay some of the foundations necessary for the development of mercantilism, a precursor of capitalism. Feudalism was mostly confined to Europe and lasted from the medieval period through the sixteenth century. Feudal manors were almost entirely self - sufficient, and therefore limited the role of the market. This stifled any incipient tendency towards capitalism. However, the relatively sudden emergence of new technologies and discoveries, particularly in agriculture and exploration, facilitated the growth of capitalism. The most important development at the end of feudalism was the emergence of what Robert Degan calls "the dichotomy between wage earners and capitalist merchants ''. The competitive nature meant there are always winners and losers, and this became clear as feudalism evolved into mercantilism, an economic system characterized by the private or corporate ownership of capital goods, investments determined by private decisions, and by prices, production, and the distribution of goods determined mainly by competition in a free market.
England in the 16th century was already a centralized state, in which much of the feudal order of Medieval Europe had been swept away. This centralization was strengthened by a good system of roads and a disproportionately large capital city, London. The capital acted as a central market hub for the entire country, creating a large internal market for goods, in contrast to the fragmented feudal holdings that prevailed in most parts of the Continent. The economic foundations of the agricultural system were also beginning to diverge substantially; the manorial system had broken down by this time, and land began to be concentrated in the hands of fewer landlords with increasingly large estates. The system put pressure on both the landlords and the tenants to increase agricultural productivity to create profit; the weakened coercive power of the aristocracy to extract peasant surpluses encouraged them to try out better methods, and the tenants also had an incentive to improve their methods, in order to succeed in an increasingly competitive labour market. Land rents had moved away from the previous stagnant system of custom and feudal obligation, and were becoming directly subject to economic market forces.
An important aspect of this process of change was the enclosure of the common land previously held in the open field system where peasants had traditional rights, such as mowing meadows for hay and grazing livestock. Once enclosed, these uses of the land became restricted to the owner, and it ceased to be land for commons. The process of enclosure began to be a widespread feature of the English agricultural landscape during the 16th century. By the 19th century, unenclosed commons had become largely restricted to rough pasture in mountainous areas and to relatively small parts of the lowlands.
Marxist and neo-Marxist historians argue that rich landowners used their control of state processes to appropriate public land for their private benefit. This created a landless working class that provided the labour required in the new industries developing in the north of England. For example: "In agriculture the years between 1760 and 1820 are the years of wholesale enclosure in which, in village after village, common rights are lost ''. "Enclosure (when all the sophistications are allowed for) was a plain enough case of class robbery ''.
Other scholars argue that the better - off members of the European peasantry encouraged and participated actively in enclosure, seeking to end the perpetual poverty of subsistence farming. "We should be careful not to ascribe to (enclosure) developments that were the consequence of a much broader and more complex process of historical change. '' "(T) he impact of eighteenth and nineteenth century enclosure has been grossly exaggerated... ''
The earliest recorded activity of long - distance profit - seeking merchants can be traced back to the Old Assyrian merchants active in the 2nd millennium BCE. The Roman Empire developed more advanced forms of commerce, and similarly widespread networks existed in Islamic nations, but capitalism took shape in Europe in the late Middle Ages and Renaissance. However, while trade has existed since early in human history, it was not capitalism.
An early emergence of commerce occurred on monastic estates in Italy and France and in the independent city republics of Italy during the late Middle Ages. Innovations in banking, insurance, accountancy, and various production and commercial practices linked closely to a ' spirit ' of frugality, reinvestment, and city life, promoted attitudes which sociologists have tended to associate only with northern Europe, Protestantism and a much later age. The city republics maintained their political independence from Empire and Church, traded with North Africa, the Middle East and Asia, and introduced Eastern practices. They were also considerably different from the absolutist monarchies of Spain and France, and were strongly attached to civic liberty.
Modern capitalism, however, only fully emerged in the early modern period between the 16th and 18th centuries, with the establishment of mercantilism or merchant capitalism.
Early evidence for mercantilistic practices appears in early modern Venice, Genoa, and Pisa over the Mediterranean trade in bullion. The region of mercantilism 's real birth, however, was the Atlantic Ocean.
England began a large - scale and integrative approach to mercantilism during the Elizabethan Era. An early statement on national balance of trade appeared in Discourse of the Common Weal of this Realm of England, 1549: "We must always take heed that we buy no more from strangers than we sell them, for so should we impoverish ourselves and enrich them. '' The period featured various but often disjointed efforts by the court of Queen Elizabeth to develop a naval and merchant fleet capable of challenging the Spanish stranglehold on trade and of expanding the growth of bullion at home. Queen Elizabeth promoted the Trade and Navigation Acts in Parliament and issued orders to her navy for the protection and promotion of English shipping.
These efforts organized national resources sufficiently in the defense of England against the far larger and more powerful Spanish Empire, and in turn paved the foundation for establishing a global empire in the 19th century. The authors noted most for establishing the English mercantilist system include Gerard de Malynes and Thomas Mun, who first articulated the Elizabethan System. The latter 's England 's Treasure by Forraign Trade, or the Balance of our Forraign Trade is The Rule of Our Treasure gave a systematic and coherent explanation of the concept of balance of trade. It was written in the 1620s and published in 1664. Mercantile doctrines were further developed by Josiah Child. Numerous French authors helped to cement French policy around mercantilism in the 17th century. French mercantilism was best articulated by Jean - Baptiste Colbert (in office, 1665 -- 1683), although his policies were greatly liberalised under Napoleon.
Under mercantilism, European merchants, backed by state controls, subsidies, and monopolies, made most of their profits from the buying and selling of goods. In the words of Francis Bacon, the purpose of mercantilism was "the opening and well - balancing of trade; the cherishing of manufacturers; the banishing of idleness; the repressing of waste and excess by sumptuary laws; the improvement and husbanding of the soil; the regulation of prices... '' Similar practices of economic regimentation had begun earlier in the medieval towns. However, under mercantilism, given the contemporaneous rise of absolutism, the state superseded the local guilds as the regulator of the economy.
Among the major tenets of mercantilist theory was bullionism, a doctrine stressing the importance of accumulating precious metals. Mercantilists argued that a state should export more goods than it imported so that foreigners would have to pay the difference in precious metals. Mercantilists asserted that only raw materials that could not be extracted at home should be imported; and promoted government subsidies, such as the granting of monopolies and protective tariffs, were necessary to encourage home production of manufactured goods.
Proponents of mercantilism emphasized state power and overseas conquest as the principal aim of economic policy. If a state could not supply its own raw materials, according to the mercantilists, it should acquire colonies from which they could be extracted. Colonies constituted not only sources of supply for raw materials but also markets for finished products. Because it was not in the interests of the state to allow competition, to help the mercantilists, colonies should be prevented from engaging in manufacturing and trading with foreign powers.
Mercantilism was a system of trade for profit, although commodities were still largely produced by non-capitalist production methods. Noting the various pre-capitalist features of mercantilism, Karl Polanyi argued that "mercantilism, with all its tendency toward commercialization, never attacked the safeguards which protected (the) two basic elements of production -- labor and land -- from becoming the elements of commerce ''; thus with mercantilism regulation was more akin to feudalism than capitalism. According to Polanyi, "not until 1834 was a competitive labor market established in England, hence industrial capitalism as a social system can not be said to have existed before that date. ''
The Muscovy Company was the first major chartered joint stock English trading company established in 1555 with a monopoly on trade between England and Muscovy. It was an offshoot of the earlier Company of Merchant Adventurers to New Lands, founded in 1551 by Richard Chancellor, Sebastian Cabot and Sir Hugh Willoughby to locate the Northeast Passage to China to allow trade. This was the precursor to a type of business that would soon flourish in England, the Dutch Republic and elsewhere.
The British East India Company (1600) and the Dutch East India Company (1602) launched an era of large state chartered trading companies. These companies were characterized by their monopoly on trade, granted by letters patent provided by the state. Recognized as chartered joint - stock companies by the state, these companies enjoyed power, ranging from lawmaking, military, and treaty - making privileges. Characterized by its colonial and expansionary powers by states, powerful nation - states sought to accumulate precious metals, and military conflicts arose. During this era, merchants, who had previously traded on their own, invested capital in the East India Companies and other colonies, seeking a return on investment.
Mercantilism declined in Great Britain in the mid-18th century, when a new group of economic theorists, led by Adam Smith, challenged fundamental mercantilist doctrines as the belief that the amount of the world 's wealth remained constant and that a state could only increase its wealth at the expense of another state. However, in more undeveloped economies, such as Prussia and Russia, with their much younger manufacturing bases, mercantilism continued to find favor after other states had turned to newer doctrines.
The mid-18th century gave rise to industrial capitalism, made possible by (1) the accumulation of vast amounts of capital under the merchant phase of capitalism and its investment in machinery, and (2) the fact that the Enclosures meant that Britain had a large population of people with no access to subsistence agriculture, who needed to buy basic commodities via the market, thus ensuing a mass consumer market. Industrial capitalism, which Marx dated from the last third of the 18th century, marked the development of the factory system of manufacturing, characterized by a complex division of labor between and within work process and the routinization of work tasks; and finally established the global domination of the capitalist mode of production.
During the resulting Industrial Revolution, the industrialist replaced the merchant as a dominant actor in the capitalist system and effected the decline of the traditional handicraft skills of artisans, guilds, and journeymen. Also during this period, capitalism marked the transformation of relations between the British landowning gentry and peasants, giving rise to the production of cash crops for the market rather than for subsistence on a feudal manor. The surplus generated by the rise of commercial agriculture encouraged increased mechanization of agriculture.
The productivity gains of capitalist production began a sustained and unprecedented increase at the turn of the 19th century, in a process commonly referred to as the Industrial Revolution. Starting in about 1760 in England, there was a steady transition to new manufacturing processes in a variety of industries, including going from hand production methods to machine production, new chemical manufacturing and iron production processes, improved efficiency of water power, the increasing use of steam power and the development of machine tools. It also included the change from wood and other bio-fuels to coal.
In textile manufacturing, mechanized cotton spinning powered by steam or water increased the output of a worker by a factor of about 1000, due to the application of James Hargreaves ' spinning jenny, Richard Arkwright 's water frame, Samuel Crompton 's Spinning Mule and other inventions. The power loom increased the output of a worker by a factor of over 40. The cotton gin increased productivity or removing seed from cotton by a factor of 50. Large gains in productivity also occurred in spinning and weaving of wool and linen, but they were not as great as in cotton.
The growth of Britain 's industry stimulated a concomitant growth in her system of finance and credit. In the 18th century, services offered by banks increased. Clearing facilities, security investments, cheques and overdraft protections were introduced. Cheques were invented in the 17th century in England and banks settled payments by direct courier to the issuing bank. Around 1770, they began meeting in a central location, and by the 19th century a dedicated space was established, known as a bankers ' clearing house. The London clearing house used a method where each bank paid cash to and then was paid cash by an inspector at the end of each day. The first overdraft facility was set up in 1728 by The Royal Bank of Scotland.
The end of the Napoleonic War and the subsequent rebound in trade, led to an expansion in the bullion reserves held by the Bank of England, from a low of under 4 million pounds in 1821 to 14 million pounds by late 1824.
Older innovations became routine parts of financial life during the 19th century. The Bank of England first issued bank notes during the 17th century, but the notes were hand written and few in number. After 1725 they were partially printed, but cashiers still had to sign each note and make them payable to a named person. In 1844, parliament passed the Bank Charter Act tying these notes to gold reserves, effectively creating the institution of central banking and monetary policy. The notes became fully printed and widely available from 1855.
Growing international trade increased the number of banks, especially in London. These new "merchant banks '' facilitated trade growth, profiting from England 's emerging dominance in seaborne shipping. Two immigrant families, Rothschild and Baring, established merchant banking firms in London in the late 18th century and came to dominate world banking in the next century. The tremendous wealth amassed by these banking firms soon attracted much attention. The poet George Gordon Byron wrote in 1823: "Who makes politics run glibber all? / The shade of Bonaparte 's noble daring? / Jew Rothschild and his fellow - Christian, Baring. ''
The operation of banks also shifted. At the beginning of the century, banking was still an elite preoccupation of a handful of very wealthy families. Within a few decades, however, a new sort of banking had emerged, owned by anonymous stockholders, run by professional managers, and the recipient of the deposits of a growing body of small middle - class savers. Although this new breed of banks was new in prominence, it was not newly invented -- the Quaker family Barclays, had been banking in this manner since 1690.
At the height of the First French Empire, Napoleon sought to introduce a "continental system '' that would render Europe economically autonomous, thereby emasculating British trade and commerce. It involved such stratagems as the use of beet sugar in preference to the cane sugar that had to be imported from the tropics. Although this caused businessmen in England to agitate for peace, the government was able to persevere, in part because the United Kingdom was well into the industrial revolution. The war had the opposite effect -- it stimulated the growth of certain industries like pig - iron output, which was just 68,000 tons in 1788 and soared to 244,000 tons by 1806.
In 1817, David Ricardo, James Mill and Robert Torrens showed that free trade would benefit the industrially weak as well as the strong, in the famous theory of comparative advantage. In Principles of Political Economy and Taxation Ricardo advanced the doctrine still considered the most counterintuitive in economics:
By the mid 19th century, Britain was firmly wedded to the notion of free trade and the first era of globalization began. In the 1840s, the Corn Laws and the Navigation Acts were repealed, ushering in a new age of free trade. In line with the teachings of the classical political economists, led by Adam Smith and David Ricardo, Britain embraced liberalism, encouraging competition and the development of a market economy.
Industrialization allowed cheap production of household items using economies of scale, while rapid population growth created sustained demand for commodities. Globalization in this period was decisively shaped by nineteenth - century imperialism. After the First and Second Opium Wars and the completion of British conquest of India, vast populations of these regions became ready consumers of European exports. It was in this period that areas of sub-Saharan Africa and the Pacific islands were incorporated into the world system. Meanwhile, the conquest of new parts of the globe, notably sub-Saharan Africa, by Europeans yielded valuable natural resources such as rubber, diamonds and coal and helped fuel trade and investment between the European imperial powers, their colonies, and the United States.
The global financial system was mainly tied to the gold standard in this period. The United Kingdom first formally adopted this standard in 1821. Soon to follow was Canada in 1853, Newfoundland in 1865, and the United States and Germany (de jure) in 1873. New technologies, such as the telegraph, the transatlantic cable, the Radiotelephone, the steamship, and railway allowed goods and information to move around the world at an unprecedented degree.
The eruption of civil war in the United States in 1861 and the blockade of its ports to international commerce meant that the main supply of cotton for the Lancashire looms was cut off. The textile industries shifted to reliance upon cotton from Africa and Asia during the course of the U.S. civil war, and this fact created pressure for an Anglo - French controlled canal through the Suez peninsula. The Suez canal opened in 1869; in the same year the Central Pacific Railroad that spanned the North American continent was completed. Capitalism and the engine of profit was making the globe a smaller place.
Several major challenges to capitalism appeared in the early part of the 20th century. The Russian revolution in 1917 established the first socialist state in the world; a decade later, the Great Depression triggered increasing criticism of the existing capitalist system. One response to this crisis was a turn to fascism, an ideology which advocated state - influenced capitalism; whilst others rejected capitalism altogether in favor of communist or socialist ideologies.
The economic recovery of the world 's leading capitalist economies in the period following the end of the Great Depression and the Second World War -- a period of unusually rapid growth by historical standards -- eased discussion of capitalism 's eventual decline or demise. The state began to play an increasingly prominent role to moderate and regulate the capitalistic system throughout much of the world.
Keynesian economics became a widely accepted method of government regulation and countries such as the United Kingdom experimented with mixed economies in which the state owned and operated certain major industries.
The state also expanded in the US; in 1929, total government expenditures amounted to less than one - tenth of GNP; from the 1970s they amounted to around one - third. Similar increases were seen in all industrialized capitalist economies, some of which, such as France, have reached even higher ratios of government expenditures to GNP than the United States.
A broad array of new analytical tools in the social sciences were developed to explain the social and economic trends of the period, including the concepts of post-industrial society and the welfare state.
The long postwar boom ended in the 1970s, amid the economic crises experienced following the 1973 oil crisis. The "stagflation '' of the 1970s led many economic commentators and politicians to embrace market - oriented policy prescriptions inspired by the laissez - faire capitalism and classical liberalism of the 19th century, particularly under the influence of Friedrich Hayek and Milton Friedman. The theoretical alternative to Keynesianism was more compatible with laissez - faire and emphasized rapid expansion of the economy. Market - oriented solutions gained increasing support in the capitalist world, especially under leadership of Ronald Reagan in the U.S. and Margaret Thatcher in the UK in the 1980s. Public and political interest began shifting away from the so - called collectivist concerns of Keynes 's managed capitalism to a focus on individual choice, called "remarketized capitalism. '' In the eyes of many economic and political commentators, the collapse of the Soviet Union brought further evidence of the superiority of market capitalism over planned economy.
Although overseas trade has been associated with the development of capitalism for over five hundred years, some thinkers argue that a number of trends associated with globalization have acted to increase the mobility of people and capital since the last quarter of the 20th century, combining to circumscribe the room to maneuver of states in choosing non-capitalist models of development. Today, these trends have bolstered the argument that capitalism should now be viewed as a truly world system (Burnham). However, other thinkers argue that globalization, even in its quantitative degree, is no greater now than during earlier periods of capitalist trade.
After the abandonment of the Bretton Woods system in 1971, and the strict state control of foreign exchange rates, the total value of transactions in foreign exchange was estimated to be at least twenty times greater than that of all foreign movements of goods and services (EB). The internationalization of finance, which some see as beyond the reach of state control, combined with the growing ease with which large corporations have been able to relocate their operations to low - wage states, has posed the question of the ' eclipse ' of state sovereignty, arising from the growing ' globalization ' of capital.
While economists generally agree about the size of global income inequality, there is a general disagreement about the recent direction of change of it. In cases such as China, where income inequality is clearly growing it is also evident that overall economic growth has rapidly increased with capitalist reforms. The book The Improving State of the World, published by the libertarian think tank Cato Institute, argues that economic growth since the Industrial Revolution has been very strong and that factors such as adequate nutrition, life expectancy, infant mortality, literacy, prevalence of child labor, education, and available free time have improved greatly. Some scholars, including Stephen Hawking and researchers for the International Monetary Fund, contend that globalization and neoliberal economic policies are not ameliorating inequality and poverty but exacerbating it, and are expanding populations of the displaced, the unemployed and the imprisoned along with accelerating the destruction of the environment and species extinction. In 2017, the IMF warned that inequality within nations, in spite of global inequality falling in recent decades, has risen so sharply that it threatens economic growth and could result in further political polarization.
By the beginning of the 21st century, capitalism had become the pervasive economic system worldwide. The collapse of the Soviet bloc in 1991 significantly reduced the influence of Socialism as an alternative economic system. Socialist movements continue to be influential in some parts of the world, most notably Latin - American Bolivarianism, with some having ties to more traditional anti-capitalist movements, such as Bolivarian Venezuela 's ties to communist Cuba.
In many emerging markets, the influence of banking and financial capital have come to increasingly shape national developmental strategies, leading some to argue we are in a new phase of financial capitalism.
State intervention in global capital markets following the financial crisis of 2007 -- 2010 was perceived by some as signaling a crisis for free - market capitalism. Serious turmoil in the banking system and financial markets due in part to the subprime mortgage crisis reached a critical stage during September 2008, characterized by severely contracted liquidity in the global credit markets posed an existential threat to investment banks and other institutions.
According to some, the transition to the information society involves abandoning some parts of capitalism, as the "capital '' required to produce and process information becomes available to the masses and difficult to control, and is closely related to the controversial issues of intellectual property. Some even speculate that the development of mature nanotechnology, particularly of universal assemblers, may make capitalism obsolete, with capital ceasing to be an important factor in the economic life of humanity. Thinkers have also explored what kind of economic system might replace capitalism, such as Paul Mason.
Women 's historians have debated the impact of capitalism on the status of women. Taking a pessimistic side, Alice Clark argued that when capitalism arrived in 17th century England, it made a negative impact on the status of women as they lost much of their economic importance. Clark argues that in 16th century England, women were engaged in many aspects of industry and agriculture. The home was a central unit of production and women played a vital role in running farms, and in some trades and landed estates. Their useful economic roles gave them a sort of equality with their husbands. However, Clark argues, as capitalism expanded in the 17th century, there was more and more division of labor with the husband taking paid labor jobs outside the home, and the wife reduced to unpaid household work. Middle - class and women were confined to an idle domestic existence, supervising servants; lower - class women were forced to take poorly paid jobs. Capitalism, therefore, had a negative effect on me powerful women. In a more positive interpretation, Ivy Pinchbeck argues that capitalism created the conditions for women 's emancipation. Tilly and Scott have Emphasize the continuity and the status of women, finding three stages in European history. In the preindustrial era, production was mostly for home use and women produce much of the needs of the households. The second stage was the "family wage economy '' of early industrialization, the entire family depended on the collective wages of its members, including husband, wife and older children. The third or modern stage is the "family consumer economy, '' in which the family is the site of consumption, and women are employed in large numbers in retail and clerical jobs to support rising standards of consumption.
Not only is the novelty of "globalization '' exaggerated, so is its extent. Capital flows were freer, and foreign holdings by British investors far larger, 100 years ago than anything we see today. Images of multinational corporations shuttling raw materials and parts around the world, as if the whole globe were an assembly line, are grossly overblown, accounting for only about a tenth of U.S. trade. (1)
(See also Henwood, Doug (October 1, 2003). After the New Economy. New Press. ISBN 1 - 56584 - 770 - 9.)
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where did the battle of jutland take place | Battle of Jutland - wikipedia
The Battle of Jutland (German: Skagerrakschlacht, the Battle of Skagerrak) was a naval battle fought by the British Royal Navy 's Grand Fleet under Admiral Sir John Jellicoe, against the Imperial German Navy 's High Seas Fleet under Vice-Admiral Reinhard Scheer during the First World War. The battle unfolded in extensive manoeuvring and three main engagements (the battlecruiser action, the fleet action and the night action), from 31 May to 1 June 1916, off the North Sea coast of Denmark 's Jutland Peninsula. It was the largest naval battle and the only full - scale clash of battleships in that war. Jutland was the third fleet action between steel battleships, following the smaller but more decisive battles of the Yellow Sea (1904) and Tsushima (1905) during the Russo - Japanese War. Jutland was the last major battle in world history fought primarily by battleships.
Germany 's High Seas Fleet intended to lure out, trap, and destroy a portion of the Grand Fleet, as the German naval force was insufficient to openly engage the entire British fleet. This formed part of a larger strategy to break the British blockade of Germany and to allow German naval vessels access to the Atlantic. Meanwhile, Great Britain 's Royal Navy pursued a strategy of engaging and destroying the High Seas Fleet, thereby keeping German naval forces contained and away from Britain and her shipping lanes.
The Germans planned to use Vice-Admiral Franz Hipper 's fast scouting group of five modern battlecruisers to lure Vice-Admiral Sir David Beatty 's battlecruiser squadrons into the path of the main German fleet. They stationed submarines in advance across the likely routes of the British ships. However, the British learned from signal intercepts that a major fleet operation was likely, so on 30 May Jellicoe sailed with the Grand Fleet to rendezvous with Beatty, passing over the locations of the German submarine picket lines while they were unprepared. The German plan had been delayed, causing further problems for their submarines, which had reached the limit of their endurance at sea.
On the afternoon of 31 May, Beatty encountered Hipper 's battlecruiser force long before the Germans had expected. In a running battle, Hipper successfully drew the British vanguard into the path of the High Seas Fleet. By the time Beatty sighted the larger force and turned back towards the British main fleet, he had lost two battlecruisers from a force of six battlecruisers and four powerful battleships -- though he had sped ahead of his battleships of 5th Battle Squadron earlier in the day, effectively losing them as an integral component for much of this opening action against the five ships commanded by Hipper. Beatty 's withdrawal at the sight of the High Seas Fleet, which the British had not known were in the open sea, would reverse the course of the battle by drawing the German fleet in pursuit towards the British Grand Fleet. Between 18: 30, when the sun was lowering on the western horizon, back - lighting the German forces, and nightfall at about 20: 30, the two fleets -- totalling 250 ships between them -- directly engaged twice.
Fourteen British and eleven German ships sank, with great loss of life. After sunset, and throughout the night, Jellicoe manoeuvred to cut the Germans off from their base, hoping to continue the battle the next morning, but under the cover of darkness Scheer broke through the British light forces forming the rearguard of the Grand Fleet and returned to port.
Both sides claimed victory. The British lost more ships and twice as many sailors but succeeded in containing the German fleet. However, the British press criticised the Grand Fleet 's failure to force a decisive outcome, while Scheer 's plan of destroying a substantial portion of the British fleet also failed. Finally, the British strategy of denying Germany access to both the United Kingdom and the Atlantic did succeed, which was the British long - term goal. The Germans ' "fleet in being '' continued to pose a threat, requiring the British to keep their battleships concentrated in the North Sea, but the battle reinforced the German policy of avoiding all fleet - to - fleet contact. At the end of 1916, after further unsuccessful attempts to reduce the Royal Navy 's numerical advantage, the German Navy accepted that its surface ships had been successfully contained, subsequently turning its efforts and resources to unrestricted submarine warfare and the destruction of Allied and neutral shipping, which - along with the Zimmermann Telegram - by April 1917 triggered the United States of America 's declaration of war on Germany.
Subsequent reviews commissioned by the Royal Navy generated strong disagreement between supporters of Jellicoe and Beatty concerning the two admirals ' performance in the battle. Debate over their performance and the significance of the battle continues to this day.
With 16 dreadnought - type battleships, compared with the Royal Navy 's 28, the German High Seas Fleet stood little chance of winning a head - to - head clash. The Germans therefore adopted a divide - and - conquer strategy. They would stage raids into the North Sea and bombard the English coast, with the aim of luring out small British squadrons and pickets, which could then be destroyed by superior forces or submarines.
In January 1916, Admiral von Pohl, commander of the German fleet, fell ill. He was replaced by Scheer, who believed that the fleet had been used too defensively, had better ships and men than the British, and ought to take the war to them. According to Scheer, the German naval strategy should be:
to damage the English fleet by offensive raids against the naval forces engaged in watching and blockading the German Bight, as well as by mine - laying on the British coast and submarine attack, whenever possible. After an equality of strength had been realised as a result of these operations, and all our forces had been made ready and concentrated, an attempt was to be made with our fleet to seek battle under circumstances unfavourable to the enemy.
On 25 April 1916, a decision was made by the German admiralty to halt indiscriminate attacks by submarine on merchant shipping. This followed protests from neutral countries, notably the United States, that their nationals had been the victims of attacks. Germany agreed that future attacks would only take place in accord with internationally agreed prize rules, which required an attacker to give a warning and allow the crews of vessels time to escape, and not to attack neutral vessels at all. Scheer believed that it would not be possible to continue attacks on these terms, which took away the advantage of secret approach by submarines and left them vulnerable to even relatively small guns on the target ships. Instead, he set about deploying the submarine fleet against military vessels.
It was hoped that, following a successful German submarine attack, fast British escorts, such as destroyers, would be tied down by anti-submarine operations. If the Germans could catch the British in the expected locations, good prospects were thought to exist of at least partially redressing the balance of forces between the fleets. "After the British sortied in response to the raiding attack force '', the Royal Navy 's centuries - old instincts for aggressive action could be exploited to draw its weakened units towards the main German fleet under Scheer. The hope was that Scheer would thus be able to ambush a section of the British fleet and destroy it.
A plan was devised to station submarines offshore from British naval bases, and then stage some action that would draw out the British ships to the waiting submarines. The battlecruiser SMS Seydlitz had been damaged in a previous engagement, but was due to be repaired by mid May, so an operation was scheduled for 17 May 1916. At the start of May, difficulties with condensers were discovered on ships of the third battleship squadron, so the operation was put back to 23 May. Ten submarines -- U-24, U-32, U-43, U-44, UC - 47, U-51, U-52, U-63, U-66, and U-70 -- were given orders first to patrol in the central North Sea between 17 and 22 May, and then to take up waiting positions. U-43 and U-44 were stationed in the Pentland Firth, which the Grand Fleet was likely to cross leaving Scapa Flow, while the remainder proceeded to the Firth of Forth, awaiting battlecruisers departing Rosyth. Each boat had an allocated area, within which it could move around as necessary to avoid detection, but was instructed to keep within it. During the initial North Sea patrol the boats were instructed to sail only north -- south so that any enemy who chanced to encounter one would believe it was departing or returning from operations on the west coast (which required them to pass around the north of Britain). Once at their final positions, the boats were under strict orders to avoid premature detection that might give away the operation. It was arranged that a coded signal would be transmitted to alert the submarines exactly when the operation commenced: "Take into account the enemy 's forces may be putting to sea ''.
Additionally, UB - 27 was sent out on 20 May with instructions to work its way into the Firth of Forth past May Island. U-46 was ordered to patrol the coast of Sunderland, which had been chosen for the diversionary attack, but because of engine problems it was unable to leave port and U-47 was diverted to this task. On 13 May, U-72 was sent to lay mines in the Firth of Forth; on the 23rd, U-74 departed to lay mines in the Moray Firth; and on the 24th, U-75 was dispatched similarly west of the Orkney Islands. UB - 21 and UB - 22 were sent to patrol the Humber, where (incorrect) reports had suggested the presence of British warships. U-22, U-46 and U-67 were positioned north of Terschelling to protect against intervention by British light forces stationed at Harwich.
On 22 May 1916, it was discovered that Seydlitz was still not watertight after repairs and would not now be ready until the 29th. The ambush submarines were now on station and experiencing difficulties of their own: visibility near the coast was frequently poor due to fog, and sea conditions were either so calm the slightest ripple, as from the periscope, could give away their position, or so rough as to make it very hard to keep the vessel at a steady depth. The British had become aware of unusual submarine activity, and had begun counter patrols that forced the submarines out of position. UB - 27 passed Bell Rock on the night of 23 May on its way into the Firth of Forth as planned, but was halted by engine trouble. After repairs it continued to approach, following behind merchant vessels, and reached Largo Bay on 25 May. There the boat became entangled in nets that fouled one of the propellers, forcing it to abandon the operation and return home. U-74 was detected by four armed trawlers on 27 May and sunk 25 mi (22 nmi; 40 km) south - east of Peterhead. U-75 laid its mines off the Orkney Islands, which, although they played no part in the battle, were responsible later for sinking the cruiser Hampshire carrying Lord Kitchener (head of the army) on a mission to Russia on 5 June. U-72 was forced to abandon its mission without laying any mines when an oil leak meant it was leaving a visible surface trail astern.
The Germans maintained a fleet of Zeppelins that they used for aerial reconnaissance and occasional bombing raids. The planned raid on Sunderland intended to use Zeppelins to watch out for the British fleet approaching from the north, which might otherwise surprise the raiders.
By 28 May, strong north - easterly winds meant that it would not be possible to send out the Zeppelins, so the raid again had to be postponed. The submarines could only stay on station until 1 June before their supplies would be exhausted and they had to return, so a decision had to be made quickly about the raid.
It was decided to use an alternative plan, abandoning the attack on Sunderland but instead sending a patrol of battlecruisers to the Skagerrak, where it was likely they would encounter merchant ships carrying British cargo and British cruiser patrols. It was felt this could be done without air support, because the action would now be much closer to Germany, relying instead on cruiser and torpedo boat patrols for reconnaissance.
Orders for the alternative plan were issued on 28 May, although it was still hoped that last - minute improvements in the weather would allow the original plan to go ahead. The German fleet assembled in the Jade River and at Wilhelmshaven and was instructed to raise steam and be ready for action from midnight on 28 May.
By 14: 00 on 30 May, the wind was still too strong and the final decision was made to use the alternative plan. The coded signal "31 May G.G. 2490 '' was transmitted to the ships of the fleet to inform them the Skagerrak attack would start on 31 May. The pre-arranged signal to the waiting submarines was transmitted throughout the day from the E-Dienst radio station at Brugge, and the U-boat tender Arcona anchored at Emden. Only two of the waiting submarines, U-66 and U-32, received the order.
Unfortunately for the German plan, the British had obtained a copy of the main German codebook from the light cruiser SMS Magdeburg, which had been boarded by the Russian Navy after the ship ran aground in Russian territorial waters in 1914. German naval radio communications could therefore often be quickly deciphered, and the British Admiralty usually knew about German activities.
The British Admiralty 's Room 40 maintained direction finding and interception of German naval signals. It had intercepted and decrypted a German signal on 28 May that provided "ample evidence that the German fleet was stirring in the North Sea. '' Further signals were intercepted, and although they were not decrypted it was clear that a major operation was likely. At 11: 00 on 30 May, Jellicoe was warned that the German fleet seemed prepared to sail the following morning. By 17: 00, the Admiralty had intercepted the signal from Scheer, "31 May G.G. 2490 '', making it clear something significant was imminent.
Not knowing the Germans ' objective, Jellicoe and his staff decided to position the fleet to head off any attempt by the Germans to enter the North Atlantic, or the Baltic through the Skagerrak, by taking up a position off Norway where they could possibly cut off any German raid into the shipping lanes of the Atlantic, or prevent the Germans from heading into the Baltic. A position further west was unnecessary, as that area of the North Sea could be patrolled by air using blimps and scouting aircraft.
Consequently, Admiral Jellicoe led the sixteen dreadnought battleships of the 1st and 4th Battle Squadrons of the Grand Fleet and three battlecruisers of the 3rd Battlecruiser Squadron eastwards out of Scapa Flow at 22: 30 on 30 May. He was to meet the 2nd Battle Squadron of eight dreadnought battleships commanded by Vice-Admiral Martyn Jerram coming from Cromarty. Hipper 's raiding force did not leave the Outer Jade Roads until 01: 00 on 31 May, heading west of Heligoland Island following a cleared channel through the minefields, heading north at 16 knots (30 km / h; 18 mph). The main German fleet of sixteen dreadnought battleships of 1st and 3rd Battle Squadrons left the Jade at 02: 30, being joined off Heligoland at 04: 00 by the six pre-dreadnoughts of the 2nd Battle Squadron coming from the Elbe River. Beatty 's faster force of six ships of the 1st and 2nd Battlecruiser Squadrons plus the 5th Battle Squadron of four fast battleships left the Firth of Forth on the next day; Jellicoe intended to rendezvous with him 90 mi (78 nmi; 140 km) west of the mouth of the Skagerrak off the coast of Jutland and wait for the Germans to appear or for their intentions to become clear. The planned position would give him the widest range of responses to likely German moves.
The principle of concentration of force was fundamental to the fleet tactics of this time (as in earlier periods). Tactical doctrine called for a fleet approaching battle to be in a compact formation of parallel columns, allowing relatively easy manoeuvring, and giving shortened sight lines within the formation, which simplified the passing of the signals necessary for command and control.
A fleet formed in several short columns could change its heading faster than one formed in a single long column. Since most command signals were made with flags or signal lamps between ships, the flagship was usually placed at the head of the centre column so that its signals might be more easily seen by the many ships of the formation. Wireless telegraphy was in use, though security (radio direction finding), encryption, and the limitation of the radio sets made their extensive use more problematic. Command and control of such huge fleets remained difficult.
Thus, it might take a very long time for a signal from the flagship to be relayed to the entire formation. It was usually necessary for a signal to be confirmed by each ship before it could be relayed to other ships, and an order for a fleet movement would have to be received and acknowledged by every ship before it could be executed. In a large single - column formation, a signal could take 10 minutes or more to be passed from one end of the line to the other, whereas in a formation of parallel columns, visibility across the diagonals was often better (and always shorter) than in a single long column, and the diagonals gave signal "redundancy '', increasing the probability that a message would be quickly seen and correctly interpreted.
However, before battle was joined the heavy units of the fleet would, if possible, deploy into a single column. To form the battle line in the correct orientation relative to the enemy, the commanding admiral had to know the enemy fleet 's distance, bearing, heading, and speed. It was the task of the scouting forces, consisting primarily of battlecruisers and cruisers, to find the enemy and report this information in sufficient time, and, if possible, to deny the enemy 's scouting forces the opportunity of obtaining the equivalent information.
Ideally, the battle line would cross the intended path of the enemy column so that the maximum number of guns could be brought to bear, while the enemy could fire only with the forward guns of the leading ships, a manoeuvre known as "crossing the T ''. Admiral Tōgō, commander of the Japanese battleship fleet, had achieved this against Admiral Zinovy Rozhestvensky 's Russian battleships in 1905 at the Battle of Tsushima, with devastating results. Jellicoe achieved this twice in one hour against the High Seas Fleet at Jutland, but on both occasions, Scheer managed to turn away and disengage, thereby avoiding a decisive action.
Within the existing technological limits, a trade - off had to be made between the weight and size of guns, the weight of armour protecting the ship, and the maximum speed. Battleships sacrificed speed for armour and heavy naval guns (11 in (280 mm) or larger). British battlecruisers sacrificed weight of armour for greater speed, while their German counterparts were armed with lighter guns and heavier armour. These weight savings allowed them to escape danger or catch other ships. Generally, the larger guns mounted on British ships allowed an engagement at greater range. In theory, a lightly armoured ship could stay out of range of a slower opponent while still scoring hits. The fast pace of development in the pre-war years meant that every few years, a new generation of ships rendered its predecessors obsolete. Thus, fairly young ships could still be obsolete compared to the newest ships, and fare badly in an engagement against them.
Admiral John Fisher, responsible for reconstruction of the British fleet in the pre-war period, favoured large guns, oil fuel, and speed. Admiral Tirpitz, responsible for the German fleet, favoured ship survivability and chose to sacrifice some gun size for improved armour. The German battlecruiser SMS Derfflinger had belt armour equivalent in thickness -- though not as comprehensive -- to the British battleship HMS Iron Duke, significantly better than on the British battlecruisers such as Tiger. German ships had better internal subdivision and had fewer doors and other weak points in their bulkheads, but with the disadvantage that space for crew was greatly reduced. As they were designed only for sorties in the North Sea they did not need to be as habitable as the British vessels and their crews could live in barracks ashore when in harbour.
Warships of the period were armed with guns firing projectiles of varying weights, bearing high explosive warheads. The sum total of weight of all the projectiles fired by all the ship 's broadside guns is referred to as "weight of broadside ''. At Jutland, the total of the British ships ' weight of broadside was 332,360 lb (150,760 kg), while the German fleet 's total was 134,216 lb (60,879 kg). This does not take into consideration the ability of some ships and their crews to fire more or less rapidly than others, which would increase or decrease amount of fire that one combatant was able to bring to bear on their opponent for any length of time.
Jellicoe 's Grand Fleet was split into two sections. The dreadnought Battle Fleet, with which he sailed, formed the main force and was composed of 24 battleships and three battlecruisers. The battleships were formed into three squadrons of eight ships, further subdivided into divisions of four, each led by a flag officer. Accompanying them were eight armoured cruisers (classified by the Royal Navy since 1913 as "cruisers ''), eight light cruisers, four scout cruisers, 51 destroyers, and one destroyer - minelayer.
The Grand Fleet sailed without three of its battleships: Emperor of India in refit at Invergordon, Queen Elizabeth dry - docked at Rosyth and Dreadnought in refit at Devonport. The brand new Royal Sovereign was left behind; with only three weeks in service, her untrained crew was judged unready for battle.
British reconnaissance was provided by the Battlecruiser Fleet under David Beatty: six battlecruisers, four fast Queen Elizabeth - class battleships, 14 light cruisers and 27 destroyers. Air scouting was provided by the attachment of the seaplane tender HMS Engadine, one of the first aircraft carriers in history to participate in a naval engagement.
The German High Seas Fleet under Scheer was also split into a main force and a separate reconnaissance force. Scheer 's main battle fleet was composed of 16 battleships and six pre-dreadnought battleships arranged in an identical manner to the British. With them were six light cruisers and 31 torpedo - boats, (the latter being roughly equivalent to a British destroyer).
The German scouting force, commanded by Franz Hipper, consisted of five battlecruisers, five light cruisers and 30 torpedo - boats. The Germans had no equivalent to Engadine and no heavier - than - air aircraft to operate with the fleet but had the Imperial German Naval Airship Service 's force of rigid airships available to patrol the North Sea.
All of the battleships and battlecruisers on both sides carried torpedoes of various sizes, as did the lighter craft. The British battleships carried three or four underwater torpedo tubes. The battlecruisers carried from two to five. All were either 18 - inch or 21 - inch diameter. The German battleships carried five or six underwater torpedo tubes in three sizes from 18 to 21 inch and the battlecruisers carried four or five tubes.
The German battle fleet was hampered by the slow speed and relatively poor armament of the six pre-dreadnoughts of II Squadron, which limited maximum fleet speed to 18 knots (33 km / h; 21 mph), compared to maximum British fleet speed of 21 knots (39 km / h; 24 mph). On the British side, the eight armoured cruisers were deficient in both speed and armour protection. Both of these obsolete squadrons were notably vulnerable to attacks by more modern enemy ships.
The route of the British battlecruiser fleet took it through the patrol sector allocated to U-32. After receiving the order to commence the operation, the U-boat moved to a position 80 mi (70 nmi; 130 km) east of May Island at dawn on 31 May. At 03: 40, it sighted the cruisers HMS Galatea and Phaeton leaving the Forth at 18 knots (33 km / h; 21 mph). It launched one torpedo at the leading cruiser at a range of 1,000 yd (910 m), but its periscope jammed ' up ', giving away the position of the submarine as it manoeuvred to fire a second. The lead cruiser turned away to dodge the torpedo, while the second turned towards the submarine, attempting to ram. U-32 crash dived, and on raising its periscope at 04: 10 saw two battlecruisers (the 2nd Battlecruiser Squadron) heading south - east. They were too far away to attack, but Kapitänleutnant von Spiegel reported the sighting of two battleships and two cruisers to Germany.
U-66 was also supposed to be patrolling off the Firth of Forth but had been forced north to a position 60 mi (52 nmi; 97 km) off Peterhead by patrolling British vessels. This now brought it into contact with the 2nd Battle Squadron, coming from the Moray Firth. At 05: 00, it had to crash dive when the cruiser Duke of Edinburgh appeared from the mist heading toward it. It was followed by another cruiser, Boadicea, and eight battleships. U-66 got within 350 yd (320 m) of the battleships preparing to fire, but was forced to dive by an approaching destroyer and missed the opportunity. At 06: 35, it reported eight battleships and cruisers heading north.
The courses reported by both submarines were incorrect, because they reflected one leg of a zigzag being used by British ships to avoid submarines. Taken with a wireless intercept of more ships leaving Scapa Flow earlier in the night, they created the impression in the German High Command that the British fleet, whatever it was doing, was split into separate sections moving apart, which was precisely as the Germans wished to meet it.
Jellicoe 's ships proceeded to their rendezvous undamaged and undiscovered. However, he was now misled by an Admiralty intelligence report advising that the German main battle fleet was still in port. The Director of Operations Division, Rear Admiral Thomas Jackson, had asked the intelligence division, Room 40, for the current location of German call sign DK, used by Admiral Scheer. They had replied that it was currently transmitting from Wilhelmshaven. It was known to the intelligence staff that Scheer deliberately used a different call sign when at sea, but no one asked for this information or explained the reason behind the query -- to locate the German fleet.
The German battlecruisers cleared the minefields surrounding the Amrum swept channel by 09: 00. They then proceeded north - west, passing 35 mi (30 nmi; 56 km) west of the Horn 's Reef lightship heading for the Little Fisher Bank at the mouth of the Skagerrak. The High Seas Fleet followed some 50 mi (43 nmi; 80 km) behind. The battlecruisers were in line ahead, with the four cruisers of the II scouting group plus supporting torpedo boats ranged in an arc 8 mi (7.0 nmi; 13 km) ahead and to either side. The IX torpedo boat flotilla formed close support immediately surrounding the battlecruisers. The High Seas Fleet similarly adopted a line - ahead formation, with close screening by torpedo boats to either side and a further screen of five cruisers surrounding the column 5 -- 8 mi (4.3 -- 7.0 nmi; 8.0 -- 12.9 km) away. The wind had finally moderated so that Zeppelins could be used, and by 11: 30 five had been sent out: L14 to the Skagerrak, L23 240 mi (210 nmi; 390 km) east of Noss Head in the Pentland Firth, L21 120 mi (100 nmi; 190 km) off Peterhead, L9 100 mi (87 nmi; 160 km) off Sunderland, and L16 80 mi (70 nmi; 130 km) east of Flamborough Head. Visibility, however, was still bad, with clouds down to 1,000 ft (300 m).
By around 14: 00, Beatty 's ships were proceeding eastward at roughly the same latitude as Hipper 's squadron, which was heading north. Had the courses remained unchanged, Beatty would have passed between the two German fleets, 40 mi (35 nmi; 64 km) south of the battlecruisers and 20 mi (17 nmi; 32 km) north of the High Seas Fleet at around 16: 30, possibly trapping his ships just as the German plan envisioned. His orders were to stop his scouting patrol when he reached a point 260 mi (230 nmi; 420 km) east of Britain and then turn north to meet Jellicoe, which he did at this time. Beatty 's ships were divided into three columns, with the two battlecruiser squadrons leading in parallel lines 3 mi (2.6 nmi; 4.8 km) apart. The 5th Battle Squadron was stationed 5 mi (4.3 nmi; 8.0 km) to the north - west, on the side furthest away from any expected enemy contact, while a screen of cruisers and destroyers was spread south - east of the battlecruisers. After the turn, the 5th Battle Squadron was now leading the British ships in the westernmost column, and Beatty 's squadron was centre and rearmost, with the 2nd BCS to the west.
At 14: 20 on 31 May, despite heavy haze and scuds of fog giving poor visibility, scouts from Beatty 's force reported enemy ships to the south - east; the British light units, investigating a neutral Danish steamer (NJ Fjord), which was stopped between the two fleets, had found two German destroyers engaged on the same mission (B109 and B110). The first shots of the battle were fired at 14: 28 when HMS Galatea and Phaeton of the British 1st Light Cruiser Squadron opened on the German torpedo boats, which withdrew toward their approaching light cruisers. At 14: 36, the Germans scored the first hit of the battle when SMS Elbing, of Rear - Admiral Friedrich Boedicker 's Scouting Group II, hit her British counterpart Galatea at extreme range.
Beatty began to move his battlecruisers and supporting forces south - eastwards and then east to cut the German ships off from their base and ordered Engadine to launch a seaplane to try to get more information about the size and location of the German forces. This was the first time in history that a carrier - based aeroplane was used for reconnaissance in naval combat. Engadine 's aircraft did locate and report some German light cruisers just before 15: 30 and came under anti-aircraft gunfire but attempts to relay reports from the aeroplane failed.
Unfortunately for Beatty, his initial course changes at 14: 32 were not received by Sir Hugh Evan - Thomas 's 5th Battle Squadron (the distance being too great to read his flags), because the battlecruiser HMS Tiger -- the last ship in his column -- was no longer in a position where she could relay signals by searchlight to Evan - Thomas, as she had previously been ordered to do. Whereas before the north turn, Tiger had been the closest ship to Evan - Thomas, she was now further away than Beatty in Lion. Matters were aggravated because Evan - Thomas had not been briefed regarding standing orders within Beatty 's squadron, as his squadron normally operated with the Grand Fleet. Fleet ships were expected to obey movement orders precisely and not deviate from them. Beatty 's standing instructions expected his officers to use their initiative and keep station with the flagship. As a result, the four Queen Elizabeth - class battleships -- which were the fastest and most heavily armed in the world at that time -- remained on the previous course for several minutes, ending up 10 mi (8.7 nmi; 16 km) behind rather than five. Beatty also had the opportunity during the previous hours to concentrate his forces, and no reason not to do so, whereas he steamed ahead at full speed, faster than the battleships could manage. Dividing the force had serious consequences for the British, costing them what would have been an overwhelming advantage in ships and firepower during the first half - hour of the coming battle.
With visibility favouring the Germans, Hipper 's battlecruisers at 15: 22, steaming approximately north - west, sighted Beatty 's squadron at a range of about 15 mi (13 nmi; 24 km), while Beatty 's forces did not identify Hipper 's battlecruisers until 15: 30. (position 1 on map). At 15: 45, Hipper turned south - east to lead Beatty toward Scheer, who was 46 mi (40 nmi; 74 km) south - east with the main force of the High Seas Fleet.
Beatty 's conduct during the next 15 minutes has received a great deal of criticism, as his ships out - ranged and outnumbered the German squadron, yet he held his fire for over 10 minutes with the German ships in range. He also failed to use the time available to rearrange his battlecruisers into a fighting formation, with the result that they were still manoeuvring when the battle started.
At 15: 48, with the opposing forces roughly parallel at 15,000 yd (14,000 m), with the British to the south - west of the Germans (i.e., on the right side), Hipper opened fire, followed by the British ships as their guns came to bear upon targets (position 2). Thus began the opening phase of the battlecruiser action, known as the Run to the South, in which the British chased the Germans, and Hipper intentionally led Beatty toward Scheer. During the first minutes of the ensuing battle, all the British ships except Princess Royal fired far over their German opponents, due to adverse visibility conditions, before finally getting the range. Only Lion and Princess Royal had settled into formation, so the other four ships were hampered in aiming by their own turning. Beatty was to windward of Hipper, and therefore funnel and gun smoke from his own ships tended to obscure his targets, while Hipper 's smoke blew clear. Also, the eastern sky was overcast and the grey German ships were indistinct and difficult to range.
Beatty had ordered his ships to engage in a line, one British ship engaging with one German and his flagship HMS Lion doubling on the German flagship SMS Lützow. However, due to another mistake with signalling by flag, and possibly because Queen Mary and Tiger were unable to see the German lead ship because of smoke, the second German ship, Derfflinger, was left un-engaged and free to fire without disruption. SMS Moltke drew fire from two of Beatty 's battlecruisers, but still fired with great accuracy during this time, hitting Tiger 9 times in the first 12 minutes. The Germans drew first blood. Aided by superior visibility, Hipper 's five battlecruisers quickly registered hits on three of the six British battlecruisers. Seven minutes passed before the British managed to score their first hit.
The first near - kill of the Run to the South occurred at 16: 00, when a 30.5 cm (12.0 in) shell from Lützow wrecked the "Q '' turret amidships on Beatty 's flagship Lion. Dozens of crewmen were instantly killed, but far larger destruction was averted when the mortally wounded turret commander -- Major Francis Harvey of the Royal Marines -- promptly ordered the magazine doors shut and the magazine flooded. This prevented a magazine explosion at 16: 28, when a flash fire ignited ready cordite charges beneath the turret and killed everyone in the chambers outside "Q '' magazine. Lion was saved. HMS Indefatigable was not so lucky; at 16: 02, just 14 minutes into the gunnery exchange, she was hit aft by three 28 cm (11 in) shells from SMS Von der Tann, causing damage sufficient to knock her out of line and detonating "X '' magazine aft. Soon after, despite the near - maximum range, Von der Tann put another 28 cm (11 in) shell on Indefatigable 's "A '' turret forward. The plunging shells probably pierced the thin upper armour, and seconds later Indefatigable was ripped apart by another magazine explosion, sinking immediately with her crew of 1,019 officers and men, leaving only two survivors. (position 3).
Hipper 's position deteriorated somewhat by 16: 15 as the 5th Battle Squadron finally came into range, so that he had to contend with gunfire from the four battleships astern as well as Beatty 's five remaining battlecruisers to starboard. But he knew his baiting mission was close to completion, as his force was rapidly closing with Scheer 's main body. At 16: 08, the lead battleship of the 5th Battle Squadron, HMS Barham, caught up with Hipper and opened fire at extreme range, scoring a 15 in (380 mm) hit on Von der Tann within 60 seconds. Still, it was 16: 15 before all the battleships of the 5th were able to fully engage at long range.
At 16: 25, the battlecruiser action intensified again when HMS Queen Mary was hit by what may have been a combined salvo from Derfflinger and Seydlitz; she disintegrated when both forward magazines exploded, sinking with all but nine of her 1,275 man crew lost. (position 4). Commander von Hase, the first gunnery officer aboard Derfflingler, noted:
The enemy was shooting superbly. Twice the Derfflinger came under their infernal hail and each time she was hit. But the Queen Mary was having a bad time; engaged by the Seydlitz as well as the Derfflinger, she met her doom at 1626. A vivid red flame shot up from her forepart; then came an explosion forward, followed by a much heavier explosion amidships. Immediately afterwards, she blew up with a terrific explosion, the masts collapsing inwards and the smoke hiding everything.
During the Run to the South, from 15: 48 to 16: 54, the German battlecruisers made an estimated total of forty - two 28 and 30.5 cm (11.0 and 12.0 in) hits on the British battlecruisers (nine on Lion, six on Princess Royal, seven on Queen Mary, 14 on Tiger, one on New Zealand, five on Indefatigable), and two more on the battleship Barham, compared with only eleven 13.5 in (340 mm) hits by the British battlecruisers (four on Lützow, four on Seydlitz, two on Moltke, one on von der Tann), and six 15 in (380 mm) hits by the battleships (one on Seydlitz, four on Moltke, one on von der Tann).
Shortly after 16: 26, a salvo struck on or around HMS Princess Royal, which was obscured by spray and smoke from shell bursts. A signalman promptly leapt on to the bridge of Lion and announced "Princess Royal 's blown up, Sir. '' Beatty famously turned to his flag captain, saying "Chatfield, there seems to be something wrong with our bloody ships today. '' (In popular legend, Beatty also immediately ordered his ships to "turn two points to port '', i.e., two points nearer the enemy, but there is no official record of any such command or course change.) Princess Royal, as it turned out, was still afloat after the spray cleared.
At 16: 30, Scheer 's leading battleships sighted the distant battlecruiser action; soon after, HMS Southampton of Beatty 's 2nd Light Cruiser Squadron led by Commodore William Goodenough sighted the main body of Scheer 's High Seas Fleet, dodging numerous heavy - calibre salvos to report in detail the German strength: 16 dreadnoughts with six older battleships. This was the first news that Beatty and Jellicoe had that Scheer and his battle fleet were even at sea. Simultaneously, an all - out destroyer action raged in the space between the opposing battlecruiser forces, as British and German destroyers fought with each other and attempted to torpedo the larger enemy ships. Each side fired many torpedoes, but both battlecruiser forces turned away from the attacks and all escaped harm except Seydlitz, which was hit forward at 16: 57 by a torpedo fired by the British destroyer HMS Petard. Though taking on water, Seydlitz maintained speed. The destroyer HMS Nestor, under the command of Captain Barry Bingham, led the British attacks. The British disabled the German torpedo boat V27, which the Germans soon abandoned and sank, and Petard then torpedoed and sank V29, her second score of the day. S35 and V26 rescued the crews of their sunken sister ships. But Nestor and another British destroyer -- HMS Nomad -- were immobilised by shell hits, and were later sunk by Scheer 's passing dreadnoughts. Bingham was rescued, and won the Victoria Cross for his leadership in the destroyer action.
As soon as he himself sighted the vanguard of Scheer 's distant battleship line 12 mi (10 nmi; 19 km) away, at 16: 40, Beatty turned his battlecruiser force 180 °, heading north to draw the Germans toward Jellicoe. (position 5). Beatty 's withdrawal toward Jellicoe is called the "Run to the North '', in which the tables turned and the Germans chased the British. Because Beatty once again failed to signal his intentions adequately, the battleships of the 5th Battle Squadron -- which were too far behind to read his flags -- found themselves passing the battlecruisers on an opposing course and heading directly toward the approaching main body of the High Seas Fleet. At 16: 48, at extreme range, Scheer 's leading battleships opened fire.
Meanwhile, at 16: 47, having received Goodenough 's signal and knowing that Beatty was now leading the German battle fleet north to him, Jellicoe signalled to his own forces that the fleet action they had waited so long for was finally imminent; at 16: 51, by radio, he informed the Admiralty so in London.
The difficulties of the 5th Battle Squadron were compounded when Beatty gave the order to Evan - Thomas to "turn in succession '' (rather than "turn together '') at 16: 48 as the battleships passed him. Evan - Thomas acknowledged the signal, but Lieutenant - Commander Ralph Seymour, Beatty 's flag lieutenant, aggravated the situation when he did not haul down the flags (to execute the signal) for some minutes. At 16: 55, when the 5BS had moved within range of the enemy battleships, Evan - Thomas issued his own flag command warning his squadron to expect sudden manoeuvres and to follow his lead, before starting to turn on his own initiative. The order to turn in succession would have resulted in all four ships turning in the same patch of sea as they reached it one by one, giving the High Seas Fleet repeated opportunity with ample time to find the proper range. However, the captain of the trailing ship (HMS Malaya) turned early, mitigating the adverse results.
For the next hour, the 5th Battle Squadron acted as Beatty 's rearguard, drawing fire from all the German ships within range, while by 17: 10 Beatty had deliberately eased his own squadron out of range of Hipper 's now - superior battlecruiser force. Since visibility and firepower now favoured the Germans, there was no incentive for Beatty to risk further battlecruiser losses when his own gunnery could not be effective. Illustrating the imbalance, Beatty 's battlecruisers did not score any hits on the Germans in this phase until 17: 45, but they had rapidly received five more before he opened the range (four on Lion, of which three were by Lützow, and one on Tiger by Seydlitz). Now the only targets the Germans could reach, the ships of the 5th Battle Squadron, received simultaneous fire from Hipper 's battlecruisers to the east (which HMS Barham and Valiant engaged) and Scheer 's leading battleships to the south - east (which HMS Warspite and Malaya engaged). Three took hits: Barham (four by Derfflinger), Warspite (two by Seydlitz), and Malaya (seven by the German battleships). Only Valiant was unscathed.
The four battleships were far better suited to take this sort of pounding than the battlecruisers, and none were lost, though Malaya suffered heavy damage, an ammunition fire, and heavy crew casualties. At the same time, the 15 in (380 mm) fire of the four British ships was accurate and effective. As the two British squadrons headed north at top speed, eagerly chased by the entire German fleet, the 5th Battle Squadron scored 13 hits on the enemy battlecruisers (four on Lützow, three on Derfflinger, six on Seydlitz) and five on battleships (although only one, on SMS Markgraf, did any serious damage). (position 6).
Jellicoe was now aware that full fleet engagement was nearing, but had insufficient information on the position and course of the Germans. To assist Beatty, early in the battle at about 16: 05, Jellicoe had ordered Rear - Admiral Horace Hood 's 3rd Battlecruiser Squadron to speed ahead to find and support Beatty 's force, and Hood was now racing SSE well in advance of Jellicoe 's northern force. Rear - Admiral Arbuthnot 's 1st Cruiser Squadron patrolled the van of Jellicoe 's main battleship force as it advanced steadily to the south - east.
At 17: 33, the armoured cruiser HMS Black Prince of Arbuthnot 's squadron, on the far southwest flank of Jellicoe 's force, came within view of HMS Falmouth, which was about 5 mi (4.3 nmi; 8.0 km) ahead of Beatty with the 3rd Light Cruiser Squadron, establishing the first visual link between the converging bodies of the Grand Fleet. At 17: 38, the scout cruiser HMS Chester, screening Hood 's oncoming battlecruisers, was intercepted by the van of the German scouting forces under Rear - Admiral Boedicker.
Heavily outnumbered by Boedicker 's four light cruisers, Chester was pounded before being relieved by Hood 's heavy units, which swung westward for that purpose. Hood 's flagship HMS Invincible disabled the light cruiser SMS Wiesbaden shortly after 17: 56. Wiesbaden became a sitting target for most of the British fleet during the next hour, but remained afloat and fired some torpedoes at the passing enemy battleships from long range. Meanwhile, Boedicker 's other ships turned toward Hipper and Scheer in the mistaken belief that Hood was leading a larger force of British capital ships from the north and east. A chaotic destroyer action in mist and smoke ensued as German torpedo boats attempted to blunt the arrival of this new formation, but Hood 's battlecruisers dodged all the torpedoes fired at them. In this action, after leading a torpedo counter-attack, the British destroyer HMS Shark was disabled, but continued to return fire at numerous passing enemy ships for the next hour.
In the meantime, Beatty and Evan - Thomas had resumed their engagement with Hipper 's battlecruisers, this time with the visual conditions to their advantage. With several of his ships damaged, Hipper turned back toward Scheer at around 18: 00, just as Beatty 's flagship Lion was finally sighted from Jellicoe 's flagship Iron Duke. Jellicoe twice demanded the latest position of the German battlefleet from Beatty, who could not see the German battleships and failed to respond to the question until 18: 14. Meanwhile, Jellicoe received confused sighting reports of varying accuracy and limited usefulness from light cruisers and battleships on the starboard (southern) flank of his force.
Jellicoe was in a worrying position. He needed to know the location of the German fleet to judge when and how to deploy his battleships from their cruising formation (six columns of four ships each) into a single battle line. The deployment could be on either the westernmost or the easternmost column, and had to be carried out before the Germans arrived; but early deployment could mean losing any chance of a decisive encounter. Deploying to the west would bring his fleet closer to Scheer, gaining valuable time as dusk approached, but the Germans might arrive before the manoeuvre was complete. Deploying to the east would take the force away from Scheer, but Jellicoe 's ships might be able to cross the "T '', and visibility would strongly favour British gunnery -- Scheer 's forces would be silhouetted against the setting sun to the west, while the Grand Fleet would be indistinct against the dark skies to the north and east, and would be hidden by reflection of the low sunlight off intervening haze and smoke. Deployment would take twenty irreplaceable minutes, and the fleets were closing at full speed. In one of the most critical and difficult tactical command decisions of the entire war, Jellicoe ordered deployment to the east at 18: 15.
Meanwhile, Hipper had rejoined Scheer, and the combined High Seas Fleet was heading north, directly toward Jellicoe. Scheer had no indication that Jellicoe was at sea, let alone that he was bearing down from the north - west, and was distracted by the intervention of Hood 's ships to his north and east. Beatty 's four surviving battlecruisers were now crossing the van of the British dreadnoughts to join Hood 's three battlecruisers; at this time, Arbuthnot 's flagship, the armoured cruiser HMS Defence, and her squadron - mate HMS Warrior both charged across Beatty 's bows, and Lion narrowly avoided a collision with Warrior. Nearby, numerous British light cruisers and destroyers on the south - western flank of the deploying battleships were also crossing each other 's courses in attempts to reach their proper stations, often barely escaping collisions, and under fire from some of the approaching German ships. This period of peril and heavy traffic attending the merger and deployment of the British forces later became known as "Windy Corner ''.
Arbuthnot was attracted by the drifting hull of the crippled Wiesbaden. With Warrior, Defence closed in for the kill, only to blunder right into the gun sights of Hipper 's and Scheer 's oncoming capital ships. Defence was deluged by heavy - calibre gunfire from many German battleships, which detonated her magazines in a spectacular explosion viewed by most of the deploying Grand Fleet. She sank with all hands (903 officers and men). Warrior was also hit badly, but was spared destruction by a mishap to the nearby battleship Warspite. Warspite had her steering gear overheat and jam under heavy load at high speed as the 5th Battle Squadron made a turn to the north at 18: 19. Steaming at top speed in wide circles, Warspite appeared as a juicy target to the German dreadnoughts and took 13 hits, inadvertently drawing fire from the hapless Warrior. Warspite was brought back under control and survived the onslaught, but was badly damaged, had to reduce speed, and withdrew northward; later (at 21: 07), she was ordered back to port by Evan - Thomas. Warspite went on to a long and illustrious career, serving also in World War II. Warrior, on the other hand, was abandoned and sank the next day after her crew was taken off at 08: 25 on 1 June by Engadine, which towed the sinking armoured cruiser 100 mi (87 nmi; 160 km) during the night.
As Defence sank and Warspite circled, at about 18: 19, Hipper moved within range of Hood 's 3rd Battlecruiser Squadron, but was still also within range of Beatty 's ships. At first, visibility favoured the British: HMS Indomitable hit Derfflinger three times and Seydlitz once, while Lützow quickly took 10 hits from Lion, Inflexible and Invincible, including two below - waterline hits forward by Invincible that would ultimately doom Hipper 's flagship. But at 18: 30, Invincible abruptly appeared as a clear target before Lützow and Derfflinger. The two German ships then fired three salvoes each at Invincible, and sank her in 90 seconds. A 30.5 cm (12.0 in) shell from the third salvo struck Invincible 's Q - turret amidships, detonating the magazines below and causing her to blow up and sink. All but six of her crew of 1,032 officers and men, including Rear - Admiral Hood, were killed. Of the remaining British battlecruisers, only Princess Royal received heavy - calibre hits at this time (two 30.5 cm (12.0 in) by the battleship Markgraf). Lützow, flooding forward and unable to communicate by radio, was now out of action and began to attempt to withdraw; therefore Hipper left his flagship and transferred to the torpedo boat SMS G39, hoping to board one of the other battlecruisers later.
By 18: 30, the main battle fleet action was joined for the first time, with Jellicoe effectively "crossing Scheer 's T ''. The officers on the lead German battleships, and Scheer himself, were taken completely by surprise when they emerged from drifting clouds of smoky mist to suddenly find themselves facing the massed firepower of the entire Grand Fleet main battle line, which they did not know was even at sea. Jellicoe 's flagship Iron Duke quickly scored seven hits on the lead German dreadnought, SMS König but in this brief exchange, which lasted only minutes, as few as 10 of the Grand Fleet 's 24 dreadnoughts actually opened fire. The Germans were hampered by poor visibility, in addition to being in an unfavourable tactical position, just as Jellicoe had intended. Realising he was heading into a death trap, Scheer ordered his fleet to turn and disengage at 18: 33. Under a pall of smoke and mist, Scheer 's forces succeeded in disengaging by an expertly executed 180 ° turn in unison ("battle about turn to starboard '', German Gefechtskehrtwendung nach Steuerbord), which was a well - practised emergency manoeuvre of the High Seas Fleet. Scheer declared:
It was now obvious that we were confronted by a large portion of the English fleet. The entire arc stretching from north to east was a sea of fire. The flash from the muzzles of the guns was seen distinctly through the mist and smoke on the horizon, although the ships themselves were not distinguishable.
Conscious of the risks to his capital ships posed by torpedoes, Jellicoe did not chase directly but headed south, determined to keep the High Seas Fleet west of him. Starting at 18: 40, battleships at the rear of Jellicoe 's line were in fact sighting and avoiding torpedoes, and at 18: 54 HMS Marlborough was hit by a torpedo (probably from the disabled Wiesbaden), which reduced her speed to 16 knots (30 km / h; 18 mph). Meanwhile, Scheer, knowing that it was not yet dark enough to escape and that his fleet would suffer terribly in a stern chase, doubled back to the east at 18: 55. In his memoirs he wrote, "the manoeuvre would be bound to surprise the enemy, to upset his plans for the rest of the day, and if the blow fell heavily it would facilitate the breaking loose at night. '' But the turn to the east took his ships, again, directly towards Jellicoe 's fully deployed battle line.
Simultaneously, the disabled British destroyer HMS Shark fought desperately against a group of four German torpedo boats and disabled V48 with gunfire, but was eventually torpedoed and sunk at 19: 02 by the German destroyer S54. Shark 's Captain Loftus Jones won the Victoria Cross for his heroism in continuing to fight against all odds.
Commodore Goodenough 's 2nd Light Cruiser Squadron dodged the fire of German battleships for a second time to re-establish contact with the High Seas Fleet shortly after 19: 00. By 19: 15, Jellicoe had crossed Scheer 's "T '' again. This time his arc of fire was tighter and deadlier, causing severe damage to the German battleships, particularly Rear - Admiral Behncke 's leading 3rd Squadron (SMS König, Grosser Kurfürst, Markgraf, and Kaiser all being hit, along with SMS Helgoland of the 1st Squadron), while on the British side, only the battleship HMS Colossus was hit (twice, by SMS Seydlitz but with little damage done).
At 19: 17, for the second time in less than an hour, Scheer turned his outnumbered and out - gunned fleet to the west using the "battle about turn '' (German: Gefechtskehrtwendung), but this time it was executed only with difficulty, as the High Seas Fleet 's lead squadrons began to lose formation under concentrated gunfire. To deter a British chase, Scheer ordered a major torpedo attack by his destroyers and a potentially sacrificial charge by Scouting Group I 's four remaining battlecruisers. Hipper was still aboard the torpedo boat G39 and was unable to command his squadron for this attack. Therefore, SMS Derfflinger, under Captain Hartog, led the already badly damaged German battlecruisers directly into "the greatest concentration of naval gunfire any fleet commander had ever faced '', at ranges down to 4 mi (3.5 nmi; 6.4 km).
In what became known as the "death ride '', all the battlecruisers except SMS Moltke were hit and further damaged, as 18 of the British battleships fired at them simultaneously. Derfflinger had two main gun turrets destroyed. The crews of Scouting Group I suffered heavy casualties, but survived the pounding and veered away with the other battlecruisers once Scheer was out of trouble and the German destroyers were moving in to attack. In this brief but intense portion of the engagement, from about 19: 05 to about 19: 30, the Germans sustained a total of 37 heavy hits while inflicting only two; Derfflinger alone received 14.
While his battlecruisers drew the fire of the British fleet, Scheer slipped away, laying smoke screens. Meanwhile, from about 19: 16 to about 19: 40, the British battleships were also engaging Scheer 's torpedo boats, which executed several waves of torpedo attacks to cover his withdrawal. Jellicoe 's ships turned away from the attacks and successfully evaded all 31 of the torpedoes launched at them -- though, in several cases, only just barely -- and sank the German destroyer S35, attributed to a salvo from Iron Duke. British light forces also sank V48, which had previously been disabled by HMS Shark. This action, and the turn away, cost the British critical time and range in the last hour of daylight -- as Scheer intended, allowing him to get his heavy ships out of immediate danger.
The last major exchanges between capital ships in this battle took place just after sunset, from about 20: 19 to about 20: 35, as the surviving British battlecruisers caught up with their German counterparts, which were briefly relieved by Rear - Admiral Mauve 's obsolete pre-dreadnoughts (the German 2nd Squadron). The British received one heavy hit on Princess Royal but scored five more on Seydlitz and three on other German ships. As twilight faded to night and HMS King George V exchanged a few final shots with SMS Westfalen, neither side could have imagined that the only encounter between British and German dreadnoughts in the entire war was already concluded.
At 21: 00, Jellicoe, conscious of the Grand Fleet 's deficiencies in night fighting, decided to try to avoid a major engagement until early dawn. He placed a screen of cruisers and destroyers 5 mi (4.3 nmi; 8.0 km) behind his battle fleet to patrol the rear as he headed south to guard Scheer 's expected escape route. In reality, Scheer opted to cross Jellicoe 's wake and escape via Horns Reef. Luckily for Scheer, most of the light forces in Jellicoe 's rearguard failed to report the seven separate encounters with the German fleet during the night; the very few radio reports that were sent to the British flagship were never received, possibly because the Germans were jamming British frequencies. Many of the destroyers failed to make the most of their opportunities to attack discovered ships, despite Jellicoe 's expectations that the destroyer forces would, if necessary, be able to block the path of the German fleet.
Jellicoe and his commanders did not understand that the furious gunfire and explosions to the north (seen and heard for hours by all the British battleships) indicated that the German heavy ships were breaking through the screen astern of the British fleet. Instead, it was believed that the fighting was the result of night attacks by German destroyers. The most powerful British ships of all (the 15 - inch - guns of the 5th Battle Squadron) directly observed German battleships crossing astern of them in action with British light forces, at ranges of 3 mi (2.6 nmi; 4.8 km) or less, and gunners on HMS Malaya made ready to fire, but her captain declined, deferring to the authority of Rear - Admiral Evan - Thomas -- and neither commander reported the sightings to Jellicoe, assuming that he could see for himself and that revealing the fleet 's position by radio signals or gunfire was unwise.
While the nature of Scheer 's escape, and Jellicoe 's inaction, indicate the overall German superiority in night fighting, the results of the night action were no more clear - cut than were those of the battle as a whole. In the first of many surprise encounters by darkened ships at point - blank range, Southampton, Commodore Goodenough 's flagship, which had scouted so proficiently, was heavily damaged in action with a German Scouting Group composed of light cruisers, but managed to torpedo SMS Frauenlob, which went down at 22: 23 with all hands (320 officers and men).
From 23: 20 to approximately 02: 15, several British destroyer flotillas launched torpedo attacks on the German battle fleet in a series of violent and chaotic engagements at extremely short range (often under 0.5 mi (0.80 km)). At the cost of five destroyers sunk and some others damaged, they managed to torpedo the light cruiser SMS Rostock, which sank several hours later, and the pre-dreadnought SMS Pommern, which blew up and sank with all hands (839 officers and men) at 03: 10 during the last wave of attacks before dawn. Three of the British destroyers collided in the chaos, and the German battleship SMS Nassau rammed the British destroyer HMS Spitfire, blowing away most of the British ship 's superstructure merely with the muzzle blast of its big guns, which could not be aimed low enough to hit the ship. Nassau was left with a 11 ft (3.4 m) hole in her side, reducing her maximum speed to 15 knots (28 km / h; 17 mph), while the removed plating was left lying on Spitfire 's deck. Spitfire survived and made it back to port. Another German cruiser, SMS Elbing, was accidentally rammed by the dreadnought Posen and abandoned, sinking early the next day. Of the British destroyers, HMS Tipperary, Ardent, Fortune, Sparrowhawk and Turbulent were lost during the night fighting.
Just after midnight on 1 June, SMS Thüringen and other German battleships sank HMS Black Prince of the ill - fated 1st Cruiser Squadron, which had blundered into the German battle line. Deployed as part of a screening force several miles ahead of the main force of the Grand Fleet, Black Prince had lost contact in the darkness and took a position near what she thought was the British line. The Germans soon identified the new addition to its line and opened fire. Overwhelmed by point - blank gunfire, Black Prince blew up, (857 officers and men -- all hands -- were lost), as her squadron leader Defence had done hours earlier. Lost in the darkness, the battlecruisers SMS Moltke and Seydlitz had similar point - blank encounters with the British battle line and were recognised, but were spared the fate of Black Prince when the captains of the British ships, again, declined to open fire, reluctant to reveal their fleet 's position.
At 01: 45, the sinking battlecruiser Lützow -- fatally damaged by Invincible during the main action -- was torpedoed by the destroyer G38 on orders of Lützow 's Captain Viktor von Harder after the surviving crew of 1,150 transferred to destroyers that came alongside. At 02: 15, the German torpedo boat V4 suddenly had its bow blown off; V2 and V6 came alongside and took off the remaining crew, and the V2 then sank the hulk. Since there was no enemy nearby, it was assumed that she had hit a mine or had been torpedoed by a submarine.
At 02: 15, five British ships of the 13th Destroyer Flotilla under Captain James Uchtred Farie regrouped and headed south. At 02: 25, they sighted the rear of the German line. HMS Marksman inquired of the leader Champion as to whether he thought they were British or German ships. Answering that he thought they were German, Farie then veered off to the east and away from the German line. All but Moresby in the rear followed, as through the gloom she sighted what she thought were four pre-dreadnought battleships 2 mi (1.7 nmi; 3.2 km) away. She hoisted a flag signal indicating that the enemy was to the west and then closed to firing range, letting off a torpedo set for high running at 02: 37, then veering off to rejoin her flotilla. The four pre-dreadnought battleships were in fact two pre-dreadnoughts, Schleswig - Holstein and Schlesien, and the battlecruisers Von der Tann and Derfflinger. Von der Tann sighted the torpedo and was forced to steer sharply to starboard to avoid it as it passed close to her bows. Moresby rejoined Champion convinced she had scored a hit.
Finally, at 05: 20, as Scheer 's fleet was safely on its way home, the battleship SMS Ostfriesland struck a British mine on her starboard side, killing one man and wounding ten, but was able to make port. Seydlitz, critically damaged and very nearly sinking, barely survived the return voyage: after grounding and taking on even more water on the evening of 1 June, she had to be assisted stern first into port, where she dropped anchor at 07: 30 on the morning of 2 June.
The Germans were helped in their escape by the failure of the British Admiralty in London to pass on seven critical radio intercepts obtained by naval intelligence indicating the true position, course and intentions of the High Seas Fleet during the night. One message was transmitted to Jellicoe at 23: 15 that accurately reported the German fleet 's course and speed as of 21: 14. However, the erroneous signal from earlier in the day that reported the German fleet still in port, and an intelligence signal received at 22: 45 giving another unlikely position for the German fleet, had reduced his confidence in intelligence reports. Had the other messages been forwarded, which confirmed the information received at 23: 15, or had British ships reported accurately sightings and engagements with German destroyers, cruisers and battleships, then Jellicoe could have altered course to intercept Scheer at the Horns Reef. The unsent intercepted messages had been duly filed by the junior officer left on duty that night, who failed to appreciate their significance. By the time Jellicoe finally learned of Scheer 's whereabouts at 04: 15, the German fleet was too far away to catch and it was clear that the battle could no longer be resumed.
At midday on 2 June, German authorities released a press statement claiming a victory, including the destruction of a battleship, two battlecruisers, two armoured cruisers, a light cruiser, a submarine and several destroyers, for the loss of Pommern and Wiesbaden. News that Lützow, Elbing and Rostock had been scuttled was withheld, on the grounds this information would not be known to the enemy. The victory of the Skagerrak was celebrated in the press, children were given a holiday and the nation celebrated. The Kaiser announced a new chapter in world history. Post-war, the official German history hailed the battle as a victory and it continued to be celebrated until after World War II.
In Britain, the first official news came from German wireless broadcasts. Ships began to arrive in port, their crews sending messages to friends and relatives both of their survival and the loss of some 6,000 others. Authorities considered suppressing the news, but it had already spread widely. Some crews coming ashore found rumours had already reported them dead to relatives, while others were jeered for the defeat they had suffered. At 19: 00 on 2 June, the Admiralty released a statement based on information from Jellicoe containing the bare news of losses on each side. The following day British newspapers reported a German victory. The Daily Mirror described the German Director of the Naval Department telling the Reichstag: "The result of the fighting is a significant success for our forces against a much stronger adversary ''. The British population was shocked that the long anticipated battle had been a victory for Germany. On 3 June, the Admiralty issued a further statement expanding on German losses, and another the following day with exaggerated claims. However, on 7 June the German admission of the losses of Lützow and Rostock started to redress the sense of the battle as a loss. International perception of the battle began to change towards a qualified British victory, the German attempt to change the balance of power in the North Sea having been repulsed. In July, bad news from the Somme campaign swept concern over Jutland from the British consciousness.
At Jutland, the Germans, with a 99 - strong fleet, sank 115,000 long tons (117,000 t) of British ships, while a 151 - strong British fleet sank 62,000 long tons (63,000 t) of German ships. The British lost 6,094 seamen; the Germans 2,551. Several other ships were badly damaged, such as Lion and Seydlitz.
As of the summer of 1916, the High Seas Fleet 's strategy was to whittle away the numerical advantage of the Royal Navy by bringing its full strength to bear against isolated squadrons of enemy capital ships whilst declining to be drawn into a general fleet battle until it had achieved something resembling parity in heavy ships. In tactical terms, the High Seas Fleet had clearly inflicted significantly greater losses on the Grand Fleet than it had suffered itself at Jutland and the Germans never had any intention of attempting to hold the site of the battle, so some historians support the German claim of victory at Jutland.
However, Scheer seems to have quickly realised that further battles with a similar rate of attrition would exhaust the High Seas Fleet long before it reduced the Grand Fleet. Further, after the 19 August advance was nearly intercepted by the Grand Fleet, he no longer believed that it would be possible to trap a single squadron of Royal Navy warships without having the Grand Fleet intervene before he could return to port. Therefore, the High Seas Fleet abandoned its forays into the North Sea and turned its attention to the Baltic for most of 1917 whilst Scheer switched tactics against Britain to unrestricted submarine warfare in the Atlantic.
At a strategic level, the outcome has been the subject of a huge amount of literature with no clear consensus. The battle was widely viewed as indecisive in the immediate aftermath and this view remains influential.
Despite numerical superiority, the British had been disappointed in their hopes for a decisive victory comparable to Trafalgar and the objective of the influential strategic doctrines of Alfred Mahan. The High Seas Fleet survived as a fleet in being. Most of its losses were made good within a month -- even Seydlitz, the most badly damaged ship to survive the battle, was repaired by October and officially back in service by November. However, the Germans had failed in their objective of destroying a substantial portion of the British Fleet, and no progress had been made towards the goal of allowing the High Seas Fleet to operate in the Atlantic Ocean.
Subsequently, there has been considerable support for the view of Jutland as a strategic victory for the British. While the British had not destroyed the German fleet and had lost more ships than their enemy, the Germans had retreated to harbour; at the end of the battle the British were in command of the area.
The German fleet would only sortie into the North Sea thrice more, with a raid on 19 August, one in October 1916 and another in April 1918. All three were unopposed by capital ships and quickly aborted as neither side were prepared to take the risks of mines and submarines.
Apart from these three abortive operations the High Seas Fleet -- unwilling to risk another encounter with the British fleet -- confined its activities to the Baltic Sea for the remainder of the war. Jellicoe issued an order prohibiting the Grand Fleet from steaming south of the line of Horns Reef owing to the threat of mines and U-boats. A German naval expert, writing publicly about Jutland in November 1918, commented, "Our Fleet losses were severe. On 1 June 1916, it was clear to every thinking person that this battle must, and would be, the last one ''.
There is also significant support for viewing the battle as a German tactical victory, due to the much higher losses sustained by the British. The Germans declared a great victory immediately afterwards, while the British by contrast had only reported short and simple results. In response to public outrage, the First Lord of the Admiralty Arthur Balfour asked Winston Churchill to write a second report that was more positive and detailed.
At the end of the battle, the British had maintained their numerical superiority and had 23 dreadnoughts ready and four battlecruisers still able to fight, while the Germans had only 10 dreadnoughts. One month after the battle, the Grand Fleet was stronger than it had been before sailing to Jutland. Warspite was dry docked at Rosyth, returning to the fleet on 22 July, while Malaya was repaired in the floating dock at Invergordon, returning to duty on 11 July. Barham was docked for a month at Devonport before undergoing speed trials and returning to Scapa on 8 July. Princess Royal stayed initially at Rosyth but transferred to dry dock at Portsmouth before returning to duty at Rosyth 21 July. Tiger was dry docked at Rosyth and ready for service 2 July. Queen Elizabeth, Emperor of India and HMAS Australia, which had been undergoing maintenance at the time of the battle, returned to the fleet immediately, followed shortly after by Resolution and Ramillies. Lion initially remained ready for sea duty despite the damaged turret, then underwent a month 's repairs in July when Q turret was removed temporarily and replaced in September.
A third view, presented in a number of recent evaluations, is that Jutland, the last major fleet action between battleships, illustrated the irrelevance of battleship fleets following the development of the submarine, mine and torpedo. In this view, the most important consequence of Jutland was the decision of the Germans to engage in unrestricted submarine warfare. Although large numbers of battleships were constructed in the decades between the wars, it has been argued that this outcome reflected the social dominance among naval decision - makers of battleship advocates who constrained technological choices to fit traditional paradigms of fleet action. Battleships played a relatively minor role in World War II, in which the submarine and aircraft carrier emerged as the dominant offensive weapons of naval warfare.
The official British Admiralty examination of the Grand Fleet 's performance recognised two main problems:
German armour - piercing shells were far more effective than the British ones, which often failed to penetrate heavy armour. The issue particularly concerned shells striking at oblique angles, which became increasingly the case at long range. Germany had adopted trinitrotoluene (TNT) as the explosive filler for artillery shells in 1902, while the United Kingdom was still using a picric acid mixture (Lyddite). The shock of impact of a shell against armour often prematurely detonated Lyddite in advance of fuze function while TNT detonation could be delayed until after the shell had penetrated and the fuze had functioned in the vulnerable area behind the armour plate.
The issue of poorly performing shells had been known to Jellicoe, who as Third Sea Lord from 1908 to 1910 had ordered new shells to be designed. However, the matter had not been followed through after his posting to sea and new shells had never been thoroughly tested. Beatty discovered the problem at a party aboard Lion a short time after the battle, when a Swedish Naval officer was present. He had recently visited Berlin, where the German navy had scoffed at how British shells had broken up on their ships ' armour. The question of shell effectiveness had also been raised after the Battle of Dogger Bank, but no action had been taken. Hipper later commented, "It was nothing but the poor quality of their bursting charges which saved us from disaster. ''
Admiral Dreyer, writing later about the battle, during which he had been captain of the British flagship Iron Duke, estimated that effective shells as later introduced would have led to the sinking of six more German capital ships, based upon the actual number of hits achieved in the battle. The system of testing shells, which remained in use up to 1944, meant that, statistically, a batch of shells of which 70 % were faulty stood an even chance of being accepted. Indeed, even shells that failed this relatively mild test had still been issued to ships. Analysis of the test results afterwards by the Ordnance Board suggested the likelihood that 30 -- 70 % of shells would not have passed the standard penetration test specified by the Admiralty.
Efforts to replace the shells were initially resisted by the Admiralty, and action was not taken until Jellicoe became First Sea Lord in December 1916. As an initial response, the worst of the existing shells were withdrawn from ships in early 1917 and replaced from reserve supplies. New shells were designed, but did not arrive until April 1918, and were never used in action.
British battlecruisers were designed to chase and destroy enemy cruisers from out of the range of those ships. They were not designed to be ships of the line and exchange broadsides with the enemy. One German and three British battlecruisers were sunk -- but none were destroyed by enemy shells penetrating the belt armour and detonating the magazines. Each of the British battlecruisers was penetrated through a turret roof and her magazines ignited by flash fires passing through the turret and shell - handling rooms. Lützow sustained 24 hits and her flooding could not be contained. She was eventually sunk by her escorts ' torpedoes after most of her crew had been safely removed (though six trapped stokers died when the ship was scuttled). Derfflinger and Seydlitz sustained 22 hits each but reached port (although in Seydlitz 's case only just).
The disturbing feature of the battlecruiser action is the fact that five German battle - cruisers engaging six British vessels of this class, supported after the first twenty minutes, although at great range, by the fire of four battleships of the "Queen Elizabeth '' class, were yet able to sink ' Queen Mary ' and ' Indefatigable '... The facts which contributed to the British losses, first, were the indifferent armour protection of our battle - cruisers, particularly as regards turret armour, and, second, deck plating and the disadvantage under which our vessels laboured in regard to the light. Of this there can be no question. But it is also undoubted that the gunnery of the German battle - cruisers in the early stages was of a very high standard.
Jellicoe and Beatty, as well as other senior officers, gave an impression that the loss of the battlecruisers was caused by weak armour, despite reports by two committees and earlier statements by Jellicoe and other senior officers that Cordite and its management were to blame. This led to calls for armour to be increased, and an additional 1 in (2.5 cm) was placed over the relatively thin decks above magazines. To compensate for the increase in weight, ships had to carry correspondingly less fuel, water and other supplies. Whether or not thin deck armour was a potential weakness of British ships, the battle provided no evidence that it was the case. At least amongst the surviving ships, no enemy shell was found to have penetrated deck armour anywhere. The design of the new battlecruiser HMS Hood (which had started building at the time of the battle) was altered to give her 5,000 long tons (5,100 t) of additional armour.
British and German propellant charges differed in packaging, handling, and chemistry. The British propellant was of two types, MK1 and MD. The Mark 1 cordite had a formula of 37 % nitrocellulose, 58 % nitroglycerine, and 5 % petroleum jelly. It was a good propellant but burned hot and caused an erosion problem in gun barrels. The petroleum jelly served as both a lubricant and a stabiliser. Cordite MD was developed to reduce barrel wear, its formula being 65 % nitrocellulose, 30 % nitroglycerine, and 5 % petroleum jelly. While cordite MD solved the gun - barrel erosion issue, it did nothing to improve its storage properties, which were poor. Cordite was very sensitive to variations of temperature, and acid propagation / cordite deterioration would take place at a very rapid rate. Cordite MD also shed micro-dust particles of nitrocellulose and iron pyrite. While cordite propellant was manageable, it required a vigilant gunnery officer, strict cordite lot control, and frequent testing of the cordite lots in the ships ' magazines.
British cordite propellant (when uncased and exposed in the silk bag) tended to burn violently, causing uncontrollable "flash fires '' when ignited by nearby shell hits. In 1945, a test was conducted by the U.S.N. Bureau of Ordnance (Bulletin of Ordnance Information, No. 245, pp. 54 -- 60) testing the sensitivity of cordite to then - current U.S. Naval propellant powders against a measurable and repeatable flash source. It found that cordite would ignite at 530 mm / 22 '' from the flash, the current U.S. powder at 120 mm, / 5 ", and the U.S. flashless powder at 25 mm. / 1 '' /
This meant that about 75 times the propellant would immediately ignite when exposed to flash, as compared to the U.S. powder. British ships had inadequate protection against these flash fires. German propellant (RP C / 12, handled in brass cartridge cases) was less vulnerable and less volatile in composition. German propellants were not that different in composition from cordite -- with one major exception: centralite. This was symmetrical Diethyl Diphenyl Urea, which served as a stabiliser that was superior to the petroleum jelly used in British practice. It stored better and burned but did not explode. Stored and used in brass cases, it proved much less sensitive to flash. RP C / 12 was composed of 64.13 % nitrocellulose, 29.77 % nitroglycerine, 5.75 % centralite, 0.25 % magnesium oxide and 0.10 % graphite.
The Royal Navy Battle Cruiser Fleet had also emphasised speed in ammunition handling over established safety protocol. In practice drills, cordite could not be supplied to the guns rapidly enough through the hoists and hatches. To bring up the propellant in good time to load for the next broadside, many safety doors were kept open that should have been shut to safeguard against flash fires. Bags of cordite were also stocked and kept locally, creating a total breakdown of safety design features. By staging charges in the chambers between the gun turret and magazine, the Royal Navy enhanced their rate of fire but left their ships vulnerable to chain reaction ammunition fires and magazine explosions. This ' bad safety habit ' carried over into real battle practices. Furthermore, the doctrine of a high rate of fire also led to the decision in 1913 to increase the supply of shells and cordite held on the British ships by 50 %, for fear of running out of ammunition. When this exceeded the capacity of the ships ' magazines, cordite was stored in insecure places.
The British cordite charges were stored two silk bags to a metal cylindrical container, with a 16 - oz gunpowder igniter charge, which was covered with a thick paper wad, four charges being used on each projectile. The gun crews were removing the charges from their containers and removing the paper covering over the gunpowder igniter charges. The effect of having eight loads at the ready was to have 4 short tons (3,600 kg) of exposed explosive, with each charge leaking small amounts of gunpowder from the igniter bags. In effect, the gun crews had laid an explosive train from the turret to the magazines, and one shell hit to a battlecruiser turret was enough to end a ship.
A diving expedition during the summer of 2003 provided corroboration of this practice. It examined the wrecks of Invincible, Queen Mary, Defence, and Lützow to investigate the cause of the British ships ' tendency to suffer from internal explosions. From this evidence, a major part of the blame may be laid on lax handling of the cordite propellant for the shells of the main guns. The wreck of the Queen Mary revealed cordite containers stacked in the working chamber of the X turret instead of the magazine.
There was a further difference in the propellant itself. While the German RP C / 12 burned when exposed to fire, it did not explode, as opposed to cordite. RP C / 12 was extensively studied by the British and, after World War I, would form the basis of the later Cordite SC.
The memoirs of Alexander Grant, Gunner on Lion, suggest that some British officers were aware of the dangers of careless handling of cordite:
With the introduction of cordite to replace powder for firing guns, regulations regarding the necessary precautions for handling explosives became unconsciously considerably relaxed, even I regret to say, to a dangerous degree throughout the Service. The gradual lapse in the regulations on board ship seemed to be due to two factors. First, cordite is a much safer explosive to handle than gun - powder. Second, but more important, the altered construction of the magazines on board led to a feeling of false security... The iron or steel deck, the disappearance of the wood lining, the electric lights fitted inside, the steel doors, open because there was now no chute for passing cartridges out; all this gave officers and men a comparative easiness of mind regarding the precautions necessary with explosive material.
Grant had already introduced measures onboard Lion to limit the number of cartridges kept outside the magazine and to ensure doors were kept closed, probably contributing to her survival.
On 5 June 1916, the First Lord of the Admiralty advised Cabinet Members that the three battlecruisers had been lost due to unsafe cordite management.
On 22 November 1916, following detailed interviews of the survivors of the destroyed battlecruisers, the Third Sea Lord, Rear Admiral Tudor, issued a report detailing the stacking of charges by the gun crews in the handling rooms to speed up loading of the guns.
After the battle, the B.C.F. Gunnery Committee issued a report (at the command of Admiral David Beatty) advocating immediate changes in flash protection and charge handling. It reported, among other things, that:
The United States Navy in 1939 had quantities of Cordite N, a Canadian propellant that was much improved, yet its Bureau of Ordnance objected strongly to its use onboard U.S. warships, considering it unsuitable as a naval propellant due to its inclusion of nitroglycerin.
British gunnery control systems, based on Dreyer tables, were well in advance of the German ones, as demonstrated by the proportion of main calibre hits made on the German fleet. Because of its demonstrated advantages, it was installed on ships progressively as the war went on, had been fitted to a majority of British capital ships by May, 1916, and had been installed on the main guns of all but two of the Grand Fleet 's capital ships. The Royal Navy used centralised fire - control systems on their capital ships, directed from a point high up on the ship where the fall of shells could best be seen, utilising a director sight for both training and elevating the guns. In contrast, the German battlecruisers controlled the fire of turrets using a training - only director, which also did not fire the guns at once. The rest of the German capital ships were without even this innovation. German range - finding equipment was generally superior to the British 9 ft (2.7 m) FT24, as its operators were trained to a higher standard due to the complexity of the Zeiss 3 m (9.8 ft) range finders. Their stereoscopic design meant that in certain conditions they could range on a target enshrouded by smoke. The German equipment was not superior in range to the British Barr & Stroud 15 ft (4.6 m) rangefinder found in the newest British capital ships, and, unlike the British range finders, the German range takers had to be replaced as often as every thirty minutes, as their eyesight became impaired, affecting the ranges provided to their gunnery equipment.
The results of the battle confirmed the value of firing guns by centralised director. The battle prompted the Royal Navy to install director firing systems in cruisers and destroyers, where it had not thus far been used, and for secondary armament on battleships.
German ships were considered to have been quicker in determining the correct range to targets, thus obtaining an early advantage. The British used a ' bracket system ', whereby a salvo was fired at the best - guess range and, depending where it landed, the range was progressively corrected up or down until successive shots were landing in front of and behind the enemy. The Germans used a ' ladder system ', whereby an initial volley of three shots at different ranges was used, with the centre shot at the best - guess range. The ladder system allowed the gunners to get ranging information from the three shots more quickly than the bracket system, which required waiting between shots to see how the last had landed. British ships adopted the German system.
It was determined that 9 - foot (2.7 m) range finders of the sort issued to most British ships were not adequate at long range and did not perform as well as the 15 - foot (4.6 m) range finders on some of the most modern ships. In 1917, range finders of base lengths of 25 and 30 ft (7.6 and 9.1 m) were introduced on the battleships to improve accuracy.
Throughout the battle, British ships experienced difficulties with communications, whereas the Germans did not suffer such problems. The British preferred signalling using ship - to - ship flag and lamp signals, avoiding wireless, whereas the Germans used wireless successfully. One conclusion drawn was that flag signals were not a satisfactory way to control the fleet. Experience using lamps, particularly at night when issuing challenges to other ships, demonstrated this was an excellent way to advertise your precise location to an enemy, inviting a reply by gunfire. Recognition signals by lamp, once seen, could also easily be copied in future engagements.
British ships both failed to report engagements with the enemy but also, in the case of cruisers and destroyers, failed to actively seek out the enemy. A culture had arisen within the fleet of not acting without orders, which could prove fatal when any circumstances prevented orders being sent or received. Commanders failed to engage the enemy because they believed other, more senior officers must also be aware of the enemy nearby, and would have given orders to act if this was expected. Wireless, the most direct way to pass messages across the fleet (although it was being jammed by German ships), was avoided either for perceived reasons of not giving away the presence of ships or for fear of cluttering up the airwaves with unnecessary reports.
Naval operations were governed by standing orders issued to all the ships. These attempted to set out what ships should do in all circumstances, particularly in situations where ships would have to react without referring to higher authority, or when communications failed. A number of changes were introduced as a result of experience gained in the battle.
A new signal was introduced instructing squadron commanders to act independently as they thought best while still supporting the main fleet, particularly for use when circumstances would make it difficult to send detailed orders. The description stressed that this was not intended to be the only time commanders might take independent action, but was intended to make plain times when they definitely should. Similarly, instructions on what to do if the fleet was instructed to take evasive action against torpedoes were amended. Commanders were given discretion that if their part of the fleet was not under immediate attack, they should continue engaging the enemy rather than turning away with the rest of the fleet. In this battle, when the fleet turned away from Scheer 's destroyer attack covering his retreat, not all the British ships had been affected, and could have continued to engage the enemy.
A number of opportunities to attack enemy ships by torpedo had presented themselves but had been missed. All ships, not just the destroyers armed principally with torpedoes but also battleships, were reminded that they carried torpedoes intended to be used whenever an opportunity arose. Destroyers were instructed to close the enemy fleet to fire torpedoes as soon as engagements between the main ships on either side would keep enemy guns busy directed at larger targets. Destroyers should also be ready to immediately engage enemy destroyers if they should launch an attack, endeavouring to disrupt their chances of launching torpedoes and keep them away from the main fleet.
To add some flexibility when deploying for attack, a new signal was provided for deploying the fleet to the centre, rather than as previously only either to left or right of the standard closed - up formation for travelling. The fast and powerful 5th Battle Squadron was moved to the front of the cruising formation so it would have the option of deploying left or right depending upon the enemy position. In the event of engagements at night, although the fleet still preferred to avoid night fighting, a destroyer and cruiser squadron would be specifically detailed to seek out the enemy and launch destroyer attacks.
At the time, Jellicoe was criticised for his caution and for allowing Scheer to escape. Beatty, in particular, was convinced that Jellicoe had missed a tremendous opportunity to annihilate the High Seas Fleet and win what would amount to another Trafalgar. Jellicoe was promoted away from active command to become First Sea Lord, the professional head of the Royal Navy, while Beatty replaced him as commander of the Grand Fleet.
The controversy raged within the navy and in public for about a decade after the war. Criticism focused on Jellicoe 's decision at 19: 15. Scheer had ordered his cruisers and destroyers forward in a torpedo attack to cover the turning away of his battleships. Jellicoe chose to turn to the south - east, and so keep out of range of the torpedoes. Supporters of Jellicoe, including the historian Cyril Falls, pointed to the folly of risking defeat in battle when one already has command of the sea. Jellicoe himself, in a letter to the Admiralty seventeen months before the battle, said that he intended to turn his fleet away from any mass torpedo attack (that being the universally accepted proper tactical response to such attacks, practised by all the major navies of the world). He said that, in the event of a fleet engagement in which the enemy turned away, he would assume they intended to draw him over mines or submarines, and he would decline to be so drawn. The Admiralty approved this plan and expressed full confidence in Jellicoe at the time (October 1914).
The stakes were high, the pressure on Jellicoe immense, and his caution certainly understandable. His judgement might have been that even 90 % odds in favour were not good enough to bet the British Empire. The former First Lord of the Admiralty Winston Churchill said of the battle that Jellicoe "was the only man on either side who could have lost the war in an afternoon. ''
The criticism of Jellicoe also fails to sufficiently credit Scheer, who was determined to preserve his fleet by avoiding the full British battle line, and who showed great skill in effecting his escape.
On the other hand, some of Jellicoe 's supporters condemned the actions of Beatty for the British failure to achieve a complete victory. Although Beatty was undeniably brave, his mismanagement of the initial encounter with Hipper 's squadron and the High Seas Fleet cost considerable advantage in the first hours of the battle. His most glaring failure was in not providing Jellicoe with periodic information on the position, course, and speed of the High Seas Fleet. Beatty, aboard the battlecruiser Lion, left behind the four fast battleships of the 5th Battle Squadron -- the most powerful warships in the world at the time -- engaging with six ships when better control would have given him 10 against Hipper 's five. Though Beatty 's larger 13.5 in (340 mm) guns out - ranged Hipper 's 11 and 12 in (280 and 300 mm) guns by thousands of yards, Beatty held his fire for 10 minutes and closed the German squadron until within range of the Germans ' superior gunnery, under lighting conditions that favoured the Germans. Most of the British losses in tonnage occurred in Beatty 's force.
The total loss of life was 9,823 men, of which the British losses were 6,784 and German losses were 3,039. Counted among the British losses are 2 members of the Royal Australian Navy, and 1 member of the Royal Canadian Navy. 6 Australian nationals serving in the Royal Navy were also killed.
113,300 tons sunk:
62,300 tons sunk:
The Victoria Cross is the highest military decoration awarded for valour "in the face of the enemy '' to members of the British Empire armed forces. The Ordre pour le Mérite was the Kingdom of Prussia and consequently the German Empire 's highest military order until the end of the First World War.
In the years following the battle the wrecks were slowly discovered. Invincible was found by the Royal Navy minesweeper HMS Oakley in 1919. After the Second World War some of the wrecks seem to have been commercially salvaged. For instance, the Hydrographic Office record for SMS Lützow (No. 32344) shows that salvage operations were taking place on the wreck in 1960.
During 2000 -- 2016 a series of diving and marine survey expeditions involving veteran shipwreck historian and archaeologist Innes McCartney has located all of the wrecks sunk in the battle. It was discovered that over 60 % of them had suffered from metal theft. In 2003 McCartney led a detailed survey of the wrecks for the Channel 4 documentary "Clash of the Dreadnoughts ''. The film examined the last minutes of the lost ships and revealed for the first time how both ' P ' and ' Q ' turrets of Invincible had been blasted out of the ship and tossed into the sea before she broke in half. This was followed by the Channel 4 documentary "Jutland: WWI 's Greatest Sea Battle '', broadcast in May 2016, which showed how several of the major losses at Jutland had actually occurred and just how accurate the "Harper Record '' actually was.
On the 90th anniversary of the battle, in 2006, the UK Ministry of Defence belatedly announced that the 14 British vessels lost in the battle were being designated as protected places under the Protection of Military Remains Act 1986. This legislation only affects British ships and citizens and in practical terms offers no real protection from non-British salvors of the wreck sites. In May 2016 a number of British newspapers named the Dutch salvage company "Friendship Offshore '' as one of the main salvors of the Jutland wrecks in recent years and depicted leaked photographs revealing the extent of their activities on the wreck of HMS Queen Mary.
The last surviving veteran of the battle, Henry Allingham, a British RAF (originally RNAS) airman, died on 18 July 2009, aged 113, by which time he was the oldest documented man in the world and one of the last surviving veterans of the whole war. Also among the combatants was the then 20 - year - old Prince Albert, second in the line to the British throne, who would reign as King George VI of the United Kingdom from 1936 until his death in 1952. He served as a junior officer in the Royal Navy.
In 2013, one ship from the battle survives and is still afloat, the light cruiser HMS Caroline. Decommissioned in 2011, she is docked at the Royal Naval Reserve depot in Belfast, Northern Ireland.
The Battle of Jutland was annually celebrated as a great victory by the right wing in Weimar Germany. This victory was used to repress the memory of the German navy 's initiation of the German Revolution of 1918 -- 1919, as well as the memory of the defeat in World War I in general. (The celebrations of the Battle of Tannenberg played a similar role.) This is especially true for the city of Wilhelmshaven, where wreath - laying ceremonies and torch - lit parades were performed until the end of the 1960s. In 1916 Contreadmiral Friedrich von Kühlwetter (1865 - 1931) wrote a detailed analysis of the battle and published it in a book under the title "Skagerrak '' (first anonymously published), which was reprinted in large numbers until after WWII and had a huge influence in keeping the battle in public memory amongst Germans as it was not tainted by the ideology of the Third Reich. Kühlwetter built the School for Naval Officers at Mürwik near Flensburg where he is still remembered.
In May 2016, the 100th Anniversary commemoration of the Battle of Jutland was held. On 29 May, a commemorative service was held at St Mary 's Church, Wimbledon, where the ensign from HMS Inflexible is on permanent display. On 31 May, the main service was held at St Magnus Cathedral in Orkney, attended by the British Prime Minister, David Cameron, and the German President, Joachim Gauck, along with Princess Anne and Vice Admiral Sir Tim Laurence.
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when did full throttle open at six flags | Full Throttle (roller coaster) - Wikipedia
Full Throttle is a steel launched roller coaster at the Six Flags Magic Mountain amusement park in Valencia, California. The ride is designed by Premier Rides and featured the world 's tallest vertical loop at 160 feet (49 m) when it opened (this record is now held by Flash, a steel roller coaster at Lewa Adventure, China). It is also the first roller coaster to feature a top - hat element on a loop. It officially opened to the public on June 22, 2013.
In late 2012 Baltimore - based roller coaster manufacturer Premier Rides was announced as the builder of the coaster. Construction of Full Throttle started shortly after the Log Jammer log flume was closed on October 31, 2011. In March 2012, details of a launched roller coaster named Full Throttle were leaked to the Los Angeles Times. On April 4, 2012, Six Flags trademarked the name Full Throttle.
On August 28, 2012, Six Flags Magic Mountain officially announced Full Throttle. Along with Full Throttle there would be a new themed section to host the new coaster.
In mid-November 2012, construction walls went up, blocking off the construction site in Six Flags Plaza. For the new themed section, What the Fried? (restaurant) and Warner Bros. Kids ' Club (theater) were demolished before the construction walls went up. By mid-December, the first pieces of Full Throttle 's track had arrived on site. In late February, Full Throttle started to become vertical until April 12, 2013 when it was complete.
Six Flags Magic Mountain confirmed on Twitter that Full Throttle would open on June 22, 2013.
The train is launched from 0 to 70 miles per hour (110 km / h) using one of the three linear synchronous motor out of the station into the record - breaking 160 - foot - tall (49 m) vertical loop. Riders then enter into a high - banked curve to the right and then another to the left as they approach the second inversion, a dive loop. This inversion drops down into a tunnel previously used for the park 's monorail system, where the train comes to a halt. The train is then launched backwards out of the tunnel and partially up the dive loop. Once it loses its backward momentum, the train returns forward into the tunnel and is launched out of the tunnel and straight into a high - G turn to the left. Riders then go up the top hat that is located on top of the loop. Riders drop from the hill and reach the brake run before entering a 180 - degree turn to the left back into the station. Duration of the 2,200 foot (670 m) ride is under one minute.
The train is configured in a 2 trains with 3 cars per train layout. Riders are arranged 2 across in 3 rows for a total of 18 riders per train. The roller coaster configuration makes the capacity of 800 riders per hour.
Full Throttle 's station was once open aired, but shade has since been placed over the station. It 's theme is unlike other coasters in the park. In front of the station is a dining area and gift shop in a building with "Full Throttle '' badging. There is also a stage where dance parties are often held featuring a DJ, drum player, and "Full Throttle dancers. ''
Upon its building, Full Throttle received positive reviews from critics. Brady MacDonald of the Los Angeles Times states, "you ride Full Throttle and there 's only one reaction: wow ''. MacDonald claims the ride starts "silky smooth and whisper quiet '' and launches as a "rocket - fast launch ''. MacDonald criticized the activation of the brakes as the train descends the top hat.
Upon debut, Full Throttle surpassed Superman: Krypton Coaster at Six Flags Fiesta Texas for the tallest vertical loop on a roller coaster. In January 2016, the record was conceded to Mack - manufactered Flash at the Lewa Adventure amusement park, located in China. However, Full Throttle 's loop remains to be the tallest loop in North America.
It has the first top hat attached directly on top of the vertical loop. As of 2017 no other looping roller - coaster has this type of top hat.
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in the long run inputs that were fixed in the short run remain fixed | Long run and short run - wikipedia
In microeconomics, the long run is the conceptual time period in which there are no fixed factors of production, so that there are no constraints preventing changing the output level by changing the capital stock or by entering or leaving an industry. The long run contrasts with the short run, in which some factors are variable and others are fixed, constraining entry or exit from an industry. In macroeconomics, the long run is the period when the general price level, contractual wage rates, and expectations adjust fully to the state of the economy, in contrast to the short run when these variables may not fully adjust.
In the long run, firms change production levels in response to (expected) economic profits or losses, and the land, labour, capital goods and entrepreneurship vary to reach the minimum level of long - run average cost. In the simplified case of plant capacity as the only fixed factor, a generic firm can make these changes in the long run:
The long run is associated with the long - run average cost (LRAC) curve in microeconomic models along which a firm would minimize its average cost (cost per unit) for each respective long - run quantity of output. Long - run marginal cost (LRMC) is the added cost of providing an additional unit of service or commodity from changing capacity level to reach the lowest cost associated with that extra output. LRMC equalling price is efficient as to resource allocation in the long run. The concept of long - run cost is also used in determining whether the long - run expected to induce the firm to remain in the industry or shut down production there. In long - run equilibrium of an industry in which perfect competition prevails, the LRMC = LRAC at the minimum LRAC and associated output. The shape of the long - run marginal and average costs curves is determined by returns to scale.
The long run is a planning and implementation stage. Here a firm may decide that it needs to produce on a larger scale by building a new plant or adding a production line. The firm may decide that new technology should be incorporated into its production process. The firm thus considers all its long - run production options and selects the optimal combination of inputs and technology for its long - run purposes. The optimal combination of inputs is the least - cost combination of inputs for desired level of output when all inputs are variable. Once the decisions are made and implemented and production begins, the firm is operating in the short run with fixed and variable inputs.
All production in real time occurs in the short run. In the short run, a profit - maximizing firm will:
The transition from the short run to the long run may be done by considering some short - run equilibrium that is also a long - run equilibrium as to supply and demand, then comparing that state against a new short - run and long - run equilibrium state from a change that disturbs equilibrium, say in the sales - tax rate, tracing out the short - run adjustment first, then the long - run adjustment. Each is an example of comparative statics. Alfred Marshall (1890) pioneered in comparative - static period analysis. He distinguished between the temporary or market period (with output fixed), the short period, and the long period. "Classic '' contemporary graphical and formal treatments include those of Jacob Viner (1931), John Hicks (1939), and Paul Samuelson (1947). The law is related to a positive slope of the short - run marginal - cost curve.
The usage of long run and short run in macroeconomics differs somewhat from the above microeconomic usage. John Maynard Keynes in 1936 emphasized fundamental factors of a market economy that might result in prolonged periods away from full - employment. In later macroeconomic usage, the long run is the period in which the price level for the overall economy is completely flexible as to shifts in aggregate demand and aggregate supply. In addition there is full mobility of labor and capital between sectors of the economy and full capital mobility between nations. In the short run none of these conditions need fully hold. The price level is sticky or fixed in response to changes in aggregate demand or supply, capital is not fully mobile between sectors, and capital is not fully mobile across countries due to interest rate differences among countries and fixed exchange rates.
A famous critique of neglecting short - run analysis was by Keynes, who wrote that "In the long run, we are all dead '', referring to the long - run proposition of the quantity theory of, for example, a doubling of the money supply doubling the price level.
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what's the significance of april fool's day | April Fools ' Day - wikipedia
April Fools ' Day is an annual celebration in some European and Western countries commemorated on April 1 by playing practical jokes and spreading hoaxes. The jokes and their victims are called April fools. People playing April Fool jokes often expose their prank by shouting "April fool '' at the unfortunate victim (s). Some newspapers, magazines and other published media report fake stories, which are usually explained the next day or below the news section in smaller letters. Although popular since the 19th century, the day is not a public holiday in any country.
Aside from April Fools ' Day, the custom of setting aside a day for the playing of harmless pranks upon one 's neighbour has historically been relatively common in the world.
A disputed association between April 1 and foolishness is in Geoffrey Chaucer 's The Canterbury Tales (1392). In the "Nun 's Priest 's Tale '', a vain cock Chauntecleer is tricked by a fox on Syn March bigan thritty dayes and two. Readers apparently understood this line to mean "32 March '', i.e. April 1. However, it is not clear that Chaucer was referencing April 1. Modern scholars believe that there is a copying error in the extant manuscripts and that Chaucer actually wrote, Syn March was gon. If so, the passage would have originally meant 32 days after March, i.e. 2 May, the anniversary of the engagement of King Richard II of England to Anne of Bohemia, which took place in 1381.
In 1508, French poet Eloy d'Amerval referred to a poisson d'avril (April fool, literally "Fish of April ''), possibly the first reference to the celebration in France. In the Middle Ages, New Year 's Day was celebrated on March 25 in most European towns. In some areas of France, New Year 's was a week - long holiday ending on April 1. Some writers suggest that April Fools ' originated because those who celebrated on January 1 made fun of those who celebrated on other dates. The use of January 1 as New Year 's Day was common in France by the mid-16th century, and this date was adopted officially in 1564 by the Edict of Roussillon.
In 1539, Flemish poet Eduard de Dene wrote of a nobleman who sent his servants on foolish errands on April 1.
In the Netherlands, the origin of April Fools ' Day is often attributed to the Dutch victory at Brielle in 1572, where the Spanish Duke Álvarez de Toledo was defeated. "Op 1 april verloor Alva zijn bril '' is a Dutch proverb, which can be translated to: "On the first of April, Alva lost his glasses. '' In this case, the glasses ("bril '' in Dutch) serve as a metaphor for Brielle. This theory, however, provides no explanation for the international celebration of April Fools ' Day.
In 1686, John Aubrey referred to the celebration as "Fooles holy day '', the first British reference. On April 1, 1698, several people were tricked into going to the Tower of London to "see the Lions washed ''.
Although no Biblical scholar or historian are known to have mentioned a relationship, some have expressed the belief that the origins of April Fool 's Day may go back to the Genesis flood narrative. In a 1908 edition of the Harper 's Weekly cartoonist Bertha R. McDonald wrote:
Authorities gravely back with it to the time of Noah and the ark. The London Public Advertiser of March 13, 1769, printed: "The mistake of Noah sending the dove out of the ark before the water had abated, on the first day of April, and to perpetuate the memory of this deliverance it was thought proper, whoever forgot so remarkable a circumstance, to punish them by sending them upon some sleeveless errand similar to that ineffectual message upon which the bird was sent by the patriarch ''.
In the UK, an April Fool joke is revealed by shouting "April fool! '' at the recipient, who becomes the "April fool ''. A study in the 1950s, by folklorists Iona and Peter Opie, found that in the UK, and in countries whose traditions derived from the UK, the joking ceased at midday. A person playing a joke after midday is the "April fool '' themselves.
In Scotland, April Fools ' Day was traditionally called ' Huntigowk Day ', although this name has fallen into disuse. The name is a corruption of ' Hunt the Gowk ', "gowk '' being Scots for a cuckoo or a foolish person; alternative terms in Gaelic would be Là na Gocaireachd, ' gowking day ', or Là Ruith na Cuthaige, ' the day of running the cuckoo '. The traditional prank is to ask someone to deliver a sealed message that supposedly requests help of some sort. In fact, the message reads "Dinna laugh, dinna smile. Hunt the gowk another mile. '' The recipient, upon reading it, will explain he can only help if he first contacts another person, and sends the victim to this next person with an identical message, with the same result.
In England a "fool '' is known by different names around the country, including a "noodle '', "gob '', "gobby '' or "noddy ''.
In Ireland, it was traditional to entrust the victim with an "important letter '' to be given to a named person. That person would then ask the victim to take it to someone else, and so on. The letter when finally opened contained the words "send the fool further ''.
In Poland, prima aprilis ("1 April '' in Latin) as a day of jokes is a centuries - long tradition. It is a day in which many jokes are told; various hoaxes -- sometimes very sophisticated -- are prepared by people, media (which often cooperate to make the "information '' more credible) and even public institutions. Serious activities are usually avoided, and generally every word said on April 1st can be a lie, or a joke. The conviction for this is so strong that the Polish anti-Turkish alliance with Leopold I signed on April 1, 1683, was backdated to March 31. However, for some in Poland prima aprilis ends at noon of April 1st, and prima aprilis jokes after that hour are considered inappropriate and not classy.
Danes, Finns, Icelanders, Norwegians and Swedes celebrate April Fools ' Day (aprilsnar in Danish; aprillipäivä in Finnish). Most news media outlets will publish exactly one false story on April 1; for newspapers this will typically be a first - page article but not the top headline.
In Italy, France, Belgium, The Netherlands, and French - speaking areas of Switzerland and Canada, April 1 tradition is often known as "April fish '' (poissons d'avril in French, aprilvis in Dutch or pesce d'aprile in Italian). This includes attempting to attach a paper fish to the victim 's back without being noticed. Such fish feature prominently on many late 19th - to early 20th - century French April Fools ' Day postcards. Many newspapers also spread a false story on April Fools ' Day, and a subtle reference to a fish is sometimes given as a clue.
In India, there have been numerous references to April Fools ' Day in both cinema and popular literature and people are jovially associated with the day. However, this is not any intrinsic part of India 's ancient culture.
In Lebanon, an April Fool joke is revealed by shouting "كذبة ابريل! '' (which means "Aprils fool! '') at the recipient, who becomes the "April fool ''.
In many Spanish - speaking countries (and the Philippines), "Dia de los Santos Inocentes '' (Holy Innocents Day) is celebrated, which is very similar to April Fools. Often, people play pranks on each other, trick others, etc.
As well as people playing pranks on one another on April Fools ' Day, elaborate practical jokes have appeared on radio and TV stations, newspapers, websites, and have been performed by large corporations. In one famous prank from 1957, the BBC broadcast a film in their Panorama current affairs series purporting to show Swiss farmers picking freshly - grown spaghetti, in what they called the Swiss Spaghetti Harvest. The BBC were later flooded with requests to purchase a spaghetti plant, forcing them to declare the film a hoax on the news the next day.
With the advent of the Internet and readily available global news services, April Fools ' pranks can catch and embarrass a wider audience than ever before.
December 28, the equivalent day in Spain, Hispanic America and the Philippines, is also the Christian day of celebration of the "Day of the Holy Innocents ''. The Christian celebration is a holiday in its own right, a religious one, but the tradition of pranks is not, though the latter is observed yearly. After somebody plays a joke or a prank on somebody else, the joker usually cries out, in some regions of Hispanic America: Inocente palomita que te dejaste engañar ("You innocent little dove that let yourself be fooled ''), not to be confused with the second translation of palomita, which is popcorn.
In Mexico, the phrase is ¡ Inocente para siempre! which means "Innocent forever! ''. In Argentina, the prankster says ¡ Que la inocencia te valga!, which roughly translates as a piece of advice on not to be as gullible as the victim of the prank. In Spain, it is common to say just ¡ Inocente! (which in Spanish can mean "Innocent! '', but also "Gullible! '').
In Colombia, the term used is "Pásala por Inocentes '', which roughly means: "Let it go; today it 's Innocent 's Day. ''
In Belgium, this day is also known as the "Day of the innocent children '' or "Day of the stupid children ''. It used to be a day where parents, grandparents, and teachers would fool the children in some way. But the celebration of this day has died out in favor of April Fools ' Day.
Nevertheless, on the Spanish island of Menorca, Dia d'enganyar ("Fooling day '') is celebrated on April 1 because Menorca was a British possession during part of the 18th century. In Brazil, the "Dia da mentira '' ("Day of the lie '') is also celebrated on April 1.
In Iran, on 13th of the first month (Farvardin) of the Iranian calendar (known as Nature 's day or Sizdah Be-dar, 1st or 2nd of April), it is common that people spread false news and then shout "Doroughe sizdah '' (lie of 13) to the victim. Some of the newspapers and journals also do the same and then somewhere in the bottom of page write "Doroughe sizdah '' with inverse letters.
The practice of April Fool pranks and hoaxes is controversial. The mixed opinions of critics are epitomized in the reception to the 1957 BBC "Spaghetti - tree hoax '', in reference to which, newspapers were split over whether it was "a great joke or a terrible hoax on the public ''.
The positive view is that April Fools ' can be good for one 's health because it encourages "jokes, hoaxes... pranks, (and) belly laughs '', and brings all the benefits of laughter including stress relief and reducing strain on the heart. There are many "best of '' April Fools ' Day lists that are compiled in order to showcase the best examples of how the day is celebrated. Various April Fools ' campaigns have been praised for their innovation, creativity, writing, and general effort.
The negative view describes April Fools ' hoaxes as "creepy and manipulative '', "rude '' and "a little bit nasty '', as well as based on schadenfreude and deceit. When genuine news or a genuine important order or warning is issued on April Fools ' Day, there is risk that it will be misinterpreted as a joke and ignored -- for example, when Google, known to play elaborate April Fools ' Day hoaxes, announced the launch of Gmail with 1 - gigabyte inboxes in 2004, an era when competing webmail services offered 4 - megabytes or less, many dismissed it as a joke outright. On the other hand, sometimes stories intended as jokes are taken seriously. Either way, there can be adverse effects, such as confusion, misinformation, waste of resources (especially when the hoax concerns people in danger) and even legal or commercial consequences.
People obeying hoax messages to telephone "Mr. C. Lion '' and "Mr. L.E. Fant '' and suchlike at a telephone number that turns out to be a zoo, sometimes cause a serious overload to zoos ' telephone switchboards.
Other examples of genuine news on April 1 mistaken as a hoax include:
Books, films, telemovies and television episodes have used April Fool 's Day as their title or inspiration. Examples include Bryce Courtenay 's novel April Fool 's Day (1993), whose title refers to the day Courtenay 's son died. The 1990s sitcom Roseanne featured an episode titled "April Fools ' Day ''. This turned out to be intentionally misleading, as the episode was about Tax Day in the United States on April 15 -- the last day to submit the previous year 's tax information.
(federal) = federal holidays, (state) = state holidays, (religious) = religious holidays, (week) = weeklong holidays, (month) = monthlong holidays, (36) = Title 36 Observances and Ceremonies Bold indicates major holidays commonly celebrated in the United States, which often represent the major celebrations of the month.
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what does it mean priority date is current | Priority date - wikipedia
Priority date is a United States immigration concept -- it is the date when a principal applicant first reveals his intent of immigration to the US government. For family - sponsored applicants, the priority date is the date an immigration petition, filed on behalf of him or her, is received by the United States Citizenship and Immigration Services (USCIS). For employment - based immigration beneficiaries, the priority date is the date an immigration petition is filed at USCIS, under categories where a labor certification is not required, or when the United States Department of Labor receives a labor certification application, under categories where a labor certification is required. In all cases, the priority dates are not established until USCIS approves the immigration petition. The date establishes one 's place in the queue for a family - sponsored or employment - based or permanent residency permit (also known as "green card '') application.
The United States Department of State publishes a monthly Visa Bulletin (1) which lists cut - off dates for different immigration categories and countries of birth. Only those intending applicants with priority dates before the cut - off date are permitted to file their Adjustment of Status (AOS) applications or attend immigrant visa interviews at consulates. The cut - off dates generally move forward over time as old cases are approved or abandoned. However, in certain cases, such as if a large number of old cases work their way through the system at about the same time, the cut - off dates can actually retrogress (or roll back). If an individual already has a pending AOS application on file when a retrogression occurs that places the cut - off earlier than the applicant 's priority date, USCIS sets the application aside and will not adjudicate it until the priority date is current again. As an example, after months of stagnation, in June 2007 the priority date cut - offs for employment - based second and third - preference (EB2 and EB3) applicants (the bulk of employment - based green card applicants) advanced dramatically for all countries of birth. On the low end, the cut - off advanced eight months for immigrants from mainland China for EB2 category. EB3 for India - born applicants has moved forward 25 months, the most of any category, thus impacting a huge number of workers with jobs requiring bachelor 's degrees.
For individuals starting the employment - based green card process now, country of chargeability and job requirements are paramount in determining how long the overall process will take. Individuals from countries of chargeability other than China or India with jobs requiring a master 's degree can complete the entire process, from labor certification to receiving the green card, within approximately 1 - 2 years from start to finish, if there is no backlog of visa availability, i.e., all priority dates are current. Workers whose immigrant visas are chargeable to China or India with jobs requiring only a bachelor 's degree can expect to wait several years after their employer files the labor certification and immigrant visa petition to become eligible to file the final application for the green card itself.
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who sang best things in life are free | The Best Things in Life Are Free - wikipedia
"The Best Things in Life Are Free '' is a duet between American singers Luther Vandross and Janet Jackson, recorded for the Jimmy Jam and Terry Lewis - produced soundtrack to the 1992 American film, Mo ' Money, starring Damon Wayans. It was later included on the compilations Design of a Decade: 1986 -- 1996 (1995), One Night with You: The Best of Love, Volume 2 (1997), Lovesongs (2009) and Number Ones (2009). The song was composed by Jam, Lewis and New Edition / Bell Biv DeVoe members Michael Bivins and Ronnie DeVoe.
In March 1991, Jackson signed an unprecedented $32 million contract with Virgin Records, the largest record deal at the time, although it was quickly exceeded by her brother Michael and his label, Epic Records. Prior to her first release with Virgin, Jackson was asked by Jam and Lewis to record a song for the sound track to the feature film Mo ' Money, released in 1992 by their label Perspective Records. Jon Bream of the Star Tribune reported: "For most movie soundtracks, producers negotiate with record companies, managers and lawyers for the services of big - name singers. Like the Hollywood outsiders that they are, Edina - based Jam and Lewis went directly to such stars as Janet Jackson, Luther Vandross, Bell Biv DeVoe, Color Me Badd and Johnny Gill. '' A remixed version was later released in 1995.
"The Best Things in Life Are Free '' is an R&B, dance - pop and house song with a "steady beat. '' It is written in the key of F # m and their vocal ranges span from the low - note of F # 3 to C # 6. The song is set in the signature of common time and has a moderate tempo of 120 pulsations per minute. It follows the basic chord progression of B7m -- C # 7m -- F # 7.
Jackson and Vandross were nominated for a Grammy Award for "Best R&B Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocals '' for recording the song.
It was the first all - new song Jackson recorded at the new location of Flyte Tyme Studios in Edina, MN, which was completed 2 months after wrapping up recording on her fourth studio album Rhythm Nation 1814 in May 1989 at the original Minneapolis studio. She had done re-recordings and remixes there from 1989 to 1991.
Jackson included the song on her 2011 tour, Number Ones, Up Close and Personal and 2015 - 2016 Unbreakable World Tour.
Billboard wrote about the song: "First peek into the hotly anticipated soundtrack to the film "Mo ' Money '' is a glittery, star - studded pop / jack affair. Vandross and Jackson vocally swerve and weave around each other like they 've been singing together for years. Added flavor comes from guest raps by Bell Biv DeVoe and Tresvant. The true kudos, however, go to the masterful Jimmy Jam and Terry Lewis, who have crafted a slammin ' track that would work no matter what. ''
In the United States, "The Best Things in Life Are Free '' debuted at number 24 on the U.S. Billboard Hot 100 the week of May 30, 1992. Three weeks later, the song peaked at number 10 for three consecutive weeks and ended at number 41 on the year - end chart. The song also peaked at number one on the Hot R&B / Hip - Hop Songs.
In the United Kingdom the song was released in August 1992 and peaked at # 2 in the UK Singles Chart, spending 13 weeks in the chart. It became Jackson 's first top ten hit in the UK since "Let 's Wait Awhile '' reached # 3 in 1987. The song was remixed in 1995 and re-released, reaching # 7. It was the remixed version that was included on international releases of Janet 's compilation album Design of a Decade: 1986 -- 1996.
It spent 5 consecutive weeks at # 2 on the Australian Singles Chart, spending 18 weeks on the chart, And charting at # 6 On the Year ends chart.
A music video was made for the song, although neither Vandross nor Jackson appear in it. Instead, the video features Mo ' Money 's stars Damon Wayans and Stacey Dash, at a carnival, lip - synching to the song; Damon 's brother Marlon Wayans, who also appears in Mo ' Money, has a cameo appearance in the video.
Also included on the track is Michael Bivins and Ronnie DeVoe of Bell Biv DeVoe. Ralph Tresvant also has a very brief spoken line. He appears solo on the song "Money Ca n't Buy You Love '' from the soundtrack.
* Track not performed by Jackson or Vandross
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who does the afc east play in 2017 | 2017 NFL season - wikipedia
The 2017 NFL season is the 98th and current season in the history of the National Football League (NFL). The season began on September 7, 2017, with the Kansas City Chiefs defeating the defending Super Bowl LI champion New England Patriots 42 -- 27 in the NFL Kickoff Game. The season will conclude with Super Bowl LII, the league 's championship game, on February 4, 2018, at U.S. Bank Stadium in Minneapolis, Minnesota.
For the second consecutive year, a team relocated to the Los Angeles metropolitan area, as the former San Diego Chargers announced their intent to relocate to the city in January 2017.
The 2017 NFL League year began on March 9 at 4: 00 p.m. EST. On March 7, clubs were allowed to contact and enter into contract negotiations with the agents of players who became unrestricted free agents upon the expiration of their contracts two days later. On March 9, clubs exercised options for 2017 on players who have option clauses in their contracts, submitted qualifying offers to their restricted free agents with expiring contracts and to whom desire to retain a Right of Refusal / Compensation, submitted a Minimum Salary Tender to retain exclusive negotiating rights to their players with expiring 2016 contracts and who have fewer than three accrued seasons of free agent credit, and teams were required to be under the salary cap using the "Top - 51 '' definition (in which the 51 highest paid - players on the team 's payroll must have a collected salary cap hit below the actual cap). The 2017 trading period also began the same day.
A total of 496 players were eligible for some form of free agency at the beginning of the free agency period. Among the high - profile players who changed teams via free agency were cornerbacks A.J. Bouye (from Texans to Jaguars), Logan Ryan (from Patriots to Titans), and Stephon Gilmore (from Bills to Patriots); safeties Barry Church (from Cowboys to Jaguars), Johnathan Cyprien (from Jaguars to Titans), Micah Hyde (from Packers to Bills), and Tony Jefferson (from Cardinals to Ravens); linebackers Jabaal Sheard (from Patriots to Colts), Malcolm Smith (from Raiders to 49ers), and Manti Te'o (from Chargers to Saints); defensive tackles Johnathan Hankins (from Giants to Colts) and Calais Campbell (from Cardinals to Jaguars); offensive tackles Andrew Whitworth (from Bengals to Rams), Kelvin Beachum (from Jaguars to Jets), Matt Kalil (from Vikings to Panthers), Mike Remmers (from Panthers to Vikings), Ricky Wagner (from Ravens to Lions), Riley Reiff (from Lions to Vikings), and Russell Okung (from Broncos to Chargers); offensive guards Kevin Zeitler (from Bengals to Browns), Larry Warford (from Lions to Saints), Ronald Leary (from Cowboys to Broncos), and T.J. Lang (from Packers to Lions); tight ends Martellus Bennett (from Patriots to Packers) and Jared Cook (from Packers to Raiders); wide receivers Alshon Jeffery (from Bears to Eagles), Brandon Marshall (from Jets to Giants), DeSean Jackson (from Redskins to Buccaneers), Kenny Britt (from Rams to Browns), Pierre Garçon (from Redskins to 49ers), Robert Woods (from Bills to Rams), Terrelle Pryor (from Browns to Redskins), and Torrey Smith (from 49ers to Eagles); running backs Latavius Murray (from Raiders to Vikings), Adrian Peterson (from Vikings to Saints), Eddie Lacy (from Packers to Seahawks), and Jamaal Charles (from Chiefs to Broncos); fullbacks Mike Tolbert (from Panthers to Bills) and Patrick DiMarco (from Falcons to Bills); quarterback Mike Glennon (from Buccaneers to Bears).
At one point, Jay Cutler had also announced retirement, but later rescinded and signed with the Miami Dolphins. Cutler previously played for the Chicago Bears.
The 2017 NFL Draft was held on April 27 -- 29, 2017 in Philadelphia. The Cleveland Browns selected Myles Garrett with the first overall pick.
Training camps for the 2017 season were held in late July through August. Teams started training camp no earlier than 15 days before the team 's first scheduled preseason game.
Prior to the start of the regular season, each team played four preseason exhibition games, beginning on August 10. The preseason began on the evening of August 3 with the 2017 Pro Football Hall of Fame Game, that featured the Dallas Cowboys (represented in the 2017 Hall of Fame Class by owner Jerry Jones) who hosted Arizona Cardinals (represented by former quarterback Kurt Warner). It was televised nationally on NBC. The 64 - game preseason schedule ended on August 31; a 65th game, that of the 2017 Texas Governor 's Cup, was canceled due to the aftermath of Hurricane Harvey.
The 2017 regular season 's 256 games will be played over a 17 - week schedule which began on September 7. Each of the league 's 32 teams plays a 16 - game schedule, with one bye week for each team. The slate also features games on Monday nights. There are games played on Thursday, including the National Football League Kickoff game in prime time on September 7 and games on Thanksgiving Day. The regular season will conclude with a full slate of 16 games on Sunday, December 31, all of which will be intra -- division matchups, as it has been since 2010.
Under the NFL 's current scheduling formula, each team plays the other three teams in its own division twice. In addition a team plays against all four teams in one other division from each conference. The final two games on a team 's schedule are against the two teams in the team 's own conference in the divisions the team was not set to play which finished the previous season in the same rank in their division (e.g. the team which finished first in its division the previous season would play each other team in its conference that also finished first in its respective division). The preset division pairings for 2017 will be as follows.
Intra-conference AFC East vs AFC West AFC North vs AFC South NFC East vs NFC West NFC North vs NFC South
Inter-conference AFC East vs NFC South AFC North vs NFC North AFC South vs NFC West AFC West vs NFC East
Highlights of the 2017 schedule include:
The entire schedule was released on April 20, 2017.
The following games were moved or canceled because of severe weather, by way of flexible scheduling, or for other reasons:
In week 3 of the season there were numerous anthem protests in response to comments by President Donald Trump stating that those who kneel during the anthem should be fired. Protests included entire teams linking arms or kneeling during the anthem. Three teams - the Steelers, Titans and Seahawks - did not even take to the field for the anthem.
The following people associated with the NFL (or AFL) have died in 2017.
Dan Rooney was chairman and plurality owner of the Pittsburgh Steelers and one of the sons of founding owner Art Rooney, Sr. Having been officially involved with the franchise since 1960, Rooney was a part of all six of the Steelers ' Super Bowl victories. In addition to this, Rooney was considered an active and progressive owner in the league 's operations, most famously by successfully pushing for the Rooney Rule, an affirmative action policy requiring all NFL franchises to interview persons of color for head coaching vacancies. Concurrently with his role with the Steelers, Rooney also served as United States Ambassador to Ireland from 2009 to 2014. He was inducted into the Pro Football Hall of Fame in 2000, making him and his father the second father - son duo in the Hall behind Tim & Wellington Mara. Rooney died on April 13 at the age of 84.
Bold indicates members of the Pro Football Hall of Fame.
The following rule changes were approved for the 2017 NFL season at the owners ' meeting on March 28, 2017:
The following rule changes were approved for the 2017 NFL season at the NFL Spring League meeting on May 23, 2017:
The following will be "points of emphasis '' for the 2017 season:
The ban on teams contacting potential coaching candidates until that candidate 's team has been eliminated from the playoffs was tabled.
The following were named the top performers during the 2017 season:
Anthony Lynn was hired as the Chargers ' new head coach on January 12, 2017.
The Atlanta Falcons will play their first season at Mercedes - Benz Stadium, after playing in the Georgia Dome for the previous 25 seasons.
The stadium in which the Arizona Cardinals play their home games is in the process of obtaining a new naming rights agreement. The University of Phoenix, which owns the naming rights to the Cardinals ' home field, is planning to terminate the final nine years of a 20 - year agreement, but will continue to keep its name on the stadium.
The stadium in which the Denver Broncos play their home games is in the process of obtaining a new naming rights agreement. Sporting goods retailer Sports Authority, which had owned the naming rights to the Broncos ' home field since 2011, filed for bankruptcy in March 2016, and liquidated all of their stores. The Broncos bought out the existing naming rights contract with permission from the Delaware District United States bankruptcy court in August 2016. Three months later, the Broncos selected American talent agency WME - IMG to secure a new naming rights partner for their home field, which, to date, still carries the name Sports Authority Field at Mile High.
On January 12, 2017, the San Diego Chargers exercised their option to relocate to Los Angeles as the Los Angeles Chargers. They will be joining the Los Angeles Rams as tenants in their new stadium, Los Angeles Stadium at Hollywood Park in Inglewood, California when that stadium is complete in 2020. For the time being, the Chargers will play at the 30,000 seat StubHub Center in Carson, California, the smallest venue (in terms of number of seats) the league has used for a full season since 1956.
On January 19, 2017, the Oakland Raiders filed paperwork to relocate to Las Vegas, Nevada. The NFL officially approved the Raiders relocation to Las Vegas on March 27. Unlike the Chargers, the Raiders will remain at the Oakland -- Alameda County Coliseum through at least the 2018 season (with the 2019 season to be determined) while Las Vegas Stadium is built, with the team moving to Nevada in 2019 or 2020.
The Los Angeles Rams, who had capped season ticket sales at 55,000 for the 2017 season, announced to have 60,128 spectators in the first home game on week 1. However, reports estimate that spectators only filled a third of the 93,607 seats of the Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum. The Los Angeles Chargers did not sell out their week 2 game at the StubHub Center, which was never expanded to 30,000 seats as originally stated and has typically had less than 26,000 fans in attendance. When the StubHub Center is at capacity, the majority of the fans present are of the opposing team.
The Los Angeles teams were not the only ones with visible attendance problems. The San Francisco 49ers reported a Week 3 attendance total that exceeded the capacity of Levi 's Stadium, even as wide swaths of empty seats were visible in the stadium throughout the game. This followed similar sparse attendance for the 49ers ' home opener.
This is the fourth season under the current broadcast contracts with ESPN, CBS, Fox, and NBC. This includes "cross-flexing '' (switching) Sunday Afternoon games between CBS and Fox before or during the season (regardless of the conference of the visiting team). NBC will continue to air Sunday Night Football, the annual Kickoff game, and the primetime Thanksgiving game. ESPN will continue to air Monday Night Football and the Pro Bowl. NBC will also serve as the broadcaster of Super Bowl LII. This will also be the second and final year of the current Thursday Night Football contract with CBS, NBC, and NFL Network. Along with ESPN 's simulcasted Wild Card game on ABC, ESPN announced on May 24, 2017, that the 2018 Pro Bowl will also be simulcast on ABC, marking the return of the Pro Bowl to the network for the first time since 2003. For the first 9 weeks of the regular season, ESPN2 will simulcast ESPN Deportes ' Spanish - language Monday Night Football broadcasts. The simulcast will end after Week 9 due to ESPN2 's Monday - night college basketball broadcasts.
Although never explicitly announced, the league continued the moratorium on its blackout policy, ensuring all games will be televised in the market of their home teams regardless of ticket sales.
In over-the - top rights, Amazon Video acquired non-exclusive streaming rights to the 10 broadcast television Thursday Night Football games for $50 million. These streams will be exclusive to paid Amazon Prime subscribers, in contrast to Twitter, which held the rights to the same package in 2016 and had made those streams free to most of the world. This is the final season of the NFL 's exclusive mobile streaming contract with Verizon Wireless; the league intends to no longer have a single exclusive partner going forward, citing changes to viewing habits.
Verizon Communications acquired international streaming rights to an NFL London Game between the Baltimore Ravens and Jacksonville Jaguars, in a similar arrangement to the 2015 game that was streamed by Yahoo! -- which was acquired by Verizon in 2017. The game was streamed by Yahoo and other Verizon - owned platforms, including AOL, go90, and Complex. NFL Network remains a partner with Twitter for online content, including its new streaming news program NFL Blitz Live. The NFL also reached a deal with Facebook in September 2017 to offer video highlights following games, and streaming programs on the service 's new Watch platform.
This is also the final season of the NFL 's current national radio contract with Westwood One.
Two new international digital rights deals also led to user criticism over their quality of service. In Canada, NFL Sunday Ticket shifted from distribution through television providers to the over-the - top provider DAZN, while in Europe, Deltatre took over European distribution of NFL Game Pass and launched new mobile apps. Both services faced criticism over their streaming quality, while Delatre 's app faced criticism for having bugs and initially lacking features seen in the previous version of the platform. The Independent exposed that Deltatre had also issued an internal e-mail instructing its employees to give the apps 5 - star reviews. DAZN subsequently announced that it would return to distributing Sunday Ticket through Canadian television providers in addition to their OTT service.
The league has sought to reduce the number of standard commercial breaks (media timeouts) on its telecasts from 21 to 16, four in each quarter, with each break extended by one additional 30 - second commercial. One particular scenario the league sought to eliminate is the "double - up, '' in which a network cuts to a commercial after a scoring play, then airs the kickoff, and again goes to commercial before play from scrimmage resumes. Under the proposal, the league will allow networks to cut to commercial during instant replay reviews, which it had not been allowed to do before. Commissioner Roger Goodell stated that the changes are being made in an attempt to consolidate downtime between the actual game play so that there are fewer and less noticeable interruptions; he does not expect the changes to have an appreciable impact on the real - time length of a game, which currently clocks in at slightly over three hours.
The NFL will also, as a trial, lift its ban on the broadcast of commercials for distilled spirits during its telecasts. However, they are subject to restrictions; a maximum of four liquor ads may be broadcast per - game, along with two per - pregame and postgame show. These ads may not contain football - related themes or target underage viewers, and must contain a "prominent social responsibility message ''.
Tony Romo, who announced his retirement as a player on April 4, 2017, joined CBS, where he replaced Phil Simms as lead color commentator. Simms and Nate Burleson, who comes over from NFL Network, will replace Tony Gonzalez and Bart Scott on CBS 's pregame show, The NFL Today. Jay Cutler also announced his retirement from professional football on May 5 and was slated to join Fox as a color analyst for its NFL coverage; he later rescinded that announcement in August and joined the Miami Dolphins. Gonzalez will move to Fox, where he will join Fox NFL Kickoff; upon his departure, Gonzalez stated that he wished to pursue opportunities closer to his home in California, rather than travel to New York weekly to appear on CBS. James Lofton, coming over from radio, will replace Solomon Wilcots as a CBS analyst.
On May 31, 2017, it was announced that Mike Tirico would replace Al Michaels on play - by - play on NBC 's portion of the Thursday Night Football package, joined by Cris Collinsworth. The NFL had previously required this role to be filled by NBC 's lead broadcast team of Michaels and Collinsworth; Tirico called a limited slate of games in 2016, including several NBC - broadcast games as a fill - in for Michaels (who voluntarily took several games off due to the increased number he was calling that season), and as part of a secondary team for selected games the TNF package. He will also succeed Bob Costas as the lead studio host for NBC. Due to its proximity to the 2018 Winter Olympics (where he is also succeeding Bob Costas as lead host), Tirico will not participate in NBC 's Super Bowl LII coverage.
Beth Mowins became the second woman to call play - by - play for a national NFL broadcast, following Gayle Sierens in 1987, when she served as play - by - play announcer for the nightcap in ESPN 's Week 1 Monday Night doubleheader, with Rex Ryan as her color commentator. In an unusual case of a broadcaster working for two networks in the same season, Mowins also called a regional game for CBS in Week 3, with Jay Feely as her partner.
* Note -- Late DH matchups listed in table are the matchups that were shown to the largest percentage of the market.
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who is the oldest man in the world who is still alive | Oldest people - wikipedia
This is a list of tables of the oldest people in the world in ordinal ranks. To avoid including false or unconfirmed claims of extreme old age, names here are restricted to those people whose ages have been validated by an international body that specifically deals in longevity research, such as the Gerontology Research Group (GRG) or Guinness World Records (GWR), and others who have otherwise been reliably sourced.
According to this criterion, the longest human lifespan is that of Jeanne Calment of France (1875 -- 1997), who lived to the age of 122 years, 164 days. She met Vincent van Gogh when she was 12 or 13. She received news media attention in 1985, after turning 110. Subsequent investigation found documentation for Calment 's age, beyond any reasonable question, in the records of her native city, Arles, France. More evidence of Calment 's lifespan has been produced than for any other supercentenarian, such that her case serves as an archetype in the methodology for verifying the ages of the world 's oldest people.
As women live longer than men on average, combined records for both sexes are dominated by women. The longest undisputed lifespan for a man is that of Jiroemon Kimura of Japan (1897 -- 2013), who died at age 116 years, 54 days.
Since the death of 117 - year - old Violet Brown of Jamaica on 15 September 2017, 117 - year - old Nabi Tajima of Japan, born 4 August 1900, is the oldest living person in the world whose age has been documented.
Systematic verification of longevity has only been practiced in recent decades and only in certain parts of the world. Note: All ten oldest people ever are women.
Deceased Living † ^ denotes age at death, or, if living, age as of 22 January 2018
a ^ Mortensen was born in Denmark. b ^ Kristal was born in Poland, then a part of the Russian Empire.
Note: All ten oldest living people are women.
a ^ Gerneth was born in Stettin, then part of the German Empire; it is now named Szczecin and located in Poland.
This list is copied from the Gerontology Research Group 's list of the World 's Oldest Person Titleholders. As the oldest living person is usually a woman, a sequence of oldest women would be nearly redundant to this list. A sequence of oldest living men follows this sequence.
This list is copied from the Gerontology Research Group 's list of the World 's Oldest Man Titleholders.
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t.i. feat. rihanna - live your life | Live Your Life (T.I. Song) - wikipedia
"Live Your Life '' is a song by American rapper T.I., from his sixth studio album, Paper Trail (2008), and features Barbadian singer Rihanna. It was released as the seventh single from the album on September 23, 2008. The song is a conscious hip hop track with elements of contemporary R&B. The song 's lyrics speak of T.I. 's rise to fame and optimism of the future. It also gives dedication to the American troops fighting in Iraq and Afghanistan.
"Live Your Life '' was a commercial success worldwide. In the United States, the song topped the Billboard Hot 100, marking T.I. 's third number - one single, and Rihanna 's fifth. The song also attained top ten placements in twelve other countries, reaching the top five in Australia, Canada, the Netherlands, New Zealand and the United Kingdom. Furthermore, "Live Your Life '' topped the US Mainstream Top 40 and Rap Songs charts and reached number two on the Hot R&B / Hip - Hop Songs chart. The song remains T.I. 's highest charting and most successful single worldwide since its release.
The song 's accompanying music video, directed by Anthony Mandler, depicts a story of T.I. 's rise to fame in a narrated form, featuring Rihanna performing in a dressing room and bar. The duo performed "Live Your Life '' at the 2008 MTV Video Music Awards. The song is featured in the 2009 film The Hangover as well as the trailer.
"Live Your Life '' was written by T.I. Dan Balan, Justin Smith, and Makeba Riddick whilst being produced by Just Blaze and Riddick. T.I. explained Rihanna 's incorporation progress into the song to Artist Direct, "It was a back and forth studio thing with Rihanna. I picked her. I was just able to ' hear ' her voice on this record. I could hear her, so I reached out and she said, ' Yes, ' thankfully. ''
The song borrows samples, melody, and lyrics from O - Zone 's 2003 song "Dragostea Din Tei '', which was further made famous by the Numa Numa Internet meme.
The first unfinished version of "Live Your Life '' leaked onto the Internet on August 26, 2008. The official mastered album version, which has Rihanna 's own verse, and T.I. 's dedication to soldiers on the Iraqi battlefield (on the first part, he told "Ay... This a special what 's haapnin ' to all my, all my soldiers over there in Iraq. Errbody right here, what you need to do is be thankful for the life you got you know what I 'm sayin '? Stop lookin ' at what you ai n't got, start and be thankful for what you do got. Let 's give it to ' em baby girl ''). The radio edit lasts for a duration of 4: 01, while the album version is 5: 39 long, including extended verses from Rihanna. "Live Your Life '' was released in the United States on September 23, 2008. A worldwide release of the song followed on September 26 as a digital download via iTunes. It was sent to US rhythmic radio on October 20, 2008.
Alex Fletcher of Digital Spy awarded "Live Your Life '' two out of five stars saying, "While some will be charmed by T.I 's well - meaning lyrics and Rihanna 's hypnotic chorus hooks, others will find the mixture of samples and robotic effects grating. Our view? Well, hats off to Rihanna for finally taking time out from mining her Good Girl Gone Bad album, but it 's a shame she had to waste her break on a naff novelty release like this. ''
The American magazine The Village Voice voted "Live Your Life '' at number 13 on their annual Pazz & Jop critics ' poll; T.I. 's own "Whatever You Like '' was voted at number 14 on the same poll.
In the United States, "Live Your Life '' debuted at number 80 on the Billboard Hot 100 for the chart week of October 11, 2008. The song surged to number one the following week, setting a record for the highest jump to number one in history, a feat previously set by T.I. himself six weeks prior with his song "Whatever You Like '' that jumped from number 71 to number one on the chart. However, this record was broken again the following week by Britney Spears ' "Womanizer '' that jumped from number 96 to one. The song marked T.I. 's second Hot 100 number one as a lead artist, and third overall, while it became Rihanna 's fifth chart topper. With the latter, Rihanna became the first female artist to have five number ones in the 21st century. In addition, "Live Your Life '' replaced "Whatever You Like '' at number one on the Hot 100, making T.I. the ninth artist to replace themselves at number one in the history of the chart. "Whatever You Like '' simultaneously occupied the number two position on the chart that week, marking the first time an artist has held the top two positions since Akon in 2006. "Live Your Life '' had three separate runs at number one on the Hot 100. Prior to this, the only other songs to have three separate turns at the top had been "Le Freak '' by Chic in late 1978 and early 1979 plus two other 2008 chart - toppers, Leona Lewis ' "Bleeding Love '' and T.I 's own "Whatever You Like ''.
For the issue dated December 6, 2008, "Live Your Life '' topped the US Pop Songs chart, marking T.I. 's first ever number one single on the chart, and Rihanna 's fourth. The single held the top spot for six non-consecutive weeks. The song also topped the Rap Songs chart for ten consecutive weeks. The song entered the US Hot R&B / Hip - Hop Songs chart as the week 's "Hot Shot Debut '' at number 77. The following week, it rose to number 38. After ten weeks on the chart, the song made a final peak of number two, where it remained for ten consecutive weeks, being barred from the top spot by Beyoncé 's hit single "Single Ladies (Put A Ring On It) ''. The song was certified triple - platinum by the RIAA and it has sold 4.7 million copies in the US. The song also peaked at number four on the Canadian Hot 100.
In New Zealand, "Live Your Life '' debuted at number 23 on October 6, 2008. It entered the top ten in its third week on the chart, steadily rising over the following weeks culminating in its number two peak on December 8, 2008. The song was certified Platinum by the Recording Industry Association of New Zealand for sales of 15,000 copies. On the Australian Singles Chart, the song debuted at number 48 on October 26, 2008. By its fourth week, it had reached the top ten of the chart. The song reached its peak of number three on December 21, where it remained for four consecutive weeks. It received a Platinum certification from the Australian Recording Industry Association for sales of 70,000 copies.
In the United Kingdom, "Live Your Life '' entered the UK Singles Chart at number 39 for the week dated November 15, 2008. The following week, it surged to number two, automatically becoming T.I. 's highest charting single in the country. It also gave Rihanna her sixth top two single on the chart. The song debuted at number three on the Irish Singles Chart, giving T.I. his highest charting single in the country. It also gave Rihanna her tenth top ten in the region.
The music video for "Live Your Life '' was filmed in October 2008 in Los Angeles and was directed by Anthony Mandler. The video, using the radio edit of the song, stars T.I. and Rihanna. It plays backwards, starting with the end of T.I. 's day. In the opening scene T.I. is shown walking with bloody wounds culminating in the song beginning. It then goes from a series of underground shots of him with interspersed scenes of Rihanna in a dressing room. T.I. is then shown being thrown out of a car, being kicked by a large man. The video then cuts again to the day with T.I. wearing the same suit seen earlier in the video, but undamaged. He then encounters a group of thugs whom he brawls with. The video then begins a different story arc, showing T.I. before he made his fortune, singing in a recording studio and in front of a house playing dice and dominoes with friends. This portion of the video is interspersed with clips of the other story arc, such as showing T.I. with a briefcase full of money. He is then shown in the bathroom of a bar, before walking out into the bar passing Rihanna who has exited her dressing room. Rihanna performs on stage with a microphone while T.I. talks to a man saying "(he) want (s) out. ''; the man replies by explaining that there is no getting out, not for him nor for the character that Rihanna plays. T.I slams the money briefcase down on the table and shows it to the man saying that "I 'm done. I got myself here, I 'll get myself out ''. Then he is seen walking into that same bar, in a flashback, with a CD in his hand. The man that T.I. spoke to earlier calls him over. This is a flashback showing T.I. trying to get a record deal. The last shot of the video takes place at around the same time as the first shot of the video. T.I. is walking down the Los Angeles River, raising his hands triumphantly in the air with a bloodied and scarred face. The song 's producer, Just Blaze, is briefly seen playing pool in the bar during the second verse and final chorus.
T.I. performed the track with Rihanna at the 2008 MTV Video Music Awards on September 7, 2008, following a solo performance of "Whatever You Like '' prior. The track was included on the set list of Rihanna 's Last Girl on Earth Tour (2010 -- 11) in a medley with Rihanna 's own "Wait Your Turn '', and the Jay - Z, Rihanna and Kanye West single "Run This Town ''. It was also performed with "Run This Town '' on Rihanna 's Loud Tour (2011).
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone
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a lever is a bar that can pivot on a fixed point | Lever - wikipedia
A lever (/ ˈliːvər / or US: / ˈlɛvər /) is a machine consisting of a beam or rigid rod pivoted at a fixed hinge, or fulcrum. A lever is a rigid body capable of rotating on a point on itself. On the basis of the location of fulcrum, load and effort, the lever is divided into three types. It is one of the six simple machines identified by Renaissance scientists. A lever amplifies an input force to provide a greater output force, which is said to provide leverage. The ratio of the output force to the input force is the mechanical advantage of the lever.
The word "lever '' entered English about 1300 from Old French, in which the word was levier. This sprang from the stem of the verb lever, meaning "to raise ''. The verb, in turn, goes back to the Latin levare, itself from the adjective levis, meaning "light '' (as in "not heavy ''). The word 's primary origin is the Proto - Indo - European (PIE) stem legwh -, meaning "light '', "easy '' or "nimble '', among other things. The PIE stem also gave rise to the English word "light ''.
The earliest remaining writings regarding levers date from the 3rd century BCE and were provided by Archimedes. ' Give me a place to stand, and I shall move the Earth with it ' is a remark of Archimedes who formally stated the correct mathematical principle of levers (quoted by Pappus of Alexandria). The distance required to do this might be exemplified in astronomical terms as the approximate distance to the Circinus galaxy (roughly 3.6 times the distance to the Andromeda Galaxy) - about 9 million light years.
It is assumed that in ancient Egypt, constructors used the lever to move and uplift obelisks weighing more than 100 tons.
A lever is a beam connected to ground by a hinge, or pivot, called a fulcrum. The ideal lever does not dissipate or store energy, which means there is no friction in the hinge or bending in the beam. In this case, the power into the lever equals the power out, and the ratio of output to input force is given by the ratio of the distances from the fulcrum to the points of application of these forces. This is known as the law of the lever.
The mechanical advantage of a lever can be determined by considering the balance of moments or torque, T, about the fulcrum.
where F is the input force to the lever and F is the output force. The distances a and b are the perpendicular distances between the forces and the fulcrum.
Since the moments of torque must be balanced, T 1 = T 2 (\ displaystyle T_ (1) = T_ (2) \!). So, F 1 a = F 2 b (\ displaystyle F_ (1) a = F_ (2) b \!).
The mechanical advantage of the lever is the ratio of output force to input force,
This relationship shows that the mechanical advantage can be computed from ratio of the distances from the fulcrum to where the input and output forces are applied to the lever, assuming no losses due to friction, flexibility or wear. This remains true even though the horizontal distance (perpendicular to the pull of gravity) of both a and b change (diminish) as the lever changes to any position away from the horizontal.
Levers are classified by the relative positions of the fulcrum, effort and resistance (or load). It is common to call the input force the effort and the output force the load or the resistance. This allows the identification of three classes of levers by the relative locations of the fulcrum, the resistance and the effort:
These cases are described by the mnemonic fre 123 where the fulcrum is in the middle for the 1st class lever, the resistance is in the middle for the 2nd class lever, and the effort is in the middle for the 3rd class lever.
The lever is a movable bar that pivots on a fulcrum attached to a fixed point. The lever operates by applying forces at different distances from the fulcrum, or a pivot.
Assuming the lever does not dissipate or store energy, the power into the lever must equal the power out of the lever. As the lever rotates around the fulcrum, points farther from this pivot move faster than points closer to the pivot. Therefore, a force applied to a point farther from the pivot must be less than the force located at a point closer in, because power is the product of force and velocity.
If a and b are distances from the fulcrum to points A and B and the force F applied to A is the input and the force F applied at B is the output, the ratio of the velocities of points A and B is given by a / b, so we have the ratio of the output force to the input force, or mechanical advantage, is given by
This is the law of the lever, which was proven by Archimedes using geometric reasoning. It shows that if the distance a from the fulcrum to where the input force is applied (point A) is greater than the distance b from fulcrum to where the output force is applied (point B), then the lever amplifies the input force. On the other hand, if the distance a from the fulcrum to the input force is less than the distance b from the fulcrum to the output force, then the lever reduces the input force.
The use of velocity in the static analysis of a lever is an application of the principle of virtual work.
A lever is modeled as a rigid bar connected to a ground frame by a hinged joint called a fulcrum. The lever is operated by applying an input force F at a point A located by the coordinate vector r on the bar. The lever then exerts an output force F at the point B located by r. The rotation of the lever about the fulcrum P is defined by the rotation angle θ in radians.
Let the coordinate vector of the point P that defines the fulcrum be r, and introduce the lengths
which are the distances from the fulcrum to the input point A and to the output point B, respectively.
Now introduce the unit vectors e and e from the fulcrum to the point A and B, so
The velocity of the points A and B are obtained as
where e and e are unit vectors perpendicular to e and e, respectively.
The angle θ is the generalized coordinate that defines the configuration of the lever, and the generalized force associated with this coordinate is given by
where F and F are components of the forces that are perpendicular to the radial segments PA and PB. The principle of virtual work states that at equilibrium the generalized force is zero, that is
Thus, the ratio of the output force F to the input force F is obtained as
which is the mechanical advantage of the lever.
This equation shows that if the distance a from the fulcrum to the point A where the input force is applied is greater than the distance b from fulcrum to the point B where the output force is applied, then the lever amplifies the input force. If the opposite is true that the distance from the fulcrum to the input point A is less than from the fulcrum to the output point B, then the lever reduces the magnitude of the input force.
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where is the bridge in va that turns into a tunnel | Chesapeake Bay Bridge -- Tunnel - wikipedia
The Chesapeake Bay Bridge -- Tunnel (CBBT) is a 23 - mile (37 km) bridge -- tunnel crossing at the mouth of the Chesapeake Bay, the Hampton Roads harbor, and nearby mouths of the James and Elizabeth Rivers in the American state of the Commonwealth of Virginia. It connects Northampton County on the Delmarva Peninsula and Eastern Shore with Virginia Beach, Norfolk, Chesapeake, and Portsmouth on the Western Shore and South side / Tidewater which are part of the Hampton Roads metropolitan area of eight close cities around the harbor 's shores and peninsula. The Bridge - Tunnel originally combined 12 miles (19 km) of trestle, two 1 - mile - long (1.6 km) tunnels, four artificial islands, four high - level bridges, approximately 2 miles (3.2 km) of causeway, and 5.5 miles (8.9 km) of northeast and southwest approach roads -- crossing the Chesapeake Bay and preserving traffic on the Thimble Shoals and Chesapeake dredged shipping channels leading to the Atlantic. It replaced vehicle ferry services that operated from South Hampton Roads and from the Virginia Peninsula since the 1930s. Financed by toll revenue bonds, the Bridge -- Tunnel was opened on April 15, 1964, and remains one of only ten bridge -- tunnel systems in the world, three of which are located in the water dominated Hampton Roads area of Tidewater Virginia.
As of May 2018 the Chesapeake Bay Bridge -- Tunnel has been crossed by more than 130 million vehicles. The CBBT complex carries U.S. Route 13, the main north -- south highway on Virginia 's Eastern Shore on the Delmarva peninsula, and, as part of the East Coast 's longstanding Ocean Highway, provides the only straight direct link along the East Coast and Atlantic Ocean, between the Eastern Shore and South Hampton Roads regions, as well as an alternate route to link the Northeast U.S.A. and points in between with Norfolk and further south to the Carolinas and Florida. The Bridge -- Tunnel saves motorists 95 miles (153 km) and 1 ⁄ hours on a trip between Virginia Beach / Norfolk and points north and east of the Chesapeake and Delaware Valley, River and Bay without going through the traffic congestion in the Baltimore -- Washington Metropolitan Area further west in Maryland and Northern Virginia. The $15 toll is partially offset by some savings of highway tolls in Maryland and Delaware and avoiding often heavy traffic on north - south Interstate 95 (I - 95) built in the 1960s and completed in the late 1970s and parallel older United States Route 1 (US - 1) from the 1920s. From 1995 to 1999, at an additional cost of almost $200 million, the capacity of the above - water portion of bridges on the facility was increased and widened to four lanes. An upgrade of the two - lane tunnels was proposed in following years but has not yet been carried out.
The crossing was officially named the Lucius J. Kellam Jr. Bridge -- Tunnel in August 1987, 23 years after opening, honoring one of the civic leaders who had long worked for its development, construction and operation; it continues however to be best known as the Chesapeake Bay Bridge -- Tunnel. The complex was built by and is operated by the Chesapeake Bay Bridge and Tunnel District, a political subdivision of the Commonwealth of Virginia governed by the Chesapeake Bay Bridge and Tunnel Commission and in cooperation with the state Department of Transportation. Costs are recovered through toll collections. In 2002, a Joint Legislative Audit and Review Commission (JLARC) study commissioned by the Virginia General Assembly concluded that "given the inability of the state to fund future capital requirements of the CBBT, the District and Commission should be retained to operate and maintain the Bridge -- Tunnel as a toll facility in perpetuity. ''
Occasionally because of similar names, the Bridge - Tunnel is often confused with the Chesapeake Bay Bridge (also known as the Governor William Preston Lane, Jr. Memorial Bridge) further north in Maryland crossing the middle portion of the Bay from Annapolis to Kent Island on the Maryland Eastern Shore of Delmarva. It was built with two lanes and a higher suspension segment in the middle from 1949 - 1952, with a second parallel wider span of three lanes in 1973. It is one of the longest and highest bridges in the world.
In December 1606, the Virginia Company of London sent an expedition to North America to establish a settlement in the Colony of Virginia. After sailing across the Atlantic Ocean from England, they reached the New World at the southern edge of the mouth of what is now known as the Chesapeake Bay. They named the two flanking Virginia points of land / capes like gateposts at the entrance to the long extensive estuary after the sons of their king, James I, the southern Cape Henry, for the eldest and presumed heir, Henry Frederick, Prince of Wales, and the northern Cape Charles, for his younger brother, Charles, Duke of York (the future King Charles I). A few weeks later they established their first permanent settlement on the southern, mainland, side of the Bay, several miles upstream along the newly named James River at Jamestown on the northern shore on a close - in island for protection, the first permanent settlement in English North America.
Across the Bay, the area north of Cape Charles was located along what became known later as the Delmarva Peninsula. As it bordered the Atlantic Ocean to its east, the region became known as Virginia and neighboring Maryland 's Eastern Shore. As the entire colony grew, the Bay was a formidable transportation obstacle for exchanges with the Virginia mainland on the Western Shore. One of the eight original shires of Virginia, Accomac Shire was established there in 1634, eventually becoming the two counties of modern times, Accomack County in the north and Northampton to the south. In comparison to mainland regions, commerce and growth was limited by the need to cross the Bay. Consequently, little industrial base grew there, with the oceanfront peninsula staying predominantly rural with small towns and villages oriented towards life on the waters, and most residents made their living by farming and working as watermen, both on the Bay (locally known as the "bay side '') and in the Atlantic Ocean ("sea side '').
For the first 350 years, ships and ferry systems provided the primary transportation.
From the early 1930s to 1954, the Virginia Ferry Corporation, a privately owned public service company managed a scheduled vehicular (car, bus, truck) and passenger ferry service between the Virginia Eastern Shore and Princess Anne County (now part of the City of Virginia Beach) on the mainland Western Shore in the South Hampton Roads area. This system, connecting portions of U.S. Route 13, was known as the Little Creek - Cape Charles Ferry. In 1951, the Northern terminus in Delmarva was relocated to a location now within Kiptopeke State Park.
Despite an expanded fleet of large and modern ships by the V.F.C. in the 1940s and early 1950s which were eventually capable of as many as 90 one - way trips each day, the lengthy crossing suffered delays due to heavy traffic and inclement weather.
In 1954, the General Assembly of Virginia (state legislature) created a political subdivision, the Chesapeake Bay Ferry District and its governing body, the Chesapeake Bay Ferry Commission. The Commission was authorized to acquire the private ferry corporation through bond financing, to improve the existing V.F.C. ferry service.
Once the Bridge -- Tunnel was built by 1964, much of the ferry equipment and vessels used by the Little Creek - Cape Charles Ferry V.F.C. service was then sold and moved north to be redeployed to start the Cape May -- Lewes Ferry across the 17 - mile (27 km) mouth of the Delaware Bay between Cape May, in New Jersey and Lewes across in Delaware still serving transit needs but an increasing number of pleasure trip passengers as the coastal beach resorts developed and grew crowded with vacationers in the next decades partly due to the improved swifter transportation with highway and bridges / tunnel access in the region of three states.
In 1956, the General Assembly authorized the Ferry Commission to conduct feasibility studies for the construction of a fixed crossing. The conclusion of the study indicated that a vehicular crossing was feasible.
Consideration was given to service between the Eastern Shore and both the Peninsula and South Hampton Roads. Eventually, the shortest route, extending between the Eastern Shore and a point in Princess Anne County at Chesapeake Beach (east of Little Creek, west of Lynnhaven Inlet), was selected. An option to also provide a fixed crossing link to Hampton and the Peninsula was not pursued.
The selected route crossed two Atlantic shipping channels: the Thimble Shoals Channel to Hampton Roads and the Chesapeake Channel to the northern Chesapeake Bay. High - level bridges were initially considered for traversing these channels. The United States Navy objected to bridging the Thimble Shoals Channel because a bridge collapse (possibly by sabotage) could cut Naval Station Norfolk off from the Atlantic Ocean. Maryland officials expressed similar concerns about the Chesapeake Channel and the Port of Baltimore.
To address these concerns, the engineers recommended a series of bridges and tunnels known as a bridge -- tunnel, similar in design to the Hampton Roads Bridge -- Tunnel, which had been completed in 1957, but a considerably longer and larger facility. The tunnel portions, anchored by four man - made islands of approximately 5 acres (2.0 ha) each, would be extended under the two main shipping channels. The CBBT was designed by the engineering firm Sverdrup & Parcel of St. Louis, Missouri.
In mid-1960, the Chesapeake Bay Ferry Commission sold $200 million in toll revenue bonds to private investors, and the proceeds were used to finance the construction of the bridge -- tunnel. Funds collected by future tolls were pledged to pay the principal and interest on the bonds. No local, state, or federal tax funds were used in the construction of the project.
Construction contracts were awarded to a consortium of Tidewater Construction Corporation and Merritt - Chapman & Scott Corporation. The steel superstructure for the high - level bridges near the north end of the crossing were fabricated by the American Bridge Division of United States Steel Corporation. Construction of the bridge -- tunnel began in October 1960 after a six - month process of assembling necessary equipment from worldwide sources.
The tunnels were constructed using the technique refined by Ole Singstad with the Baltimore Harbor Tunnel, whereby a large ditch was first dug for each tunnel, into which was lowered pre-fabricated tunnel sections cable - suspended from overhead barges. Interior chambers were filled with water to lower the sections, the sections then aligned, bolted together by divers, the water pumped out, and the tunnels finally covered with earth.
The construction was accomplished under the severe conditions imposed by nor'easters, hurricanes, and the unpredictable Atlantic Ocean. During the Ash Wednesday Storm of 1962, much of the partially completed work and a major piece of custom - built equipment, a pile driver barge called "The Big D '', were destroyed. Seven workers were killed at various times during the construction. In April 1964, 42 months after construction began, the Chesapeake Bay Bridge -- Tunnel opened to traffic and the ferry service discontinued.
The Ferry Commission and transportation district it oversees, created in 1954, were later renamed for the revised mission of building and operating the Chesapeake Bay Bridge -- Tunnel. The CBBT district is a public agency and it is a legal subdivision of the Commonwealth of Virginia. The bridge -- tunnel is supported financially by the tolls collected from the motorists who use the facility.
Eastern Shore native, businessman, and civic leader Lucius J. Kellam Jr. (1911 -- 1995) was the original Commission 's first chairman. In a commentary at the time of his death in 1995, the Norfolk - based Virginian - Pilot newspaper recalled that Kellam had been involved in bringing the multimillion - dollar bridge -- tunnel project from dream to reality.
Before it was built, Kellam handled a political fight over the location, and addressed concerns of the U.S. Navy about prospective hazards to navigation to and from the Norfolk Navy Base at Sewell 's Point.
Kellam was also directly involved in the negotiations to finance the ambitious crossing with bonds. According to the newspaper article, "there were not - unfounded fears that (1) storm - driven seas and drifting or off - course vessels could damage, if not destroy, the span and (2) traffic might not be sufficient to service the entire debt in an orderly way. Sure enough, bridge portions of the crossing have occasionally been damaged by vessels, and there was a long period when holders of the riskiest bonds received no interest on their investment. ''
An icon of eastern Virginia politics, Kellam remained chairman and champion of the CBBT throughout the hard times, and the bondholders were eventually paid as toll revenues caught up with expenses. He continued to serve until he was over 80 years old, finally retiring in 1993. He had held the post for 39 years.
The facility was renamed in his honor in 1987, over 20 years after it was first opened to traffic.
At a cost of $197 million, new parallel two - lane trestles were built both to alleviate traffic and for safety reasons. Immediately after completion of the parallel trestles, traffic was diverted to them and the original trestles and roadway underwent a $20 million retrofit, repairing the wear and tear of 35 years of service and upgrading certain features, such as repaving the road surface. The older portion of the facility was then reopened on April 19, 1999.
The 1995 -- 1999 project increased the capacity of the above - water portion of the facility to four lanes, added wider shoulders for the new southbound portion, facilitated needed repairs, and provided protection against a total closure should a trestle be struck by a ship or otherwise damaged (which had occurred twice in the past); partially for this reason, the parallel trestles are not located immediately adjacent to each other, reducing the chance that both would be damaged during a single incident.
Construction is currently underway to add a second tunnel beside the existing tunnel located on the southern end (Thimble Shoals). The Tunnel Boring Machine is expected to be delivered to the site in 2018. After boring the machine will also be adding the circular concrete segments which will be delivered into the tunnel via mine cars one at a time.
At the northern end, a parallel Chesapeake Channel Tunnel will be added to finish the entire length to become a four lane highway from shore to shore. This project is marked to begin in 2035, which would possibly be open for traffic in 2040, assuming there are no setbacks or delays.
Toll collection facilities are located at both ends of the facility. Tolls are paid in each direction. As of 2013, the toll for cars (without trailers) traveling along the CBBT is $15. Should a car make a return trip within 24 hours of the first, the second trip across costs $5. Motorcycles pay the same toll as cars without trailers. All other vehicles are charged based on size and purpose and are not subject to the return - trip discount. All tolls must be paid either in cash, debit / credit card, by scrip tickets issued by the CBBT, or via E-ZPass electronic toll collection. The bridge -- tunnel began accepting Smart Tag / E-ZPass payments on November 1, 2007.
All toll lanes including E-ZPass - only lanes are gated for safety concerns and to turn around inadmissible vehicles. For example:
The bridge -- tunnel management prohibits bicycles but offers a shuttle van for $15. Cyclists must call ahead.
It is mandatory that the bridge be checked and serviced every five years. Since servicing the bridge takes about five years, the work never stops.
The Chesapeake Bay Bridge -- Tunnel is one of only two automobile transportation facilities in Virginia that employs its own police department (the other is the Richmond Metropolitan Authority Toll Road Police). By original charter from the Commonwealth, it has authority to enforce the laws of Virginia. Emergency call boxes are spaced every half - mile (. 8 km) along the bridge. The toll schedule, weather advisories, and other information are available at the official website for the bridge.
The CBBT promotes the bridge -- tunnel as not only a transportation facility to tourist destinations to the north and south, but as a destination itself. For travelers headed elsewhere, the bridge -- tunnel can save more than 90 miles (140 km) of driving for those headed between Ocean City, Maryland, Rehoboth Beach, Fenwick Island, and Wilmington, Delaware (and areas north) and the Virginia Beach area or the Outer Banks of North Carolina, according to the CBBT district. Unlike the Interstate highways that travelers would avoid by taking the bridge -- tunnel, the roads in the shortcut have traffic lights.
On the Delmarva peninsula to the north of the bridge, travelers may visit nearby Kiptopeke State Park, Eastern Shore National Wildlife Refuge, Fisherman Island National Wildlife Refuge (closed to the public), campgrounds and other vacation destinations. To the south are tourist destinations around Virginia Beach, including First Landing State Park, Norfolk Botanical Garden, Virginia Beach Maritime Historical Museum, Atlantic Wildfowl Heritage Museum, and the Virginia Aquarium and Maritime Science Center.
A scenic overlook is located at the north end of the bridge and was formerly located at South Thimble Island, near the south end. At South Thimble Island, passing ships may include U.S. Navy warships, nuclear submarines, and aircraft carriers, as well as large cargo vessels and sailing ships. A restaurant and gift shop on the island opened in 1964, along with the 625 - foot - long (191 m) Sea Gull Pier. Bluefish, trout, croaker, flounder, and other species have been caught from the pier. Since birds use the habitat created by the bridges and islands of the CBBT, birders have travelled to the bridge -- tunnel to see them at South Thimble Island and the scenic overlook at the north end. As part of the Thimble Shoal Channel Tunnel twinning, the building housing the restaurant and gift shop closed and access to the pier was prohibited starting at the end of September 2017. The building will be demolished and not replaced, and the pier will reopen to the public at the end of the project in 2022.
Among the key features of the Chesapeake Bay Bridge Tunnel are two 1 - mile (1.6 km) tunnels beneath the Thimble Shoals and Chesapeake navigation channels and two pairs of side - by - side high - level bridges over two other navigation channels: North Channel Bridge (75 ft or 22.9 m clearance) and Fisherman Inlet Bridge (40 ft or 12.2 m clearance). The remaining portion comprises 12 miles (19 km) of low - level trestle, 2 miles (3.2 km) of causeway, and four man - made islands.
The CBBT is 17.6 miles (28.3 km) long from shore to shore, crossing what is essentially an ocean strait. Including land - approach highways, the overall facility is 23 miles (37 km) long (20 miles or 32 kilometres from toll - plaza to toll - plaza) and despite its length, there is only a height difference of 6 inches (152 mm) from the south to north end of the bridge -- tunnel.
Man - made islands, each approximately 5.25 acres (2.12 ha) in size, are located at each end of the two tunnels. Between North Channel and Fisherman Inlet, the facility crosses at grade over Fisherman Island, a barrier island which is part of the Eastern Shore of Virginia National Wildlife Refuge administered by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service.
The columns that support the bridge -- tunnel 's trestles are called piles. If placed end to end, the piles would stretch for about 100 miles (160 km), roughly the distance from New York City to Philadelphia.
The Chesapeake Bay Bridge Tunnel has suffered three major ship accidents which caused the bridge tunnel system to be closed.
The first accident occurred in December 1967 when the Mohawk, a coal barge, broke anchor and struck the bridge, closing it for two weeks for repair.
On January 21, 1970 the USS Yancey (AKA - 93), a United States Navy attack cargo ship carrying 250 people, was at anchor near the bridge tunnel. During a gale with winds gusting in excess of 50 miles per hour (80 km / h), the Yancey dragged her anchors and hit the bridge stern first, knocking out a 375 foot (114 m) segment of trestle. There were no vehicles on the bridge at the time of the impact, and no one was injured during the incident. During the 42 days it took to replace the damaged span the Navy offered a free shuttle service for commuters using helicopters and LCUs.
In 1972, the bridge was again impacted by a barge which had broken loose, again closing the bridge - tunnel for two weeks while the span was repaired.
The bridge - tunnel is frequently impacted by barges moving through the highly trafficked area; most incidents cause no damage and require a closure of the system for inspections before reopening. The most recent example of this was the September 2011 barge strike, which closed the bridge - tunnel for less than four hours.
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is it bad to have a big age difference | Age disparity in sexual relationships - wikipedia
Age disparity in sexual relationships is the difference in ages of individuals in sexual relationships. Concepts of these relationships, including what defines an age disparity, have developed over time and vary among societies. Differences in age preferences for mates can stem from evolutionary mating strategies and age preferences in sexual partners may vary cross culturally. There are also social theories for age differences in relationships as well as suggested reasons for ' alternative ' age - hypogamous relationships. Age - disparity relationships have been documented for most of recorded history and have been regarded with a wide range of attitudes dependant on sociocultural norms and legal systems.
Data in Australia and United Kingdom show an almost identical pattern.
Relationships with age disparity of all kinds have been observed with both men and women as the older or younger partner. In various cultures, older men and younger women often seek one another for sexual or marital relationships. Older women sometimes date younger men as well, and in both cases wealth and physical attractiveness are often relevant. Because most men are interested in women in their twenties, adolescent boys are generally sexually interested in women somewhat older than themselves. Older men also display an interest in women of their own age.
Most men marry women younger than they are; with the difference being between two and three years in Spain, the UK reporting the difference to be on average about three years, and the US, two and a half. The pattern was also confirmed for the rest of the world, with the gap being largest in Africa. A study released in 2003 by the United Kingdom 's Office for National Statistics concluded that the proportion of women in England and Wales marrying younger men rose from 15 % to 26 % between 1963 and 1998. Another study also showed a higher divorce rate as the age difference rose for when either the woman was older or the man was older. A 2008 study, however, concluded that the difference is not significant.
In August 2010, Michael Dunn of the University of Wales Institute, Cardiff completed and released the results of a study on age disparity in dating. Dunn concluded that "Not once across all ages and countries... did females show a preference for males significantly younger than male preferences for females '' and that there was a "consistent cross-cultural preference by women for at least same - age or significantly older men ''. A 2003 AARP study reported that 34 % of women over 39 years old were dating younger men.
A 2011 study suggested that age disparity in marriage is positively correlated with decreased longevity, particularly for women, though married individuals still have longer lifespans than singles.
Explanations for age disparity usually focus on either the rational choice model or the analysis of demographic trends in a society. The rational choice model suggests that people look for partners who can provide for them in their life (bread - winners); as men traditionally earn more as they get older, women will therefore prefer older men. This factor is diminishing as more women enter the labor force. The demographic trends are concerned with the gender ratio in the society, the marriage squeeze, and migration patterns. Another explanation concerns cultural values: the higher the value placed in having children, the higher the age gap will be.
As people have chosen to marry later, the age differences between couples have increased as well.
In a Brown University study, it has been noted that the social structure of a country determines the age difference between spouses more than any other factor. One of the concerns of relationships with age disparities in some cultures is a perceived difference between people of different age ranges. These differences may be sexual, financial or social in nature. Gender roles may complicate this even further. Socially, a society with a difference in wealth distribution between older and younger people may affect the dynamics of the relationship.
Although the "cougar '' theme, in which older women date much younger men, is often portrayed in the media as a widespread and established facet of modern Western culture, at least one academic study has found the concept to be a "myth ''. A British psychological study published in Evolution and Human Behavior in 2010 concluded that men and women, in general, continued to follow traditional gender roles when searching for mates. The study found that, as supported by other academic studies, most men preferred younger, physically attractive women, while most women, of any age, preferred successful, established men their age or older. The study found very few instances of older women pursuing much younger men and vice versa.
The evolutionary approach, based on the theories of Charles Darwin, attempts to explain age disparity in sexual relationships in terms of natural selection and sexual selection. Within sexual selection Darwin identified a further two mechanisms which are important factors in the evolution of sex differences (sexual dimorphism): intrasexual selection (involve competition with those of the same sex over access to mates) and intersexual choice (discriminative choice of mating partners). An overarching evolutionary theory which can provide an explanation for the above mechanisms and strategies adopted by individuals which leads to age disparity in relationships is called Life History theory, which also includes Parental Investment Theory. Life History theory posits that individuals have to divide energy and resources between activities (as energy and resources devoted to one task can not be used for another task) and this is shaped by natural selection.
Parental Investment Theory refers to the value that is placed on a potential mate based on reproductive potential and reproductive investment. The theory predicts that preferred mate choices have evolved to focus on reproductive potential and reproductive investment of members of the opposite sex. This theory predicts both intrasexual selection and intersexual choice due to differences in parental investment; typically there is competition among members of the lower investing sex (generally males) over the parental investment of the higher investing sex (generally females) who will be more selective in their mate choice. However, human males tend to have more parental investment compared to mammal males (although females still tend to have more parental investment). Thus, both sexes will have to compete and be selective in mate choices. These two theories explain why natural and sexual selection acts slightly differently on the two sexes so that they display different preferences. For example, different age preferences may be a result of sex differences in mate values assigned to the opposite sex at those ages.
A study conducted by David Buss investigated sex differences in mate preferences in 37 cultures with 10,047 participants. In all 37 cultures it was found that males preferred females younger than themselves and females preferred males older than themselves. These age preferences were confirmed in marriage records with males marrying females younger than them and vice versa. A more recent study has supported these findings, conducted by Schwarz and Hassebrauck. This study used 21,245 participants between 18 and 65 years of age who were not involved in a close relationship. As well as asking participants a number of questions on mate selection criteria, they also had to provide the oldest and youngest partner they would accept. It was found that for all ages males were willing to accept females that are slightly older than they are (on average 4.5 years older), but they accept females considerably younger than their own age (on average 10 years younger). Females demonstrate a complementary pattern, being willing to accept considerably older males (on average 8 years older) and were also willing to accept males slightly younger than themselves (on average 5 years younger). This is somewhat different to our close evolutionary relatives: chimpanzees. Male chimpanzees tend to prefer older females than younger and it is suggested that specific cues of female mate value are very different to humans.
Buss attributed the young age preference for females to the cues that youth has. In females, relative youth and physical attractiveness (which males valued more compared to females) demonstrated cues for fertility and high reproductive capacity. Buss stated the specific age preference of around 25 years implied that fertility was a stronger ultimate cause of mate preference than reproductive value as data suggested that fertility peaks in females around mid-twenties. From a life history theory perspective, females that have these cues, display they are more capable of reproductive investment. This notion of preference of age due to peak fertility is supported by Kenrick, Keefe, Gabrielidis, and Cornelius 's study, which found that although teenage males would accept a mate slightly younger than themselves, there was a wider range of preference for ages above their own. Teenage males also report that their ideal mates would be several years older than themselves.
Buss and Schmitt highlight that although long term mating relationships is common for humans, it is not characteristic of all mating relationships: there is both short term and long term mating relationships. Buss and Schmitt provided a Sexual Strategies Theory which predicts the two sexes have evolved distinct psychological mechanisms which underlie the strategies utilised for short and long term mating. This theory is directly relevant and compatible with the two already mentioned theories Life History and Parental Investment. Males tend to appear orientated towards short term mating (greater desire for short term mates than women, prefer larger number of sexual partners and take less time to consent to sexual intercourse) and this appears to solve a number of adaptive problems including using less resources to access a mate. Although there is a number of reproductive advantages to short term mating, males still pursue long term mates and this is due to the possibility of monopolising a female 's lifetime reproductive resources. Consistent with findings, for both short term and long term mates, males prefer younger females (reproductively valuable).
As they are the higher investing sex, females tend to be slightly more demanding when picking a mate (as predicted by parental investment theory). They also tend to have a more difficult task of evaluating a male 's reproductive value accurately based on physical appearance as age tends to have fewer constraints on a male 's reproductive resources. Buss attributed the older age preference to older males displaying characteristics of high providing - capacity such as status and resources. In terms of short term and long term mating, females tend be oriented towards long term mating due to the costs incurred from short term mating. Although some of these costs will be the same for males and females (risk of STIs and impairing long term mate value), the costs for women will be more severe due to paternity uncertainty (cues of multiple mates will be disfavoured by males).
In contrast to above, in short term mating, females will tend to favour males that demonstrate physical attractiveness as this displays cues of ' good genes '. Cues of good genes tend to be typically associated with older males such as facial masculinity and cheek - bone prominence. Buss and Schmitt found similar female preferences for long term mating which supports the notion that for long term relationships females prefer cues of high resource capacity, one of which is age.
Cross-culturally, research has consistently supported the trend in which males prefer to mate with younger females, and females with older males. In a cross-cultural study that covered 37 countries, preferences for age differences were measured and research supported the theory that people prefer to marry close to the age when female fertility is at its highest (24 -- 25 years). Analysing the results further we see that, cross culturally, the average age females prefer to marry is 25.4 years old, and they prefer a mate 3.4 years older than themselves, therefore their preferred mate would be aged 28.8 years of age. Males however prefer to marry when they are 27.5 years old, and a female to be 2.7 years younger than themselves, yielding their preferred mate to be 24.8 years old. The results from the study therefore show that the mean preferred marriage age difference (3.04 years averaging male and female preferred age) corresponds very closely with the actual mean marriage age difference (2.99). The preferred age of females is 24.8 years and the actual average age females marry is 25.3 years old (and 28.2 for males) which actually falls directly on the age where females are most fertile, so the sexes have evolutionarily adapted mating preferences that maximise reproductivity.
The United Nations Marriage Statistics Department measures the SMAM difference (Singulate Mean Age Marriage difference: the difference in average age at first marriage between men and women) across the main regions in the world (refer to Table. 1).
However, in some regions of the world there is a substantially larger age gap between marriage partners in that males are much older than their wife (or wives). A theory that can explain this finding from an evolutionary perspective is the parasite - stress theory which explains that an increase of infectious disease can cause humans to evolve selectively according to these pressures. Evidence also shows that as disease risk gets higher, it puts a level of stress on mating selection and increases the use of polygamy.
Table 2 shows that 17 of the 20 countries with the largest age - gaps between spouses practice polygyny, and that males range from 6.1 to 9.2 years older than their partners. In regions such as Sub-Saharan Africa the use of polygyny is commonly practiced as a consequence of high sex - ratios (more males born per 100 females) and passing on heterozygous (diverse) genetics from different females to offspring. When disease is prevalent, if a male is producing offspring with a more diverse range of alleles, offspring will be more likely to withstand mortality from disease and continue the family line. Another reason that polygynous communities have larger age - gaps between spouses is that intrasexual competition for females increases as fewer females remain on the marriage market (with males having more than one wife each), therefore the competitive advantage values younger females due to their higher reproductive value. As the competition for younger women becomes more common, we see the age in females ' first marriage lower as older men seek younger and younger females.
Comparatively in Western societies such as the US and Europe we see a trend of smaller age - gaps between spouses, reaching its peak average in Southern Europe of 3.3 years. Using the same pathogen - stress model we see a lower prevalence of disease in these economically developed areas, and therefore a reduced stress on reproduction for survival. Additionally, it is common to see monogamous relationships widely in more modern societies as there are more women in the marriage market and polygamy is illegal throughout most of Europe and the United States.
As access to education increases worldwide, the age of marriage increases with it, with more of the youth staying in education for longer. The mean age of marriage in Europe is well above 25, and averaging at 30 in Nordic countries, however this may also be due to the increase of cohabitation in European countries. In some countries in Europe such as France, Netherlands, United Kingdom, Norway, Estonia, Finland and Denmark with 20 -- 30 % of women aged 20 -- 34 cohabiting as opposed to legally marrying. In addition to this with the gender pay gap decreasing, we see more women working equal hours (average of 40 hours in Europe and the US) to males and looking less for males with financial resources.
Interestingly, in regions such as the Caribbean and Latin America we see a lower SMAM difference than expected, however there are also a large proportion of partners living in consensual unions; 24 % in Brazil, 20 % in Nicaragua and 18 % in Dominican Republic.
A 2011 study suggested that age disparity in marriage is positively correlated with decreased longevity, particularly for women, though married individuals still have longer lifespans than singles.
Social Structural Origin Theory argues that the underlying cause of sex - differentiated behaviour is the concentration of men and women in differing roles in society. It has been argued that a reason gender roles are so prevalent in society is that the expectations of gender roles can become internalised in a person 's self - concept and personality. In a Brown University study, it has been noted that the social structure of a country determines the age difference between spouses more than any other factor. In regards to mate selection, social structural theory supports the idea that individuals aim to maximise what they can provide in the relationship in an environment that is limiting their utilities through expected gender roles in society and marriage.
It is thought that a trade - off or equilibrium is reached in regards to what each gender brings to the mating partnership and that this equilibrium is most likely to be reached with a trade - off of ages when selecting a mate. Women are said to trade youth and physical attractiveness for economic security in their male partner. This economic approach to choosing a partner ultimately depends on the marital or family system that is adopted by society. Women and men tend to seek a partner that will fit in with their society 's sexual division of labour. For example, a marital system based on males being the provider and females the domestic worker, favours an age gap in the relationship. An older male is more likely to have more resources to provide to the family.
The rational choice model also suggests that people look for partners who can provide for them in their life (bread - winners); as men traditionally earn more as they get older, women will therefore prefer older men. This factor is diminishing as more women enter the labour force and the gender pay gap decreases.
Age - hypogamy defines a relationship where the woman is the older partner, the opposite of this being age - hypergamy. Marriage between partners of roughly similar age is known as "age homogamy ''.
Older female -- younger male relationships are, relative to age - hypergamous relationships (older male -- younger female), less researched in scientific literature. Slang terms such as ' Cougar ' have been used in films, TV shows and the media to depict older females with younger male mates. The picture often displays a stereotypical pairing of a divorced, middle - aged, white, affluent female dating a younger male with the relationship taking the form of a non-commitment arrangement between the partners.
Although age - hypogenous relationships have historically been very infrequent, recent US census data has shown an increase in age - hypogenous relationships from 6.4 % in 2000 to 7.7 % in 2012.
There may be many reasons why age - hypogamous relationships are not very frequent. Sexual double standards in society, in particular, may account for their rarity. Ageing in women is associated with decreased sex appeal and dating potential.
There is debate in the literature as to what determines age - hypogamy in sexual relationships. A number of variables have been argued to influence the likelihood of women entering into an age - hypogamous relationship, such as racial or ethnic background, level of education, income, marital status, conservatism, age, and number of sexual partners. For example, US Census data show an exaggerated sex ratio in African American communities, whereby there were 100 African American woman for every 89 African American males. Support for this evidence was then found in regard to marriage, whereby it was shown that African American women were more likely to be in age - hypogamous or age - hypergamous marriages in comparison with White American women. However, more recent evidence has found that women belonging to racial categories besides African American or White were more likely to sleep with younger men, showing that it is still unclear which, if any, ethnic groups are more likely to have age - hypogamous relationships.
Another example illustrating the varying literature surrounding age - hypogamous relationships is research indicating that a woman 's marital status can influence her likelihood of engaging in age - hypogamous relationships. It has been found that married women are less likely to be partnered with a younger male compared to non-married women in comparison to more recent findings, which provides evidence to suggest that previously married women are more likely to engage in an age - hypogamous sexual relationship compared to women who are married or who have never been married.
Despite social views depicting age - hypogamous relationships as short lived and fickle, recent research published by Psychology of Women Quarterly has found that women in age - hypogamous relationships are more satisfied and the most committed in their relationships compared to younger women or similarly aged partners. It has also been suggested that male partners to an older female partner may engage in age - hypogamous relationships due to findings that men choose beauty over age. A recent study found that when shown pictures of women of ages ranging from 20 -- 45 with different levels of attractiveness, regardless of age, males chose the more attractive individuals as long term partners.
The "never date anyone under half your age plus seven '' rule is a rule of thumb sometimes used to prejudge whether an age difference is socially acceptable. Although the origin of the rule is unclear, it is sometimes considered to have French origin.
In earlier sources, the rule had a different interpretation than in contemporary culture, as it was understood as a formula to calculate ideal age for the bride, instead of a lower limit for the suitable age. Max O'Rell 's Her Royal Highness Woman from 1901 gives the rule in the format "A man should marry a woman half his age, plus seven. '' Similar interpretation is also present in the 1951 play The Moon Is Blue by F. Hugh Herbert.
The half - your - age - plus seven rule also appears in John Fox, Jr. 's The Little Shepherd of Kingdom Come in 1903, in American newspapers in 1931, attributed to Maurice Chevalier, and in The Autobiography of Malcolm X.
In modern times, this rule has been criticised as being more accurate for men than women, and for allowing a greater maximum age for a woman 's partner later in her life than is actually socially acceptable.
The age disparity between two partners is typically met with some disdain in industrialized nations, and various derogatory terms for participants have arisen in the vernacular.
In English - speaking countries, where financial disparity, and an implicit money - for - companionship exchange, is perceived as central to the relationship, the elder of the two partners (perceived as the richer) is often called a "sugar daddy '' or "sugar mama '' depending on gender. The younger of the two is similarly called the sugar baby. In extreme cases, a person who marries into an extremely wealthy family can be labelled a gold digger, especially in cases where the wealthy partner is of extreme age or poor health; this term often describes women but can be applied to either gender.
An attractive younger woman pursued by a wealthy man who is perceived as wanting her only for her looks may be called a trophy wife. The opposite term trophy husband does not have an agreed upon use, but is becoming more common in usage: some will use the term to refer to the attractive stay - at - home husband of a much more famous woman; whereas some will use it to refer to the husband of a trophy wife, as he is her trophy due to the wealth and prestige he brings her. In the latter case, the term trophy is broadened to include any substantial difference in power originating from physical looks, wealth, or status.
It should be noted that the trophy label is often perceived as objectifying the partner, with or without the partner 's implicit consent.
Where the primary perceived reason for a relationship with a significant age difference is sexual, many gender - specific terms have become popular in English - speaking cultures. A woman of middle to elderly age who pursues younger men is a cougar or puma, and a man in a relationship with an older woman is often called a boytoy, toyboy, himbo, or cub. In reverse, the terms rhino, trout and manther (a play on the panther term for women) are generally used to label an older man pursuing younger women, and the younger woman in such a relationship may be called a kitten or panther. If the woman is extremely young (just over, or possibly under, the legal age of consent), the man may be labelled a cradle - robber. An older term for any licentious or lascivious man is a lecher, and that term and its shortening of lech have become common to describe an elderly man who makes passes at much younger women.
While often intended to be derogatory, some of these terms are often used by the participants in the relationship to describe themselves and each other. Some are viewed as mildly self - deprecating, others as neutral or even complimentary terms, much like individuals stereotypically referred to as nerds, geeks, or jocks have often come to own those terms as a source of pride in their identity. When the attraction between two people of significantly different ages seems genuinely romantic, the terms are often used playfully, especially as one or the other of the partners ages in to a particular term.
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who does natalie dorma play in game of thrones | Natalie Dormer - wikipedia
Natalie Dormer (born 11 February 1982) is an English actress. Born and brought up in Berkshire, she was educated at Chiltern Edge Secondary School and Reading Blue Coat School, and trained at the Webber Douglas Academy of Dramatic Art in London. Her first professional acting role was in the Shakespeare comedy The Comedy of Errors in 2003. She made her screen debut in Lasse Hallstrom 's romantic film Casanova (2005), followed by a small part in the dramedy Distant Shores (2005). She received widespread praise for her portrayal of Anne Boleyn on the Showtime series The Tudors (2007 -- 08), and was nominated for two Gemini Awards for Best Performance by a Leading Actress in a Drama Series.
She made her stage debut at the Young Vic in 2010 in the play Sweet Nothings (de; sh), and portrayed Elizabeth Bowes - Lyon, Duchess of York in Madonna 's film W.E. (2011) and Private Lorraine in Captain America: The First Avenger (2011). In 2012, her lead performance in After Miss Julie at the Young Vic attracted widespread critical acclaim. Dormer gained international attention with her performance of Margaery Tyrell on the HBO series Game of Thrones (2012 -- 16), for which she was nominated for two Screen Actors Guild Awards (2014 -- 2015). She is also known for playing Irene Adler / Moriarty on the CBS series Elementary (2013 -- 15), Cressida in the science - fiction adventure films The Hunger Games: Mockingjay -- Part 1 (2014) and Part 2 (2015), and Sara Price / Jess Price in The Forest (2016).
Dormer was born in Reading, Berkshire. She is partly Norwegian, and half Welsh.
Dormer attended Chiltern Edge Secondary School before moving to Reading Blue Coat School, historically an independent boys ' school that admits girls in the sixth form. She grew up with her stepfather (a builder), mother, sister Samantha, and brother Mark. She has said that she was the victim of bullying while at school, but "still to this day (she) ca n't place why ''. At school, Dormer was head girl, a first class student, vice-captain of the school netball team, and travelled the world with her school 's public speaking team.
During her school years, Dormer trained in dance at the Allenova School of Dancing. She describes herself as the "academic hopeful '' of the family and was provisionally offered a place to study history at Cambridge; but, in her A-level History exam, she did not achieve the A grade she needed to attend. Dormer decided she would audition for drama schools and decided to train at the Webber Douglas Academy of Dramatic Art in London.
Six months after graduating from Webber Douglas, Dormer won the role of Victoria in Casanova. This was her film debut and it was released in 2005. The director, Lasse Hallström, was so impressed with Dormer 's comedic timing that he had the script writer expand her part. On the strength of her audition for the role and her performance, she secured a three - film deal with Touchstone Pictures, which was never exercised. In 2005, Dormer had a small part in Distant Shores. After the filming of Casanova, Dormer was out of work for ten months, which she ascribes to "bad representation ''. She was attached to an independent film which kept being delayed because of financial problems. Taken off the audition circuit, Dormer waitressed and worked in data entry to support herself. She has said that her being out of work for so long "was the best lesson I could have had in the first 12 months of my career ''.
In 2007 and 2008, Dormer played Anne Boleyn in the first two seasons of The Tudors, for which she received highly positive reviews. Robert Abele of LA Weekly wrote: "Natalie Dormer presents a painterly exquisiteness and complexity in her portrayal of Anne Boleyn... her enigmatic, time - halting loveliness is a boon for The Tudors, and damn near worth losing your head over ''. After her character 's death at the end of the second season, The Boston Herald noted: "Dormer gave Anne Boleyn life, making her not just a beautiful schemer but a rebellious, defiantly independent tragic hero in the tradition of Rebel Without a Cause and Cool Hand Luke... her departure from The Tudors leaves a tremendous void. ''
In 2008, Dormer played Moira Nicholson in Agatha Christie 's Marple: "Why Did n't They Ask Evans? '' and appeared in a number of films such as Fence Walker and City of Life. Dormer 's Marple appearance aired in the US in the summer of 2009 as part of the PBS Masterpiece Mystery anthology series. Also in that year, she appeared in Incendiary, but her scenes were cut from the final film. In March 2010, she made her stage debut at the Young Vic theatre in London as Mizi in the play Sweet Nothings. In The Observer, theatre critic Susannah Clapp praised the performances of the cast and wrote: "Natalie Dormer is lissome as a dirty, delightful gadabout, pushing aside an entire chess game in order to put down her hat ''.
After six months of playing Mizi, Dormer went on to film some new roles, including the Duchess of York in Madonna 's film W.E., Pvt. Lorraine in Captain America: The First Avenger, and Niamh Cranitch in the BBC court drama Silk. She then went on to her next stage role of Pat in. 45 at Hampstead Theatre in November 2010. She returned to The Tudors as Anne Boleyn in a dream sequence for the fourth and final season in mid-2010.
From 2012 until 2016 Dormer played Margaery Tyrell in the HBO fantasy TV series Game of Thrones. Dormer, along with the rest of the ensemble cast, was nominated for four Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Drama Series in 2012, 2014, 2015, and 2016, respectively, and the cast was awarded the Empire Hero Award in 2015 by the British film magazine Empire. For her performance in the third season of the show, Dormer won the Ewwy Award for Best Supporting Actress - Drama.
In March 2012, she returned to the Young Vic to play the title role in After Miss Julie by Patrick Marber. Her performance received critical acclaim, with reviews describing her as "little short of sensational '', "outstanding '', and "the perfect Miss Julie ''. The online theatre magazine Exeunt wrote that her portrayal of Miss Julie contained "all the anger, desire, wit, loneliness, merriment, melancholy and desperation of the casts of several plays together... Dormer has still more presence and eerie beauty than is apparent from her appearances on - screen, and she shape - shifts almost supernaturally between seductress, child, and tormentor. '' In March 2013, she played the Lady Door in the radio play of Neverwhere, based on the novel by Neil Gaiman. Later that year, she appeared in the car racing drama Rush and the thriller The Counselor. She also appeared in A Long Way From Home. In 2013, Dormer played Irene Adler in the final three episodes of the first season of the CBS series Elementary; she reprised the role in the second season. Dormer played Cressida in the films The Hunger Games: Mockingjay -- Part 1 and Part 2. In preparation for the role, she shaved the left side of her head.
In September 2014, Deadline.com announced that Dormer has been cast in Screen Gems ' upcoming action thriller Patient Zero, alongside Matt Smith and Game of Thrones co-star John Bradley - West. The film is to be directed by Oscar - winning filmmaker Stefan Ruzowitzky and based on a script by Mike Le. It is set to be released in 2017. Dormer starred in the Lava Bear Films / David S. Goyer - produced horror film The Forest, directed by multiple award - winning music video and short - film director Jason Zada, as his feature film debut. Focus Features has the North American distribution rights to the film, which was released in January 2016.
In November 2014, it was announced that Dormer was to star as the scandalous 18th - century noblewoman Lady Worsley in a BBC drama called The Scandalous Lady W, based on the book Lady Worsley 's Whim by the historian Hallie Rubenhold; it aired in August 2015. Dormer is to star in In Darkness, a revenge thriller. The film was co-written by Dormer and has been in production since 2015. In February 2017, it was announced that Dormer was cast as schoolteacher Mrs Hester Appleyard in Picnic at Hanging Rock, an adaptation of the 1967 Australian novel of the same name by Joan Lindsay. The 6 episode feature will air on Amazon Prime.
Since 2011, Dormer has been engaged to film director Anthony Byrne, whom she met in Dublin while filming The Tudors in 2007. Dormer has stated that Cate Blanchett has been an influence in her career as an actress.
Despite rumors that Dormer is related to historical lady - in - waiting Jane Dormer, who served Queen Mary I, they have no known familial connection. On this subject, Dormer stated, "There was a woman, called Jane Dormer, in the Royal Court who happened to have the same family name as me, but I think that 's as far as it goes. ''
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santa claus is coming to town chris cringle | Santa Claus is Comin ' to Town (film) - wikipedia
Santa Claus Is Comin ' to Town is a 1970 stop motion Christmas television special produced by Rankin / Bass Productions. The film stars Fred Astaire as the narrator S.D. Kluger, Mickey Rooney as Kris Kringle / Santa Claus, Keenan Wynn as the Winter Warlock, and Paul Frees in various roles. The film tells the story of how Santa Claus and several Claus - related Christmas traditions came to be. It is based on the hit Christmas song Santa Claus Is Comin ' to Town, which was introduced on radio by Eddie Cantor in 1934, and the story of Saint Nicholas.
The special was created using Japanese stop motion animation called "Animagic '', in which all the characters are made out of wood and plastic and animated via stop - motion photography. The special was originally telecast December 14, 1970 by ABC and continues to air every year on sibling channel ABC Family (now Freeform) though both channels have at times edited the special to make room for commercials (ABC has cut two key songs, as well as two other songs in half; ABC Family / Freeform has cut several scenes that they believe may be traumatizing to younger viewers, like Kris climbing, and leaping to escape to prevent children from doing dangerous stunts, Winter Warlock knowing Kris will return, and telling him he will never escape including the scene where the Burgermeister torches the seized toys in front of the children of Sombertown). The DVD releases include these deleted scenes vital to the story 's plot.
Special Delivery "S.D. '' Kluger (voiced by and resembling Fred Astaire) the mailman is introduced after a newsreel prologue, telling how children around the world are preparing for Christmas and Santa Claus ' arrival. When his snowmobile / mail truck breaks down, he tells the story of Santa Claus, answering the children 's letters to Santa.
The story begins in the gloomy city of Sombertown, ruled by the ill - tempered Burgermeister Meisterburger (voiced by Paul Frees). A baby arrives on his doorstep with a name tag reading "Claus '' and note requesting that Burgermeister raise the child. He instead orders his lawkeeper Grimsley (also voiced by Paul Frees) to take the baby to the "Orphan Asylum ''. On the way there, a gust of wind blows both sled and baby to the Mountain of the Whispering Winds, where the animals hide him from the evil Winter Warlock (voiced by Keenan Wynn) and convey him to an Elvish family by the name of Kringle in Rainbow River Valley. Led by Tanta Kringle (voiced by Joan Gardner), the elf queen, she and the five Kringle elf brothers (Ringle, Dingle, Zingle, Tingle and Wingle, all voiced by Frees) adopt the baby and name him "Kris ''. A few years later, Kris hopes to restore the Kringle family as "The First Toymakers to the King ''.
When Kris is old enough, he volunteers to deliver the elves ' toys to Sombertown. Unfortunately, the Burgermeister has outlawed all toys in the town after he trips on a toy left on the steps, and declares that anyone found possessing a toy will be arrested. On his way to Sombertown, Kris meets a lost penguin whom he names Topper as they evade the Winter Warlock who vows to catch him the next time he passes. In the town, he offers toys to two children washing their stockings by a water fountain. He is stopped by Miss Jessica (voiced by Robie Lester), their lovely schoolteacher, but she softens toward Kris when he offers her a china doll as a "peace offering ''. As Kris gives more toys, the Burgermeister arrives to arrest the children, but Kris gives him a yo - yo. He at first happily plays with it, but Grimsley reminds him he 's breaking his own law, leading to Burgermeister ordering Kris ' capture.
As Kris and Topper return to the Kringles, the Winter Warlock captures them. But when Kris gives him a toy train as a present in exchange, the Warlock befriends Kris as his appearance changes. To repay him, he re-unites Kris with Jessica who informs him that the Burgermeister has destroyed all the toys and the children now want new ones. Kris promises to do so if the children behave themselves, promising to watch them through his magic snowball. When the Burgermeister hears that Kris means to bring more toys, he orders all doors and windows to be locked before their houses are searched. But Kris enters by the chimneys where the children hung their stockings to dry by the fire where Kris hid the toys.
Thereafter the Burgermeister sets a trap for Kris as he makes another delivery, and thus captures the Kringles, Topper, and Winter. Jessica pleads to release her friends, but he refuses. Jessica then asks Winter to break everyone out, but he refuses since he has no magic left except some magic feed corn to make reindeer to fly. With the reindeer 's help, the Kringles, Kris, Topper, and Winter escape.
After months as an outlaw, Kris returns to the woods, where he grows a beard as a disguise. After Tanta suggests that he return to his birth name "Claus '' for safety, Kris marries Jessica and the group travels to the North Pole to build their own castle and workshop.
As the years pass, Kris still has to travel by night because he 's still an outlaw. Eventually, the Burgermeisters died off and fell out of power and their laws were abolished. The townspeople then look up to Kris who becomes Santa Claus and Jessica becomes Mrs. Claus. Santa then decides to limit his journeys to one night a year and chooses the right night. Christmas Eve, "the night of profound love. '' Just as Santa is getting ready to leave, Winter tells him that he has his magic powers back to guarantee the world a white Christmas.
At the end, after S.D. Kluger explains Santa 's true meaning, he remembers that he still has to deliver the children 's letters to him and leaves for the North Pole (joined by Topper, Winter, the Kringle family, and a parade of children singing "Santa Claus Is Coming to Town '') during the credits. As they finally reach Santa 's workshop, we see Kris and Jessica 's shadows inside their castle. Santa steps outside and waves goodbye to the viewers as a group of children say, "Merry Christmas! ''
© 1970 Videocraft International, Ltd.
Released by Rhino on October 1, 2002, the soundtrack for Santa Claus Is Comin ' to Town is available along with that of Frosty the Snowman, the Rankin - Bass special produced the previous year in 1969. This edition contains the full dialogue and all songs for both specials.
Beginning in 1989, the special has been released numerous times on VHS and DVD. The 2005 DVD release included a CD single of Mariah Carey performing the title song. The special is also available as part of a DVD box set with other Rankin - Bass Christmas titles including Rudolph the Red - Nosed Reindeer, Frosty the Snowman, and Frosty Returns. In 2010, the special was released in the same box set on Blu - ray Disc. In 2015, both the special and Frosty the Snowman were released on Blu - ray Disc / DVD combo packs in the 45th Anniversary Collector 's Edition.
A novelization (an oversized children 's hardback) of the special was published by Running Press Book Publishers in 2008. The script was adapted by Sierra Harimann with watercolor illustrations based on the original show by Mike Koelsch. There are some additional details in the book, although it is unknown if they are from the imagination of the author or were based on the original script. The Dismal Forest is at the foot of the Mountain of the Whispering Winds. The little girl and boy Kris meets when he arrives are named Annette and Andy. The Sombertown Dungeon was built like a fort with a courtyard in the center, and it is there that the reindeer land to rescue everyone.
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when does stefan go back to normal in season 1 | Stefan Salvatore - wikipedia
High school student (Seasons 1 - 4)
Stefan Salvatore is a fictional character from L.J. Smith 's novel series The Vampire Diaries. He is portrayed by Paul Wesley in the television series of the same name. Born on November 1, 1846, Stefan was turned into a vampire in 1864, at the age of 17, by Katherine Pierce, with his brother Damon Salvatore.
On March 27, 2009, The Hollywood Reporter announced that Paul Wesley had joined the cast of The Vampire Diaries as Stefan. He was the last main cast member whose casting was announced. Wesley has become popular with viewers. Carina MacKenzie of the Los Angeles Times noted that he spent "10 years as a successful but under - the - radar TV actor '' but shortly after the show premiered, he was "everywhere ''. MacKenzie wrote: "Last summer his face was on more than 30 "Vampire Diaries '' posters at the Century City / Westfield mall alone, not to mention billboards over seemingly every major boulevard in Hollywood ". In November 2011, Wesley 's ex-wife Torrey DeVitto joined the cast of The Vampire Diaries in the recurring role of Dr. Meredith Fell, who is "intrigued by '' Alaric Saltzman (Matt Davis).
Stefan was described as a "beautiful young man '' who turns out to be a Vampire 171 years old, who develops a "strong connection '' with "tragic heroine '' Elena Gilbert (Nina Dobrev). Wesley described the young Stefan as "naive and willing to ride whatever wave life threw '' him, because he was "easily manipulated '' and "innocent '' with a "beautiful young soul ''. However, Stefan at the age of 160 years has more wisdom in him. Stefan consumes animal blood, refusing to kill humans due to the guilt that he killed his own father. Damon on the other hand, does feed on humans.
Stefan has a love - hate relationship with his brother, Damon Salvatore (Ian Somerhalder). Wesley "adores '' Somerhalder, who he said he has "natural chemistry '' with. Wesley stated: "The dynamic of the characters is so interesting because they love each other, but they hate each other (...) There 's always this thing in Stefan 's head where he hopes that one day Damon can just be as normal and functioning as possible ''. However, he also described their relationship as "beautiful '' in their flashbacks from the past, because they "loved each other so much back then ''. Stefan begins a romance with Elena on the show 's first episode, without telling her he was a vampire. She was later shocked to find out that he was a vampire, and briefly ended their relationship before getting back together. As the show progressed, Elena began developing feelings for Damon as well. Wesley described Damon and Stefan as having a "silent understanding of the fact that they both are in love with the same girl '', and "that was Stefan 's girl, and now Damon is suddenly a real factor, he 's really in the picture ''. Wesley 's favorite episode of The Vampire Diaries is "The Turning Point '' because it was "really beautiful '' for Stefan and Elena as a couple. In the episode, Stefan turns around "because he 's ashamed of his face '' with blood rushing through his eyes and his veins popping out. Wesley said "he 's terrified, and he hates himself for it. He runs from that part of himself, but she turns him around and tells him not to be afraid. She touches his face, and she thinks he 's beautiful. It 's so intimate, that moment, because she accepts the darkest part of him. ''
When the original vampire Klaus Mikaelson (Joseph Morgan) is feared dead, it is revealed that everyone in his bloodline will die, including Stefan and Damon. In what International Business Times called "the moment Vampire Diaries fans have been waiting for '', Elena had to pick to say goodbye to Stefan or Damon. She ended up choosing Stefan. When Elena became a vampire, her feelings for Damon heightened, and it was later revealed that she had a sired bond to him. Elena and Stefan broke up, and she began a romance with Damon. Stefan became heartbroken, feeling angry and betrayed, and lashed out at Damon and Elena. Wesley urged fans of Stefan and Elena not to lose hope, stating: "The fans should definitely maintain some hope. The thing to remember is that Stefan and Elena have this love that is so strong, and it was sort of the core of Season 1 -- you ca n't entirely disregard that ''. The show 's head writer, Julie Plec, said "They love each other as deeply as two people can love each other, but that does n't mean that their relationship is infallible ''.
In 1864, Stefan "had n't yet learned the careful control that rules his life now '' and was an avid consumer of human blood, which was considered a "dark past '' by Zap2it. Of his blood addiction, Wesley said: "It 's awesome. It 's a drug. He 's a drug addict. I get to play a drug addict, which I love. I 'm going back to his days of usage, heavy usage. When I 'm in my lustful state, it 's so much fun. I felt like I got to play a role that I 'd never played before. I felt like I was doing something different. I just love it, and I hope it comes out the way that I envisioned. '' The show 's executive producer Kevin Williamson revealed that he was "looking forward to Stefan eventually falling off the wagon and drinking human blood again '' after spending decades of consuming only animal blood. Wesley said "everybody has a dark side, especially a vampire, and it 'd be unrealistic not to explore that ''. Stefan became addicted to human blood again, but got it under control with the help of Elena, who began letting him feed off her in small amounts to build up discipline.
However, in the show 's third season, Stefan 's addiction returned. His humanity was taken away by Klaus, and the audience met "The Ripper '', his "bloodthirsty, ruthless alter - ego who had previously only been legend '' according to Zap2it, who found "this sociopath version of our hero far more compelling than his usual compassionate martyr self ''. Wesley, who enjoyed "Ripper Stefan '' more, said it "bums me out '' when Stefan quit human blood again. He said "Good Stefan does n't feel as natural in terms of what I want to be doing on screen, and what I want to be saying. I feel a little stifled, myself, whenever he 's resisting the urge to do vampiresque things. ''
Stefan Salvatore was born on November 1, 1846 and raised in Mystic Falls, Virginia to Giuseppe Salvatore and Lily Salvatore. Stefan is the younger brother of Damon. When Stefan and Damon were human, they were very close and were best friends in life. Damon always confided and trusted in Stefan and they always defended each other, especially to their father, and was fiercely loyal to him. However, this all seemed to change when Stefan and Damon fell in love with the same girl, Katherine Pierce, who turned out to be a vampire. Stefan fell deeply in love with Katherine before finding out she was a vampire. Katherine, however, compelled Stefan to not be afraid, also to keep her secret and go on as they were. It was also revealed that Katherine compelled Stefan to drink her vampire blood against his will. Damon, on the other hand, drank Katherine 's blood willingly, wanting and desiring the immortal life in order to spend an eternity with Katherine. In 1864, Stefan was turned into a vampire after being shot by his father, Giuseppe, along with his brother, Damon with Katherine 's blood in his system, before accidentally killing his father during a visit to tell him that he was going to let himself die. Damon, who turned into a vampire as well, promised Stefan an eternity of misery as he was angry that Stefan had forced him to turn and jealous that Katherine had also turned Stefan. A newborn vampire with uncontrollable blood lust, Stefan was unable to resist the temptations of human blood and became severely out of control and addicted (later on known as the Ripper) to the blood, killing many people because of his lack of control and extreme bloodlust. However, Stefan learned to change his ways when he was taught to control it by a vampire named Alexia "Lexi '' Branson, who later on became Stefan 's best friend and companion. In 1942, Stefan enlisted in the Army to fight in World War II (4x08 "We 'll Always Have Bourbon Street ''). After decades of absence from the town he called home, Stefan returned to Mystic Falls to visit his home and Zach. On May 23, 2009, Stefan heard the Gilbert 's car accident at Wickery Bridge. It was then and there that Stefan fatefully encountered Elena Gilbert for the first time. After only being able to save Elena, Stefan noticed that she looked exactly like Katherine.
Stefan and Elena begin a relationship and he revealed to her that he is a vampire. However, Damon returns to Mystic Falls, too, and also falls in love with Elena. Further on in the series, Damon and Stefan start to bond as brothers again and it becomes apparent that they do love each other. Because of his addiction to human blood, Stefan only drank animal blood in the beginning of the series, which made him weaker than other vampires. In season two, Stefan starts to take small amounts of Elena 's blood each day to mitigate its effect on him and to increase his strength. When Katherine returns it is discovered that she had always loved Stefan and not Damon; however, Stefan is in love with Elena and not interested in Katherine. Stefan starts to build a friendship with Caroline Forbes after she is turned into a vampire. After Klaus gives Stefan his blood to save Damon from a werewolf bite, he turns Stefan into a Ripper again.
Stefan starts working for him as he agreed to do to save Damon, and hopes it might also protect Elena by making sure Klaus never returns to Mystic Falls, since he believes her to be dead. Klaus later finds out and compels Stefan to kill her, but when he is able to resist the compulsion, Klaus makes him turn his humanity and emotions off. However, he is later able to get his humanity back, which is seen when he saves Klaus 's life to protect Damon, but yet he pretends not to care about Elena anymore. He then takes it upon himself to kill Klaus. He steals Klaus 's family as retaliation, and uses them as blackmail, when that fails (the witches give Klaus the coffins when he threatens to end the Bennett line), Stefan threatens to drive Elena off Wickery Bridge with vampire blood in her system if Klaus does n't get his hybrids out of town, Klaus agrees at the last minute. He and Elena get into a fight. In the season three finale, he kisses Elena. In the end, Elena chooses Stefan over Damon, but when Rebekah causes Matt 's truck to drive off Wickery Bridge, she is trapped underwater. Stefan barely gets there in time, but Elena makes him save Matt first and she drowns. It is later revealed Dr. Fell gave Elena vampire blood, meaning she died with vampire blood in her system. Then she became a vampire.
In the season four premiere, Stefan tries to get Bonnie to save her from becoming a full vampire, however, she along with several other vampires are captured by the Founder 's Council. As Elena begins to die and out of desperation to keep Elena alive, Stefan kills a guard and uses his blood to allow Elena to feed and to complete her transition into a vampire. Stefan gives Elena a daylight ring, which was made by Bonnie, in order to protect Elena from the sun. Stefan tries to assure Elena that everything will be okay and that they 'll take Elena 's newborn vampirism one day at a time. During the second episode of season 4, Stefan tries to help Elena cope with her hunger for human blood. After his "bunny diet '' disagrees with Elena stomach she seeks help from Damon to find an alternative blood source. When blood bags and Damon 's own blood fails too, she ends up feeding on Matt under extreme circumstances. Stefan then discovers from Klaus and Rebekah that there is a possible cure for vampirism. Stefan "teams '' up with Klaus in order to find the possible cure, so that Stefan can give Elena the choice of becoming human again.
Unfortunately, Klaus needs the vampire hunter Connor to stay alive because he holds the map to the cure in his tattoo, and Stefan must keep him alive at all costs when everyone else wants him dead. When Connor kidnaps Jeremy, April, and Matt, and keeps them hostage at the Grill, Stefan must stop Damon from rashly walking in and killing his chance at curing Elena. After tranquilizing Damon with vervain and taking his daylight ring, Stefan tries to take matters into his own hands and infiltrates the Grille by himself. With Jeremy at gunpoint, Elena comes in and takes Connor by surprise. Stefan manages to get Connor out, but Elena later kills him and is consumed with grief at being a murderer.
When Elena begins to hallucinate because of Connor 's death, Klaus informs Stefan and Damon that she must be locked away to keep from killing herself, and kidnaps her before they can say no. Later, Stefan works with one of Klaus 's hybrids, Chris, to free Elena who stabs him in the neck and runs away. Stefan sends Damon to find her and goes with Bonnie to see if the Professor Shane knows how to end the hallucinations. He informs them that a potential hunter must kill a vampire so he may take the place of that dead hunter, which is virtually impossible. Luckily, Stefan realizes that Jeremy is a potential hunter, and tells him that to save his sister, he must kill a vampire. Jeremy kills the hybrid Chris who originally helped them free Elena, and in turn her hallucinations end, and she is safe, but only barely.
Later then, Stefan breaks up with Elena because of her feelings for Damon. Stefan goes to Caroline for support since she loathes Damon, and they become closer. During the Miss Mystic Falls Pageant, Stefan Turns a criminal in the hospital and convinces Jeremy to kill him to make the hunter 's mark on his arm grow. Afterward, Jeremy becomes anti-vampire and attempts to kill Elena. Stefan is there and saves her, but has to apologize for making him crazy. Elena tries to tell him that she does n't need the cure if it means it hurts Jeremy.
That night Elena comes to stay at the Salvatore house, and Stefan leaves to crash at Caroline 's. While there, he and Caroline realize that Elena is sired to Damon. When Stefan informs Damon of this, they go to New Orleans to find the witch that broke a sire bond years ago that Damon had. Stefan and Damon find that in order to break the bond, Damon has to convince Elena not to care about him, and leave her, which Damon agrees to do for Stefan. Post Jeremy 's death, Damon convinces Elena to switch off her humanity leading to her becoming brutal and ruthless. Stefan and Damon try constantly to make her feel something again. Later after Elena 's humanity comes back, she chooses Damon, leaving Stefan heartbroken. Then Stefan tries to dump Silas body in the river only to find that Silas is still alive. Silas then reveals that Stefan is his doppelganger. Silas was the one who created the immortality spell 2000 years ago however, as nature creates a balance for everything, it created a version of Silas that could be killed, a shadow - self which ends up being Stefan. Silas then locks Stefan into a vault and drowns him in the river. This incident tempts Stefan to turn his humanity off in order to escape. Stefan happens to be in the safe for 3 months where he keeps on hallucinating.
In season 5, Damon and Elena manage to figure out that Silas has taken Stefan 's place and that Stefan is in that safe. When they go to rescue him, Stefan is n't there. Instead, a very powerful witch (Qyetsiyah) had opened the safe for him and fried his brain due to which he suffers from amnesia. Qyetsiyah (or Tessa) loved Silas but on the day of their marriage, he cheated on her and took the immortality spell for the women he actually loved, Amara, the original doppelgänger of Elena. Stefan returns to his old ways but when he saves Elena from Tessa, she wants revenge so he gives Stefan his memories back which gives Stefan Hallucinations of the safe. Caroline tries to help him but when that does n't work, Katherine comes back in the picture and manages to cure Stefan but they have a one - night stand, which leads Katherine to believe that Stefan still loves her, however he rejects her. Later on, Katherine takes over Elena 's body and breaks up with Damon so that she can get Stefan. After trying to woo him and failing, Stefan realises that Katherine is pretending to be Elena and Elena is with Nadia, Katherine 's daughter. They rescue her somehow by killing Katherine and sending her to some sort of hell. Then Stefan volunteers himself to the travellers to give his blood as they needed doppelganger blood. Caroline and Enzo try to find and kill Tom Avery, Stefan 's last doppelganger in order to save Stefan and they succeed due to which Stefan and Caroline grow even closer. Near the end of the season, Stefan and Elena keep seeing dreams of the two being together and of them as humans. They work out that the travellers planted those dreams there as it was always meant to be Stefan and Elena not Damon and Elena. Through the fight, Stefan and Elena are kidnapped by the travellers as they need their blood to finish their spell. However, Enzo and Caroline save them by killing Tom Avery, Stefan 's doppelgänger. In 5x21, Stefan tries to save Caroline 's life from Tyler (while a passenger, Julian, is in his body), during which Tyler kills him, sending him to the disintegrating Other Side. In the episode ' Home ' he is Resseructed because Liv did a spell due to which he and his other friends can get back but Damon and Bonnie are left there leaving everyone broken.
In season 6, Stefan moves away from Mystic Falls because of Damon 's death and finds a new girlfriend called Ivy. However, Enzo and Caroline, find him and Caroline tells Stefan that he 's a coward and the worst friend ever. She starts crying so Enzo goes and kills Ivy. Stefan vows revenge. He comes back to Whitmore, and uses Elena 's help to find Enzo leaving him to be killed by a vampire hunter. However, Enzo survives. Ivy returns as a vampire and it is revealed that Enzo had fed her vampire blood against her will before killing her. Damon, then returns to Mystic Falls and meets Stefan first which brings Stefan back to his friends. To make things worse, Enzo tells the other vampire hunter about Ivy and all the other vampires and the vampire hunter kills Ivy but is killed by Damon before the vampire hunter would kill anyone else. Enzo, figures out that Stefan 's niece, Sarah is alive and that Damon had thought that he had killed Sarah before she was born but Sarah was born before her mother died however, Stefan kept this from Damon and Enzo uses this against Stefan. Meanwhile, the vampires have another threat, a psycho killer, Kai. Added on top of that, Sheriff Liz Forbes (Caroline 's mother) is diagnosed with cancer. Stefan supports Caroline through this in which they bond even more and share a passionate kiss however just then Liz dies. At the funeral, Stefan realises that he has fallen in love with Caroline but before he can confess, Caroline switches off her humanity switch after the funeral. Stefan and Elena try to bring Caroline back but it fails and Caroline vows revenge for them not giving her the year she wanted without any feelings. She kidnaps Stefan and Damon 's niece, Sarah Salvatore, and blackmails Stefan to turn off his humanity to save her. At the end of the episode ' The Downward Spiral ', he does and joins Caroline. Stefan decides to ruin Caroline 's life because she has done the same to him. He wants her to lose control and become a Ripper. He eventually is able to and they sleep together for the first time. When Lily, Stefan and Damon 's mother, is rescued from the 1903 prison world and turns out to be a vampire, she manages to turn on Stefan 's humanity again. However, it later is revealed that Lily lied to get him back and does n't love her sons any more and only wants her travelling companions back. Stefan then pretends to still have his emotions off to get Caroline back and somehow succeeds, but Caroline tries to avoid him as she feels guilty for everything she had done. Stefan then also tries to talk Damon out of being a human again only to be with Elena but Damon decides to take the cure.
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who has scored more hat tricks in la liga | List of La Liga hat - tricks - wikipedia
Players with at least 10 hat - tricks are shown in this table.
Source: BDFútbol
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who plays elliot in cheaper by the dozen 2 | Cheaper by the Dozen 2 - wikipedia
Cheaper by the Dozen 2 is a 2005 American family comedy film produced by 20th Century Fox. It is the sequel to the family comedy film Cheaper by the Dozen (2003). Shawn Levy, the director of the first film, did not return as director for this sequel, which was instead directed by Adam Shankman (The Pacifier). Levy was a producer of the film and made an appearance as a hospital intern in the movie. Steve Martin, Bonnie Hunt, Hilary Duff, Piper Perabo, Alyson Stoner, and Tom Welling reprise their roles as members of the twelve - child Baker family. Eugene Levy co-stars as the patriarch of a rival family of eight children. Carmen Electra portrays Levy 's wife.
Two years after Tom Baker resigned from his head coaching position, the Baker family begins to undergo many changes, beginning with Lorraine and her desire to study in New York. Their oldest daughter Nora is now married to Bud McNulty and heavily pregnant with their first child. They intend to move to Houston because of Bud 's new job promotion.
Feeling the family is breaking apart as the children grow up and move away, Tom persuades the entire family to take one last family vacation all together at Lake Winnetka. Tom 's old rival Jimmy Murtaugh and his large family (with "only '' eight kids) are also there for the summer. Jimmy constantly flaunts his wealth and success to Tom, as well as the accomplishments of his children, often suggesting to Tom that the Baker children are less successful because of Tom 's parenting style. The Baker kids get into many incidents, several of which are accidental: Mark Baker, along with Kenny Murtaugh, crashes into a tennis court with a golf cart; Sarah Baker is caught shoplifting in a gift shop, and Mark accidentally sets off a backpack of fireworks, causing widespread panic, especially when the backpack is thrown into a boat, igniting its engine and causing it to explode.
Jimmy again starts the topic that Tom needs to use a firmer hand on his kids. Tom is angered by this, and they decide to settle the matter at the Annual Labor Day Family Cup. Tom trains the kids for days, not realizing they are miserable. Sarah and Elliot Murtaugh watch Ice Age together, but are spied on by their fathers, which ultimately results in them getting into an argument and humiliating their children. Upon returning home, Sarah is furious and refuses to compete for her father in the Cup. Everyone, including Kate, is angry with Tom, not only for spying on Sarah, but also for ruining the entire trip through his competitiveness with the Murtaughs.
The next morning, Tom goes to the Cup to compete with Nigel and Kyle (the only two still willing to go). However, after discovering an old "Team Baker '' flag, Kate and the rest of the family show up, showing they forgive Tom and are willing to compete. After the events, however, the Bakers and the Murtaughs are tied for first; a tiebreaking canoe race is announced, in which every family member must compete. During the race, Nora 's water breaks; the Murtaughs want to help, but Jimmy, sensing the opportunity to defeat Tom once and for all, initially refuses to help. Eventually, the Murtaughs convince Jimmy that they should help the Bakers, and the Bakers and the Murtaughs work together to get Nora to the hospital as she goes into labor. Bud, Lorraine and Kate go with Nora in the delivery room, while Tom, Jimmy, Sarina and the rest of the kids stay in the waiting room. While talking to Jimmy, Tom realizes that he has to let his kids grow, but wherever they go, they will always be with him, and he will always be with them. Nora then gives birth to a baby boy who she and Bud name Tom in honor of her father, who has shown them "there is no way to be a perfect parent, but a million ways to be a really good one. '' Bud announces that they have bought "The Big House '', the vacation home that the Bakers have been renting. Nora, Bud and baby Tom leave for Houston a few days later while the Bakers continue their vacation at Lake Winnetka.
Reviews for the film were overwhelmingly negative. Review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes ranked Cheaper by the Dozen 2 98th in the 100 worst reviewed films of the 2000s, with a rating of 6 % based on 93 reviews of the film. The site 's consensus reads "A sequel to a remake, Cheaper 2 wastes its solid cast in scenes of over-the - top, predictable humor ''. On Metacritic, the film has a score of 34 out of 100, based on 24 critics, indicating "generally unfavorable reviews ''.
Chicago Sun - Times critic Roger Ebert, gave the film one of its rare positive reviews, awarding it 3 / 4 stars and stating "As I watched this sequel, a certain good feeling began to make itself known. Yes, the movie is unnecessary. However, it is unnecessary at a higher level of warmth and humor than the recent remake Yours, Mine, and Ours. '' Ebert also highly praised Alyson Stoner 's performance, favorably comparing the then - twelve year old actress to Reese Witherspoon.
Calling the overall film "bland '', Variety 's Justin Chang agreed with Ebert on Stoner, calling her "an endearingly vulnerable standout '' and deeming her subplot to be "the most engaging '' in the film. Chang was also kind to Steve Martin, Bonnie Hunt and Eugene Levy, deeming the veteran actors did the best with what was given to them. Marrit Ingman of the Austin Chronicle conceded that the film had a good message, and agreed that Hunt was "marvelous and down - to - earth '' but ultimately felt that "the rest of the movie is as funny as mildew '', found that "the product placement is particularly egregious '' and thought that Hilary Duff looked "as tanned and raw as buffalo jerky ''. Andrea Gronvall was also horrified by Duff 's appearance while writing for the Chicago Reader, calling her "haggard '' and "flat - out scary '', and overall felt that there was "a discernible lack of enthusiasm from almost everyone involved '', however singling out Carmen Electra for being "the most winning performer of the bunch ''.
The film received two Razzie Award nominations including Worst Actress (Hilary Duff) and Worst Supporting Actor (Eugene Levy).
The film grossed $9,309,387 million opening weekend, finishing in 4th place at the box office. By the end of its run, Cheaper by the Dozen 2 grossed $82,571,173 domestically and $46,610,657 internationally, totaling $129,181,830 worldwide. It is one of only twelve feature films to be released in over 3,000 theaters and still improve on its box office performance in its second weekend, increasing 55.6 % from $9,309,387 to $14,486,519.
The DVD was released on May 23, 2006. The Blu - ray was released on January 5, 2010. The DVD is two - sided and side B has an inside look previews of Flicka and Aquamarine.
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what is meant by vata pitta and kapha | Dosha - wikipedia
A dosha (Sanskrit दोषः, doṣa), according to Ayurveda, is one of three substances that are present in a person 's body. Beginning with twentieth century literature, this idea is called "the three - dosha theory '' (Sanskrit त्रिदोषोपदेशः, tridoṣa - upadeśaḥ). Authoritative Ayurvedic treatises describe how the quantity and quality of these three substances fluctuate in the body according to the seasons, time of day, diet, and several other factors. Ayurvedic doshas are markedly different from Greek Humors.
The central concept of Ayurvedic medicine is the theory that health exists when there is a balance between three fundamental bodily bio-elements or doshas called Vata, Pitta, and Kapha.
Doshas are the forces that create the physical body, they determine conditions of growth and aging, health and disease. Typically, one of the three doshas predominates and determines one 's constitution or mind - body type. By understanding individual habits, emotional responses, and body type, practitioners can adapt their yoga practice accordingly. The same applies for Ayurveda treatments focused on alleviating any doshic excesses (illness) via powerful herbs and / or through the improvement of general lifestyle practices such as pranayama, meditation and yoga postures.
There are clear indications when there exists an excess of a dosha, throwing the system off balance. For example, with excess vata, there can be mental, nervous and digestive disorders, including low energy and weakening of all body tissues. With excess pitta, there is toxic blood that gives rise to inflammation and infection. With excess kapha, there is an increase in mucus, weight, edema, and lung disease, to name a few. The key to managing all doshas is taking care of vata, as it is the origin of the other two.
Prana, Tejas and Ojas
Yoga is an alchemical process of balancing and transforming energies of the psyche. At the root of vata, pitta and kapha are its subtle counterparts called prana, tejas and ojas. Unlike the doshas, which in excess create diseases, these promote health, creativity and well - being.
Prana is our life force and is the healing energy of vata (air)
Tejas is our inner radiance and is the healing energy of pitta (fire)
Ojas is the ultimate energy reserve of the body derived from kapha (water)
Ultimately, Ayurveda seeks to reduce disease, particularly those that are chronic, and increase positive health in the body and mind via these three vital essences that aid in renewal and transformation. Increased prana cultivates enthusiasm, adaptability and creativity, all of which are necessary when pursuing a spiritual path; in yoga, this force is necessary to enable one to perform. Tejas provides courage, fearlessness and insight, which are important when making decisions. Lastly, ojas creates peace, confidence and patience to maintain consistent development and sustain continued effort. Eventually, the most important element to develop is ojas, as it engenders physical and psychological endurance. This can be achieved via Ayurvedic diet, tonic herbs, control of the senses, and devotion.
The principles of Ayurveda and Ayurvedic medicine are solid and timeless. According to Ayurveda you can yourself cure / prevent 80 % of the diseases in your body, that too in your home. Just by knowing your body 's basic tendencies and making wise decisions about what you eat and making some lifestyle changes you can stay healthy without ever going to a doctor. Only for the remaining 20 % of the diseases, you will require the assistance of a doctor. These include major diseases like cancer, heart attack, surgeries and accidents. So, be in harmony with your mind and body by following guidelines given by Ayurveda and always remain healthy.
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why did the lead singer of killswitch engage leave | Killswitch Engage - wikipedia
Killswitch Engage is an American metalcore band from Westfield, Massachusetts, formed in 1999 after the disbanding of Overcast and Aftershock. Killswitch Engage 's current lineup consists of vocalist Jesse Leach, guitarists Joel Stroetzel and Adam Dutkiewicz, bassist Mike D'Antonio, and drummer Justin Foley. The band has released seven studio albums and two live performance albums. Their latest album, Incarnate, was released on March 11, 2016.
Killswitch Engage rose to fame with its 2004 release The End of Heartache, which peaked at number 21 on the Billboard 200, and was certified gold by the RIAA in December 2007 for over 500,000 shipments in the United States. The title track, "The End of Heartache '', was nominated for a Grammy Award in 2005 for Best Metal Performance, and a live DVD titled (Set This) World Ablaze was released in 2005. Killswitch Engage has performed at festivals such as Soundwave Festival, Wacken Open Air, Reading and Leeds Festivals, Ozzfest, Download Festival, Rock on the Range, Rock Am Ring, Mayhem Festival, Monsters of Rock, Pointfest, Knotfest and Heavy MTL. The band has sold over four million records in the U.S. and has been considered notable within the New Wave of American Heavy Metal, and has also been considered one of the earliest leading forces of the metalcore genre.
Killswitch Engage formed following the disbandment of metalcore bands Overcast and Aftershock in 1999. After Overcast broke up in 1998, bassist Mike D'Antonio jammed with Aftershock guitarist Adam Dutkiewicz. Dutkiewicz, now playing drums, recruited guitarist Joel Stroetzel from Aftershock and vocalist Jesse Leach of the band Nothing Stays Gold (who were signed to a record label owned by Dutkiewicz 's brother Tobias, who was also the vocalist in Aftershock) to form a new band, Killswitch Engage. The band 's name is derived from an episode of the television series The X-Files entitled "Kill Switch '', written by William Gibson, who gave the episode this title after meeting the industrial band Kill Switch... Klick.
In 1999, Killswitch Engage recorded a demo containing four tracks, including "Soilborn '', the first song written by the band. The demo was first released at the band 's first show, opening for melodic death metal act In Flames, in November 1999. They released their self - titled debut album the following year. Although initially the album was not a financial success and did not land on any charts, it attracted the interest of Carl Severson, who worked at Roadrunner Records at the time. Severson handed Killswitch Engage to several Roadrunner representatives. Mike Gitter, a talent agent of the company, contacted D'Antonio, attended several of the band 's shows, and offered the band a recording contract with Roadrunner. Realizing that Roadrunner had the resources to promote and distribute Killswitch Engage releases, the band accepted his offer, declining several offers from smaller labels.
For a brief time in 2000 and 2001, ex-Overcast guitarist Pete Cortese joined Killswitch Engage, but left when he became a father. Killswitch Engage began writing new material for their second album in November 2001. Mixed in January at Backstage Studios by producer Andy Sneap, the album was titled Alive or Just Breathing, after lyrics in the song "Just Barely Breathing ''. A music video for the single "My Last Serenade '' increased the band 's exposure, and the album peaked at number 37 on the Top Heatseekers chart.
Following Alive or Just Breathing 's release, the album having been written and recorded for two guitarists, the band decided to expand and become a fivesome; Dutkiewicz moved to guitar and former Aftershock drummer Tom Gomes filled in the vacant drummer position. After Leach was married on April 20, 2002 and began touring again he fell into a depression. Leach left the band a few days before the band was meant to play a show and sent the band members an e-mail telling them he had quit. D'Antonio said in an interview that "after three years of hanging out with the dude, and considering him a brother, to just get an email was a little bit harsh. ''
The band immediately started to search for a replacement vocalist and found Howard Jones of Blood Has Been Shed. Jones disliked the band 's sound when he first heard it. He commented, "I was like, ' Meh. ' I come from hardcore and dirtier metal, and Killswitch sounded so clean. But the more I listened to it, I realized there 's some really good songs here ''. After hearing about Leach 's vocal problems, Jones contacted the band and was accepted as the replacement. Philip Labonte of All That Remains tried out for lead vocals but lost to Jones, who had to quickly memorize seven songs for his debut at the 2002 Hellfest.
The new lineup played on the Road Rage tour in the United Kingdom and the Netherlands in 2002 with 36 Crazyfists and Five Pointe O. Touring continued through the New Year 's Day, and in 2003 the first song to feature Jones, "When Darkness Falls '', appeared on the soundtrack of the 2003 horror film Freddy vs. Jason. Following the 2003 Ozzfest, drummer Gomes left the band because he wished to spend more time with his wife, to pursue his band Something of a Silhouette, and because he was tired of touring. He was replaced by Justin Foley of Blood Has Been Shed, and Foley 's first tour with the band was the MTV2 Headbangers Ball in 2003.
The End of Heartache was released on May 11, 2004, and peaked at number 21 on the Billboard 200 with 38,000 sales in its first week, and it also peaked at number 39 on the Australian Albums Chart. The album went on to sell more than 500,000 copies in the U.S and was certified gold on December 7, 2007. The album received mostly positive reviews, with Jon Caramanica of Rolling Stone calling the album a "stunning collection, retaining much of their signature musical brutality ''. Eduardo Rivadavia of AllMusic commented "riffs upon riffs are piled sky - high into each number that follows, it 's the unpredictable rhythmic shifts used to build and then relieve internal pressure that fuel the Killswitch Engage power source ''.
"The End of Heartache '' became the main single for the movie Resident Evil: Apocalypse, and in 2005 the song was nominated for Best Metal Performance for the 47th Grammy Awards. In late 2004, The End of Heartache was re-released as a special edition album, with a second disc featuring various live performances, a Japanese bonus track, and a re-recorded version of "Irreversal ''. During the summer of 2005, the band returned for Ozzfest, and on November 1, 2005, Alive or Just Breathing was re-released as part of Roadrunner Records ' 25th anniversary. On November 22, 2005, the live DVD (Set This) World Ablaze was released, which contained a live concert at the Palladium in Worcester, Massachusetts, an hour - long documentary, and all the band 's music videos. The DVD was certified gold in the US on April 8, 2006.
Killswitch Engage played the Reading and Leeds Festivals in August 2006, having already played Australian dates without Dutkiewicz, who was suffering from back problems and needed corrective surgery. On May 23, 2006, the song "This Fire Burns '' was released on the WWE Wreckless Intent album. The track was intended to be the new theme song for WWE wrestler Randy Orton; however, it was scrapped and later became the theme song for the WWE Judgment Day 2006 pay - per - view. "This Fire Burns '' was used as the entrance theme for WWE wrestler CM Punk (along with his stables the Straight Edge Society and The New Nexus) from 2006 until 2011 and was later re-released as "This Fire '' on the As Daylight Dies Special Edition.
Recorded in three months, As Daylight Dies was released on November 21, 2006 and peaked at number 32 on the Billboard 200 chart with 60,000 sales in its first week. "As Daylight Dies '' proved to be one of their biggest albums yet. It also entered the Australian Albums Chart at number 29. Mixed by Dutkiewicz, the album received mostly positive reviews -- Thom Jurek of Allmusic called it "a Top Five metal candidate for 2006 for sure ''. Decibel Magazine contributor Nick Terry said "To call As Daylight Dies addictive would be an understatement. That it outdoes its already impressive enough predecessor could almost go without saying ''. Cosmo Lee of Stylus Magazine commented "the album is astonishingly badly sequenced '', though he praised the album as being "less emotionally heavy - handed, and a lot more fun ''. As of November 27, 2007, As Daylight Dies has sold more than 500,000 units in the US.
The album 's first single, "My Curse '', peaked at number 21 on the Hot Mainstream Rock Tracks chart, and is featured in the video games Sleeping Dogs, Guitar Hero III: Legends of Rock, Burnout Dominator and Burnout Paradise and is available as downloadable content for the Rock Band series. "The Arms of Sorrow '' peaked at number 31 on the same chart. The band 's cover of Dio 's "Holy Diver '', originally recorded for a Kerrang! compilation album titled High Voltage, peaked at number 12 on the Mainstream Rock charts. Early in 2007, the band had to cancel three of its European tour dates with The Haunted due to Dutkiewicz 's back problems. He required emergency back surgery and was replaced on the tour by Soilwork guitarist Peter Wichers.
Due to Dutkiewicz 's back problems in early 2007, he was replaced by Damageplan and The Mercy Clinic frontman Patrick Lachman during the No Fear Tour. Dutkiewicz recovered and was able to finish the No Fear tour, and the band began filming its video for As Daylight Dies 's second single, "The Arms of Sorrow ''. On August 6, 2007, Dutkiewicz was forced to leave the Warped Tour so he could fully recover from his back surgery and continue daily physical therapy. He was replaced by Killswitch 's guitar technician Josh Mihlek for select songs, until his return on August 14, 2007.
Killswitch Engage entered the studio in October 2008 to start recording their next album with Dutkiewicz and Brendan O'Brien co-producing the album. In mid-February, bassist Mike D'Antonio confirmed in an interview with Metal Hammer that "drums were finished '', and that he had "finished up the last few bass fixes ''. He also stated that Howard (Jones) was in Atlanta finishing vocals, and that "it should n't be too much longer now. '' From March to May, Killswitch Engage was a part of Disturbed 's Music as a Weapon IV festival along with Lacuna Coil, Chimaira, Suicide Silence, Bury Your Dead and more. On April 14, the band announced the name of their album as Killswitch Engage, the second time the band has self - titled an album. The album was released on June 30, 2009, debuting at No. 7 on the Billboard 200, marking the band 's highest chart position for an album. In July and August, Killswitch Engage took part in Mayhem Festival with headliners Marilyn Manson, Slayer, Bullet for My Valentine and others. In February 2010, Killswitch Engage announced that vocalist Howard Jones would not be performing with Killswitch Engage during their winter tour with The Devil Wears Prada and Dark Tranquillity; during the time, All That Remains vocalist Philip Labonte was substituting for Jones until he could return. At least one source speculated that Jones ' hiatus was due to back pain. On March 18, 2010, original vocalist Jesse Leach returned to the band for a series of songs. From then on, Leach and Labonte performed as substitute vocalists for the remainder of the tour.
In 2010, the band contributed the track "My Obsession '' to the God of War: Blood & Metal soundtrack. The band was later added as late replacement to 2010 's Download Festival in June, after original sub-headliner, Wolfmother could not attend as scheduled. Afterward, Killswitch Engage took a break from the road, and its members pursued other interests. Adam Dutkiewicz formed the band Times of Grace with Leach and released the debut album "The Hymn of a Broken Man '' on January 18, 2011. Along with Dutkiewicz and Leach, Times of Grace added Joel Stroetzel to their tour lineup. Justin Foley provided the drum tracking for the band Unearth on their album "Darkness in the Light '', released on July 5, 2011. Foley also traveled with the band for their 2011 summer tour. D'Antonio started the hardcore band Death Ray Vision, with Shadows Fall vocalist Brian Fair and former Killswitch Engage guitarist Pete Cortese.
In an interview with FTC, Gun Shy Assassin, Mike D'Antonio had stated that the band was currently in the works for a sixth studio album. D'Antonio stated, "Currently, everyone is individually writing demos for the next Killswitch Engage record. There is no release date yet, but I would assume it will be out early 2012. '' Adam Dutkiewicz followed that up with a statement on the Killswitch Engage Facebook, saying "YO! Its Adam D! We 're about to begin writing our new record. Thanks to all of our fans for waiting so friggin ' patiently... now let 's turn on the "riff faucet '' and RAGE! '' On December 1, 2011, Mike D'Antonio posted online that Killswitch Engage should be entering the studio around February / March 2012 to record their sixth album expected around summer 2012. He also stated that the band had eight demos finished for the new record.
On January 4, 2012, the band announced via the band 's official website, along with their other official sources, that Howard Jones had left the band after his nine - year membership with them. In the statement, the band did not disclose the reason for this decision out of respect for Jones, but simply thanked him for his nine years with the band and wished him well, as well as thanking the fans for their support as they began the search for a new lead singer; Jones later explained he departed the band to manage his type 2 diabetes which was worsened by a hectic touring lifestyle. Soon after the announcement of Jones 's departure, rumors began that Phil Labonte of All That Remains would officially take over lead vocals due to his previous history with the band, although Labonte quickly dispelled the rumor. Many vocalists were considered in the search for a new one for the band. The band 's search for a new singer concluded in February with the announcement that original lead vocalist Jesse Leach would return to the band, as the band felt that Leach 's energy, as well as his overall comfort and command of both the old and new material, made him the clear choice during auditions. Following Leach 's return, the band continued to the process of recording their new album and touring. On April 22, 2012, the band performed Leach 's first show since 2002 at the New England Metal and Hardcore Fest.
On June 20, 2012, the demo version of a new song titled "This Is Confrontation '' was leaked on YouTube. Not long after the song was leaked, the videos were soon deleted. Later, the band took part in Metal Hammer 's "Trespass America Festival '' headlined by Five Finger Death Punch with additional support from God Forbid, Emmure, Pop Evil, Trivium and Battlecross. The band performed this song live, confirming the song 's title "No End in Sight ''. Not long after the album was confirmed, the song was streamed publicly again. In October 2012, with Jesse back at the helm, Killswitch Engage announced they would be celebrating the ten year anniversary of their seminal album Alive or Just Breathing with a US Tour through November / December 2012, in which the band played the album live in its entirety. Support on the tour came from fellow Massachusetts natives Shadows Fall and Acaro.
The album Disarm the Descent was released April 1, 2013 in the UK. The album debuted at # 15 in the UK charts while debuting at # 7 in the Billboard top 200 April 2 in the US. The first single "In Due Time '' was released on February 5, 2013. The album has received critical acclaim from reviewers, and has been labeled as a "true standout '' and "nothing short of amazing ''. It was announced in December 2013 that "In Due Time '' was nominated for "Best Metal Performance '' at the 2014 Grammy Awards, but lost to "God Is Dead? '' by Black Sabbath. A tour in May 2013 was done to promote the new album. With Miss May I, Darkest Hour, The Word Alive and Affiance as support. As I Lay Dying was originally supposed to be on the tour but dropped due to criminal charges from frontman Tim Lambesis. The band also did a co-headliner with fellow Heavy Metal act Lamb of God in the October 2013 with Testament and Huntress as support for both bands. The band did a small headliner on the east coast for Halloween 2014. With All That Remains, Death Ray Vision and City of Homes supporting.
In an interview with Wikimetal, Jesse Leach announced that the band will start demoing new material "in the coming months ''.
On February 25, 2015 the band released a 40 second snippet of a new single titled "Loyalty ''. The track appears on the Catch The Throne: The Mixtape Volume 2 to promote the HBO TV series Game of Thrones. The mixtape also features appearances from various other metal and rap acts such as Anthrax and Snoop Dogg.
On March 30, 2015, Mike D'Antonio stated that the band had completed demoing material for its next studio album.
Killswitch Engage took part in a summer tour in July 2015, opening up for Rise Against with support from letlive.
On December 10, 2015 the band premiered a new song entitled "Strength of the Mind '' on Revolver. The band also did a small Christmas 2015 tour on the East Coast with Unearth, Act of Defiance and ' 68.
On December 16, 2015 it was revealed that the band 's upcoming seventh album, released on March 11, 2016, would be titled Incarnate, with a tour being took part in March of that year with Memphis May Fire and 36 Crazyfists as supporters.
On September 27, 2016 Leach revealed on his Instagram page that the band would be releasing a documentary compiled of live footage since 2012.
On November 25, 2016 the band released a Blu - ray / CD called Beyond The Flames: Home Video Vol. 2. The Blu - ray contains live performances that were recorded around the world from 2012 to 2016 and an hour long documentary taking place right after the band 's (Set This) World Ablaze had left off, as well as music videos, personal band profiles and more, plus a bonus live CD containing live tracks from the band 's legendary 2014 Monster Mosh show. The two disc set had a one day exclusive sale in record stores everywhere on Black Friday. The set is now available for online purchase and digital download on the Killswitch Engage store.
On August 30, 2017, the band announced on their Instagram page that they were in the process of demoing material for their upcoming 8th studio album, expected to be released sometime in 2018.
Killswitch Engage primarily play heavy metal and metalcore, combining sounds from extreme metal and hardcore. Like some modern metalcore bands, Killswitch Engage vocally combine singing, screaming vocals, and growls in their music.
Killswitch Engage 's music mixes "crushing '' riffs, double bass drum patterns, power chords, dual - guitar harmonies, often punctuated with pinch harmonic squeals in their music and breakdowns that one can expect from the metalcore genre. Their music is influenced by Swedish melodic death metal, New York hardcore and thrash metal.
In 2009, MTV, while naming "The Greatest Metal Bands of All Time '', said that Killswitch Engage have been "called one of the founders of metalcore ''. Jason D. Taylor of Allmusic said Alive or Just Breathing is "a pure metal album that seemingly has ignored any fashionable trend and instead relies solely on skill and expertise to sculpt some of the meatiest heavy metal since the glory days of Metallica and Slayer. ''
Both current vocalist Jesse Leach and former vocalist Howard Jones write lyrics that are considered positive. Jesse Leach stated on (Set This) World Ablaze, that the lyrics contain "unity, positivity, (and) love. '' On the lyrical themes of Killswitch Engage, Ultimate Guitar reviewer Amy Sciarretto notes:
On Killswitch Engage 's 2009 self - titled album, Howard Jones states the change in lyrical themes:
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i want to be apart of your symphony | Symphony (Clean Bandit song) - wikipedia
"Symphony '' is a song by British classical crossover band Clean Bandit featuring Swedish singer Zara Larsson. It is taken as the third single from their upcoming second album. The song was also released as the sixth single from Larsson 's second studio album, So Good (2017). The song is the final track on the album. The single peaked at the top of the UK Singles Chart, becoming Larsson 's first number one on the chart and Clean Bandit 's third. Outside the United Kingdom, the single also topped the chart in Larsson 's native Sweden, as well as in neighbouring Norway.
The song 's music video was premiered the same day the song was released, on 17 March 2017. It was directed by Clean Bandit 's members Grace Chatto and Jack Patterson and features Larsson in a glittery dress backed by Clean Bandit and an orchestra while an emotional story plays out. The video starts off with a young man riding his bike and cuts to a crash scene. The next scenes show a same - sex couple engaged in various activities, intercalated by scenes of one of the men grieving and visiting the spots they used to go as a couple. He then begins to write music again as we find out he is a composer and his partner was his inspiration. By the end, he has composed a beautiful symphony in his partner 's memory. The video ends with him looking out into the crowd while his deceased partner looks on proudly.
As of August 2018, the video has over 730 million views on YouTube.
Clean Bandit and Larsson gave their first live performance of the song on The Voice UK on 18 March 2017.
A performance on The Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon followed on 21 April 2017.
The track was used in the BBC 's Christmas 2017 short film and idents celebrating spending Christmas together. They were broadcast on BBC One during December 2017.
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone sales + streaming figures based on certification alone
The song has been covered multiple times by artists and YouTubers around the world such as J. Fla, Madilyn Bailey, Julio D, Cimorelli, Emma Heesters and Mike Tompkins, Angelica Hale, among others.
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when does new season of 13 reasons why start | 13 Reasons Why - Wikipedia
13 Reasons Why (stylized onscreen as Th1rteen R3asons Why) is an American drama - mystery web television series based on the 2007 novel Thirteen Reasons Why by Jay Asher and adapted by Brian Yorkey for Netflix. The series revolves around a high school student, Clay Jensen, and his friend Hannah Baker, a girl who committed suicide after suffering a series of demoralizing circumstances brought on by select individuals at her school. A box of cassette tapes recorded by Hannah before her suicide details thirteen reasons why she ended her life.
Diana Son and Brian Yorkey serve as showrunners on the series. The first season consists of thirteen episodes. The series is produced by July Moon Productions, Kicked to the Curb Productions, Anonymous Content and Paramount Television. Originally conceived as a film set to be released by Universal Pictures with Selena Gomez in the role of Hannah Baker, the adaptation was picked up as a television series by Netflix in late 2015. Gomez serves as an executive producer. The first season, and the special 13 Reasons Why: Beyond the Reasons, were released worldwide on Netflix on March 31, 2017.
The series has received largely positive reviews from critics and audiences, who have praised its subject matter and casting, particularly the two leads, Dylan Minnette and Katherine Langford. It has attracted controversy from some, including mental health professionals, over the series ' graphic depiction of issues such as suicide and rape, along with other mature content. In May 2017, it was announced that the series had been renewed for a second season, scheduled to premiere in 2018.
Teenager Clay Jensen returns home from school one day to find a mysterious box lying on his porch. Inside, he discovers seven double - sided cassette tapes recorded by Hannah Baker, his classmate and unrequited love, who tragically committed suicide two weeks earlier. On tape, Hannah unfolds an emotional audio diary, detailing the thirteen reasons why she decided to end her life. Her instructions are clear: each person who receives the package is one of the reasons why she killed herself. And after each person has completed listening to the tapes, they must pass the package on to the next person. If anyone decides to break the chain, a separate set of tapes will be released to the public. Each tape is addressed to a select person in her school and details their involvement in her eventual suicide.
Clay Jensen finds a box filled with audio cassette tapes anonymously left on his front doorstep. He plays the first in his father 's boombox and realizes they have been recorded by his recently deceased classmate Hannah Baker, before he accidentally drops and breaks the boombox when surprised by his mother. Clay steals his friend Tony 's Walkman to continue listening. Clay listens to the first tape, in which Hannah begins to relate the experiences that led to her suicide. She starts by sharing the story of her first kiss, with Justin Foley, who goes on to inadvertently spread a salacious rumor that begins the sequence of events leading to her suicide. Clay is revealed, through numerous short flashbacks, to have been in love with Hannah and to have worked with her at the local movie theater.
Hannah reminisces about her friendship with two other new students: Jessica, who moves frequently because her father is in the Air Force, and Alex, who they met at a coffee shop. Jessica and Alex eventually begin a relationship and stop spending time with Hannah. When Alex breaks up with Jessica, she very publicly blames Hannah. In the present, Hannah 's mother, Olivia, finds a note in her daughter 's textbook that leads her to believe Hannah was being bullied. Bryce Walker 's circle of peers meets and discuss how Clay is listening to Hannah 's recordings.
Hannah 's relationships are threatened by a "best / worst list '' made by Alex Standall, who has put a "target '' on Hannah. In the present, Hannah 's mother, Olivia Baker, seeks out the school principal about her suspicion of bullying and makes a disturbing discovery. In the midst of his investigation, Clay turns to Alex for answers, who warns him against trusting Tony, whom Clay later sees in a violent exchange. As Justin tries to recuperate from his recent slump, Bryce strong - arms Clay and Alex into a drinking contest in an alleyway.
Hannah hears someone outside her window, and confesses to her friend, Courtney, that she has a stalker. Courtney offers to help her catch the offender in the act. While waiting for the stalker to arrive, they play an alcohol - fueled game of truth or dare which leads to the two of them kissing on Hannah 's bed. The stalker, school photographer Tyler Down, takes a photo of the girls and sends it around the school. This effectively ends Courtney and Hannah 's friendship as Courtney distances herself from Hannah to avoid being revealed as one of the people in the photograph. In the present day, Clay takes a naked picture of Tyler and sends it around the school in revenge, instead of throwing a rock through his window as suggested by Hannah on the tapes.
Courtney, afraid of her classmates finding out about her sexuality, spreads a rumor that the girls in the leaked photos are Hannah and Laura, an openly lesbian classmate. Courtney also adds to the rumor about Hannah and Justin, worsening Hannah 's poor reputation. Meanwhile, in the present, Clay takes Courtney to visit Hannah 's grave. She leaves, not ready to face the loss of her classmate, her involvement or being more open about her sexuality. Tony arrives with Clay 's bike and gives him a tape with the song he and Hannah danced to at the Winter Formal. Later, the boys named on Hannah 's tape force Clay into the car with them and scare him into silence about the tapes by driving over the speed limit. They are pulled over by the police but face no consequences as the officer is revealed to be Alex 's father.
Hannah 's date on Valentine 's Day with Marcus does not go as planned due to the rumors that she is "easy ''. In the present, Alex gets into a fight with Montgomery and they both have to appear before the student council.
After Hannah refuses to go out with Zach, he gets revenge by sabotaging her emotionally during a class project. In an act of revenge, Clay keys Zach 's car, but in the present, things turn out to be different than they appeared. Clay is now having both auditory and visual hallucinations of Hannah during the day as well, including seeing her dead body on the floor of the basketball court during a game and hearing her tape playing over the school 's intercom system.
Hannah is touched by poetry recited by fellow student Ryan Shaver, and joins the Evergreen Poetry Club, a place where people write and perform their own poetry, and listen and critique others. Hannah presents some extremely revealing and confessional poetry at the poetry club after Ryan encourages her. Ryan betrays her by publishing the poem without her knowledge or consent in his school magazine. Almost everyone in school finds the poem hilarious, but Clay is both touched and disturbed by it, not realizing Hannah is the author. In the present day, Tony confides to Clay about the night of Hannah 's death.
While hiding in Jessica 's room during a party, Hannah witnesses Bryce Walker raping an unconscious and intoxicated Jessica. In the present, Clay talks to Justin, who claims it is better Jessica does not know the truth. Marcus warns Clay the worst is yet to come.
After the party, Hannah gets a ride home from Sheri. They have what appears to be a minor accident, knocking over a stop sign. While Hannah wants to call the police to report it, Sheri refuses to do so, because she is afraid she will get in trouble. While Hannah is on her way to find a phone to call the authorities, the downed stop sign causes a serious accident at that intersection, resulting in the death of Clay 's friend Jeff Atkins. When Hannah tries to tell Clay about the stop sign, he pushes her away, thinking she is being unnecessarily dramatic. In the present, Jessica 's behavior becomes more erratic.
Clay finally listens to his tape and is overcome with guilt because he feels he did not do enough to prevent Hannah 's death. In the present day, Justin finds out Jessica is at Bryce 's home. He confronts her there and admits that Bryce raped her on the night of the party. Olivia Baker finds a list with the names of all the people on the tapes, although she does not know what the list means.
After accidentally losing her parents ' store 's earnings, which she was supposed to deposit at the bank, a depressed Hannah stumbles upon a party being thrown by Bryce. The night ends in tragedy when she ends up alone with him, and he rapes her in his hot tub. In the present, Clay goes to Bryce 's house on the pretext of buying marijuana, and confronts him about the events of that night. Clay provokes Bryce into a fight, and Clay gets beaten up badly. However, Clay has been secretly recording their conversation, and gets Bryce to admit that he raped Hannah. Everyone on the list Olivia found is subpoenaed to testify in the lawsuit between the Bakers and the school. The episode ends with an unknown teenager with a gunshot wound to the head being treated by paramedics.
Hannah visits Mr. Porter and tells him about her rape. Hannah secretly records the conversation, hoping he will help her. When he does not, she heads home and commits suicide by cutting her wrists and arms in a bathtub filled with water. In the present, Clay gives Tony the tape of his conversation with Bryce to copy. He confronts Mr. Porter about meeting with Hannah on her last day. He also hands over the tapes, including the additional tape containing Bryce 's confession. Clay tells Porter that he is the subject of the final tape. The depositions continue, with most of the teens following their plan to tell at least some of the truth. Before his deposition, Tyler hides ammunition and guns in his room, and then reveals the existence of the tapes during his interview. Alex is revealed to have been the teenager with the gunshot wound; he is in critical condition at the hospital. Justin leaves town out of guilt, but not before telling Bryce about the tapes. Jessica finally tells her father about her rape. At school, Clay reaches out to Skye, his former friend.
Universal Studios purchased film rights to the novel on February 8, 2011, with Selena Gomez cast to play Hannah Baker. On October 29, 2015, it was announced that Netflix would be making a television adaptation of the book with Gomez instead serving as an executive producer. Tom McCarthy was hired to direct the first two episodes. The series is produced by Anonymous Content and Paramount Television with Gomez, McCarthy, Joy Gorman, Michael Sugar, Steve Golin, Mandy Teefey, and Kristel Laiblin serving as executive producers.
Filming for the show took place in the Northern Californian towns of Vallejo, Benicia, San Rafael, Crockett and Sebastopol during the summer of 2016. The first season and the special were released on Netflix on March 31, 2017.
Therapy dogs were present on set for the actors because of the intense and emotional content of the series.
On May 7, 2017, it was announced that Netflix had renewed the series for a second season. A short promo was released on various 13 Reasons Why social media accounts.
The marketing analytics firm Jumpshot determined the season was the second-most viewed Netflix season in the first 30 days after it premiered, garnering 48 % of the viewers that the second season of Daredevil received, which was the most viewed season according to Jumpshot. The series also showed an 18 % increase in week - over-week viewership from week one to week two. Jumpshot, which "analyzes click - stream data from an online panel of more than 100 million consumers '', looked at the viewing behavior and activity of the company 's U.S. members, factoring in the relative number of U.S. Netflix viewers who watched at least one episode of the season.
The show has received positive reviews from critics, with much of the praise for the show has been directed at the cast 's performances, direction, story, visuals, improvements upon its source material, and mature approach to dark and adult subject matter.
The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reported an 86 % approval rating with an average rating of 7.3 / 10 based on 42 reviews. The website 's critical consensus reads, "13 Reasons Why complements its bestselling source material with a gripping look at adolescent grief whose narrative maturity belies its YA milieu. '' Metacritic, which uses a weighted average, assigned a score of 76 out of 100, based on 16 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews ''.
Jesse Schedeen of IGN praised 13 Reasons Why, giving it a 9.2 out of 10, "Amazing '', stating that the show is "a very powerful and hard - hitting series '' and "ranks among the best high school dramas of the 21st century ''. Matthew Gilbert of The Boston Globe gave a glowing review for the show, saying that "the drama is sensitive, consistently engaging, and, most importantly, unblinking ''. Maureen Ryan of Variety asserts that the show "is undoubtedly sincere, but it 's also, in many important ways, creatively successful '' and called it "simply essential viewing ''. Leah Greenblatt of Entertainment Weekly gave the entire season a score of B+, calling the show "a frank, authentically affecting portrait of what it feels like to be young, lost and too fragile for the world ''. Daniel Feinberg of The Hollywood Reporter also praised the show, calling it "an honorably mature piece of young - adult adaptation '', calling its performances, direction, relevance and maturity as some of the show 's strongest points.
The cast 's performances, particularly Katherine Langford as Hannah and Dylan Minnette as Clay, were frequently mentioned and widely lauded in several reviews. Schedeen of IGN praised the cast, particularly Minnette and Langford 's performances, stating: "Langford shines in the lead role... (and) embodies that optimism and that profound sadness (of Hannah 's) as well. Minnette 's Clay is, by design, a much more stoic and reserved character... and does a fine job in what 's often a difficult role. '' Gilbert of The Boston Globe praised the chemistry of Langford and Minnette, saying that "watching these two young actors together is pure pleasure '', while Schedeen of IGN also agreed, saying that they are "often at their best together, channeling just the right sort of warm but awkward chemistry you 'd expect from two teens who ca n't quite admit to their feelings for one another. '' Feinberg of The Hollywood Reporter also praises both actors: "Langford 's heartbreaking openness makes you root for a fate you know is n't possible. The actress ' performance is full of dynamic range, setting it against Minnette 's often more complicated task in differentiating between moods that mostly go from uncomfortable to gloomy to red - eyed, hygiene - starved despair. ''
Ryan of Variety also gave praise to not only the two leads, but also the supporting cast of actors, particularly Kate Walsh 's performance as Hannah 's mother, whom Ryan describes as "career - best work ''. Positive mentions from various critics, such as Ryan, Feinberg and Schedeen, were also given to the supporting cast of actors (most particularly Alisha Boe, Miles Heizer and Christian Navarro 's respective performances of Jessica, Alex and Tony). Liz Shannon Miller of Indiewire, who enjoyed the show and gave it a glowing score of B+, gave praise to the racial, gender and complex diversity of its supporting cast of teens.
Another aspect frequently mentioned within several reviews was the show 's mature and emotional approach to dark and adult subject matter depicted in the show. This was positively reviewed by critics, such as Miller of Indiewire, who gave it a positive review of the season, particularly her mentions that "the adult edges to this story ring with honesty and truth '', but also states that this makes the show difficult to watch at times. Feinberg of The Hollywood Reporter also states that the show is very difficult to watch at times, while Schedeen of IGN states that the show is "an often depressing and even uncomfortable show to watch... a pretty emotionally draining experience, particularly towards the end as the pieces really start to fall into place. ''
Numerous critics also praised several aspects of the show. Feinberg praised the show 's directors, saying: "A Sundance - friendly gallery of directors including Tom McCarthy, Gregg Araki and Carl Franklin keeps the performances grounded and the extremes from feeling exploitative '', meanwhile Gilbert of The Boston Globe praises the storytelling: "The storytelling techniques are powerful... (as it) builds on the world established in the previous hour, as we continually encounter new facets of Hannah 's life and new characters. The background on the show keeps getting deeper, richer. ''
Conversely, the series has also received criticism over its portrayal of teen angst. Mike Hale of The New York Times wrote a critical review, writing, "the show does n't make (Hannah 's) downward progress convincing. It too often feels artificial, like a very long public service announcement. '' He also criticized the plot device that has Clay listening to the tapes one by one instead of all in one sitting like the other teens did, which Hale felt was unbelievable: "It makes no sense as anything but a plot device, and you 'll find yourself, like Clay 's antagonists, yelling at him to listen to the rest of tapes already. ''
Writing for The Guardian, Rebecca Nicholson praised some aspects of the show, including the performances from Minnette and Walsh, but was troubled by much of the plot, writing, "a storyline that suggests the love of a sweet boy might have sorted all this out added to an uneasy feeling that stayed with me. '' Nicholson was skeptical that the show would appeal to older viewers, unlike other series set in high school such as Freaks and Geeks and My So - Called Life: "It lacks the crossover wit of its forebears... It 's too tied up in conveying the message that terrible behaviour can have horrible consequences to deal in any subtleties or shades of feeling. It 's largely one - note -- and that note is horrifying. ' It has to get better, ' implores one student towards the end, but given its fairly open ending, an apparent season two setup, it does not seem as if there 's much chance of that happening. ''
Washington Post television critic Hank Stuever wrote a negative review, finding 13 Reasons Why "contrived '' and implausible: "There are 13 episodes lasting 13 super-sullen hours -- a passive - aggressive, implausibly meandering, poorly written and awkwardly acted effort that is mainly about miscommunication, delivering no more wisdom or insight about depression, bullying and suicide than one of those old ABC Afterschool Specials people now mock for being so corny. '' He also wrote that he found Hannah 's suicide tapes "a protracted example of the teenager who fantasizes how everyone will react when she 's gone. The story... strikes me as remarkably, even dangerously, naive in its understanding of suicide, up to and including a gruesome, penultimate scene of Hannah opening her wrists in a bathtub. ''
David Wiegand of the San Francisco Chronicle gave the series a tepid review, saying that it was plagued by character inconsistencies, particularly Hannah. He praised Langford 's "stunning performance '' but noted, "There are times when we simply do n't believe the characters, when what they do or say is n't consistent with who we 've been led to believe they are... At times, (Hannah) is self - possessed and indifferent at best to the behavior of the popular kids. At other times, though, relatively minor misperceived slights seem to send her into an emotional tailspin. No doubt, teenagers embody a constant whirl of conflicting emotions, but the script pushes the bounds of credibility here and there. '' He noted that overall, the series worked: "The structure is gimmicky and the characters inconsistent, but there are still at least 13 Reasons Why the series is worthy. ''
The series has generated controversy over its portrayal of suicide and self - harm, causing Netflix to add strong advisory warnings prior to the first episode. School psychologists and educators have raised alarm about the series. The superintendent of Palm Beach County, Florida schools, reportedly told parents that their schools had seen an increase in suicidal and self - harm behavior from students, and that some of those students "have articulated associations of their at - risk behavior to the 13 Reasons Why Netflix series. ''
The Australian youth mental health service for 12 -- 25 year - olds, Headspace, issued a warning in late April 2017 over the graphic content featured in the series due to the increased number of calls to the service following the show 's release in the country.
In response to the graphic nature of the show and New Zealand 's high youth suicide rate, which was the highest among the 34 OECD countries during 2009 to 2012, the Office of Film & Literature Classification in the country created a new rating, "RP18 '', allowing individuals aged 18 and over to watch the series alone and those below having to watch it with supervision from a parent or guardian.
In response to the controversy, Gomez, one of the executive producers on 13 Reasons Why, defended the series. She stated: "We stayed very true to the book and that 's initially what (author) Jay Asher created was a beautifully tragic, complicated yet suspenseful story and I think that 's what we wanted to do, '' Gomez told Associated Press. "We wanted to do it justice and, yeah, (the backlash is) gon na come no matter what. It 's not an easy subject to talk about, but I 'm very fortunate with how it 's doing. ''
In April 2017, National Association of School Psychologists (NASP) released a statement regarding the series, saying: "Research shows that exposure to another person 's suicide, or to graphic or sensationalized accounts of death, can be one of the many risk factors that youth struggling with mental health conditions cite as a reason they contemplate or attempt suicide. '' The NASP sent a letter to school mental health professionals across the country about the series, reportedly a first for the NASP in response to a television show.
In May 2017, the Society of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology (SCCAP) released a statement also noting how strongly the show may serve as a trigger for self - injury among vulnerable youth and lamented the depiction of mental health professionals as ineffective for youth who have experienced trauma and may have been considering suicide. The statement implored Netflix to add a tag following each episode with mental health resources and a reminder that depression and suicide can be effectively treated by a qualified mental health professional such as a clinical child psychologist using evidence - based practice.
Similarly, clinical psychologists such as Daniel J. Reidenberg and Erika Martinez, as well as mental health advocate MollyKate Cline of Teen Vogue magazine, have expressed concerns regarding the risk of suicide contagion. However, Eric Beeson, a counselor at The Family Institute at Northwestern University noted that "it 's unlikely that one show alone could trigger someone to attempt suicide ''.
Mental health professionals have also criticized the series ' depiction of suicide itself, much of which violates widely promulgated recommendations for reporting on actual suicides or depicting them in fiction in order to not encourage copycat suicides. The season finale, which depicts Hannah 's suicide in graphic detail, has been particularly criticized in this regard. Nic Sheff, a writer for the show, has defended it as intended to dispel the myth that suicides "quietly drift off '', and recalled how he himself was deterred from a suicide attempt by recalling a survivor 's account of how painful and horrifying it was.
The NASP statement also criticizes the show 's suggestion that bullying alone led Hannah to take her life, noting that while it may be a contributing factor, suicidal ideations far more often result from the bullied person having a treatable mental illness without adequate coping mechanisms. Alex Moen, a school counselor in Minneapolis, took issue with the show 's entire plotline as "essentially a fantasy of what someone who is considering suicide might have -- that once you commit suicide, you can still communicate with your loved ones, and people will suddenly realize everything that you were going through and the depth of your pain... That the cute, sensitive boy will fall in love with you and seek justice for you, and you 'll be able to orchestrate it, and in so doing kind of still be able to live. ''
Other counselors criticized the depiction of Hannah 's attempt to reach out to Mr. Porter as dangerously misleading, since not only does he miss obvious signs of her suicidal ideations, but says he can not report her sexual assault to the police without her identifying the assailant. School counselors are often portrayed as ineffective or clueless in popular culture, Moen says, but Porter 's behavior in the series goes beyond that to being unethical and possibly illegal. "It 's ridiculous! Counselors are not police. We do n't have to launch an investigation. We bring whatever information we do have to the police '', she told Slate.
In May 2017, the Canadian Mental Health Association (CMHA) along with the Centre for Suicide Prevention (CSP) released a statement of similar concerns to the ones raised by the NASP. The CMHA is concerned that the series may glamorize suicide, and that some content may lead to distress in viewers, and, particularly, in younger viewers. Furthermore, the portrayal of Hannah 's suicide does not follow the media guidelines as set out by the Canadian Association for Suicide Prevention (CASP) and the American Association of Suicidology. While the CMHA and CASP praised the show for raising awareness about "this preventable health concern '', they added that: "raising awareness needs to be done in a safe and responsible manner. A large and growing body of Canadian and international research has found clear links between increases in suicide rates and harmful media portrayals of suicide. '' Ways in which the portrayals of suicide may cause harm, according to the CMHA and CASP, include the following: "They may simplify suicide, such as, by suggesting that bullying alone is the cause; they may make suicide seem romantic, such as, by putting it in the context of a Hollywood plot line; they may portray suicide as a logical or viable option; they may display graphic representations of suicide which may be harmful to viewers, especially young ones; and / or they may advance the false notion that suicides are a way to teach others a lesson. ''
One study found the release of 13 Reasons Why corresponded with between 900,000 and 1,500,000 more suicide related searches in the United States, including a 26 % increase in searches for "how to commit suicide '', an 18 % increase for "commit suicide '' and a 9 % increase for "how to kill yourself ''. A review, however, found that it is unclear if searching for information about suicide on the Internet relates to the risk of suicide.
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will xbox 1 games work on xbox 1 s | List of Backward compatible games for Xbox One - wikipedia
The Xbox One gaming console has received updates from Microsoft since its launch in 2013 that enable it to play select games from its two predecessor consoles, Xbox and Xbox 360. On June 15, 2015, backward compatibility with supported Xbox 360 games became available to eligible Xbox Preview program users with a beta update to the Xbox One system software. The dashboard update containing backward compatibility was released publicly on November 12, 2015. On October 24, 2017, another such update added games from the original Xbox library. The following is a list of all backward compatible games on Xbox One under this functionality.
At its launch in November 2013, the Xbox One did not have native backward compatibility with original Xbox or Xbox 360 games. Xbox Live director of programming Larry "Major Nelson '' Hryb suggested users could use the HDMI - in port on the console to pass an Xbox 360 or any other device with HDMI output through Xbox One. Senior project management and planning director Albert Penello explained that Microsoft was considering a cloud gaming platform to enable backward compatibility, but he felt it would be "problematic '' due to varying internet connection qualities.
During Microsoft 's E3 2015 press conference on June 15, 2015, Microsoft announced plans to introduce Xbox 360 backward compatibility on the Xbox One at no additional cost. Supported Xbox 360 games will run within an emulator and have access to certain Xbox One features, such as recording and broadcasting gameplay. Games do not run directly from discs. A relicensed form of the game is downloaded automatically when a supported game is inserted, instead of having to make extensive modifications to the game in - order to port the original title. This means, that the only reason every single Xbox 360 title is not available, is a judicial issue, not an engineering one. All Xbox 360 games could run out - of - the - box on Xbox One, as they require no modifications or porting to run, other than a valid license. While digitally - purchased games will automatically appear for download in the user 's library once available. As with Xbox One titles, if the game is installed using physical media, the disc is still required for validation purposes.
Not all Xbox 360 games will be supported; 104 Xbox 360 games were available for the feature 's public launch on November 12, 2015 with Xbox One preview program members getting early access. Microsoft stated that publishers will only need to provide permission to the company to allow the repackaging, and they expect the list to grow significantly over time. Unlike the emulation of original Xbox games on the Xbox 360, the Xbox One does not require game modification, since it emulates an exact replica of its predecessor 's environment -- both hardware and software operating systems. The downloaded game is a repackaged version of the original that identifies itself as an Xbox One title to the console. At Gamescom, Microsoft revealed it has plans to ensure "all future Xbox 360 Games with Gold titles will be playable on Xbox One. '' On December 17, 2015 Microsoft made another sixteen Xbox 360 games compatible with Xbox One, including titles such as Halo: Reach, Fable III and Deus Ex: Human Revolution. On January 21, 2016, Microsoft made another ten Xbox 360 games compatible, including The Witcher 2: Assassins of Kings and Counter-Strike: Global Offensive. On May 13, 2016, Microsoft made Xbox 360 titles with multiple discs compatible, starting with Deus Ex: Human Revolution Director 's Cut.
In January 2016, Microsoft announced that future titles would be added as they became available, instead of waiting until a specific day each month.
During Microsoft 's E3 2017 press conference on June 11, 2017, Microsoft announced that roughly 50 % of Xbox One users had played an Xbox 360 game on Xbox One through the system 's backward - compatibility feature. Based on popular demand, Phil Spencer, Microsoft 's Head of Xbox, announced that Xbox One consoles would be able to play select games made for the original Xbox console, first released in 2001. The compatibility will work on all consoles in the Xbox One family, including the Xbox One X, and will be available as a free update planned for the fall of 2017.
The functionality will be similar to that for back - compatibility with Xbox 360 games. Users insert the Xbox game disc into their Xbox One console to install the compatible version of the game. While players will not be able to access any old game saves or connect to Xbox Live on these titles, system link functions will remain available. Xbox games will not receive achievement support, although when asked about this component, Spencer responded that they had nothing to announce at the current time.
Realizing that game discs for original Xbox consoles could be scarce, Spencer said that plans were in place to make compatible Xbox games available digitally. Spencer also said that such games may also be incorporated into the Xbox Game Pass subscription service. In a later interview, Spencer indicated that the potential library of Xbox titles being playable on Xbox One will be smaller than that currently available from the Xbox 360 library. Spencer noted two reasons for the more limited library were the availability of content rights for the games and the technical difficulties related to the conversion.
Backwards compatible original Xbox and Xbox 360 titles will benefit from becoming Xbox One X enhanced with the following:
There are 512 games made backward compatible out of 2103 that are released for Xbox 360.
There are currently 33 on this list out of 1047 released for the Xbox. All Original Xbox games run at 4 times the original resolution on Xbox One and Xbox One S consoles (up to 960p), and 16 times on Xbox One X (up to 1920p).
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how long is the new 50 shades of grey | Fifty Shades Freed (film) - Wikipedia
Fifty Shades Freed is a 2018 American erotic romantic drama film directed by James Foley and written by Niall Leonard, and based on the novel of the same name by E.L. James. It is the third and final installment in the Fifty Shades film series, following Fifty Shades of Grey (2015) and Fifty Shades Darker (2017). The film stars Dakota Johnson and Jamie Dornan as Anastasia Steele and Christian Grey, respectively, and follows the couple as they marry, and must deal with Ana 's former boss (Eric Johnson), who begins to stalk them.
Principal photography on Fifty Shades Freed began simultaneously with Darker in February 2016, in Paris and Vancouver. The film was released in the United States on February 9, 2018, including a limited IMAX release. It grossed $368 million worldwide, making it the eighth highest - grossing film of 2018, but, like its two predecessors, received negative reviews, with criticism aimed at its screenplay and performances.
Newlyweds Christian and Anastasia cut short their exotic honeymoon and return to Seattle after receiving news of a break - in at Christian 's corporate headquarters. Some computer files were stolen and security camera tapes identify the perpetrator as Jack Hyde, Ana 's former boss who was fired for sexual assault. Meanwhile, Ana is introduced to her new personal security team.
Christian surprises Ana with a new house and has hired an attractive architect, Gia Matteo, to rebuild it. Ana is annoyed when Gia openly flirts with Christian in Ana 's presence. Ana privately threatens to fire Gia if she continues her flirting, forcing her to stop.
When Christian is away on a business trip, Ana disregards his wishes that she stay at home, and meets her friend, Kate Kavanagh, for an after - work drink. Kate, who is dating Christian 's older brother, Elliot, confides that she suspects Elliot may be having an affair with Gia, who is also his business associate. When Ana returns home, she encounters Jack Hyde, who attempts to kidnap her. Ana 's security team subdue him and he is arrested. After an argument with Christian about her night out with Kate, Ana berates Christian for being overly controlling and possessive and demands more freedom. Soon after, Christian surprises Ana with a trip to Aspen, bringing along Kate, Elliot, Mia, and José. Elliott proposes to Kate, who accepts. It is revealed that Gia was only helping Elliott choose the ring.
Christian and Ana continue with their erotic sexual experimentation, but matters become complicated when Ana announces she is pregnant. Christian is deeply disturbed, saying he had other plans for their early years together. He leaves, going on a night - long drunken bender. The next day, Ana discovers that Christian had texted and met his ex-lover and former BDSM dominant, Elena Lincoln.
Shortly after, Jack Hyde, released on a $500,000 bond, phones Ana demanding a ransom for Mia, Christian 's abducted sister. Hyde demands $5,000,000 in cash in two hours or Mia will be killed. He warns Ana to tell no one and to bring the money alone. Ana takes some cash and a revolver from the house safe, then goes to the bank to withdraw the full amount. The suspicious bank manager calls Christian. He thinks Ana is leaving him but then notices the coincidence of Hyde 's recent release, Mia 's unknown whereabouts, and Ana 's sudden large cash withdrawal. Hyde instructs Ana to get into a car parked in the alley and to hand over her phone to the driver to discard. Ana tricks Hyde by taking the bank manager 's phone and slipping her phone own into the bag of cash. She exits the back entrance to discover that the driver and Jack 's accomplice is her co-worker, Liz.
Ana arrives at the drop - off site with the money. Hyde, psychotic and vengeful, attacks Ana, kicking her abdomen. Liz tries to stop Jack as Ana pulls out the revolver and shoots Hyde in the leg. Christian and his security team, who electronically tracked Ana 's cell phone, arrive and apprehend Hyde and Liz. Ana blacks out as she hears Christian 's voice.
Ana awakens three days later in the hospital with Christian at her side. Though angry at Ana 's recklessness and still anxious about fatherhood, Christian realizes how important their baby is to her, and they reconcile. Christian 's adoptive mother, Grace, assures Christian that Ana will not leave him. Ana returns home the next day. Christian 's private investigator, Welch, has left a report showing that Christian and Hyde had shared the same foster family, though Christian has no memory of this. Hyde was vengeful over Christian being adopted by the wealthy Grey family instead of him. It is also learned that Hyde blackmailed Liz into being his accomplice. Christian and Ana also learn where Christian 's birth mother is buried. They visit her grave and Christian lays flowers on it.
Two years later, Christian and Ana have a son named Theodore, and Ana is pregnant with their second child.
Universal Pictures and Focus Features secured the rights to the trilogy in March 2012. The films were produced by Michael De Luca Productions. At a fan screening of the first film in New York City on February 6, 2015, director Sam Taylor - Johnson confirmed that the book sequels Fifty Shades Darker and Fifty Shades Freed would also be adapted, with the first sequel then set to be released in 2016. After the announcement, Taylor - Johnson told Digital Spy that "It 's not my decision (to return), and I have n't been privy to any of the discussions. '' On November 12, 2015, TheWrap reported that James Foley would direct both sequels, which would be shot back - to - back in 2016, with Niall Leonard writing the script and Michael De Luca and Dana Brunetti returning to produce, along with E.L. James and Marcus Viscidi. Dakota Johnson and Jamie Dornan were also set to return in the lead roles. On February 8, 2016, Arielle Kebbel was cast in the film to play Gia Matteo, a beautiful architect who is hired by Christian to build his home, and on February 12, 2016, Eric Johnson was cast as Jack Hyde, Ana 's boss at SIP and stalker. On February 20, 2016, Brant Daugherty signed on to play Sawyer, the personal bodyguard for Anastasia.
In November 2015, Universal Studios announced that Fifty Shades Darker and Fifty Shades Freed would be shot back - to - back, with principal photography scheduled to commence in early 2016. Filming took place in Paris and Vancouver from February 9, 2016, to July 12, 2016, under the working title "Further Adventures of Max and Banks 2 & 3. ''
Fifty Shades Freed was released on February 9, 2018, by Universal Pictures. A teaser trailer was released on September 10, 2017, and a theatrical trailer on November 6.
Fifty Shades Freed was released on digital on April 24, 2018, with a Blu - ray Disc, DVD and 4K Ultra HD Blu - ray release following on May 8, 2018.
The lead single from the film 's soundtrack, "For You '', performed by Rita Ora and Liam Payne, was released on January 5, 2018. The soundtrack 's track list was released on January 8, 2018, including artists Julia Michaels, Sia, Jessie J, Black Atlass, Ellie Goulding, Hailee Steinfeld, Dua Lipa, and Miike Snow on the 22 - song album.
Fifty Shades Freed has grossed $100.4 million in the United States and Canada, and $267.9 million in other territories, for a worldwide total of $368.3 million, against a production budget of $55 million.
In the United States and Canada, Fifty Shades Freed was released alongside Peter Rabbit and The 15: 17 to Paris, and was projected to gross $37 -- 40 million from 3,768 theaters in its opening weekend. It made $5.6 million from Thursday night previews, down 2 % from the $5.7 million taken in Fifty Shades Darker the previous year. It ended up making $38.6 million over the weekend, the lowest of the trilogy, but enough to take first place at the box office. The film grossed $10.8 million on Valentine 's Day, the third - highest total for when the holiday fell on a weekday, behind The Vow ($11.6 million in 2012) and Darker ($11 million), and bringing its five - day gross to $56.1 million. In its second weekend, the film made $17.3 million, dropping 55.1 % (a slightly better hold than the previous film) and finishing third, behind newcomer Black Panther and Peter Rabbit.
Worldwide, the film was expected to make $80 -- 90 million from 57 countries, including France, Germany, the UK, Australia, Brazil, Mexico and Japan, for a worldwide debut of $113 -- 130 million in its first three days. It ended up grossing $98.1 million from overseas for a global debut of $136.9 million, making a 7 % decrease from the previous film but still finishing first in 54 of the 57 markets. Its leading countries were Germany ($10.7 million), the United Kingdom ($8.8 million) and France ($8.7 million).
On review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 13 %, based on 144 reviews, and an average rating of 3.2 / 10. The website 's critical consensus reads, "Fifty Shades Freed brings its titillating trilogy to a clumsy conclusion, making for a film franchise that adds up to a distinctly dissatisfying ménage à trois. '' On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 31 out of 100, based on 43 critics, meaning "generally unfavorable reviews. '' Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "B + '' on an A+ to F scale, the same score earned by Darker, while comScore reported that 56 % of females (who made up 81 % of the opening weekend) gave the film a "definite recommend ''.
Writing for Variety, Guy Lodge was critical of the film, saying "Indeed, a sex - free, PG - 13 version of Freed could be cut without shedding a second of narrative coherence, such as it is; one could ask what the point of that would be, though similar queries might be leveled at the film as it stands. '' Rolling Stone 's Peter Travers gave the film zero out of four, stating "With this last entry, we have officially hit the bottom of the barrel. Whips, chains, butt plugs and nipple clips are nothing compared to the sheer torture of watching this movie. '' Robbie Collin of The Telegraph gave the film one out of five stars, and wrote "This is a film in which one of the more emotionally detailed performances is given by a product - placement Audi. ''
Jeannette Catsoulis, writing for The New York Times, found the film to be significantly inferior to Kim Basinger 's 91⁄2 Weeks, stating: "Layering a damp - squib thriller subplot beneath what appears to be an ad campaign for the one - percent lifestyle, the returning director and screenwriter test the newly married couple with an inconvenient pregnancy and an unconvincing car chase. There 's an out - of - left - field abduction and a marital tiff over email addresses; but these narrative fragments, lazily tossed together alongside a neglected supporting cast, are no more than a flimsy causeway connecting bonking sessions. ''
Conversely, IndieWire reviewer Manuela Lazic gave the film three out of four stars, saying "Finally, the Fifty Shades phenomenon has yielded a disarming comedy that makes this ridiculous material fun to watch. ''
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who sponsored the first season of the simpsons | The Simpsons (season 1) - wikipedia
The Simpsons ' first season originally aired on the Fox network between December 17, 1989 and May 13, 1990, beginning with the Christmas special "Simpsons Roasting on an Open Fire ''. The executive producers for the first production season were Matt Groening, James L. Brooks, and Sam Simon.
The series was originally set to debut in autumn 1989 with the episode "Some Enchanted Evening '', which was meant to introduce the main characters; during the first screening of the episode, the producers discovered that the animation was so appalling that 70 % of the episode needed to be redone.
The producers considered aborting the series if the next episode turned out as bad, but it only suffered from easily fixable problems. The producers convinced Fox to move the debut to December 17, and aired "Simpsons Roasting on an Open Fire '' as the first episode of the series. The first season won one Emmy Award, and received four additional nominations. The DVD boxset was released on September 25, 2001 in Region 1 and September 24, 2001 in both Region 2 and Region 4.
The Simpsons creator Matt Groening conceived the idea for the Simpsons in the lobby of James L. Brooks 's office. Brooks, the producer of the sketch comedy program The Tracey Ullman Show, wanted to use a series of animated shorts as bumpers between sketches. He had asked Groening to pitch an idea for a series of animated shorts, which Groening initially intended to present as his Life in Hell series. When Groening realized that animating Life in Hell would require the rescinding of publication rights for his life 's work, he chose another approach and formulated his version of a dysfunctional family.
The Simpson family first appeared as shorts in The Tracey Ullman Show on April 19, 1987. Groening submitted only basic sketches to the animators and assumed that the figures would be cleaned up in production. The animators merely re-traced his drawings, which led to the crude appearance of the characters in the initial short episodes.
In 1989, a team of production companies adapted The Simpsons into a half - hour series for the Fox Broadcasting Company. The team included what is now the Klasky Csupo animation house. During the years of producing the shorts, everything was created in - house. Due to the increased workload of the full - length episodes, production was subcontracted to South Korean animation studio AKOM. While character and background layout is done by the domestic studio, tweening, coloring, and filming are done by the overseas studio.
The Simpsons was co-developed by Groening, James L. Brooks, and Sam Simon, a writer - producer with whom Brooks had worked on previous projects. Groening and Simon, however, did not get along and were often in conflict over the show; Groening once described their relationship as "very contentious ''. Groening said his goal in creating the show was to offer the audience an alternative to what he called "the mainstream trash '' that they were watching. Brooks negotiated a provision in the contract with the Fox network that prevented Fox from interfering with the show 's content. Fox was nervous about the show because they were unsure if it could sustain the audience 's attention for the duration of the episode. They proposed doing three seven - minute shorts per episode and four specials until the audience adjusted, but in the end, the producers gambled by asking Fox for 13 full - length episodes.
Simon assembled and led the initial team of writers, consisting of John Swartzwelder, Jon Vitti, George Meyer, Jeff Martin, Al Jean, Mike Reiss, Jay Kogen and Wallace Wolodarsky. Simon has been credited as "developing (the show 's) sensibility ''. Ken Levine says he "brought a level of honesty to the characters '' and made them "three - dimensional '', adding that Simon 's "comedy is all about character, not just a string of gags. In The Simpsons, the characters are motivated by their emotions and their foibles. ' What are they thinking? ' -- that is Sam 's contribution. The stories come from the characters. '' Simon saw The Simpsons as a chance to solve "what (he) did n't like about the Saturday - morning cartoon shows (he had) worked on... (he) wanted all the actors in a room together, not reading their lines separated from each other. The Simpsons would have been a great radio show. If you just listen to the sound track, it works. '' The music for all 13 episodes was composed by former Oingo Boingo member Richard Gibbs, who would depart the show at the end of the season.
The series was originally set to debut in the fall of 1989 with the episode "Some Enchanted Evening '', which was meant to introduce the main characters. A debacle erupted when the episode "Some Enchanted Evening '', the first to return from animation in Korea, was screened in front of the production staff at the Gracie Films bungalow. The executive producer and developer James L. Brooks ' initial reaction to the animation was "This is shit. '' After that reaction the room almost cleared. A heated argument ensued between Brooks and Klasky - Csupo animation studio head Gábor Csupó, who denied that there was anything wrong with the animation and suggested that the real problem was the quality of the show 's writing.
The problem with the animation from the producers ' point - of - view was that it did not exhibit a distinct style envisioned for the show. At the time there were only a few choices for animation style. Usually, they would either follow the style of Disney, Warner Bros., or Hanna - Barbera. Disney and Warner Bros. cartoons had a universe that was bendy and the characters seemed to be made of rubber. The producers wanted a realistic environment in which the characters and objects could not do anything that was not possible in the real world. One example with the early animation being cartoonish was that the doors behaved liked rubber when slammed. The style of Hanna - Barbera featured the use of cartoon sounds, which they did not want either.
However, during the first screening of the episode, the producers discovered that the animation was so appalling that 70 % of the episode needed to be redone. The producers considered aborting the series if the next episode ("Bart the Genius '') turned out as bad, but it only suffered from a few, easily fixable problems. The producers convinced Fox to move the debut to December 17, and aired "Simpsons Roasting on an Open Fire '' as the first episode of the series.
The half hour series premiere debuted on December 17, 1989 with "Simpsons Roasting on an Open Fire '' a Christmas special. The next episode "Bart the Genius '' was the first to feature the series ' full title sequence, including the chalkboard gag and couch gag. Matt Groening developed the lengthy sequence in order to cut down on the animation necessary for each episode, but devised the two gags as compensation for the repeated material each week. Groening, who had not paid much attention to television since his own childhood, was unaware that title sequences of such length were uncommon by that time. As the finished episodes became longer, the production team were reluctant to cut the stories in order to allow for the long title sequence, so shorter versions of it were developed.
In some of the episodes the characters act completely differently to how they do in later seasons; Lisa, for example, is undisciplined and short - tempered, while Homer is the voice of reason; these roles are reversed in later episodes. Mr. Burns was voiced by Christopher Collins in "Homer 's Odyssey ''. Originally, the character was influenced by Ronald Reagan, a concept which was later dropped.
The first episode featured many new characters such as Seymour Skinner, Milhouse Van Houten, Sherri and Terri, Moe Szyslak, Mr. Burns, Barney Gumble, Patty and Selma, Ned and Todd Flanders, Santa 's Little Helper, Snowball II, Dewey Largo, and Lewis. Snowball I is mentioned for the first time and Waylon Smithers can be heard over the speaker at the power plant, but he is not seen.
The following episodes in the season saw the introduction of several new recurring characters, including Martin Prince, Richard, Edna Krabappel, Dr. J Loren Pryor, Waylon Smithers, Otto Mann, Chief Wiggum, Jasper Beardley, Sam & Larry, Mr. & Mrs. Winfield, Sherri and Terri, Dr. Marvin Monroe, Eddie and Lou, Nelson Muntz, Herman, Bleeding Gums Murphy, Jacqueline Bouvier, Sideshow Bob, Reverend Timothy Lovejoy, Krusty the Clown, Jimbo Jones, Kearney Zzyzwicz, Dolphin "Dolph '' Starbeam, Ms. Albright, Apu Nahasapeemapetilon, Lenny and Carl, Kent Brockman and Agnes Skinner.
The Simpsons first season was the Fox network 's first TV series to rank among a season 's top 30 highest - rated shows. It won one Emmy Award, and received four additional nominations. Although television shows are limited to one episode a category, "Simpsons Roasting on an Open Fire '' was considered a separate special, and nominated alongside fellow episode "Life on the Fast Lane '' for Outstanding Animated Program; "Life on the Fast Lane '' won the award. "Simpsons Roasting on an Open Fire '' was also nominated for "Outstanding Editing in a Miniseries or Special '', while "The Call of the Simpsons '' was nominated for "Outstanding Individual Achievement in Sound Mixing for a Comedy Series or a Special ''. The main theme song, composed by Danny Elfman, was nominated for "Outstanding Achievement in Main Title Theme Music ''.
On Metacritic, a site which uses a weighted mean score, the season scored a 79 / 100 from six critics, translating to "generally favorable reviews. '' However, the show was controversial from its beginning. The rebellious lead character at the time, Bart, frequently received no punishment for his misbehavior, which led some parents to characterize him as a poor role model for children. Several US public schools even banned The Simpsons merchandise and t - shirts, such as one featuring Bart and the caption "Underachiever (' And proud of it, man! ') ''. Despite the ban, The Simpsons merchandise sold well and generated US $ 2 billion in revenue during the first 14 months of sales.
Bart has trouble on an intelligence test and sneakily switches tests with Martin Prince, the class genius. After the results are tabulated, the school psychiatrist labels Bart a genius and sends him to the Enriched Learning Center for Gifted Children. Homer starts treating Bart with respect, but Bart immediately feels out of place among his new classmates and is alienated from his old peers. He confesses that he cheated on the test and is subsequently sent back to Springfield Elementary School.
Bart becomes friends with Jimbo, Dolph, and Kearney, a group of local troublemakers. Trying to impress them, Bart decides to cut off and steal the head of the statue of Jebediah Springfield. The next day, the entire town grieves for the vandalized statue and Bart discovers that his new friends want to attack the vandal. Feeling remorse, Bart confesses to his family and Homer and Bart take the head back to the statue after passing through the furious people.
Principal Skinner finally becomes fed up with Bart 's pranks and proposes that Bart be sent to France as part of the student exchange program. The family agrees and Bart is sent to the "beautiful '' Château Maison, which is actually a dilapidated farmhouse on a neglected vineyard. Bart is treated like a slave by two unscrupulous winemakers, César and Ugolin, who eventually feed him wine tainted with antifreeze. Meanwhile, an Albanian boy named Adil starts to live with the Simpsons who, unbeknownst to Homer, is a spy sent by his country to obtain nuclear blueprints. Back in France, Bart learns French and reports the winemakers ' crimes to the authorities.
While buying ice cream at the Kwik - E-Mart, Homer witnesses a robbery perpetrated by a man believed to be Krusty the Clown, host of "Krusty the Clown Show '', Bart 's favorite program. Krusty is sent to jail and his show is taken over by his assistant, Sideshow Bob. Bart is certain that Krusty is innocent, and gathers evidence to support his claim, which he takes to "Krusty 's bestest friend '', Sideshow Bob. Bart realizes that the robbery was actually committed by Bob, who was trying to frame Krusty. Bob is arrested and Krusty thanks Bart for saving him. Guest star: Kelsey Grammer.
The DVD boxset for season one was released by 20th Century Fox in the United States and Canada in September 2001, eleven years after it had completed broadcast on television. As well as every episode from the season, the DVD release features bonus material including deleted scenes, Animatics, and commentaries for every episode. When the first season DVD was released in 2001, it quickly became the best - selling television DVD in history, although it was later overtaken by the first season of Chappelle 's Show.
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when did george became patron saint of england | Saint George - wikipedia
Saint George 's Day: 23 April
Saint George (Greek: Γεώργιος, Geṓrgios; Latin: Georgius; Coptic: Ⲡⲓⲇⲅⲓⲟⲥ Ⲅⲉⲟⲣⲅⲓⲟⲥ or ⲅⲉⲱⲣⲅⲓⲟⲥ; between AD 256 -- 285 to 23 April 303), according to legend, was a Roman soldier of Greek origin and officer in the Guard of Roman emperor Diocletian, who was sentenced to death for refusing to recant his Christian faith. As a Christian martyr, he later became one of the most venerated saints in Christianity, and was especially venerated by the Crusaders. George 's parents were Christians of Greek background, his father Gerontius (Greek: Γερόντιος, Gerontios meaning "old man '' in Greek) was a Roman army official from Cappadocia, and his mother Polychronia (Greek name, meaning she who lives many years) was a Christian and a Greek native from Lydda in the Roman province of Syria Palaestina.
In hagiography, as one of the Fourteen Holy Helpers and one of the most prominent military saints, he is immortalised in the myth of Saint George and the Dragon. His memorial, Saint George 's Day, is traditionally celebrated on 23 April. (See under "Feast days '' below for the use of the Julian calendar by the Eastern Orthodox Church).
England, and several other nation states, cities, professions and organisations all claim Saint George as their patron.
There is little information on the early life of Saint George. Herbert Thurston in The Catholic Encyclopedia states that based upon an ancient cultus, narratives of the early pilgrims, and the early dedications of churches to Saint George, going back to the fourth century, "there seems, therefore, no ground for doubting the historical existence of St. George '', although no faith can be placed in either the details of his history or his alleged exploits. According to Donald Attwater, "No historical particulars of his life have survived,... The widespread veneration for St George as a soldier saint from early times had its centre in Palestine at Diospolis, now Lydda. St George was apparently martyred there, at the end of the third or the beginning of the fourth century; that is all that can be reasonably surmised about him. ''
Accounts differ regarding whether George was born in Cappadocia or Syria Palaestina, but agree that he was raised at least partly in Lydda in Palestine. His parents were Christian, of the nobility and of Greek heritage. His father Gerontius was a Roman army official from Cappadocia, and his mother Polychronia was from Lydda in the province of Syria Palaestina. His father died when he was fourteen, and his mother returned with George to her homeland of Syria Palaestina.
A few years later, George 's mother died. At seventeen, he travelled to the capital at Nicomedia and following the customary course of a young Roman noble, joined the Roman army. By his late twenties, George was promoted to the rank of military tribune and stationed as an imperial guard of the Emperor at Nicomedia.
One story has him travelling to Britain with the future emperor Constantine and visiting Glastonbury and Caerleon. Years later, George was promoted to the rank of legatus.
On 24 February 303, Diocletian, influenced by Galerius, issued an edict that every Christian soldier in the army should be degraded and every soldier required to offer sacrifice to the Roman gods. Seeing the edict, George freed his slaves, distributed his wealth to the poor, and prepared to meet his fate. He then confronted the emperor about the edict and declared himself to be a Christian. Diocletian attempted to convert George, offering gifts of land, money, and slaves if he would sacrifice to the gods, but the tribune refused. Recognizing the futility of his efforts and insisting on upholding his edict, Diocletian ordered that George be arrested. In an effort to undermine his resolve, the emperor sent a woman to the prison to spend the night with George, who having little time for earthly concerns managed to convert her instead. George was executed by decapitation before Nicomedia 's city wall, on 23 April 303. A witness of his suffering convinced Empress Alexandra of Rome to become a Christian as well, so she joined George in martyrdom. His body was returned to Lydda for burial, where Christians soon came to honour him as a martyr.
In The Golden Legend, by 13th - century Archbishop of Genoa Jacobus da Varagine, George 's death is at the hands of Dacian, and about the year 287.
It has been established that Saint George the Martyr and the Arian Bishop George of Alexandria were not identical; furthermore that Bishop George was slain by Gentile Greeks for exacting onerous taxes, especially inheritance taxes. And that Saint George in all likelihood was martyred before the year 290. Although the Diocletianic Persecution of 303, associated with military saints because the persecution was aimed at Christians among the professional soldiers of the Roman army, is of undisputed historicity, the identity of Saint George as a historical individual had not been ascertained as of Edmund Spenser 's day, Herbert Thurston in the saint 's entry in the early 20th century Catholic Encyclopedia takes the position that there are no grounds for doubting the historical existence of Saint George, but that, as usual with saints of this early period, the legend of the dragon can not be treated as historical.
The earliest text preserving fragments of George 's narrative is in a Greek hagiography identified by Hippolyte Delehaye of the scholarly Bollandists to be a palimpsest of the fifth century. The compiler of this Acta Sancti Georgii, according to Hippolyte Delehaye, "confused the martyr with his namesake, the celebrated George of Cappadocia, the Arian intruder into the see of Alexandria and enemy of St. Athanasius ''. An earlier work by Eusebius, Church history, written in the 4th century, contributed to the legend but did not name George or provide significant detail.
A critical edition of a Syriac Acta of Saint George, accompanied by an annotated English translation, was published by E.W. Brooks (1863 -- 1955) in 1925.
The work of the Bollandists Daniel Papebroch, Jean Bolland, and Godfrey Henschen in the 17th century was one of the first pieces of scholarly research to establish the saint 's historicity via their publications in Bibliotheca Hagiographica Graeca. Pope Gelasius I stated that George was among those saints "whose names are justly reverenced among men, but whose actions are known only to God. ''
The traditional legends, for example that of the Golden Legend, have offered a historicised narration of George 's encounter with a dragon. The modern legend that follows below is synthesised from early and late hagiographical sources, omitting the more fantastical episodes. Chief among the legendary sources about the saint is the Golden Legend, which remains the most familiar version in English owing to William Caxton 's 15th - century translation.
Edward Gibbon argued that George, or at least the legend from which the above is distilled, is based on George of Cappadocia, a notorious Arian bishop who was Athanasius of Alexandria 's most bitter rival, and that it was he who in time became Saint George of England. J.B. Bury (16 October 1861 -- 1 June 1927), who edited the 1906 edition of The Decline and Fall, wrote "this theory of Gibbon 's has nothing to be said for it. '' He adds that: "the connection of St. George with a dragon - slaying legend does not relegate him to the region of the myth ''.
George (Arabic: جرجس , Jiriyas or Girgus) is included in some Muslim texts as a prophetic figure. The Islamic sources state that he lived among a group of believers who were in direct contact with last apostles of Jesus. He is described as a rich merchant who opposed erection of Apollo 's statue by Mosul 's king Dadan. After confronting the king, George was tortured many times to no effect, was imprisoned and was aided by the angels. Eventually, he exposed that the idols were possessed by Satan, but was martyred when the city was destroyed by God in a rain of fire.
Muslim scholars had tried to find a historical connection of the saint due to his popularity. According to Muslim legend, he was martyred under the rule of Diocletian and was killed three times but resurrected every time. The legend is more developed in the Persian version of al - Tabari wherein he resurrects the dead, makes trees sprout and pillars bear flowers. After one of his deaths, the world is covered by darkness and is lifted only when he is resurrected. He is able to convert the queen but she is put to death. He then prays to God to allow him to die which is granted.
Al - Tha ` labi states that he was from Palestine and lived in the times of some disciples of Jesus. He was killed many times by the king of Mosul, and resurrected each time. When he tried to starve him, he touched a piece of dry wood brought by a woman and turned it green, with varieties of fruits and vegetables growing from it. After his fourth death, the city was burnt along with him. Ibn al - Athir 's account of one of his deaths is parallel to the crucifixion of Jesus, stating, "When he died, God sent stormy winds and thunder and lightning and dark clouds, so that darkness fell between heaven and earth, and people were in great wonderment... '' The account adds that the darkness was lifted after his resurrection.
In the medieval romances, the lance with which Saint George slew the dragon was called Ascalon after the Levantine city of Ashkelon, today in Israel. The name Ascalon was used by Winston Churchill for his personal aircraft during World War II, according to records at Bletchley Park. In Sweden, the princess rescued by Saint George is held to represent the kingdom of Sweden, while the dragon represents an invading army. Several sculptures of Saint George battling the dragon can be found in Stockholm, the earliest inside Storkyrkan ("The Great Church '') in the Old Town. Iconography of the horseman with spear overcoming evil was widespread throughout the Christian period.
In Pharaonic mythology, the god Set or Setekh murdered his brother Osiris. Horus (Heru), the son of Osiris, avenged his father 's death by killing Setekh. Modern - day researchers interpret a fragment of a stone window dating from the fourth century AD depicting a mounted hawk - headed figure fighting a crocodile as Horus killing a metamorphosed Set, and have considered this scene ancestral to later iconography of George killing a dragon.
A titular church built in Lydda during the reign of Constantine the Great (reigned 306 -- 37) was consecrated to "a man of the highest distinction '', according to the church history of Eusebius; the name of the titulus "patron '' was not disclosed, but later he was asserted to have been George.
By the time of the early Muslim conquests of the mostly Christian and Zoroastrian Middle East, a basilica in Lydda dedicated to Saint George existed. The church was destroyed by Muslims in 1010, but was later rebuilt and dedicated to Saint George by the Crusaders. In 1191 and during the conflict known as the Third Crusade (1189 -- 92), the church was again destroyed by the forces of Saladin, Sultan of the Ayyubid dynasty (reigned 1171 -- 93). A new church was erected in 1872 and is still standing.
During the century, the veneration of George spread from Syria Palaestina through Lebanon to the rest of the Byzantine Empire -- though the martyr is not mentioned in the Syriac Breviarium -- and the region east of the Black Sea. In Georgia, the feast day on 23 November is credited to Saint Nino of Cappadocia, who in Georgian hagiography is a relative of Saint George, credited with bringing Christianity to the Georgians in the fourth century. By the fifth century, the veneration of Saint George had reached the Christian Western Roman Empire, as well: in 494, George was canonized as a saint by Pope Gelasius I, among those "whose names are justly reverenced among men, but whose acts are known only to (God). ''
In England, he was mentioned among the martyrs by the 8th - century monk Bede. The Georgslied is an adaptation of his legend in Old High German, composed in the late 9th century. The earliest dedication to the saint in England is a church at Fordington, Dorset that is mentioned in the will of Alfred the Great. Saint George did not rise to the position of "patron saint '' of England, however, until the 14th century, and he was still obscured by Edward the Confessor, the traditional patron saint of England, until in 1552 during the reign of Edward VI all saints ' banners other than George 's were abolished in the English Reformation.
An apparition of George heartened the Franks at the siege of Antioch, 1098, and made a similar appearance the following year at Jerusalem. The chivalric military Order of Sant Jordi d'Alfama was established by king Peter the Catholic from the Crown of Aragon in 1201, Republic of Genoa, Kingdom of Hungary (1326), and by Frederick III, Holy Roman Emperor, and in England the 1222 Synod of Oxford declared Saint George 's Day a feast day in the kingdom of England. Edward III of England put his Order of the Garter under the banner of St. George, probably in 1348. The chronicler Jean Froissart observed the English invoking Saint George as a battle cry on several occasions during the Hundred Years ' War. In his rise as a national saint, George was aided by the very fact that the saint had no legendary connection with England, and no specifically localized shrine, as that of Thomas Becket at Canterbury: "Consequently, numerous shrines were established during the late fifteenth century, '' Muriel C. McClendon has written, "and his did not become closely identified with a particular occupation or with the cure of a specific malady. ''
The establishment of George as a popular and protective saint in the West that had captured the medieval imagination was codified by the official elevation of his feast to a festum duplex at a church council in 1416, on the date that had become associated with his martyrdom, 23 April. Wide latitude existed from community to community in celebration of the day across late medieval and early modern England, and no uniform "national '' celebration elsewhere, a token of the popular and vernacular nature of George 's cultus and its local horizons, supported by a local guild or confraternity under George 's protection, or the dedication of a local church. When the English Reformation severely curtailed the saints ' days in the calendar, Saint George 's Day was among the holidays that continued to be observed.
In the General Roman Calendar, the feast of Saint George is on 23 April. In the Tridentine Calendar of 1568, it was given the rank of "Semidouble ''. In Pope Pius XII 's 1955 calendar this rank was reduced to "Simple '', and in Pope John XXIII 's 1960 calendar to a "Commemoration ''. Since Pope Paul VI 's 1969 revision, it appears as an optional "Memorial ''. In some countries, such as England, the rank is higher. In England, it is a Solemnity (Roman Catholic) or Feast (Church of England): if it falls between Palm Sunday and the Second Sunday of Easter inclusive, it is transferred to the Monday after the Second Sunday of Easter.
Saint George is very much honoured by the Eastern Orthodox Church, wherein he is referred to as a "Great Martyr '', and in Oriental Orthodoxy overall. His major feast day is on 23 April (Julian calendar 23 April currently corresponds to Gregorian calendar 6 May). If, however, the feast occurs before Easter, it is celebrated on Easter Monday, instead. The Russian Orthodox Church also celebrates two additional feasts in honour of St. George. One is on 3 November, commemorating the consecration of a cathedral dedicated to him in Lydda during the reign Constantine the Great (305 -- 37). When the church was consecrated, the relics of the Saint George were transferred there. The other feast is on 26 November for a church dedicated to him in Kiev, circa 1054.
In Bulgaria, Saint George 's day (Bulgarian: Гергьовден) is celebrated on 6 May, when it is customary to slaughter and roast a lamb. Saint George 's day is also a public holiday.
In Egypt, the Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria refers to Saint George as the "Prince of Martyrs '' and celebrates his martyrdom on the 23rd of Paremhat of the Coptic calendar equivalent to 1 May. The Copts also celebrate the consecration of the first church dedicated to him on seventh of the month of Hatour of the Coptic calendar usually equivalent to 17 November.
In India, the Syro - Malabar Catholic Church, one of the oriental catholic churches (Eastern Catholic Churches) and Malankara orthodox church venerate Saint George. The main pilgrim centers of the saint in India are at Edathua in Alappuzha district and Edappally in Ernakulam district of the southern state of Kerala. The saint is commemorated each year from 27 April to 14 May at Edathua On 27 April after the flag hoisting ceremony by the parish priest, the statue of the saint is taken from one of the altars and placed at the extension of the church to be venerated by the devotees till 14 May. The main feast day is 7 May, when the statue of the saint along with other saints is taken in procession around the church. Intercession to Saint George of Edathua is believed to be efficacious in repelling snakes and in curing mental ailments. The sacred relics of St. George were brought to Antioch from Mardeen in A.D. 900 and were taken to Kerala, India from Antioch in 1912 by Mar Dionysius of Vattasseril and kept in the Orthodox seminary at Kundara, Kerala. H.H Mathews II Catholicos had given the relics to St. George churches at Puthupally, Kottayam District and Chandanappally, Pathanamthitta district.
A highly celebrated saint in both the Western and Eastern Christian churches, a large number of Patronages of Saint George exist throughout the world.
Saint George is the patron saint of England. His cross forms the national flag of England, and features within the Union Flag of the United Kingdom, and other national flags containing the Union Flag, such as those of Australia and New Zealand. By the 14th century, the saint had been declared both the patron saint and the protector of the royal family.
The country of Georgia, where devotions to the saint date back to the fourth century, is not technically named after the saint, but is a well - attested back - formation of the Greek name. However, a large number of towns and cities around the world are. Saint George is one of the patron Saints of Georgia; the name Georgia (Sakartvelo in Georgian) is an anglicisation of Gurj, ultimately derived from the Persian word gurj / gurjān ("wolf ''). Chronicles describing the land as Georgie or Georgia in French and English, date from the early Middle Ages, as written by the travellers John Mandeville and Jacques de Vitry "because of their special reverence for Saint George '', but these accounts have been seen as folk etymology and are rejected by the scholarly community.
Exactly 365 Orthodox churches in Georgia are named after Saint George according to the number of days in a year. According to myth, Saint George was cut into 365 pieces after he fell in battle and every single piece was spread throughout the entire country. According to another myth, Saint George appeared in person during the Battle of Didgori to support the Georgian victory over the Seljuq army and the Georgian uprising against Persian rule. Saint George is considered by many Georgians to have special meaning as a symbol of national liberation.
Saint George is also one of the patron saints of the Mediterranean islands of Malta and Gozo. In a battle between the Maltese and the Moors, Saint George was alleged to have been seen with Saint Paul and Saint Agata, protecting the Maltese. Saint George is the protector of the island of Gozo and the patron of Gozo 's largest city, Victoria. The St. George 's Basilica in Victoria is dedicated to him.
Devotions to Saint George in Portugal date back to the 12th century. Nuno Álvares Pereira attributed the victory of the Portuguese in the battle of Aljubarrota in 1385 to Saint George. During the reign of John I of Portugal (1357 -- 1433), Saint George became the patron saint of Portugal and the King ordered that the saint 's image on the horse be carried in the Corpus Christi procession. The flag of Saint George (white with red cross) was also carried by the Portuguese troops and hoisted in the fortresses, during the 15th century. "Portugal and Saint George '' became the battle cry of the Portuguese troops, being still today the battle cry of the Portuguese Army, with simply "Saint George '' being the battle cry of the Portuguese Navy.
Saint George is the patron saint of Romania and a number of churches, towns, and geographical areas are dedicated to him, including city of Sfântu Gheorghe in Covasna County, and Sfântu Gheorghe branch of the river Danube.
In Spain, Saint George is the patron of Aragon and Catalonia. These two autonomous communities were in the past two of the most important territories belonging to the Crown of Aragon.
Saint George (Aragonese: San Chorche) is the patron of Aragon, one of the autonomous communities of Spain. This festivity is celebrated on the 23th of April as "The Day of Aragon ''. Legend says that the Pedro I of Aragon started in 1096 the conquest of Huesca, which was under the rule of the Taifa in Zaragoza, following the desires of his father, Sancho I of Aragon. The fight was hard and difficult, Christian militia trusted totally in God to win the battle. God sent Saint George, who descended from Heaven riding on a horse, carrying with him a maroon cross to the battlefield. After seeing God 's signal, militiamen returned to the battle field with more energy than ever. The moors could not believe what was happening, they were defeated, abandoning the battlefield rapidly. After half a year of being trapped, Pedro I finally entered the city.
To celebrate this victory, Saint George 's cross was used as the insignia of Huesca and Aragon, honouring his name since he was their saviour. Nowadays, this cross is still present on Aragon 's shield.
The popular story which is told to school children and other places, is that Saint George defeated a dragon, and is celebrated by everybody throughout the community.
Saint George (Sant Jordi in Catalan) is also the patron saint of Catalonia. His cross appears in many buildings and local flags, including the one of the Catalan capital, Barcelona. The Catalan tradition usually locates the events of his legend in the town of Montblanc, near Tarragona.
The origins of the worship of Saint George go back to the Crown of Aragon, and share the same legend as that of Aragon. By the 15th century Catalan men used to celebrate Saint George 's Day by giving roses to women. Nowadays Saint George is not a public holiday anymore but is a very popular celebration. Women receive roses (and often books) and, since the 20th century, men receive books (and sometimes roses) and the celebration is also used to celebrate Catalan national identity, culture and literature and romantic love.
One of the highest civil distinctions awarded in Catalonia is the Saint George 's Cross (Creu de Sant Jordi). The Sant Jordi Awards have been awarded in Barcelona since 1957.
George is renowned throughout the Middle East, as both saint and prophet. His veneration by Christians and Muslims lies in his composite personality combining several Biblical, Quranic and other ancient mythical heroes.
William Dalrymple, reviewing the literature in 1999, tells us that J.E. Hanauer in his 1907 book Folklore of the Holy Land: Muslim, Christian and Jewish "mentioned a shrine in the village of Beit Jala, beside Bethlehem, which at the time was frequented by Christians who regarded it as the birthplace of St. George and by some Jews who regarded it as the burial place of the Prophet Elias. According to Hanauer, in his day the monastery was "a sort of madhouse. Deranged persons of all the three faiths are taken thither and chained in the court of the chapel, where they are kept for forty days on bread and water, the Eastern Orthodox priest at the head of the establishment now and then reading the Gospel over them, or administering a whipping as the case demands. ' In the 1920s, according to Taufiq Canaan 's Mohammedan Saints and Sanctuaries in Palestine, nothing seemed to have changed, and all three communities were still visiting the shrine and praying together. ''
Dalrymple himself visited the place in 1995. "I asked around in the Christian Quarter in Jerusalem, and discovered that the place was very much alive. With all the greatest shrines in the Christian world to choose from, it seemed that when the local Arab Christians had a problem -- an illness, or something more complicated: a husband detained in an Israeli prison camp, for example -- they preferred to seek the intercession of Saint George in his grubby little shrine at Beit Jala rather than praying at the Church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem or the Church of the Nativity in Bethlehem. '' He asked the priest at the shrine "Do you get many Muslims coming here? '' The priest replied, "We get hundreds! Almost as many as the Christian pilgrims. Often, when I come in here, I find Muslims all over the floor, in the aisles, up and down. ''
The Encyclopædia Britannica quotes G.A. Smith in his Historic Geography of the Holy Land p. 164 saying "The Mahommedans who usually identify St. George with the prophet Elijah, at Lydda confound his legend with one about Christ himself. Their name for Antichrist is Dajjal, and they have a tradition that Jesus will slay Antichrist by the gate of Lydda. The notion sprang from an ancient bas - relief of George and the Dragon on the Lydda church. But Dajjal may be derived, by a very common confusion between n and l, from Dagon, whose name two neighbouring villages bear to this day, while one of the gates of Lydda used to be called the Gate of Dagon. ''
Saint George is described as a prophetic figure in Islamic sources. George is venerated by some Christians and Muslims because of his composite personality combining several Biblical, Quranic and other ancient mythical heroes. In some of he is identified with Elijah or Mar Elis, George or Mar Jirjus and in others as al - Khidr. The last epithet meaning the "green prophet '', is common to both Christian and Muslim folk piety. Samuel Curtiss who visited an artificial cave dedicated to him where he is identified with Elijah, reports that childless Muslim women used to visit the shrine to pray for children. Per tradition, he was brought to his place of martyrdom in chains, thus priests of Church of St. George chain the sick especially the mentally ill to a chain for overnight or longer for healing. This is sought after by both Muslims and Christians.
According to Elizabeth Anne Finn 's Home in the Holy land (1866):
St George killed the dragon in this country; and the place is shown close to Beyroot. Many churches and convents are named after him. The church at Lydda is dedicated to St. George; so is a convent near Bethlehem, and another small one just opposite the Jaffa gate, and others beside. The Arabs believe that St. George can restore mad people to their senses, and to say a person has been sent to St. George 's is equivalent to saying he has been sent to a madhouse. It is singular that the Moslem Arabs adopted this veneration for St George, and send their mad people to be cured by him, as well as the Christians, but they commonly call him El Khudder -- The Green -- according to their favourite manner of using epithets instead of names. Why he should be called green, however, I can not tell -- unless it is from the colour of his horse. Gray horses are called green in Arabic.
The mosque of Nabi Jurjis which was restored by Timur in the 14th century, was located in Mosul and supposedly contained the tomb of George. It was however destroyed in July 2014 by the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant, who also destroyed the Mosque of the Prophet Sheeth (Seth) and the Mosque of the Prophet Younis (Jonah). The militants claim such mosques have become places for apostasy instead of prayer.
George or Hazrat Jurjays was the patron saint of Mosul. Along with Theodosius, he was revered by both Christian and Muslim communities of Jazira and Anatolia. The wall paintings of Kırk Dam Altı Kilise at Belisırma dedicated to him are dated between 1282 - 1304. These painting depicts him as a mounted knight appearing between donors including a Georgian lady called Thamar and her husband, the Emir and Consul Basil, while the Seljuk Sultan Mesud II and Byzantine Emperor Androncius II are also named in the inscriptions.
It became fashionable in the 15th century, with the full development of classical heraldry, to provide attributed arms to saints and other historical characters from the pre-heraldic ages. The widespread attribution to Saint George of the red cross on a white field in western art - "Saint George 's Cross '' probably first arose in Genoa, which had adopted this image for their flag and George as their patron saint in the 12th century. A vexillum beati Georgii is mentioned in the Genovese annals for the year 1198, referring to a red flag with a depiction of Saint George and the dragon. An illumination of this flag is shown in the annals for the year 1227. The Genoese flag with the red cross was used alongside this "George 's flag '', from at least 1218, and was known as the insignia cruxata comunis Janue ("cross ensign of the commune of Genoa ''). The flag showing the saint himself was the city 's principal war flag, but the flag showing the plain cross was used alongside it in the 1240s.
In 1348 Edward III of England chose Saint George as the patron saint of his Order of the Garter, and also took to using a red - on - white cross in the hoist of his Royal Standard.
The term "Saint George 's cross '' was at first associated with any plain Greek cross touching the edges of the field (not necessarily red on white). Thomas Fuller in 1647 spoke of "the plain or St George 's cross '' as "the mother of all the others '' (that is, the other heraldic crosses).
Saint George is most commonly depicted in early icons, mosaics, and frescos wearing armour contemporary with the depiction, executed in gilding and silver colour, intended to identify him as a Roman soldier. Particularly after the Fall of Constantinople and Saint George 's association with the crusades, he is often portrayed mounted upon a white horse. Thus, a 2003 Vatican stamp (issued on the anniversary of the Saint 's death) depicts an armoured Saint George atop a white horse, killing the dragon. Eastern Orthodox iconography also permits Saint George to ride a black horse, as in a Russian icon in the British museum collection. This may also reflect a modern Russian interpretation as depicting not a killing, but as an internal struggle, against ourselves and the evil among us. In the south Lebanese village of Mieh Mieh, the Saint George Church for Melkite Catholics commissioned for its 75th jubilee in 2012 (under the guidance of Mgr Sassine Gregoire), the only icons in the world portraying the whole life of Saint George, as well as the scenes of his torture and martyrdom (drawn in eastern iconographic style).
Saint George may also be portrayed with Saint Demetrius, another early soldier saint. When the two saintly warriors are together and mounted upon horses, they may resemble earthly manifestations of the archangels Michael and Gabriel. Eastern traditions distinguish the two as Saint George rides a white horse and St. Demetrius a red horse Saint George can also be identified by his spearing a dragon, whereas Saint Demetrius may be spearing a human figure, representing Maximian.
During the early second millennium, Saint George became a model of chivalry in works of literature, including medieval romances. In the 13th century, Jacobus de Voragine, Archbishop of Genoa, compiled the Legenda Sanctorum, (Readings of the Saints) also known as Legenda Aurea (the Golden Legend). Its 177 chapters (182 in some editions) include the story of Saint George, among many others. After the invention of the printing press, the book became a bestseller, second only to the Bible among books published by early English printer William Caxton (circa 1415 - 1492).
Tetarteron of Manuel I Komnenos (12th century) showing a bust of Saint George
A 12th - century depiction of St George in a church at the Russian village of Staraya Ladoga
Scenes from the life of Saint George, Kremikovtsi Monastery, Bulgaria
Saint George as a martyr: St. George 's Collegiate Church in Tübingen
A 15th - century battle flag of Stephen the Great of Moldavia representing Saint George
The regimental War Flag of the Hellenic Army.
Svatý Jiří, malby Hejnák.
Saint George dismounted, Greece (19th century)
A plaque, on which is represented St. George rescuing the emperor 's daughter (15th century)
Immediately on the publication of the decree against the churches in Nicomedia, a certain man, not obscure but very highly honored with distinguished temporal dignities, moved with zeal toward God, and incited with ardent faith, seized the edict as it was posted openly and publicly, and tore it to pieces as a profane and impious thing; and this was done while two of the sovereigns were in the same city, -- the oldest of all, and the one who held the fourth place in the government after him. But this man, first in that place, after distinguishing himself in such a manner suffered those things which were likely to follow such daring, and kept his spirit cheerful and undisturbed till death.
April 23
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how did they make hobbits look small in lord of the rings | Special effects of the Lord of the Rings film series - wikipedia
The Lord of the Rings film series used many groundbreaking practical and digital visual effects. The first film has around 540 effects shots, the second 799, and the third 1488 (2730 in total). The total moves up to 3420 with the extended cuts. Two hundred and sixty visual effects artists worked on the trilogy, and the number would double by The Two Towers. The crew, led by Jim Rygiel and Randy Cook, would work long and hard hours overnight to produce special effects within a short space of time, especially with Jackson 's active imagination. For example, they produced several major shots of Helm 's Deep within the last six weeks of post-production of The Two Towers, and the same number of shots for The Two Towers within the last six weeks on The Return of the King. Despite Weta Workshop being the major stylistic force behind the films, a single scene where Arwen confronts the Black Riders in The Fellowship of the Ring was done by Digital Domain.
Production was complicated by the use of scale doubles and forced perspective (on a level never seen before in the film industry). Elijah Wood is 5 ft 6 in (1.68 m) tall in real life, but the character of Frodo Baggins is 3 ft 6 in (1.07 m) in height. Large and small scale doubles were used in certain scenes, while entire duplicates of certain sets (including Bag End in Hobbiton) were built at two different scales, so that the characters would appear to be the appropriate size. At one point in the film, Frodo runs along a corridor in Bag End, followed by Gandalf (played by Ian McKellen). Wood and McKellen were filmed in separate versions of the same corridor, built at two different scales; then these two separate shots are combined to create a shot of both actors appearing to be in the same corridor.
Forced perspective was also employed, so that it would look as though the short Hobbits were interacting with taller Men and Elves. Surprising the makers of the film, the simple use of kneeling down was used to great effect. Some actors also wore oversized costumes to make average sized actors look small, and there were numerous scale doubles, who were disguised with costumes, and an avoidance of close - ups and numerous back shots, and even latex faces for the Hobbit doubles.
In the Middle - earth storyverse, Hobbits are 3 ft 6 in (107 cm) tall, Dwarves are taller at about 4 ft 6 in (137 cm), and Men and Elves are average human height, about 5 to 6 ft (150 to 180 cm). However, the films used two scale sets instead of three by casting taller than average actors to play Dwarves, then combining Dwarves and Hobbits into one size scale. For example, John Rhys - Davies, who played Gimli, is taller than Elijah Wood, who played Frodo. Thus in the ending shot of the Council of Elrond scene when all nine members of the Fellowship of the Ring are standing together, Rhys - Davies and the four Hobbit actors were filmed all at once, then the human - sized characters (Gandalf, Aragorn, Boromir, Legolas) were filmed in a second take, then the two shots were composited at different scale to make one image, with the initial Dwarf / Hobbit character shot made smaller. A practical upshot of not creating a third scale for Dwarves is that in a scene in which only Dwarves and Hobbits interact, no scale doubles are needed. For example, when they are entering Lothlórien for the first time and Gimli claps Frodo on the shoulder and says "stay close, young hobbits '', the entire scene employs no size doubles, because Rhys - Davies is naturally the proportionately taller height needed between Dwarves and Hobbits.
Weta coined the term bigature for the 72 large miniatures produced for the film, in reference to their extreme size. Such miniatures include the 1: 4 scale for Helm 's Deep, which alongside Khazad - dûm and Osgiliath, was one of the first built. Most sets were constructed to allow compositing with the models and matte paintings. Notable examples include the Argonath, Minas Tirith, the tower and caverns of Isengard, Barad - dûr, the trees of Lothlórien and Fangorn Forest and the Black Gate. Alex Funke led the motion control camera rigs, and John Baster and Mary Maclahlan led the building of the miniatures. The miniatures unit worked more than any other special effects crew, working over 1000 days. Often they held parties to celebrate each landmark, such as day 666. Their final shot was one of the Black Gate for the third film in November 2003.
Creatures such as Trolls, the Balrog, the Ents, the fell beasts, the Wargs, the mûmakil, and Shelob were created entirely within a computer. Creatures would spend months of creation and variation as sketches before approved designs were sculpted into five - foot maquettes and scanned into a computer. Animators would then rig skeletons and muscles before animation and final detailed colouring scanned from painted maquettes. Treebeard had a digital face composited upon the original animatronic, which was scanned for the digital model of his longshots.
Along with the creatures, Weta also created highly realistic digital doubles for many miniature longshots, as well as numerous stunts, most notably Legolas. These doubles were scanned from having actors perform movements in a motion - capture suit, and with additional details created using ZBrush. There are even morphs between the doubles and actors at times. Horses also performed with mo - cap points on them, although deaths are keyframe animation.
Weta began animating Gollum in late 1998, using a generic human muscle system, to convince New Line Cinema they could achieve it. Andy Serkis played Gollum by providing his voice and movements on set, as well as performing within the motion capture suit. His scenes were filmed twice, with and without him. Originally Gollum was set to solely be a CG character, but Jackson was so impressed by Andy Serkis ' audition tape that they used him on set as well. A team led by Randy Cook performed the animation using both motion capture data and manual recreation of Serkis ' facial reference. Gollum 's CG model was also redesigned during 2001, now using a subdivision surface model instead of the NURBS model for Fellowship (a similar rebuild was also done for the digital doubles of the lead actors), when Serkis was cast as Sméagol, Gollum 's form before he is cursed by the One Ring, so as to give the impression that Andy Serkis as Sméagol transforms into the CG Gollum. The original model can still be glimpsed briefly in the first film. Over Christmas 2001 the crew proceeded to reanimate all the previous shots accordingly within two months. Another problem was that the crew realized that the cast performed better in the versions of the film with Serkis. In the end, the CG Gollum was often animated on top of these scenes and Serkis would be painted out. Due to Gollum not being human, shots such as him crawling down a sheer cliff were shot with no live reference. Serkis also did motion - capture for the character which would drive the body of the model, whilst animators did all fingers and facial animation. Gino Acevedo supervised realistic skin tones, which for the first time used subsurface scattering shader, taking four hours per frame to render. Render time refers to the amount of time it took the computer to process the image into a usable format; it does not include the amount of time it took the texture artists to "draw '' the frame. The hair dynamics of CG Gollum in The Two Towers were generated using Maya Cloth. Because of its technical limitations, Weta subsequently moved to the Syflex system for The Return of the King.
Christoper Hery (ILM), Ken McGaugh and Joe Letteri (both Weta and previously ILM) received a 2003 Academy Award, Scientific or Technical for implementing the BSSRDF technique used for Gollum 's skin in a production environment. Henrik Wann Jensen (Stanford University), Stephen Robert Marschner (Cornell University and previously Stanford University), and Pat Hanrahan (Stanford University) (but not the fourth coauthor Marc Levoy), who developed BSSRDF, won another the same year.
MASSIVE is the name of a computer program developed by Weta to create automatic battle sequences rather than individually animate every soldier. Stephen Regelous developed the system in 1996, originally to create the battle scenes for "The Lord of the Rings ''. The system creates a large number of choices for each software agent to pick when inside a digital arena. Catherine Thiel provided the movements of each type of soldier, like the unique fighting styles (designed by Tony Wolf) or fleeing. To add to this, digital environments would also be created for the simulations. Massive also features Grunt, a memory - conservative special purpose renderer, which was used for scenes containing as many as 200,000 agents and several million polygons. The Pelennor Fields scene also contains "multi-body agents '' in the form of a 5 × 5 grid of Orcs.
Whilst Jackson insisted on generally using miniatures, sometimes shots would get too difficult for that, primarily with the digital characters. Sometimes natural elements like cloud, dust, fire (which was used as the electronic data for the Wraithworld scenes and the Balrog) would be composited, and natural environments were composited to create the Pelennor Fields. To give a "painterly '' look to the films, cinematographer Peter Doyle worked on every scene within the computer to strengthen colours and add extra mood and tone to the proceedings. Gold was tinted to Hobbiton, whilst cooler colours were strengthened into Lothlórien, Moria and Helm 's Deep. Such a technique took 2 -- 3 weeks to do, and allowed some freedom with the digital source for some extra editing.
The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King required the help of the company Next Limit Technologies and their software RealFlow to simulate the lava in Mount Doom.
A technical overview of the special effect is given by Matt Aitken et al. (2004).
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when did greece and troy go to war | Trojan War - wikipedia
Setting: Troy (modern Hisarlik, Turkey) Period: Bronze Age Traditional dating: c. 1194 -- 1184 BC Modern dating: c. 1260 -- 1180 BC Outcome: Greek victory, destruction of Troy
Caused the war:
On the Greek side:
On the Trojan side:
In Greek mythology, the Trojan War was waged against the city of Troy by the Achaeans (Greeks) after Paris of Troy took Helen from her husband Menelaus, king of Sparta. The war is one of the most important events in Greek mythology and has been narrated through many works of Greek literature, most notably Homer 's Iliad. The Iliad relates four days in the tenth year of the decade - long siege of Troy; the Odyssey describes the journey home of Odysseus, one of the war 's heroes. Other parts of the war are described in a cycle of epic poems, which have survived through fragments. Episodes from the war provided material for Greek tragedy and other works of Greek literature, and for Roman poets including Virgil and Ovid.
The war originated from a quarrel between the goddesses Hera, Athena, and Aphrodite, after Eris, the goddess of strife and discord, gave them a golden apple, sometimes known as the Apple of Discord, marked "for the fairest ''. Zeus sent the goddesses to Paris, who judged that Aphrodite, as the "fairest '', should receive the apple. In exchange, Aphrodite made Helen, the most beautiful of all women and wife of Menelaus, fall in love with Paris, who took her to Troy. Agamemnon, king of Mycenae and the brother of Helen 's husband Menelaus, led an expedition of Achaean troops to Troy and besieged the city for ten years because of Paris ' insult. After the deaths of many heroes, including the Achaeans Achilles and Ajax, and the Trojans Hector and Paris, the city fell to the ruse of the Trojan Horse. The Achaeans slaughtered the Trojans (except for some of the women and children whom they kept or sold as slaves) and desecrated the temples, thus earning the gods ' wrath. Few of the Achaeans returned safely to their homes and many founded colonies in distant shores. The Romans later traced their origin to Aeneas, Aphrodite 's son and one of the Trojans, who was said to have led the surviving Trojans to modern - day Italy.
The ancient Greeks believed that Troy was located near the Dardanelles and that the Trojan War was a historical event of the 13th or 12th century BC, but by the mid-19th century, both the war and the city were widely seen as mythological. In 1868, however, the German archaeologist Heinrich Schliemann met Frank Calvert, who convinced Schliemann that Troy was a real city at what is now Hissarlik in Turkey. On the basis of excavations conducted by Schliemann and others, this claim is now accepted by most scholars.
Whether there is any historical reality behind the Trojan War remains an open question. Many scholars believe that there is a historical core to the tale, though this may simply mean that the Homeric stories are a fusion of various tales of sieges and expeditions by Mycenaean Greeks during the Bronze Age. Those who believe that the stories of the Trojan War are derived from a specific historical conflict usually date it to the 12th or 11th centuries BC, often preferring the dates given by Eratosthenes, 1194 -- 1184 BC, which roughly corresponds with archaeological evidence of a catastrophic burning of Troy VIIa.
The events of the Trojan War are found in many works of Greek literature and depicted in numerous works of Greek art. There is no single, authoritative text which tells the entire events of the war. Instead, the story is assembled from a variety of sources, some of which report contradictory versions of the events. The most important literary sources are the two epic poems traditionally credited to Homer, the Iliad and the Odyssey, composed sometime between the 9th and 6th centuries BC. Each poem narrates only a part of the war. The Iliad covers a short period in the last year of the siege of Troy, while the Odyssey concerns Odysseus 's return to his home island of Ithaca following the sack of Troy and contains several flashbacks to particular episodes in the war.
Other parts of the Trojan War were told in the poems of the Epic Cycle, also known as the Cyclic Epics: the Cypria, Aethiopis, Little Iliad, Iliou Persis, Nostoi, and Telegony. Though these poems survive only in fragments, their content is known from a summary included in Proclus ' Chrestomathy. The authorship of the Cyclic Epics is uncertain. It is generally thought that the poems were written down in the 7th and 6th century BC, after the composition of the Homeric poems, though it is widely believed that they were based on earlier traditions. Both the Homeric epics and the Epic Cycle take origin from oral tradition. Even after the composition of the Iliad, Odyssey, and the Cyclic Epics, the myths of the Trojan War were passed on orally in many genres of poetry and through non-poetic storytelling. Events and details of the story that are only found in later authors may have been passed on through oral tradition and could be as old as the Homeric poems. Visual art, such as vase painting, was another medium in which myths of the Trojan War circulated.
In later ages playwrights, historians, and other intellectuals would create works inspired by the Trojan War. The three great tragedians of Athens - Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides -- wrote a number of dramas that portray episodes from the Trojan War. Among Roman writers the most important is the 1st century BC poet Virgil. In Book 2 of the Aeneid, Aeneas narrates the sack of Troy; this section of the poem is thought to rely on material from the Cyclic Epic Iliou Persis.
The following summary of the Trojan War follows the order of events as given in Proclus ' summary, along with the Iliad, Odyssey, and Aeneid, supplemented with details drawn from other authors.
According to Greek mythology, Zeus had become king of the gods by overthrowing his father Cronus; Cronus in turn had overthrown his father Uranus. Zeus was not faithful to his wife and sister Hera, and had many relationships from which many children were born. Since Zeus believed that there were too many people populating the earth, he envisioned Momus or Themis, who was to use the Trojan War as a means to depopulate the Earth, especially of his demigod descendants.
These can be supported by Hesiod 's account:
Now all the gods were divided through strife; for at that very time Zeus who thunders on high was meditating marvelous deeds, even to mingle storm and tempest over the boundless earth, and already he was hastening to make an utter end of the race of mortal men, declaring that he would destroy the lives of the demi - gods, that the children of the gods should not mate with wretched mortals, seeing their fate with their own eyes; but that the blessed gods henceforth even as aforetime should have their living and their habitations apart from men. But on those who were born of immortals and of mankind verily Zeus laid toil and sorrow upon sorrow.
Zeus came to learn from either Themis or Prometheus, after Heracles had released him from Caucasus, that, like his father Cronus, he would be overthrown by one of his sons. Another prophecy stated that a son of the sea - nymph Thetis, with whom Zeus fell in love after gazing upon her in the oceans off the Greek coast, would become greater than his father. Possibly for one or both of these reasons, Thetis was betrothed to an elderly human king, Peleus son of Aeacus, either upon Zeus ' orders, or because she wished to please Hera, who had raised her.
All of the gods were invited to Peleus and Thetis ' wedding and brought many gifts, except Eris (the goddess of discord), who was stopped at the door by Hermes, on Zeus ' order. Insulted, she threw from the door a gift of her own: a golden apple (το μήλον της έριδος) on which was inscribed the word καλλίστῃ Kallistēi ("To the fairest ''). The apple was claimed by Hera, Athena, and Aphrodite. They quarreled bitterly over it, and none of the other gods would venture an opinion favoring one, for fear of earning the enmity of the other two. Eventually, Zeus ordered Hermes to lead the three goddesses to Paris, a prince of Troy, who, unaware of his ancestry, was being raised as a shepherd in Mount Ida, because of a prophecy that he would be the downfall of Troy. After bathing in the spring of Ida, the goddesses appeared to him naked, either for the sake of winning or at Paris ' request. Paris was unable to decide between them, so the goddesses resorted to bribes. Athena offered Paris wisdom, skill in battle, and the abilities of the greatest warriors; Hera offered him political power and control of all of Asia; and Aphrodite offered him the love of the most beautiful woman in the world, Helen of Sparta. Paris awarded the apple to Aphrodite, and, after several adventures, returned to Troy, where he was recognized by his royal family.
Peleus and Thetis bore a son, whom they named Achilles. It was foretold that he would either die of old age after an uneventful life, or die young in a battlefield and gain immortality through poetry. Furthermore, when Achilles was nine years old, Calchas had prophesied that Troy could not again fall without his help. A number of sources credit Thetis with attempting to make Achilles immortal when he was an infant. Some of these state that she held him over fire every night to burn away his mortal parts and rubbed him with ambrosia during the day, but Peleus discovered her actions and stopped her. According to some versions of this story, Thetis had already killed several sons in this manner, and Peleus ' action therefore saved his son 's life. Other sources state that Thetis bathed Achilles in the Styx, the river that runs to the underworld, making him invulnerable wherever he was touched by the water. Because she had held him by the heel, it was not immersed during the bathing and thus the heel remained mortal and vulnerable to injury (hence the expression "Achilles heel '' for an isolated weakness). He grew up to be the greatest of all mortal warriors. After Calchas ' prophesy, Thetis hid Achilles in Skyros at the court of King Lycomedes, where he was disguised as a girl. At a crucial point in the war, she assists her son by providing weapons divinely forged by Hephaestus (see below).
The most beautiful woman in the world was Helen, one of the daughters of Tyndareus, King of Sparta. Her mother was Leda, who had been either raped or seduced by Zeus in the form of a swan. Accounts differ over which of Leda 's four children, two pairs of twins, were fathered by Zeus and which by Tyndareus. However, Helen is usually credited as Zeus ' daughter, and sometimes Nemesis is credited as her mother. Helen had scores of suitors, and her father was unwilling to choose one for fear the others would retaliate violently.
Finally, one of the suitors, Odysseus of Ithaca, proposed a plan to solve the dilemma. In exchange for Tyndareus ' support of his own suit towards Penelope, he suggested that Tyndareus require all of Helen 's suitors to promise that they would defend the marriage of Helen, regardless of whom he chose. The suitors duly swore the required oath on the severed pieces of a horse, although not without a certain amount of grumbling.
Tyndareus chose Menelaus. Menelaus was a political choice on her father 's part. He had wealth and power. He had humbly not petitioned for her himself, but instead sent his brother Agamemnon on his behalf. He had promised Aphrodite a hecatomb, a sacrifice of 100 oxen, if he won Helen, but forgot about it and earned her wrath. Menelaus inherited Tyndareus ' throne of Sparta with Helen as his queen when her brothers, Castor and Pollux, became gods, and when Agamemnon married Helen 's sister Clytemnestra and took back the throne of Mycenae.
Paris, under the guise of a supposed diplomatic mission, went to Sparta to get Helen and bring her back to Troy. Before Helen could look up to see him enter the palace, she was shot with an arrow from Eros, otherwise known as Cupid, and fell in love with Paris when she saw him, as promised by Aphrodite. Menelaus had left for Crete to bury his uncle, Crateus.
According to one account, Hera, still jealous over the judgement of Paris, sent a storm. The storm caused the lovers to land in Egypt, where the gods replaced Helen with a likeness of her made of clouds, Nephele. The myth of Helen being switched is attributed to the 6th century BC Sicilian poet Stesichorus. For Homer the true Helen was in Troy. The ship then landed in Sidon before reaching Troy. Paris, fearful of getting caught, spent some time there and then sailed to Troy.
Paris ' abduction of Helen had several precedents. Io was taken from Mycenae, Europa was taken from Phoenicia, Jason took Medea from Colchis, and the Trojan princess Hesione had been taken by Heracles, who gave her to Telamon of Salamis. According to Herodotus, Paris was emboldened by these examples to steal himself a wife from Greece, and expected no retribution, since there had been none in the other cases.
According to Homer, Menelaus and his ally, Odysseus, traveled to Troy, where they unsuccessfully sought to recover Helen by diplomatic means.
Menelaus then asked Agamemnon to uphold his oath, which, as one of Helen 's suitors, was to defend her marriage regardless of which suitor had been chosen. Agamemnon agreed and sent emissaries to all the Achaean kings and princes to call them to observe their oaths and retrieve Helen.
Since Menelaus 's wedding, Odysseus had married Penelope and fathered a son, Telemachus. In order to avoid the war, he feigned madness and sowed his fields with salt. Palamedes outwitted him by placing his infant son in front of the plough 's path, and Odysseus turned aside, unwilling to kill his son, so revealing his sanity and forcing him to join the war.
According to Homer, however, Odysseus supported the military adventure from the beginning, and traveled the region with Pylos ' king, Nestor, to recruit forces.
At Skyros, Achilles had an affair with the king 's daughter Deidamia, resulting in a child, Neoptolemus. Odysseus, Telamonian Ajax, and Achilles ' tutor Phoenix went to retrieve Achilles. Achilles ' mother disguised him as a woman so that he would not have to go to war, but, according to one story, they blew a horn, and Achilles revealed himself by seizing a spear to fight intruders, rather than fleeing. According to another story, they disguised themselves as merchants bearing trinkets and weaponry, and Achilles was marked out from the other women for admiring weaponry instead of clothes and jewelry.
Pausanias said that, according to Homer, Achilles did not hide in Skyros, but rather conquered the island, as part of the Trojan War.
The Achaean forces first gathered at Aulis. All the suitors sent their forces except King Cinyras of Cyprus. Though he sent breastplates to Agamemnon and promised to send 50 ships, he sent only one real ship, led by the son of Mygdalion, and 49 ships made of clay. Idomeneus was willing to lead the Cretan contingent in Mycenae 's war against Troy, but only as a co-commander, which he was granted. The last commander to arrive was Achilles, who was then 15 years old.
Following a sacrifice to Apollo, a snake slithered from the altar to a sparrow 's nest in a plane tree nearby. It ate the mother and her nine babies, then was turned to stone. Calchas interpreted this as a sign that Troy would fall in the tenth year of the war.
When the Achaeans left for the war, they did not know the way, and accidentally landed in Mysia, ruled by King Telephus, son of Heracles, who had led a contingent of Arcadians to settle there. In the battle, Achilles wounded Telephus, who had killed Thersander. Because the wound would not heal, Telephus asked an oracle, "What will happen to the wound? ''. The oracle responded, "he that wounded shall heal ''. The Achaean fleet then set sail and was scattered by a storm. Achilles landed in Scyros and married Deidamia. A new gathering was set again in Aulis.
Telephus went to Aulis, and either pretended to be a beggar, asking Agamemnon to help heal his wound, or kidnapped Orestes and held him for ransom, demanding the wound be healed. Achilles refused, claiming to have no medical knowledge. Odysseus reasoned that the spear that had inflicted the wound must be able to heal it. Pieces of the spear were scraped off onto the wound, and Telephus was healed. Telephus then showed the Achaeans the route to Troy.
Some scholars have regarded the expedition against Telephus and its resolution as a derivative reworking of elements from the main story of the Trojan War, but it has also been seen as fitting the story - pattern of the "preliminary adventure '' that anticipates events and themes from the main narrative, and therefore as likely to be "early and integral ''.
Eight years after the storm had scattered them, the fleet of more than a thousand ships was gathered again. But when they had all reached Aulis, the winds ceased. The prophet Calchas stated that the goddess Artemis was punishing Agamemnon for killing either a sacred deer or a deer in a sacred grove, and boasting that he was a better hunter than she. The only way to appease Artemis, he said, was to sacrifice Iphigenia, who was either the daughter of Agamemnon and Clytemnestra, or of Helen and Theseus entrusted to Clytemnestra when Helen married Menelaus. Agamemnon refused, and the other commanders threatened to make Palamedes commander of the expedition. According to some versions, Agamemnon relented and performed the sacrifice, but others claim that he sacrificed a deer in her place, or that at the last moment, Artemis took pity on the girl, and took her to be a maiden in one of her temples, substituting a lamb. Hesiod says that Iphigenia became the goddess Hecate.
The Achaean forces are described in detail in the Catalogue of Ships, in the second book of the Iliad. They consisted of 28 contingents from mainland Greece, the Peloponnese, the Dodecanese islands, Crete, and Ithaca, comprising 1186 pentekonters, ships with 50 rowers. Thucydides says that according to tradition there were about 1200 ships, and that the Boeotian ships had 120 men, while Philoctetes ' ships only had the fifty rowers, these probably being maximum and minimum. These numbers would mean a total force of 70,000 to 130,000 men. Another catalogue of ships is given by the Bibliotheca that differs somewhat but agrees in numbers. Some scholars have claimed that Homer 's catalogue is an original Bronze Age document, possibly the Achaean commander 's order of operations. Others believe it was a fabrication of Homer.
The second book of the Iliad also lists the Trojan allies, consisting of the Trojans themselves, led by Hector, and various allies listed as Dardanians led by Aeneas, Zeleians, Adrasteians, Percotians, Pelasgians, Thracians, Ciconian spearmen, Paionian archers, Halizones, Mysians, Phrygians, Maeonians, Miletians, Lycians led by Sarpedon and Carians. Nothing is said of the Trojan language; the Carians are specifically said to be barbarian - speaking, and the allied contingents are said to have spoken multiple languages, requiring orders to be translated by their individual commanders. The Trojans and Achaeans in the Iliad share the same religion, same culture and the enemy heroes speak to each other in the same language, though this could be dramatic effect.
Philoctetes was Heracles ' friend, and because he lit Heracles 's funeral pyre when no one else would, he received Heracles ' bow and arrows. He sailed with seven ships full of men to the Trojan War, where he was planning on fighting for the Achaeans. They stopped either at Chryse Island for supplies, or in Tenedos, along with the rest of the fleet. Philoctetes was then bitten by a snake. The wound festered and had a foul smell; on Odysseus 's advice, the Atreidae ordered Philoctetes to stay on Lemnos. Medon took control of Philoctetes 's men. While landing on Tenedos, Achilles killed king Tenes, son of Apollo, despite a warning by his mother that if he did so he would be killed himself by Apollo. From Tenedos, Agamemnon sent an embassy to Priam, composed of Menelaus, Odysseus, and Palamedes, asking for Helen 's return. The embassy was refused.
Philoctetes stayed on Lemnos for ten years, which was a deserted island according to Sophocles ' tragedy Philoctetes, but according to earlier tradition was populated by Minyans.
Calchas had prophesied that the first Achaean to walk on land after stepping off a ship would be the first to die. Thus even the leading Greeks hesitated to land. Finally, Protesilaus, leader of the Phylaceans, landed first. Odysseus had tricked him, in throwing his own shield down to land on, so that while he was first to leap off his ship, he was not the first to land on Trojan soil. Hector killed Protesilaus in single combat, though the Trojans conceded the beach. In the second wave of attacks, Achilles killed Cycnus, son of Poseidon. The Trojans then fled to the safety of the walls of their city. The walls served as sturdy fortifications for defense against the Greeks; the build of the walls was so impressive that legend held that they had been built by Poseidon and Apollo during a year of forced service to Trojan King Laomedon. Protesilaus had killed many Trojans but was killed by Hector in most versions of the story, though others list Aeneas, Achates, or Ephorbus as his slayer. The Achaeans buried him as a god on the Thracian peninsula, across the Troad. After Protesilaus ' death, his brother, Podarces, took command of his troops.
The Achaeans besieged Troy for nine years. This part of the war is the least developed among surviving sources, which prefer to talk about events in the last year of the war. After the initial landing the army was gathered in its entirety again only in the tenth year. Thucydides deduces that this was due to lack of money. They raided the Trojan allies and spent time farming the Thracian peninsula. Troy was never completely besieged, thus it maintained communications with the interior of Asia Minor. Reinforcements continued to come until the very end. The Achaeans controlled only the entrance to the Dardanelles, and Troy and her allies controlled the shortest point at Abydos and Sestus and communicated with allies in Europe.
Achilles and Ajax were the most active of the Achaeans, leading separate armies to raid lands of Trojan allies. According to Homer, Achilles conquered 11 cities and 12 islands. According to Apollodorus, he raided the land of Aeneas in the Troad region and stole his cattle. He also captured Lyrnassus, Pedasus, and many of the neighbouring cities, and killed Troilus, son of Priam, who was still a youth; it was said that if he reached 20 years of age, Troy would not fall. According to Apollodorus,
He also took Lesbos and Phocaea, then Colophon, and Smyrna, and Clazomenae, and Cyme; and afterwards Aegialus and Tenos, the so - called Hundred Cities; then, in order, Adramytium and Side; then Endium, and Linaeum, and Colone. He took also Hypoplacian Thebes and Lyrnessus, and further Antandrus, and many other cities.
Kakrides comments that the list is wrong in that it extends too far into the south. Other sources talk of Achilles taking Pedasus, Monenia, Mythemna (in Lesbos), and Peisidice.
Among the loot from these cities was Briseis, from Lyrnessus, who was awarded to him, and Chryseis, from Hypoplacian Thebes, who was awarded to Agamemnon. Achilles captured Lycaon, son of Priam, while he was cutting branches in his father 's orchards. Patroclus sold him as a slave in Lemnos, where he was bought by Eetion of Imbros and brought back to Troy. Only 12 days later Achilles slew him, after the death of Patroclus.
Ajax son of Telamon laid waste the Thracian peninsula of which Polymestor, a son - in - law of Priam, was king. Polymestor surrendered Polydorus, one of Priam 's children, of whom he had custody. He then attacked the town of the Phrygian king Teleutas, killed him in single combat and carried off his daughter Tecmessa. Ajax also hunted the Trojan flocks, both on Mount Ida and in the countryside.
Numerous paintings on pottery have suggested a tale not mentioned in the literary traditions. At some point in the war Achilles and Ajax were playing a board game (petteia). They were absorbed in the game and oblivious to the surrounding battle. The Trojans attacked and reached the heroes, who were only saved by an intervention of Athena.
Odysseus was sent to Thrace to return with grain, but came back empty - handed. When scorned by Palamedes, Odysseus challenged him to do better. Palamedes set out and returned with a shipload of grain.
Odysseus had never forgiven Palamedes for threatening the life of his son. In revenge, Odysseus conceived a plot where an incriminating letter was forged, from Priam to Palamedes, and gold was planted in Palamedes ' quarters. The letter and gold were "discovered '', and Agamemnon had Palamedes stoned to death for treason.
However, Pausanias, quoting the Cypria, says that Odysseus and Diomedes drowned Palamedes, while he was fishing, and Dictys says that Odysseus and Diomedes lured Palamedes into a well, which they said contained gold, then stoned him to death.
Palamedes ' father Nauplius sailed to the Troad and asked for justice, but was refused. In revenge, Nauplius traveled among the Achaean kingdoms and told the wives of the kings that they were bringing Trojan concubines to dethrone them. Many of the Greek wives were persuaded to betray their husbands, most significantly Agamemnon 's wife, Clytemnestra, who was seduced by Aegisthus, son of Thyestes.
Near the end of the ninth year since the landing, the Achaean army, tired from the fighting and from the lack of supplies, mutinied against their leaders and demanded to return to their homes. According to the Cypria, Achilles forced the army to stay. According to Apollodorus, Agamemnon brought the Wine Growers, daughters of Anius, son of Apollo, who had the gift of producing by touch wine, wheat, and oil from the earth, in order to relieve the supply problem of the army.
Chryses, a priest of Apollo and father of Chryseis, came to Agamemnon to ask for the return of his daughter. Agamemnon refused, and insulted Chryses, who prayed to Apollo to avenge his ill - treatment. Enraged, Apollo afflicted the Achaean army with plague. Agamemnon was forced to return Chryseis to end the plague, and took Achilles ' concubine Briseis as his own. Enraged at the dishonour Agamemnon had inflicted upon him, Achilles decided he would no longer fight. He asked his mother, Thetis, to intercede with Zeus, who agreed to give the Trojans success in the absence of Achilles, the best warrior of the Achaeans.
After the withdrawal of Achilles, the Achaeans were initially successful. Both armies gathered in full for the first time since the landing. Menelaus and Paris fought a duel, which ended when Aphrodite snatched the beaten Paris from the field. With the truce broken, the armies began fighting again. Diomedes won great renown amongst the Achaeans, killing the Trojan hero Pandaros and nearly killing Aeneas, who was only saved by his mother, Aphrodite. With the assistance of Athena, Diomedes then wounded the gods Aphrodite and Ares. During the next days, however, the Trojans drove the Achaeans back to their camp and were stopped at the Achaean wall by Poseidon. The next day, though, with Zeus ' help, the Trojans broke into the Achaean camp and were on the verge of setting fire to the Achaean ships. An earlier appeal to Achilles to return was rejected, but after Hector burned Protesilaus ' ship, he allowed his close friend and relative Patroclus to go into battle wearing Achilles ' armour and lead his army. Patroclus drove the Trojans all the way back to the walls of Troy, and was only prevented from storming the city by the intervention of Apollo. Patroclus was then killed by Hector, who took Achilles ' armour from the body of Patroclus.
Achilles, maddened with grief, swore to kill Hector in revenge. He was reconciled with Agamemnon and received Briseis back, untouched by Agamemnon. He received a new set of arms, forged by the god Hephaestus, and returned to the battlefield. He slaughtered many Trojans, and nearly killed Aeneas, who was saved by Poseidon. Achilles fought with the river god Scamander, and a battle of the gods followed. The Trojan army returned to the city, except for Hector, who remained outside the walls because he was tricked by Athena. Achilles killed Hector, and afterwards he dragged Hector 's body from his chariot and refused to return the body to the Trojans for burial. The Achaeans then conducted funeral games for Patroclus. Afterwards, Priam came to Achilles ' tent, guided by Hermes, and asked Achilles to return Hector 's body. The armies made a temporary truce to allow the burial of the dead. The Iliad ends with the funeral of Hector.
Shortly after the burial of Hector, Penthesilea, queen of the Amazons, arrived with her warriors. Penthesilea, daughter of Otrere and Ares, had accidentally killed her sister Hippolyte. She was purified from this action by Priam, and in exchange she fought for him and killed many, including Machaon (according to Pausanias, Machaon was killed by Eurypylus), and according to one version, Achilles himself, who was resurrected at the request of Thetis. In another version, Penthesilia was killed by Achilles who fell in love with her beauty after her death. Thersites, a simple soldier and the ugliest Achaean, taunted Achilles over his love and gouged out Penthesilea 's eyes. Achilles slew Thersites, and after a dispute sailed to Lesbos, where he was purified for his murder by Odysseus after sacrificing to Apollo, Artemis, and Leto.
While they were away, Memnon of Ethiopia, son of Tithonus and Eos, came with his host to help his stepbrother Priam. He did not come directly from Ethiopia, but either from Susa in Persia, conquering all the peoples in between, or from the Caucasus, leading an army of Ethiopians and Indians. Like Achilles, he wore armour made by Hephaestus. In the ensuing battle, Memnon killed Antilochus, who took one of Memnon 's blows to save his father Nestor. Achilles and Memnon then fought. Zeus weighed the fate of the two heroes; the weight containing that of Memnon sank, and he was slain by Achilles. Achilles chased the Trojans to their city, which he entered. The gods, seeing that he had killed too many of their children, decided that it was his time to die. He was killed after Paris shot a poisoned arrow that was guided by Apollo. In another version he was killed by a knife to the back (or heel) by Paris, while marrying Polyxena, daughter of Priam, in the temple of Thymbraean Apollo, the site where he had earlier killed Troilus. Both versions conspicuously deny the killer any sort of valour, saying Achilles remained undefeated on the battlefield. His bones were mingled with those of Patroclus, and funeral games were held. Like Ajax, he is represented as living after his death in the island of Leuke, at the mouth of the Danube River, where he is married to Helen.
A great battle raged around the dead Achilles. Ajax held back the Trojans, while Odysseus carried the body away. When Achilles ' armour was offered to the smartest warrior, the two that had saved his body came forward as competitors. Agamemnon, unwilling to undertake the invidious duty of deciding between the two competitors, referred the dispute to the decision of the Trojan prisoners, inquiring of them which of the two heroes had done most harm to the Trojans. Alternatively, the Trojans and Pallas Athena were the judges in that, following Nestor 's advice, spies were sent to the walls to overhear what was said. A girl said that Ajax was braver:
For Aias took up and carried out of the strife the hero, Peleus ' son: this great Odysseus cared not to do. To this another replied by Athena 's contrivance: Why, what is this you say? A thing against reason and untrue! Even a woman could carry a load once a man had put it on her shoulder; but she could not fight. For she would fail with fear if she should fight. (Scholiast on Aristophanes, Knights 1056 and Aristophanes ib)
According to Pindar, the decision was made by secret ballot among the Achaeans. In all story versions, the arms were awarded to Odysseus. Driven mad with grief, Ajax desired to kill his comrades, but Athena caused him to mistake the cattle and their herdsmen for the Achaean warriors. In his frenzy he scourged two rams, believing them to be Agamemnon and Menelaus. In the morning, he came to his senses and killed himself by jumping on the sword that had been given to him by Hector, so that it pierced his armpit, his only vulnerable part. According to an older tradition, he was killed by the Trojans who, seeing he was invulnerable, attacked him with clay until he was covered by it and could no longer move, thus dying of starvation.
After the tenth year, it was prophesied that Troy could not fall without Heracles ' bow, which was with Philoctetes in Lemnos. Odysseus and Diomedes retrieved Philoctetes, whose wound had healed. Philoctetes then shot and killed Paris.
According to Apollodorus, Paris ' brothers Helenus and Deiphobus vied over the hand of Helen. Deiphobus prevailed, and Helenus abandoned Troy for Mt. Ida. Calchas said that Helenus knew the prophecies concerning the fall of Troy, so Odysseus waylaid Helenus. Under coercion, Helenus told the Achaeans that they would win if they retrieved Pelops ' bones, persuaded Achilles ' son Neoptolemus to fight for them, and stole the Trojan Palladium.
The Greeks retrieved Pelop 's bones, and sent Odysseus to retrieve Neoptolemus, who was hiding from the war in King Lycomedes 's court in Scyros. Odysseus gave him his father 's arms. Eurypylus, son of Telephus, leading, according to Homer, a large force of Kêteioi, or Hittites or Mysians according to Apollodorus, arrived to aid the Trojans. He killed Machaon and Peneleos, but was slain by Neoptolemus.
Disguised as a beggar, Odysseus went to spy inside Troy, but was recognized by Helen. Homesick, Helen plotted with Odysseus. Later, with Helen 's help, Odysseus and Diomedes stole the Palladium.
The end of the war came with one final plan. Odysseus devised a new ruse -- a giant hollow wooden horse, an animal that was sacred to the Trojans. It was built by Epeius and guided by Athena, from the wood of a cornel tree grove sacred to Apollo, with the inscription:
The hollow horse was filled with soldiers led by Odysseus. The rest of the army burned the camp and sailed for Tenedos.
When the Trojans discovered that the Greeks were gone, believing the war was over, they "joyfully dragged the horse inside the city '', while they debated what to do with it. Some thought they ought to hurl it down from the rocks, others thought they should burn it, while others said they ought to dedicate it to Athena.
Both Cassandra and Laocoön warned against keeping the horse. While Cassandra had been given the gift of prophecy by Apollo, she was also cursed by Apollo never to be believed. Serpents then came out of the sea and devoured either Laocoön and one of his two sons, Laocoön and both his sons, or only his sons, a portent which so alarmed the followers of Aeneas that they withdrew to Ida. The Trojans decided to keep the horse and turned to a night of mad revelry and celebration. Sinon, an Achaean spy, signaled the fleet stationed at Tenedos when "it was midnight and the clear moon was rising '' and the soldiers from inside the horse emerged and killed the guards.
The Achaeans entered the city and killed the sleeping population. A great massacre followed which continued into the day.
Blood ran in torrents, drenched was all the earth, As Trojans and their alien helpers died. Here were men lying quelled by bitter death All up and down the city in their blood.
The Trojans, fuelled with desperation, fought back fiercely, despite being disorganized and leaderless. With the fighting at its height, some donned fallen enemies ' attire and launched surprise counterattacks in the chaotic street fighting. Other defenders hurled down roof tiles and anything else heavy down on the rampaging attackers. The outlook was grim though, and eventually the remaining defenders were destroyed along with the whole city.
Neoptolemus killed Priam, who had taken refuge at the altar of Zeus of the Courtyard. Menelaus killed Deiphobus, Helen 's husband after Paris ' death, and also intended to kill Helen, but, overcome by her beauty, threw down his sword and took her to the ships.
Ajax the Lesser raped Cassandra on Athena 's altar while she was clinging to her statue. Because of Ajax 's impiety, the Acheaens, urged by Odysseus, wanted to stone him to death, but he fled to Athena 's altar, and was spared.
Antenor, who had given hospitality to Menelaus and Odysseus when they asked for the return of Helen, and who had advocated so, was spared, along with his family. Aeneas took his father on his back and fled, and, according to Apollodorus, was allowed to go because of his piety.
The Greeks then burned the city and divided the spoils. Cassandra was awarded to Agamemnon. Neoptolemus got Andromache, wife of Hector, and Odysseus was given Hecuba, Priam 's wife.
The Achaeans threw Hector 's infant son Astyanax down from the walls of Troy, either out of cruelty and hate or to end the royal line, and the possibility of a son 's revenge. They (by usual tradition Neoptolemus) also sacrificed the Trojan princess Polyxena on the grave of Achilles as demanded by his ghost, either as part of his spoil or because she had betrayed him.
Aethra, Theseus ' mother, and one of Helen 's handmaids, was rescued by her grandsons, Demophon and Acamas.
The gods were very angry over the destruction of their temples and other sacrilegious acts by the Achaeans, and decided that most would not return home. A storm fell on the returning fleet off Tenos island. Additionally, Nauplius, in revenge for the murder of his son Palamedes, set up false lights in Cape Caphereus (also known today as Cavo D'Oro, in Euboea) and many were shipwrecked.
According to the Odyssey, Menelaus 's fleet was blown by storms to Crete and Egypt, where they were unable to sail away due to calm winds. Only five of his ships survived. Menelaus had to catch Proteus, a shape - shifting sea god, to find out what sacrifices to which gods he would have to make to guarantee safe passage. According to some stories the Helen who was taken by Paris was a fake, and the real Helen was in Egypt, where she was reunited with Menelaus. Proteus also told Menelaus that he was destined for Elysium (Heaven) after his death. Menelaus returned to Sparta with Helen eight years after he had left Troy.
Agamemnon returned home with Cassandra to Argos. His wife Clytemnestra (Helen 's sister) was having an affair with Aegisthus, son of Thyestes, Agamemnon 's cousin who had conquered Argos before Agamemnon himself retook it. Possibly out of vengeance for the death of Iphigenia, Clytemnestra plotted with her lover to kill Agamemnon. Cassandra foresaw this murder, and warned Agamemnon, but he disregarded her. He was killed, either at a feast or in his bath, according to different versions. Cassandra was also killed. Agamemnon 's son Orestes, who had been away, returned and conspired with his sister Electra to avenge their father. He killed Clytemnestra and Aegisthus and succeeded to his father 's throne.
Odysseus ' ten - year journey home to Ithaca was told in Homer 's Odyssey. Odysseus and his men were blown far off course to lands unknown to the Achaeans; there Odysseus had many adventures, including the famous encounter with the Cyclops Polyphemus, and an audience with the seer Teiresias in Hades. On the island of Thrinacia, Odysseus ' men ate the cattle sacred to the sun - god Helios. For this sacrilege Odysseus ' ships were destroyed, and all his men perished. Odysseus had not eaten the cattle, and was allowed to live; he washed ashore on the island of Ogygia, and lived there with the nymph Calypso. After seven years, the gods decided to send Odysseus home; on a small raft, he sailed to Scheria, the home of the Phaeacians, who gave him passage to Ithaca.
Once in his home land, Odysseus traveled disguised as an old beggar. He was recognised by his dog, Argos, who died in his lap. He then discovered that his wife, Penelope, had been faithful to him during the 20 years he was absent, despite the countless suitors that were eating his food and spending his property. With the help of his son Telemachus, Athena, and Eumaeus, the swineherd, he killed all of them except Medon, who had been polite to Penelope, and Phemius, a local singer who had only been forced to help the suitors against Penelope. Penelope tested Odysseus and made sure it was him, and he forgave her. The next day the suitors ' relatives tried to take revenge on him but they were stopped by Athena.
The Telegony picks up where the Odyssey leaves off, beginning with the burial of the dead suitors, and continues until the death of Odysseus. Some years after Odysseus ' return, Telegonus, the son of Odysseus and Circe, came to Ithaca and plundered the island. Odysseus, attempting to fight off the attack, was killed by his unrecognized son. After Telegonus realized he had killed his father, he brought the body to his mother Circe, along with Telemachus and Penelope. Circe made them immortal; then Telegonus married Penelope and Telemachus married Circe.
The journey of the Trojan survivor Aeneas and his resettling of Trojan refugees in Italy are the subject of the Latin epic poem The Aeneid by Virgil. Writing during the time of Augustus, Virgil has his hero give a first - person account of the fall of Troy in the second of the Aeneid ' s twelve books; the Trojan Horse, which does not appear in "The Iliad '', became legendary from Virgil 's account.
Aeneas leads a group of survivors away from the city, among them his son Ascanius (also known as Iulus), his trumpeter Misenus, father Anchises, the healer Iapyx, his faithful sidekick Achates, and Mimas as a guide. His wife Creusa is killed during the sack of the city. Aeneas also carries the Lares and Penates of Troy, which the historical Romans claimed to preserve as guarantees of Rome 's own security.
The Trojan survivors escape with a number of ships, seeking to establish a new homeland elsewhere. They land in several nearby countries that prove inhospitable, and are finally told by an oracle that they must return to the land of their forebears. They first try to establish themselves in Crete, where Dardanus had once settled, but find it ravaged by the same plague that had driven Idomeneus away. They find the colony led by Helenus and Andromache, but decline to remain. After seven years they arrive in Carthage, where Aeneas has an affair with Queen Dido. (Since according to tradition Carthage was founded in 814 BC, the arrival of Trojan refugees a few hundred years earlier exposes chronological difficulties within the mythic tradition.) Eventually the gods order Aeneas to continue onward, and he and his people arrive at the mouth of the Tiber River in Italy. Dido commits suicide, and Aeneas 's betrayal of her was regarded as an element in the long enmity between Rome and Carthage that expressed itself in the Punic Wars and led to Roman hegemony.
At Cumae, the Sibyl leads Aeneas on an archetypal descent to the underworld, where the shade of his dead father serves as a guide; this book of the Aeneid directly influenced Dante, who has Virgil act as his narrator 's guide. Aeneas is given a vision of the future majesty of Rome, which it was his duty to found, and returns to the world of the living. He negotiates a settlement with the local king, Latinus, and was wed to his daughter, Lavinia. This triggered a war with other local tribes, which culminated in the founding of the settlement of Alba Longa, ruled by Aeneas and Lavinia 's son Silvius. Roman myth attempted to reconcile two different founding myths: three hundred years later, in the more famous tradition, Romulus founded Rome after murdering his brother Remus. The Trojan origins of Rome became particularly important in the propaganda of Julius Caesar, whose family claimed descent from Venus through Aeneas 's son Iulus (hence the Latin gens name Iulius), and during the reign of Augustus; see for instance the Tabulae Iliacae and the "Troy Game '' presented frequently by the Julio - Claudian dynasty.
Since this war was considered among the ancient Greeks as either the last event of the mythical age or the first event of the historical age, several dates are given for the fall of Troy. They usually derive from genealogies of kings. Ephorus gives 1135 BC, Sosibius 1172 BC, Eratosthenes 1184 BC / 1183 BC, Timaeus 1193 BC, the Parian marble 1209 BC / 1208 BC, Dicaearchus 1212 BC, Herodotus around 1250 BC, Eretes 1291 BC, while Douris 1334 BC. As for the exact day Ephorus gives 23 / 24 Thargelion (May 6 or 7), Hellanicus 12 Thargelion (May 26) while others give the 23rd of Sciroforion (July 7) or the 23rd of Ponamos (October 7).
The glorious and rich city Homer describes was believed to be Troy VI by many twentieth century authors, destroyed in 1275 BC, probably by an earthquake. Its follower Troy VIIa, destroyed by fire at some point during the 1180s BC, was long considered a poorer city, but since the excavation campaign of 1988 it has risen to the most likely candidate.
The historicity of the Trojan War is still subject to debate. Most classical Greeks thought that the war was a historical event, but many believed that the Homeric poems had exaggerated the events to suit the demands of poetry. For instance, the historian Thucydides, who is known for being critical, considers it a true event but doubts that 1,186 ships were sent to Troy. Euripides started changing Greek myths at will, including those of the Trojan War. Near year 100, Dio Chrysostom argued that while the war was historical, it ended with the Trojans winning, and the Greeks attempted to hide that fact. Around 1870 it was generally agreed in Western Europe that the Trojan War had never happened and Troy never existed. Then Heinrich Schliemann popularized his excavations at Hisarlik, which he and others believed to be Troy, and of the Mycenaean cities of Greece. Today many scholars agree that the Trojan War is based on a historical core of a Greek expedition against the city of Troy, but few would argue that the Homeric poems faithfully represent the actual events of the war.
In November 2001, geologist John C. Kraft and classicist John V. Luce presented the results of investigations into the geology of the region that had started in 1977. The geologists compared the present geology with the landscapes and coastal features described in the Iliad and other classical sources, notably Strabo 's Geographia. Their conclusion was that there is regularly a consistency between the location of Troy as identified by Schliemann (and other locations such as the Greek camp), the geological evidence, and descriptions of the topography and accounts of the battle in the Iliad.
In the twentieth century scholars have attempted to draw conclusions based on Hittite and Egyptian texts that date to the time of the Trojan War. While they give a general description of the political situation in the region at the time, their information on whether this particular conflict took place is limited. Andrew Dalby notes that while the Trojan War most likely did take place in some form and is therefore grounded in history, its true nature is and will be unknown. The Tawagalawa letter mentions a kingdom of Ahhiyawa (Achaea, or Greece) that lies beyond the sea (that would be the Aegean) and controls Milliwanda, which is identified with Miletus. Also mentioned in this and other letters is the Assuwa confederation made of 22 cities and countries which included the city of Wilusa (Ilios or Ilium). The Milawata letter implies this city lies on the north of the Assuwa confederation, beyond the Seha river. While the identification of Wilusa with Ilium (that is, Troy) is always controversial, in the 1990s it gained majority acceptance. In the Alaksandu treaty (c. 1280 BC) the king of the city is named Alaksandu, and Paris 's name in the Iliad (among other works) is Alexander. The Tawagalawa letter (dated c. 1250 BC) which is addressed to the king of Ahhiyawa actually says: "Now as we have come to an agreement on Wilusa over which we went to war... ''
Formerly under the Hittites, the Assuwa confederation defected after the battle of Kadesh between Egypt and the Hittites (c. 1274 BC). In 1230 BC Hittite king Tudhaliya IV (c. 1240 -- 1210 BC) campaigned against this federation. Under Arnuwanda III (c. 1210 -- 1205 BC) the Hittites were forced to abandon the lands they controlled in the coast of the Aegean. It is possible that the Trojan War was a conflict between the king of Ahhiyawa and the Assuwa confederation. This view has been supported in that the entire war includes the landing in Mysia (and Telephus ' wounding), Achilles 's campaigns in the North Aegean and Telamonian Ajax 's campaigns in Thrace and Phrygia. Most of these regions were part of Assuwa. That most Achaean heroes did not return to their homes and founded colonies elsewhere was interpreted by Thucydides as being due to their long absence. Nowadays the interpretation followed by most scholars is that the Achaean leaders driven out of their lands by the turmoil at the end of the Mycenaean era preferred to claim descent from exiles of the Trojan War.
The inspiration provided by these events produced many literary works, far more than can be listed here. The siege of Troy provided inspiration for many works of art, most famously Homer 's Iliad, set in the last year of the siege. Some of the others include Troades by Euripides, Troilus and Criseyde by Geoffrey Chaucer, Troilus and Cressida by William Shakespeare, Iphigenia and Polyxena by Samuel Coster, Palamedes by Joost van den Vondel and Les Troyens by Hector Berlioz.
Films based on the Trojan War include Helen of Troy (1956), The Trojan Horse (1961) and Troy (2004). The war has also been featured in many books, television series, and other creative works.
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nothing going to stop us now song youtube | Nothing 's Gonna Stop Us Now - wikipedia
"Nothing 's Gonna Stop Us Now '' is a song co-written by Albert Hammond and Diane Warren, recorded by the American rock band Starship in 1986. It is a duet featuring Starship vocalists Grace Slick and Mickey Thomas. Featured as the theme to the romantic comedy film Mannequin, it hit No. 1 in the Billboard Hot 100 on April 4, 1987 and reached No. 1 on the UK Singles Chart for four weeks the following month and became the UK 's second - biggest - selling single of 1987. The song also reached the top 10 in six European countries. The single became the first number one single by songwriter Diane Warren. At the time, it made Grace Slick (47 years old at the time of release) the oldest woman to have a number - one single in the United States though the record was later broken by Cher 's "Believe '' in 1999 (52 years old at the time of release).
The power ballad also received an Academy Award nomination for "Best Original Song '' at the 60th Academy Awards. In addition to appearing on the Mannequin soundtrack, the song was also released on Starship 's album No Protection in July 1987. The music video was released in late 1986 to promote Mannequin.
In a radio interview, Albert Hammond said that the idea for the song came from his impending marriage to his live - in girlfriend of seven years, after his divorce from his previous wife was finalized. He had said to Diane Warren, "It 's almost like they 've stopped me from marrying this woman for seven years, and they have n't succeeded. They 're not gon na stop me doing it. '' The song has been considered "feel good '' propelled by a strong synthesizer beat.
A music video (released in 1987) was produced for the song. It shows Mickey Thomas pursuing a mannequin come to life, played by Grace Slick, wrapped around footage from the film Mannequin. Meshach Taylor, who plays window dresser Hollywood Montrose in the film Mannequin, makes a cameo. It has more than 38 million views on YouTube as of July 1st, 2018.
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone
Cover Version in 1987, Hong Kong singer George Lam covered this song in Cantonese.
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sociometry method of studying attractions and repulsions in groups | Sociometry - wikipedia
Sociometry is a quantitative method for measuring social relationships. It was developed by psychotherapist Jacob L. Moreno in his studies of the relationship between social structures and psychological well - being and used during Remedial Teaching.
The term sociometry relates to its Latin etymology, socius meaning companion, and metrum meaning measure. Jacob Moreno defined sociometry as "the inquiry into the evolution and organization of groups and the position of individuals within them. '' He goes on to write "As the... science of group organization, it attacks the problem not from the outer structure of the group, the group surface, but from the inner structure ''. "Sociometric explorations reveal the hidden structures that give a group its form: the alliances, the subgroups, the hidden beliefs, the forbidden agendas, the ideological agreements, the ' stars ' of the show. ''
Moreno developed sociometry within the new sciences, although its ultimate purpose is transcendence and not science. ' By making choices based on criteria, overt and energetic, Moreno hoped that individuals would be more spontaneous, and organisations and groups structures would become fresh, clear and lively. '
One of Moreno 's innovations in sociometry was the development of the sociogram, a systematic method for graphically representing individuals as points / nodes and the relationships between them as lines / arcs. Moreno, who wrote extensively of his thinking, applications and findings, also founded a journal entitled Sociometry.
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Within sociology, sociometry has two main branches: research sociometry, and applied sociometry. Research sociometry is action research with groups exploring the socio - emotional networks of relationships using specified criteria e.g. Who in this group do you want to sit beside you at work? Who in the group do you go to for advice on a work problem? Who in the group do you see providing satisfying leadership in the pending project? Sometimes called network explorations, research sociometry is concerned with relational patterns in small (individual and small group) and larger populations, such as organizations and neighborhoods. Applied sociometrists utilize a range of methods to assist people and groups review, expand and develop their existing psycho - social networks of relationships. Both fields of sociometry exist to produce through their application, greater spontaneity and creativity of both individuals and groups.
In Sociometry, Experimental Method and the Science of Society: An Approach to a New Political Orientation (1951), Moreno describes the depth to which a group needs to go for the method to be "sociometric ''. The term for him had a qualitative meaning and did not apply unless some group process criteria were met. One of these is that there is acknowledgment of the difference between process dynamics and the manifest content. To quote Moreno: "there is a deep discrepancy between the official and the secret behavior of members ''. Moreno advocates that before any "social program '' can be proposed, the sociometrist has to "take into account the actual constitution of the group. ''
Other criteria include the rule of adequate motivation: "Every participant should feel about the experiment that it is in his (or her) own cause... that it is an opportunity for him (or her) to become an active agent in matters concerning his (or her) life situation. '' and the Rule of "gradual '' inclusion of all extraneous criteria.
Given that sociometry is concerned with group allegiances and cleavages, it is not surprising that sociometric methods have been used to study ethnic relationships and way individuals identify with ethnic groups. For instance, using sociometric research, Joan Criswell investigated white - black relationships in US classrooms, Gabriel Weimann researched ethnic relationships in Israel, and James Page has investigated intra-ethnic and inter-ethnic identification within the Pacific.
Other approaches were developed in last decades, such as social network analysis, or sociomapping. Freeware as well as commercial software was developed for analysis of groups and their structure, such as Gephi, Pajek, Keyhubs or InFlow. All these approaches share much of their basic principles with Sociometry. Facebook is a social network service and website which is largely based on the sociometry of its users.
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does the majority of the world's population live in cities | Megacity - Wikipedia
A megacity is a very large city, typically with a total population in excess of 10 million people. Precise definitions vary: the United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs in its 2014 "World Urbanization Prospects '' report counted urban agglomerations having over 10 million inhabitants. A University of Bonn report held that they are "usually defined as metropolitan areas with a total population of 10 million or more people ''. Others list cities satisfying criteria of either 5 or 8 million and also have a population density of 2,000 per square kilometre. A megacity can be a single metropolitan area or two or more metropolitan areas that converge. The terms conurbation, metropolis, and metroplex are also applied to the latter. The term metacity has been used to describe metropolitan conurbations containing over 20 million people.
As of 2017, there are 47 megacities in existence. Most of these urban agglomerations are in China and other countries of Asia. The largest are the metropolitan areas of Tokyo, Shanghai, and Jakarta, each having over 30 million inhabitants. China alone has 15 megacities, and India has six. South America has five; Africa, Europe, and North America have three each.
This is the list of world 's largest cities and metropolitan areas by population as of 2016.
The term "megacity '' entered common use in the late 19th or early 20th centuries; one of the earliest documented uses of the term was by the University of Texas in 1904. Initially the United Nations used the term to describe cities of 8 million or more inhabitants, but now uses the threshold of 10 million.
In 1800, only 3 % of the world 's population lived in cities, a figure that rose to 47 % by the end of the twentieth century. In 1950, there were 83 cities with populations exceeding one million; by 2007, this number had risen to 468. The UN forecasts that today 's urban population of 3.2 billion will rise to nearly 5 billion by 2030, when three out of five people will live in cities. This increase will be most dramatic on the least - urbanized continents, Asia and Africa. Surveys and projections indicate that all urban growth over the next 25 years will be in developing countries. One billion people, almost one - seventh of the world 's population, now live in shanty towns. In many poor countries overpopulated slums exhibit high rates of disease due to unsanitary conditions, malnutrition, and lack of basic health care. By 2030, over 2 billion people in the world will be living in slums. Over 90 % of the urban population of Ethiopia, Malawi and Uganda, three of the world 's most rural countries, already live in slums.
By 2025, Asia alone will have at least 30 megacities, including Mumbai, India (2015 population of 20.75 million people), Shanghai, China (2015 population of 35.5 million people), Delhi, India (2015 population of 21.8 million people), Tokyo, Japan (2015 population of 38.8 million people) and Seoul, South Korea (2015 population of 25.6 million people). In Africa, Lagos, Nigeria has grown from 300,000 in 1950 to an estimated 21 million today.
For almost five hundred years, Rome was the largest, wealthiest, and most politically important city in Europe. Its population passed one million people by the end of the 1st century BC. Rome 's population started declining in 402 AD when Flavius Honorius, Western Roman Emperor from 395 to 423, moved the government to Ravenna and Rome 's population declined to a mere 20,000 during the Early Middle Ages, reducing the sprawling city to groups of inhabited buildings interspersed among large areas of ruins and vegetation.
Baghdad was likely the largest city in the world from shortly after its foundation in 762 AD until the 930s, with some estimates putting its population at over one million. Chinese capital cities Chang'an and Kaifeng also experienced huge population booms during prosperous empires. According to the census in the year 742 recorded in the New Book of Tang, 362,921 families with 1,960,188 persons were counted in Jingzhao Fu (京 兆 府), the metropolitan area including small cities in the vicinity of Chang'an. The medieval settlement surrounding Angkor, the one - time capital of the Khmer Empire which flourished between the 9th and 15th centuries, could have supported a population of up to one million people.
From around 1825 to 1918 London was the largest city in the world, with the population growing rapidly; it was the first city to reach a population of over 5 million in 1900. In 1950, New York City was the only urban area with a population of over 10 million. Geographers had identified 25 such areas as of October 2005, as compared with 19 megacities in 2004 and only nine in 1985. This increase has happened as the world 's population moves towards the high (75 -- 85 %) urbanization levels of North America and Western Europe.
Since the 2000s, the largest megacity has been the Greater Tokyo Area. The population of this urban agglomeration includes areas such as Yokohama and Kawasaki, and is estimated to be between 37 and 38 million. This variation in estimates can be accounted for by different definitions of what the area encompasses. While the prefectures of Tokyo, Chiba, Kanagawa, and Saitama are commonly included in statistical information, the Japan Statistics Bureau only includes the area within 50 kilometers of the Tokyo Metropolitan Government Offices in Shinjuku, thus arriving at a smaller population estimate. A characteristic issue of megacities is the difficulty in defining their outer limits and accurately estimating the populations.
Another list defines megacities as urban agglomerations instead of metropolitan areas. As of 2010, there are 25 megacities by this definition, like Tokyo. Other sources list Nagoya and the Rhein - Ruhr as megacities.
According to the United Nations, the proportion of urban dwellers living in slums decreased from 47 percent to 37 percent in the developing world between 1990 and 2005. However, due to rising population, the absolute number of slum dwellers is rising. The majority of these come from the fringes of urban margins, located in legal and illegal settlements with insufficient housing and sanitation. This has been caused by massive migration, both internal and transnational, into cities, which has caused growth rates of urban populations and spatial concentrations not seen before in history. These issues raise problems in the political, social, and economic arenas. Slum dwellers often have minimal or no access to education, healthcare, or the urban economy.
As with any large concentration of people, there is usually crime. High population densities, placing lots of people together, invariably result in higher crime rates, as visibly seen in growing megacities such as Karachi, Mumbai, Cairo, Rio de Janeiro, and Lagos.
Megacities often have significant numbers of homeless people. The actual legal definition of homelessness varies from country to country, or among different entities or institutions in the same country or region.
In 2002, research showed that children and families were the largest growing segment of the homeless population in the United States, and this has presented new challenges, especially in services, to agencies. In the USA, the government asked many major cities to come up with a ten - year plan to end homelessness. One of the results of this was a "Housing first '' solution, rather than to have a homeless person remain in an emergency homeless shelter it was thought to be better to quickly get the person permanent housing of some sort and the necessary support services to sustain a new home. But there are many complications with this kind of program and these must be dealt with to make such an initiative work successfully in the middle to long term.
Traffic congestion is a condition on road networks that occurs as use increases, and is characterized by slower speeds, longer trip times, increased pollution, and increased vehicular queueing. The Texas Transportation Institute estimated that, in 2000, the 75 largest metropolitan areas experienced 3.6 billion vehicle - hours of delay, resulting in 5.7 billion U.S. gallons (21.6 billion liters) in wasted fuel and $67.5 billion in lost productivity, or about 0.7 % of the nation 's GDP. It also estimated that the annual cost of congestion for each driver was approximately $1,000 in very large cities and $200 in small cities. Traffic congestion is increasing in major cities and delays are becoming more frequent in smaller cities and rural areas.
Urban sprawl, also known as suburban sprawl, is a multifaceted concept, which includes the spreading outwards of a city and its suburbs to its outskirts to low - density, auto - dependent development on rural land, with associated design features that encourage car dependency. As a result, some critics argue that sprawl has certain disadvantages including longer transport distances to work, high car dependence, inadequate facilities (e.g. health, cultural. etc.) and higher per - person infrastructure costs. Discussions and debates about sprawl are often obfuscated by the ambiguity associated with the phrase. For example, some commentators measure sprawl only with the average number of residential units per acre in a given area. But others associate it with decentralization (spread of population without a well - defined center), discontinuity (leapfrog development), segregation of uses, etc.
Gentrification and urban gentrification denote the socio - cultural changes in an area resulting from wealthier people buying housing property in a less prosperous community. Consequent to gentrification, the average income increases and average family size decreases in the community, which may result in the informal economic eviction of the lower - income residents, because of increased rents, house prices, and property taxes. This type of population change reduces industrial land use when it is redeveloped for commerce and housing. In addition, new businesses, catering to a more affluent base of consumers, tend to move into formerly blighted areas, further increasing the appeal to more affluent migrants and decreasing the accessibility to less wealthy natives.
Air pollution is the introduction into the atmosphere of chemicals, particulate matter, or biological materials that cause harm or discomfort to humans or other living organisms, or damages the natural environment. Many urban areas have significant problems with smog, a type of air pollution derived from vehicle emissions from internal combustion engines and industrial fumes that react in the atmosphere with sunlight to form secondary pollutants that also combine with the primary emissions to form photochemical smog.
Smog is also caused by large amounts of coal burning, which creates a mixture of smoke and sulfur dioxide. World coal consumption was about 6,743,786,000 short tons in 2006 and is expected to increase 48 % to 9.98 billion short tons by 2030. China produced 2.38 billion tons in 2006. India produced about 447.3 million tons in 2006. 68.7 % of China 's electricity comes from coal. The USA consumes about 14 % of the world total, using 90 % of it for generation of electricity.
The sheer size and complexity of megacities gives rise to enormous social and environmental challenges. Whether megacities can develop sustainably depends to a large extent on how they obtain, share, and manage their energy and material resources. There are correlations between electricity consumption, heating and industrial fuel use, ground transportation energy use, water consumption, waste generation, and steel production in terms of level of consumption and how efficiently they use resources.
Megacities are a common backdrop in dystopian science fiction, with examples such as the Sprawl in William Gibson 's Neuromancer, and Mega-City One, a megalopolis of between 50 and 800 million people (fluctuations due to war and disaster) across the east coast of the United States, in the Judge Dredd comic. In Demolition Man a megacity called "San Angeles '' was formed from the joining of Los Angeles, Santa Barbara, San Diego and the surrounding metropolitan regions following a massive earthquake in 2010. Fictional planet - wide megacities (ecumenopoleis) include Trantor in Isaac Asimov 's Foundation series of books and Coruscant (population 2 trillion) in the Star Wars universe.
1 Tokyo - Yokohama 2 Shanghai 3 Jakarta 4 Delhi 5 Seoul - Incheon
6 Karachi 7 Guangzhou 8 Beijing 9 Shenzhen 7 Mexico City
11 São Paulo 12 Lagos 13 Mumbai 14 Cairo 15 New York
16 Osaka 17 Moscow 18 Wuhan 19 Chengdu 20 Dhaka
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when do you have to register for selective service | Selective Service System - wikipedia
The Selective Service System is an independent agency of the United States government that maintains information on those potentially subject to military conscription. Virtually all male U.S. citizens and male immigrant non-citizens between the ages of 18 and 25 are required by law to have registered within 30 days of their 18th birthdays and must notify Selective Service within ten days of any changes to any of the information they provided on their registration cards, like a change of address. A 2010 Government Accountability Office report estimated the registration rate at 92 % with the names and addresses of over 16.2 million men on file. However, the only audit of the addresses of registrants on file with the Selective Service System, in 1982, found that 20 -- 40 % of the addresses on file with the Selective Service System for registrants in the age groups that would be drafted first were already outdated, and up to 75 % for those registrants in their last year of potential eligibility to be drafted would be invalid.
Registration with Selective Service is also required for various federal programs and benefits, including Free Application for Federal Student Aid (FAFSA), such as student loans and Pell Grants, job training, federal employment, and naturalization.
The Selective Service System provides the names of all registrants to the Joint Advertising Marketing Research & Studies (JAMRS) program for inclusion in the JAMRS Consolidated Recruitment Database. The names are distributed to the Services for recruiting purposes on a quarterly basis.
Regulations are codified at Title 32 of the Code of Federal Regulations, Chapter XVI.
Following the U.S. declaration of war against Germany on April 6, the Selective Service Act of 1917 (40 Stat. 76) was passed by the 65th United States Congress on May 18, 1917, creating the Selective Service System. President Woodrow Wilson signed the Act into law after the U.S. Army failed to meet its target of expanding to 1 million men after six weeks. The Act gave the President the power to conscript men for military service. All men aged 21 to 30 were required to register for military service for a service period of 12 months. As of mid-November 1917, all registrants were placed in one of five new classifications. Men in Class I were the first to be drafted, and men in lower classifications were deferred. Dependency deferments for registrants who were fathers or husbands were especially widespread. The age limit was later raised in August 1918 to a maximum age of 45. The military draft was discontinued in 1920.
The Selective Training and Service Act of 1940 was passed by Congress on September 16, 1940, establishing the first peacetime conscription in United States history. It required all men between the ages of 18 to 64 to register with Selective Service. It originally conscripted all men aged 21 to 35 for a service period of 12 months. In 1941 the military service period was extended to 18 months; later that year the age bracket was increased to include men aged 18 to 37. Following the sneak Japanese air raid attack on Pearl Harbor on Sunday, December 7th, 1941, and the subsequent declarations of war by the United States against the Empire of Japan and then a few days later against Nazi Germany, the service period was subsequently extended in early 1942 to last for the duration of the war plus a six - month service in the Organized Reserves.
The Selective Service System created by the 1940 Act was terminated by the Act of March 31, 1947.
The Selective Service Act of 1948, enacted in June of that year, created a new and separate system, the basis for the modern system. All men 18 years and older had to register with Selective Service. All men between the ages of 19 to 26 were eligible to be drafted for a service requirement of 21 months. This was followed by a commitment for either 12 consecutive months of active service or 36 consecutive months of service in the reserves, with a statutory term of military service set at a minimum of five years total. Conscripts could volunteer for military service in the Regular United States Army for a term of four years or the Organized Reserves for a term of six years. Due to deep postwar budget cuts, only 100,000 conscripts were chosen in 1948. In 1950, the number of conscripts was greatly increased to meet the demands of the Korean War (1950 -- 1953).
The outbreak of the Korean War fostered the creation of the Universal Military Training and Service Act of 1951 (Selective Service Act of 1948). This lowered the draft age from 19 to 18 ⁄, increased active - duty service time from 21 to 24 months, and set the statutory term of military service at a minimum of eight years. Students attending a college or training program full - time could request an exemption, which was extended as long as they were students. A Universal Military Training clause was inserted that would have made all men obligated to perform 12 months of military service and training if the Act was amended by later legislation. Despite successive attempts over the next several years, however, such legislation was never passed.
35th President John F. Kennedy set up Executive Order 11119 (signed on September 10, 1963), granting an exemption from conscription for married men between the ages of 19 and 26. His Vice President and successor as 36th President Lyndon B. Johnson later rescinded the exemption for married men without children by Executive Order 11241 (signed on August 26, 1965 and going into effect on midnight of that date). However, married men with children or other dependents and men married before the Executive Order went into effect were still exempt. 40th President Ronald Reagan revoked both of them with Executive Order 12553 (signed on February 25, 1986).
The Military Selective Service Act of 1967 (Selective Service Act of 1948) expanded the ages of conscription to the ages of 18 to 35. It still granted student deferments, but ended them upon either the student 's completion of a four - year degree or his 24th birthday, whichever came first.
On November 26, 1969, 37th President Richard Nixon signed an amendment to the Military Selective Service Act of 1967 (Selective Service Act of 1948) that established conscription based on random selection (lottery). The first draft lottery was held on December 1, 1969; it determined the order of call for induction during calendar year 1970, for registrants born between January 1, 1944, and December 31, 1950. The second lottery, on July 1, 1970, pertained to men born in 1951. The highest lottery number called for possible induction was 125. The third was on August 5, 1971, pertaining to men born in 1952; the highest lottery number called was 95.
In 1971, the Military Selective Service Act (Selective Service Act of 1948) was further amended to make registration compulsory; all men had to register within a period 30 days before and 29 days after their 18th birthday. Registrants were classified 1 - A (eligible for military service), 1 - AO (Conscientious Objector available for non-combatant military service), and 1 - O (Conscientious Objector available for alternate community service). Student deferments were ended, except for divinity students, who received a 2 - D Selective Service classification. Men which were not classifiable as eligible for service due to a disqualification were classified 1 - N. Men who are incapable of serving for medical or psychological unfitness are classified 4 - F. Draft classifications of 1 - A were changed to 1 - H (registrant not currently subject to processing for induction) for men not selected for service after the calendar year they were eligible for the draft. Also, draft board membership requirements were reformed: minimum age of board members was dropped from 30 to 18, members over 65 or who had served on the board for 20 or more years had to retire, and membership had to proportionally reflect the ethnic and cultural makeup of the local community.
The seventh and final lottery drawing was held on March 12, 1975, pertaining to men born in 1956, who would have been called to report for induction in 1976. But no new draft orders were issued after 1972. On January 27, 1973, Secretary of Defense Melvin R. Laird announced the creation of an all - volunteer armed forces, negating the need for the military draft.
On March 29, 1975, 38th President Gerald R. Ford, whose own son, Steven Ford, had earlier failed to register for the draft as required, signed Proclamation 4360 (Terminating Registration Procedures Under Military Selective Service Act), eliminating the registration requirement for all 18 - to 25 - year - old male citizens.
On July 2, 1980, 39th President Jimmy Carter signed Proclamation 4771 (Registration Under the Military Selective Service Act) in response to the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan in the previous year of 1979, retroactively re-establishing the Selective Service registration requirement for all 18 - to 26 - year - old male citizens born on or after January 1, 1960. As a result, only men born between March 29, 1957, and December 31, 1959, were completely exempt from Selective Service registration.
The first registrations after Proclamation 4771 took place at various post offices across the nation on July 21, 1980, for men born in calendar year 1960. Pursuant to the Presidential proclamation, all those men born in 1960 were required to register that week. Men born in 1961 were required to register the following week. Men born in 1962 were required to register during the week beginning January 5, 1981. Men born in 1963 and after were required to register within 30 days after their 18th birthday.
In 2014, due to a clerical error at the Pennsylvania Department of Transportation, information about 14,250 men born in the years 1893 -- 97 (in addition to 1993 -- 97) was provided to the Selective Service System. Draft registration notices were then sent to the men.
A bill to abolish the Selective Service System was introduced in the United States House of Representatives on February 10, 2016. H.R. 4523 would (a) end draft registration and eliminate the authority of the President to order anyone to register for the draft, (b) abolish the Selective Service System, and (c) effectively repeal the "Solomon Amendments '' making registration for the draft a condition of Federal student aid, jobs, and job training. The bill would leave in place, however, laws in some states making registration for the draft a condition of some state benefits. On June 9, 2016, a similar bill was introduced in the United States Senate, called the "Muhammad Ali Voluntary Service Act ''.
On April 27, 2016, the House Armed Services Committee voted to add an amendment to the National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2017 to extend the authority for draft registration to women. On May 12, 2016, the Senate Armed Services Committee voted to add a similar provision to its version of the bill. If the bill including this provision would have been enacted into law, it would authorize (but not require) the President to order young women as well as young men to register with the Selective Service System.
Under current law, all male US citizens between 18 -- 25 years of age are required to register within 30 days of their 18th birthday. In addition, non-US citizen men between the ages of 18 and 25 (inclusive) living in the United States must register. This includes permanent residents, refugees, asylum seekers, and undocumented immigrants. Foreign men lawfully present in the United States who are non-immigrants, such as international students, visitors, and diplomats, are not required to register. Aliens on lawful non-immigrant status are not required to register so long as they remain in that status. If an alien 's non-immigrant status lapses while he is in the United States, he will be required to register. Failure to register as required is grounds for denying a petition for US citizenship. Currently, citizens who are 17 and 3 months old can pre-register so when they turn 18 their information will automatically be added into the system.
In the current registration system, a man can not indicate that he is a conscientious objector (CO) to war when registering, but he can make such a claim when being drafted. Some men choose to write on the registration card "I am a conscientious objector to war '' to document their conviction, even though the government will not have such a classification until there is a draft. A number of private organizations have programs for conscientious objectors to file a written record stating their beliefs.
In 1987, Congress ordered the Selective Service System to put in place a system capable of drafting "persons qualified for practice or employment in a health care occupation '' in case such a special - skills draft should be ordered by Congress. In response, the Selective Service published plans for the "Health Care Personnel Delivery System '' (HCPDS) in 1989, and has had them ready ever since. The concept underwent a preliminary field exercise in Fiscal Year 1998, followed by a more extensive nationwide readiness exercise in Fiscal Year 1999. The HCPDS plans include women and men age 20 -- 54 in 57 job categories.
Women as well as transgender individuals who identify as men or who have had sexual - reassignment surgery are not required to register. Failure to register can cause problems such as denial of Pell Grants, even when registration would not have been allowed.
Until their 26th birthday, registered men must notify Selective Service within 10 days of any changes to information regarding his status, such as name, current mailing address, permanent residence address, and "all information concerning his status... which the classifying authority mails him a request therefor. ''
In 1980, men who knew they were required to register and did not do so could face up to five years in prison, a fine of up to $50,000 or both if convicted. The potential fine was later increased to $250,000. Despite these possible penalties, government records indicate that from 1980 through 1986 there were only twenty indictments of which nineteen were instigated in part by self - publicized and self - reported non-registration.
A principal element for conviction under the Act is proving a violation of the Act was intentional, i.e. knowing and willful. In the opinion of legal experts, this is almost impossible to prove unless there is evidence of a prospective defendant knowing about his obligation to register and intentionally chosing not to do so. Or, for example, when there is evidence the government at any time provided notice to the prospective defendant to register or report for induction, he was given an opportunity to comply, and the prospective defendant chose not to do so.
The last prosecution for non-registration was in January 1986. In interviews published in U.S. News & World Report in May 2016, current and former Selective Service System officials said that in 1988, the Department of Justice and Selective Service agreed to suspend any further prosecutions of non-registrants. No law since 1980 has required anyone to possess, carry, or show a draft card, and routine checks requiring identification virtually never include a request for a draft card.
As an alternative method of encouraging or coercing registration, laws were passed requiring that in order to receive financial aid, federal grants and loans, certain government benefits, eligibility for most federal employment, and (if the person is an immigrant) eligibility for citizenship, a young man had to be registered (or had to have been registered, if they are over 26 but were required to register between 18 and 26) with the Selective Service. Those who were required to register, but failed to do so before they turn 26, are no longer allowed to register, and thus may be permanently barred from federal jobs and other benefits, unless they can show to the Selective Service that their failure was not knowing and willful. There is a procedure to provide an "information letter '' to the Selective Service for those in these situations, for example recent citizens who entered the US after their 26th birthday.
Most states, as well as the District of Columbia, Guam, Northern Mariana Islands, and Virgin Islands, have passed laws requiring registration for men 18 -- 25 to be eligible for programs that vary on a per - jurisdiction basis but typically include driver 's licenses, state - funded higher education benefits, and state government jobs. Alaska also requires registration to receive an Alaska Permanent Fund dividend. Eight states (Connecticut, Indiana, Nebraska, Oregon, Vermont, Washington, and Wyoming) as well as Puerto Rico have no such requirements, though Indiana does give men 18 -- 25 the option of registering with Selective Service when obtaining a drivers license or an identification card. The Department of Motor Vehicles of 27 states and 2 territories automatically register young men 18 -- 25 with the Selective Service whenever they apply for driver licenses, learner permits, or non-driver identification cards.
There are some third - party organized efforts to compensate financial aid for those students losing benefits, including the Fund for Education and Training (FEAT) and Student Aid Fund for Non-registrants.
Some registrants are not U.S. citizens, or have dual nationality of the U.S. and another country; they fall instead into one of the following categories:
Native Americans are not required to register.
The Selective Service System is authorized by the Article I, Section 8 of the United States Constitution which says Congress "shall have Power To... raise and support Armies (and) To provide and maintain a Navy; '' The Selective Service Act is the law which established the Selective Service System under these provisions.
The act has been challenged in light of the Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution which prohibits "involuntary servitude ''. These challenges, however, have not been supported by the courts; as the Supreme Court stated in Butler v. Perry (1916):
The amendment was adopted with reference to conditions existing since the foundation of our government, and the term ' involuntary servitude ' was intended to cover those forms of compulsory labor akin to African slavery which, in practical operation, would tend to produce like undesirable results. It introduced no novel doctrine with respect of services always treated as exceptional, and certainly was not intended to interdict enforcement of those duties which individuals owe to the state, such as services in the army, militia, on the jury, etc.
During the First World War, the Supreme Court ruled in Arver v. United States (1918), also known as the Selective Draft Law Cases, that the draft did not violate the Constitution.
Later, during the Vietnam War, a federal appellate court also concluded that the draft was constitutional in Holmes v. United States (1968).
Since the reinstatement of draft registration in 1980, the Supreme Court has heard and decided four cases related to the Military Selective Service Act: Rostker v. Goldberg, 453 U.S. 57 (1981), upholding the constitutionality of requiring men but not women to register for the draft; Selective Service v. Minnesota Public Interest Research Group (MPIRG), 468 U.S. 841 (1984), upholding the constitutionality of the "Solomon Amendment '', which requires applicants for Federal student aid to certify that they have complied with draft registration, either by having registered or by not being required to register; Wayte v. United States, 470 U.S. 598 (1985), upholding the policies and procedures which the Supreme Court thought the government had used to select the "most vocal '' non-registrants for prosecution, after the government refused to comply with discovery orders by the trial court to produce documents and witnesses related to the selection of non-registrants for prosecution; and Elgin v. Department of the Treasury, 567 U.S. ____ (2012), regarding procedures for judicial review of denial of Federal employment for non-registrants.
Selective Service law as it is written now refers specifically to "male persons '' in stating who must register and who would be drafted. For women to be required to register with the Selective Service, Congress would have to amend the law, which currently exempts women from registration.
The constitutionality of excluding women was decided in 1981 by the United States Supreme Court in Rostker v. Goldberg, with the Court holding that requiring only men to register did not violate the Due Process Clause of the Fifth Amendment.
The existence of the combat restrictions clearly indicates the basis for Congress ' decision to exempt women from registration. The purpose of registration was to prepare for a draft of combat troops. Since women are excluded from combat, Congress concluded that they would not be needed in the event of a draft, and therefore decided not to register them.
At the request of President Bill Clinton, the Department of Defense reviewed the issue in 1994, noting that because women are excluded by policy from front - line combat positions, excluding them from the draft process remains justifiable in DoD 's view. Although no conclusions were reached, DoD recognized that policies regarding women need to be reviewed periodically because the role of women in the military continues to expand. The Selective Service System takes the position that it would be able to register and draft women with its existing infrastructure, if given the mission and additional funding.
On January 23, 2013, the Pentagon decided to end its policy of excluding women from combat positions. Military and legal analysts speculate that this will open the door for Congress to begin the process to amend the law and remove the exemption from registration requirements. In July 2015, a 17 - year - old girl in New Jersey sued the Selective Service System for the right to register for the draft.
The National Coalition for Men has filed a lawsuit that challenges the legality of requiring only men to register for the military draft. The lawsuit was filed against the U.S. Selective Service System in the United States District Court for the Central District of California on April 4, 2013, Case Number 2: 13 - cv - 02391 - DSF - MAN. The case was dismissed on July 29, 2013, and the NCFM filed for appeal on June 25, 2014 in the United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit. Oral argument before a 3 - judge panel of the Court of Appeals for the 9th Circuit was held on December 8, 2015. On February 19, 2016, the 9th Circuit reversed the decision of the District Court on the issue of ripeness, and remanded the case for further proceedings on standing and the other issues. Another case challenging the Constitutionality of male - only draft registration, Kyle v. Selective Service System, is pending in the U.S. District Court for the District of New Jersey.
Bills have been introduced in Congress or announced as planned to be introduced to require women to register whenever the President orders women to register, to prohibit the President from ordering women to register, and to repeal the Military Selective Service Act and thereby eliminate the authority of the President to order anyone to register.
On June 15, 2016, the United States Senate passed a provision in the defense bill to include women in Selective Service registration. Later that year, Congress dropped the provision from consideration.
The Selective Service System is an independent federal agency within the Executive Branch of the federal government of the United States. The Director of the Selective Service System reports directly to the President of the United States.
During peacetime, the agency comprises a National Headquarters, three Regional Headquarters and a Data Management Center. Even during peacetime, the agency is also aided by 11,000 volunteers serving on local boards and district appeal boards. During a mobilization (draft), the agency would greatly expand by activating an additional 56 State Headquarters, 400 + Area Offices as well as 40 + Alternative Service Offices.
The agency 's budget for the 2015 -- 2016 fiscal year was about $23 million. In early 2016, the agency said that if women were required to register, its budget would need to be increased by about $9 million in the first year, and slightly less in subsequent years. This does not include any budget or expenses for enforcing or attempting to enforce the Military Selective Service Act. Costs of investigating, prosecuting, and imprisoning violators would be included in the budget of the Department of Justice.
The description below is for a general draft under the current Selective Service regulations. Any or all of these procedures could be changed by Congress as part of the same legislation that would authorize inductions, or through separate legislation, so there is no guarantee that this is how any draft would actually work. Different procedures would be followed for a special - skills draft, such as activation of the Health Care Personnel Delivery System (HCPDS).
If the agency were to mobilize and conduct a draft, a lottery would be held in full view of the public. First, all days of the year are placed into a capsule at random. Second, the numbers 1 -- 365 (1 -- 366 for lotteries held with respect to a leap year) are placed into a second capsule. These two capsules are certified for procedure, sealed in a drum, and stored.
In the event of a draft, the drums are taken out of storage and inspected to make sure they have not been tampered with. The lottery then takes place, and each date is paired with a number at random. For example, if January 19 is picked from the "date '' capsule and the number 59 picked from the "number '' capsule, all men of age 20 born on January 19 will be the 59th group to receive induction notices. This process continues until all dates are matched with a number.
Should all dates be used, the Selective Service will first conscript men at the age of 20, then 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 19, and 18. Once all dates are paired, the dates will be sent to Selective Service System 's Data Management Center.
Note: Within the cessation of registrant processing in 1976, all registrants (except for a few alleged violators of the Military Selective Service Act) were classified 1 - H regardless of any previous classification.
Note: The 1 - Y classification was abolished December 10, 1971. Local boards were subsequently instructed to reclassify all 1 - Y registrants by administrative action.
If a draft were authorized by Congress, without any other changes being made in the law, local boards would classify registrants to determine whether they were exempt from military service. According to the Code of Federal Regulations Title 32, Chapter XVI, Sec. 1630.2, men would be sorted into the following categories:
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why was the u.s concerned about the missile sites in cuba | Cuban Missile Crisis - wikipedia
The Cuban Missile Crisis, also known as the October Crisis of 1962 (Spanish: Crisis de Octubre), the Caribbean Crisis (Russian: Карибский кризис, tr. Karibsky krizis, IPA: (kɐˈrjipskjɪj ˈkrjizjɪs)), or the Missile Scare, was a 13 - day (October 16 -- 28 1962) confrontation between the United States and the Soviet Union concerning American ballistic missile deployment in Italy and Turkey with consequent Soviet ballistic missile deployment in Cuba. The confrontation is often considered the closest the Cold War came to escalating into a full - scale nuclear war.
In response to the failed Bay of Pigs Invasion of 1961 and the presence of American Jupiter ballistic missiles in Italy and Turkey, Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev decided to agree to Cuba 's request to place nuclear missiles on the island to deter a future invasion. An agreement was reached during a secret meeting between Khrushchev and Fidel Castro in July 1962 and construction of a number of missile launch facilities started later that summer.
The 1962 United States elections were under way, and the White House had for months denied charges that it was ignoring dangerous Soviet missiles 90 miles (140 km) from Florida. The missile preparations were confirmed when an Air Force U-2 spy plane produced clear photographic evidence of medium - range (SS - 4) and intermediate - range (R - 14) ballistic missile facilities. The U.S. established a military blockade to prevent further missiles from reaching Cuba; Oval Office tapes during the crisis revealed that Kennedy had also put the blockade in place as an attempt to provoke Soviet - backed forces in Berlin as well. It announced that they would not permit offensive weapons to be delivered to Cuba and demanded that the weapons already in Cuba be dismantled and returned to the Soviet Union.
After a long period of tense negotiations, an agreement was reached between U.S. President John F. Kennedy and Khrushchev. Publicly, the Soviets would dismantle their offensive weapons in Cuba and return them to the Soviet Union, subject to United Nations verification, in exchange for a U.S. public declaration and agreement to avoid invading Cuba again. Secretly, the United States also agreed that it would dismantle all U.S. - built Jupiter MRBMs, which had been deployed in Turkey against the Soviet Union; there has been debate on whether or not Italy was included in the agreement as well.
When all offensive missiles and Ilyushin Il - 28 light bombers had been withdrawn from Cuba, the blockade was formally ended on November 21, 1962. The negotiations between the United States and the Soviet Union pointed out the necessity of a quick, clear, and direct communication line between Washington and Moscow. As a result, the Moscow -- Washington hotline was established. A series of agreements reduced U.S. -- Soviet tensions for several years.
The U.S. was concerned about an expansion of communism, and a Latin American country openly allying with the Soviet Union was regarded by the U.S. as unacceptable since the end of World War II, and the start of the Cold War. Such an involvement would also directly defy the Monroe Doctrine, a U.S. policy limiting U.S. involvement in European colonies and European affairs but holding that the Western Hemisphere was in the U.S. sphere of influence.
The Kennedy administration had been publicly embarrassed by the failed Bay of Pigs Invasion in May 1961, which had been launched under President John F. Kennedy by CIA - trained forces of Cuban exiles. Afterward, former President Dwight Eisenhower told Kennedy that "the failure of the Bay of Pigs will embolden the Soviets to do something that they would otherwise not do. '' The half - hearted invasion left Soviet premier Nikita Khrushchev and his advisers with the impression that Kennedy was indecisive and, as one Soviet adviser wrote, "too young, intellectual, not prepared well for decision making in crisis situations... too intelligent and too weak. '' U.S. covert operations against Cuba continued in 1961 with the unsuccessful Operation Mongoose.
In addition, Khrushchev 's impression of Kennedy 's weaknesses was confirmed by the President 's response during the Berlin Crisis of 1961, particularly to the building of the Berlin Wall. Speaking to Soviet officials in the aftermath of the crisis, Khrushchev asserted, "I know for certain that Kennedy does n't have a strong background, nor, generally speaking, does he have the courage to stand up to a serious challenge. '' He also told his son Sergei that on Cuba, Kennedy "would make a fuss, make more of a fuss, and then agree. ''
In January 1962, U.S. Army General Edward Lansdale described plans to overthrow the Cuban government in a top - secret report (partially declassified 1989), addressed to Kennedy and officials involved with Operation Mongoose. CIA agents or "pathfinders '' from the Special Activities Division were to be infiltrated into Cuba to carry out sabotage and organization, including radio broadcasts. In February 1962, the US launched an embargo against Cuba, and Lansdale presented a 26 - page, top - secret timetable for implementation of the overthrow of the Cuban government, mandating guerrilla operations to begin in August and September. "Open revolt and overthrow of the Communist regime '' would occur in the first two weeks of October.
When Kennedy ran for president in 1960, one of his key election issues was an alleged "missile gap '' with the Soviets leading. In fact, the US led the Soviets by a wide margin that would only increase. In 1961, the Soviets had only four intercontinental ballistic missiles (R - 7 Semyorka). By October 1962, they may have had a few dozen, with some intelligence estimates as high as 75.
The U.S., on the other hand, had 170 ICBMs and was quickly building more. It also had eight George Washington - and Ethan Allen - class ballistic missile submarines, with the capability to launch 16 Polaris missiles, each with a range of 2,500 nautical miles (4,600 km).
Khrushchev increased the perception of a missile gap when he loudly boasted to the world that the Soviets were building missiles "like sausages '' but Soviet missiles ' numbers and capabilities actually were nowhere close to his assertions. The Soviet Union had medium - range ballistic missiles in quantity, about 700 of them, but they were very unreliable and inaccurate. The US had a considerable advantage in total number of nuclear warheads (27,000 against 3,600) and in the technology required for their accurate delivery.
The US also led in missile defensive capabilities, naval and air power; but the Soviets had a 2 -- 1 advantage in conventional ground forces, more pronounced in field guns and tanks, particularly in the European theater.
In May 1961, Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev was persuaded by the idea of countering the US 's growing lead in developing and deploying strategic missiles by placing Soviet intermediate - range nuclear missiles in Cuba, despite the misgivings of the Soviet Ambassador in Havana, Alexandr Ivanovich Alexeyev, who argued that Castro would not accept the deployment of the missiles. Khrushchev faced a strategic situation in which the US was perceived to have a "splendid first strike '' capability that put the Soviet Union at a huge disadvantage. In 1962, the Soviets had only 20 ICBMs capable of delivering nuclear warheads to the US from inside the Soviet Union. The poor accuracy and reliability of the missiles raised serious doubts about their effectiveness. A newer, more reliable generation of ICBMs would become operational only after 1965.
Therefore, Soviet nuclear capability in 1962 placed less emphasis on ICBMs than on medium and intermediate - range ballistic missiles (MRBMs and IRBMs). The missiles could hit American allies and most of Alaska from Soviet territory but not the Contiguous United States. Graham Allison, the director of Harvard University 's Belfer Center for Science and International Affairs, points out, "The Soviet Union could not right the nuclear imbalance by deploying new ICBMs on its own soil. In order to meet the threat it faced in 1962, 1963, and 1964, it had very few options. Moving existing nuclear weapons to locations from which they could reach American targets was one. ''
A second reason that Soviet missiles were deployed to Cuba was because Khrushchev wanted to bring West Berlin, controlled by the American, British and French within Communist East Germany, into the Soviet orbit. The East Germans and Soviets considered western control over a portion of Berlin a grave threat to East Germany. Khrushchev made West Berlin the central battlefield of the Cold War. Khrushchev believed that if the U.S. did nothing over the missile deployments in Cuba, he could muscle the West out of Berlin using said missiles as a deterrent to western countermeasures in Berlin. If the U.S. tried to bargain with the Soviets after it became aware of the missiles, Khrushchev could demand trading the missiles for West Berlin. Since Berlin was strategically more important than Cuba, the trade would be a win for Khrushchev, as Kennedy recognized: "The advantage is, from Khrushchev 's point of view, he takes a great chance but there are quite some rewards to it. ''
Khrushchev was also reacting in part to the nuclear threat of obsolescent Jupiter intermediate - range ballistic missiles that had been installed by the US in Turkey in April 1962.
In early 1962, a group of Soviet military and missile construction specialists accompanied an agricultural delegation to Havana. They obtained a meeting with Cuban leader Fidel Castro. The Cuban leadership had a strong expectation that the U.S. would invade Cuba again and enthusiastically approved the idea of installing nuclear missiles in Cuba. However, according to another source, Castro objected to the missiles deployment that would have made him look like a Soviet puppet, but he was persuaded that missiles in Cuba would be an irritant to the U.S. and help the interests of the entire socialist camp. Also, the deployment would include short - range tactical weapons (with a range of 40 km, usable only against naval vessels) that would provide a "nuclear umbrella '' for attacks upon the island.
By May, Khrushchev and Castro agreed to place strategic nuclear missiles secretly in Cuba. Like Castro, Khrushchev felt that a U.S. invasion of Cuba was imminent and that to lose Cuba would do great harm to the communists, especially in Latin America. He said he wanted to confront the Americans "with more than words... the logical answer was missiles. '' The Soviets maintained their tight secrecy, writing their plans longhand, which were approved by Rodion Malinovsky on July 4 and Khrushchev on July 7.
From the very beginning, the Soviets ' operation entailed elaborate denial and deception, known as "maskirovka ''. All the planning and preparation for transporting and deploying the missiles were carried out in the utmost secrecy, with only a very few told the exact nature of the mission. Even the troops detailed for the mission were given misdirection by being told that they were headed for a cold region and being outfitted with ski boots, fleece - lined parkas, and other winter equipment. The Soviet codename was Operation Anadyr. The Anadyr River flows into the Bering Sea, and Anadyr is also the capital of Chukotsky District and a bomber base in the far eastern region. All the measures were meant to conceal the program from both internal and external audiences.
Specialists in missile construction under the guise of "machine operators, '' "irrigation specialists, '' and "agricultural specialists '' arrived in July. A total of 43,000 foreign troops would ultimately be brought in. Marshal Sergei Biryuzov, chief of the Soviet Rocket Forces, led a survey team that visited Cuba. He told Khrushchev that the missiles would be concealed and camouflaged by palm trees.
The Cuban leadership was further upset when in September, the U.S. Congress approved Joint Resolution 230, which expressed Congress 's resolve to prevent the creation of an externally - supported military establishment. On the same day, the US announced a major military exercise in the Caribbean, PHIBRIGLEX - 62, which Cuba denounced as a deliberate provocation and proof that the US planned to invade Cuba.
The Soviet leadership believed, based on its perception of Kennedy 's lack of confidence during the Bay of Pigs Invasion, that he would avoid confrontation and accept the missiles as a fait accompli. On September 11, the Soviet Union publicly warned that a US attack on Cuba or on Soviet ships that were carrying supplies to the island would mean war. The Soviets continued the Maskirovka program to conceal their actions in Cuba. They repeatedly denied that the weapons being brought into Cuba were offensive in nature. On September 7, Soviet Ambassador to the United States Anatoly Dobrynin assured United States Ambassador to the United Nations Adlai Stevenson that the Soviet Union was supplying only defensive weapons to Cuba. On September 11, the Telegrafnoe Agentstvo Sovetskogo Soyuza (Soviet News Agency TASS) announced that the Soviet Union had no need or intention to introduce offensive nuclear missiles into Cuba. On October 13, Dobrynin was questioned by former Undersecretary of State Chester Bowles about whether the Soviets planned to put offensive weapons in Cuba. He denied any such plans. On October 17, Soviet embassy official Georgy Bolshakov brought President Kennedy a personal message from Khrushchev reassuring him that "under no circumstances would surface - to - surface missiles be sent to Cuba. ''
As early as August 1962, the U.S. suspected the Soviets of building missile facilities in Cuba. During that month, its intelligence services gathered information about sightings by ground observers of Russian - built MiG - 21 fighters and Il - 28 light bombers. U-2 spyplanes found S - 75 Dvina (NATO designation SA - 2) surface - to - air missile sites at eight different locations. CIA director John A. McCone was suspicious. Sending antiaircraft missiles into Cuba, he reasoned, "made sense only if Moscow intended to use them to shield a base for ballistic missiles aimed at the United States. '' On August 10, he wrote a memo to Kennedy in which he guessed that the Soviets were preparing to introduce ballistic missiles into Cuba.
With important Congressional elections scheduled for November, the crisis became enmeshed in American politics. On August 31, Senator Kenneth Keating (R - New York), who received his information from Cuban exiles in Florida, warned on the Senate floor that the Soviet Union may be constructing a missile base in Cuba. He charged the Kennedy administration of covering up a major threat to the US. Air Force General Curtis LeMay presented a pre-invasion bombing plan to Kennedy in September, and spy flights and minor military harassment from U.S. forces at Guantanamo Bay Naval Base were the subject of continual Cuban diplomatic complaints to the US government.
The first consignment of R - 12 missiles arrived on the night of September 8, followed by a second on September 16. The R - 12 was a medium - range ballistic missile, capable of carrying a thermonuclear warhead. It was a single - stage, road - transportable, surface - launched, storable liquid propellant fueled missile that could deliver a megaton - class nuclear weapon. The Soviets were building nine sites -- six for R - 12 medium - range missiles (NATO designation SS - 4 Sandal) with an effective range of 2,000 kilometres (1,200 mi) and three for R - 14 intermediate - range ballistic missiles (NATO designation SS - 5 Skean) with a maximum range of 4,500 kilometres (2,800 mi).
On October 7, Cuban President Osvaldo Dorticós Torrado spoke at the UN General Assembly: "If... we are attacked, we will defend ourselves. I repeat, we have sufficient means with which to defend ourselves; we have indeed our inevitable weapons, the weapons, which we would have preferred not to acquire, and which we do not wish to employ. ''
The missiles in Cuba allowed the Soviets to target effectively most of the Continental U.S. The planned arsenal was forty launchers. The Cuban populace readily noticed the arrival and deployment of the missiles and hundreds of reports reached Miami. U.S. intelligence received countless reports, many of dubious quality or even laughable, most of which could be dismissed as describing defensive missiles.
Only five reports bothered the analysts. They described large trucks passing through towns at night that were carrying very long canvas - covered cylindrical objects that could not make turns through towns without backing up and maneuvering. Defensive missiles could turn. The reports could not be satisfactorily dismissed.
The United States had been sending U-2 surveillance over Cuba since the failed Bay of Pigs Invasion. The first issue that led to a pause in reconnaissance flights took place on August 30, when a U-2 operated by the U.S. Air Force 's Strategic Air Command flew over Sakhalin Island in the Soviet Far East by mistake. The Soviets lodged a protest and the US apologized. Nine days later, a Taiwanese - operated U-2 was lost over western China to an SA - 2 surface - to - air missile. US officials were worried that one of the Cuban or Soviet SAMs in Cuba might shoot down a CIA U-2, initiating another international incident. In a meeting with members of the Committee on Overhead Reconnaissance (COMOR) on September 10, Secretary of State Dean Rusk and National Security Advisor McGeorge Bundy heavily restricted further U-2 flights over Cuban airspace. The resulting lack of coverage over the island for the next five weeks became known to historians as the "Photo Gap. '' No significant U-2 coverage was achieved over the interior of the island. US officials attempted to use a Corona photoreconnaissance satellite to obtain coverage over reported Soviet military deployments, but imagery acquired over western Cuba by a Corona KH - 4 mission on October 1 was heavily covered by clouds and haze and failed to provide any usable intelligence. At the end of September, Navy reconnaissance aircraft photographed the Soviet ship Kasimov, with large crates on its deck the size and shape of Il - 28 light bomber fuselages.
In September 1962, analysts from the Defense Intelligence Agency (DIA) noticed that Cuban surface - to - air missile sites were arranged in a pattern similar to those used by the Soviet Union to protect its ICBM bases, leading DIA to lobby for the resumption of U-2 flights over the island. Although in the past the flights had been conducted by the CIA, pressure from the Defense Department made the authority be transferred to the Air Force. Following the loss of a CIA U-2 over the Soviet Union in May 1960, it was thought that if another U-2 were shot down, an Air Force aircraft arguably being used for a legitimate military purpose would be easier to explain than a CIA flight.
When the reconnaissance missions were reauthorized on October 9, poor weather kept the planes from flying. The U.S. first obtained U-2 photographic evidence of the missiles on October 14, when a U-2 flight piloted by Major Richard Heyser took 928 pictures on a path selected by DIA analysts, capturing images of what turned out to be an SS - 4 construction site at San Cristóbal, Pinar del Río Province (now in Artemisa Province), in western Cuba.
On October 15, the CIA 's National Photographic Interpretation Center (NPIC) reviewed the U-2 photographs and identified objects that they interpreted as medium range ballistic missiles. This identification was made, in part, on the strength of reporting provided by Oleg Penkovsky, a double agent in the GRU working for CIA and MI6. Although he provided no direct reports of the Soviet missile deployments to Cuba, technical and doctrinal details of Soviet missile regiments that had been provided by Penkovsky in the months and years prior to the Crisis helped NPIC analysts correctly identify the missiles on U-2 imagery.
That evening, the CIA notified the Department of State and at 8: 30 pm EDT, Bundy chose to wait until the next morning to tell the President. McNamara was briefed at midnight. The next morning, Bundy met with Kennedy and showed him the U-2 photographs and briefed him on the CIA 's analysis of the images. At 6: 30 pm EDT, Kennedy convened a meeting of the nine members of the National Security Council and five other key advisors, in a group he formally named the Executive Committee of the National Security Council (EXCOMM) after the fact on October 22 by the National Security Action Memorandum 196. Without informing the members of EXCOMM, President Kennedy tape recorded all of their proceedings, and Sheldon M. Stern, head of the Kennedy library transcribed some of them.
The US had no plan in place because its intelligence had been convinced that the Soviets would never install nuclear missiles in Cuba. The EXCOMM quickly discussed several possible courses of action:
The Joint Chiefs of Staff unanimously agreed that a full - scale attack and invasion was the only solution. They believed that the Soviets would not attempt to stop the US from conquering Cuba. Kennedy was skeptical:
They, no more than we, can let these things go by without doing something. They ca n't, after all their statements, permit us to take out their missiles, kill a lot of Russians, and then do nothing. If they do n't take action in Cuba, they certainly will in Berlin.
Kennedy concluded that attacking Cuba by air would signal the Soviets to presume "a clear line '' to conquer Berlin. Kennedy also believed that US allies would think of the country as "trigger - happy cowboys '' who lost Berlin because they could not peacefully resolve the Cuban situation.
The EXCOMM then discussed the effect on the strategic balance of power, both political and military. The Joint Chiefs of Staff believed that the missiles would seriously alter the military balance, but McNamara disagreed. An extra 40, he reasoned, would make little difference to the overall strategic balance. The US already had approximately 5,000 strategic warheads, but the Soviet Union had only 300. McNamara concluded that the Soviets having 340 would not therefore substantially alter the strategic balance. In 1990, he reiterated that "it made no difference... The military balance was n't changed. I did n't believe it then, and I do n't believe it now. ''
The EXCOMM agreed that the missiles would affect the political balance. Kennedy had explicitly promised the American people less than a month before the crisis that "if Cuba should possess a capacity to carry out offensive actions against the United States... the United States would act. '' Also, credibility among US allies and people would be damaged if the Soviet Union appeared to redress the strategic balance by placing missiles in Cuba. Kennedy explained after the crisis that "it would have politically changed the balance of power. It would have appeared to, and appearances contribute to reality. ''
On October 18, Kennedy met with Soviet Minister of Foreign Affairs, Andrei Gromyko, who claimed the weapons were for defensive purposes only. Not wanting to expose what he already knew and to avoid panicking the American public, Kennedy did not reveal that he was already aware of the missile buildup.
By October 19, frequent U-2 spy flights showed four operational sites. On the night of October 19 at 23: 56 a helicopter from USS Essex CVS - 9 squadron HSS - 2 crashed into the Gulf of Mexico. Lt. Cmdr. James Robert Hughes and AM - 3 George Blythe perished. Their bodies were never recovered. On October 22, 1962 a second helicopter crashed into the Gulf, that also was from HSS - 2 stationed on the Essex. Lost that night were Lt. Cmdr. Witkowski and Enlisted Serviceman 50 AZ Murphy. The details of the deaths of October 19, 1962 have never been provided to the families affected. There are numerous rumors that exist from bad storms, Soviet interference with the flight, or a one - way suicide recon mission. However, the most consistently repeated accounts from on deck witnesses indicate that the helicopter on October 19 was "shot down. ''
Two Operational Plans (OPLAN) were considered. OPLAN 316 envisioned a full invasion of Cuba by Army and Marine units, supported by the Navy following Air Force and naval airstrikes. However, Army units in the US would have had trouble fielding mechanized and logistical assets, and the US Navy could not supply enough amphibious shipping to transport even a modest armored contingent from the Army.
OPLAN 312, primarily an Air Force and Navy carrier operation, was designed with enough flexibility to do anything from engaging individual missile sites to providing air support for OPLAN 316 's ground forces.
Kennedy met with members of EXCOMM and other top advisers throughout October 21, considering two remaining options: an air strike primarily against the Cuban missile bases or a naval blockade of Cuba. A full - scale invasion was not the administration 's first option. McNamara supported the naval blockade as a strong but limited military action that left the US in control. However, the term "blockade '' was problematic. According to international law, a blockade is an act of war, but the Kennedy administration did not think that the Soviets would be provoked to attack by a mere blockade. Additionally, legal experts at the State Department and Justice Department concluded that a declaration of war could be avoided if another legal justification, based on the Rio Treaty for defense of the Western Hemisphere, was obtained from a resolution by a two - thirds vote from the members or the Organization of American States (OAS).
Admiral Anderson, Chief of Naval Operations wrote a position paper that helped Kennedy to differentiate between what they termed a "quarantine '' of offensive weapons and a blockade of all materials, claiming that a classic blockade was not the original intention. Since it would take place in international waters, Kennedy obtained the approval of the OAS for military action under the hemispheric defense provisions of the Rio Treaty:
Latin American participation in the quarantine now involved two Argentine destroyers which were to report to the U.S. Commander South Atlantic (COMSOLANT) at Trinidad on November 9. An Argentine submarine and a Marine battalion with lift were available if required. In addition, two Venezuelan destroyers (Destroyers ARV D - 11 Nueva Esparta '' and "ARV D - 21 Zulia '') and one submarine (Caribe) had reported to COMSOLANT, ready for sea by November 2. The Government of Trinidad and Tobago offered the use of Chaguaramas Naval Base to warships of any OAS nation for the duration of the "quarantine. '' The Dominican Republic had made available one escort ship. Colombia was reported ready to furnish units and had sent military officers to the U.S. to discuss this assistance. The Argentine Air Force informally offered three SA - 16 aircraft in addition to forces already committed to the "quarantine '' operation.
This initially was to involve a naval blockade against offensive weapons within the framework of the Organization of American States and the Rio Treaty. Such a blockade might be expanded to cover all types of goods and air transport. The action was to be backed up by surveillance of Cuba. The CNO 's scenario was followed closely in later implementing the "quarantine. ''
On October 19, the EXCOMM formed separate working groups to examine the air strike and blockade options, and by the afternoon most support in the EXCOMM shifted to the blockade option. However, reservations about the plan continued to be voiced as late as the October 21, the paramount concern being that once the blockade was put into effect, the Soviets would rush to complete some of the missiles. Consequently, the US could find itself bombing operational missiles if blockade failed to force Khrushchev to remove the missiles already on the island.
At 3: 00 pm EDT on October 22, President Kennedy formally established the Executive Committee (EXCOMM) with National Security Action Memorandum (NSAM) 196. At 5: 00 pm, he met with Congressional leaders who contentiously opposed a blockade and demanded a stronger response. In Moscow, Ambassador Foy D. Kohler briefed Khrushchev on the pending blockade and Kennedy 's speech to the nation. Ambassadors around the world gave notice to non-Eastern Bloc leaders. Before the speech, U.S. delegations met with Canadian Prime Minister John Diefenbaker, British Prime Minister Harold Macmillan, West German Chancellor Konrad Adenauer, and French President Charles de Gaulle to brief them on the US intelligence and their proposed response. All were supportive of the U.S. position.
Shortly before his speech, Kennedy called former President Dwight Eisenhower. Kennedy 's conversation with the former President also revealed that the two were conspiring during the Cuban Missile Crisis.
On October 22 at 7: 00 pm EDT, Kennedy delivered a nationwide televised address on all of the major networks announcing the discovery of the missiles. He noted:
It shall be the policy of this nation to regard any nuclear missile launched from Cuba against any nation in the Western Hemisphere as an attack by the Soviet Union on the United States, requiring a full retaliatory response upon the Soviet Union.
Kennedy described the administration 's plan:
To halt this offensive buildup, a strict quarantine on all offensive military equipment under shipment to Cuba is being initiated. All ships of any kind bound for Cuba, from whatever nation or port, will, if found to contain cargoes of offensive weapons, be turned back. This quarantine will be extended, if needed, to other types of cargo and carriers. We are not at this time, however, denying the necessities of life as the Soviets attempted to do in their Berlin blockade of 1948.
During the speech, a directive went out to all U.S. forces worldwide, placing them on DEFCON 3. The heavy cruiser USS Newport News was designated flagship for the blockade, with USS Leary as Newport News 's destroyer escort.
On October 23, at 11: 24 am EDT, a cable, drafted by George Wildman Ball to the U.S. Ambassador in Turkey and NATO, notified them that they were considering making an offer to withdraw what the US knew to be nearly - obsolete missiles from Italy and Turkey, in exchange for the Soviet withdrawal from Cuba. Turkish officials replied that they would "deeply resent '' any trade involving the U.S. 's missile presence in their country. Two days later, on the morning of October 25, American journalist Walter Lippmann proposed the same thing in his syndicated column. Castro reaffirmed Cuba 's right to self - defense and said that all of its weapons were defensive and Cuba would not allow an inspection.
Three days after Kennedy 's speech, the Chinese People 's Daily announced that "650,000,000 Chinese men and women were standing by the Cuban people. '' In West Germany, newspapers supported the U.S. 's response by contrasting it with the weak American actions in the region during the preceding months. They also expressed some fear that the Soviets might retaliate in Berlin. In France on October 23, the crisis made the front page of all the daily newspapers. The next day, an editorial in Le Monde expressed doubt about the authenticity of the CIA 's photographic evidence. Two days later, after a visit by a high - ranking CIA agent, the newspaper accepted the validity of the photographs. Also in France, in the October 29 issue of Le Figaro, Raymond Aron wrote in support of the American response. On October 24, Pope John XXIII sent a message to the Soviet embassy in Rome to be transmitted to the Kremlin in which he voiced his concern for peace. In this message he stated, "We beg all governments not to remain deaf to this cry of humanity. That they do all that is in their power to save peace. ''
The crisis was continuing unabated, and in the evening of October 24, the Soviet news agency TASS broadcast a telegram from Khrushchev to Kennedy in which Khrushchev warned that the United States 's "outright piracy '' would lead to war. However, that was followed at 9: 24 pm by a telegram from Khrushchev to Kennedy, which was received at 10: 52 pm EDT. Khrushchev stated, "if you weigh the present situation with a cool head without giving way to passion, you will understand that the Soviet Union can not afford not to decline the despotic demands of the USA '' and that the Soviet Union views the blockade as "an act of aggression '' and their ships will be instructed to ignore it.
The US requested an emergency meeting of the United Nations Security Council on October 25. US Ambassador to the United Nations Adlai Stevenson confronted Soviet Ambassador Valerian Zorin in an emergency meeting of the Security Council, challenging him to admit the existence of the missiles. Ambassador Zorin refused to answer. The next day at 10: 00 pm EDT, the US raised the readiness level of SAC forces to DEFCON 2. For the only confirmed time in US history, B - 52 bombers went on continuous airborne alert, and B - 47 medium bombers were dispersed to various military and civilian airfields and made ready to take off, fully equipped, on 15 minutes ' notice. One eighth of SAC 's 1,436 bombers were on airborne alert, and some 145 intercontinental ballistic missiles stood on ready alert, some of which targeted Cuba, and Air Defense Command (ADC) redeployed 161 nuclear - armed interceptors to 16 dispersal fields within nine hours, with one third maintaining 15 - minute alert status. Twenty - three nuclear - armed B - 52s were sent to orbit points within striking distance of the Soviet Union so that it would believe that the US was serious. Jack J. Catton later estimated that about 80 percent of SAC 's planes were ready for launch during the crisis; David A. Burchinal recalled that, by contrast:
the Russians were so thoroughly stood down, and we knew it. They did n't make any move. They did not increase their alert; they did not increase any flights, or their air defense posture. They did n't do a thing, they froze in place. We were never further from nuclear war than at the time of Cuba, never further.
By October 22, Tactical Air Command (TAC) had 511 fighters plus supporting tankers and reconnaissance aircraft deployed to face Cuba on one - hour alert status. However, TAC and the Military Air Transport Service had problems. The concentration of aircraft in Florida strained command and support echelons, which faced critical undermanning in security, armaments, and communications; the absence of initial authorization for war - reserve stocks of conventional munitions forced TAC to scrounge; and the lack of airlift assets to support a major airborne drop necessitated the call - up of 24 Reserve squadrons.
On October 25 at 1: 45 am EDT, Kennedy responded to Khrushchev 's telegram by stating that the US was forced into action after receiving repeated assurances that no offensive missiles were being placed in Cuba, and when the assurances proved to be false, the deployment "required the responses I have announced... I hope that your government will take necessary action to permit a restoration of the earlier situation. ''
At 7: 15 am EDT on October 25, USS Essex and USS Gearing attempted to intercept Bucharest but failed to do so. Fairly certain that the tanker did not contain any military material, the US allowed it through the blockade. Later that day, at 5: 43 pm, the commander of the blockade effort ordered the destroyer USS Joseph P. Kennedy Jr. to intercept and board the Lebanese freighter Marucla. That took place the next day, and Marucla was cleared through the blockade after its cargo was checked.
At 5: 00 pm EDT on October 25, William Clements announced that the missiles in Cuba were still actively being worked on. That report was later verified by a CIA report that suggested there had been no slowdown at all. In response, Kennedy issued Security Action Memorandum 199, authorizing the loading of nuclear weapons onto aircraft under the command of SACEUR, which had the duty of carrying out first air strikes on the Soviet Union. During the day, the Soviets responded to the blockade by turning back 14 ships that were presumably carrying offensive weapons.
The next morning, October 26, Kennedy informed the EXCOMM that he believed only an invasion would remove the missiles from Cuba. However, he was persuaded to give the matter time and continue with both military and diplomatic pressure. He agreed and ordered the low - level flights over the island to be increased from two per day to once every two hours. He also ordered a crash program to institute a new civil government in Cuba if an invasion went ahead.
At this point, the crisis was ostensibly at a stalemate. The Soviets had shown no indication that they would back down and had made several comments to the contrary. The US had no reason to believe otherwise and was in the early stages of preparing for an invasion, along with a nuclear strike on the Soviet Union if it responded militarily, which was assumed.
At 1: 00 pm EDT on October 26, John A. Scali of ABC News had lunch with Aleksandr Fomin, the cover name of Alexander Feklisov, the KGB station chief in Washington, at Fomin 's request. Following the instructions of the Politburo of the CPSU, Fomin noted, "War seems about to break out. '' He asked Scali to use his contacts to talk to his "high - level friends '' at the State Department to see if the US would be interested in a diplomatic solution. He suggested that the language of the deal would contain an assurance from the Soviet Union to remove the weapons under UN supervision and that Castro would publicly announce that he would not accept such weapons again in exchange for a public statement by the US that it would avoid invading Cuba. The US responded by asking the Brazilian government to pass a message to Castro that the US would be "unlikely to invade '' if the missiles were removed.
-- Letter From Chairman Khrushchev to President Kennedy, October 26, 1962
On October 26 at 6: 00 pm EDT, the State Department started receiving a message that appeared to be written personally by Khrushchev. It was Saturday at 2: 00 am in Moscow. The long letter took several minutes to arrive, and it took translators additional time to translate and transcribe it.
Robert F. Kennedy described the letter as "very long and emotional. '' Khrushchev reiterated the basic outline that had been stated to Scali earlier in the day: "I propose: we, for our part, will declare that our ships bound for Cuba are not carrying any armaments. You will declare that the United States will not invade Cuba with its troops and will not support any other forces which might intend to invade Cuba. Then the necessity of the presence of our military specialists in Cuba will disappear. '' At 6: 45 pm EDT, news of Fomin 's offer to Scali was finally heard and was interpreted as a "set up '' for the arrival of Khrushchev 's letter. The letter was then considered official and accurate although it was later learned that Fomin was almost certainly operating of his own accord without official backing. Additional study of the letter was ordered and continued into the night.
Direct aggression against Cuba would mean nuclear war. The Americans speak about such aggression as if they did not know or did not want to accept this fact. I have no doubt they would lose such a war.
Castro, on the other hand, was convinced that an invasion of Cuba was soon at hand, and on October 26, he sent a telegram to Khrushchev that appeared to call for a pre-emptive nuclear strike on the US in case of attack. However, in a 2010 interview, Castro expressed regret about his earlier stance on first use: "After I 've seen what I 've seen, and knowing what I know now, it was n't worth it at all. '' Castro also ordered all anti-aircraft weapons in Cuba to fire on any US aircraft: the orders had been to fire only on groups of two or more. At 6: 00 am EDT on October 27, the CIA delivered a memo reporting that three of the four missile sites at San Cristobal and the two sites at Sagua la Grande appeared to be fully operational. It also noted that the Cuban military continued to organize for action but was under order not to initiate action unless attacked.
At 9: 00 am EDT on October 27, Radio Moscow began broadcasting a message from Khrushchev. Contrary to the letter of the night before, the message offered a new trade: the missiles on Cuba would be removed in exchange for the removal of the Jupiter missiles from Italy and Turkey. At 10: 00 am EDT, the executive committee met again to discuss the situation and came to the conclusion that the change in the message was because of internal debate between Khrushchev and other party officials in the Kremlin. Kennedy realized that he would be in an "insupportable position if this becomes Khrushchev 's proposal '' because the missiles in Turkey were not militarily useful and were being removed anyway and "It 's gon na -- to any man at the United Nations or any other rational man, it will look like a very fair trade. '' Bundy explained why Khrushchev 's public acquiescence could not be considered: "The current threat to peace is not in Turkey, it is in Cuba. ''
McNamara noted that another tanker, the Grozny, was about 600 miles (970 km) out and should be intercepted. He also noted that they had not made the Soviets aware of the blockade line and suggested relaying that information to them via U Thant at the United Nations.
While the meeting progressed, at 11: 03 am EDT a new message began to arrive from Khrushchev. The message stated, in part:
"You are disturbed over Cuba. You say that this disturbs you because it is ninety - nine miles by sea from the coast of the United States of America. But... you have placed destructive missile weapons, which you call offensive, in Italy and Turkey, literally next to us... I therefore make this proposal: We are willing to remove from Cuba the means which you regard as offensive... Your representatives will make a declaration to the effect that the United States... will remove its analogous means from Turkey... and after that, persons entrusted by the United Nations Security Council could inspect on the spot the fulfillment of the pledges made. ''
The executive committee continued to meet through the day.
Throughout the crisis, Turkey had repeatedly stated that it would be upset if the Jupiter missiles were removed. Italy 's Prime Minister Amintore Fanfani, who was also Foreign Minister ad interim, offered to allow withdrawal of the missiles deployed in Apulia as a bargaining chip. He gave the message to one of his most trusted friends, Ettore Bernabei, the general manager of RAI - TV, to convey to Arthur M. Schlesinger Jr. Bernabei was in New York to attend an international conference on satellite TV broadcasting. Unknown to the Soviets, the US regarded the Jupiter missiles as obsolescent and already supplanted by the Polaris nuclear ballistic submarine missiles.
On the morning of October 27, a U-2F (the third CIA U-2A, modified for air - to - air refueling) piloted by USAF Major Rudolf Anderson, departed its forward operating location at McCoy AFB, Florida. At approximately 12: 00 pm EDT, the aircraft was struck by a S - 75 Dvina (NATO designation SA - 2 Guideline) surface - to - air missile launched from Cuba. The aircraft was shot down, and Anderson was killed. The stress in negotiations between the Soviets and the US intensified; it was only later believed that the decision to fire the missile was made locally by an undetermined Soviet commander, acting on his own authority. Later that day, at about 3: 41 pm EDT, several US Navy RF - 8A Crusader aircraft, on low - level photoreconnaissance missions, were fired upon.
On October 28, 1962, Khrushchev told his son Sergei that the shooting down of Anderson 's U-2 was by the "Cuban military at the direction of Raul Castro. ''
At 4: 00 pm EDT, Kennedy recalled members of EXCOMM to the White House and ordered that a message should immediately be sent to U Thant asking the Soviets to suspend work on the missiles while negotiations were carried out. During the meeting, General Maxwell Taylor delivered the news that the U-2 had been shot down. Kennedy had earlier claimed he would order an attack on such sites if fired upon, but he decided to not act unless another attack was made. Forty years later, McNamara said:
We had to send a U-2 over to gain reconnaissance information on whether the Soviet missiles were becoming operational. We believed that if the U-2 was shot down that -- the Cubans did n't have capabilities to shoot it down, the Soviets did -- we believed if it was shot down, it would be shot down by a Soviet surface - to - air - missile unit, and that it would represent a decision by the Soviets to escalate the conflict. And therefore, before we sent the U-2 out, we agreed that if it was shot down we would n't meet, we 'd simply attack. It was shot down on Friday... Fortunately, we changed our mind, we thought "Well, it might have been an accident, we wo n't attack. '' Later we learned that Khrushchev had reasoned just as we did: we send over the U-2, if it was shot down, he reasoned we would believe it was an intentional escalation. And therefore, he issued orders to Pliyev, the Soviet commander in Cuba, to instruct all of his batteries not to shoot down the U-2.
Ellsberg said that Robert Kennedy (RFK) told him in 1964 that after the U-2 was shot down and the pilot killed, he (RFK) told Soviet ambassador Dobrynin, "You have drawn first blood... (T) he president had decided against advice... not to respond militarily to that attack, but he (Dobrynin) should know that if another plane was shot at,... we would take out all the SAMs and antiaircraft... And that would almost surely be followed by an invasion. ''
Emissaries sent by both Kennedy and Khrushchev agreed to meet at the Yenching Palace Chinese restaurant in the Cleveland Park neighborhood of Washington, DC, on Saturday evening, October 27. Kennedy suggested to take Khrushchev 's offer to trade away the missiles. Unknown to most members of the EXCOMM, Robert Kennedy had been meeting with the Soviet Ambassador Dobrynin in Washington to discover whether the intentions were genuine. The EXCOMM was generally against the proposal because it would undermine NATO 's authority, and the Turkish government had repeatedly stated it was against any such trade.
As the meeting progressed, a new plan emerged, and Kennedy was slowly persuaded. The new plan called for him to ignore the latest message and instead to return to Khrushchev 's earlier one. Kennedy was initially hesitant, feeling that Khrushchev would no longer accept the deal because a new one had been offered, but Llewellyn Thompson argued that it was still possible. White House Special Counsel and Adviser Ted Sorensen and Robert Kennedy left the meeting and returned 45 minutes later, with a draft letter to that effect. The President made several changes, had it typed, and sent it.
After the EXCOMM meeting, a smaller meeting continued in the Oval Office. The group argued that the letter should be underscored with an oral message to Dobrynin that stated that if the missiles were not withdrawn, military action would be used to remove them. Rusk added one proviso that no part of the language of the deal would mention Turkey, but there would be an understanding that the missiles would be removed "voluntarily '' in the immediate aftermath. The President agreed, and the message was sent.
At Rusk 's request, Fomin and Scali met again. Scali asked why the two letters from Khrushchev were so different, and Fomin claimed it was because of "poor communications. '' Scali replied that the claim was not credible and shouted that he thought it was a "stinking double cross. '' He went on to claim that an invasion was only hours away, and Fomin stated that a response to the US message was expected from Khrushchev shortly and urged Scali to tell the State Department that no treachery was intended. Scali said that he did not think anyone would believe him, but he agreed to deliver the message. The two went their separate ways, and Scali immediately typed out a memo for the EXCOMM.
Within the US establishment, it was well understood that ignoring the second offer and returning to the first put Khrushchev in a terrible position. Military preparations continued, and all active duty Air Force personnel were recalled to their bases for possible action. Robert Kennedy later recalled the mood: "We had not abandoned all hope, but what hope there was now rested with Khrushchev 's revising his course within the next few hours. It was a hope, not an expectation. The expectation was military confrontation by Tuesday (October 30), and possibly tomorrow (October 29)... ''
At 8: 05 pm EDT, the letter drafted earlier in the day was delivered. The message read, "As I read your letter, the key elements of your proposals -- which seem generally acceptable as I understand them -- are as follows: 1) You would agree to remove these weapons systems from Cuba under appropriate United Nations observation and supervision; and undertake, with suitable safe - guards, to halt the further introduction of such weapon systems into Cuba. 2) We, on our part, would agree -- upon the establishment of adequate arrangements through the United Nations, to ensure the carrying out and continuation of these commitments (a) to remove promptly the quarantine measures now in effect and (b) to give assurances against the invasion of Cuba. '' The letter was also released directly to the press to ensure it could not be "delayed. '' With the letter delivered, a deal was on the table. However, as Robert Kennedy noted, there was little expectation it would be accepted. At 9: 00 pm EDT, the EXCOMM met again to review the actions for the following day. Plans were drawn up for air strikes on the missile sites as well as other economic targets, notably petroleum storage. McNamara stated that they had to "have two things ready: a government for Cuba, because we 're going to need one; and secondly, plans for how to respond to the Soviet Union in Europe, because sure as hell they 're going to do something there. ''
At 12: 12 am EDT, on October 27, the US informed its NATO allies that "the situation is growing shorter... the United States may find it necessary within a very short time in its interest and that of its fellow nations in the Western Hemisphere to take whatever military action may be necessary. '' To add to the concern, at 6: 00 am, the CIA reported that all missiles in Cuba were ready for action.
On October 27, Khrushchev also received a letter from Castro, what is now known as the Armageddon Letter (dated the day before), which was interpreted as urging the use of nuclear force in the event of an attack on Cuba: "I believe the imperialists ' aggressiveness is extremely dangerous and if they actually carry out the brutal act of invading Cuba in violation of international law and morality, that would be the moment to eliminate such danger forever through an act of clear legitimate defense, however harsh and terrible the solution would be, '' Castro wrote.
Later that same day, what the White House later called "Black Saturday, '' the US Navy dropped a series of "signaling depth charges '' (practice depth charges the size of hand grenades) on a Soviet submarine (B - 59) at the blockade line, unaware that it was armed with a nuclear - tipped torpedo with orders that allowed it to be used if the submarine was "hulled '' (a hole in the hull from depth charges or surface fire). The decision to launch these required agreement from all three officers on board, but one of them, Vasili Arkhipov, objected and so the launch was narrowly averted.
On the same day a U-2 spy plane made an accidental, unauthorized ninety - minute overflight of the Soviet Union 's far eastern coast. The Soviets responded by scrambling MiG fighters from Wrangel Island; in turn, the Americans launched F - 102 fighters armed with nuclear air - to - air missiles over the Bering Sea.
On Saturday, October 27, after much deliberation between the Soviet Union and Kennedy 's cabinet, Kennedy secretly agreed to remove all missiles set in Turkey and possibly southern Italy, the former on the border of the Soviet Union, in exchange for Khrushchev removing all missiles in Cuba. There is some dispute as to whether removing the missiles from Italy was part of the secret agreement. Khrushchev wrote in his memoirs that it was, and when the crisis had ended McNamara gave the order to dismantle the missiles in both Italy and Turkey.
At this point, Khrushchev knew things the US did not: First, that the shooting down of the U-2 by a Soviet missile violated direct orders from Moscow, and Cuban antiaircraft fire against other US reconnaissance aircraft also violated direct orders from Khrushchev to Castro. Second, the Soviets already had 162 nuclear warheads on Cuba that the US did not then believe were there. Third, the Soviets and Cubans on the island would almost certainly have responded to an invasion by using those nuclear weapons, even though Castro believed that every human in Cuba would likely die as a result. Khrushchev also knew but may not have considered the fact that he had submarines armed with nuclear weapons that the US Navy may not have known about. (See the section above on "Depth charges against a Soviet submarine armed with nuclear weapons ''.)
Khrushchev knew he was losing control. President Kennedy had been told in early 1961 that a nuclear war would likely kill a third of humanity, with most or all of those deaths concentrated in the US, the USSR, Europe and China; Khrushchev may well have received similar reports from his military.
With this background, when Khrushchev heard Kennedy 's threats relayed by Robert Kennedy to Soviet Ambassador Dobrynin, he immediately drafted his acceptance of Kennedy 's latest terms from his dacha without involving the Politburo, as he had previously, and had them immediately broadcasts over Radio Moscow, which he believed the US would hear. In that broadcast at 9: 00 am EST, on October 28, Khrushchev stated that "the Soviet government, in addition to previously issued instructions on the cessation of further work at the building sites for the weapons, has issued a new order on the dismantling of the weapons which you describe as ' offensive ' and their crating and return to the Soviet Union. ''
At 10: 00 am, October 28, Kennedy first learned of Khrushchev 's solution to the crisis with the US removing the 15 Jupiters in Turkey and the Soviets would remove the rockets from Cuba. Khrushchev had made the offer in a public statement for the world to hear. Despite almost solid opposition from his senior advisers, Kennedy quickly embraced the Soviet offer. "This is a pretty good play of his, '' Kennedy said, according to a tape recording that he made secretly of the Cabinet Room meeting. Kennedy had deployed the Jupiters in March of the year, causing a stream of angry outbursts from Khrushchev. "Most people will think this is a rather even trade and we ought to take advantage of it, '' Kennedy said. Vice President Lyndon Johnson was the first to endorse the missile swap but others continued to oppose the offer. Finally, Kennedy ended the debate. "We ca n't very well invade Cuba with all its toil and blood, '' Kennedy said, "when we could have gotten them out by making a deal on the same missiles on Turkey. If that 's part of the record, then you do n't have a very good war. ''
Kennedy immediately responded, issuing a statement calling the letter "an important and constructive contribution to peace. '' He continued this with a formal letter:
I consider my letter to you of October twenty - seventh and your reply of today as firm undertakings on the part of both our governments which should be promptly carried out... The US will make a statement in the framework of the Security Council in reference to Cuba as follows: it will declare that the United States of America will respect the inviolability of Cuban borders, its sovereignty, that it take the pledge not to interfere in internal affairs, not to intrude themselves and not to permit our territory to be used as a bridgehead for the invasion of Cuba, and will restrain those who would plan to carry an aggression against Cuba, either from US territory or from the territory of other countries neighboring to Cuba.
Kennedy 's planned statement would also contain suggestions he had received from his adviser Schlesinger Jr. in a "Memorandum for the President '' describing the "Post Mortem on Cuba. ''
Kennedy 's Oval Office telephone conversation with Eisenhower soon after Khrushchev 's message arrived revealed that the President was planning to use the Cuban Missile Crisis to escalate tensions with Khrushchev and in the long run, Cuba as well. The President also claimed that he thought the crisis would result in direct military confrontations in Berlin by the end of the next month. He also claimed in his conversation with Eisenhower that the Soviet leader had offered to withdraw from Cuba in exchange for the withdrawal of missiles from Turkey and that while the Kennedy Administration had agreed not to invade Cuba, they were only in process of determining Khrushchev 's offer to withdraw from Turkey.
When former US President Harry Truman called President Kennedy the day of Khrushchev 's offer, the President informed him that his Administration had rejected the Soviet leader 's offer to withdraw missiles from Turkey and was planning on using the Soviet setback in Cuba to escalate tensions in Berlin.
The US continued the blockade; in the following days, aerial reconnaissance proved that the Soviets were making progress in removing the missile systems. The 42 missiles and their support equipment were loaded onto eight Soviet ships. On November 2, 1962, Kennedy addressed the US via radio and television broadcasts regarding the dismantlement process of the Soviet R - 12 missile bases located in the Caribbean region. The ships left Cuba on November 5 to 9. The US made a final visual check as each of the ships passed the blockade line. Further diplomatic efforts were required to remove the Soviet IL - 28 bombers, and they were loaded on three Soviet ships on December 5 and 6. Concurrent with the Soviet commitment on the IL - 28s, the US government announced the end of the blockade from 6: 45 pm EST on November 20, 1962.
At the time when the Kennedy administration thought that the Cuban Missile Crisis was resolved, nuclear tactical rockets stayed in Cuba since they were not part of the Kennedy - Khrushchev understandings and the Americans did not know about them. However, the Soviets changed their minds, fearing possible future Cuban militant steps, and on November 22, 1962, Deputy Premier of the Soviet Union Anastas Mikoyan told Castro that the rockets with the nuclear warheads were being removed as well.
In his negotiations with the Soviet Ambassador Anatoly Dobrynin, Robert Kennedy informally proposed that the Jupiter missiles in Turkey would be removed "within a short time after this crisis was over. '' The last U.S. missiles were disassembled by April 24, 1963 and were flown out of Turkey soon afterward.
The practical effect of the Kennedy - Khrushchev Pact was that the US would not invade Cuba. It is possible that Khrushchev placed the missiles in Cuba only to get Kennedy to remove the missiles from Italy and Turkey and that the Soviets had no intention of resorting to nuclear war if they were out - gunned by the U.S. Because the withdrawal of the Jupiter missiles from NATO bases in Italy and Turkey was not made public at the time, Khrushchev appeared to have lost the conflict and become weakened. The perception was that Kennedy had won the contest between the superpowers and that Khrushchev had been humiliated. However, both Kennedy and Khrushchev took every step to avoid full conflict despite pressures from their respective governments. Khrushchev held power for another two years.
The enormity of how close the world came to thermonuclear war impelled Krushchev to propose a far - reaching easing of tensions with the US. In a letter to President Kennedy dated 30 October 1962, Krushchev outlined a range of bold initiatives to forestall the possibility of a further nuclear crisis, including proposing a non-aggression treaty between the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) and the Warsaw Pact or even the disbanding these military blocs, a treaty to cease all nuclear weapons testing and even the elimination of all nuclear weapons, resolution of the hot - button issue of Germany by both East and West formally accepting the existence of West Germany and East Germany, and US recognition of the government of mainland China. The letter invited counter-proposals and further exploration of these and other issues through peaceful negotiations. Krushschev invited Norman Cousins, the editor of a major US periodical and an anti-nuclear weapons activist, to serve as liaison with President Kennedy, and Cousins met with Krushchev for four hours in December 1962.
Kennedy 's response to Krushchev 's proposals was lukewarm but Kennedy expressed to Cousins that he felt constrained in exploring these issues due to pressure from hardliners in the US national security apparatus. The US and the USSR did shortly thereafter agree on a treaty banning atmospheric testing of nuclear weapons, known as the "Partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty ''.
Further after the crisis, the U.S. and the Soviet Union created the Moscow -- Washington hotline, a direct communications link between Moscow and Washington. The purpose was to have a way that the leaders of the two Cold War countries could communicate directly to solve such a crisis.
The compromise embarrassed Khrushchev and the Soviet Union because the withdrawal of US missiles from Italy and Turkey was a secret deal between Kennedy and Khrushchev. Khrushchev went to Kennedy as he thought that the crisis was getting out of hand, but the Soviets were seen as retreating from circumstances that they had started.
Khrushchev 's fall from power two years later was in part because of the Soviet Politburo 's embarrassment at both Khrushchev 's eventual concessions to the US and this ineptitude in precipitating the crisis in the first place. According to Dobrynin, the top Soviet leadership took the Cuban outcome as "a blow to its prestige bordering on humiliation. ''
Cuba perceived the outcome as a betrayal by the Soviets, as decisions on how to resolve the crisis had been made exclusively by Kennedy and Khrushchev. Castro was especially upset that certain issues of interest to Cuba, such as the status of the US Naval Base in Guantánamo, were not addressed. That caused Cuban -- Soviet relations to deteriorate for years to come. On the other hand, Cuba continued to be protected from invasion.
The worldwide U.S. Forces DEFCON 3 status was returned to DEFCON 4 on November 20, 1962. General Curtis LeMay told the President that the resolution of the crisis was the "greatest defeat in our history '', however his was a minority position. He had pressed for an immediate invasion of Cuba as soon as the crisis began and still favored invading Cuba even after the Soviets had withdrawn their missiles. Twenty - five years later, LeMay still believed that "We could have gotten not only the missiles out of Cuba, we could have gotten the Communists out of Cuba at that time. ''
Critics, including Seymour Melman, and Seymour Hersh suggested that the Cuban Missile Crisis encouraged the United States ' use of military means, such as the case in the later Vietnam War.
U-2 pilot Anderson 's body was returned to the US and was buried with full military honors in South Carolina. He was the first recipient of the newly created Air Force Cross, which was awarded posthumously. Although Anderson was the only combatant fatality during the crisis, 11 crew members of three reconnaissance Boeing RB - 47 Stratojets of the 55th Strategic Reconnaissance Wing were also killed in crashes during the period between September 27 and November 11, 1962. Seven crew died when a Military Air Transport Service Boeing C - 135B Stratolifter delivering ammunition to Guantanamo Bay Naval Base stalled and crashed on approach on October 23.
Schlesinger, a historian and adviser to Kennedy, told National Public Radio in an interview on October 16, 2002 that Castro did not want the missiles, but Khrushchev pressured Castro to accept them. Castro was not completely happy with the idea, but the Cuban National Directorate of the Revolution accepted them, both to protect Cuba against US attack and to aid the Soviet Union. Schlesinger believed that when the missiles were withdrawn, Castro was more angry with Khrushchev than with Kennedy because Khrushchev had not consulted Castro before deciding to remove them. Although Castro was infuriated by Khrushchev, he planned on striking the US with remaining missiles if an invasion of the island occurred.
In early 1992, it was confirmed that Soviet forces in Cuba had, when the crisis broke, already received tactical nuclear warheads for their artillery rockets and Il - 28 bombers. Castro stated that he would have recommended their use if the US invaded despite Cuba being destroyed.
Arguably, the most dangerous moment in the crisis was not recognized until the Cuban Missile Crisis Havana conference, in October 2002. Attended by many of the veterans of the crisis, they all learned that on October 27, 1962, USS Beale had tracked and dropped signaling depth charges (the size of hand grenades) on B - 59, a Soviet Project 641 (NATO designation Foxtrot) submarine. Unknown to the US, it was armed with a 15 - kiloton nuclear torpedo. Running out of air, the Soviet submarine was surrounded by American warships and desperately needed to surface. An argument broke out among three officers aboard B - 59, including submarine captain Valentin Savitsky, political officer Ivan Semonovich Maslennikov, and Deputy brigade commander Captain 2nd rank (U.S. Navy Commander rank equivalent) Vasili Arkhipov. An exhausted Savitsky became furious and ordered that the nuclear torpedo on board be made combat ready. Accounts differ about whether Arkhipov convinced Savitsky not to make the attack or whether Savitsky himself finally concluded that the only reasonable choice left open to him was to come to the surface. During the conference, McNamara stated that nuclear war had come much closer than people had thought. Thomas Blanton, director of the National Security Archive, said, "A guy called Vasili Arkhipov saved the world. ''
Fifty years after the crisis, Graham T. Allison wrote:
Fifty years ago, the Cuban missile crisis brought the world to the brink of nuclear disaster. During the standoff, US President John F. Kennedy thought the chance of escalation to war was "between 1 in 3 and even, '' and what we have learned in later decades has done nothing to lengthen those odds. We now know, for example, that in addition to nuclear - armed ballistic missiles, the Soviet Union had deployed 100 tactical nuclear weapons to Cuba, and the local Soviet commander there could have launched these weapons without additional codes or commands from Moscow. The US air strike and invasion that were scheduled for the third week of the confrontation would likely have triggered a nuclear response against American ships and troops, and perhaps even Miami. The resulting war might have led to the deaths of over 100 million Americans and over 100 million Russians.
BBC journalist Joe Matthews published the story, on October 13, 2012, behind the 100 tactical nuclear warheads mentioned by Graham Allison in the excerpt above. Khrushchev feared that Castro 's hurt pride and widespread Cuban indignation over the concessions he had made to Kennedy might lead to a breakdown of the agreement between the Soviet Union and the US. To prevent that, Khrushchev decided to offer to give Cuba more than 100 tactical nuclear weapons that had been shipped to Cuba along with the long - range missiles but, crucially, had escaped the notice of U.S. intelligence. Khrushchev determined that because the Americans had not listed the missiles on their list of demands, keeping them in Cuba would be in the Soviet Union 's interests.
Anastas Mikoyan was tasked with the negotiations with Castro over the missile transfer deal that was designed to prevent a breakdown in the relations between Cuba and the Soviet Union. While in Havana, Mikoyan witnessed the mood swings and paranoia of Castro, who was convinced that Moscow had made the agreement with the US at the expense of Cuba 's defense. Mikoyan, on his own initiative, decided that Castro and his military not be given control of weapons with an explosive force equal to 100 Hiroshima - sized bombs under any circumstances. He defused the seemingly intractable situation, which risked re-escalating the crisis, on November 22, 1962. During a tense, four - hour meeting, Mikoyan convinced Castro that despite Moscow 's desire to help, it would be in breach of an unpublished Soviet law, which did not actually exist, to transfer the missiles permanently into Cuban hands and provide them with an independent nuclear deterrent. Castro was forced to give way and, much to the relief of Khrushchev and the rest of the Soviet government, the tactical nuclear weapons were crated and returned by sea to the Soviet Union during December 1962.
The American popular media, especially television, made heavy use of the events of the missile crisis and both fictional and documentary forms. Jim Willis includes the Crisis as one of the 100 "media moments that changed America. '' Sheldon Stern finds that a half century later there are still many "misconceptions, half - truths, and outright lies '' that have shaped media versions of what happened in the White House during those harrowing two weeks.
According to William Cohn, television programs are typically the main source used by the American public to know about and interpret the past. The Soviet media proved somewhat disorganized as it was unable to generate a coherent popular history. Khrushchev lost power and was airbrushed out of the story. Cuba was no longer portrayed as a heroic David against the American Goliath. One contradiction that pervaded the Soviet media campaign was between the pacifistic rhetoric of the peace movement that emphasizes the horrors of nuclear war and the militancy of the need to prepare Soviets for war against American aggression.
(Listed chronologically)
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who owns the robert trent jones golf trail | Robert Trent Jones golf Trail - Wikipedia
Coordinates: 33 ° 23 ′ 20 '' N 86 ° 52 ′ 37 '' W / 33.389 ° N 86.877 ° W / 33.389; - 86.877
The Robert Trent Jones Golf Trail is a collection of championship caliber golf courses, designed by Robert Trent Jones, Sr., distributed across the state of Alabama, as part of investments by the Retirement Systems of Alabama. The Trail started with 378 holes at eight sites throughout the state, but has grown to 468 holes at eleven sites.
The concept was created and executed by Dr. David Bronner, CEO of the Retirement Systems of Alabama. The mission was to effectively diversify the assets of the state 's pension fund and economically help the state of Alabama, the philosophy being that "the stronger the Retirement Systems of Alabama can make Alabama, the stronger the Retirement Systems will be. ''
Two of the courses currently host events on the LPGA Tour: The Senator course at Capitol Hill near Montgomery, which hosts the Yokohama Tire LPGA Classic, and The Crossings course at Magnolia Grove near Mobile, home to the Airbus LPGA Classic.
The Grand National course in Opelika hosted the first PGA Tour event in Alabama since the 1990 PGA Championship, the 2015 Barbasol Championship.
Scorecards for courses played on the PGA and LPGA Tours.
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which group of english immigrants first settled in plymouth in 1620 | Plymouth Colony - wikipedia
Plymouth Colony (sometimes New Plymouth) was an English colonial venture in North America from 1620 to 1691. The first settlement of the Plymouth Colony was at New Plymouth, a location previously surveyed and named by Captain John Smith. The settlement served as the capital of the colony and developed as the modern town of Plymouth, Massachusetts. At its height, Plymouth Colony occupied most of the southeastern portion of the modern state of Massachusetts.
Plymouth Colony was founded by a group of Puritan Separatists initially known as the Brownist Emigration, who came to be known as the Pilgrims. It was one of the earliest successful colonies to be founded by the English in North America, along with Jamestown and other settlements in Virginia, and was the first sizable permanent English settlement in the New England region. The colony was able to establish a treaty with Chief Massasoit which helped to ensure its success; in this, they were aided by Squanto, a Native American of the Patuxet people. It played a central role in King Philip 's War (1675 -- 78), one of several Indian Wars. Ultimately, the colony was merged with the Massachusetts Bay Colony and other territories in 1691 to form the Province of Massachusetts Bay.
Despite the colony 's relatively short existence, Plymouth holds a special role in American history. A significant proportion of the citizens of Plymouth were fleeing religious persecution and searching for a place to worship as they saw fit, rather than being entrepreneurs like many of the settlers of Jamestown. The social and legal systems of the colony became closely tied to their religious beliefs, as well as English custom. Many of the people and events surrounding Plymouth Colony have become part of American folklore, including the North American tradition known as Thanksgiving and the monument known as Plymouth Rock.
Plymouth Colony was founded by a group of English Puritans who later came to be known as the Pilgrims. The core group (roughly 40 % of the adults and 56 % of the family groupings) were part of a congregation led by William Bradford. They began to feel the pressures of religious persecution while still in the English village of Scrooby, near East Retford, Nottinghamshire. In 1607, Archbishop Tobias Matthew raided homes and imprisoned several members of the congregation. The congregation left England in 1609 and emigrated to the Netherlands, settling first in Amsterdam and then in Leiden.
In Leiden, the congregation gained the freedom to worship as they chose, but Dutch society was unfamiliar to them. Scrooby had been an agricultural community, whereas Leiden was a thriving industrial center, and the Separatists found the pace of life difficult. The community remained close - knit, but their children began adopting the Dutch language and customs, and some also entered the Dutch Army. The Puritans also were still not free from the persecutions of the English Crown. English authorities came to Leiden to arrest William Brewster in 1618, after he published comments highly critical of the King of England and the Anglican Church. Brewster escaped arrest, but the events spurred the congregation to move farther from England.
The congregation obtained a land patent from the London Virginia Company in June 1619. They had declined the opportunity to settle south of Cape Cod in New Netherland because of their desire to avoid the Dutch influence. This land patent allowed them to settle at the mouth of the Hudson River. They sought to finance their venture through the Merchant Adventurers, a group of businessmen who principally viewed the colony as a means of making a profit. Upon arriving in America, the Pilgrims began working to repay their debts.
Using the financing secured from the Merchant Adventurers, the Colonists bought provisions and obtained passage on two ships: the Mayflower and the Speedwell. They had intended to leave early in 1620, but they were delayed several months due to difficulties in dealing with the Merchant Adventurers, including several changes in plans for the voyage and in financing. The congregation and the other colonists finally boarded the Speedwell in July 1620 in the Dutch port of Delfshaven.
Speedwell was re-rigged with larger masts before leaving Holland and setting out to meet Mayflower in Southampton, England, around the end of July 1620. The Mayflower was purchased in London. The original captains were Captain Reynolds for Speedwell and Captain Christopher Jones for Mayflower. Other passengers joined the group in Southampton, including William Brewster, who had been in hiding for the better part of a year, and a group of people known to the Leiden congregation as "The Strangers. '' This group was largely made up of people recruited by the Merchant Adventurers to provide practical assistance to the colony and additional hands to work for the colony 's ventures. The term was also used for many of the indentured servants.
Among the Strangers were Myles Standish, who was the colony 's military leader; Christopher Martin, who had been designated by the Merchant Adventurers to act as shipboard governor during the trans - Atlantic trip; and Stephen Hopkins, a veteran of a failed colonial venture that may have inspired Shakespeare 's The Tempest. The group who later became the Leiden Leaders after the merging of ships included John Carver, William Bradford, Edward Winslow, William Brewster, and Isaac Alberton.
The departure of the Mayflower and Speedwell for America was beset by delays. Further disagreements with the Merchant Adventurers held up the departure in Southampton. A total of 120 passengers finally departed on August 5 -- 90 on the Mayflower and 30 on the Speedwell. Leaving Southampton, the Speedwell suffered significant leakage, which required the ships to immediately put in at Dartmouth. The leakage was partly caused by being overmasted and being pressed too much with sail. Repairs were completed, and a further delay ensued as they awaited favorable winds. The two ships finally set sail on August 23; they traveled only two hundred miles beyond Land 's End before another major leak in the Speedwell forced the expedition to return again to England, this time to the port of Plymouth. The Speedwell was found to be unseaworthy; some passengers abandoned their attempt to emigrate, while others joined the Mayflower, crowding the already heavily burdened ship. Later, it was speculated that the crew of the Speedwell had intentionally sabotaged the ship to avoid having to make the treacherous trans - Atlantic voyage. The delays had significant consequences; the cost of the repairs and port fees required that the colonists sell some of their invaluable provisions. More importantly, the delays meant that everyone had to spend the entire winter on board the Mayflower off Cape Cod in what could only be described as squalid conditions.
The Mayflower departed Plymouth, England on September 6, 1620 with 102 passengers and about 30 crew members in the small, 106 foot - long ship. The seas were not severe during the first month in the Atlantic but, by the second month, the ship was being hit by strong north - Atlantic winter gales, causing it to be badly shaken with water leaks from structural damage. There were many obstacles throughout the trip, including multiple cases of seasickness and the bending and cracking of a main beam of the ship. One death occurred, that of William Button.
After two months at sea, land was sighted on November 9 off the coast of Cape Cod. They attempted to sail south to the designated landing site at the mouth of the Hudson but ran into trouble in the region of Pollack Rip, a shallow area of shoals between Cape Cod and Nantucket Island. With winter approaching and provisions running dangerously low, the passengers decided to return north to Cape Cod Bay and abandon their original landing plans.
The Pilgrims were not the first people in the area. Besides the indigenous tribes, there had been nearly a century of exploration, fishing, and settlement by Europeans. John Cabot 's discovery of Newfoundland in 1497 had laid the foundation for the extensive English claims over the east coast of North America. One of the earliest maps of New England was produced c. 1540 by cartographer Giacomo Gastaldi and erroneously identified Cape Breton with the Narragansett Bay. The resulting map completely omits most of the New England coast. European fishermen had been plying the waters off the New England coast for much of the 16th and 17th centuries.
Frenchman Samuel de Champlain had explored the area extensively in 1605. He had specifically explored Plymouth Harbor, which he called "Port St. Louis, '' and made an extensive and detailed map of it and the surrounding lands. The native Patuxet village upon which the town of Plymouth was later built was shown by Champlain as a thriving settlement. However, an epidemic wiped out up to 90 % of the Native Americans along the Massachusetts coast in 1617 -- 1619, including the Patuxet, before the arrival of the Mayflower. The epidemic has traditionally been thought to be smallpox, but a recent analysis has concluded that it may have been a lesser - known disease called leptospirosis. The absence of any serious native opposition to settlement by the Pilgrims may have been a pivotal event to their success and to English colonization in the Americas.
Popham Colony, also known as Fort St. George, was organized by the Plymouth Company (unrelated to Plymouth Colony) and founded in 1607. It was settled on the coast of Maine and was beset by internal political struggles, sickness, and weather problems. It was abandoned in 1608.
Captain John Smith of Jamestown fame had explored the area in 1614 and is credited with naming the region of New England. He named many locations using approximations of Native American words. The future site of the Pilgrim 's first settlement was originally named "Accomack '' by Smith. In consultation with Prince Charles, son of King James, Smith changed "Accomack '' to New Plymouth. A map published in his 1616 work A Description of New England clearly shows the site of the future Pilgrim settlement named "New Plimouth. ''
In the Mayflower settlers ' first explorations of Cape Cod, they came across evidence that Europeans had previously spent extensive time there. They discovered remains of a European fort and uncovered a grave that contained the remains of both an adult European male and a Native American child.
The Mayflower anchored at Provincetown Harbor on November 11, 1620. The Pilgrims did not have a patent to settle this area; thus, some passengers began to question their right to land, complaining that there was no legal authority to establish a colony. In response to this, a group of colonists drafted and ratified the first governing document of the colony, the Mayflower Compact, while still aboard the ship as it lay off - shore. The intent of the compact was to establish a means of governing the colony, though it did little more than confirm that the colony would be governed like any English town. It did, however, serve the purpose of relieving the concerns of many of the settlers. This social contract was written and signed by 41 Separatist men. It was modeled on the church covenants that Congregationalists used to form new congregations. It made clear that the colony should be governed by "just and equal laws, '' and those who signed it promised to keep these laws.
The group remained on board the ship through the next day, a Sunday, for prayer and worship. The immigrants finally set foot on land at what became Provincetown on November 13. The first task was to rebuild a shallop, a shallow draft boat that had been built in England and disassembled for transport aboard the Mayflower. It would remain with the Pilgrims while the Mayflower returned to England. On November 15, Captain Myles Standish led a party of sixteen men on an exploratory mission, during which they disturbed a Native American grave and located a buried cache of Indian corn. The following week, Susanna White gave birth to son Peregrine White on the Mayflower. He was the first English child born to the Pilgrims in the New World. The shallop was finished on November 27, and a second expedition was undertaken using it, under the direction of Mayflower master Christopher Jones. Thirty - four men went, but the expedition was beset by bad weather; the only positive result was that they found a Native burial ground and corn that had been intended for the dead, taking the corn for future planting. A third expedition along Cape Cod left on December 6; it resulted in a skirmish with local Native Americans known as the "First Encounter '' near modern - day Eastham, Massachusetts. The colonists decided to look elsewhere, having failed to secure a proper site for their settlement, and fearing that they had angered the local Native Americans by robbing their corn stores and firing upon them. The Mayflower left Provincetown Harbor and set sail for Plymouth Harbor.
The Mayflower dropped anchor in Plymouth Harbor on December 16 and spent three days looking for a settlement site. They rejected several sites, including one on Clark 's Island and another at the mouth of the Jones River, in favor of the site of a recently abandoned Native American settlement which had been occupied by the Patuxet. The location was chosen largely for its defensive position. The settlement would be centered on two hills: Cole 's Hill, where the village would be built, and Fort Hill, where a defensive cannon would be stationed. Also important in choosing the site was that the prior Native villagers had cleared much of the land making agriculture relatively easy. Fresh water for the colony was provided by Town Brook and Billington Sea. There are no contemporaneous accounts to verify the legend, but Plymouth Rock is often hailed as the point where the colonists first set foot on their new homeland.
The area where the colonists settled had been identified as "New Plymouth '' in maps by John Smith published in 1614. The colonists elected to retain the name for their own settlement, in honor of their final point of departure from England: Plymouth, Devon.
On December 21, 1620, the first landing party arrived at the site of what later became the settlement of Plymouth. Plans to immediately begin building houses, however, were delayed by inclement weather until December 23. As the building progressed, twenty men always remained ashore for security purposes, while the rest of the work crews returned each night to the Mayflower. Women, children, and the infirm remained on board the Mayflower; many had not left the ship for six months. The first structure was a "common house '' of wattle and daub, and took two weeks to complete in the harsh New England winter. In the following weeks, the rest of the settlement slowly took shape. The living and working structures were built on the relatively flat top of Cole 's Hill, and a wooden platform was constructed atop nearby Fort Hill to support the cannon that would defend the settlement.
During the winter, the Mayflower colonists suffered greatly from lack of shelter, diseases such as scurvy, and general conditions onboard ship. Many of the able - bodied men were too infirm to work; 45 out of 102 pilgrims died and were buried on Cole 's Hill. Thus, only seven residences (of a planned nineteen) and four common houses were constructed during the first winter. By the end of January, enough of the settlement had been built to begin unloading provisions from the Mayflower. In mid-February, after several tense encounters with local Native Americans, the male residents of the settlement organized themselves into military orders; Myles Standish was designated as the commanding officer. By the end of the month, five cannons had been defensively positioned on Fort Hill. John Carver was elected governor to replace Governor Martin.
On March 16, 1621, the first formal contact occurred with the Indians (or Native Americans). A Native American named Samoset, originally from Pemaquid Point in modern Maine, walked boldly into the midst of the settlement and proclaimed, "Welcome, Englishmen! '' He had learned some English from interacting with English fishermen and trappers (most probably from Bristol) operating in the region. It was during this meeting that the Pilgrims learned how the previous residents of the Native American village of Patuxet had died of an epidemic thought to be smallpox. They also discovered that the supreme leader of the region was a Wampanoag Native American sachem (chief) by the name of Massasoit; and they learned of the existence of Squanto (also known by his full Massachusett name of Tisquantum), a Native American originally from Patuxet. Squanto had spent time in Europe and spoke English quite well. Samoset spent the night in Plymouth and agreed to arrange a meeting with some of Massasoit 's men.
Massasoit and Squanto were apprehensive about the Pilgrims. In Massasoit 's first contact with the English, several men of his tribe had been killed in an unprovoked attack by English sailors. He also knew of the Pilgrims ' theft of the corn stores in their landings at Provincetown. Squanto had been abducted in 1614 by English explorer Thomas Hunt and had spent five years in Europe, first as a slave for a group of Spanish monks, then in England. He had returned to New England in 1619, acting as a guide to explorer Capt. Robert Gorges. Massasoit and his men had massacred the crew of the ship and had taken in Squanto.
Samoset returned to Plymouth on March 22 with a delegation from Massasoit that included Squanto; Massasoit joined them shortly thereafter. After an exchange of gifts, Massasoit and Governor Carver established a formal treaty of peace. This treaty ensured that each people would not bring harm to the other, that Massasoit would send his allies to make peaceful negotiations with Plymouth, and that they would come to each other 's aid in a time of war.
On April 5, 1621, after being anchored for almost four months in Plymouth Harbor, the Mayflower set sail for England. Nearly half of the original 102 passengers had died during the first winter. As William Bradford wrote, "of these one hundred persons who came over in this first ship together, the greatest half died in the general mortality, and most of them in two or three months ' time ''. By November 1621, only 53 pilgrims were alive to celebrate the harvest feast which modern Americans know as "The First Thanksgiving ''. Of the 18 adult women, 13 died the first winter while another died in May. Only four adult women were left alive for the Thanksgiving.
Several of the graves on Cole 's Hill were uncovered in 1855; their bodies were disinterred and moved to a site near Plymouth Rock.
The autumn celebration in late 1621 that has become known as "The First Thanksgiving '' was not known as such to the Pilgrims. The first "Thanksgiving '' as the Pilgrims would have called it (referring to solemn ceremony of praise and thanks to God for a congregation 's good fortune) did not occur until 1623, in response to the good news of the arrival of additional colonists and supplies. That event probably occurred in July and consisted of a full day of prayer and worship and probably very little revelry.
The event now commemorated in the United States at the end of November each year is more properly described as a harvest festival. The original festival was probably held in early October 1621 and was celebrated by the 53 surviving Pilgrims, along with Massasoit and 90 of his men. Three contemporaneous accounts of the event survive: Of Plymouth Plantation by William Bradford; Mourt 's Relation probably written by Edward Winslow; and New England 's Memorial by Plymouth Colony Secretary (and Bradford 's nephew) Capt. Nathaniel Morton. The celebration lasted three days and featured a feast that included numerous types of waterfowl, wild turkeys and fish procured by the colonists, and five deer brought by the Native Americans.
After the departure of Massasoit and his men, Squanto remained in Plymouth to teach the Pilgrims how to survive in New England, for example using dead fish to fertilize the soil. For the first few years of colonial life, the fur trade was the dominant source of income, buying furs from Native Americans and selling to Europeans, beyond subsistence farming. Shortly after the departure of the Mayflower, Governor Carver suddenly died. William Bradford was elected to replace him and went on to lead the colony through much of its formative years.
As promised by Massasoit, numerous Native Americans arrived at Plymouth throughout the middle of 1621 with pledges of peace. On July 2, a party of Pilgrims led by Edward Winslow (who later became the chief diplomat of the colony) set out to continue negotiations with the chief. The delegation also included Squanto, who acted as a translator. After traveling for several days, they arrived at Massasoit 's capital, the village of Sowams near Narragansett Bay. After meals and an exchange of gifts, Massasoit agreed to an exclusive trading pact with the English; thus, the French were no longer welcome, though they were also frequent traders in the area. Squanto remained behind and traveled throughout the area to establish trading relations with several tribes.
In late July, a boy named John Billington became lost for some time in the woods around the colony. It was reported that he was found by the Nauset, the same group of Native Americans on Cape Cod from whom the Pilgrims had unwittingly stolen corn seed the prior year upon their first explorations. The English organized a party to return Billington to Plymouth. The Pilgrims agreed to reimburse the Nauset for the corn which they had taken in return for the Billington boy. This negotiation did much to secure further peace with the Native Americans in the area.
During their dealings with the Nausets over the release of John Billington, the Pilgrims learned of troubles that Massasoit was experiencing. Massasoit, Squanto, and several other Wampanoags had been captured by Corbitant, sachem of the Narragansett tribe. A party of ten men under the leadership of Myles Standish set out to find and execute Corbitant. While hunting for Corbitant, they learned that Squanto had escaped and Massasoit was back in power. Several Native Americans had been injured by Standish and his men and were offered medical attention in Plymouth. They had failed to capture Corbitant, but the show of force by Standish had garnered respect for the Pilgrims and, as a result, nine of the most powerful sachems in the area signed a treaty in September, including Massasoit and Corbitant, pledging their loyalty to King James.
In May 1622, a vessel named the Sparrow arrived carrying seven men from the Merchant Adventurers whose purpose was to seek out a site for a new settlement in the area. Two ships followed shortly thereafter carrying sixty settlers, all men. They spent July and August in Plymouth before moving north to settle in modern Weymouth, Massachusetts at a settlement which they named Wessagussett. The settlement of Wessagussett was short - lived, but it provided the spark for an event that dramatically changed the political landscape between the local Native American tribes and the English settlers. Reports reached Plymouth of a military threat to Wessagussett, and Myles Standish organized a militia to defend them. However, he found that there had been no attack. He therefore decided on a pre-emptive strike, an event which historian Nathaniel Philbrick calls "Standish 's raid ''. He lured two prominent Massachusett military leaders into a house at Wessagussett under the pretense of sharing a meal and making negotiations. Standish and his men then stabbed and killed the two unsuspecting Native Americans. The local sachem named Obtakiest was pursued by Standish and his men but escaped with three English prisoners from Wessagussett, whom he then executed. Within a short time, Wessagussett was disbanded, and the survivors were integrated into the town of Plymouth.
Word quickly spread among the Native American tribes of Standish 's attack; many Native Americans abandoned their villages and fled the area. As noted by Philbrick: "Standish 's raid had irreparably damaged the human ecology of the region... It was some time before a new equilibrium came to the region. '' Edward Winslow reports in his 1624 memoirs Good News from New England that "they forsook their houses, running to and fro like men distracted, living in swamps and other desert places, and so brought manifold diseases amongst themselves, whereof very many are dead ''. Lacking the trade in furs provided by the local tribes, the Pilgrims lost their main source of income for paying off their debts to the Merchant Adventurers. Rather than strengthening their position, Standish 's raid had disastrous consequences for the colony, as attested by William Bradford in a letter to the Merchant Adventurers: "(W) e had much damaged our trade, for there where we had (the) most skins the Indians are run away from their habitations ''. The only positive effect of Standish 's raid seemed to be the increased power of the Massasoit - led Wampanoag tribe, the Pilgrims ' closest ally in the region.
A second ship arrived in November 1621 named the Fortune, sent by the Merchant Adventurers one year after the Pilgrims first set foot in New England. It arrived with 37 new settlers for Plymouth. However, the ship had arrived unexpectedly and also without many supplies, so the additional settlers put a strain on the resources of the colony. Among the passengers of the Fortune were several additional people of the original Leiden congregation, including William Brewster 's son Jonathan, Edward Winslow 's brother John, and Philip Delano (the family name was earlier "de la Noye '') whose descendants include President Franklin Delano Roosevelt. The Fortune also carried a letter from the Merchant Adventurers chastising the colony for failure to return goods with the Mayflower that had been promised in return for their support. The Fortune began its return to England laden with £ 500 worth of goods (equivalent to £ 78 thousand in 2010, or $119 thousand at PPP), more than enough to keep the colonists on schedule for repayment of their debt. However, the Fortune was captured by the French before she could deliver her cargo to England, creating an even larger deficit for the colony.
In July 1623, two more ships arrived: the Anne, under the command of Captain "Master '' William Peirce and Master John Bridges; and the Little James, under the command of Captain Emanuel Altham. These ships carried 96 new settlers, among them Leideners, including William Bradford 's future wife Alice, and William and Mary Brewster 's daughters Patience and Fear. Some of the passengers who arrived on the Anne were either unprepared for frontier life or undesirable additions to the colony and returned to England the next year. According to Gleason Archer, "those who remained were not willing to join the colony under the terms of the agreement with the Merchant Adventurers. They had embarked for America upon an understanding with the Adventurers that they might settle in a community of their own, or at least be free from the bonds by which the Plymouth colonists were enslaved. A letter addressed to the colonists and signed by thirteen of the merchants recited these facts and urged acceptance of the new comers on the specified terms. '' The new arrivals were allotted land in the area of the Eel River, known as Hobs Hole, which became Wellingsley, a mile south of Plymouth Rock.
In September 1623, another ship arrived carrying settlers destined to refound the failed colony at Weymouth, and they stayed temporarily in Plymouth. In March 1624, a ship arrived bearing a few additional settlers and the first cattle. A 1627 division of cattle lists 156 colonists divided into twelve lots of thirteen colonists each. Another ship arrived in August 1629, also named the Mayflower, with 35 additional members of the Leiden congregation. Ships arrived throughout the period between 1629 and 1630 carrying new settlers, though the exact number is unknown; contemporaneous documents claimed that, by January 1630, the colony had almost 300 people. In 1643, the colony had an estimated 600 males fit for military service, implying a total population of about 2,000. By 1690, on the eve of the dissolution of the colony, the estimated total population of Plymouth County, the most populous, was 3,055 people. It is estimated that the entire population of the colony at the point of its dissolution was around 7,000. For comparison, it is estimated that more than 20,000 settlers had arrived in Massachusetts Bay Colony between 1630 and 1640 (a period known as the Great Migration), and the English population of all New England was estimated to be about 60,000 by 1678. Plymouth was the first colony in the region but, by the time of its annexation, it was much smaller than Massachusetts Bay Colony.
Myles Standish was the military leader of Plymouth Colony from the beginning. He organized and led the first party to set foot in New England, an exploratory expedition of Cape Cod upon arrival in Provincetown Harbor. He also led the third expedition, during which Standish fired the first recorded shot by the Pilgrim settlers in an event known as the First Encounter. Standish had training in military engineering from the University of Leiden, and it was he who decided the defensive layout of the settlement when they finally arrived at Plymouth. Standish also organized the able - bodied men into military orders in February of the first winter. During the second winter, he helped design and organize the construction of a large palisade wall surrounding the settlement. Standish led two early military raids on Indian villages: the raid to find and punish Corbitant for his attempted coup, and the killing at Wessagussett called "Standish 's raid ''. The former had the desired effect of gaining the respect of the local Indians; the latter only served to frighten and scatter them, resulting in loss of trade and income.
The first major war in New England was the Pequot War of 1637. The war 's roots go back to 1632, when a dispute arose between Dutch fur traders and Plymouth officials over control of the Connecticut River Valley near modern Hartford, Connecticut. Representatives from the Dutch East India Company and Plymouth Colony both had deeds which claimed that they had rightfully purchased the land from the Pequots. A sort of land rush occurred as settlers from Massachusetts Bay and Plymouth colonies tried to beat the Dutch in settling the area; the influx of English settlers also threatened the Pequot. Other confederations in the area sided with the English, including the Narragansetts and Mohegans, who were the traditional enemies of the Pequots. The event that sparked formal hostilities was the capture of a boat and the murder of its captain John Oldham in 1636, an event blamed on allies of the Pequots. In April 1637, a raid on a Pequot village by John Endicott led to a retaliatory raid by Pequot warriors on the town of Wethersfield, Connecticut, where some 30 English settlers were killed. This led to a further retaliation, where a raid led by Captain John Underhill and Captain John Mason burned a Pequot village to the ground near modern Mystic, Connecticut, killing 300 Pequots. Plymouth Colony had little to do with the actual fighting in the war.
When it appeared that the war would resume, four of the New England colonies (Massachusetts Bay, Connecticut, New Haven, and Plymouth) formed a defensive compact known as the United Colonies of New England. Edward Winslow was already known for his diplomatic skills, and he was the chief architect of the United Colonies. His experience in the United Provinces of the Netherlands during the Leiden years was key to organizing the confederation. John Adams later considered the United Colonies to be the prototype for the Articles of Confederation, which was the first attempt at a national government.
King Philip was the younger son of Massasoit and the heir of Massasoit 's position as sachem of the Pokanoket and supreme leader of the Wampanoag. (He was also known as Metacomet and other variations on that name.) He became sachem upon the sudden death of his older brother Wamsutta, also known as Alexander, in 1662.
The cause of the war stems from the increasing numbers of English colonists and their demand for land. As more land was purchased from the Native Americans, they were restricted to smaller territories for themselves. Native American leaders such as King Philip resented the loss of land and looked for a means to slow or reverse it. Of specific concern was the founding of the town of Swansea, which was located only a few miles from the Wampanoag capital at Mount Hope. The General Court of Plymouth began using military force to coerce the sale of Wampanoag land to the settlers of the town.
The proximate cause of the conflict was the death of a Praying Indian named John Sassamon in 1675. Sassamon had been an advisor and friend to King Philip; however, Sassamon 's conversion to Christianity had driven the two apart. Accused in the murder of Sassamon were some of Philip 's most senior lieutenants. A jury of twelve Englishmen and six Praying Indians found the Native Americans guilty of murder and sentenced them to death. To this day, some debate exists whether King Philip 's men actually committed the murder.
Philip had already begun war preparations at his home base near Mount Hope where he started raiding English farms and pillaging their property. In response, Governor Josiah Winslow called out the militia, and they organized and began to move on Philip 's position. King Philip 's men attacked unarmed women and children in order to receive a ransom. One such attack resulted in the capture of Mary Rowlandson. The memoirs of her capture provided historians with much information on Native American culture during this time period.
The war continued through the rest of 1675 and into the next year. The English were constantly frustrated by the Native Americans ' refusal to meet them in pitched battle. They employed a form of guerilla warfare that confounded the English. Captain Benjamin Church continuously campaigned to enlist the help of friendly Native Americans to help learn how to fight on an even footing with Philip 's warrior bands, but he was constantly rebuffed by the Plymouth leadership who mistrusted all Native Americans, thinking them potential enemies. Eventually, Governor Winslow and Plymouth military commander Major William Bradford (son of the late Governor William Bradford) relented and gave Church permission to organize a combined force of English and Native Americans. After securing the alliance of the Sakonnet, he led his combined force in pursuit of Philip, who had thus far avoided any major battles in the war that bears his name. Throughout July 1676, Church 's band captured hundreds of Native American warriors, often without much of a fight, though Philip eluded him. Church was given permission to grant amnesty to any captured Native Americans who would agree to join the English side, and his force grew immensely. Philip was killed by a Pocasset Indian, and the war soon ended as an overwhelming English victory.
Eight percent of the English adult male population is estimated to have died during the war, a rather large percentage by most standards. The impact on the Native Americans was far higher, however. So many were killed, fled, or shipped off as slaves that the entire Native American population of New England fell by sixty to eighty percent.
In 1686, the entire region was reorganized under a single government known as the Dominion of New England; this included the colonies of Plymouth, Rhode Island, Massachusetts Bay, Connecticut, and New Hampshire. In 1688, New York, West Jersey, and East Jersey were added. The President of the Dominion Edmund Andros was highly unpopular, and the union did not last. The union was dissolved after news of the Glorious Revolution reached Boston in April 1689, and the citizens of Boston rose up and arrested Andros. When news of these events reached Plymouth, its magistrates reclaimed power.
The return of self - rule for Plymouth Colony was short - lived, however. A delegation of New Englanders led by Increase Mather went to England to negotiate a return of the colonial charters that had been nullified during the Dominion years. The situation was particularly problematic for Plymouth Colony, as it had existed without a formal charter since its founding. Plymouth did not get their wish for a formal charter; instead, a new charter was issued, combining Plymouth Colony, Massachusetts Bay Colony, and other territories. The official date of the proclamation was October 17, 1691, ending the existence of Plymouth Colony, though it was not put into force until the arrival of the charter of the Province of Massachusetts Bay on May 14, 1692, carried by the new royal governor Sir William Phips. The last official meeting of the Plymouth General Court occurred on June 8, 1692.
The most important religious figure in the colony was John Robinson, an original pastor of the Scrooby congregation and religious leader of the separatists throughout the Leiden years. He never actually set foot in New England, but many of his theological pronouncements shaped the nature and character of the Plymouth church. For example, Robinson stated that women and men have different social roles according to a law of nature, though neither was lesser in the eyes of God. Robinson taught that men and women have distinct but complementary roles in church, home, and society as a whole. He referred to women as the "weaker vessel ''. In matters of religious understanding, he proclaimed that it was the man 's role to educate and "guide and go before '' women. He also said that women should be "subject '' to their husbands. Robinson also dictated the proper methods of child rearing -- he prescribed a strict upbringing with a strong emphasis on corporal punishment. He believed that a child 's natural inclination towards independence was a manifestation of original sin and should thus be repressed.
The Pilgrims themselves were a part of the English Separatists (also known as English Dissenters) who were Protestant Christians who separated from the Church of England. The movement sought to practice Christianity as was done in the times of the Apostles. Following Martin Luther 's and John Calvin 's Reformation, they believed that the Bible was the only true source of religious teaching and that any additions made to Christianity had no place in Christian practice, especially with regard to church traditions, such as clerical vestments or the use of Latin in church services. In particular, they were strongly opposed to the Anglicans ' episcopal form of church government. They believed that the church was a community of Christians who made a covenant with God and with one another. Their congregations had a democratic structure. Ministers, teachers, and lay church elders were elected by and responsible to the entire congregation (Calvinist Federalism). Each congregation was independent of all the others and directly subject to God 's (or Christ 's) government (theocracy), hence the name Congregationalism. The Pilgrims distinguished themselves from the Puritans in that they sought to "separate '' themselves from the Anglican Church, rather than reform it from within. It was this desire to worship from outside of the Anglican Communion that led them first to the Netherlands and ultimately to New England.
Each town in the colony was considered a single church congregation; in later years, some of the larger towns split into two or three congregations. Church attendance was mandatory for all residents of the colony, while church membership was restricted to those who had converted to the faith. In Plymouth Colony, it seems that a simple profession of faith was all that was required for acceptance. This was a more liberal doctrine than some other New England congregations, such as those of the Massachusetts Bay Colony, where it was common to subject those seeking formal membership to strict and detailed cross-examinations. There was no central governing body for the churches. Each individual congregation was left to determine its own standards of membership, hire its own ministers, and conduct its own business.
The church was undoubtedly the most important social institution in the colony. The Bible was the primary religious document of the society, and it also served as the primary legal document. Church attendance was not only mandatory, but membership was socially vital. Education was carried out for almost purely religious purposes. The laws of the colony specifically asked parents to provide for the education of their children, "at least to be able duly to read the Scriptures '' and to understand "the main Grounds and Principles of Christian Religion ''. It was expected that the male head of the household would be responsible for the religious well - being of all its members, children and servants alike.
Most churches used two acts to sanction its members: censure and excommunication. Censure was a formal reprimand for behavior that did not conform with accepted religious and social norms, while excommunication involved full removal from church membership. Many perceived social evils, from fornication to public drunkenness, were dealt with through church discipline rather than through civil punishment. Church sanctions seldom held official recognition outside church membership and seldom resulted in civil or criminal proceedings. Nevertheless, such sanctions were a powerful tool of social control.
The Pilgrims practiced infant baptism. The public baptism ceremony was usually performed within six months of birth.
Marriage was considered a civil ceremony, rather than a religious one. Such an arrangement may have been a habit that had developed during the Leiden years, as civil marriage was common in the Netherlands. However, the Pilgrims saw this arrangement as biblical, there being no evidence from Scripture that a minister should preside over a wedding.
Besides the theology espoused by their religious leaders, the people of Plymouth Colony had a strong belief in the supernatural. Richard Greenham was a Puritan theologian whose works were known to the Plymouth residents, and he counseled extensively against turning to magic or wizardry to solve problems. The Pilgrims saw Satan 's work in nearly every calamity that befell them; the dark magical arts were very real and present for them. They believed in the presence of malevolent spirits who brought misfortune to people. For example, in 1660, a court inquest into the drowning death of Jeremiah Burroughs determined that a possessed canoe was to blame. Massachusetts Bay Colony experienced an outbreak of witchcraft scares in the 17th century, but there is little evidence that Plymouth was engulfed in anything similar. Witchcraft was listed as a capital crime in the 1636 codification of the laws by the Plymouth General Court, but there were no actual convictions of witches in Plymouth Colony. The court records only show two formal accusations of witchcraft. The first, of Goodwife Holmes in 1661, never went to trial. The second, of Mary Ingram in 1677, resulted in trial and acquittal.
Edward Winslow and Susanna White both lost their spouses during the harsh winter of 1620 -- 1621, and the two became the first couple to be married in Plymouth. Governor Bradford presided over the civil ceremony.
In Plymouth Colony, "courtships were usually initiated by the young people themselves, but as a relationship progressed toward something more permanent, the parents became more directly involved. '' Parents were concerned with the moral and religious qualities of the proposed spouse, as well as the financial means of each party 's family. The first step toward marriage was generally a betrothal or pre-contract, a ceremony carried out before two witnesses in which the couple pledged to wed in due time. Several weeks or months after the betrothal was contracted, the couple 's intentions were published. "A betrothed couple was considered to have a special status, not married but no longer unmarried either. '' Sexual contact was prohibited between a betrothed couple, but the penalty for it was one - fourth of what it was for single persons, and records indicate a relatively high number of babies born less than nine months after a wedding ceremony.
Marriage was considered the normal state for all adult residents of the colony. Most men first married in their mid-twenties and women around age 20. Second marriages were not uncommon, and widows and widowers faced social and economic pressures to remarry. On average, most widows and widowers remarried within six months to a year. Most adults who reached marriageable age lived into their sixties, so effectively two - thirds of a person 's life was spent married.
Women in Plymouth Colony had more extensive legal and social rights compared to 17th - century European norms. Women were considered equal to men before God from the perspective of the Church. God 's grace was available equally to all professed Christians. Women were, however, expected to take traditionally feminine roles, such as child - rearing and maintaining the household.
Plymouth women enjoyed extensive property and legal rights, unlike in Europe where women had few rights. A wife in Plymouth could not be legally "written out '' of her husband 's will and was guaranteed a full third of the family 's property upon his death. Women were parties to contracts in Plymouth, most notably prenuptial agreements. It was common for brides - to - be (and not, notably, their fathers) to enter into contractual agreements on the consolidation of property upon marriage. In some cases, especially in second marriages, women were given exclusive right to retain control of their property separately from their husbands. Women were also known to occasionally sit on juries in Plymouth, a remarkable circumstance in seventeenth century legal practice. Historians James and Patricia Scott Deetz cite a 1678 inquest into the death of Anne Batson 's child, where the jury was composed of five women and seven men.
Family size in the colony was large by modern American standards, though childbirth was often spaced out, with an average of two years between children. Most families averaged five to six children living under the same roof, though it would not be uncommon for one family to have grown children moving out before the mother had finished giving birth. Maternal mortality rates were fairly high; one birth in thirty resulted in the death of the mother, resulting in one in five women dying in childbirth. However, "the rate of infant mortality in Plymouth seems to have been relatively low. In the case of a few families for which there are unusually complete records, only about one in five children seems to have died before the age of twenty - one. Furthermore, births in the sample (of about 90 families) come for the most part with relatively few ' gaps ' which might indicate a baby who did not survive. All things considered, it appears that the rate of infant and child mortality in Plymouth was no more than 25 per cent ''.
Children generally remained in the direct care of their mothers until the age of about eight years old, after which time it was not uncommon for the child to be placed in the foster care of another family. There were any number of reasons for a child to be "put - out '' in this manner. Some children were placed into households to learn a trade, others to be taught to read and write. It seems that there was a theological reason for fostering children, as with almost every decision in the colony. It was assumed that children 's own parents would love them too much and would not properly discipline them. By placing children in the care of another family, there was little danger of them being spoiled.
Adolescence was not a recognized phase of life in Plymouth colony, and there was not a single rite of passage that marked transition from youth to adulthood. Several important transitions occurred at various ages, but none marked a single "coming of age '' event. As early as eight years old, children were expected to begin learning their adult roles in life by taking on some of the family work or by being placed in foster homes to learn a trade. Most children experienced religious conversion around the age of eight as well, thus becoming church members. Orphaned children were given the right to choose their own guardians at age 14. At 16, males became eligible for military duty and were also considered adults for legal purposes, such as standing trial for crimes. Age 21 was the youngest at which a male could become a freeman, though for practical purposes this occurred some time in a man 's mid-twenties. Twenty - one was the assumed age of inheritance, as well, although the law respected the rights of the deceased to name an earlier age in his will.
Actual schools were rare in Plymouth colony. The first true school was not founded until 40 years after the foundation of the colony. The General Court first authorized colony - wide funding for formal public schooling in 1673, but only the town of Plymouth made use of these funds at that time. By 1683, though, five additional towns had received this funding.
Education of the young was never considered to be the primary domain of schools, even after they had become more common. Most education was carried out by a child 's parents or foster parents. Formal apprenticeships were not the norm in Plymouth; it was expected that a foster family would teach the children whatever trades they themselves practiced. The church also played a central role in a child 's education. As noted above, the primary purpose of teaching children to read was so that they could read the Bible for themselves.
Plymouth Colony did not have a royal charter authorizing it to form a government, yet some means of governance was needed. The Mayflower Compact was the colony 's first governing document, signed by the 41 able - bodied Separatists aboard the Mayflower upon their arrival in Provincetown Harbor on November 21, 1620. Formal laws were not codified until 1636. The colony 's laws were based on a hybrid of English common law and religious law as laid out in the Bible. The colonial authorities were deeply influenced by Calvinist theology, and were convinced that democracy was the form of government mandated by God.
The colony offered nearly all adult males potential citizenship. Full citizens, or "freemen '', were accorded full rights and privileges in areas such as voting and holding office. To be considered a freeman, adult males had to be sponsored by an existing freeman and accepted by the General Court. Later restrictions established a one - year waiting period between nominating and granting of freeman status, and also placed religious restrictions on the colony 's citizens, specifically preventing Quakers from becoming freemen. Freeman status was also restricted by age; the official minimum age was 21, although in practice most men were elevated to freeman status between the ages of 25 and 40, averaging somewhere in their early thirties. The colony established a disabled veterans ' fund in 1636 to support veterans who returned from service with disabilities. In 1641, the Body of Liberties developed protections for people who were unable to perform public service.
The colony 's most powerful executive was its Governor, who was originally elected by the freemen but was later appointed by the General Court in an annual election. The General Court also elected seven Assistants to form a cabinet to assist the governor. The Governor and Assistants then appointed Constables who served as the chief administrators for the towns, and Messengers who were the main civil servants of the colony. They were responsible for publishing announcements, performing land surveys, carrying out executions, and a host of other duties.
The General Court was the chief legislative and judicial body of the colony. It was elected by the freemen from among their own number and met regularly in Plymouth, the capital town of the colony. As part of its judicial duties, it would periodically call a Grand Enquest, which was a grand jury of sorts elected from the freemen, who would hear complaints and swear out indictments for credible accusations. The General Court, and later lesser town and county courts, would preside over trials of accused criminals and over civil matters, but the ultimate decisions were made by a jury of freemen.
The General Court, as the legislative and judicial bodies, and the Governor, as the chief executive of the colony, constituted a political system of division of power. It followed a recommendation in John Calvin 's political theory to set up several institutions which complement and control each other in a system of checks and balances in order to minimize the misuse of political power. In 1625, the settlers had repaid their debts and thus gained complete possession of the colony. The colony was de facto a republic, since neither an English company nor the King and Parliament exerted any influence -- a representative democracy governed on the principles of the Mayflower Compact ("self - rule '').
As a legislative body, the General Court could make proclamations of law as needed. These laws were not formally compiled anywhere in the early years of the colony; they were first organized and published in the 1636 Book of Laws. The book was reissued in 1658, 1672, and 1685. These laws included the levying of "rates '' or taxes and the distribution of colony lands. The General Court established townships as a means of providing local government over settlements, but reserved for itself the right to control specific distribution of land to individuals within those towns. When new land was granted to a freeman, it was directed that only the person to whom the land was granted was allowed to settle it. It was forbidden for individual settlers to purchase land from Native Americans without formal permission from the General Court. The government recognized the precarious peace that existed with the Wampanoag, and wished to avoid antagonizing them by buying up all of their land.
The laws also set out crimes and their associated punishment. There were several crimes that carried the death penalty: treason, murder, witchcraft, arson, sodomy, rape, bestiality, adultery, and cursing or smiting one 's parents. The actual exercise of the death penalty was fairly rare; only one sex - related crime resulted in execution, a 1642 incidence of bestiality by Thomas Granger. Edward Bumpus was sentenced to death for "striking and abusing his parents '' in 1679, but his sentence was commuted to a severe whipping by reason of insanity. Perhaps the most notable use of the death penalty was in the execution of the Native Americans convicted of the murder of John Sassamon; this helped lead to King Philip 's War. Though nominally a capital crime, adultery was usually dealt with by public humiliation only. Convicted adulterers were often forced to wear the letters "A.D. '' sewn into their garments, much in the manner of Hester Prynne in Nathaniel Hawthorne 's novel The Scarlet Letter.
Several laws dealt with indentured servitude, a legal status whereby a person would work off debts or be given training in exchange for a period of unrecompensed service. The law required that all indentured servants had to be registered by the Governor or one of the Assistants, and that no period of indenture could be less than six months. Further laws forbade a master from shortening the length of time of service required for his servant, and also confirmed that any indentured servants whose period of service began in England would still be required to complete their service while in Plymouth.
The seal of the Plymouth Colony was designed in 1629 and is still used by the town of Plymouth. It depicts four figures within a shield bearing St George 's Cross, apparently in Native - American style clothing, each carrying the burning heart symbol of John Calvin. The seal was also used by the County of Plymouth until 1931.
Without a clear land patent for the area, the settlers settled without a charter to form a government and, as a result, it was often unclear in the early years what land was under the colony 's jurisdiction. In 1644, "The Old Colony Line '' -- which had been surveyed in 1639 -- was formally accepted as the boundary between Massachusetts Bay and Plymouth.
The situation was more complicated along the border with Rhode Island. Roger Williams settled in the area of Rehoboth in 1636, near modern Pawtucket. He was forcibly evicted in order to maintain Plymouth 's claim to the area. Williams moved to the west side of the Pawtucket River to found the settlement of Providence, the nucleus for the colony of Rhode Island, which was formally established with the "Providence Plantations Patent '' of 1644. Various settlers from both Rhode Island and Plymouth began to settle along the area, and the exact nature of the western boundary of Plymouth became unclear. The issue was not fully resolved until the 1740s, long after the dissolution of Plymouth Colony itself. Rhode Island had received a patent for the area in 1693, which had been disputed by Massachusetts Bay Colony. Rhode Island successfully defended the patent, and a royal decree in 1746 transferred the land to Rhode Island along the eastern shore of the Narragansett Bay, including the mainland portion of Newport County and all of modern Bristol County, Rhode Island. The border itself continued to be contested by Massachusetts, first as a colony and later as a state, until as late as 1898, when the boundary was settled and ratified by both states.
For most of its history, the town was the primary administrative unit and political division of the colony. Plymouth Colony was not formally divided into counties until June 2, 1685, during the reorganization that led to the formation of the Dominion of New England. Three counties were composed of the following towns.
Barnstable County on Cape Cod:
Bristol County along the shores of Buzzards Bay and Narragansett Bay; part of this county was later ceded to Rhode Island:
Plymouth County, located along the western shores of Cape Cod Bay:
The English in Plymouth Colony fit broadly into three categories: Pilgrims, Strangers, and Particulars. The Pilgrims were a Protestant group that closely followed the teachings of John Calvin, like the Puritans who later founded Massachusetts Bay Colony to the north. (The Puritans wished to reform the Anglican church from within, whereas the Pilgrims saw it as a morally defunct organization, and sought to remove themselves from it.) The name "Pilgrims '' was actually not used by the separatists themselves. William Bradford used the term "pilgrims '' to describe the group, but he was using the term generically to define the group as travelers on a religious mission. The Pilgrims referred to themselves as the Saints, First Comers, Ancient Brethren, or Ancient Men. They used such terms to indicate their place as God 's elect, as they subscribed to the Calvinist belief in predestination. "The First Comers '' was a term more loosely used in their day to refer to any of the Mayflower passengers.
There were also a number of indentured servants among the colonists. Indentured servants were mostly poor children whose families were receiving church relief and "many homeless waifs from the streets of London sent as laborers ''.
In addition to the Pilgrims, the Mayflower carried non-Pilgrim settlers ("Strangers ''). This group included the non-Pilgrim settlers placed on the Mayflower by the Merchant Adventurers, and later settlers who came for other reasons throughout the history of the colony and who did not necessarily adhere to the Pilgrim religious ideals. A third group known as the "Particulars '' consisted of later settlers who paid their own "particular '' way to America, and thus were not obliged to pay the colony 's debts.
The presence of outsiders such as the Strangers and the Particulars was a considerable annoyance to the Pilgrims. As early as 1623, a conflict broke out between the Pilgrims and the Strangers over the celebration of Christmas, a day of no particular significance to the Pilgrims. Furthermore, a group of Strangers founded the nearby settlement of Wessagussett and the Pilgrims were highly strained, both emotionally and in terms of resources, by their lack of discipline. They looked at the eventual failure of the Wessagussett settlement as Divine Providence against a sinful people.
The residents of Plymouth used terms to distinguish between the earliest settlers of the colony and those that came later. The first generation of settlers, generally thought to be those that arrived before 1627, called themselves the Old Comers or Planters. Later generations of Plymouth residents referred to this group as the Forefathers.
A fairly comprehensive demographic study was done by historian John Demos for his seminal 1970 work on the Pilgrims A Little Commonwealth. He reports that the colony 's average household grew from 7.8 children per family for first - generation families to 8.6 children for second - generation families, and to 9.3 for third - generation families. Child mortality also decreased over this time, with 7.2 children born to first - generation families living until their 21st birthday. That number increased to 7.9 children by the third generation. Life expectancy was higher for men than for women. Of the men who survived until the age of 21, the average life expectancy was 69.2 years. Over 55 percent of these men lived past 70; less than 15 percent died before the age of 50. For women, the numbers are much lower, owing to the difficulties inherent in childbearing. The average life expectancy of women at the age of 21 was only 62.4 years. Of these women, less than 45 percent lived past 70, and about 30 percent died before the age of 50.
During King Philip 's War, Plymouth Colony alone lost eight percent of its adult male population. By the end of the war, one - third of New England 's approximately 100 towns had been burned and abandoned. This represented a sizable demographic effect on the English population of New England.
The Native Americans in New England were organized into loose tribal confederations, sometimes called "nations ''. Among these confederations were the Nipmucks, the Massachusett, the Narragansett, the Niantics, the Mohegan, and the Wampanoag. Several significant events dramatically altered the demographics of the Native American population in the region. The first was "Standish 's raid '' on Wessagussett, which frightened Native American leaders to the extent that many abandoned their settlements, resulting in many deaths through starvation and disease. The second, the Pequot War, resulted in the dissolution of the Pequot tribe and a major shift in the local power structure. The third, King Philip 's War, had the most dramatic effect on local populations, resulting in the death or displacement of as much as 80 % of the total number of Native Americans of southern New England and the enslavement and removal of thousands of Native Americans to the Caribbean and other locales.
Some of the wealthier families in Plymouth Colony owned black slaves which were considered the property of their owners, unlike indentured servants, and passed on to heirs like any other property. Slave ownership was not widespread and very few families possessed the wealth necessary to own slaves. In 1674, the inventory of Capt. Thomas Willet of Marshfield includes "8 Negroes '' at a value of £ 200. Other inventories of the time also valued slaves at £ 24 -- 25 each (equivalent to £ 2.81 thousand in 2010, or $4,300 at PPP), well out of the financial ability of most families. A 1689 census of the town of Bristol shows that, of the 70 families that lived there, only one had a black slave. So few were black slaves in the colony that the General Court never saw fit to pass any laws dealing with them.
The largest source of wealth for Plymouth Colony was the fur trade. The disruption of this trade caused by Myles Standish 's raid at Wessagussett created great hardship for the colonists for many years to come, and was directly cited by William Bradford as a contributing factor to the colonists ' economic difficulties in their early years. The colonists attempted to supplement their income by fishing; the waters in Cape Cod bay were known to be excellent fisheries. However, they lacked any skill in this area, and it did little to relieve their economic hardship. The colony traded throughout the region, establishing trading posts as far away as Penobscot, Maine. They were also frequent trading partners with the Dutch at New Amsterdam.
The economic situation improved with the arrival of cattle in the colony. It is unknown when the first cattle arrived, but the division of land for the grazing of cattle in 1627 represented one of the first moves towards private land ownership in the colony. Cattle became an important source of wealth in the colony; the average cow could sell for £ 28 in 1638 (£ 3,400 in 2010, or $5,200 at PPP). However, the flood of immigrants during the Great Migration drove the price of cattle down. The same cows sold at £ 28 in 1638 were valued in 1640 at only £ 5 (£ 700.00 in 2010, or $1,060 at PPP). Besides cattle, there were also pigs, sheep, and goats raised in the colony.
Agriculture also made up an important part of the Plymouth economy. The colonists adopted Native American agricultural practices and crops. They planted maize, squash, pumpkins, beans, and potatoes. Besides the crops themselves, the Pilgrims learned productive farming techniques from the Native Americans, such as proper crop rotation and the use of dead fish to fertilize the soil. In addition to these native crops, the colonists also successfully planted Old World crops such as turnips, carrots, peas, wheat, barley, and oats.
Overall, there was very little cash in Plymouth Colony, so most wealth was accumulated in the form of possessions. Trade goods such as furs, fish, and livestock were subject to fluctuations in price and were unreliable repositories of wealth. Durable goods such as fine wares, clothes, and furnishings represented an important source of economic stability for the residents.
The events surrounding the founding and history of Plymouth Colony have had a lasting effect on the art, traditions, mythology, and politics of the United States of America, despite its short history of fewer than 72 years.
The earliest artistic depiction of the Pilgrims was actually done before their arrival in America; Dutch painter Adam Willaerts painted a portrait of their departure from Delfshaven in 1620. The same scene was repainted by Robert Walter Weir in 1844, and hangs in the Rotunda of the United States Capitol building. Numerous other paintings have been created memorializing various scenes from the life of Plymouth Colony, including their landing and the "First Thanksgiving '', many of which have been collected by Pilgrim Hall, a museum and historical society founded in 1824 to preserve the history of the Colony.
Several contemporaneous accounts of life in Plymouth Colony have become both vital primary historical documents and literary classics. Of Plimoth Plantation by William Bradford and Mourt 's Relation by Bradford, Edward Winslow, and others are both accounts written by Mayflower passengers that provide much of the information which we have today regarding the trans - Atlantic voyage and early years of the settlement.
Benjamin Church wrote several accounts of King Philip 's War, including Entertaining Passages Relating to Philip 's War, which remained popular throughout the 18th century. An edition of the work was illustrated by Paul Revere in 1772. The Sovereignty and Goodness of God provides an account of King Philip 's War from the perspective of Mary Rowlandson, an Englishwoman who was captured and spent some time in the company of Native Americans during the war. Later works, such as "The Courtship of Miles Standish '' by Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, have provided a romantic and partially fictionalized account of life in Plymouth Colony.
There are also numerous films about the Pilgrims, including the several film adaptations of "The Courtship of Miles Standish ''; the 1952 film Plymouth Adventure starring Spencer Tracy; and Desperate Crossings: The True Story of the Mayflower, a 2006 television documentary produced by the History Channel.
In 1970, the United States Postal Service issued a three hundred and fiftieth - year commemorative stamp recognizing the English dissenters first landing at the modern day settlement of Provincetown, Massachusetts in 1620.
Each year, the United States celebrates a holiday known as Thanksgiving on the fourth Thursday of November. It is a federal holiday and frequently involves a family gathering with a large feast, traditionally featuring a turkey. Civic recognitions of the holiday typically include parades and football games. The holiday is meant to honor the First Thanksgiving, which was a harvest feast held in Plymouth in 1621, as first recorded in the book New England 's Memorial by Nathaniel Morton, secretary of Plymouth Colony and nephew of Governor William Bradford.
The annual Thanksgiving holiday is a fairly recent creation. Throughout the early 19th century, the U.S. government had declared a particular day as a national day of Thanksgiving, but these were one - time declarations meant to celebrate a significant event, such as victory in a battle. The northeastern states began adopting an annual day of Thanksgiving in November shortly after the end of the War of 1812. Sarah Josepha Hale, editor of Boston 's Ladies ' Magazine, wrote editorials beginning in 1827 which called for the nationwide expansion of this annual day of thanksgiving to commemorate the Pilgrim 's first harvest feast. After nearly 40 years, Abraham Lincoln declared the first modern Thanksgiving to fall on the last Thursday in November in 1863. Franklin Delano Roosevelt and Congress ultimately moved it to the fourth Thursday in November. After some sparring as to the date, the holiday was recognized by Congress as an official federal holiday in 1941.
Some of the modern traditions which have developed alongside the Thanksgiving holiday are the National Football League 's Thanksgiving Day games and the annual Macy 's Thanksgiving Day Parade in New York City.
One of the enduring symbols of the landing of the Pilgrims is Plymouth Rock, a large granodiorite boulder that was near their landing site at Plymouth. However, none of the contemporary accounts of the actual landing makes any mention that the Rock was the specific place of landing. The Pilgrims chose the site for their landing, not for the rock, but for a small brook nearby that was a source of fresh water and fish.
The first identification of Plymouth Rock as the actual landing site was in 1741 by 90 - year - old Thomas Faunce, whose father had arrived in Plymouth in 1623, three years after the supposed event. The rock was later covered by a solid - fill pier. In 1774, an attempt was made to excavate the rock, but it broke in two. The severed piece was placed in the Town Square at the center of Plymouth. In 1880, the intact half of the rock was excavated from the pier, and the broken piece was reattached to it. Over the years, souvenir hunters have removed chunks from the rock, but the remains are now protected as part of the complex of living museums. These include the Mayflower II, a recreation of the original ship; Plimoth Plantation, a historical recreation of the original 1620 settlement; and the Wampanoag Homesite, which recreates a 17th - century Indian village.
The democratic setup of Plymouth Colony had strong influences on the shaping of democracy in both England and America. William Bradford 's History of Plimoth Plantation was widely read in the motherland. It influenced the political thought of Presbyterian politician and poet John Milton, assistant to Oliver Cromwell, and philosopher John Locke. For example, Locke referred to the Mayflower Compact in his Letters Concerning Toleration. In America, Plymouth Colony initiated a democratic tradition that was soon followed by Massachusetts Bay Colony (1628), Connecticut (1636), Rhode Island (1636), New Jersey, and Pennsylvania (1681). In the latter four colonies, founded by Thomas Hooker, Roger Williams, and William Penn, respectively, religious freedom was added to democratic constitutions. These territories became safe havens for persecuted religious minorities. There were strong links between 17th - century Puritanism and the political ideas of the 18th century. On the one hand, there was the congregational democracy practiced now by all Protestant churches, including to a large extent the Anglicans. On the other hand, most of the political concepts of the generation that carried out the Revolution were taken over from the radical Whig party in England (Commonwealthmen), which fed on the liberal political theories of Milton, Locke, and other writers. As children the Revolutionaries had experienced the Great Awakening (c. 1740). In the words of historian Robert Middlekauff: "The Awakening recalled a generation to the standards of reformed Protestantism, which had prevailed at the time of the founding of America. (...) Radical Whig perceptions of politics attracted widespread support in America because they revived the traditional concerns of a Protestant culture that had always verged on Puritanism. That moral decay threatened free government could not come as a surprise to a people whose fathers had fled England to escape sin. The importance of virtue, frugality, industry, and calling was at the heart of their moral code. (...) Radical Whiggery of the eighteenth century convinced Americans because it had been pervasive in their culture since the seventeenth. ''
The General Society of Mayflower Descendants, or The Mayflower Society, is a genealogical organization of individuals who have documented their descents from one or more of the 102 passengers who arrived on the Mayflower in 1620. The Society, founded at Plymouth in 1897, claims that tens of millions of Americans descend from these passengers, and it offers research services to people seeking to document such descents.
Coordinates: 41 ° 50 ′ 42 '' N 70 ° 44 ′ 19 '' W / 41.8450 ° N 70.7387 ° W / 41.8450; - 70.7387
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who won world of dance season 2 winner | World of Dance (season 2) - wikipedia
The second season of American reality competition television series World of Dance premiered May 29, 2018, on NBC. Jennifer Lopez, Ne - Yo, and Derek Hough returned as the judges, with Jenna Dewan also returning as the host.
Season 2 was taped between January and March 2018 at Universal Studios Hollywood; about two months before first airing.
While the format for season 2 remained relatively unchanged, there were a few slight alterations. Season 2 received a 16 - episode order., six more than the ten - episode first season. Additionally, this season, a fourth category, Junior Team, was added for acts under 18 with 5 or more members. The qualifier rounds are cut down from a two minutes to an one - minute routine. The Duels are cut down from two minutes to a _́ 75 seconds _́ - routine. The top three highest - scoring acts in The Cut from each division will move on to The Divisional Final, in last season it was just the top two. The Cut, Divisional and World Final rounds are cut down from a two minutes to a ' 90 seconds ' - routine. In The Cut and Divisional Final guess celebrities are assigned as mentors to each division. On World Final there are intermezzo shows. This season by Les Twins, Keone & Mari (actually Mariel) Madrid, Kinjaz and Derek Hough.
In preparation for season two, handpicked competitors, being talented in any styles of dancing, from qualifying events around the nation and thousands of online submissions, are divided into four divisions: Junior (groups of 1 - 4, under 18), Upper (groups of 1 - 4, 18 and older), Junior Team (groups of 5 +, under 18) and Upper Team (groups of 5 +, 18 and older). In some cases dancers who did n't apply were directly contacted by the producers or their agents.
The elimination process of the contestants are in four rounds:
In the World Final all four division champions will compete for the $1,000,000 USD grand prize. The concept of last season is copied; every contestant will perform twice in two separate rounds. The average score of both rounds by each contestant will make their final score. The contestant (s) with the highest final score will be crowned World of Dance champion 2018 and will win the $1,000,000 USD grand prize.
The judges are scoring in 5 categories. Each category is worth 20 points, with a perfect score of 100:
Jennifer Lopez, Ne - Yo, and Derek Hough returned as the series judges, with Jenna Dewan returning as host. Misty Copeland, who judged in season 1, is announced coming back as guest judge for the Divisional Final, with Julianne Hough, Mel B, Savion Glover and Paula Abdul also joining as guest mentors for The Cut.
Tony Award winner Savion Glover will collaborate with judge Jennifer Lopez with the Junior Team division. Actress, dancer, singer and Emmy Award - winning choreographer Julianne Hough, who will be working with her brother, judge Derek Hough, in the Upper division. "America 's Got Talent '' judge Mel B will join forces with judge Ne - Yo in mentoring the Junior division. World - renowned dancer / choreographer Paula Abdul will team with host / mentor Jenna Dewan in the Upper Team division Grammy Award - winning and multi-platinum selling artist Ciara joining as guest mentor during the Divisional Final as well (airing Wednesday, Sept. 5 at 9 p.m. ET / PT).
Three weeks after the season finale host Jenna Dewan publicly announced that she would not return as host for season 3. "It has been an absolute thrill to be a part of this incredible, groundbreaking show from the very beginning, and I am forever grateful ". While she may not return for season 3 as a host she confirmed she would be returning briefly as a mentor.
The acts competing in season 2 were released by People on May 1, 2018 and Bustle. The list of contestants who made it to The Duels is published by NewsWeek, except Elektro Elite and ThaMOST (s. below). The ages for each dance act were made available on the World of Dance website.
^ 1 This dance act competed on Season 1 of World of Dance
The qualifier round took place between May 29, 2018 and July 24. In each round of the Qualifiers, the dance acts performed a 1 - minute routine in front of the judges and a live studio audience. For a dance act to move to the next round, they had to receive an average score of 80 or higher. Karen y Ricardo was the first dance act of the season (and the second in the show 's history) to receive a score of 100 from one or more of the judges, setting up an all - time show high score of 99.7 points, until Charity & Andres became the first act in the show 's history to receive a perfect score of 100 in The Duels.
Some average scores are taken from a summary clip from the TV broadcast of part 8. Elektro Elite has qualified with 80 points and ThaMOST with 84 points, but neither performance was posted as a Digital Exclusive, nor are the acts listed on NBC World of Dance website.
In each round of The Duels, two acts in the same division compete for a spot in the next round. In each division, the acts with the top qualifying scores choose their opponents, then both acts perform back - to - back, receiving feedback from the judges. The act with the highest average at the end of the duel moves on to the next round; the other faces immediate elimination. Charity & Andres earned the first perfect score in the show 's run during The Duels.
Opponent selection proceeded according to rank within each division, but performances have been arranged to spread the favorites among the episodes, in an effort to keep ratings up across all episodes.
Some average scores are taken from a summary clip from the TV broadcast of part 4.
In The Cut, the 30 remaining acts compete for three spots in each of their divisions. As each dance act competes, their final score is displayed on a leaderboard for their division. Once a dance act 's score falls out of the top 3, they face immediate elimination. For this round, each of the judges and the host, Jenna Dewan, became mentors for one of the four divisions; They were also joined by four guest mentors: Savion Glover, Julianne Hough, Paula Abdul, and Mel B. Jennifer & Savion worked with the Junior Teams, Derek & Julianne worked with the Upper acts, Jenna & Paula worked with the Upper Teams, and Ne - Yo & Mel B worked with the Junior acts.
In the Divisional Final, the 3 remaining acts in each division square off, with only one act going to the World Final to represent their division. Same as The Cut, each of the judges and the host, Jenna Dewan, became mentors for one of the four divisions. Jennifer mentored the Upper acts, Derek worked with the Junior Teams, Ne - Yo worked with the Upper Teams, and Jenna worked with the Junior acts. Guest mentor Ciara helped each division in their practice as well. Guest judge Misty Copeland joined the panel for this segment.
In the World Final, the final 4 division champions competed head to head to win the one million dollar prize. As with the previous 2 rounds, the judges and the host, Jenna, became mentors for each of the finalists. Derek worked with Charity & Andres, Jennifer worked with S - Rank, Jenna worked with Michael Dameski, and Ne - Yo worked with The Lab. Each of the 4 finalists performed twice. The first performance 's music was chosen by their judge, or Jenna, and the second was chosen by the finalist. After each performance, the final scores were displayed on a leaderboard. The winner of the World Finals was determined by the judges combined average scores from both performances. After the first four performances, Season 1 's Divisional Finalists Kinjaz and Keone & Mari performed with Derek Hough. Season 1 's winner Les Twins also performed before the crowning. After the final performances, The Lab were announced as the winners of World of Dance; their final combined score of 97.5 beat out Michael Dameski by 1.5 points.
4th S - Rank (93.5)
3rd Charity & Andres (94.3)
2nd Michael Dameski (96)
WINNER The Lab (97.5)
^ 1 Misty Copeland joined the Judges panel for Division Final round
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what happened to the little girl from hope floats | Mae Whitman - wikipedia
Mae Margaret Whitman (born June 9, 1988) is an American actress, voice actress and singer. After making her film debut in When a Man Loves a Woman (1994), she had other supporting roles in films such as One Fine Day (1996), Independence Day (1996), and Hope Floats (1998). Thereafter, Whitman ventured into television, with her most notable roles including Ann Veal on the Fox sitcom Arrested Development (2004 -- 2006) and Amber Holt on the NBC drama Parenthood (2010 -- 2015). She also had supporting roles in the films Scott Pilgrim vs. the World (2010) and The Perks of Being a Wallflower (2012). Whitman made her leading role film debut in The DUFF (2015).
Whitman has also voiced Rose / Huntsgirl in American Dragon: Jake Long, Katara in the animated television series Avatar: The Last Airbender, Little Suzy in Johnny Bravo, April O'Neil in the 2012 generation of Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles, and Yuffie Kisaragi in the video game Kingdom Hearts II.
Whitman was born on June 9, 1988 in Los Angeles, California, the only child of Pat Musick, a voice artist, and Jeffrey Whitman, a personal manager and set construction co-ordinator. Her parents divorced when she was three years old. She attended Ribet Academy, but later transferred to Whitefish Bay High School from where she graduated. Whitman is of English and German ancestry.
She started her career with a voice - over for a Tyson Chicken commercial at the age of three. Acting coach Andrew Magarian helped her memorize lines as she could not read.
In 1994, at the age of six, Whitman made her film debut, acting alongside Meg Ryan in When a Man Loves a Woman (1994), playing Ryan 's youngest daughter, Casey Green. She beat 700 other girls who were interested in the part. In 1996, Whitman appeared in two films: Independence Day as the President 's daughter; and One Fine Day playing George Clooney 's daughter, Maggie Taylor. The same year, Whitman guest starred in the episode "The One Where Rachel Quits '' of the sitcom Friends. In 1998, she was Sandra Bullock 's daughter, Bernice Pruitt, in Hope Floats.
During several guest appearances from 1998 until 2001, Whitman played the role of Chloe Madison on JAG. In 2001 and 2002, Whitman starred in the Fox Family series State of Grace in which she portrayed Grace from a Catholic background who befriends Hannah, a Jewish girl (Alia Shawkat).
From 2004 to 2006, Whitman had a recurring role on Arrested Development, reuniting with Shawkat. Whitman appeared in the 2006 series Thief for FX Networks, playing the stepdaughter of Nick Atwater (Andre Braugher). Whitman made several high - profile guest appearances in 2006 and 2007. She also appeared on Desperate Housewives in the episode "Nice She Ai n't '' as Sarah, an unscrupulous friend of Julie Mayer (Andrea Bowen). Whitman also had a recurring role on Chicago Hope, (1994 -- 2000), playing the daughter of "Dr. Kate Austin, '' (played by Christine Lahti), in the series ' later years.
Whitman was initially cast in the 2007 series remake of The Bionic Woman, playing the deaf younger sister of the title character. On June 27, 2007, TV Guide reported that Whitman was being replaced in the role of Jaime 's sister, and Lucy Hale was cast as Whitman 's replacement the following July. An NBC spokesperson confirmed this, stating, "The decision was purely creatively driven. It is very common to change storylines, characters, actors after the initial pilot is shot. '' The sister character 's hearing was restored after this recasting at the request of an NBC executive. She also appeared in the season nine episode "Streetwise '' of Law and Order: Special Victims Unit, as an on - the - street - mother who adopts street children forming a homeless family.
Whitman gave voice to Katara of the Water Tribe in the animated show Avatar: The Last Airbender, and previously Rose in American Dragon: Jake Long. She has appeared in the HBO series In Treatment as Rosie. She plays Cynder in The Legend of Spyro: The Eternal Night. Whitman voiced the character Tinker Bell in the 2008, 2009 and 2010 Disney Tinker Bell films. As part of a deal to promote the production of the first Tinker Bell film, the UK 's speaking clock started to use her voice at 0100GMT on October 26, 2008.
In 2009, Whitman landed a regular role in NBC 's version of the Ron Howard classic Parenthood, which premiered in 2010. She plays Amber Holt, "a rebellious and willful teen whose only interest at present is her wannabe rock star boyfriend ''. Whitman played evil ex Roxy Richter in Edgar Wright 's Scott Pilgrim vs. the World, a film adaptation of the Bryan Lee O'Malley indie comic series Scott Pilgrim. The film starred her former Arrested Development co-star, Michael Cera, in the title role. Whitman appeared on Family Guy in 2010.
She had a large role in the 2012 film The Perks of Being a Wallflower, opposite Logan Lerman, Emma Watson, and Ezra Miller. In 2013, she reprised her role as Ann Veal in Arrested Development 's season four, six years after the series was canceled. She appeared alongside Darren Criss in three episodes of season three of Lisa Kudrow 's Web Therapy, playing his girlfriend. In 2015, Whitman played the lead role in the comedy The DUFF. She started filming Operator alongside Martin Starr in June of that year. According to co-writer and director Roland Emmerich, Whitman did not reprise her role as the President 's daughter in Independence Day: Resurgence, the sequel to the 1996 blockbuster hit Independence Day, because she did not want to read for the part.
Whitman has expressed her feelings on being typecast as an outsider in various roles in television and movies. She has talked about being a child actor and her relatable experiences such as being bullied in high school for being "weird. '' In an interview with Bello Mag, Whitman explains that the entertainment industry constantly tells actors what they are "not '' and felt her choosing of these roles was her "trying to communicate to everyone '' who may go through similar situations, that it 's okay to be who they are. One of Whitman 's more notable quotes is, "People should recognize who you are and how you can act rather then how famous you are. ''
Whitman has recorded "I Heard The Bells On Christmas Day '' and "You Make Christmas Feel So Good '' for School 's Out! Christmas, and has sung guest vocals on a number of tracks from indie - punk band Fake Problems ' newest album Real Ghosts Caught on Tape. Whitman has also been featured on her show Parenthood in the song "Gardenia '' on the season two episode "The Booth Job '' along with Landon Pigg.
Whitman appears in the music videos for "I Was a Fool '' and "Boyfriend '' by Tegan and Sara. She performed a small speaking part in the rapper DVS ' record "Charlie Chaplin '' where she plays the part of what DVS sees as the stereotypical hipster expressing distaste with music and television to appear special.
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tales of a fourth grade nothing story summary | Tales of a Fourth grade Nothing - wikipedia
Tales of a Fourth Grade Nothing is a children 's novel written by American author Judy Blume and published in 1972. It is the first in the Fudge Series and was followed by Superfudge, Fudge - a-Mania, and most recently by Double Fudge. Although Otherwise Known as Sheila the Great features many of the same characters as the series, it does not fit exactly in the continuity of it because it only focuses on Peter 's classmate (who later becomes his stepcousin), Sheila Tubman.
Originally, the book featured illustrations by Roy Doty, but all post-2002 reprints of it have omitted the pictures.
The story focuses on a nine - year - old boy named Peter Warren Hatcher and his relationship with his two - and - a-half - year - old brother, Farley Drexel "Fudge '' Hatcher. Farley hates the sound of his legal name, and prefers Fudge for any and all occasions.
The book focuses on 9 - year - old 4th grader Peter Hatcher 's frustration with the horrendous behavior demonstrated by his annoying 21⁄2 - year - old brother, Fudge, who frequently goes unpunished. Peter becomes frustrated with Fudge because he often disturbs Dribble, Peter 's pet turtle, which Peter won at his best friend Jimmy Fargo 's birthday party. Furthermore, Fudge throws nonstop temper tantrums, goes through a finicky phase of abstaining from eating altogether, and emulates Peter 's behavior, throwing tantrums if it is prohibited. Nevertheless, their parents dote on Fudge, to Peter 's anger.
For months, Fudge 's antics continue; breaking his front teeth after catapulting himself from the jungle gym at the local playground when he decides to fly, vandalizing Peter 's group homework assignment, and taking off on his family at a movie theater (Chapter 9: Just Another Rainy Day). However, one day, to Peter 's absolute misery, he returns home to discover Dribble is missing from his bowl, Fudge claiming to have swallowed him. These proclamations prove to be correct, and Fudge is rushed to the hospital, where Dribble is safely extracted, to Mrs. Hatcher 's relief. However, Dribble has died in Fudge 's stomach, and no one, especially Fudge, seems to care. Peter is incredibly devastated over the loss of his beloved pet, however, his parents sympathetically compensate by adopting a dog, which Peter appropriately names "Turtle '' in memory of Dribble.
Peter Warren Hatcher -- The protagonist of the story, and a smart, assertive, but seemingly naive 9 - year - old boy. Most of the book focuses upon his relationship with Fudge and his family, and the fact that Fudge is the perceived source of all of his troubles. His parents usually seem to let Fudge get away with anything and everything, something that he would later realize was not always true. But it is true that Peter 's needs and wants are often ignored and overshadowed in favor of Fudge 's.
Peter believes that his parents show Fudge preferential treatment, especially his mother; he also is frequently frustrated when Fudge gets into his things and tries to become involved in his activities. However, Peter does love him very much and shows concern when he is hospitalized (after swallowing Peter 's pet turtle, Dribble) and the doctors speculate that they may need to operate on him. Peter is upset at first when he learns that Dribble is dead, and then again is jealous when he sees Fudge get showered with attention and gifts when he comes home, but then his father comes home with a dog for Peter for being "a good sport '' and to compensate for the loss.
Farley Drexel "Fudge '' Hatcher -- Peter 's younger brother, whom he often resents. At the beginning of the book, Fudge (a nickname for his much - despised legal name, Farley Drexel) is two years old, and turns three in Chapter 5. He is a very loud, demanding, and mischievous toddler who is prone to violent temper tantrums. He has a very active imagination, and others -- including Sheila Tubman and the wife of one of his father 's clients -- adore him. In the final chapter, he (somehow) eats Peter 's pet turtle, Dribble, whole, killing him. He is hospitalized, and the doctors are able to help him defecate out Dribble 's remains. He is often perceived as a pest by Peter, but Fudge looks up to Peter and eventually Peter realizes the bond they have.
Anne Hatcher -- The mother of Peter and Fudge, and wife of Warren. A caring mother, she shows love and devotion to her family and is very protective of Fudge. Her sometimes over-protective ways with him sometime cause problems for Peter; for example, when Fudge jumps off the jungle gym at the playground (believing he is a bird that will land safely), she screeches at Peter, holding him solely responsible and not even listening to his side of the story. However, she is quick to apologize for her snappy judgments, and later admits she got overly emotional with the aftermath of Fudge 's flying experience and took it out on Peter. Another time when Fudge ruined Peter 's school project, she spanked him, which surprised even Peter (up to this he believed everyone thought Fudge can do no wrong), but Anne remarks Fudge is at a point where he knew better than that.
Warren Hatcher -- The father of Peter and Fudge, and husband of Anne. He works at an unnamed advertising agency, whose major clients in Tales are with Juicy - O (a fruit beverage that the Hatchers find rather noxious - tasting) and Toddle Bike (a manufacturer of plastic toy tricycles a la the Big Wheel and Green Machine); Fudge is hired for a commercial for the latter product. Although most of Warren 's clients are happy with his work and company, he also had his share of failures, such as losing the Juicy - O account. A loving father who wants what is best for his family, he is more conservative in rearing his sons than Anne, particularly with Fudge. For example, at one point in the book, when Fudge was going through a stage where he refused to eat at the table, Anne was worried sick over this. Warren finally settled the issue by saying "eat it or wear it '', and when Fudge refused, he dumped a bowl of corn flakes over his head. He begins eating, once again, after the cereal incident.
Dribble -- Peter 's pet turtle, which he won at his best friend Jimmy 's birthday party. Dribble is always annoyed by Fudge, which has led him to be swallowed whole by Fudge, killing him. Afterwards, Peter gets a dog and names him Turtle, so he 'll never forget Dribble
Sheila Tubman -- Classmate of Peter and Jimmy, who lives with her family in the same apartment building as the Hatchers. Peter is annoyed at the very thought of her, considering her to be a bossy know - it - all who still has cooties. At times, she does assert herself by trying to control a school project she, Peter, and Jimmy were assigned to work on together (although their efforts are rewarded with an "A ''). She is sometimes allowed to help babysit Fudge. She has an older sister named Libby, who 's a twelve year old in seventh grade, and takes a babysitting class. It is hinted at, however briefly, that she may have a slight crush on Peter, although because of their bickering it is not evident.
Jimmy Fargo - Peter 's best friend, who had a birthday party in the first chapter, and Peter won his pet turtle Dribble. They have a special rock collection in the park, and they hate Sheila Tubman, their annoying classmate, who 's obsessed with cooties. They ca n't stand working on a school project with her.
Chapter 1: The Big Winner = Peter wins his pet turtle Dribble at his friend Jimmy Fargo 's birthday party, and shows it to everyone
Chapter 2: Mr. and Mrs. Juicy O = Peter 's dad 's boss, Mr. Yarby and his wife stay with the Hatchers, and Fudge misbehaves
Chapter 3: The Family Dog = Fudge stops eating, and everyone tries to come up with ideas to get his appetite back
Chapter 4: My Brother The Bird = When Peter, Jimmy, and Sheila go to the park to look after Fudge, he falls off the jungle gym and loses his two front teeth
Chapter 5: The Birthday Bash = When Fudge turns three, he has a birthday party, but it turns out to be a lot of work for Peter
Chapter 6: Fang Hits Town = Fudge misbehaves when he, Peter, and their mother spend the Saturday together
Chapter 7: The Flying Train Committee = Peter, Jimmy, and Sheila work on a school project together based on Transportation
Chapter 8: The T.V. Star = Fudge is chosen to ride the Toddle Bike in a commercial
Chapter 9: Just Another Rainy Day = Peter, Fudge, and their father head to the movies, where Fudge goes missing
Chapter 10: Dribble = When Fudge swallows Peter 's turtle Dribble, he gets a dog at the end and names him Turtle, so he 'll never forget Dribble
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where was dad's army battle of the giants filmed | Battle of the Giants! - Wikipedia
"Battle of the Giants! '' is the first special Christmas episode of the British comedy series Dad 's Army that was originally transmitted on Monday 27 December 1971.
After being insulted by Captain Square for his lack of medals, Captain Mainwaring challenges the Eastgate platoon to a test of strength and stamina to prove who commands the better platoon.
While Jones and the rest of the platoon hold a bayonet practice, Mainwaring and Wilson discuss the upcoming Ceremonial church parade of all the Home Guard platoons in the area. Mainwaring receives a new officer 's cap in the post and hangs it on a nail on the door. Unfortunately, while charging at a dummy of Adolf Hitler, Pike bayonets the door, and subsequently punctures Mainwaring 's new hat. Mainwaring is incensed and shouts at Pike, while Wilson receives a telephone call from Mrs Mainwaring. He hands the phone to Mainwaring, claiming she heard him shouting. Mainwaring is forced to leave the parade to put back the bedding in the air - raid shelter, leaving Wilson in charge.
Captain Square arrives, and compliments Jones on his impressive row of medals. He goes into the office and confronts Wilson about a note he sent about the church parade, which stated that all medals should be worn. Wilson finds the note hidden under some other papers, and Square surmises that the reason he hid the letter is because Mainwaring has n't got any medals, and he did n't want to feel out of place. Square orders Wilson to read the letter to the platoon.
Next parade, Mainwaring inspects the men, and is shocked to see that they are all wearing their medals (except for Pike who has been forced, by his mum, to wear his Scout badges instead!). He riles Wilson about the unimportance of medals, and is even more disgusted when he learns that Chief ARP Warden Hodges, the Vicar and the Verger also have medals.
After the church parade, Square irks Mainwaring by saying that his platoon are too old to be of any real use. Mainwaring responds by claiming that his platoon could wipe the floor with his any day, because they 're fitter, better trained and better led, and insults Square by saying that he has a Colonel Blimp mentality. Square is angered and says that Mainwaring should prove that or apologise, and the Colonel suggests some initiative tests to settle the argument. Both Square and Mainwaring accept the challenge. Hodges, the Vicar and the Verger volunteer to be umpires.
Once they receive the details of the test, Mainwaring convenes a parade to discuss their plan of action. Walker tells Mainwaring that he has made separate flags for both platoons to fly at the top of a tower, to mark the end of the test. Frazer foresees a snag: while they 're performing the test, Godfrey will still be trying to climb out of the van, and suggests that he breaks his leg to avoid going on the test, but Jones suggests that they carry Godfrey the way the natives carried Dr. Livingstone in Africa. Mainwaring agrees.
As the first part of the test, a race between the two platoon vans to the site of the initiative tests, gets underway, Jones suffers an attack of malaria and Frazer recommends quinine, but Godfrey only has tonic wine in his Red Cross bag. As they set off, they realise they have been travelling in a circle, and the Eastgate van is catching them up. Mainwaring tries to stall them by swerving all over the road, but Hodges stops them, allowing the Eastgate platoon to get ahead. However, their van breaks down and Mainwaring 's platoon resume their lead. To stall the Eastgate platoon, Mainwaring decides to release some sheep onto the road, but they eventually end up blocking the Walmington - on - Sea platoon.
They eventually come to a halt on a bridge, with the Eastgate platoon approaching from one direction and the Walmington platoon arriving from the other. Neither commander is willing to back down, so both platoons get out and push their respective vehicles. Hodges arrives and is accidentally pushed into the river by Wilson. Mainwaring and Square rush to help, but tell their respective Sergeants to let down the enemy 's tyres, leaving them both stranded.
After they arrive, the first initiative test begins, which involves puncturing balloons with bayonets. The Eastgate platoon take the early lead, mainly thanks to a drunken Corporal Jones! However, Walker and Godfrey use their initiative by using a cigarette and a safety pin respectively, and they quickly rush off.
The second initiative test begins, which involves carrying feathers from a tank to three barrels. Many ideas are suggested, but Pike comes up trumps by suggesting that they carry the barrels to the tank, and fill them up from there. This works, and gives them a huge advantage. Hodges attempts to stifle the platoon 's effort by pulling the plug out of one of the boats they must use to cross the river, but Mainwaring and the platoon choose the other boat, leaving Hodges fuming. He rows over in a dinghy to fetch another boat, but it 's revealed that Sergeant Parkins, of the Eastgate platoon, had removed the plug from the dinghy and tested it for the plugless boat, and Hodges ends up in the water again.
The platoon pass successfully through a battlefield, and successfully fire five rounds at the target, leaving them with just the flag to fly at the top of the tower, with still a huge margin for victory. However, their plans are temporarily scuppered when Mainwaring inadvertently pulls the rope off the flag pole. A still drunken Jones bravely, and successfully, shins along the pole and secures the rope again. However, he suffers another attack of malaria, giving the Eastgate platoon the opening they need to fly their flag. But Frazer notes that it 's the Walmington platoon 's flag they 're flying, and Square is irate. The Walmington platoon have won!
The Eastgate platoon leave the tower in a huff, and Mainwaring prepares to chuck the Eastgate flag over the parapet, but Walker stops him. Mainwaring is shocked to learn that both flags are theirs. Walker offers up an excuse, but Mainwaring sees through him, knowing he did it on purpose. However, he is prepared to let him off because they won the contest.
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when was the first oil well drilled in the gulf of mexico | Offshore drilling - wikipedia
Offshore drilling is a mechanical process where a wellbore is drilled below the seabed. It is typically carried out in order to explore for and subsequently extract petroleum which lies in rock formations beneath the seabed. Most commonly, the term is used to describe drilling activities on the continental shelf, though the term can also be applied to drilling in lakes, inshore waters and inland seas.
Offshore drilling presents environmental challenges, both from the produced hydrocarbons and the materials used during the drilling operation. Controversies include the ongoing U.S. offshore drilling debate.
There are many different types of facilities from which offshore drilling operations take place. These include bottom founded drilling rigs (jackup barges and swamp barges), combined drilling and production facilities either bottom founded or floating platforms, and deepwater mobile offshore drilling units (MODU) including semi-submersibles and drillships. These are capable of operating in water depths up to 3,000 metres (9,800 ft). In shallower waters the mobile units are anchored to the seabed, however in deeper water (more than 1,500 metres (4,900 ft) the semisubmersibles or drillships are maintained at the required drilling location using dynamic positioning.
Around 1891, the first submerged oil wells were drilled from platforms built on piles in the fresh waters of the Grand Lake St. Marys (a.k.a. Mercer County Reservoir) in Ohio. The wells were developed by small local companies such as Bryson, Riley Oil, German - American and Banker 's Oil.
Around 1896, the first submerged oil wells in salt water were drilled in the portion of the Summerland field extending under the Santa Barbara Channel in California. The wells were drilled from piers extending from land out into the channel.
Other notable early submerged drilling activities occurred on the Canadian side of Lake Erie in the 1900s and Caddo Lake in Louisiana in the 1910s. Shortly thereafter wells were drilled in tidal zones along the Texas and Louisiana gulf coast. The Goose Creek Oil Field near Baytown, Texas is one such example. In the 1920s drilling activities occurred from concrete platforms in Venezuela 's Lake Maracaibo.
One of the oldest subsea wells is the Bibi Eibat well, which came on stream in 1923 in Azerbaijan. The well was located on an artificial island in a shallow portion of the Caspian Sea. In the early 1930s, the Texas Co., later Texaco (now Chevron) developed the first mobile steel barges for drilling in the brackish coastal areas of the Gulf of Mexico.
In 1937, Pure Oil (now Chevron) and its partner Superior Oil (now ExxonMobil) used a fixed platform to develop a field 1 mile (1.6 km) offshore of Calcasieu Parish, Louisiana in 14 feet (4.3 m) of water.
In 1938, Humble Oil built a mile - long wooden trestle with railway tracks into the sea at McFadden Beach on the Gulf of Mexico, placing a derrick at its end - this was later destroyed by a hurricane.
In 1945, concern for American control of its offshore oil reserves caused President Harry Truman to issue an Executive Order unilaterally extending American territory to the edge of its continental shelf, an act that effectively ended the 3 - mile limit "freedom of the seas '' regime.
In 1946, Magnolia Petroleum (now ExxonMobil) drilled at a site 18 miles (29 km) off the coast, erecting a platform in 18 feet (5.5 m) of water off St. Mary Parish, Louisiana.
In early 1947, Superior Oil erected a drilling and production platform in 20 feet (6.1 m) of water some 18 miles (29 km) off Vermilion Parish, La. But it was Kerr - McGee Oil Industries (now Anadarko Petroleum), as operator for partners Phillips Petroleum (ConocoPhillips) and Stanolind Oil & Gas (BP) that completed its historic Ship Shoal Block 32 well in October 1947, months before Superior actually drilled a discovery from their Vermilion platform farther offshore. In any case, that made Kerr - McGee 's well the first oil discovery drilled out of sight of land.
When offshore drilling moved into deeper waters of up to 30 metres (98 ft), fixed platform rigs were built, until demands for drilling equipment was needed in the 100 feet (30 m) to 120 metres (390 ft) depth of the Gulf of Mexico, the first jack - up rigs began appearing from specialized offshore drilling contractors such as forerunners of ENSCO International.
The first semi-submersible resulted from an unexpected observation in 1961. Blue Water Drilling Company owned and operated the four - column submersible Blue Water Rig No. 1 in the Gulf of Mexico for Shell Oil Company. As the pontoons were not sufficiently buoyant to support the weight of the rig and its consumables, it was towed between locations at a draught midway between the top of the pontoons and the underside of the deck. It was noticed that the motions at this draught were very small, and Blue Water Drilling and Shell jointly decided to try operating the rig in the floating mode. The concept of an anchored, stable floating deep - sea platform had been designed and tested back in the 1920s by Edward Robert Armstrong for the purpose of operating aircraft with an invention known as the ' seadrome '. The first purpose - built drilling semi-submersible Ocean Driller was launched in 1963. Since then, many semi-submersibles have been purpose - designed for the drilling industry mobile offshore fleet.
The first offshore drillship was the CUSS 1 developed for the Mohole project to drill into the Earth 's crust.
As of June, 2010, there were over 620 mobile offshore drilling rigs (Jackups, semisubs, drillships, barges) available for service in the competitive rig fleet.
One of the world 's deepest hubs is currently the Perdido in the Gulf of Mexico, floating in 2,438 meters of water. It is operated by Royal Dutch Shell and was built at a cost of $3 billion. The deepest operational platform is the Petrobras America Cascade FPSO in the Walker Ridge 249 field in 2,600 meters of water.
Notable offshore fields include:
Offshore oil and gas production is more challenging than land - based installations due to the remote and harsher environment. Much of the innovation in the offshore petroleum sector concerns overcoming these challenges, including the need to provide very large production facilities. Production and drilling facilities may be very large and a large investment, such as the Troll A platform standing on a depth of 300 meters.
Another type of offshore platform may float with a mooring system to maintain it on location. While a floating system may be lower cost in deeper waters than a fixed platform, the dynamic nature of the platforms introduces many challenges for the drilling and production facilities.
The ocean can add several thousand meters or more to the fluid column. The addition increases the equivalent circulating density and downhole pressures in drilling wells, as well as the energy needed to lift produced fluids for separation on the platform.
The trend today is to conduct more of the production operations subsea, by separating water from oil and re-injecting it rather than pumping it up to a platform, or by flowing to onshore, with no installations visible above the sea. Subsea installations help to exploit resources at progressively deeper waters -- locations which had been inaccessible -- and overcome challenges posed by sea ice such as in the Barents Sea. One such challenge in shallower environments is seabed gouging by drifting ice features (means of protecting offshore installations against ice action includes burial in the seabed).
Offshore manned facilities also present logistics and human resources challenges. An offshore oil platform is a small community in itself with cafeteria, sleeping quarters, management and other support functions. In the North Sea, staff members are transported by helicopter for a two - week shift. They usually receive higher salary than onshore workers do. Supplies and waste are transported by ship, and the supply deliveries need to be carefully planned because storage space on the platform is limited. Today, much effort goes into relocating as many of the personnel as possible onshore, where management and technical experts are in touch with the platform by video conferencing. An onshore job is also more attractive for the aging workforce in the petroleum industry, at least in the western world. These efforts among others are contained in the established term integrated operations. The increased use of subsea facilities helps achieve the objective of keeping more workers onshore. Subsea facilities are also easier to expand, with new separators or different modules for different oil types, and are not limited by the fixed floor space of an above - water installation.
Offshore oil production involves environmental risks, most notably oil spills from oil tankers or pipelines transporting oil from the platform to onshore facilities, and from leaks and accidents on the platform. Produced water is also generated, which is water brought to the surface along with the oil and gas; it is usually highly saline and may include dissolved or unseparated hydrocarbons.
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where did the last name moore come from | Moore (surname) - wikipedia
Moore is a popular English - language surname. It is the 34th most common surname in Australia, 32nd most common in England, and was the 16th most common surname in the United States in 2000.
It can have several meanings and derivations, as it appeared as a surname long before written language had developed in most of the population, resulting in a variety of spellings.
Variations of the name can appear as Moore, More or Moor; as well as the Scottish Gaelic originations Muir, Mure and Mor / Mór; the Manx Gaelic origination Moar; the Irish Gaelic originations O'More and Ó Mórdha; and the later Irish variants O'Moore and de Mora.
The similarly pronounced surname Mohr is of Germanic lineage and is not related to the Gaelic / English variations.
Some bearers of this name pronounce it as / mɔːr / or / mɔːr /, while others use / mʊər /.
In the United States, "Moore '' ranked 9th among all surnames in the 1990 census, accounting for 0.3 % of the population.
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who started the tour de france and why | 1903 Tour de France - wikipedia
The 1903 Tour de France was the first cycling race set up and sponsored by the newspaper L'Auto, ancestor of the current daily, L'Équipe. It ran from 1 to 19 July in six stages over 2,428 km (1,509 mi), and was won by Maurice Garin.
The race was invented to boost the circulation of L'Auto, after its circulation started to plummet from competition with the long - standing Le Vélo. Originally scheduled to start in June, the race was postponed one month, and the prize money was increased, after a disappointing level of applications from competitors. The 1903 Tour de France was the first stage road race, and compared to modern Grand Tours, it had relatively few stages, but each was much longer than those raced today. The cyclists did not have to compete in all six stages, although this was necessary to qualify for the general classification.
The pre-race favourite, Maurice Garin, won the first stage, and retained the lead throughout. He also won the last two stages, and had a margin of almost three hours over the next cyclist. The circulation of L'Auto increased more than sixfold during and after the race, so the race was considered successful enough to be rerun in 1904, by which time Le Vélo had been forced out of business.
After the Dreyfus affair separated advertisers from the newspaper Le Vélo, a new newspaper L'Auto - Vélo was founded in 1900, with former cyclist Henri Desgrange as editor. After being forced to change the name of the newspaper to L'Auto in 1903, Desgrange needed something to keep the cycling fans; with circulation at 20,000, he could not afford to lose them.
When Desgrange and young employee Géo Lefèvre were returning from the Marseille -- Paris cycling race, Lefèvre suggested holding a race around France, similar to the popular six - day races on the track. Desgrange proposed the idea to the financial controller Victor Goddet, who gave his approval, and on 19 January 1903, the Tour de France was announced in L'Auto.
It was to have been a five - week race, from 1 June to 5 July, with an entry fee of 20 francs. These conditions attracted very few cyclists: one week before the race was due to start, only 15 competitors had signed up. Desgrange then rescheduled the race from 1 to 19 July, increased the total prize money to 20,000 francs, reduced the entry fee to 10 francs and guaranteed at least five francs a day to the first 50 cyclists in the classification. After that, 79 cyclists signed up for the race, of whom 60 actually started the race.
Géo Lefévre became the director, judge and time - keeper; Henri Desgrange was the directeur - général, although he did not follow the race.
The 1903 Tour de France was run in six stages. Compared to modern stage races, the stages were extraordinarily long, with an average distance of over 400 km (250 mi), compared to the 171 km (106 mi) average stage length in the 2004 Tour de France; cyclists had one to three rest days between each stage, and the route was largely flat, with only one stage featuring a significant mountain. The cyclists were not grouped in teams but raced as individuals, and paid a fee of ten francs (€ 87.50 at 2003 prices) to compete in the race for general classification, or five francs to enter a single stage. Because the stages were so long, all but the first started before dawn: the last stage started at 21: 00 the night before.
The first Tour de France crossed no mountain passes, but several lesser cols. The first was the col des Echarmeaux (712 m (2,336 ft)), on the opening stage from Paris to Lyon, on what is now the old road from Autun to Lyon. The stage from Lyon to Marseille included the col de la République (1,161 m (3,809 ft)), also known as the col du Grand Bois, at the edge of St - Etienne.
In 1903, it was normal for a professional cyclist to hire pacers, who would lead them during the race. Desgrange forbade this: it was originally intended that in the final, longest, stage pacers would be allowed, but this was rescinded after the fifth stage.
To ensure that the cyclists rode the entire route, stewards were stationed at various points around the course. The yellow jersey for the leader in the general classification had not yet been introduced, but the leader was identified by a green armband.
The fastest eight cyclists on each stage received a prize between 50 francs and 1,500 francs, varying per stage. The fourteen best cyclists in the general classification received a prize from 3,000 francs for the winner to 25 francs for fourteenth place. The remaining seven cyclists to finish in the general classification each received 95 francs, 5 francs for each of the 19 days that the race took, provided that they had not won more than 200 francs in prize money and did not have an average speed below 20 km / h (12 mph) on any stage.
In contrast to modern stage races, a cyclist who gave up during a stage was allowed to start again the next stage, although he would no longer be in contention for the general classification. Thus Hippolyte Aucouturier, who gave up during the first stage, was able to return, and won the second and third stages. Charles Laeser, winner of the fourth stage, had not completed the third stage.
Sixty cyclists, all professionals or semi-professionals, started the race, of whom 49 were French, 4 Belgian, 4 Swiss, 2 German, and one Italian; 21 of them were sponsored by bicycle manufacturers, while 39 entered without commercial support. 24 other cyclists took advantage of the opportunity to enter specific stages: one rode in both the second and fourth stages, and additionally three cyclists took part in the second stage, one in the third stage, fifteen in the fourth stage only, and a further four only competed in the fifth stage.
The pre-race favourites for the victory were Maurice Garin and Hippolyte Aucouturier. Garin dominated the race from the start by winning the first stage, a 471 km (293 mi) parcours from Paris to Lyon. The stage started at 15: 16, and the cyclists initially rode with a speed of 35 km / h. The first cyclists abandoned after around 50 km (31 mi). At 23: 00, Garin and Emile Pagie, leading the race, reached the control point in Nevers. Garin expected at that point that they would finish at 8: 00 the next morning. During the night, Garin 's main rival, Aucouturier, had stomach cramps, and was unable to finish the stage. Also during that first stage, the first breach of the rules occurred: Jean Fischer had used a car as pacer, which was illegal. Pagie fell down, but got up again; he and Garin kept leading the race during the night. Around 9: 00 in the morning, both reached Lyon. Garin got away from Pagie, and finished one minute ahead.
Although Aucouturier had abandoned in the first stage, and so was not eligible for the general classification, he could still start the rest of the stages. In the second stage, Aucouturier was able to win the sprint. In the third stage, the cyclists who were competing for the general classification started one hour earlier than the other cyclists, including Aucouturier. At the end of that stage, a group of four cyclists had broken away, and Eugène Brange won the sprint. Aucouturier finished 27 minutes later, but this meant that he had run the course 33 minutes faster, so he was declared the winner of the stage. Garin retained the lead, helped by a crash of second - placed Pagie in the second stage, which eliminated him from the race. In the fourth stage, Aucouturier had a clear lead and seemed set to win a third successive stage, but was caught using the slipstream of a car, and was removed from the race. Swiss Charles Laeser (who had abandoned in the 3rd stage) took the victory, becoming the first non-French winner. As in the third stage, the cyclists departed in two groups, and Laeser was in the second group because he was no longer contending for the general classification. Laeser finished more than 50 minutes after a group of six cyclists, but he had travelled the distance 4 minutes faster than them, so he was declared the winner.
At that point, Garin was leading, with Émile Georget almost two hours behind. In the fifth stage, Georget had two flat tires, and fell asleep when he stopped at the side of the road to rest; he failed to finish. Thus Garin extended his lead by winning this stage, carrying nearly three hours ' advantage into the final day 's racing. Garin had requested other cyclists in the leading group to let him win the stage, but Fernand Augereau refused to do this. Garin then had Lucien Pothier throw down his bicycle in front of Augereau, who fell, and Garin then bent Augereau 's rear wheel. Augereau quickly obtained a spare bike and continued to the finish, however Garin easily won the sprint. Augereau still received a prize of 100 francs from Velo - Sport Nantes for the fastest final kilometer of the stage in the Nantes velodrome.
The last stage was the longest, at 471 km (293 mi), and ran from Nantes to the small town of Ville - d'Avray, which lies between Versailles and Paris, instead of at the Parc des Princes velodrome. This was because of a bylaw forbidding road races to end on cycling tracks (a bylaw subsequently repealed in light of the race 's success). Garin took his third stage win, and sealed overall victory by 2 hours 59 minutes 31 seconds: this remains the greatest margin of victory in the Tour de France. After celebrating with champagne, the riders cycled to Parc des Princes, where they made several laps of honour before an adoring crowd, to the sound of a bugle.
In 1903, there was no distinction in the rules between plain stages and mountain stages; the icons shown here indicate whether the stage included mountains.
There were 21 cyclists who had completed all six stages. For these cyclists, the times taken for each stage were added up for the general classification. The cyclist with the least accumulated time was the winner. The cyclists officially were not grouped in teams; some cyclists had the same sponsor, even though they were not allowed to work together.
The circulation of L'Auto increased significantly due to this event; a special edition of 130,000 copies was made after the race was over, and normal circulation increased from 25,000 to 65,000. The big success made sure that the Tour de France was scheduled again for 1904. The cyclists had also become national heroes. Maurice Garin returned for the 1904 Tour de France but his title defence failed when he was disqualified. With the prize money that he won in 1903, which totalled 6,075 francs, (approximately US $40,000 and GBP £ 23,000 in 2006 values) Garin later bought a gas station, where he worked for the rest of his life.
Media related to 1903 Tour de France at Wikimedia Commons
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when do donna and eric get back together after season 3 | Grey 's Anatomy (season 3) - wikipedia
The third season of the American television medical drama Grey 's Anatomy, commenced airing on the American Broadcasting Company (ABC) on September 21, 2006, and concluded on May 17, 2007. The season was produced by Touchstone Television, in association with Shondaland Production Company and The Mark Gordon Company, the showrunner being Shonda Rhimes. Actors Ellen Pompeo, Sandra Oh, Katherine Heigl, Justin Chambers, and T.R. Knight reprised their roles as surgical interns Meredith Grey, Cristina Yang, Izzie Stevens, Alex Karev, and George O'Malley, respectively, continuing their expansive storylines as focal points throughout the season. Previous main cast members Chandra Wilson, James Pickens, Jr., Kate Walsh, Isaiah Washington, and Patrick Dempsey also returned, while previous guest stars Sara Ramirez and Eric Dane were promoted to series regulars, following the extension of their contracts.
The season followed the continuation of the surgical residency of five young interns, as they experience the demands of the competitive field of medicine, which becomes defining in their personal evolution. Although set in fictional Seattle Grace Hospital, located in Seattle, Washington, filming primarily occurred in Los Angeles, California. Whereas the first season mainly focused on the impact the surgical field has on the main characters, and the second one provided a detailed perspective on the physicians ' private lives, the third season deals with the tough challenges brought by the last phase of the surgeons ' internship, combining the professional motif emphasized in the first season, with the complex personal background used in the second. Through the season, several new storylines are introduced, including the arrival of Dane 's character, Dr. Mark Sloan, conceived and introduced as an antagonizing presence.
In a departure from the previous season, the third season aired in a new competitive time slot of 9: 00 pm on Thursdays, competing against the heavily promoted and highly rated dramatic television series CSI: Crime Scene Investigation, which simultaneously aired on the CBS Network. Season three of Grey 's Anatomy contained 25 episodes, in addition to two clip shows that were produced to recap the previous events of the show, before the introduction of major new arcs. "Complications of the Heart '' aired on the same night as the season premiere, recapping the last episodes of the second season with insights into future episodes in the third, while "Every Moment Counts '' aired before the twentieth episode. The season also aired a two - part episode arc, which primarily served as a backdoor pilot for a proposed spin - off, Private Practice, focusing on the departure of Walsh 's character, Dr. Addison Montgomery.
The series ended its third season with an average of 19.22 million viewers per episode and a 6.8 / 35 Nielsen rating / share in the 18 -- 49 demographic, ranking eighth in the television season, outperformed by CSI. Television critics expressed a mainly negative outlook on the development of the series throughout the season, with the reviews ranging from mixed to unfavorable, as exaggeration and lack of realism have been highlighted as the main issues in the declining quality of the storylines. Despite the negative critical response, the performance of the cast members and the production technique of the crew received outstanding recognition through numerous awards and nominations. Earning major category nominations at the 59th Primetime Emmy Awards and the 65th Golden Globe Awards, the season achieved the series ' highest number of recipients, with Heigl being the most awarded cast member. The series was ranked sixth in USA Today 's "best of television '' list, following the conclusion of the season.
The third season had twelve roles receiving star billing, with ten of them returning from the previous season, out of whom nine were part of the original cast. All the main characters are physicians in the surgical wing of the fictional Seattle Grace Hospital. Ellen Pompeo portrayed Meredith Grey, both the protagonist and the narrator of the series, whose main goal in achieving a balance between the difficulties of the internship, and the complicated relationships in her private life. Sandra Oh portrayed Cristina Yang, who quickly develops into Meredith 's best friend, despite the continuous competition against the other interns. Katherine Heigl portrayed intern Isobel "Izzie '' Stevens, mourning the death of her fiancé as she unexpectedly decides to quit her job after the realization that her personal involvement in each patient 's case is not accepted in medicine. Justin Chambers acted as Alexander "Alex '' Karev, whose arrogant attitude develops into a more emotional and sensitive outlook on his career and relationships. T.R. Knight played the role of intern George O'Malley, who gradually becomes more self - confident after his feelings for Meredith diminish. Chandra Wilson portrayed fifth - year resident in general surgery, Miranda Bailey, the resident in charge of the five interns.
James Pickens, Jr. acted as Seattle Grace Hospital 's Chief of Surgery, Richard Webber, who has to deal with the choice between his career and his marriage. Kate Walsh played Addison Montgomery, obstetrician - gynecologist and neonatal surgeon, who comes to terms with her husband 's desire to divorce, while dealing with the arrival of her former lover. Isaiah Washington played the role of attending physician and cardiothoracic surgeon, Preston Burke, whose long - term relationship with intern Cristina Yang leads to their engagement. Patrick Dempsey portrayed attending neurosurgeon Derek Shepherd, whose relationship with intern Meredith Grey has been the focal point of the series since its inception. Sara Ramirez began receiving star billing in the season premiere, after numerous appearances during the last episodes of the second season. She portrayed orthopedic surgeon and fifth - year resident, Calliope "Callie '' Torres, whose relationship with intern George O'Malley evolves into a sudden marriage with unpleasant repercussions. Eric Dane was also promoted to the series regular status after a guest appearance in the eighteenth episode of the previous season, and an uncredited one in the second episode of this season. He began receiving star billing in the third episode of the season, portraying attending physician, otolaryngologist and plastic surgeon Mark Sloan, whose arc, describing the attempt at resuming his relationship with Addison Montgomery, is heavily developed throughout the season.
Numerous supporting characters have been given expansive and recurring appearances in the progressive storyline. Brooke Smith continues her role as cardiothoracic surgeon Erica Hahn, whose storylines include the rivalry with Preston Burke, her arrival to perform surgery of George O'Malley's dying father, and Richard Webber 's decision to hire her in the hospital. Chyler Leigh portrayed Meredith 's half - sister, Lexie Grey, who would eventually enroll in Seattle Grace Hospital 's internship program after her mother 's sudden death. Kate Burton appeared as Meredith Grey 's mother, Ellis Grey, a renowned surgeon suffering from Alzheimer 's disease, who ultimately dies following a heart attack. Veterinary physician Finn Dandrige was portrayed by Chris O'Donnell and appeared in the first four episodes of the season to resume the storyline of his romantic relationship with Meredith, previously introduced in the second season. Deceased since the second - season finale, Jeffrey Dean Morgan 's character Dennsion "Denny '' Duquette, Jr. appeared in two episodes of the season, during Meredith 's limbo sequence.
Elizabeth Reaser portrayed recurring character and love interest for Alex Karev, Rebecca "Ava '' Pope, a patient suffering from amnesia after being involved in a massive ferry crash. Loretta Devine acted as Adele Webber, Richard 's wife, whose continuous struggle to have a normal marriage culminates in her asking her husband to retire. Other guest stars include Sarah Utterback in the role of nurse Olivia Harper, former love interest of both George O'Malley and Alex Karev, Kali Rocha portraying fifth - year resident Sydney Heron, who enters a competition against Miranda Bailey and Callie Torres for the position of Chief Resident, Roger Rees in the role of Colin Marlowe, a cardiothoracic surgeon and Cristina Yang 's former professor and lover, Jeff Perry portraying Meredith Grey 's father, Thatcher Grey, Mare Winningham in the role of Susan Grey, Embeth Davidtz playing Derek Shepherd 's sister Nancy Shepherd, who is revealed to have slept with Mark Sloan, Tsai Chin in the role of Helen Yang Rubenstein, Cristina 's mother, and Diahann Carroll portraying Jane Burke, Preston Burke 's over-protective mother. Future Private Practice series regulars Amy Brenneman, Paul Adelstein, Tim Daly, Taye Diggs, Chris Lowell starred in the twenty - second and twenty - third episodes of the season, portraying Violet Turner, Cooper Freedman, Peter Wilder, Sam Bennett and William "Dell '' Parker, respectively, in order to make the transition to the proposed spin - off.
This season is the last to be produced by ABC Studios under title of Touchstone Television, as the company 's decision to change its name occurred after the conclusion of the season. Shonda Rhimes returned as the series ' showrunner and executive producer. She also continued her position from the first two seasons as one of the most prominent members of the writing staff. Betsy Beers, Mark Gordon and Rob Corn also returned as executive producers, along with Mark Wilding, Peter Horton and Krista Vernoff, who have been in this position since the inception of the series. Allan Heinberg, however, joins the production team at the beginning of the third season as a co-executive producer, before his promotion to an executive. Kent Hodder, Nancy Bordson and Steve Mulholland served as executive producers for four episodes during the season. Horton left the series at the conclusion of the season, whereas James D. Parriott, who previously served a writer and executive producer for the first two seasons, did not continue his work on the show during this season. Joan Rater and Tony Phelan continued to serve as co-executive producers, with Rater being a supervising producer as well. Stacy McKee, who previously served as a producer and writer for the series, was promoted to co-executive producer.
After having written three episodes for the first season and five for the second, Rhimes returned as a writer for six episodes, out of which one was written along with Marti Noxon. Krista Vernoff, Tony Phelan, Stacy McKee and Mark Wilding returned to the series as members of the writing staff, with Vernoff and Phelan writing three episodes and McKee and Wilding producing the script of two episodes. Gabrielle Stanton and Harry Werksman, Jr. worked together for the writing of one episode, after three episodes they have written for the series in the past. The season includes the first episode to be written by Debora Cahn, who would become one of the series ' main writers, as well as a consulting and supervisor producer. Other writers include Kip Koenig, Carolina Paiz, Eric Buchman, Joan Rater and Chris Van Dusen. Rob Corn returned to the series to direct three episodes for the season, after writing two episodes in the second season. Greg Yaitanes is credited for directing two episodes during the season, the only ones to have been directed by him in the series. Other prominent directors were Jeff Melman, Michael Grossman, Julie Anne Robinson and Adam Arkin, each directing two or more episodes during the season. Danny Lux continued his position as the main music composer for the series, while Herbert Davis and Walt Fraser served as the season 's cinematography directors. Susan Vaill and Edward Ornelas resumed their positions as editors, seeing David Greenspan, Matthew Ramsey and Avi Fisher being added to the team. Fisher, however, left the series at the conclusion of the season.
The season was primarily filmed in Los Angeles, California. Fisher Plaza, which is the headquarters building for the media company Fisher Communications and Fisher 's ABC affiliated Komo radio and television stations for Seattle, is used for some exterior shots of Seattle Grace Mercy West Hospital, such as air ambulances landing on the Komo Television newscopter 's helipad. This puts Seattle Grace conveniently close to the Space Needle, which is directly across the street from Fisher Plaza, the Seattle Monorail, and other local landmarks. However, the hospital used for most other exterior and many interior shots is not in Seattle, are shot at the VA Sepulveda Ambulatory Care Center in North Hills, California. Most scenes are primarily taped in Los Feliz, Los Angeles, at the Prospect Studios, and the set occupies two stages, including the hospital pieces, but some outside scenes are shot at the Warren G. Magnuson Park in Seattle. Several props used are genuine medical supplies, including the MRI machine. Before the production of the season officially began, producer Shonda Rhimes stated that she was planning a major development in Ellen Pompeo 's character, Meredith Grey.
"There 's a spirit there that 's just very interesting to me. She was charming and there was something about her so intriguing to watch '', stated Rhimes in response to Pomepo 's portrayal of her character. Executive producer Betsy Beers stated that the writing staff was going to focus on the balance between her vulnerability and her courage, also dealing with changes in the relationship with her friends. Pompeo noted that the uncertainty of her character 's fate is what helped her evolve into a more adaptable actor. Rhimes also disclosed that an episode with Ellis Grey 's unexpected lucidity and eventual death was in plans since the beginning of the series. Rhimes described how Pompeo got through the challenge of sending Meredith in the afterlife: "It was an exciting place to take her. Exciting to watch her find her way back. '' In response to Izzie 's arc, Shonda Rhimes discussed the impact Denny Duquette 's death will have on her, noting that Izzie is forced to abandon her idealism, which in turn leads to her letting go of medicine. In the aftermath of Denny 's death, Katherine Heigl came to believe that Izzie was not cut out to be a doctor. Executive producer Betsy Beers explained, however, that Denny 's death served to make Izzie more mature, and Heigl affirmed that "At the beginning of the third season they were trying to show how lost Izzie was. She lost her optimism. She realizes now that life is difficult, but she still tries very hard to see the best in people. ''
Creator Shonda Rhimes compared what she deemed the two "most iconic moments of the season '', describing how the season begins with Izzie lying in the prom dress on the bathroom, and ends with Cristina standing motionless in her wedding dress. Cast member Eric Dane described the impact his first scene in the season had on him, stating that it was a spectacular entrance: "It was a brand new towel, which had a hard time staying together. So every time I put it together and let my hands go, it was almost like throwing caution to the wind. '' Cast member Sara Ramirez noted that one of the most significant scene in the season was when Izzie and George "have this beautiful moment when neither of them speaks, but they say so much and it was just so rich '', describing how their interaction during the scene determined everything that would be developed for their arc later. Betsy Beers, however, noted that the most "powerful '' scene in the season saw Cristina Yang and Preston Burke in the on - call room, talking about the future of their relationship: "It 's fascinating to see how their entire relationship changes and almost disintegrates in this one exchange ''. Beers and Rhimes expressed their desire to introduce Patrick Dempsey 's passion of car racing in the series, although this ultimately did not occur during the season. "Patrick loved it. He 's always driving something new, always trying something out '', stated the series creator, regarding Dempsey 's response to the storyline.
Rhimes also described the difficulty she faced in finding an appropriate love interest for the character of Alex Karev: "We kept meeting with people and it was n't until we met Elizabeth Reaser and sat down with her, and in two seconds in realized that she was absolutely the one we 'd been looking for. '' Reaser explained that when she was cast, there were no definite plans for the development of her character, and that only the intrigue of the ferry accident had been explained to her. She also deemed her character "frustrated and scared ''. As for the make up process, Reaser stated: "The prosthetic changes your outlook on yourself. It can be very disorienting. It 's intense. '' Beers, however, noted that the focus on Ava was mainly due to her inability to express her feelings through facial expressions, only communicating with her eyes and voice. Executive producer Rob Corn stated that his plan for the original arc was about Jane Doe 's inner life, struggling to get out of the situation she is trapped in. He stated that the main characteristics they had been looking for in the actress for the part were strength and vulnerability. He also called Reaser 's performance "heart - wrenching and wonderful ''. Betsy Beers, the show 's supervising executive producer, found Izzie to have been marked for life by Denny 's death, which matured her "in a very sobering way '', but played a major role in making her feel more confident. She also noted the undeniable connection between Izzie and Alex Karev, whose desire to do honorable things has been compared with his "cutting and sarcastic '' personality. After Izzie 's continuous efforts to change Alex during their relationship in the previous season, Beers announced the possibility of a relationship between the two of them. She also contrasted the female leads on the show with women in film, explaining how the characters on television are shaped in unique ways.
On February 21, 2007, The Wall Street Journal reported that ABC was pursuing a spin - off medical drama television series for the series featuring Kate Walsh 's character, Addison Montgomery. Subsequent reports confirmed the decision, stating that an expanded two - hour broadcast of Grey 's Anatomy would serve as a backdoor pilot for the proposed spin - off. The cast was reportedly unhappy about the decision, as all hoped the spin - off would have been given to them. Pompeo commented that she felt, as the star, she should have been consulted, and Heigl, disclosed that she had hoped for a spin - off for Izzie. The backdoor pilot that aired on May 3, 2007, sees Addison take "a leave of absence '' from Seattle Grace Hospital, to visit her best friend from Los Angeles, Naomi Bennett, a reproductive endocrinology and infertility specialist, in order to get pregnant. While in Los Angeles, she meets Bennett 's colleagues at the Oceanside Wellness Center and even becomes the clinic 's obstetrician - gynecologist for the day. The two - hour broadcast served as the twenty - second and the twenty - third episodes of the third season, and was directed by Michael Grossman, according to Variety. The cast included Amy Brenneman, Paul Adelstein, Tim Daly, Taye Diggs, Chris Lowell and Merrin Dungey. ABC officially picked up Private Practice for its 2007 lineup on May 11, 2007. KaDee Strickland 's character, Charlotte King, who would be introduced in the spin - off 's first - season premiere, did not appear in the backdoor pilot. Her addition to the main cast was announced on July 11, 2007, prior to the commencement of the first season. She did not have to audition for the role, but was cast after a meeting with Rhimes. Also not present in the backdoor pilot was Audra McDonald, due to her character, Bennett, being portrayed by a different actress, Merrin Dungey. However, on June 29, 2007, ABC announced that Dungey would be replaced, with no reason given for the change. The premiere episode followed the second part of the season debut of Dancing with the Stars, and provided a lead - in to fellow freshman series, Dirty Sexy Money. Pushing Daisies, a third new series for the evening, rounded out the lineup as a lead - in to Private Practice. The series aired a total of six seasons.
The season received mixed to negative reviews, after two seasons that resulted in heavy critical acclaim. Following a positive outlook on the second season, Christopher Monfette of IGN Entertainment expressed disappointment during the third one, mainly due to the declining quality and lack of realism of the storylines. He noted a growing number of similarities between the season 's arcs and the ones that are developed in soap operas, by stating that "the line which separates primetime television from soap opera is oftentimes razor thin '' and admitting that, despite his considering the series "the best drama '', he freely admits that it requires some inherent suspension of disbelief, after it "found itself mired in the annoying and absurd ''. Whereas Monfette acknowledged that the fans would consider the problem to have been a simple case of lazy writing, he noted that over-writing played a main role in the series becoming unexpectedly unrealistic. He also noted the senseless intrigues in the Derek / Meredith relationship, by stating that the season would not have achieved high ratings if a functional relationship had been introduced: "The season generally opts to stall out for its vast majority, providing Meredith with some bizarrely under - developed sub-plot about depression and giving Derek a season 's worth of reconsidering to do ''.
Monfette criticized the romantic development of the characters throughout the season, by describing Cristina and Burke 's relationship as an excuse for the possibility of a wedding for Meredith, whereas Burke 's unfair behavior towards Cristina is thought to be manipulative, exposing her to his overly romantic notion of an ideal ceremony. The way the doubts regarding the success of their relationship were resolved in the season finale was described as "most obvious and least compelling. '' IGN Entertainment was also critical of Alex Karev 's storyline, who is seen falling for a pregnant and badly injured Jane Doe, despite having always been "self - obsessed ''. Monfette once again noted the lack of realism in the improvement of Jane Doe 's condition, as she gives birth to her baby and undergoes reconstructive surgery in a short amount of time. However, her incapability and continuous struggle to remember who she is was considered to be "the most affecting and honest plotline of the season '', noting the nuanced and emotionally resonant scenes, which gave the show a "charmingly positive, feel - good foundation ''. Monfette considered Izzie 's affair with George as the season 's worst but most significant storyline, criticizing its being "force - red, emotionally incorrect, a mismatch from the beginning and a narrative long - shot '', which does not express love, but lust. He agreed that the essential problem of the season was its reluctance to move, leading to frustration after seeing "the entertaining familiar characters so weighed down by their most annoying of traits ''.
In response to the season premiere, Oscar Dahl of Buddytv.com noted the predictability of the series, but expressed hope in its further development, by stating that it has become "a medical chick flick, but a damn good one '' with a big and attractive cast. He also praised the interaction between the characters, noting the "smart '' dialogue that helps each character evolve. However, Dahl expressed disappointment in the over emotional scenes, describing them as "off - putting '' and "not believable '', while comparing them to real life interactions between people who emote in a more subtle manner than displayed on television. "Emotions ran high in the premiere and there was much crying '', stated Dahl, but noted that the dialogue, who he had previously been worried would be "too cutesy '', was not bothering, and rather realistic, noting how the show is "smartly written ''. He also described the acting of Ellen Pompeo and Katherine Heigl as "worthy of attention ''.
New York Post 's Robert Rorke reviewed the numerous characters with heavy romantic development, noting perpetual "merry - go - round of hookups, breakups and makeup sex '', while describing the lack of sentimental involvement of Katherine Heigl 's character in the first half of the season. However, he deemed Izzie Stevens "the hear and soul '' of the "sex - filled series '', due to the season mostly focusing on the events that come to define her as a person. Rorke named her the show 's heroine, and wrote that "Izzie is a welcome, calming presence, despite the devastation she experienced when she failed to save her patient and fiancé Denny Duquette '', considering her to have been more prominent than the title character, Meredith Grey, whose storyline received negative critiques: "She used to be the queen of the romantic dilemmas. But lately, she 's been a little dopey, with that endless McDreamy soliloquies. '' He also noted Meredith 's decreasing importance in the ongoing arc, describing how Sandra Oh 's character development was vital to the success of the season, as he compared her "cutthroat exterior '' with the emotional side of her personality that evolves throughout the season. New York Post compared Izzie, who is described as having achieved a depth, to Miranda Bailey, noting the maturity they have, which is uncharacteristic to the fellow interns. Robert Rorke positively reviewed Chandra Wilson 's performance by stating that she was "formidable ''.
Prior to the 59th Primetime Emmy Awards, Stuart Levine of Variety reviewed the performances of the three cast members nominated in the Outstanding Supporting Actress category. "The ladies of Grey 's Anatomy dominate the category, and it 'd be far from a stretch to say at least two of those women rose to high dramatics last season '', commented Levine, while praising Sandra Oh for her portrayal of Cristina Yang who endured a tumultuous seasoning relationship, seeing her trepidation at spending a life together with the man she loved. He regarded the appearances of Chandra Wilson as more subdued, though "by no means less well - executed ''. He deemed Miranda Bailey a rock, being the most level - headed character on the show with a right thing to say in any situation. He expressed admiration towards Chandra Wilson, by describing her as being "flashy and over the top '', which he considers better than being consistently good. Considering Heigl 's chances of winning the Emmy, Levine assessed of her performance, by remarking the slight difficulty she has in reaching each emotional state Izzie Stevens has to go through: "Showrunner Shonda Rhimes puts a lot of pressure on Heigl to carry many intense storylines, and she 's up to the challenge. '' However, he also noted that Izzie 's irrational actions during crisis situations may be bothering.
The season was one of the most acclaimed of the show, receiving numerous awards and nominations. Several cast and crew members were nominated for their work on the show during its third season at the 59th Primetime Emmy Awards. Chandra Wilson received a nomination for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Drama Series for her performance in "Oh, the Guilt '', the season 's fifth episode, whereas Sandra Oh was nominated for the same category for her portrayal of Cristina Yang in "From a Whisper to a Scream '', the season 's ninth episode. However, they both lost to co-star Katherine Heigl, whose portrayal of Izzie Stevens in "Time After Time '', the twentieth episode of the season, resulted in her first Emmy win.
T.R. Knight was also nominated for his performance in the third season in the Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Drama Series category, for the two - episode arc "Six Days '', the eleventh and second episodes of the season. Elizabeth Reaser and Kate Burton were nominated for Outstanding Guest Actress in a Drama Series, for their performances as Rebecca Pope in "My Favorite Mistake '', the nineteenth episode in the season, and Ellis Grey in "Wishin ' and Hopin ' '', the fourteenth episode. Linda Lowy and John Brace were nominated for Outstanding Casting in a Drama Series, while Norman T. Leavitt, Brigitte Bugayong, Thomas R. Burman and Bari Dreiband - Burman were nominated for Best Prosthetic Make - Up. The production team was acclaimed for the Best Drama Series category, but only received a nomination.
Sara Ramirez was nominated at the 2007 Alma Awards for her portrayal of Callie Torres. At the 65th Golden Globe Awards, the series was nominated for Best Television Drama Series, while Katherine Heigl 's individual performance resulted in a nomination for Best Performance by an Actress in a Supporting Role in a Series, Mini-Series or Motion Picture Made for Television. The show 's third season was once again recognized at the 38th National Association for the Advancement of Colored People Awards, when the production team was nominated for Best Drama Series. Also at the 2007 ceremony, Isaiah Washington won Outstanding Actor in a Drama Series for his portrayal of Preston Burke in this season, while Chandra Wilson won Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Drama Series.
Several cast members have been awarded at the PRISM Awards in 2007: Katherine Heigl in the Favorite Female TV Star category for portraying Izzie Stevens, Patrick Dempsey for Favorite Male TV Star in the role of Derek Shepherd, and Chandra Wilson in the Favorite Scene Stealing Star category for her performance of Miranda Bailey. Mark Gordon, Shonda Rhimes, James D. Parriott, Betsy Beers, Peter Horton and Rob Corn have been nominated at the Producers Guild of America 2007 Awards for Television Producer of the Year Award in Episodic Drama for the production of the third season, after winning the award at the 2006 Awards for the second season. At the 2007 Satellite Awards, Ellen Pompeo won the award Best Actress in Drama Series, while T.R. Knight was nominated for Best Supporting Actor in a Series, Miniseries or TV Film and Chandra Wilson for Best Supporting Actress in a Series, Miniseries or TV Film. At the 14th Screen Actors Guild Awards, the series ' regular cast received a nomination for Outstanding Cast in Drama Series. Katherine Heigl and Patrick Dempsey were nominated at the 2007 Teen Choice Awards. Also in 2007, the female cast and crew of Grey 's Anatomy received the Women in Film Lucy Award, which honors those whose work in television has positively influenced attitudes toward women.
The second season of Grey 's Anatomy ended with an average of 19.440 million viewers per episode and a 6.9 rating share for in the 18 -- 49 demographic, determining the series to finish in the fifth place out of all the 100 television shows in the season. Due to its high ratings, the series received a full third season renewal for the fall prime time line up. In response to numerous fan complaints regarding scheduling during the previous seasons, the American Broadcasting Company decided to do major changes in the season. After two seasons of airing as a lead - out to fellow ABC series Desperate Housewives, the network decided to move Grey 's Anatomy to 9: 00 ET in the Thursday night time slot, dominated by CSI: Crime Scene Investigation, where the series began airing as a lead - in to Ugly Betty, which aired in the time slot from its first season, until the conclusion of the third in 2009. The show maintained its position as a top ten series and became the eighth most watched program in the season, with an average of 19.220 million viewers per episode. The highest - rated episode of the season was the seventeenth, the highly anticipated conclusion of a three - story arc, which was watched by 27.390, receiving a 9.7 rating, a # 4 ranking in the week and a # 1 ranking in the time slot. The episode outperformed CSI 's "Fallen Idols '', which ranked seventh with a 7.7 rating and 21.780 million viewers tuning in.
The lowest - rated episode of its ninth, which was watched by 18.510 million viewers, ranking third in the week with a 6.5 rating, outperforming CSI 's Thanksgiving special episode, "Living Legend '', watched by 17.170 million viewers with a 6.1 rating and # 4 ranking. The season premiere was watched by 25.410 million viewers and received 9.0 rating after being ranked # 1 in both the time slot and the week. The number of viewers increased significantly compared to the previous season premiere, which was watched by 18.980 million viewers and received a 6.8 rating. "Time Has Come Today '' also outperformed the previous season finale, which was watched by 22.500 million viewers and was rated 8.0. The season finale was watched by 22.570 million viewers and received an 8.0 rating, ranking third in the week after American Idol. Wayne Firedman of Media Daily News described the move from the Sunday night time slot to Thursdays as "the network 's boldest and biggest move ''. He also expressed concerns regarding the tough competition the series will face, due to airing against CBS Network 's CSI. Stephen McPherson of ABC Entertainment explained the reason for the change: "To have all hits on Sunday night does n't help us. We wanted to be aggressive ''.
The third season was officially released on DVD in region 1 on September 11, 2007, becoming available in both the United States and Canada. It was released two weeks before the fourth season originally began airing. The title of the box set, "Grey 's Anatomy: Season Three -- Seriously Extended '' is a pun, referring to the success the series had, using the medical term "extension ''. Also in the official title is the world "seriously '', who is one frequently used in the series. The box set consists of episodes with Dolby Digital 5.1 surround sound and widescreen format, enhanced for television with a 16: 9 aspect ratio. It was distributed by Buena Vista Home Entertainment. The same set was released in region 4 on October 31, 2007, being made available first in Australia. In region 2, the season was first released in Romania on August 12, 2008, shortly after the season concluded airing on national television. In the United Kingdom, the season was released on September 15, 2008, approximately a year after its original release in the United States. Although the season aired in high definition, it has not been released on Blu - ray disc in any region to date.
The box set includes all the original twenty - five episodes that aired on the American Broadcasting Company, being divided into seven discs. Subtitles are available in French, in Spanish and in English for the hearing impaired, whereas the available languages for the character voices are English, French and Spanish. It featured audio commentaries with cast members Kate Walsh, Chandra Wilson, Ellen Pompeo, Kate Burton and Sandra Oh for the first, fourteenth and twenty - first episodes. It also featured the first, seventh, thirteenth and fourteenth episodes as extended episodes, with a longer running time. The bonus features were available on the seventh disc, including interviews with cast members Patrick Dempsey, Ellen Pompeo and Elizabeth Reaser, listed under the titles of "Making Rounds With Patrick Dempsey '', "One on One with Ellen Pompeo '' and "Prescription for Success: Making Jane Doe a Star '', respectively. The region 1 release featured footage from behind the scenes, under the title of "In Stitches: Season 3 Outtakes '' and unaired scenes from nine episodes, including the season premiere and the finale, under the name of "Dissecting Grey 's Anatomy ''. Omnipresent in the bonus material were executive producers Shonda Rhimes and Betsy Beers, providing their outlook on characters, actors and the production process.
Currently ranked 2144th in Movies and Television on Amazon.com and 1713th in Film and Television on Amazon.co.uk, the box set received mixed reviews. Kelly West of Cinema Blend noted that the "seriously extended episodes '' were not significantly expanded, only adding a few minutes of extra footage, which do n't influence the storyline. She also noted a "weakness '' in the audio commentary provided by four of the actresses, who she deemed to have been fantastic during the series, describing the features as "random chit - chats ''. However, she praised Sandra Oh 's commentary, noting that she put the most effort in hers by trying to come up with interest topics, while being "amusing and worth listening to ''. She described the bonus features as "mildly entertaining '', emphasizing Dempsey 's interview about his passion for racing cars, which she regarded useless. USA Today had a positive perspective on the box set, by calling it "scintillating '' and "addictive ''.
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who plays thanos in the guardians of the galaxy | Thanos - wikipedia
((Eternals sexuality = Bisexual
Thanos (UK: / ˈθænɒs /, US: / - oʊ s /) is a fictional character appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics. Created by writer / artist Jim Starlin, the character first appeared in The Invincible Iron Man # 55 (cover dated February 1973).
The character appears in various Marvel Cinematic Universe films, including The Avengers (2012), portrayed by Damion Poitier, and Guardians of the Galaxy (2014), Avengers: Age of Ultron (2015), Avengers: Infinity War (2018), and the fourth Avengers film (2019), portrayed by Josh Brolin through voice and motion capture. The character has appeared in various comic adaptations, including animated television series, arcade, and video games.
Writer - artist Jim Starlin originally conceived of Thanos of Titan during college psychology classes. As Starlin described:
I went to college between doing U.S. military service and getting work in comics, and there was a psych class and I came up with Thanos... and Drax the Destroyer, but I 'm not sure how he fit into it, just anger management probably. So I came up to Marvel and (editor) Roy (Thomas) asked if I wanted to do an issue of Iron Man. I felt that this may be my only chance ever to do a character, not having the confidence that my career was going to last anything longer than a few weeks. So they got jammed into it. Thanos was a much thinner character and Roy suggested beefing him up, so he 's beefed up quite a bit from his original sketches... and later on I liked beefing him up so much that he continued to grow in size.
Starlin has admitted the character 's look was influenced by Jack Kirby 's Darkseid:
Kirby had done the New Gods, which I thought was terrific. He was over at DC at the time. I came up with some things that were inspired by that. You 'd think that Thanos was inspired by Darkseid, but that was not the case when I showed up. In my first Thanos drawings, if he looked like anybody, it was Metron. I had all these different gods and things I wanted to do, which became Thanos and the Titans. Roy took one look at the guy in the Metron - like chair and said: "Beef him up! If you 're going to steal one of the New Gods, at least rip off Darkseid, the really good one! ''
Thanos ' first appearance was in The Invincible Iron Man # 55 (February 1973), featuring a story by Jim Starlin that was co-scripted by Mike Friedrich. The storyline from that issue continued through Captain Marvel # 25 -- 33 (bi-monthly: March 1973 -- Jan. 1974), Marvel Feature # 12 (Nov. 1973), Daredevil # 107 (Jan. 1974), and Avengers # 125 (July 1974). He returned in an extended storyline that spanned Strange Tales # 178 -- 181 (Feb. -- Aug. 1975), Warlock # 9 - 11 (Oct. 1975 -- Jan. 1976), Marvel Team Up # 55 (March 1977), and the 1977 Annuals for Avengers and Marvel Two - in - One (Thanos does not actually appear until the end of Warlock # 9). He was also featured in a short backup story in Logan 's Run # 6 (June 1977) and had a small role in the Death of Captain Marvel graphic novel (April 1982).
The character was revived in Silver Surfer vol. 3, # 34 (Feb. 1990) and guest - starred until issue # 59 (November 1991), while simultaneously appearing in The Thanos Quest # 1 -- 2 (Sept. -- Oct. 1990) and The Infinity Gauntlet # 1 -- 6 (July -- Dec. 1991). After an appearance in Spider - Man # 17 (Dec. 1991), Thanos had a recurring role in Warlock and the Infinity Watch # 1 -- 42 (Feb. 1992 -- Aug. 1995). This was followed by crossover appearances in Infinity War # 1 -- 6 (June -- Nov. 1992), Infinity Crusade # 1 -- 6 (June -- Nov. 1993), Silver Surfer vol. 3, # 86 -- 88 (Nov. 1993 -- Jan. 1994), Warlock Chronicles # 6 -- 8, Thor # 468 -- 471 (Nov. 1993 -- Feb. 1994), Namor The Sub-Mariner # 44 (Nov. 1993), Secret Defenders # 11 -- 14 (Jan. -- April 1994), Cosmic Powers # 1 -- 6 (March -- July 1994), and Cosmic Powers Unlimited # 1 (May 1995).
Thanos appeared in a connected storyline in Ka - Zar vol. 2, # 4 -- 11 (Aug. 1997 -- March 1998), Ka - Zar Annual (1997), and the X-Man and Hulk Annual (1998), before featuring in Thor vol. 2, # 21 -- 25 (March -- July 2000) and the 2000 Annual. The character was next used in Captain Marvel vol. 4, # 17 -- 19 (June -- Aug. 2001), Avengers: Celestial Quest # 1 -- 8 (Nov. 2001 -- June 2002), Infinity Abyss # 1 -- 6 (Aug. -- Oct. 2002) and Marvel: The End # 1 -- 6 (May -- Aug 2003).
In 2004 Thanos received an eponymous title that ran for 12 issues. In 2006, the character played an important role in Annihilation: Silver Surfer # 1 -- 4 (June -- Sept. 2006) and Annihilation # 1 -- 6 (Oct. 2006 -- March 2007). The character was re-introduced in Guardians of the Galaxy vol. 2, # 24 -- 25 (April -- May 2010) and played a major role in The Thanos Imperative: Ignition (June 2010) and The Thanos Imperative # 1 -- 6 (July -- Dec. 2010).
The character returned in Avengers Assemble # 1 (March 2012). A mini-series titled Thanos: Son of Titan by Joe Keatinge was planned for publication in August 2012, but was cancelled.
The character 's origin was expanded in the five - issue Thanos Rising miniseries by Jason Aaron and Simone Bianchi which was published monthly beginning in April 2013. Later that same year, Thanos played a central role in the Infinity miniseries written by Jonathan Hickman and drawn by Jim Cheung, Jerome Opeña, and Dustin Weaver.
In May 2014, Jim Starlin and Ron Lim worked together on the one - shot Thanos Annual, which is a prelude to a new trilogy of original graphic novels. The first, Thanos: The Infinity Revelation, was released the following August. Beginning in February 2015, Starlin also penned a four - issue miniseries titled Thanos vs. Hulk, which was set prior to the graphic novels. The second installment in the trilogy, Thanos: The Infinity Relativity, was released in June, 2015. The third graphic novel, Thanos: The Infinity Finale, as well as the connected mini-series The Infinity Entity were published in 2016.
At the same time Starlin was writing these graphic novels and tie - ins, the character also appeared in New Avengers # 23 -- 24 (Oct -- Nov 2014), Guardians of the Galaxy vol. 3, # 18 -- 20 (Oct -- Dec 2014), Legendary Star - Lord # 4 (Dec 2014), a six - issue miniseries titled Thanos: A God Up There Listening (Dec 2014), Avengers vol. 5, # 40 -- 41 (Mar -- Apr 2015), and Deadpool vol. 3, # 45 ("# 250 '') (Jun 2015). Thanos also played a major role in the five - issue miniseries The Infinity Gauntlet vol. 2, (July 2015 -- Jan 2016), a tie - in of the cross-over Secret Wars (2015).
Thanos was born on Saturn 's moon Titan as the son of Eternals Mentor and Sui - San, and his brother is Eros of Titan, also known as Starfox. Thanos carries the Deviants gene, and as such, shares the physical appearance of the Eternals ' cousin race. At birth, his mother was shocked by his appearance and attempted to kill him, due to believing that her son would annihilate all life in the universe, but was stopped by A'Lars, Thanos ' father. During his school years, Thanos was a pacifist and would only play with his brother Eros (Starfox) and pets. By adolescence, Thanos had become fascinated with nihilism and death, worshipping and eventually falling in love with the physical embodiment of death, Mistress Death. As an adult, Thanos augmented his physical strength and powers through his superior scientific knowledge. He also attempted to create a new life for himself by siring many children as well as becoming a pirate. He finds no fulfillment in either until he is visited again by Mistress Death, for whom he murders his offspring and his pirate captain.
Wishing to impress Mistress Death, Thanos gathers an army of villainous aliens and begins a nuclear bombardment of Titan that kills millions of his race. Seeking universal power in the form of the Cosmic Cube, Thanos travels to Earth. Prior to landing, his vessel destroys a nearby car as a family witnesses his arrival. Unbeknownst to Thanos, two of the family members in the vehicle survive: the father 's spirit is preserved by the Titanian cosmic entity Kronos and is given a new form as Drax the Destroyer while the daughter is found by Thanos ' father, Mentor, and is raised to become the heroine Moondragon. Thanos eventually locates the Cube, and also attracts the attention of Mistress Death. Willing the Cube to make him omnipotent, Thanos then discards the Cube. He imprisons Kronos and taunts Kree hero Captain Marvel, who, with the aid of superhero team the Avengers and ISAAC (a super-computer based on Titan), is eventually able to defeat Thanos by destroying the Cube.
Thanos later comes to the aid of Adam Warlock in a war against the Magus and his religious empire. During this alliance Thanos cultivates a plan to reunite with Mistress Death, and secretly siphons off the energies of Warlock 's Soul Gem, combining these with the power of the other Infinity Gems to create a weapon capable of destroying a star. Warlock summons the Avengers and Captain Marvel to stop Thanos, although the plan is foiled when Thanos kills Warlock. The Titan regroups and captures the heroes, who are freed by Spider - Man and the Thing. Thanos is finally stopped by Warlock, whose spirit emerges from the Soul Gem and turns the Titan to stone. Thanos 's spirit eventually reappears to accompany a dying Captain Marvel 's soul into the realm of Death.
Thanos is eventually resurrected, and collects the Infinity Gems once again. He uses the gems to create the Infinity Gauntlet, making himself omnipotent, and erases half the living things in the universe to prove his love to Death. This act and several other acts are soon undone by Nebula and Adam Warlock. Warlock reveals that Thanos has always allowed himself to be defeated because the Titan secretly knows he is not worthy of ultimate power. Thanos joins Warlock as part of the Infinity Watch and helps him to defeat first his evil and then good personas, and cure Thor of "warrior Madness ''.
Thanos later recruits a team of Earth - bound super-villains and puts them under the field leadership of Geatar in a mission to capture an ancient robot containing the obscure knowledge of a universal library and extract its data. Thanos uses information from the robot to plot against and battle Tyrant, the first creation of Galactus turned destroyer. When trapped in an alternate dimension, Thanos employs the aid of the brother of Ka - Zar, Parnival Plunder and later the Hulk to escape, although both attempts are unsuccessful. Thanos is eventually freed and comes into conflict with Thor, aligning himself with Mangog in a scheme to obtain powerful mystical and cosmic talismans which will allow him to destroy all life in the universe, and during their battles Thanos decimates the planet Rigel - 3.
Thanos then uses the heroes Thor and Genis - Vell (Captain Marvel 's son) against the death god Walker, who attempts to woo Mistress Death and then destroy the entity after being rejected. Thanos then devises a plan to become the All - Father of a new pantheon of gods created by himself. Thanos, however, finds himself opposed by the Avengers ' former member Mantis and her son Quoi, who apparently is destined to be the Celestial Messiah. Thanos abandons this plan after having to unite with Mistress Death to destroy the "Rot '', a cosmic aberration in deep space caused by Thanos 's incessant love for Death. Thanos also once conducted extensive research on genetics, studying many of the universe 's heroes and villains before Cloning them, and gene - spliced his own DNA into the subjects. Although he later abandons the project, five clones survive, being versions of Professor X, Iron Man, Gladiator, Doctor Strange, and Galactus respectively. A sixth and unnamed version of Thanos also appears, and it is revealed the incarnations of Thanos encountered in the past by Thor and Ka - Zar were actually clones. The true Thanos -- with the aid of Adam Warlock, Gamora, Pip the Troll, Spider - Man, Captain Marvel, and Dr. Strange -- destroys the remaining clones.
When the ancient Egyptian pharaoh Akhenaten uses a source of cosmic power, the Heart of the Universe, to seize power in present - day Earth (killing most of Earth 's heroes in the process), Thanos uses a time - travel stratagem to defeat him. Thanos then uses the Heart of the Universe to reverse Akhenaten 's actions and was also compelled to correct a flaw in the universe, for which Mistress Death kisses him, and speaks to him for the first time. Changed by the experience, Thanos advises confidant Adam Warlock he will no longer seek universal conquest.
Thanos decides to atone for the destruction of Rigel - 3, and agrees to aid a colony of Rigellians in evacuating their planet before Galactus can consume it. During the course of this mission Thanos learns Galactus is collecting the Infinity Gems in an effort to end his unyielding hunger. Thanos later learns Galactus is being manipulated into releasing a multiversal threat called Hunger, which feeds on entire universes. Despite opposition from Thanos, Galactus unwittingly frees the entity, and when its intentions are revealed, the pair team up and attempt to destroy it.
En route to the Kyln, an intergalactic prison, Thanos meets Death for the first time since re-building existence with the Heart of the Universe. Death claims to be worth wooing, but says Thanos must offer something other than death. At the Kyln Thanos encounters Peter Quill, who has retired himself from the role of Star - Lord, and the Strontian warrior Gladiator of the Shi'ar Empire, who are both prisoners, as well as the Beyonder, who has been rendered amnesiac by its choice to assume a humanoid female form. Thanos battles the Beyonder, causing its mind to shut down and leaving its power trapped within a comatose physical form. Thanos then instructs the Kyln officers to keep the Beyonder on life support indefinitely in order to prevent the entity from being reborn. The destruction frees Thanos and his fellow inmates, and he finds himself accompanied by the chaos - mite Skreet in his plans to leave the remains of the prison. He discovers, however, that the destruction wrought by the battle with the Beyonder has freed the last prisoner brought in by Peter Quill before he gave up the title of Star - Lord: the Fallen One, revealed to be the true first Herald of Galactus, who had been held in a container deep in the Kyln. Thanos defeats the former Herald and places him under complete mental control. He later appears in Wisconsin attempting to charge a weapon called the Pyramatrix with the life force of everyone on Earth until he is defeated by Squirrel Girl. After the battle, Uatu the Watcher appears and confirms to Squirrel Girl that she defeated the real Thanos, not a clone or copy.
During the Annihilation War Thanos allies himself with the genocidal villain Annihilus. When the Annihilation Wave destroys the Kyln, Thanos sends the Fallen to check on the status of the Beyonder, whose mortal form he finds has perished. Before the Fallen can report back to Thanos it encounters Tenebrous and Aegis: two of Galactus 's ancient foes. Thanos convinces Tenebrous and Aegis to join the Annihilation Wave in order to get revenge on Galactus, and they subsequently defeat the World Devourer and the Silver Surfer. Annihilus desires the secret of the Power Cosmic and asks Thanos to study Galactus. Once Thanos learns Annihilus 's true goal is to use the Power Cosmic to destroy all life and remain the sole survivor, he decides to free Galactus. Drax the Destroyer kills Thanos before he can do so but discovers that Thanos had placed a failsafe device to allow Silver Surfer to free Galactus in the event that Annihilus betrayed him. During a climactic battle with Annihilus, Nova is near death and sees Thanos standing with Mistress Death.
A cocoon protected by the Universal Church of Truth is revealed to be hiding Thanos, who has been chosen by Oblivion to be the new Avatar of Death. Resurrected before his mind could be fully formed, Thanos goes on a mindless rampage before being captured by the Guardians of the Galaxy. Thanos pretends to aid the Guardians against the invading Cancerverse, and after discovering its origin kills an alternate version of Mar - Vell, the self - proclaimed Avatar of Life. This causes the collapse of the Cancerverse, and Nova sacrifices himself in an attempt to contain Thanos inside the imploding reality. Thanos escapes and returns to Earth seeking an artificial cosmic cube. He forms an incarnation of the criminal group Zodiac to retrieve it, but he is defeated by the Avengers and the Guardians of the Galaxy and remanded to the custody of the Elders of the Universe.
Thanos soon invades Earth again after being informed that most of the Avengers have temporarily left the planet. He launches an assault on Attilan, which he offers to spare in exchange for the deaths of all Inhumans between the ages of 16 and 22. Black Bolt later informs the Illuminati that the true purpose of the invasion is to find and kill Thane, an Eternal / Inhuman hybrid that Thanos had secretly fathered years earlier. Thanos is trapped in a pocket limbo of stasis by his son. Thanos is freed by Namor and was among the villains that joined his Cabal to destroy other worlds. Thanos later meets his end on Battleworld, where he is easily killed by God Emperor Doom during an attempted insurrection.
Thanos is unintentionally brought back to life by Galactus. When Thanos prepares to raid a Project Pegasus facility to steal a Cosmic Cube, he is ambushed and defeated by a team of Avengers. During their battle, he mortally wounds War Machine and critically injures She - Hulk. After his defeat, he is imprisoned in the Triskelion, and manipulates Anti-Man into facilitating his escape. Thanos goes on a killing spree, but Black Panther, Blue Marvel and Monica Rambeau are able to stop him by devising a device that blocks the electrical synapses in his brain.
Thanos somehow later recovers and escapes captivity, and reclaims his Black Order forces from Corvus Glaive. After retaking command of his Black Quadrant outpost, Thanos discovers that he is dying. Thanos tries to force Mentor to find a cure for his malady, but kills him when he is unable to. Soon after Thanos would be battered and detained by the Shi'ar Imperial Guard after he invaded the very planet station of his father 's facility sitting in their territory. A quick jump into the future shows Thanos ' estranged son Thane having bested his mad father with the personification of death at his side.
Presently locked within a maximum security cosmic Alcatraz, Thanos sits alone within a cell as his sickness ravages his body. All while being mocked by its prison warden whom he lured into a false sense of security in order to escape; ripping off his arm for escape access and murdering half his personal staff in a bid for freedom. Having narrowly escaped his imprisonment before its self - destruction, Thanos retreats to a hidden outpost where a roving mercenary colony loyal only to him was once stationed. Only to find it decimated at the hand of the new lover of Mistress Death; who reveals that she 'd stricken her former avatar with his fatal sickness, being his son Thane, now boasting the power of the Phoenix Force. Whom under her coaxing, had banished the mad titan back to the decimated Moon of Titan now entirely stripped of his godlike powers.
For the next few months, Thanos would survive alone and all but powerless in the ruins of his home city. Surviving off the flesh of mutated vermin and being accosted by local scavengers who preyed upon him in his weakened condition, he is soon picked up by the unlikely crew of Thane 's betrayed cohorts Tryco Slatterus, his adopted daughter Nebula and his brother Eros of Titan. Having heard of their plight, the three were dismayed to find Thanos stripped of all he was and had ever been; his second daughter only agreeing to come along so she could kill her father, immediately assaulted him.
Starfox was able to preempt her attempt at patricide while inviting his wayward tyrant of a brother aboard their vessel. Thanos mentioned the only way for him to be relieved of his mortality was to seek out the God Quarry heralded by The Witches of Infinity. Starfox initially wrote this off as fable and folklore. Now on the path to the cosmic coven set at the edge of the known universe, Thanos and crew stop short of a black hole, knowing full well that it is where the witches make their home. The Mad Titan jumps into the pinhole of nothingness alongside his brother, whom not trusting his butcherous sibling with the supposed infinite power of said collective; having survived the crushing force of the singularity they dove into, Thanos and Eros are greeted by the Coven at the godly graveyard.
Thanos demands the three that are one to return his godhood to him. Starfox tries his best charm the enchantresses only to be rebuked by them, much to Thanos 's joy when they prematurely aged him. Seeing as it was neither their place to destroy nor turn away those seeking them, The Witches profess the only way for the warlord to be made whole again was to climb down into the God Quarry and await a trial that would test his soul. Immediately after setting foot within the graveyard of old gods, Thanos is subsumed into the bedrock within which they rest.
As his journey of the core being commenced, Thanos 's trial began with him as leader of earth and the universes greatest champions, the Avengers. But he 's unable to escape the nagging feeling he 's forgotten something, till the quarry itself wearing the guise of Falcon reminds him of who he used to be; tempting him to live as a hero and a man at peace for the first time in his immortal life. But Thanos laughs maniacally as he coldly rebukes such a path, ruthlessly killing his would be friends and allies while choosing to remain whom he always was. His cosmic might returned to him, Thanos is freed from the God Quarry, wherein he immediately accosts his brother Eros and threatens the coven to release him from their domain so that he might do away with Thane once and for all.
Around the time of the New Thor 's appearance, Thanos is approached by a mysterious hooded woman, who proposes an alliance. He tasks her with bringing him the hammer of the deceased Ultimate Thor. The woman fails, but removes her disguise to reveal herself as Hela, the Norse goddess of death. She tells Thanos that she needs his help to reclaim Hel, and in exchange, offers to give him the one thing he has been searching for his entire life: death. After this, the two kiss.
Some time after his battle with Thane, Thanos travels to the Chitauri homeworld. However, upon subjugating the planet, he is attacked by a being identified only as The Rider, who captures Thanos and uses a piece of the fractured Time Stone to bring Thanos millions of years into the future, where he encounters an elderly version of himself who has destroyed nearly all life in the universe. At first, Thanos believes it to be some sort of trick, but is convinced once the future Thanos utters the name Dione, which Thanos 's mother had planned to name him before she went insane. King Thanos reveals he needs his younger self 's assistance to defeat the Fallen One, the last being let in the Universe, so that he may finally reunite with Death. The Fallen One soon arrives, revealed to be a darkened SIlver Surfer armed with the hordes of Annihilus and the deceased Thor 's Mjolnir, using the latter to swiftly kill the Rider. The Surfer is distracted by the feral Hulk Thanos kept chained in his basement, allowing the two Thanoses to kill him using Surtur 's Twilight Sword. Upon the Surfer 's death, Death arrives, and Thanos realizes the true reason that King Thanos brought him into the future: so that King Thanos can finally die, reasoning that if he must die, it can only be at the hands of himself. At first, Thanos is more than happy to oblige his future counterpart 's request, but quickly stops, disappointing at how pathetic and submissive his older self has become. Resolving to never become as pathetic and complacent King Thanos has become, Thanos uses the fragment of the Time Stone and the Power Cosmic left in the Surfer 's corpse to return back to the present day. As the future begins to crumble around him, King Thanos realizes that his younger self has taken the steps necessary to ensure that this timeline will never take place. As he fades into nothingness, King Thanos asks Death what his younger self did, to which she simply responds "he won. ''
Thanos is a mutant member of the race of superhumans known as the Titanian Eternals. The character possesses abilities common to the Eternals, but amplified to a higher degree through a combination of his mutant -- Eternal heritage, bionic amplification, mysticism, and power bestowed by the abstract entity, Death. Demonstrating enormous superhuman strength, speed, stamina, immortality and invulnerability among other qualities, Thanos can absorb and project vast quantities of cosmic energy, and is capable of telekinesis and telepathy. He can manipulate matter and live indefinitely without food, air or water, can not die of old age, is immune to all terrestrial diseases, and has high resistance to psychic assaults. Thanos is also an accomplished hand - to - hand combatant, having been trained in the art of war on Titan.
Thanos has proven himself capable of briefly holding his own in battle against Odin, and of blasting Galactus off his feet.
Thanos is a supergenius in virtually all known fields of advanced science and has created technology far exceeding that which is found on contemporary Earth. He often employs a transportation chair capable of space flight, force field projection, teleportation, time travel, and movement through alternate universes. Thanos is also a master strategist and uses several space vessels, at least three under the name "Sanctuary '', as a base of operations.
During the 1996 Amalgam Comics crossover between DC Comics and Marvel, Thanos merged with Darkseid to become "Thanoseid ''.
In the alternate universe limited series Earth X, Thanos dwelled in the Realm of the Dead with the entity Death. It is revealed his mother was a Skrull and Death used her secret to make him believe that Death was his mother. When the deception is revealed, he uses the Ultimate Nullifier on Death.
The Ultimate Marvel imprint title Ultimate Fantastic Four features an alternate universe version of Thanos who is the ruler of Acheron (and has a son called Ronan the Accuser, who is in possession of a Cosmic Cube), a vast empire consisting of thousands of worlds on another plane of existence.
Thanos features in the limited series Marvel Zombies 2, set in the alternate universe of Earth - 2149. Having been "zombified '' and recruited into the cosmically powered Galacti, the character is killed by the cosmic - powered Hulk after an altercation over food.
A number of the stories featuring Thanos have been republished into trade paperbacks and other collected editions:
Thanos was ranked number 47 on IGN 's top 100 comic book villains of all time, 22nd on Wizard 's Top 100 Greatest Villains list, and number 21 on Complex 's 25 Greatest Comic Book Villains List.
The Reddit forum / r / ThanosDidNothingWrong dedicated to sharing theories and memes about the character became very popular in July 2018 when the anticipated biggest banning in Reddit 's history became viral. The number of subscribers had rose from 100,000 users in June, to over 700,000 on July 9, leading to over 350,000 users being banned.
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when does haley and nathan get back together | One Tree Hill (season 3) - wikipedia
The third season of One Tree Hill, an American teen drama television series, began airing on October 5, 2005. The season concluded on May 3, 2006, after 22 episodes. It is the final season that aired on The WB television network. Season three dipped in ratings, averaging 2.8 million viewers weekly.
This season focuses on the first half of senior year at Tree Hill High School. Starting three months after the second season finale, Haley returns to Tree Hill and tries to save her marriage with Nathan. Peyton gets to know her birth mother. Lucas and Brooke begin a relationship. Keith and Karen get engaged. Nathan patches things up with Lucas, while Mouth begins a complicated relationship with newcomer Rachel, who also spreads a lot of drama through the core characters. After a shooting at the school things between Lucas and Peyton heat up despite Peyton 's proposal to Jake.
In the third season premiere, we finally discover Dan 's fate after the fire. In addition to the situation with his father, Nathan also has to deal with Haley 's reappearance in Tree Hill and the future of their relationship. Peyton tries to find the truth about the mysterious woman claiming to be her mother. Lucas looks forward to Brooke 's return after a summer apart.
Brooke has an end of the summer party on the beach. Nathan is home from basketball camp. Lucas deals with Brooke 's rules for non-exclusive dating. Brooke ends up having a ball with many guys whereas Lucas spends the night alone and then tells Brooke that he is the one for her, which marks the beginning of his mission to become exclusive. Peyton deals with family issues, by confronting her mom about her drug problem, after Lucas witnesses her buying. Haley tries to tell Nathan how she feels, however he is not ready for a relationship yet and is still angry with her.
It 's the first day of senior year for the Tree Hill gang. Lucas tells Dan he saved his life. Peyton discovers Ellie 's secret. Nathan tells Haley he 's considering a divorce. Dan accuses several people of starting the dealership fire and tries to get Whitey replaced as Ravens coach.
It 's Halloween in Tree Hill and everybody 's celebrating at TRIC, with special guest band Fall Out Boy. The masquerade ball gives Haley the chance to win Nathan back, while Lucas keeps trying to convince Brooke to be exclusive. Peyton decides to face her new mother and get to know her. Dan tries to use blackmail to become mayor but things do n't turn out the way he thought they would when Deb gets in his way.
The Ravens begin basketball practice. New team captain Nathan clashes with Lucas over Haley, and a new cheerleader named Rachel Gatina sets her sights on Lucas. Dan 's mayoral bid takes a surprising turn when an unlikely opponent emerges in Karen.
Brooke starts a "Fantasy Boy Draft '', after the cheerleaders start fighting over the same guys. Haley and Peyton continue to argue about Nathan. Dan butts heads with Karen as the election draws nearer. Lucas tries to keep up with the fast pace of basketball.
The fantasy draft dates begin, Lucas finds himself with Rachel and a very familiar setting. Brooke is on a double date with a surprising person and a surprising couple. Skills goes to Bevin 's house for the night, but is n't quite interested in what she has in mind. Mouth and Peyton hang out. Karen and Deb take the campaigning for mayor to a new level, to bring down Dan. Nathan gets mad when Chris gets close to Haley.
As the town readies for the Ravens ' first basketball game, Lucas worries that his head and heart are n't in it. Nathan accuses Lucas of being the Ravens ' weak link. Peyton and Haley mend fences to support Brooke in her time of need. When the mayoral race tightens, Dan resorts to a smear campaign.
It is revealed that Lucas knows who tried to kill Dan and he confronts the guilty party. Brooke, Peyton and Haley find themselves behind bars. Peyton is annoyed by the presence of her guilty conscience. Chris Keller convinces Nathan to be his wingman at a cash poker game. The residents of Tree Hill finally choose a mayor.
Lucas and Peyton take a road trip together to find Ellie. While out of town, Lucas reconnects with a friend from the past. Brooke, Haley and Mouth successfully launch the Clothes Over Bro 's website, only to find that demand far exceeds supply. Deb reveals to Nathan that she tried to kill Dan. Nathan and Haley finally get back together.
The Ravens lose their second game in a row, Whitey decides to teach them a tough lesson. Peyton and Ellie look for support for their album and hope to attract Nada Surf to the project. Both Dan and Haley upset Nathan, while Brooke plans a romantic thank - you for Lucas.
As the students meet with the school counselor to plan for the future, Nathan and Haley realize they want to attend colleges across the country from one another. Brooke discovers Rachel 's reasons for submitting her designs to Rogue Vogue. Meanwhile, Ellie and Peyton bond as they finish the benefit album.
A violent rainstorm knocks out the power in Tree Hill, leading Haley to Nathan 's doorstep and Brooke out into the downpour for a dramatic confrontation with Lucas. Peyton finally confronts the truth about Ellie 's illness. Mouth is tempted by his new friend, Rachel. Before morning, secrets are revealed, relationships are tested and romance heats up.
Brooke is forced to grow up in a hurry when her trip to a New York City fashion show prevents her from attending an annual cheerleading tournament. Nathan and Lucas are influenced by the father of a friend. Skills tells Bevin he ca n't swim to trick her into giving him a swimming lesson. Struggling with her birth mother 's cancer, Peyton joins Rachel for a night of blowing off steam. Haley and Nathan use their hotel room as the honeymoon suite they never had.
When someone unleashes the students ' time capsule on Tree Hill High, Lucas and Mouth must confront a person from their past. Brooke deals with the revelation that secrets are n't the only things she exposed in the time capsule. Dan tries to forgive Keith. Haley is forced to reconcile the man Nathan was before with the man he has become. Peyton 's Breast Cancer Benefit Concert at TRIC features performances by Haley and Jack 's Mannequin and the return of Fall Out Boy.
In the aftermath of the release of the time capsule, chaos breaks out, Jimmy Edwards holds students of Tree Hill High School hostage with a gun. While lives hang in the balance, Nathan and Lucas put themselves at risk to protect their friends and loved ones. Young lives are shattered and two will end. Dan takes revenge on a close relative.
The aftermath of the school shooting and the death of Jimmy Edwards force everyone in Tree Hill to examine their lives. Nathan reassesses his relationship with Haley, while Brooke and Rachel join forces to heal the student body. Dan must deal with the ramifications of killing Keith. Lucas and Peyton consider the implications of their kiss in the library.
Rachel invites the gang for a weekend getaway at her family 's cabin. Craziness will ensue, including a game of "I Never '' which will cause people to do things they normally would n't. A nasty little issue Mouth has been harboring toward Rachel will surface. Meanwhile, Karen confronts Dan about Keith 's death.
Lucas attempts to play in the first game after Keith 's death, but he can not bring himself to do it. After seeing Lucas 's pain, Nathan asks Whitey to forfeit the game. Lucas finally tells Whitey, Nathan, and Karen about his heart condition (HCM) after Deb convinces him to be there for Karen after Keith 's death. Nathan and Haley prepare to renew their vows. Mouth tries to get closer to Rachel. Peyton gets an invitation to go to Chicago, from Pete. Brooke gets revenge on Rachael, by making posters of Rachael who got multiple surgeries to become attractive, because she was obese when she was 14.
Nathan deals with a player who is a rival both on and off the court. Dan is given a restraining order from Deb and Nathan. Brooke and Mouth look to get even with Rachel, who has tricked Cooper into thinking she is 26 and a model. Dan has a run - in with Cooper. Peyton makes a major decision and goes to see Jake and Jenny who are in Savannah. At the end of the episode Peyton asks Jake to marry her.
Haley argues with Brooke about her wedding dress. Brooke plans an engagement party for Nathan and Haley. Karen and Lucas get back in town. Peyton is surprised by her own feelings when she mumble she loves Lucas in her sleep and Jake overhears.
Nathan worries about Haley as they prepare to renew their vows. Deb confesses to Dan about the fire. Peyton and Brooke 's friendship becomes strained when Peyton confesses she still loves Lucas. Nathan, Cooper and Rachel 's lives hang in the balance after a car accident. Someone might be pregnant.
The DVD release of season three was released after the season has completed broadcast on television. It has been released in Regions 1, 2 and 4. As well as every episode from the season, the DVD release features bonus material such as audio commentaries on some episodes from the creator and cast, deleted scenes, gag reels and behind - the - scenes featurettes.
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how many times has croatia been in the finals | Croatia at the FIFA World Cup - wikipedia
Croatia national football team have appeared in the FIFA World Cup on five occasions (in 1998, 2002, 2006, 2014 and 2018) since gaining independence in 1991. Before that, from 1930 to 1990 Croatia was part of Yugoslavia. Their best result thus far was silver position at the 2018 final, where they lost 4 - 2 to France.
In the draw for the final tournament, held on 4 December 1997 at Stade Vélodrome in Marseille, Croatia was drawn to play in Group H, along with two other teams which qualified for the World Cup for the first time, Jamaica and Japan, and two - time World Cup winners Argentina. In their first match Croatia beat Jamaica 3 -- 1, in a game memorable for Croatia 's first ever World Cup goal, an opener scored by Mario Stanić in the 27th minute. Croatia went on to beat Japan 1 -- 0 before losing their third group stage match against Argentina 0 -- 1, in a game which was of little importance as both teams had already qualified for round of 16.
In round of 16, Croatia faced Group G winners Romania (who had finished top of their group in front of England) and won the game through a penalty converted by Davor Šuker in stoppage time of the first half after a foul on Aljoša Asanović by Gabriel Popescu. After that Croatia faced Germany in the quarter - finals, in a game which was at the time touted by the Croatian media as a great opportunity to get back at Germany as it was them who had knocked out Croatia in the UEFA Euro 1996 quarter - finals two years earlier. In the 40th minute Christian Wörns received a direct red card and was sent off for fouling Davor Šuker, and Robert Jarni opened the scoring eight minutes later in stoppage time of the first half. Goran Vlaović and Davor Šuker added a second and third and the game ended in a 3 -- 0 win, which is still regarded by fans and the media as one of the most memorable matches Croatia ever played.
Croatia went on to face hosts France in the semi-finals, but lost the game 1 -- 2 when an opener scored by Šuker in the 46th minute was immediately equalised by Lilian Thuram the following minute. Thuram also scored France 's second goal in the 69th minute. These were the only two goals Thuram ever scored for France in an international career spanning from 1994 to 2008 which saw him earn a total of 147 caps. After Croatia 's exit manager Blažević was heavily criticized by Croatian press for not sending in Robert Prosinečki soon enough after France took the lead (Prosinečki came on as a substitute for Mario Stanić just minutes before the final whistle). Croatia captain Zvonimir Boban tried to take the blame for the defeat saying that he felt he needed to be substituted but wanted to stay on the pitch just a little while longer (it was his defending mistake which led to Thuram 's equaliser).
After being knocked out in the semi-finals, Croatia looked for consolation against Netherlands in the third place match played just three days later at Parc des Princes. Croatia went on to win 2 -- 1 through goals by Šuker and Prosinečki, but after the final whistle Dražen Ladić was labelled player of the match, for a career - best performance which saw him save numerous shots from Patrick Kluivert, Clarence Seedorf and Marc Overmars.
Manager Miroslav Blažević included the following 22 players in the finals tournament squad. The 16 players who were capped at least once in one of the seven matches Croatia played in France are highlighted in bold. The remaining six players were unused at the tournament (defenders Goran Jurić and Anthony Šerić, defensive midfielder Mamić, striker Ardian Kozniku, and second and third - choice goalkeepers Marijan Mrmić and Vladimir Vasilj). On the other hand, six players appeared in all seven matches: goalkeeper Dražen Ladić, defender Slaven Bilić, midfielders Aljoša Asanović, Mario Stanić, Robert Jarni, and striker Davor Šuker.
Out of 11 goals scored by Croatia at the tournament, six were scored by Davor Šuker, who was awarded the Golden Shoe Award for the top goalscorer of the tournament, as well as the Silver Ball Award as the second most outstanding player of the tournament (behind Ronaldo of Brazil). Robert Prosinečki (who was retroactivelly given the 1990 FIFA World Cup Best Young Player Award, where he had appeared for Yugoslavia), also scored two goals in matches against Jamaica and the Netherlands, which made him the only player in World Cup history to score goals at finals tournaments for two different countries.
For three players (Jarni, Prosinečki and Šuker) this was their second appearance at the World Cup, having been members of Yugoslavia squad at the 1990 FIFA World Cup. Alen Bokšić would have been fourth, having been a key player in Croatia 's qualifying campaign, but he was dropped from the tournament squad after sustaining an injury just months before the tournament in France.
By beating Netherlands, Croatia finished third in their World Cup debut, a feat matched only by Eusébio 's Portugal in the 1966 World Cup 32 years earlier. Consequently, Croatia reached their highest ever FIFA ranking when they were third in the world for three months between January and March 1999 and were given the Best Mover of the Year Award in 1998, the only team so far which won the award twice (having been Best Movers in 1994). Upon returning to Croatia, the whole squad was decorated by President Franjo Tuđman, and were nicknamed "Brončani '' ("The Bronze Ones '') and "Vatreni ' '' ("The Fiery Ones '') in the media. The latter stuck as a permanent nickname for the national team.
Most players continued playing for the team throughout the UEFA Euro 2000 qualifiers, but after Croatia failed to qualify manager Miroslav Blažević resigned and soon after that some of the players retired from the national team. The next manager Mirko Jozić kept some of the remaining members of the Bronze Generation and even took them to 2002 FIFA World Cup (such as Šuker, Prosinečki, Jarni, Stanić, Soldo, Vlaović, Šimić), but they failed to make an impact at the tournament and almost all of them retired soon afterwards, but a number of them later became prominent figures in Croatian football.
Zvonimir Boban went into sports publishing and took over as CEO of Croatia 's sports daily Sportske novosti in 2005 and worked as a commentator for Italian television stations. Šuker launched his line of sports apparel and established a football academy carrying his name. Zvonimir Soldo, Robert Jarni, Slaven Bilić, Igor Štimac and Dražen Ladić all took up managing jobs (Soldo coached Dinamo Zagreb to a Double in 2008, while Jarni, Bilić and Štimac all had managerial spells at Hajduk Split). Štimac later became chairman of the association of Prva HNL clubs, the body regulating top flight football in Croatia, and Bilić took over as Croatia manager in 2006, hiring Aljoša Asanović, Robert Prosinečki and Marijan Mrmić as his assistants. Dražen Ladić took up managing the Croatia under - 21 team in 2006, and Krunoslav Jurčić is the current manager at Dinamo Zagreb, having been appointed in 2009. Miroslav Blažević later managed a number of clubs in Croatia, Slovenia and Switzerland before taking over as Bosnia and Herzegovina manager in 2008 and sensationally leading them to the verge of qualifying for the 2010 World Cup.
Luka Modrić is the only Croatian player to ever win the Golden Ball award. He was team captain in 2018, when Croatia reached the World Cup final.
* Robert Jarni also played one match at the 1990 World Cup, representing SFR Yugoslavia.
* Robert Prosinečki also scored one goal at the 1990 World Cup, representing SFR Yugoslavia.
Team Awards
Individual Awards
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when fertilization and implantation occur what prevents the regression of the corpus luteum | Corpus luteum - wikipedia
The corpus luteum (Latin for "yellow body ''; plural corpora lutea) is a temporary endocrine structure in female ovaries and is involved in the production of relatively high levels of progesterone, moderate levels of estradiol, inhibin A and small amounts of estrogen. It is the remains of the ovarian follicle that has released a mature ovum during a previous ovulation. It is colored as a result of concentrating carotenoids (including lutein) from the diet and secretes a moderate amount of estrogen to inhibit further release of gonadotropin - releasing hormone (GnRH) and thus secretion of luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle - stimulating hormone (FSH). A new corpus luteum develops with each menstrual cycle.
The corpus luteum develops from an ovarian follicle during the luteal phase of the menstrual cycle or oestrous cycle, following the release of a secondary oocyte from the follicle during ovulation. The follicle first forms a corpus hemorrhagicum before it becomes a corpus luteum, but the term refers to the visible collection of blood, left after rupture of the follicle, that secretes progesterone. While the oocyte (later the zygote if fertilization occurs) traverses the Fallopian tube into the uterus, the corpus luteum remains in the ovary.
The corpus luteum is typically very large relative to the size of the ovary; in humans, the size of the structure ranges from under 2 cm to 5 cm in diameter.
Its cells develop from the follicular cells surrounding the ovarian follicle. The follicular theca cells luteinize into small luteal cells (thecal - lutein cells) and follicular granulosa cells luteinize into large luteal cells (granulosal - lutein cells) forming the corpus luteum. Progesterone is synthesized from cholesterol by both the large and small luteal cells upon luteal maturation. Cholesterol - LDL complexes bind to receptors on the plasma membrane of luteal cells and are internalized. Cholesterol is released and stored within the cell as cholesterol ester. LDL is recycled for further cholesterol transport. Large luteal cells produce more progesterone due to uninhibited / basal levels of protein kinase A (PKA) activity within the cell. Small luteal cells have LH receptors that regulate PKA activity within the cell. PKA actively phosphorylates steroidogenic acute regulatory protein (StAR) and translocator protein to transport cholesterol from the outer mitochondrial membrane to the inner mitochondrial membrane.
The development of the corpus luteum is accompanied by an increase in the level of the steroidogenic enzyme P450scc that converts cholesterol to pregnenolone in the mitochondria. Pregnenolone is then converted to progesterone that is secreted out of the cell and into the blood stream. During the bovine estrous cycle, plasma levels of progesterone increase in parallel to the levels of P450scc and its electron donor adrenodoxin, indicating that progesterone secretion is a result of enhanced expression of P450scc in the corpus luteum.
The mitochondrial P450 system electron transport chain including adrenodoxin reductase and adrenodoxin has been shown to leak electrons leading to the formation of superoxide radical. Apparently to cope with the radicals produced by this system and by enhanced mitochondrial metabolism, the levels of antioxidant enzymes catalase and superoxide dismutase also increase in parallel with the enhanced steroidogenesis in the corpus luteum.
Like the previous theca cells, the theca lutein cells lack the aromatase enzyme that is necessary to produce estrogen, so they can only perform steroidogenesis until formation of androgens. The granulosa lutein cells do have aromatase, and use it to produce estrogens, using the androgens previously synthesized by the theca lutein cells, as the granulosa lutein cells in themselves do not have the 17α - hydroxylase or 17, 20 lyase to produce androgens. Once the corpus luteum regresses the remnant is known as corpus albicans.
The corpus luteum is essential for establishing and maintaining pregnancy in females. The corpus luteum secretes progesterone, which is a steroid hormone responsible for the decidualization of the endometrium (its development) and maintenance, respectively. It also produces relaxin, a hormone responsible for softening of the pubic symphysis which helps in parturition.
If the egg is not fertilized, the corpus luteum stops secreting progesterone and decays (after approximately 10 days in humans). It then degenerates into a corpus albicans, which is a mass of fibrous scar tissue.
The uterine lining (endometrium) is expelled through the vagina (in mammals that go through a menstrual cycle). In an estrous cycle, the lining degenerates back to normal size.
If the egg is fertilized and implantation occurs, the syncytiotrophoblast (derived from trophoblast) cells of the blastocyst secrete the hormone human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG, or a similar hormone in other species) by day 9 post-fertilization.
Human chorionic gonadotropin signals the corpus luteum to continue progesterone secretion, thereby maintaining the thick lining (endometrium) of the uterus and providing an area rich in blood vessels in which the zygote (s) can develop. From this point on, the corpus luteum is called the corpus luteum graviditatis.
The introduction of prostaglandins at this point causes the degeneration of the corpus luteum and the abortion of the fetus. However, in placental animals such as humans, the placenta eventually takes over progesterone production and the corpus luteum degrades into a corpus albicans without embryo / fetus loss.
Luteal support refers to the administration of medication (generally progestins) for the purpose of increasing the success of implantation and early embryogenesis, thereby complementing the function of the corpus luteum.
The yellow color and name of the corpus luteum, like that of the macula lutea of the retina, is due to its concentration of certain carotenoids, especially lutein. In 1968, a report indicated that beta - carotene was synthesized in laboratory conditions in slices of corpus luteum from cows. However, attempts have been made to replicate these findings, but have not succeeded. The idea is not presently accepted by the scientific community. Rather, the corpus luteum concentrates carotenoids from the diet of the mammal.
Similar structures and functions of the corpus luteum exist in some reptiles. Dairy cattle also follow a similar cycle.
Order of changes in ovary
Human ovary with fully developed corpus luteum
Luteinized follicular cyst. H&E stain.
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who sings the song i've got a drinking problem | Thinkin ' Problem (song) - wikipedia
"Thinkin ' Problem '' is a song co-written and recorded by American country music singer David Ball. Ball co-wrote the song with Allen Shamblin and Stuart Ziff. It was released in March 1994 as the lead - off single and title track from his album Thinkin ' Problem. The song reached number 2 on the Hot Country Singles & Tracks (now Hot Country Songs) chart, and number 1 on Canada 's RPM country chart.
"Thinkin ' Problem '' is a moderate up - tempo with electric guitar, pedal steel guitar, and fiddle flourishes. In it, the male narrator states that he has a "thinkin ' problem '' (meant as a play on the term "drinking problem '') because he is constantly thinking about his former significant other despite numerous attempts to quit. The song begins with the famous phrase "Yes I admit, I 've got a thinkin ' problem '', with the final syllable of the word "admit '' drawn out.
The music video was directed by O Pictures and premiered in early 1994.
Rick Cohoon of Allmusic gave the song a mixed review, saying that it "is the fuel that ignited Ball 's launch into stardom '' but that "he tends to over-nasalize to the point of annoyance. '' Deborah Evans Price, of Billboard magazine reviewed the song favorably calling it a "perfect combination of retro sensibility and ' 90s production, and a pure honky - tonk delight. ''
Cledus T. Judd, a country music parodist, parodied the song as "Stinkin ' Problem '' on his 1995 debut album Cledus T. Judd (No Relation).
"Thinkin ' Problem '' debuted at number 72 on the U.S. Billboard Hot Country Singles & Tracks for the week of April 16, 1994.
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what do you call somone from hong kong | Talk: Chinese name - Wikipedia
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math > 3 characters, and thus, most Chinese names consist of 3 characters.
In the United States at least, many Chinese seem to use a variation not mentioned here: Using both a Chinese (not Western) given name and their Chinese surname, but in the western order. -- Delirium 06: 08, August 27, 2005 (UTC)
The article says:
A professor of mine has stated something similar. However I tried this with a friend from Mainland China and was told in a very agitated manner that I should n't do this, you can only do this with men. What exactly are social connotations of 老? - anonymous
In what culture is the "supply '' of family names not "limited ''... or in fact does the range of family names influence at all the choice of given names in any culture? Logically speaking, individuals do not choose their own or their children 's family names anyway (except in rare circumstances). -- Dpr 07: 44, 14 September 2005 (UTC)
A fun fact: Because names come from the aspirations of parents there are a few common trends in naming depending on the region. For example 宏 hong is a very common character used in boy names in the Canton region. -- Preceding unsigned comment added by 207.38. 213.212 (talk) 20: 26, 2 May 2012 (UTC)
Is Chinese culture nearly unique in the world to have a system of name - selection which is almost infinitely variable where few people, including famous people, will ever be encountered with the same name? I.e. Muhammeds amount in ME culture; Johns, Williams, etc etc in the West; Japanese names are not as flexible as Chinese names, right? (e.g. Miko, Keiko, at least for females seem to be fixed). I hope my question is worded clearly. Thanks -- Dpr 07: 44, 14 September 2005 (UTC)
I do n't think this is confined to Hokkien or Cantonese speaking areas only. I 'm pretty sure it 's the case all over China
I think that the characters 仔 and 子 may also be used as suffixes to form diminutive nicknames, albeit apparently less commonly used than 小, but I have not done research on this. Ydw (talk) 03: 08, 22 December 2010 (UTC)
Mention that at least in Taiwan, 阿 can be found as the middle name on ID cards, not just a nickname. Mainly older people though. -- User: Jidanni 2006 - 07 - 09
I 've attempted to clarify the name - order discussion in the first couple of paragraphs by using further examples based on Yao Ming 's name, but I 've resorted to giving him the fictional Western "first '' name Fred in the two final examples. I 'm not sure of the easiest way to indicate that he 's not really named Fred (a peril of mixing real and fictitious examples, I guess).
If I 've actually misunderstood and the examples are incorrect, I invite corrections. -- Eric S. Smith 15: 35, 24 August 2006 (UTC)
How do the Chinese figure out their "Western '' name? Choice or something else? I 've never been able to figure this out and the article does n't explain it. - RomeW
i want to know more about how chinese have multiple names. theyll have a name they were born with. then they give themselves a name. their mum gives them a name. their dad gives them a name. they have honourary names, style name, courtesy name, Posthumous name, actual name, and like 5 different names by the time they die.
I 've never known anyone have a name like that: Westernized name, family name, then given name. I am only aware of usages of Ming Yao, Fred Yao, Fred Ming Yao, Ming Fred Yao, or Yao Ming. Can anyone give an example of a name like Fred Yao Ming? Otherwise, probably I will have that line changed. -- Mongol 20: 20, 5 October 2006 (UTC)
I note that the text reads "For instance, referring to Singaporean Prime Minister Lee Hsien Loong as Hsien or Hsien Lee would be confusing as this could just as easily refer to his brother. '' How is this essenrially different from referring to (for example) Henry Jones as "Jones '' when this could just as easily refer to his brothers, sisters, children, cousins, etc.? HouseOfScandal 18: 38, 16 October 2006 (UTC)
Are there names that are typically male or female or unisex? (I expect there are) Is there a list of such names available? -- -- Preceding unsigned comment added by Vaios (talk contribs) 13: 16, 3 November 2006
combinations of names however, typically female names use \ certain characters that appears more feminine, and vice versa yet this is not always so, some very traditional families would give their daughters quite masculine names, hoping that their next child would be a boy. with the romanization or the pinyin, it is nearly impossible for foreigners to tell the difference between names -- -- Preceding unsigned comment added by 66.71. 100.177 (talk) 17: 00, 15 February 2007
The chinese (at least here in malaysia) order their name as: < family > < middle > < first >
For instance, my wife 's chinese name is: "Lai Sin Ho ''; ' Lai ' is the family name, ' Sin ' is her middle given name, and ' Ho ' is her main given name.
I understand also that many chinese do NOT have middle name, but this is NOT always the case.
In Taiwan, the stereotype name equivalent to "John Smith '' in English is 王小明 (Wong, shao - ming (?)). This article does not introduce any one of them (in any Chinese region), while the article Japanese Name does. timdream 23: 25, 5 May 2007 (UTC)
Hello, I rewritted this section: please review need! 220.135. 4.212 (talk) 13: 45, 27 April 2008 (UTC)
Under "Era name, '' the article reads:
The era name can sometimes be use in ways which refer to the monarch himself, and not to the period (Ex: the Emperor Meiji, having ruled during the Meiji era (Enlightened rule), he is now known as Emperor Meiji).
The Emperor Meiji was Japanese so I 'm deleting the example. Someone might want to add a legitimate example for Chinese. -- Hakanai (talk) 20: 34, 13 August 2008 (UTC)
The article currently reads: There are 3 variations: Western name, surname, and Chinese given name, in that order ("Fred Yao Ming ''). Western name, Chinese given name, and surname ("Fred Ming Yao ''). Or surname, Chinese given name, followed by Western name ("Yao Ming Fred ''). Is this accurate? I fail to understand the reasoning behind the third variation, which seems a rather awkward "adapation '' to Western naming conventions. It seems rather a maladaption (a mistake), as it neglects the name inversion which the major point of the exercise in the first place -- unless the intent of the person is to become known as "Mr. Fred ''. Robert K S (talk) 20: 48, 10 February 2009 (UTC)
The article currently states:
Depending on region and family, female children may not be entered into the family tree, and thus will not be given a generation name. A frequent naming pattern for female offspring in this case could share the same last character in the given name while varying the first character (in place of the generation name). A well known example of such system can be found from the names of the main four sisters in the novel "A Dream of Red Mansions '' 红楼梦, where they were named 元春 (yuan chun), 迎春 (yin chun), 探 春 (tan chun), and 惜春 (xi chun).
This is unreferenced, and in my experience the more common naming scheme is actually the opposite -- siblings share the first character of a given name, not the second. (Some famous examples off the cuff: Jung Chang, whose original name was Zhang Erhong (in pinyin), had four siblings whose names were all Er__; Mao Zedong 's siblings were all Ze__.) Can we remove, or at least downplay, the unsourced bit quoted above, and find a source for this more common naming pattern and mention it? rʨanaɢ / 11: 58, 4 June 2009 (UTC)
I found the examples in, for example, the diaspora section, to be confusing. I can indentify the Western elements of the names in an example, but, not understanding Chinese, can not tell which other name elements are meant to be surnames and which given names. The examples are therefore confusing and unhelpful to me. Would it be a reasonable reform for this article to adopt a uniform convention of encoding the functions of name elements by different typefaces, such as boldface or italics? The convention could be explained at the top of the article. This is functionally not unlike the European convention of writing surnames in addresses in all capitals. -- Preceding unsigned comment added by 63.86. 92.198 (talk) 18: 57, 2 October 2009 (UTC)
I think the statement "Mr. + Given name is never used '' is totally wrong. Since Mr. is translated as 先生, and 先生 has a longer history and is actually have different meaning. Given name + 先生 is in fact very common in practice, moreover Given name + salutary tile (先生, comrade, 师傅, etc.) is a friendly way to call people. -- 刻意 (Kèyì) 10: 36, 18 February 2011 (UTC)
I know the two I just posted above are n't academic treatises and sources like Xinhua have their own problems, but I just wanted to point out that Slate is only a reliable source in the loosest of senses. It 's professionally run and hires people who list "writer '' on their resumes (which they know to spell with accents), but it 's essentially a glorified blog with very little editorial oversight. The cited article does list that English names began with white collar workers annoyed at FDI agents ' mangling of their names. Problem is that 's an informal personal anecdote from what was apparently a single conversation with the single source contacted by the author for the piece. The claim is farcical on its face: China 's trading ports have traditions of English names dating back more than two centuries and bi - and trilingualism in China have an even longer history.
In her defense, the grad student cited would probably qualify and annotate the claims attributed to her appropriately if she were called on it, but we should really know to take such puff pieces carefully and with more salt. -- LlywelynII 17: 11, 17 March 2012 (UTC)
Taiwan: A New History By Murray A. Rubinstein mentions how the Japanese authorities tried to get Han Taiwanese to convert their names to Japanese names around World War II, so they can be detached from their Han places of ancestry
It 's on Google Books - p. 240 WhisperToMe (talk) 05: 05, 6 April 2012 (UTC)
It said Dongfang with the given words 东风 in an example of a post-PRC name. 风 romanizes to feng not fang. But i wanted to be sure so I 'm writing this here. I know the name Dongfang 东方 but not Dongfeng so I was n't sure if it was a Chinese character error or a pinyin error. Somebody please look into this. Thanks! -- Preceding unsigned comment added by 207.38. 213.212 (talk) 19: 41, 2 May 2012 (UTC)
Anyone can add a section on ancient Chinese names? Such as those in the Zhou dynasty? -- Preceding unsigned comment added by 69.11. 242.130 (talk) 21: 03, 7 June 2012 (UTC)
Uyghur people have given Islamic, Russian, and European personal names to their children.
http://books.google.com/books?id=NKCU3BdeBbEC&pg=PA117#v=onepage&q&f=false
Rajmaan (talk) 22: 40, 11 March 2014 (UTC)
In China mainland, Pingyin is officially recognized and widely used, so 王 should be Wang instead of Wong. According to "The Chinese phonetic alphabet spelling rules for Chinese names '' (中国 人名 汉语 拼音 字母 拼写 规则, GB / T 28039 - 2011), if not in special cases, Chinese name should be spelled in Pinyin. Even if you are referring to a person from Hong Kong, Macau or Taiwan, the Rule states: "If necessary, you can attach his / her Latin name in brackets or note '' If referring to the special character "ü '', you can use "yu '' instead of it. This is a PDF from Ministry of Education website: http://www.moe.gov.cn/ewebeditor/uploadfile/2012/06/01/20120601104529410.pdfLywzc (talk) 08: 57, 5 May 2014 (UTC)
The article says that approximately 32,000 given names are supported by computers. I clicked on the source, and the New York Times article actually only says that 32,000 characters are supported, not 32,000 names (which are typically two characters). This should be clarified. KaJunl (talk) 16: 15, 19 October 2014 (UTC)
This is what National Geographic has written about the subject in its style guide: http://stylemanual.ngs.org/home/C/chinese-names-and-terms - http://www.webcitation.org/6Y6ehKZUa WhisperToMe (talk) 16: 56, 27 April 2015 (UTC)
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As far as I can tell, nothing in these two sections has ever been verified. Surely statistics about how common last names are should be backed by sources... and this story about naming children things like "Pig Shit '' reads like an urban legend. Examples of real people who use variations on traditional names are fine, but these sections make many vague claims about "common practice ''.
The example box in section Alternative names, which was added by 220.135. 4.212 (talk contribs WHOIS), who has long since left Wikipedia, is ridden with problems:
Since we already have a much better box, ((infobox chinese)), which appears in most articles with Chinese names, I see no need for this problematic box here. Can we delete it? -- Sebastian 08: 55, 11 January 2018 (UTC)
List of people with reduplicated names # Chinese lists some people with the "same '' given name and family name; meaning the same pinyin excluding tone. It seems to me that duplicate names are somewhat less rare in Chinese than in English; e.g. "Li Li '' is more common than "James James ''. My exposure to Chinese is minimal, so this may simply be confirmation bias and / or small sample size. And the smaller number of legal syllables in Chinese means the scope for "random '' duplicates is greater (though choosing names is hardly random). One might subdivide these "same '' into three levels of sameness:
So, are any of these three types likely to be especially appealing or unappealing to a significant section of Chinese speakers? This is perhaps too vague and subjective a question for an encyclopedic answer, but perhaps not. For comparison, I will give my own subjective view regarding English names: a perfect homonym like "James James '' or "Neville Neville '' is likely to make many people feel sorry for a child whose parents they will assume were trying to be funny or clever.
One might extend the discussion to two - syllable given names, where the two characters are the "same '' as each other and / or one is the "same '' as the surname. The article already says "It is also more common for female names to employ... doubled characters ''. It also says "parents often use a milk name... typically employing... doubled characters ''; Reduplication # Chinese suggests it 's not just baby names but also pet names (both human hypocorisms and animal names as in Panda diplomacy) is this always "doubled characters '' or could a different, homonymous character be used?
jnestorius 14: 45, 19 January 2018 (UTC)
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history of the anime music video in western fandom | Anime and manga fandom - wikipedia
Anime and manga fandom (otherwise known as fan community) is a worldwide community of fans of anime and manga. Anime includes animated series, films and videos, while manga includes Manga, graphic novels, drawings, and related artwork. They have their origin in Japanese entertainment, but the style and culture has spread worldwide since its introduction into the West in the 1990s.
Otaku is a Japanese term for people with obsessive interests, including anime, manga, or video games. In its original context, the term otaku is derived from a Japanese term for another 's house or family (お 宅, otaku), which is also used as an honorific second - person pronoun. The modern slang form, which is distinguished from the older usage by being written only in hiragana (おたく) or katakana (オタク or, less frequently, ヲタク), or rarely in rōmaji, appeared in the 1980s. In the anime Macross, first aired in 1982, the term was used by Lynn Minmay as an honorific term. It appears to have been coined by the humorist and essayist Akio Nakamori in his 1983 series An Investigation of "Otaku '' (『 おたく 』 の 研究, "Otaku '' no Kenkyū), printed in the lolicon magazine Manga Burikko. Animators like Haruhiko Mikimoto and Shōji Kawamori used the term among themselves as an honorific second - person pronoun since the late 1970s. After its wild spread usage by other Japanese people, however, it became pejorative and increasingly offensive in the 90 's, implying that a person is socially inept. Otaku can be seen as being similar to the English terms geek or nerd. However, the term started to be used by anime and manga fans themselves again starting in the 2000s, in a more general and positive way, and today it is often used by those outside of the fandom to refer to fans of anime or manga. However, older generation otaku, like Otaking (King of Otakus) Toshio Okada, in his book Otaku Wa Sude Ni Shindeiru (オタク は すでに 死ん で いる) said the newer generation of self - proclaimed otakus are not real otakus, as they lack the passion and research sense into a particular sub-culture subject, and are only common fans which only over spent in buying products.
Anime and manga fandom traces back to at least the 1970s when fans of the series banded together to get Space Battleship Yamato back on the air after it stopped airing on Japanese television. In Japan, anime and manga are referred to collectively as the content industry: anime, video games, manga, and other related merchandise are different types of media focused around the same content.
However, the manga market in Japan is beginning to decline. In 2007, the manga industry showed a 4 % decrease in sales from the previous year, its fifth consecutive year of decline. Japanese and American researchers have proposed that this may be due to the decrease in the young population in Japan and a lack of interest in reading. The manga critic and translator Matt Thorn stated that there was a growing dissatisfaction with the lack of originality found in many manga. Al Kahn, CEO of 4Kids Entertainment, stated that "Manga is a problem because we are in a culture that is not a reading culture '' and that "Manga is dying in Japan. '' Liza Coppola, vice president of Viz Media, said that the widespread availability of cell phones and ability to view anime and manga on cell phones is likely the cause of decline in demand for anime and manga.
The fan community in the English - speaking world began in the 1970s and steadily grew. According to Japanophile Fred Patten, the very first fan club devoted to Japanese animation was the Cartoon / Fantasy Organization, which began in Los Angeles in 1977. Its growth characterized by waves that Gilles Poitras as well as Bruce Lewis and Cathy Sterling name as specific "generations '', often instigated by a singular work.
In the Philippines, GMA - 7 began airing Voltes V in 1978. It was the first exposure of Filipinos to Japanese animation. Voltes V soon became very popular between children all around the Philippines which led to the sudden popularity of other anime series ' related to the Super Robot genre in the Philippines. It was soon banned in 1979 by then president Ferdinand Marcos, five episodes before the end of the series, along with the other anime series ' airing at the time, for its violence and warlike themes. This however, did not hinder the Filipinos ' growing love of anime, leading to the large popularity of anime and manga throughout the Philippines.
Poitras identifies the first generation as the "Astro Boy Generation ''. Despite being the first and most popular animated Japanese television series, Astro Boy did not create many hardcore fans, but it exposed viewers to the medium and increased their receptivity towards it later on. The "Early Fans '' or "Old Timers '' generation that consumed titles like Speed Racer, Eighth Man, and Battle of the Planets as staples. These fans were much more aware that what they were consuming was Japanese and took the initiative to search for more. The "Yamato '' or "Star Blazers '' generation originating from the series Space Battleship Yamato that originally aired in 1979 -- 80. Poitras states that this generation was so loyal because Star Blazer 's strong narration required viewers to never miss an episode. The Poitras dubs the next generation the "Robotech Generation '', after the 1985 television series Robotech, is the earliest major generation in the USA and is distinguished by fans clearly recognizing anime as a Japanese product with significant differences from American animation. Fans from this generation and the Yamato Generation were to make up the significant portion of organized fandom throughout the 1980s. The film Akira, which played in art theaters in December 1989, produced a cult following that Poitras names the "Akira Generation ''. Akira inspired some to move on to other works but stalled many becoming an isolated work in their eyes, overshadowing the creative context of anime and manga it represented.
Then in the 1990s, Poitras states that "something new happened in the U.S. '', the "Sailor Moon Generation '' was born. Previous generations consisted mostly of college age fans, however in 1995 Sailor Moon was adapted into English and caught the attention of people even as young as grade school in age, many of them female. In the span of a few months, the fan demographic changed dramatically and as their interests diversified, so did the titles adapted into English. Poitras, Lewis and Sterling describe current generation of fans as the "Otaku Generation '', however not necessarily applying the word "otaku '' to current fans. For this generation, the release of a title onto the television in the past was unusual enough that fans often remember their first anime experience as something special. Poitras remarked that as of the "Otaku Generation '', the influx of fans into the fandom is better characterized by a continuous stream than as waves as it was in the past.
In the United States, the fan community began as an offshoot of science fiction fan community, with fans bringing imported copies of Japanese manga to conventions. Before anime began to be licensed in the U.S., fans who wanted to get a hold of anime would leak copies of anime movies and subtitle them, thus marking the start of fansubs. By 1994, anime had become more common in the U.S., and had begun being translated into English and shown on television, most commonly shōnen series such as Pokémon and Astro Boy.
According to Mike Tatsugawa, the founder and CEO of the Society for the Promotion of Japanese Animation, the first milestone for anime in the U.S. was in the 1980s with the advent of the Internet. With the Internet, fans were able to more easily communicate with each other and thus better able to exchange fan - subtitled tapes and higher quality versions of anime. Some experts, such as Susan Napier, a Professor of Japanese Language and Literature, say that Akira marked the first milestone. However, most experts agree that the next milestone was in 1992 when U.S. Renditions, a film importer, released the first English - subtitled anime videotape that year, entitled Gunbuster. According to Tatsugawa, the success of Gunbuster triggered a flurry of releases.
Due to the localization process, many people who grew up watching anime did so not realizing that it originated in Japan. After the success of Power Rangers (which first aired in 1993), U.S. television companies began broadcasting Sailor Moon and Dragon Ball Z in 1995 and 1996 respectively. However, due to the relative failure of the latter two (both shows brought success when aired at a later time on Cartoon Network), anime did not seem like it would become mainstream. However, the anime boom in the U.S. began with the airing of the anime series Pokémon in syndication in 1998, which served as proof to U.S. broadcasters and distributors that Japanese media could succeed in the U.S. market. It was only after Pokémon and Power Rangers left the mainstream that U.S. audiences became aware of anime 's Japanese origins.
In the ' 70s, Japanese Animation reached Europe mainly with productions aimed at European and Japanese children with the main results being Heidi, Vicky the Vicking and Barbapapa. However these works were not recognized as Japanese productions and did not earn much of a dedicated fanbase. However Italy, Spain and France grew an interest for more Japanese animation for their television programming, due to success of previous co-productions, Japan 's productive output and cheap selling price in comparison to US animation. Particularly Italy imported the most anime outside of Japan. Like in the Philippines, the Super Robot Genre became very popular with series such as UFO Robot Grendizer and Mazinger Z. However many more genres got added to the mix, with space opera such as Captain Harlock, shojo shows like Candy Candy and Rose of Versailles, sports like Captain Tsubasa and more. Germany however largely rejected Anime other than western literature adaptations of Nippon Animation, with Speed Racers and Captain Future proving to be problematic. It was only during the rise of cable television during the ' 90s that Japanese series such as Queen of the Millennia, and Rose of Versailles went on air. A strong affinity for unique Japanese productions was developed among a generation of German children during this period.
One major appeal of anime is its artwork; some fans claim that its visual quality is superior to that found in most animated series made in the United States and many ignore all non-Japanese animation. One fan described enjoying anime because "there is no dividing line between special effects and what is real... it 's just the way somebody imagined it ''. The content editor of Anime Fringe, Holly Kolodziejczak, described being amazed by anime 's depth that was unlike the cartoons she had seen before: "the characters had real personalities, their own feelings and motivations for their actions, strengths and flaws that enhanced their characters. They were more like real people, and thus people could much more readily identify with them. '' Larry Green of Nausicaa.net agreed and added that anime discusses subjects for both adults and children whereas in the United States animation is traditionally for children. He also stated that any viewer would be able to find something to their liking due to anime 's large scale of production.
Susan J. Napier, a Professor of Japanese Language and Literature, stated that anime fans "find refuge in a culture that diverges from the typical American way of life. '' She pointed out that fascination with Japanese culture is not a new concept and has existed since the mid-19th century. For example, an 1876 painting by Claude Monet entitled La Japonaise depicts Monet 's wife wearing a kimono, with Japanese hand fans shown in the background. Napier described this interest in Japan as an "escape from the Industrial Revolution... a pastoral utopia '' for many Europeans.
Fan service is material in a series which is intentionally added to please the audience. Although fan service usually refers to sexually provocative scenes, it also refers more generally to events of little plot value designed to excite viewers or simply make them take notice, such as big explosions and battle scenes. When anime and manga are translated into English by U.S. companies, the original work is often edited to remove some of the fan service to make it more appropriate for U.S. audiences. Mike Tatsugawa explained this change as a result of a difference between cultural values of Japan and the U.S. In fact, some anime seem to feature little else other than fan service as their selling point. Some believe that the prevalence of fan service indicates a lack of maturity within the fandom; an editor of Del Rey Manga joked that manga Negima!, which contained fan service, should be rated as "for immature readers 16 + '' rather than for "mature readers 16 + ''.
Anime and manga have stimulated many young people to learn the Japanese language. In the 1970s, Naoka Takaya 's Saskatoon Japanese Language School was founded with a student body consisting of primarily Japanese - Canadians interested in polishing their language skills for their return to Japan. However, popularity for the language began to rise; the Japanese Language Proficiency Test was first held in 1984 in response to growing demand for standardized Japanese language certification. Yuki Sasaki, who works for the Japanese language program at the University of Georgia, noted that when she first started in the program in 1994, most students were interested in Japanese for internal business majors; however, in 2004, students are more interested in "translating Japanese pop - song lyrics and talk excitedly about the Japanese anime character Card Captor Sakura. '' Echoing this sentiment, Takaya also stated that about 60 % of her students are studying Japanese because of anime.
Despite some fansubbers declaring (due to fansubbing 's illegality) that they will stop distribution once a series is licensed, many fansubbed versions of anime are produced because of the stiff localization process in official translations. According to one survey only 9 % of fans prefer dubbing over subs; some fans believe that the localization process degrades the quality of anime and thus look to fansubs for the purer form of Japanese culture, feeling that something is lost in translation. Most hardcore fans are motivated by the desire not to miss the jokes and puns present in Japanese anime and manga. In fact, most people interested in anime express at least a passing desire to learn Japanese, but usually choose not to, due to either time constraints or rumours about the difficulty involved in learning Japanese. Japanese terms are so well integrated into the anime and manga fan culture that during a Fanime convention, a newcomer expressed confusion at some of the announcements because she was unable to understand the Japanese words used. As fans become more proficient at Japanese; they often also become more critical toward the quality of various translations; some critique the different translations of a single series by different fansub groups.
Some fans even decide to translate professionally. In fact, fluent English speakers who know sufficient Japanese are often preferred for translating over fluent Japanese speakers who know sufficient English, as the syntax of the latter group tends to be stiff. Del Rey Manga 's editor finds much of their talent through conventions.
Anime and manga have also inspired many young people to learn about Japanese culture, and the anime fan community in fact encourages people to do so. Fans often learn about Japanese honorifics from anime and manga. Companies such as Del Rey Manga and GoComi add explanatory notes describing honorifics and other words and concepts that do not translate well between languages.
Developments on the Internet have had profound effects on the anime fan community and the way in which anime is consumed. Additionally, fan interest in anime has inspired many developments in technology. Roughly 68 % of fans obtain anime through downloading from the Internet or through their friends, a much larger proportion than in any other medium. As a result, fans have made some of the most sophisticated advances in peer - to - peer software in order to make searching for and downloading anime online faster. Other fans have created websites that uses a custom server to search the Internet for video mirrors and new episodes, similar to Google on how they crawl each website and saves the information gathered to the database. The search engine keeps every episodes up to date. VirtualDub, a video capture and processing utility, was first created for use on an anime film adaptation of Sailor Moon. The desire to simulate all forms of media that anime and manga comes in has caused PyTom to create Ren'Py, an open - source software engine that allows for the creation of visual novels without the need for a programming background.
Several online communities have been formed where fans can come together to share and interact. Sites that offer file sharing services are popular and influential where people can gain easy access to anime and manga. Fandom has also resulted in the creation of anime and manga fan communities on sites where people can share fan art, one of the most common ways for fans to express their love of anime. These communities tend to do more than just share files. Like most forums on the Internet, they discuss topics that they are interested in and want to know more about. These anime forums are becoming places for people to discuss the plot, characters, and styles of anime and manga.
Many anime fans dream of one day visiting Japan. A large number of well - known travel agencies from Japan have begun offering anime tours. In 2003, the company Pop Japan Travel was founded to help customers experience Japan 's content industry (including anime, games, food, and fashion) by allowing them to visit studios and meet artists, among other activities. Many different museums dedicated to the industry exist throughout Japan, such as the Suginami Animation Museum in Tokyo and the Tezuka Osamu Manga Museum in the Hyogo Prefecture. Other popular locations include places where people can enjoy anime - related activities, such as shopping for related merchandise or singing anime theme songs. Additionally, fans enjoy visiting real - life locations that serve as settings for some anime, and locations where live - action movies were filmed. For example, the popularity of Lucky Star brought many of its fans to the real - life settings of the anime, beginning in April 2007.
A popular location for anime fans to visit is Akihabara, located in Tokyo. Known as the Electric Town, it is a major shopping area where people can buy manga, anime, and other assorted otaku merchandise. The Tokyo Anime Center is one of the most popular spots in Akihabara, where a diverse set of events take place, such as the display of new anime films, related exhibitions, talk shows featuring voice actors, and public recordings of radio programs.
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which of the following describes a transaction that occurred in the fourth market | Day trading - wikipedia
Day trading is speculation in securities, specifically buying and selling financial instruments within the same trading day. Strictly, day trading is trading only within a day, such that all positions are closed before the market closes for the trading day. Many traders may not be so strict or may have day trading as one component of an overall strategy. Traders who participate in day trading are called day traders. Traders who trade in this capacity with the motive of profit are therefore speculators. The methods of quick trading contrast with the long - term trades underlying buy and hold and value investing strategies.
Some of the more commonly day - traded financial instruments are stocks, options, currencies, and a host of futures contracts such as equity index futures, interest rate futures, currency futures and commodity futures.
Day trading was once an activity that was exclusive to financial firms and professional speculators. Many day traders are bank or investment firm employees working as specialists in equity investment and fund management. With the advent of electronic trading and margin trading, day trading has become available to private individuals.
Some day traders use an intra-day technique known as scalping that usually has the trader holding a position for a few minutes or even seconds.
Most day traders exit positions before the market closes to avoid unmanageable risks -- negative price gaps between one day 's close and the next day 's price at the open. Another reason is to maximize day trading buying power. Other traders believe they should let the profits run, so it is acceptable to stay with a position after the market closes.
Day traders sometimes borrow money to trade. This is called margin trading. Since margin interests are typically only charged on overnight balances, the trader may pay no fees for the margin benefit, though still running the risk of a margin call. The margin interest rate is usually based on the broker 's call.
Because of the nature of financial leverage and the rapid returns that are possible, day trading results can range from extremely profitable to extremely unprofitable, and high - risk profile traders can generate either huge percentage returns or huge percentage losses. Because of the high profits (and losses) that day trading makes possible, these traders are sometimes portrayed as "bandits '' or "gamblers '' by other investors.
Day trading is risky, especially if any of the following is present while trading:
The common use of buying on margin (using borrowed funds) amplifies gains and losses, such that substantial losses or gains can occur in a very short period of time. In addition, brokers usually allow bigger margins for day traders. In the USA for example, while the overnight margins required to hold a stock position are normally 50 % of the stock 's value, many brokers allow pattern day trader accounts to use levels as low as 25 % for intraday purchases. This means a day trader with the legal minimum $25,000 in his account can buy $100,000 (4x leverage) worth of stock during the day, as long as half of those positions are exited before the market close. Because of the high risk of margin use, and of other day trading practices, a day trader will often have to exit a losing position very quickly, in order to prevent a greater, unacceptable loss, or even a disastrous loss, much larger than his original investment, or even larger than his total assets.
Originally, the most important U.S. stocks were traded on the New York Stock Exchange. A trader would contact a stockbroker, who would relay the order to a specialist on the floor of the NYSE. These specialists would each make markets in only a handful of stocks. The specialist would match the purchaser with another broker 's seller; write up physical tickets that, once processed, would effectively transfer the stock; and relay the information back to both brokers. Brokerage commissions were fixed at 1 % of the amount of the trade, i.e. to purchase $10,000 worth of stock cost the buyer $100 in commissions and same 1 % to sell. (Meaning that to profit trades had to make over 2 % to make any real gain.)
One of the first steps to make day trading of shares potentially profitable was the change in the commission scheme. In 1975, the United States Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) made fixed commission rates illegal, giving rise to discount brokers offering much reduced commission rates.
Financial settlement periods used to be much longer: Before the early 1990s at the London Stock Exchange, for example, stock could be paid for up to 10 working days after it was bought, allowing traders to buy (or sell) shares at the beginning of a settlement period only to sell (or buy) them before the end of the period hoping for a rise in price. This activity was identical to modern day trading, but for the longer duration of the settlement period. But today, to reduce market risk, the settlement period is typically two working days. Reducing the settlement period reduces the likelihood of default, but was impossible before the advent of electronic ownership transfer.
The systems by which stocks are traded have also evolved, the second half of the twentieth century having seen the advent of electronic communication networks (ECNs). These are essentially large proprietary computer networks on which brokers can list a certain amount of securities to sell at a certain price (the asking price or "ask '') or offer to buy a certain amount of securities at a certain price (the "bid '').
ECNs and exchanges are usually known to traders by a three - or four - letter designators, which identify the ECN or exchange on Level II stock screens. The first of these was Instinet (or "inet ''), which was founded in 1969 as a way for major institutions to bypass the increasingly cumbersome and expensive NYSE, and to allow them to trade during hours when the exchanges were closed. Early ECNs such as Instinet were very unfriendly to small investors, because they tended to give large institutions better prices than were available to the public. This resulted in a fragmented and sometimes illiquid market.
The next important step in facilitating day trading was the founding in 1971 of NASDAQ -- a virtual stock exchange on which orders were transmitted electronically. Moving from paper share certificates and written share registers to "dematerialized '' shares, traders used computerized trading and registration that required not only extensive changes to legislation but also the development of the necessary technology: online and real time systems rather than batch; electronic communications rather than the postal service, telex or the physical shipment of computer tapes, and the development of secure cryptographic algorithms.
These developments heralded the appearance of "market makers '': the NASDAQ equivalent of a NYSE specialist. A market maker has an inventory of stocks to buy and sell, and simultaneously offers to buy and sell the same stock. Obviously, it will offer to sell stock at a higher price than the price at which it offers to buy. This difference is known as the "spread ''. The market maker is indifferent as to whether the stock goes up or down, it simply tries to constantly buy for less than it sells. A persistent trend in one direction will result in a loss for the market maker, but the strategy is overall positive (otherwise they would exit the business). Today there are about 500 firms who participate as market makers on ECNs, each generally making a market in four to forty different stocks. Without any legal obligations, market makers were free to offer smaller spreads on ECNs than on the NASDAQ. A small investor might have to pay a $0.25 spread (e.g. he might have to pay $10.50 to buy a share of stock but could only get $10.25 for selling it), while an institution would only pay a $0.05 spread (buying at $10.40 and selling at $10.35).
Following the 1987 stock market crash, the SEC adopted "Order Handling Rules '' which required market makers to publish their best bid and ask on the NASDAQ. Another reform made was the "Small Order Execution System '', or "SOES '', which required market makers to buy or sell, immediately, small orders (up to 1000 shares) at the market maker 's listed bid or ask. The design of the system gave rise to arbitrage by a small group of traders known as the "SOES bandits '', who made sizable profits buying and selling small orders to market makers by anticipating price moves before they were reflected in the published inside bid / ask prices. The SOES system ultimately led to trading facilitated by software instead of market makers via ECNs.
In the late 1990s, existing ECNs began to offer their services to small investors. New brokerage firms which specialized in serving online traders who wanted to trade on the ECNs emerged. New ECNs also arose, most importantly Archipelago ("arca '') and Island ("isld ''). Archipelago eventually became a stock exchange and in 2005 was purchased by the NYSE. (At this time, the NYSE has proposed merging Archipelago with itself, although some resistance has arisen from NYSE members.) Commissions plummeted. To give an extreme example (trading 1000 shares of Google), an online trader in 2005 might have bought $300,000 of stock at a commission of about $10, compared to the $3,000 commission the trader would have paid in 1974. Moreover, the trader was able in 2005 to buy the stock almost instantly and got it at a cheaper price.
ECNs are in constant flux. New ones are formed, while existing ones are bought or merged. As of the end of 2006, the most important ECNs to the individual trader were:
This combination of factors has made day trading in stocks and stock derivatives (such as ETFs) possible. The low commission rates allow an individual or small firm to make a large number of trades during a single day. The liquidity and small spreads provided by ECNs allow an individual to make near - instantaneous trades and to get favorable pricing. High - volume issues such as Intel or Microsoft generally have a spread of only $0.01, so the price only needs to move a few pennies for the trader to cover his commission costs and show a profit.
The ability for individuals to day trade coincided with the extreme bull market in technological issues from 1997 to early 2000, known as the Dot - com bubble. From 1997 to 2000, the NASDAQ rose from 1200 to 5000. Many naive investors with little market experience made huge profits buying these stocks in the morning and selling them in the afternoon, at 400 % margin rates.
In March, 2000, this bubble burst, and a large number of less - experienced day traders began to lose money as fast, or faster, than they had made during the buying frenzy. The NASDAQ crashed from 5000 back to 1200; many of the less - experienced traders went broke, although obviously it was possible to have made a fortune during that time by shorting or playing on volatility.
In parallel to stock trading, starting at the end of the 1990s, a number of new Market Maker firms provided foreign exchange and derivative day trading through new electronic trading platforms. These allowed day traders to have instant access to decentralised markets such as forex and global markets through derivatives such as contracts for difference. Most of these firms were based in the UK and later in less restrictive jurisdictions, this was in part due to the regulations in the US prohibiting this type of over-the - counter trading. These firms typically provide trading on margin allowing day traders to take large position with relatively small capital, but with the associated increase in risk. Retail forex trading became a popular way to day trade due to its liquidity and the 24 - hour nature of the market.
The following are several basic strategies by which day traders attempt to make profits. Besides these, some day traders also use contrarian (reverse) strategies (more commonly seen in algorithmic trading) to trade specifically against irrational behavior from day traders using these approaches. It is important for a trader to remain flexible and adjust their techniques to match changing market conditions.
Some of these approaches require shorting stocks instead of buying them: the trader borrows stock from his broker and sells the borrowed stock, hoping that the price will fall and he will be able to purchase the shares at a lower price. There are several technical problems with short sales -- the broker may not have shares to lend in a specific issue, the broker can call for the return of its shares at any time, and some restrictions are imposed in America by the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission on short - selling (see uptick rule for details). Some of these restrictions (in particular the uptick rule) do n't apply to trades of stocks that are actually shares of an exchange - traded fund (ETF).
Trend following, a strategy used in all trading time - frames, assumes that financial instruments which have been rising steadily will continue to rise, and vice versa with falling. The trend follower buys an instrument which has been rising, or short sells a falling one, in the expectation that the trend will continue.
Contrarian investing is a market timing strategy used in all trading time - frames. It assumes that financial instruments that have been rising steadily will reverse and start to fall, and vice versa. The contrarian trader buys an instrument which has been falling, or short - sells a rising one, in the expectation that the trend will change.
Range trading, or range - bound trading, is a trading style in which stocks are watched that have either been rising off a support price or falling off a resistance price. That is, every time the stock hits a high, it falls back to the low, and vice versa. Such a stock is said to be "trading in a range '', which is the opposite of trending. The range trader therefore buys the stock at or near the low price, and sells (and possibly short sells) at the high. A related approach to range trading is looking for moves outside of an established range, called a breakout (price moves up) or a breakdown (price moves down), and assume that once the range has been broken prices will continue in that direction for some time.
Scalping was originally referred to as spread trading. Scalping is a trading style where small price gaps created by the bid - ask spread are exploited by the speculator. It normally involves establishing and liquidating a position quickly, usually within minutes or even seconds.
Scalping highly liquid instruments for off - the - floor day traders involves taking quick profits while minimizing risk (loss exposure). It applies technical analysis concepts such as over / under - bought, support and resistance zones as well as trendline, trading channel to enter the market at key points and take quick profits from small moves. The basic idea of scalping is to exploit the inefficiency of the market when volatility increases and the trading range expands. Scalpers also use the "fade '' technique. When stock values suddenly rise, they short sell securities that seem overvalued.
Rebate trading is an equity trading style that uses ECN rebates as a primary source of profit and revenue. Most ECNs charge commissions to customers who want to have their orders filled immediately at the best prices available, but the ECNs pay commissions to buyers or sellers who "add liquidity '' by placing limit orders that create "market - making '' in a security. Rebate traders seek to make money from these rebates and will usually maximize their returns by trading low priced, high volume stocks. This enables them to trade more shares and contribute more liquidity with a set amount of capital, while limiting the risk that they will not be able to exit a position in the stock.
The basic strategy of news playing is to buy a stock which has just announced good news, or short sell on bad news. Such events provide enormous volatility in a stock and therefore the greatest chance for quick profits (or losses). Determining whether news is "good '' or "bad '' must be determined by the price action of the stock, because the market reaction may not match the tone of the news itself. This is because rumors or estimates of the event (like those issued by market and industry analysts) will already have been circulated before the official release, causing prices to move in anticipation. The price movement caused by the official news will therefore be determined by how good the news is relative to the market 's expectations, not how good it is in absolute terms.
Keeping things simple can also be an effective methodology when it comes to trading. There are groups of traders known as price action traders who are a form of technical traders that rely on technical analysis but do not rely on conventional indicators to point them in the direction of a trade or not. These traders rely on a combination of price movement, chart patterns, volume, and other raw market data to gauge whether or not they should take a trade. This is seen as a "simplistic '' and "minimalist '' approach to trading but is not by any means easier than any other trading methodology. It requires a solid background in understanding how markets work and the core principles within a market, but the good thing about this type of methodology is it will work in virtually any market that exists (stocks, foreign exchange, futures, gold, oil, etc.).
An estimated one third of stock trades in 2005 in United States were generated by automatic algorithms, or high - frequency trading. The increased use of algorithms and quantitative techniques has led to more competition and smaller profits.
Commissions for direct - access brokers are calculated based on volume. The more shares traded, the cheaper the commission. The average commission per trade is roughly $5 per round trip (getting in and out of a position). While a retail broker might charge $7 or more per trade regardless of the trade size, a typical direct - access broker may charge anywhere from $0.01 to $0.0002 per share traded (from $10 down to $. 20 per 1000 shares), or $0.25 per futures contract. A scalper can cover such costs with even a minimal gain.
The numerical difference between the bid and ask prices is referred to as the bid - ask spread. Most worldwide markets operate on a bid - ask - based system.
The ask prices are immediate execution (market) prices for quick buyers (ask takers) while bid prices are for quick sellers (bid takers). If a trade is executed at quoted prices, closing the trade immediately without queuing would always cause a loss because the bid price is always less than the ask price at any point in time.
The bid - ask spread is two sides of the same coin. The spread can be viewed as trading bonuses or costs according to different parties and different strategies. On one hand, traders who do NOT wish to queue their order, instead paying the market price, pay the spreads (costs). On the other hand, traders who wish to queue and wait for execution receive the spreads (bonuses). Some day trading strategies attempt to capture the spread as additional, or even the only, profits for successful trades.
Market data is necessary for day traders, rather than using the delayed (by anything from 10 to 60 minutes, per exchange rules) market data that is available for free. A real - time data feed requires paying fees to the respective stock exchanges, usually combined with the broker 's charges; these fees are usually very low compared to the other costs of trading. The fees may be waived for promotional purposes or for customers meeting a minimum monthly volume of trades. Even a moderately active day trader can expect to meet these requirements, making the basic data feed essentially "free ''.
In addition to the raw market data, some traders purchase more advanced data feeds that include historical data and features such as scanning large numbers of stocks in the live market for unusual activity. Complicated analysis and charting software are other popular additions. These types of systems can cost from tens to hundreds of dollars per month to access.
Day trading is considered a risky trading style, and regulations require brokerage firms to ask whether the clients understand the risks of day trading and whether they have prior trading experience before entering the market.
In addition, in the US the Financial Industry Regulatory Authority and SEC further restrict the entry by means of "pattern day trader '' amendments. Pattern day trader is a term defined by the SEC to describe any trader who buys and sells a particular security in the same trading day (day trades), and does this four or more times in any five consecutive business day period. A pattern day trader is subject to special rules, the main rule being that in order to engage in pattern day trading in a margin account, the trader must maintain an equity balance of at least $25,000. It is important to note that this requirement is only for day traders using a margin account.
In the moral context, speculation is considered negatively as personal behavior and also considering the potential damage to the real economy.
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the lyrics of all you need is love reveal the beatles exploring what | All You Need is Love - wikipedia
"All You Need Is Love '' is a song by the English rock band the Beatles that was released as a non-album single in July 1967. It was written by John Lennon and credited to Lennon -- McCartney. The Beatles performed the song over a pre-recorded backing track as Britain 's contribution to Our World, the first live global television link. Watched by over 400 million in 25 countries, the programme was broadcast via satellite on 25 June 1967. The song captured the utopian sentiments of the Summer of Love era and topped singles charts in Britain, the United States and many other countries.
"All You Need Is Love '' was later included on the US Magical Mystery Tour album. It also appears in a sequence in the Beatles ' 1968 animated film Yellow Submarine and on the accompanying soundtrack album.
For Our World, the Beatles were asked to provide a song with a message that could be easily understood by everyone. The band undertook the assignment at a time when they were committed to two film projects: a planned television special, Magical Mystery Tour, and the animated feature Yellow Submarine, for which they were contractually obliged to United Artists to supply four new recordings. "All You Need Is Love '' was selected for Our World for its contemporary social significance over the Paul McCartney - written "Your Mother Should Know ''. In a statement to Melody Maker magazine, Brian Epstein, the band 's manager, said of "All You Need Is Love '': "It was an inspired song and they really wanted to give the world a message. The nice thing about it is that it can not be misinterpreted. It is a clear message saying that love is everything. '' Lennon later attributed the song 's simple lyrical statements to his liking of slogans and television advertising. He also likened the song to a propaganda piece, adding: "I 'm a revolutionary artist. My art is dedicated to change. '' Author Mark Hertsgaard views it as the Beatles ' "most political song yet '' up to 1967 and the origins of Lennon 's posthumous standing as a "humanitarian hero ''.
In the book The Beatles Anthology, McCartney and George Harrison say they were unsure whether "All You Need Is Love '' was written for Our World, while Ringo Starr and George Martin, the Beatles ' producer, assert that it was. McCartney said: "It was certainly tailored to (the broadcast) once we had it. But I 've got a feeling it was just one of John 's songs that was coming anyway. ''
The song starts with the intro to the French national anthem, "La Marseillaise '', and contains elements from Glenn Miller 's 1939 hit "In the Mood '', as well as elements from Wayne Shanklin 's 1958 hit "Chanson D'Amour ''. "All You Need Is Love '' is notable for its asymmetric time signature and complex changes. The main verse pattern contains a total of 29 beats, split into two 7 4 measures, a single bar of 8 4, followed by a one bar return of 7 4 before repeating the pattern. The chorus, however, maintains a steady 4 4 beat with the exception of the last bar of 6 4 (on the lyric "love is all you need ''). The prominent cello line draws attention to this departure from pop - single normality, although it was not the first time that the Beatles had experimented with varied metre within a single song: "Love You To '' and "She Said She Said '' were earlier examples. The song is in the key of G and the verse opens (on "There 's nothing you can do '') with a G chord and D melody note, the chords shifting in a I -- V -- vi chord progression while the bass simultaneously moves from the tonic (G) note to the root note of the relative minor (E minor), via an F ♯, supporting a first inversion D chord.
After the verse "learn how to play the game, it 's easy '', the bass alters the prolonged V (D) chord with F ♯, E, C and B notes. The song is notable for a dramatic use of a dominant or V chord (here D) on "It 's easy. '' The "Love, love, love '' chant involves chords in a I -- V7 -- vi shift (G -- D -- Em) and simultaneous descending B, A, G notes with the concluding G note corresponding not to the tonic G chord, but acting as the third of the E minor chord; this also introducing the E note of the Em chord as a 6th of the tonic G scale. Supporting the same melody note with different and unexpected chords has been termed a characteristic Beatles technique.
The song 's use of quotations from other musical works follows an approach adopted by the Beatles in Harrison 's composition "It 's All Too Much '', which similarly reflects the ideology behind the hippie movement during the 1967 Summer of Love. George Martin recalled that in "All You Need Is Love '' "the boys... wanted to freak out at the end, and just go mad ''. During the long fade - out, elements of various other songs can be heard, including "Greensleeves '', Invention No. 8 in F major (BWV 779) by J. S. Bach, "In the Mood '', and the Beatles ' own songs "She Loves You '' and "Yesterday ''. The first of these three pieces had been included in the arrangement by Martin. "She Loves You '' and "Yesterday '' were the result of improvisation by Lennon in rehearsals -- he had also experimented with interpolating "She 'll Be Coming ' Round the Mountain '' -- although it was McCartney who led "She Loves You '' on the subsequent studio recording.
The Beatles began recording the backing track for the song at Olympic Sound Studios in south - west London on 14 June 1967. The producers of Our World were initially unhappy about the use of a backing track, but it was insisted upon by Martin, who said that "we ca n't just go in front of 350 million people without some work ''.
The lineup was Lennon on harpsichord, McCartney on double bass, Harrison on violin -- three instruments that were unfamiliar to the musicians -- while Starr played drums. The band recorded 33 takes, before choosing the tenth take as the best. Over the following days, they recorded overdubs including vocals, piano (played by Martin), banjo, guitar and orchestral parts.
The Our World broadcast on 25 June cut to Abbey Road studios at 8: 54 pm London time, about 40 seconds earlier than expected. Martin and engineer Geoff Emerick were drinking scotch whisky to calm their nerves for the task of mixing the audio for a live worldwide broadcast, and had to scramble the bottle and glasses beneath the mixing desk when they were told they were about to go on air.
For the broadcast, the Beatles (except for Starr) were seated on stools, accompanied by a thirteen - piece orchestra. The band were surrounded by friends and acquaintances seated on the floor, who sang along with the refrain during the fade - out. These guests included Mick Jagger, Eric Clapton, Marianne Faithfull, Keith Richards, Keith Moon, Graham Nash, Mike McGear, Patti Boyd and Jane Asher. The studio setting was designed to reflect the communal aspect of the occasion while also demonstrating the position of influence that the Beatles held among their peers, particularly following the recent release of their album Sgt. Pepper 's Lonely Hearts Club Band. Many of the invitations were extended through Beatles aides Mal Evans and Tony Bramwell, who visited various London nightclubs the night before the broadcast. Also among the studio audience were members of the Small Faces and the design collective the Fool. Balloons, flowers, streamers and "Love '' graffiti added to the celebratory atmosphere. The Beatles and their entourage were dressed in psychedelic clothes and scarves; in his report on the performance, Barry Miles likened the setting to a medieval gathering, broken only by the presence of modern studio equipment such as large headphones and microphones. According to Michael Frontani, an associate professor of communications, whereas Sgt. Pepper had showed the Beatles as artists and "serious musicians '', the broadcast emphasised their identity as members of the hippie counterculture.
The segment opened with the band simulating a rehearsal for about a minute, before Martin suggested that the orchestral musicians should take their places for the recording as the tape was rewound. The Beatles, the orchestra and the guests then overdubbed onto the pre-recorded rhythm track. In addition to the lead and backing vocals and the orchestra, the live recorded elements were McCartney 's bass guitar part, Harrison 's guitar solo and Starr 's drums.
Lennon, affecting indifference, was said to be nervous about the broadcast, given the potential size of the international TV audience. Dissatisfied with his singing, he rerecorded the solo verses for use on the single. Starr also overdubbed a drum roll at the start of the track, replacing a tambourine part.
The programme was shown in black - and - white since colour television had yet to commence broadcasting in Britain and most of the world. The Beatles ' footage was colourised, based on photographs of the event, for the 1995 documentary The Beatles Anthology. Over the documentary 's end credits, a snippet of studio conversation from the 25 June overdubbing session includes Lennon telling Martin: "I 'm ready to sing for the world, George, if you can just give me the backing... '' The colour version of the band 's Our World appearance also appears on the Beatles ' 2015 video compilation 1.
The day before the Our World broadcast, the Beatles decided that the song should be their next single. Issued in the UK on 7 July 1967, with "Baby, You 're a Rich Man '' on the B - side, it entered the national singles chart at number 2 before topping the listings for three weeks. It was similarly successful in the United States after its release on 17 July, reaching number one for a week. In his feature on the song in Rolling Stone, Gavin Edwards writes that "All You Need Is Love '' "hit Number One all over the world, providing the sing - song anthem for the Summer of Love, with a sentiment that was simple but profound ''.
According to author Jonathan Gould, the Beatles "bask (ed) in the glow of their artistic achievements '' while enjoying their first summer free of tour commitments, having quit performing concerts the previous year. In late July, the band investigated the possibility of buying a Greek island with a view to setting up a hippie - style commune for themselves, their partners and children, and members of their inner circle such as Neil Aspinall, Evans, Epstein and Derek Taylor. After sailing around the Aegean Sea and approving a location on the island of Leslo, the Beatles decided against the idea and returned to London. In early August, Harrison, accompanied by a small entourage including Taylor and Aspinall, made a highly publicised visit to the international hippie capital of Haight - Ashbury, in San Francisco.
Writing in 2001, Peter Doggett said that the Beatles ' performance on Our World "remains one of the strongest visual impressions of the summer of love ''. Rolling Stone ranks "All You Need Is Love '' 370th on its list of the "500 Greatest Songs of All Time '' and 21st on its "100 Greatest Beatles Songs '' list. Mojo placed it at number 28 on a similar list of the best Beatles songs. In his commentary for the magazine, producer and musician Dave Stewart admired the track 's "jumbled - up mix of music -- marching band and rock'n'roll '' and recalled the Beatles ' appearance on Our World as "a signal for those (of us) who felt we were trapped in a mental hospital in some suburban town to break out ''.
"All You Need Is Love '' was also included on the American LP version of Magical Mystery Tour in November 1967, and on the Yellow Submarine album, animated film and 1999 "songtrack ''. As a statement on the power of universal love, the song served as the moral in the film. It plays over a scene where Lennon 's character defeats the Blue Meanies by throwing the word "Love '' at their evil Flying Glove.
The track is also featured in Cirque du Soleil 's show Love, based on the songs of the Beatles, and its album. In 1978, the Rutles parodied "All You Need Is Love '' in their song "Love Life ''.
According to author Jon Wiener, "All You Need Is Love '' served as "the anthem of flower power '' during the summer of 1967 but also, like the Beatles ' Sgt. Pepper album, highlighted the ideological gulf between the predominately white hippie movement and the increasingly political ghetto culture in the United States. Wiener says that the song 's pacifist agenda infuriated many student radicals from the New Left and that these detractors "continued to denounce (Lennon) for it for the rest of his life ''. In the decades following its release, Beatles biographers and music journalists have criticised the lyrics as naive and simplistic and detected a smugness in the message; the song 's musical content has also been dismissed as unimaginative. Writing in 1988, author and critic Tim Riley identified the track 's "internal contradictions (positivisms expressed with negatives) '' and "bloated self - confidence (' it 's easy ') '' as qualities that rendered it as "the naive answer to ' A Day in the Life ' ''.
Mark Hertsgaard considers "All You Need Is Love '' to be among the Beatles ' finest songs and one of the few highlights of their recordings from the Magical Mystery Tour -- Yellow Submarine era. In his opinion, Lennon 's detractors fail to discern between "shallow and utopian '' when ridiculing the song as socially irrelevant, and he adds: "one may as well complain that Martin Luther King was a poor singer as criticize Lennon on fine points of political strategy; his role was the Poet, not the Political Organizer. '' Ian MacDonald views the song as "one of The Beatles ' less deserving hits '' and, in its apparently chaotic production, typical of the band 's self - indulgent work immediately after Sgt. Pepper. Regarding the song 's message, McDonald writes:
During the materialistic Eighties, this song 's title was the butt of cynics, there being, obviously, any number of additional things needed to sustain life on earth. It should, perhaps, be pointed out that this record was not conceived as a blueprint for a successful career. "All you need is love '' is a transcendental statement, as true on its level as the principle of investment on the level of the stock exchange. In the idealistic perspective of 1967 -- the polar opposite of 1987 -- its title makes perfect sense.
In 2009, George Vaillant, the chief investigator of the Grant Study, which tracked 268 Harvard undergraduates for a period of 80 years with the goal of finding what factors led to happiness, stated that its findings could be summarized as "Happiness is love. Full stop. '' When pressed for being sentimental or too general, he revisited his findings and again stated, "the short answer is L-O-V-E. '' The CBC claimed that the "(grant) study proves Beatles right: All You Need is Love. ''
According to Ian MacDonald:
The Beatles
Additional participants
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone
"Life at Brian 's -- Lean and Hungry ''
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who has the highest corporate income tax in the world | List of countries by tax rates - wikipedia
A comparison of tax rates by countries is difficult and somewhat subjective, as tax laws in most countries are extremely complex and the tax burden falls differently on different groups in each country and sub-national unit. The list focuses on the main indicative types of taxes: corporate tax, individual income tax, and sales tax, including VAT and GST.
Some other taxes (for instance property tax, substantial in many countries, such as the United States) and payroll tax are not shown here. The table is not exhaustive in representing the true tax burden to either the corporation or the individual in the listed country. The tax rates displayed are marginal and do not account for deductions, exemptions or rebates. The effective rate is usually much lower than the marginal rate, but sometimes much higher. The tax rates given for federations (such as the United States and Canada) are averages and vary depending on the state or province. Territories that have different rates to their respective nation are in italics.
(7.71 % social security, no national or municipal taxes for income no more than 2 930 €)
16.5 - 22.5 % municipal 7.71 % social security)
Annual profit > 10B ILS: 6 %. Annual profit < 10B ILS: 7.5 % - 24 %.
25 % on € 250,001 + profit
40 %
Madeira, Açores: 15 %, 9 %, 4 %
2.9 % - social security charges (1.8 % - for non-citizens), 5.1 % - medicare;
totaling: 34 % + 13 % = 47 %)
(reduced rates are for certain goods)
(personal allowance of £ 11,000 for people earning less than £ 100,000 - reduces down to no tax free allowance when income reaches £ 123,000)
39.6 % (federal) + 0 - 13.3 % (state) +
3.8 % medicare tax
50 % - 500 %
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gps satellites orbit the earth at what height above its surface | Low Earth orbit - wikipedia
A low Earth orbit (LEO) is an orbit around Earth with an altitude of 2,000 kilometers (1,200 mi) or less, and an orbital period of between about 84 and 127 minutes. Objects below approximately 160 kilometers (99 mi) will experience very rapid orbital decay and altitude loss due to atmospheric drag.
With the exception of the 24 astronauts who flew lunar flights in the Apollo program during the four - year period spanning 1968 through 1972, all human spaceflights have taken place in LEO or below. The International Space Station conducts operations in LEO. The altitude record for a human spaceflight in LEO was Gemini 11 with an apogee of 1,374.1 kilometers (853.8 mi). All crewed space stations to date, as well as the majority of satellites, have been in LEO.
Objects in LEO encounter atmospheric drag from gases in the thermosphere (approximately 80 -- 500 km up) or exosphere (approximately 500 km and up), depending on orbit height. Due to atmospheric drag, satellites do not usually orbit below 300 km. Objects in LEO, orbit Earth between the denser part of the atmosphere and below the inner Van Allen radiation belt.
GOCE orbited at about 255 km and had an aerodynamic shape and ion thrusters to reduce and compensate for atmospheric drag.
The mean orbital velocity needed to maintain a stable low Earth orbit is about 7.8 km / s, but reduces with increased orbital altitude. Calculated for circular orbit of 200 km it is 7.79 km / s and for 1500 km it is 7.12 km / s. The delta - v needed to achieve low Earth orbit starts around 9.4 km / s. Atmospheric and gravity drag associated with launch typically adds 1.3 -- 1.8 km / s to the launch vehicle delta - v required to reach normal LEO orbital velocity of around 7.8 km / s (28,080 km / h).
Equatorial low Earth orbits (ELEO) are a subset of LEO. These orbits, with low inclination to the Equator, allow rapid revisit times and have the lowest delta - v requirement (i.e., fuel spend) of any orbit. Orbits with a high inclination angle to the equator are usually called polar orbits.
Higher orbits include medium Earth orbit (MEO), sometimes called intermediate circular orbit (ICO), and further above, geostationary orbit (GEO). Orbits higher than low orbit can lead to early failure of electronic components due to intense radiation and charge accumulation.
Although the Earth 's pull due to gravity in LEO is not much less than on the surface of the Earth, people and objects in orbit experience weightlessness because they are in free fall.
A low Earth orbit is simplest and cheapest for satellite placement. It provides high bandwidth and low communication time lag (latency), but satellites in LEO will not be visible from any given point on the Earth at all times.
The LEO environment is becoming congested with space debris due to the frequency of object launches. This has caused growing concern in recent years, since collisions at orbital velocities can easily be dangerous, and even deadly. Collisions can produce even more space debris in the process, creating a domino effect, something known as Kessler Syndrome. The Joint Space Operations Center, part of United States Strategic Command (formerly the United States Space Command), currently tracks more than 8,500 objects larger than 10 cm in LEO. However, a limited Arecibo Observatory study suggested there could be approximately one million objects larger than 2 millimeters, which are too small to be visible from Earth - based observatories.
This article incorporates public domain material from websites or documents of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration.
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who played the female garth in wayne's world 2 | Wayne 's World 2 - wikipedia
Wayne 's World 2 is a 1993 American comedy film starring Mike Myers and Dana Carvey as hosts of a public - access television cable TV show in Aurora, Illinois. The film is the sequel to Wayne 's World (1992), which was adapted from a sketch on NBC 's Saturday Night Live.
Rock - and - roll fans Wayne Campbell and Garth Algar now host their public - access television television show, Wayne 's World, from an abandoned factory in Aurora, Illinois. After an Aerosmith concert, Wayne has a dream in which he meets Jim Morrison and a "weird naked Indian '' in a desert. Morrison convinces Wayne that his destiny is to organize a major music festival. Wayne and Garth dub the concert "Waynestock '' and hire Morrison 's former roadie, Del Preston. Their early attempts to sign bands and sell tickets fail, and Wayne wonders if the endeavor is futile.
Wayne 's girlfriend Cassandra, singer of the band Crucial Taunt, has a new producer, Bobby Cahn, who tries to pull her away from Wayne and Illinois. After Wayne admits spying on her due to his suspicion of Bobby 's ulterior motives, Cassandra breaks up with him and becomes engaged to Bobby. Garth meets a beautiful woman, Honey Hornée, who attempts to manipulate Garth into killing her ex-husband, but Garth ends the relationship.
Tickets are sold for Waynestock but no bands arrive. Leaving Garth to keep the rowdy crowd in check, Wayne disrupts Cassandra 's wedding before escaping the ceremony with her. Meanwhile, Garth has stage fright during the concert. Wayne returns to find the bands have still not arrived.
In the dream desert, Wayne and Garth consult Morrison, who says that the bands will not come and that all that matters is they tried. They become lost in the desert. Finding this unacceptable, Wayne and Garth reenact the ending of Thelma & Louise, driving their car off a cliff while trying to find the bands. Finally, Wayne and Garth stage an ending in which the bands arrive and Waynestock is a success. Bobby arrives to Waynestock to get Cassandra but is not allowed inside.
After the concert, the park is covered with trash and the "weird naked Indian '' cries. Wayne and Garth begin to remove the litter, promising to clean the entire park.
Penelope Spheeris, who directed the first film believes that Myers encouraged the studio not to have her back for the sequel due to personality conflicts with Myers during the making of the first film. She went on to direct another TV to big screen adaptation, The Beverly Hillbillies instead and was replaced by Stephen Surjik for the sequel.
Myers ' original script for Wayne 's World 2 had Wayne and Garth forming their own country and seceding from the US after finding an ancient scroll, in a story taken from the 1949 British comedy Passport to Pimlico. This version was well into pre-production before it came to light that the studio had no idea the script was based on a previous film and thus had not obtained the rights to Passport to Pimlico. Production was immediately halted -- director Surjik said: "I could hear the chainsaws literally chopping the sets down. ''
Studio executive Sherry Lansing was reportedly furious with Myers and threatened to ruin his life and career if he did n't immediately produce a new script.
Wayne 's World 2 received mixed reviews. On Rotten Tomatoes, the film has a 60 % "Fresh '' rating, based on 43 reviews, with an average rating of 5.8 / 10, with the site 's critical consensus reading, "The characters are still endearing, but the jokes in Wayne 's World 2 are more hit - and - miss the second time around ''.
Film critic Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun - Times gave the film three out of four stars, and wrote that Wayne and Garth are "impossible to dislike ''.
Although it was intended to be a Christmas season blockbuster, Wayne 's World 2 was only moderately successful and did not receive the box office intake or positive fan reaction that the first film did. Its final North American gross was $48 million, slightly more than its $40 million production budget, but much less than the original film 's gross of over $100 million. Wayne 's World 2 also suffered from competition from other holiday season blockbusters such as Mrs. Doubtfire, Schindler 's List, and The Pelican Brief.
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bowler take hat trick in both innings in test match | List of Test cricket hat - tricks - wikipedia
In the sport of cricket, a hat - trick is an occasion where a bowler takes three wickets in consecutive deliveries. As of 31 July 2017, this feat has only been achieved 43 times in more than two thousand Test matches, the form of the sport in which national representative teams compete in matches of up to five days ' duration. The first Test hat - trick was recorded on 2 January 1879, in only the third Test match to take place, by the Australian pace bowler Fred Spofforth, nicknamed "The Demon Bowler '', who dismissed three English batsmen with consecutive deliveries at the Melbourne Cricket Ground. The most recent bowler to achieve the feat was English spin bowler Moeen Ali against South Africa on 31 July 2017. At least one bowler from each of the ten nations that have played Test cricket have taken a Test hat - trick.
A player has taken two hat - tricks in the same Test match only once. Playing for Australia against South Africa in the first match of the 1912 Triangular Tournament at Old Trafford, Manchester, England, leg spinner Jimmy Matthews took a hat - trick in South Africa 's first and second innings, both taken on 28 May 1912. He completed both hat - tricks by dismissing South Africa 's Tommy Ward. Only three other cricketers have taken more than one Test hat - trick: Australian off spinner Hugh Trumble (two years apart, between the same teams at the same ground), Pakistani fast bowler Wasim Akram (just over a week apart, in consecutive matches between the same teams) and English fast bowler Stuart Broad. Three players have taken a hat - trick on their Test debut: English medium pace bowler Maurice Allom in 1930, New Zealand off - spinner Peter Petherick in 1976, and Australian pace bowler Damien Fleming in 1994. Geoff Griffin took the fewest total Test wickets of any player who recorded a hat - trick, taking only eight wickets in his entire Test career. During the match in which he took his hat - trick, Griffin was repeatedly called for throwing by the umpires and never bowled again in a Test match. Australian Peter Siddle is the only bowler to take a hat - trick on his birthday, and Bangladeshi off spinner Sohag Gazi is the only player to score a century and take a hat - trick in the same Test match.
Australian Merv Hughes is the only bowler to take a hat - trick where the wickets fell over three overs. He took a wicket with the final ball of an over. With the first ball of the next over he took the final wicket of the West Indies innings. He then removed the opener Gordon Greenidge with the first ball of the West Indies second innings.
In the five - match series between a Rest of the World XI and England in 1970, a hat - trick was taken by South African Eddie Barlow in the fourth match, at Headingley (the last three of four wickets in five balls). These matches were considered to be Tests at the time, but that status was later removed.
England and Australia combined have taken over half of all Test match hat - tricks to date, 25 of 43 (58.14 %).
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where is super bowl played at this year | Super Bowl LII - wikipedia
Super Bowl LII was an American football game played to determine the champion of the National Football League (NFL) for the 2017 season. The National Football Conference (NFC) champion Philadelphia Eagles defeated the New England Patriots, 41 -- 33, winning their first Super Bowl and their first NFL title since 1960. The game was played on Sunday, February 4, 2018, at U.S. Bank Stadium in Minneapolis, Minnesota, United States. It was the second time that a Super Bowl was played in Minneapolis, the northernmost city to ever host the event, after Super Bowl XXVI in the 1991 season, and the sixth Super Bowl held in a cold - weather city.
New England finished the regular season with an AFC - best 13 -- 3 record, then extended their record Super Bowl appearances to ten, their third in four years, and their eighth under the leadership of head coach Bill Belichick and quarterback Tom Brady. Philadelphia had an NFC - best 13 -- 3 record, but became underdogs entering the playoffs after starting quarterback Carson Wentz suffered a season - ending injury late in the regular season and was replaced by journeyman backup Nick Foles. Still, the Eagles advanced to their third Super Bowl appearance, having previously lost to the Oakland Raiders in Super Bowl XV and to the Patriots in Super Bowl XXXIX.
Several records were set during Super Bowl LII, including most yards gained in an NFL game by both teams combined (1,151), the fewest punts from both teams in a Super Bowl (one), and the most points scored by a Super Bowl losing team (33). The game was settled after the Eagles converted a fumble recovery deep within Patriots territory to a field goal with 1: 05 remaining to extend their lead to eight points, and Brady 's Hail Mary pass fell incomplete as time expired. With the loss, the Patriots became the first defending Super Bowl champions since the the 2014 Seattle Seahawks to lose in the following year 's title game.
Foles, who completed 28 of 43 pass attempts for 373 yards and three touchdowns with one interception, and caught a one - yard touchdown pass, was named Super Bowl MVP.
The broadcast of the game on NBC had the smallest Super Bowl audience in nine years, with an average of 103.4 million viewers. Average TV viewership for the halftime show, headlined by Justin Timberlake, was 106.6 million American television viewers, 9 percent less than Lady Gaga 's in the previous year
On October 8, 2013, the league announced that three venues would vie to host Super Bowl LII:
On May 20, 2014, the league 's owners picked Minneapolis at their meeting in Atlanta, Georgia.
The NFC was represented by the number - one playoff seed Philadelphia Eagles, while the AFC was represented by the number - one playoff seed New England Patriots, marking the fourth time in the previous five years that the Super Bowl had featured the top team from each conference.
The Eagles finished the regular season with a record of 13 -- 3, the same as New England, Minnesota, and Pittsburgh, but the various tie - breaking provisions gave them the NFC 's top seed in the 2017 -- 18 NFL playoffs. It was a substantial improvement for the team under second - year head coach Doug Pederson; the Eagles finished the two previous seasons with 7 -- 9 records. In the 2017 season, the team scored 457 points (third in the NFL), while giving up just 295 (fourth) points.
The offense was led by Pro Bowl quarterback Carson Wentz. In just his second season, he recorded a passer rating of 101.9, throwing for 3,296 yards and 33 touchdowns, with only seven interceptions. His top target was Pro Bowl tight end Zach Ertz, who caught 74 passes for 824 yards and eight touchdowns. Other contributors were two receivers acquired from off - season free agency: Alshon Jeffery, who caught 57 passes for 789 yards and nine scores; and Torrey Smith, who had 36 receptions for 430 yards. Meanwhile, third - year receiver Nelson Agholor had the best season of his career, hauling in 62 passes for 768 yards and eight touchdowns, a higher total in each category than in his previous two seasons combined. The Eagles rushing attack also benefited from two recently acquired players, LeGarrette Blount and Jay Ajayi. Blount, an off - season signing who won a Super Bowl with the Patriots, gained 776 rushing yards and two touchdowns, while Ajayi, picked up by a mid-season trade with the Miami Dolphins, rushed for 873 yards and caught 24 passes for 154 yards combined with the two teams. Philadelphia also had a superb offensive line, lead by two Pro Bowl selections: Tackle Lane Johnson and Guard Brandon Brooks.
The Eagles defense allowed the fourth - fewest yards in the league (4,904). Defensive tackle Fletcher Cox made the Pro Bowl for the third time in his career, recording 5 ⁄ sacks and two fumble recoveries, and he had plenty of help around him, such as former Patriots defensive end Chris Long, who had five sacks and forced four fumbles, and defensive end Brandon Graham, who led the team with 9 ⁄ sacks. Middle linebacker Nigel Bradham led the team in combined tackles with 88. The Eagles secondary featured Pro Bowl safety Malcolm Jenkins, who had 76 combined tackles and two interceptions, along with cornerback Patrick Robinson, who led the team with four interceptions.
Philadelphia had stormed to the top of the NFC by winning 10 of their first 12 games, but suffered a major setback on December 10, when Wentz went down with a season - ending ACL tear and was replaced by journeyman backup quarterback Nick Foles, who was playing for his third team in as many years and his second stint with the Eagles. Still, Foles was able to lead the team to victory in that game, as well as the next two. The Eagles would lose a meaningless week 17 matchup with the Cowboys led by third - string quarterback Nate Sudfeld. Then in their two playoff games, Foles threw for a combined total of 598 yards and three touchdowns, with no interceptions.
The Patriots entered the 2017 NFL season as defending Super Bowl champions. For the 16th time in their 18 seasons under 65 - year old coach Bill Belichick, they recorded a double - digit win season, finishing the regular season with a record of 13 -- 3, one of four teams (along with Philadelphia, Minnesota, and Pittsburgh) with that record. By virtue of the tie - breaking procedures, they were granted the AFC 's number one overall seed in the 2017 -- 18 NFL playoffs. The previous season 's top wide receiver Julian Edelman went down in the preseason with a season - ending injury. Early season defensive struggles left the team with a 2 -- 2 record after four weeks, and the worst overall defense in the league at that point. The defense would come together as a unit, and tighten up over the rest of the season however, with the Patriots going 11 -- 1 after week 4. Their sole loss in the latter part of the season came in Week 14 to the Miami Dolphins, a division rival, though they were without star tight end Rob Gronkowski due to a one game suspension for an unnecessary roughness call the prior week. The Patriots ' defense was improved by several late - season free - agent signings, including Eric Lee, a defensive end, previously from the Buffalo Bills, whom the Patriots signed in Week 12, and James Harrison, a perennial All - Pro for the Pittsburgh Steelers, whom the Patriots picked up off waivers after Christmas. In just six games for New England, Lee recorded 3 ⁄ sacks, a safety, and an interception. In his only regular season game with the Patriots, Harrison recorded two sacks.
During the regular season, New England 's offense led the league in yards gained (6,307) and ranked second in points scored (458). The 40 - year - old Brady finished his 18th season with a league - leading 4,577 passing yards and 32 touchdowns to just eight interceptions, earning him his 13th selection to the Pro Bowl and his third league MVP award. One change which helped make up for the loss of Edelman would be the new acquisition of receiver Brandin Cooks, who caught 65 passes for 1,082 yards and seven touchdowns. Brady was also aided by the healthy return of Gronkowski, who had played just eight games in the previous season, finishing this year with 69 catches for 1,084 yards and eight scores. Receiver Danny Amendola added 61 receptions for 659 yards, as well as another 240 yards returning punts. With the loss of their previous season 's rushing leader LeGarrette Blount to free agency, Dion Lewis stepped up to take the lead, rushing for 896 yards and six touchdowns despite starting only eight games. He also caught 32 passes for 214 yards and two touchdowns, and added 570 yards and another touchdown returning kickoffs. Rex Burkhead chipped in 518 all - purpose yards, 30 receptions, and eight touchdowns. In passing situations, the team relied heavily on running back James White, who caught 56 passes for 429 yards and rushed for 171 on the ground. These backs were aided by the blocking of fullback James Develin, who earned his first Pro Bowl selection. On special teams, kicker Stephen Gostkowski ranked second in the NFL with 156 points and fourth in field goals made with 37, while veteran special team ace Matthew Slater earned his seventh consecutive Pro Bowl selection.
The Patriots ' defense ranked only 29th in yards allowed (5,856), but ranked fifth in fewest points, giving up only 296. Defensive end Trey Flowers led the team with 6 ⁄ sacks while also forcing two fumbles. Linebacker Kyle Van Noy had 73 tackles and 5 ⁄ sacks. The Patriots also had a superb secondary, led by cornerbacks Malcolm Butler (two interceptions, three forced fumbles) and Stephon Gilmore (two interceptions, 47 solo tackles), as well as safeties Devin McCourty (97 combined tackles, one interception, one fumble recovery), Patrick Chung (84 tackles, one interception, two fumble recoveries) and Duron Harmon (four interceptions).
In the playoffs, the Patriots earned a first round bye and home - field advantage due to their status as the AFC 's first overall seed. In the divisional round, they defeated the Tennessee Titans 35 -- 14, as Brady passed for 337 yards and three touchdowns. In that game, the defense amassed eight quarterback sacks of Marcus Mariota and held the Titans ' running game to 65 yards rushing. They then defeated the Jacksonville Jaguars 24 -- 20 in the AFC Championship Game, rallying from behind to win the game after the Jaguars jumped out to an early 14 -- 3 lead and whose league - best defense stymied Brady and the rest of the offense for most of the first half. Down 20 -- 10 in the fourth quarter, the Patriots comeback was sealed by two Brady - led drives, both resulting in touchdown passes to Danny Amendola, as well as a key defensive stop by Stephon Gilmore, whose acrobatic block of a Blake Bortles pass ended Jacksonville 's last chance to score. Rob Gronkowski was injured in the game with a concussion, leaving his status for the Super Bowl in doubt. Amendola would be the breakout star for the Patriots during their two playoff wins, leading the team with 196 receiving yards, and serving as Brady 's primary target.
Meanwhile, Philadelphia started off the divisional round by narrowly defeating the Atlanta Falcons 15 -- 10, by stopping the Falcons on four consecutive plays after they had a first - down - and - goal situation on the Eagles 9 - yard line during their final drive. They then soundly defeated the Minnesota Vikings 38 -- 7 in the NFC Championship Game. Despite the Vikings scoring on their opening drive, the Eagles defense held them to three punts, two turnovers on downs, two interceptions, and one lost fumble in their remaining drives of the game. Meanwhile, Foles had a great game in which he completed 26 of 33 passes for 353 yards and three touchdowns.
This game was a rematch of Super Bowl XXXIX. Only one player, Patriots starting quarterback Tom Brady, remained on either roster from that contest. Bill Belichick, the Patriots ' head coach in that contest, also remained in that position. Two Eagles, running back LeGarrette Blount and defensive lineman Chris Long, had been Patriots in 2017 's Super Bowl LI.
The Patriots were the designated home team for Super Bowl LII, because the AFC team is the designated home team in even - numbered years and the NFC team in odd - numbered years. As the designated home team, the Patriots chose to wear their road white jerseys with navy blue pants, becoming the sixth team to wear their white jerseys as the home team and the third team to wear white in back - to - back Super Bowls, following the Dallas Cowboys in Super Bowls XII and XIII and again in Super Bowls XXVII and XXVIII. The Eagles therefore wore their standard home uniform of midnight green jerseys with white pants. Twelve of the previous 13 Super Bowls had been won by teams wearing white jerseys. The last team to win a Super Bowl while wearing their home uniforms was the Green Bay Packers in Super Bowl XLV (who, coincidentally, had also worn green jerseys.)
To coordinate the game and 10 days of events, the National Football League temporarily operated an events office within the Minnesota Vikings office building next to U.S. Bank Stadium. More than 150,000 visitors were expected to attend events associated with the Super Bowl over ten days. Among them were some 5,000 - plus media members; media day events and press conferences were held at The Mall of America in Bloomington, Minnesota.
No sales tax was collected on admission tickets to the game and related events, including parking.
To increase security around U.S. Bank Stadium, the stadium 's light rail station was shut down for 48 hours before the game, and a nearby homeless shelter was temporarily moved beyond the security perimeter. The Blue Line of the light rail system was only open to ticketholders and passengers with a Gameday Pass, while the Green Line only ran to Stadium Village station on the University of Minnesota campus before continuing on with restricted access. Metro Transit ran shuttle buses between light rail stations, as well as regular bus service was moved for several weeks due to street closures. Thirty activist groups organized a rally and protest against police brutality, corporate greed, and racist practices. 17 people blocked the Green Line train for 90 minutes before the game, and 200 protesters blocked an entrance to the stadium 's security perimeter.
Under a 1998 agreement, the Patriots and Eagles owners split the tickets, and the league controlled the game presentation and entertainment in the stadium. The Patriots practiced at the Minnesota Vikings facilities in Eden Prairie while the Eagles used the University of Minnesota. The Eagles got the Vikings ' locker room and sideline. The Vikings had advanced to the NFC Championship Game before losing to the Eagles; until that point, the possibility of the Vikings advancing to the Super Bowl and thus becoming the first team to play the game in its home stadium was plausible. Had that happened, the Vikings would have used their own locker rooms and training facilities while the AFC champion would have used the University of Minnesota.
The Minnesota Super Bowl Host Committee presented Super Bowl Live on Nicollet Mall in downtown Minneapolis. This ten - day free festival and concert series featured Sheila E., the Revolution, Morris Day and the Time, and the New Power Generation, musicians from Minnesota who collaborated with Prince, a Minneapolis native. Produced by Jimmy Jam and Terry Lewis, Super Bowl Live also included performances by Idina Menzel, Soul Asylum, the Suburbs, Bob Mould, Sounds of Blackness, Dessa, VocalEssence, Mint Condition, and the Jets. In addition to the concert series, Super Bowl Live featured a 200 - foot (61 m) American Birkebeiner International Bridge on Nicollet Mall to showcase cross-country skiing, skijoring, fat - tire bicycle racing, and snow tubing demonstrations. There was also a snowmobile stunt show on February 3.
The NFL presented the Super Bowl Experience at the Minneapolis Convention Center from January 27 to February 3 with an entrance fee. Kelly Clarkson performed at the Minneapolis Armory and a U.S. Bank Stadium lounge on the day of the Super Bowl.
The Minneapolis Armory also hosted Jennifer Lopez, Imagine Dragons, and Pink concerts close to U.S. Bank Stadium. Pink also performed the national anthem before the Super Bowl. Halftime performer Justin Timberlake held a ticketed "listening session '' of his newest album at Prince 's Paisley Park. Dave Matthews Band will perform at Xcel Energy Center in Saint Paul. The Shakopee Mdewakanton Sioux Community 's Mystic Lake Casino hosted Gwen Stefani, the Chainsmokers, Florida Georgia Line, and Kygo. Planners originally scheduled a 64,000 - square - foot (5,900 m) traveling nightclub for 9500 people, but cancelled, moving its concerts into the main casino. Ellie Goulding 's appearance with Kygo was cancelled at the same time. The Mystic Lake Casino in Prior Lake, Minnesota, has the second - largest hotel in the Twin Cities metropolitan area, and Prior Lake hosted Super Bowl - week events including winter activities, a hotdish competition, and fundraisers.
Other events were held at the Mall of America (including Radio Row as a home for national shows), Saint Paul 's RiverCentre and Xcel Energy Center, the Minnesota Vikings ' Winter Park location in Eden Prairie, and the University of Minnesota. "Taste of the NFL '' is a fundraiser for food banks and was held in Saint Paul. Minneapolis also offered a temporary zip - line across the Mississippi River near downtown. The Luminary Loppet around Lake of the Isles in Minneapolis featured fire dancing, an ice pyramid, and luminary candles at night.
The 2018 Saint Paul Winter Carnival took place leading up to, during and after the Super Bowl. Carnival organizers built a large ice palace to coincide with the Super Bowl festivities, as with Super Bowl XXVI in 1992. The ice palace was planned, cancelled for lack of funds, then re-announced with sponsors. Events in Saint Paul will also include an extreme sports demonstration, a "giant slide '', and a block party. Officials in the capital city hoped to attract Minneapolis Super Bowl visitors. The Minneapolis Institute of Art had a free 20 - by - 40 - foot (6.1 m × 12.2 m), 6 - foot - tall (1.8 m) ice maze.
The Great Northern was a winter festival in the Twin Cities from January 25 to February 4 which included the U.S. Pond Hockey Championships, an ice bar, and an "urban ski competition ''.
ESPN broadcast its studio programming from the IDS Center in downtown Minneapolis, while Golf Channel (a sister network of Super Bowl LII broadcaster NBC) aired two live episodes of David Feherty 's eponymous series from the State Theatre.
Native American communities of Minnesota performed nightly drum ceremonies. Various drumlines from around the state performed at different locations throughout the day.
NBC broadcast Super Bowl LII, as part of an annual cycle between the three main broadcast television partners of the NFL. NBC 's lead NFL team of play - by - play man Al Michaels and color analyst Cris Collinsworth called the game. Sister cable network Universo carried a full Spanish language broadcast produced by Telemundo Deportes, with Edgar Lopez and Rene Giraldo. The Universo Spanish audio was also available on NBC through the SAP channel, where available.
This was the last game in Westwood One 's current national radio contract with the NFL. Each participating team 's flagship station (the Patriots Radio Network 's WBZ - FM / Boston, and the Eagles Radio Network 's WIP - FM / Philadelphia, along with WEMG / Camden, New Jersey for Spanish play - by - play) carried the game with local announcers. (For the second consecutive year, none of the local flagships are clear - channel stations, and thus the local commentators were only audible for free within each respective team 's immediate metropolitan area; listeners who live outside the flagship stations ' broadcast ranges were required to subscribe to Sirius XM Radio or TuneIn Premium to access the local broadcasts.) Under the terms of the Westwood One contract, any radio station that is not a local flagship, if it is to carry the game, is required to utilize the Westwood One feed. It was the first title win called by Eagles play - by - play announcer Merrill Reese, who has been the primary radio voice of the team since 1977.
Online streams of the game were provided by NBC. It was available on NBCSports.com, the NBC Sports app for mobile devices, tablets, connected - TV devices, and NBC.com without any required login. The Spanish - language broadcast was available on the Telemundo Deportes En Vivo app and TelemundoDeportes.com for desktop devices, connected TV devices, and tablets but not mobile devices. Under new digital rights deals that began with the 2017 -- 18 playoffs, Verizon still offers mobile streaming of games, but no longer holds exclusive rights to stream NFL games on smartphones or make them exclusive to Verizon Wireless subscribers. Instead, Verizon elected to use use the deal to bolster its recent acquisition of Yahoo!; on January 9, 2018, Verizon announced that it would host streams of playoff games through the Yahoo! Sports and go90 app, including Super Bowl LII. As a result of the deal, the online stream was available to viewers on all Internet devices for the first time, regardless of network (because of Verizon 's previous exclusive rights deal, non-Verizon phones had previously been blocked from receiving any NFL telecasts, regardless of source). The game was also available through the NFL Mobile app with the aforementioned change to viewing through the app now being allowed on all mobile carriers.
Dan Patrick and Liam McHugh served as the lead hosts for NBC 's pre-game coverage. Mike Tirico, who replaced the retiring Bob Costas in 2017 as NBC 's lead studio host for both the NFL and the Olympic Games, did not participate in coverage of Super Bowl LII due to his commitments to prepare for the 2018 Winter Olympics in Pyeongchang, South Korea (which opened on the Friday following the game).
Nielsen reported a 47.4 / 70 % overnight rating in metered markets, peaking at 52.2 / 74 during the fourth quarter. These numbers are about 3 % lower than early numbers from Super Bowl LI, and the lowest since Super Bowl XLIV in 2010.
Dan Lovinger, NBC Sports Group executive vice president of ad sales, stated to Variety in July 2017 that the network was seeking a price "north of $5 million '' (the price set for the previous two Super Bowls) for a 30 - second commercial during Super Bowl LII. Taking advantage of the 2018 Winter Olympics that begins five days after the Super Bowl (which will mark the first time since 1992 that a single broadcast network will air both the Super Bowl and Winter Olympics in the same year), NBC disclosed plans to offer advertising packages that cover both Super Bowl LII and the Olympics. NBC estimated that it would bring in at least $1 billion in advertising revenue from the two events. During the second quarter, an equipment failure caused NBC 's broadcast to experience dead air for 30 seconds during a commercial break. No actual commercial time was lost.
Anheuser - Busch has, as it has done in previous Super Bowls, purchased multiple commercials in the game, advertising Bud Light, Stella Artois and Michelob Ultra. For the first time since Super Bowl VIII, the company would downsize the appearances of the Budweiser Clydesdales in a Super Bowl commercial. However, a Clydesdale was featured in a commercial for Tide detergent and the Budweiser Clydesdales only appeared in a 5 - second Budweiser commercial to remind viewers of the "ClydesdaleCam '' livestreaming event. Other signed advertisers included The Coca - Cola Company and Avocados from Mexico. Cellphone carrier T - Mobile aired a minute long ad with actress Kerry Washington narrating, featuring babies of various ethnic backgrounds. The commercial also features Nirvana 's song "All Apologies '' played as a lullaby. In the ad, Washington talks about the babies being born with natural instincts of love and not racism calling them "unstoppable '' and that they will demand fair and equal pay. T - Mobile CEO John Legere posted to his Twitter account afterwards saying, "This year, we wanted to use our # SuperBowl airtime to share that @ TMobile believes we all started in the same place. We are more alike than different. And we are unstoppable. ''
Fiat Chrysler subsidiary Ram Trucks was met with swift and harsh criticism for its use of Rev. Dr. Martin Luther King Jr 's sermon "The Drum Major Instinct ''. Major news outlets and social media erupted in the controversy. Particularly disturbing to many viewers was the selective exploitation of King 's anti-consumerist, anti-advertising speech in an attempt to sell trucks.
NBC 's lead - out program was an episode of This Is Us, titled "Super Bowl Sunday '', alongside a special episode of The Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon from Minneapolis ' Orpheum Theatre, with halftime performer Justin Timberlake, Dwayne Johnson, Chris Stapleton and the cast of This Is Us as guests.
In a surprise move, Netflix used its advertising time to announce it had acquired the rights to The Cloverfield Paradox, the third film in the Cloverfield series, and would make it available immediately after the game, potentially undercutting viewership of the lucrative post-game slot on NBC.
The Super Bowl was shown live by ESPN Brasil, with Paulo Antunes and Everaldo Marques as the announcers for the evening. It was also shown live on Cinemark, Cinépolis, Kinoplex and UCI movie theaters across the country.
The U.S. telecasts of Super Bowl LII were available through local U.S. broadcast stations that are carried on Canadian cable and satellite providers, as well as on border blasters near the International Boundary. The last appeals attempting to force simultaneous substitution, as had been allowed through Super Bowl 50 but had been repealed in 2016, over the telecasts were exhausted in December 2017.
Bell Canada holds broadcast rights for local stations in Canada and aired the game across its networks on CTV, CTV Two, RDS (for French), TSN Radio and TSN2; TSN 's regional networks did not carry the game due to a schedule conflict with the 2018 Scotties Tournament of Hearts, the national women 's curling championship. Bell reprised the previous year 's usage of a sweepstakes and entertainment features to retain Canadian audiences.
On RDS, the announcer was David Arsenault with Pierre Vercheval as analyst and Didier Orméjuste on the sidelines.
As per recent years, the Super Bowl was shown live on the BBC for no additional cost over the license fee. It was also available on Sky Sports with a subscription, through a Now TV Sports Pass, or as part of the NFL Gamepass Playoffs package. In a change to tradition, the BBC chose to use NBC 's feed instead of the NFL Films and NFL Network produced World Feed.
ProSieben broadcast the Super Bowl for the first time, after it had previously been on sister channel Sat. 1 since Super Bowl XLVI. It was shown for no additional cost in standard - definition and on ProSieben HD in high - definition on HD+ as well as multiple cable and IPTV providers. It was also available on internet streaming service DAZN for no cost in addition to the regular subscription fee.
beIn Sports2 and W9 broadcast the event.
American Forces Network carried the Super Bowl live to members of the United States Armed Forces in Eurasia.
Pink performed "The Star - Spangled Banner '', while Leslie Odom Jr. sang "America the Beautiful ''.
Pink spit out a throat lozenge shortly before singing the anthem, later verified after many commentators thought she had spit out a piece of gum. She reported being ill with flu symptoms during her performance.
No players were observed kneeling during the national anthem, in contrast to the protests that happened earlier in the 2017 and 2016 seasons.
Justin Timberlake headlined the Super Bowl LII halftime show, along with his band "The Tennessee Kids '' and featuring the University of Minnesota Marching Band. Timberlake performed in two previous Super Bowls: Super Bowl XXXV in 2001 as a member of NSYNC, and Super Bowl XXXVIII in 2004 with Janet Jackson.
Timberlake 's performance drew criticism for not being "spectacular '', looking to be safe and avoid incidents such as the infamous "wardrobe malfunction '' encountered during his performance with Jackson, and for incorporating a video of Prince, who opposed performances combining the dead and the living.
The New England Patriots won the opening coin toss and elected to defer to the second half. The Patriots kicked to the Eagles who opened with a long time consuming drive of 7: 05 and resulted in a 25 - yard Jake Elliott field goal, giving the Eagles a 3 -- 0 lead. The drive was controlled by the arm of Eagles quarterback Nick Foles, who went 6 - for - 9 for 61 yards and completed passes to five different receivers, with a few short runs by LeGarrette Blount and Jay Ajayi littered in. Foles also made two critical completions on third down plays, hitting Alshon Jeffery for a 17 - yard gain on third - and - 4, and later finding Torrey Smith for 15 yards on third - and - 12. The Patriots responded with a drive of their own, almost with the exact same results; quarterback Tom Brady going 6 - for - 8 for 60 yards to four different receivers, the longest a 28 - yard pass to Chris Hogan. The drive stalled out on the Eagles 8 - yard line, where they had to settle for Stephen Gostkowski 's 26 - yard field goal, tying the game at 3 -- 3. The game 's first touchdown was scored by the Eagles on the next drive, taking only three plays: a short pass from Foles to Nelson Agholor, a 36 - yard run up the middle by Blount, and a 34 - yard touchdown pass from Foles to Jeffery to the left side of the field. The ensuing extra point missed as it was wide right, however, leaving the score at 9 -- 3. On the next Patriots drive, they took the ball to the Philadelphia 11 - yard line, mainly on the strength of a 50 - yard completion from Brady to Danny Amendola, where the quarter ended.
With the second quarter under way, the Patriots came away empty - handed on the drive, as Gostkowski missed a 26 - yard field goal attempt after holder Ryan Allen mishandled the snap. New England 's defense forced the game 's only punt on the next drive. On the following drive, Brady completed a 23 - yard pass to Brandin Cooks, but a hard hit by defender Malcolm Jenkins knocked the receiver out of the game. On third down from near mid-field, the Patriots attempted a trick play that involved two handoffs and a pass downfield to Tom Brady. Brady was open, but dropped the throw from Amendola. They went for it on fourth down, and a pass intended for tight end Rob Gronkowski fell incomplete, giving the Eagles the ball on their own 35 - yard line on a turnover - on - downs. The Eagles capitalized on a drive featuring two key completions, a 19 - yard catch by Zach Ertz on third - and - 7, and a 22 - yard reception by Jeffery on the Patriots 21 - yard line. On the next play, a 21 - yard rumble by Blount gave the Eagles another touchdown. They attempted a two - point conversion, which failed, bringing the score to 15 -- 3. The Patriots quickly struck back, as Brady completed a 46 - yard pass to Rex Burkhead on the first play after the kickoff. But the team could only gain two more yards, resulting in Gostkowski 's 45 - yard field goal that got the score to 15 -- 6.
The Eagles got the ball back with 7: 24 on the clock and looked poised to score another touchdown when a 26 - yard run by Ajayi gave them a first down on the Patriots 43 - yard line. But on the next play, Foles threw a pass that bounced off Jeffery as he tried to make a one - handed catch and went into the hands of Patriots safety Duron Harmon for an interception, which he returned eight yards to the 10 - yard line. The Patriots took advantage of the turnover with a seven - play, 90 - yard drive, featuring a 43 - yard completion from Brady to Hogan. On the next play, James White scored with a 26 - yard touchdown run, after which Gostkowski missed the extra point, with the score at 15 -- 12. Eagles running back Kenjon Barner returned the ensuing kickoff 27 yards to his own 30 - yard line as time ran down to the two - minute warning. Two plays later on third - and - 3, Foles completed a short pass to running back Corey Clement, who took off for a 55 - yard gain to the New England 8 - yard line. Then he ran the ball six yards to the two - yard line. Two plays later, Philadelphia faced fourth - and - goal on the 1 - yard line with 38 seconds left on the clock. Deciding to go for the touchdown, they attempted a similar trick play to the one that had failed for the Patriots earlier. As Foles stepped up to the running back position, Clement took a direct snap and pitched the ball to tight end Trey Burton, who then threw the ball perfectly to Foles, who was wide open in the right side of the end zone. Foles caught the football, making him the first quarterback ever to catch a touchdown pass in a Super Bowl, and the ensuing extra point was good, giving the Eagles a 22 -- 12 lead, which was taken into the locker room following a short drive by the Patriots.
The first half resulted in numerous Super Bowl records from both teams, including most total yards combined (673). This was also the first time two quarterbacks had thrown for over 200 yards in the first half of a Super Bowl, with Brady throwing for 276 yards and Foles throwing for 215 yards.
The Patriots received the second - half kickoff and Brady led New England 75 yards in eight plays. Gronkowski, who only caught one pass for nine yards in the first half, caught five passes for 68 yards on the drive, the last a 5 - yard touchdown reception to make the score 22 - 19. The Eagles responded by moving the ball 85 yards in 11 plays on a drive that consumed less than five minutes and featured three critical third down conversions by Foles. The first was a 17 - yard pass to Agholor on third - and - 6 from the Eagles 19 - yard line. Later in the drive, he thew a 14 - yard completion to Ertz on third - and - 1 from the New England 40 - yard line. Finally, he finished the possession with a 22 - yard touchdown pass to Clement on third - and - 6. The touchdown was held up by a replay review, but replay officials confirmed that Clement kept both feet inbounds and controlled the ball. An Elliott extra point brought the score to 29 -- 19 in favor of the Eagles. Brady responded with a 10 - play, 75 - yard drive, completing all three of his passes for 61 yards, the last one a 26 - yard touchdown pass to Hogan that brought the score to 29 -- 26. The Eagles followed with an 8 - play, 51 - yard drive featuring a 24 - yard completion from Foles to Agholor on the first play. By the end of the third quarter, the team had made it to the New England 16 - yard line.
The Eagles opened the fourth quarter scoring with a Jake Elliott field goal to bring the score to 32 -- 26. However, Brady came back with another 75 - yard drive featuring a 30 - yard reception by Amendola and ending with a four - yard pass to Gronkowski, his second touchdown of the game, giving the Patriots their first lead of the game with the score at 33 -- 32. On their next drive, the Eagles faced third - and - 6 after two plays, but were able to keep the ball with a 7 - yard catch by Ertz. Eventually, they faced a fourth - and - 1 on their own 45 - yard line with 5: 39 left in the game. Deciding to go for the conversion rather than punt, Foles completed a 2 - yard pass to Ertz that kept the drive alive. Then after a 1 - yard Blount run, he picked up three consecutive first downs with three passes to Agholor for gains of 10, 18, and 10 yards, respectively, moving the ball to the New England 14 - yard line. Following a 3 - yard run by Ajayi, Foles threw a 9 - yard touchdown pass to Ertz with 2: 21 remaining in the game. The play was held up on review, as Ertz lost the ball after touching the ground in the end zone; it was however determined that he established himself as a runner and also maintained control of the ball as he broke the plane of the goal line. However, a failed two - point conversion left the Eagles with a 38 -- 33 lead. On the Patriots ' next drive, Eagles defensive end Brandon Graham stripped the ball from Brady on the drive 's second play for the only sack of the game for either team. Defensive end Derek Barnett of the Eagles recovered the ball, allowing the Eagles to run the clock down to 1: 05 and forcing New England to use up all their remaining timeouts. Elliott then kicked a 46 - yard field goal, putting Philadelphia ahead by eight points, with the score at 41 -- 33, and New England needing a touchdown and a two - point conversion to tie the game and send it into overtime. After nine plays (one of them a 13 - yard catch by Amendola on fourth - and - 10), Brady reached the 49 - yard line, and with only nine seconds remaining, he threw a Hail Mary pass to the end zone, to no avail. When time expired, the Eagles had won their first Vince Lombardi Trophy in franchise history, and their first league championship since 1960.
The combined 74 points scored by both teams was one point shy of the Super Bowl record of 75, set in Super Bowl XXIX in 1995; it and this game marked only the second time in the game 's history where the two teams combined for 70 + points. The game also set a record for most yardage by both teams (combined) with 1,151 yards, the most for any single game, regular season or postseason. The game had many other Super Bowl records set as well, including fewest punts from both teams (one), most yards gained by a team (613 for New England) and most points scored by a losing team (33).
Foles completed 28 - of - 43 passes for 373 yards and three touchdowns, with one interception, and caught a touchdown pass. Clement, who caught only 10 passes for 123 yards and two touchdowns during the season, was the Eagles leading receiver with four receptions for 100 yards and a touchdown, while also rushing for eight yards. Agholor had nine receptions for 84 yards. Blount was the game 's top rusher with 90 yards and a touchdown. Brady completed 28 - of - 48 passes for 505 yards and three touchdowns, breaking the record for most passing yards in a Super Bowl that he had set in the previous season. Amendola was his top target with eight receptions for 152 yards, while Hogan had six for 128 yards and a touchdown and Gronkowski caught nine passes for 116 yards and two scores.
at U.S. Bank Stadium, Minneapolis, Minnesota
Completions / attempts Carries Long gain Receptions
Source:
Super Bowl LII had eight officials. The numbers in parentheses below indicate their uniform numbers.
This was Steratore 's first Super Bowl as a referee, though he had been previously selected as an alternate for Super Bowl XLIV.
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where are the operating system and programs stored when not in use | Operating system - wikipedia
An operating system (OS) is system software that manages computer hardware and software resources and provides common services for computer programs. All computer programs, excluding firmware, require an operating system to function.
Time - sharing operating systems schedule tasks for efficient use of the system and may also include accounting software for cost allocation of processor time, mass storage, printing, and other resources.
For hardware functions such as input and output and memory allocation, the operating system acts as an intermediary between programs and the computer hardware, although the application code is usually executed directly by the hardware and frequently makes system calls to an OS function or is interrupted by it. Operating systems are found on many devices that contain a computer -- from cellular phones and video game consoles to web servers and supercomputers.
The dominant desktop operating system is Microsoft Windows with a market share of around 83.3 %. macOS by Apple Inc. is in second place (11.2 %), and the varieties of Linux are collectively in third place (1.55 %). In the mobile (smartphone and tablet combined) sector, according to third quarter 2016 data, Android by Google is dominant with 87.5 percent and a growth rate 10.3 percent per year, followed by iOS by Apple with 12.1 percent and a per year decrease in market share of 5.2 percent, while other operating systems amount to just 0.3 percent. Linux distributions are dominant in the server and supercomputing sectors. Other specialized classes of operating systems, such as embedded and real - time systems, exist for many applications.
A single - tasking system can only run one program at a time, while a multi-tasking operating system allows more than one program to be running in concurrency. This is achieved by time - sharing, dividing the available processor time between multiple processes that are each interrupted repeatedly in time slices by a task - scheduling subsystem of the operating system. Multi-tasking may be characterized in preemptive and co-operative types. In preemptive multitasking, the operating system slices the CPU time and dedicates a slot to each of the programs. Unix - like operating systems, e.g., Solaris, Linux, as well as AmigaOS support preemptive multitasking. Cooperative multitasking is achieved by relying on each process to provide time to the other processes in a defined manner. 16 - bit versions of Microsoft Windows used cooperative multi-tasking. 32 - bit versions of both Windows NT and Win9x, used preemptive multi-tasking.
Single - user operating systems have no facilities to distinguish users, but may allow multiple programs to run in tandem. A multi-user operating system extends the basic concept of multi-tasking with facilities that identify processes and resources, such as disk space, belonging to multiple users, and the system permits multiple users to interact with the system at the same time. Time - sharing operating systems schedule tasks for efficient use of the system and may also include accounting software for cost allocation of processor time, mass storage, printing, and other resources to multiple users.
A distributed operating system manages a group of distinct computers and makes them appear to be a single computer. The development of networked computers that could be linked and communicate with each other gave rise to distributed computing. Distributed computations are carried out on more than one machine. When computers in a group work in cooperation, they form a distributed system.
In an OS, distributed and cloud computing context, templating refers to creating a single virtual machine image as a guest operating system, then saving it as a tool for multiple running virtual machines. The technique is used both in virtualization and cloud computing management, and is common in large server warehouses.
Embedded operating systems are designed to be used in embedded computer systems. They are designed to operate on small machines like PDAs with less autonomy. They are able to operate with a limited number of resources. They are very compact and extremely efficient by design. Windows CE and Minix 3 are some examples of embedded operating systems.
A real - time operating system is an operating system that guarantees to process events or data by a specific moment in time. A real - time operating system may be single - or multi-tasking, but when multitasking, it uses specialized scheduling algorithms so that a deterministic nature of behavior is achieved. An event - driven system switches between tasks based on their priorities or external events while time - sharing operating systems switch tasks based on clock interrupts
A library operating system is one in which the services that a typical operating system provides, such as networking, are provided in the form of libraries and composed with the application and configuration code to construct a unikernel: a specialized, single address space, machine image that can be deployed to cloud or embedded environments.
Early computers were built to perform a series of single tasks, like a calculator. Basic operating system features were developed in the 1950s, such as resident monitor functions that could automatically run different programs in succession to speed up processing. Operating systems did not exist in their modern and more complex forms until the early 1960s. Hardware features were added, that enabled use of runtime libraries, interrupts, and parallel processing. When personal computers became popular in the 1980s, operating systems were made for them similar in concept to those used on larger computers.
In the 1940s, the earliest electronic digital systems had no operating systems. Electronic systems of this time were programmed on rows of mechanical switches or by jumper wires on plug boards. These were special - purpose systems that, for example, generated ballistics tables for the military or controlled the printing of payroll checks from data on punched paper cards. After programmable general purpose computers were invented, machine languages (consisting of strings of the binary digits 0 and 1 on punched paper tape) were introduced that sped up the programming process (Stern, 1981).
In the early 1950s, a computer could execute only one program at a time. Each user had sole use of the computer for a limited period of time and would arrive at a scheduled time with program and data on punched paper cards or punched tape. The program would be loaded into the machine, and the machine would be set to work until the program completed or crashed. Programs could generally be debugged via a front panel using toggle switches and panel lights. It is said that Alan Turing was a master of this on the early Manchester Mark 1 machine, and he was already deriving the primitive conception of an operating system from the principles of the universal Turing machine.
Later machines came with libraries of programs, which would be linked to a user 's program to assist in operations such as input and output and generating computer code from human - readable symbolic code. This was the genesis of the modern - day operating system. However, machines still ran a single job at a time. At Cambridge University in England the job queue was at one time a washing line (clothes line) from which tapes were hung with different colored clothes - pegs to indicate job - priority.
An improvement was the Atlas Supervisor introduced with the Manchester Atlas commissioned in 1962, "considered by many to be the first recognisable modern operating system ''. Brinch Hansen described it as "the most significant breakthrough in the history of operating systems. ''
Through the 1950s, many major features were pioneered in the field of operating systems on mainframe computers, including batch processing, input / output interrupt, buffering, multitasking, spooling, runtime libraries, link - loading, and programs for sorting records in files. These features were included or not included in application software at the option of application programmers, rather than in a separate operating system used by all applications. In 1959, the SHARE Operating System was released as an integrated utility for the IBM 704, and later in the 709 and 7090 mainframes, although it was quickly supplanted by IBSYS / IBJOB on the 709, 7090 and 7094.
During the 1960s, IBM 's OS / 360 introduced the concept of a single OS spanning an entire product line, which was crucial for the success of the System / 360 machines. IBM 's current mainframe operating systems are distant descendants of this original system and applications written for OS / 360 can still be run on modern machines.
OS / 360 also pioneered the concept that the operating system keeps track of all of the system resources that are used, including program and data space allocation in main memory and file space in secondary storage, and file locking during update. When the process is terminated for any reason, all of these resources are re-claimed by the operating system.
The alternative CP - 67 system for the S / 360 - 67 started a whole line of IBM operating systems focused on the concept of virtual machines. Other operating systems used on IBM S / 360 series mainframes included systems developed by IBM: COS / 360 (Compatibility Operating System), DOS / 360 (Disk Operating System), TSS / 360 (Time Sharing System), TOS / 360 (Tape Operating System), BOS / 360 (Basic Operating System), and ACP (Airline Control Program), as well as a few non-IBM systems: MTS (Michigan Terminal System), MUSIC (Multi-User System for Interactive Computing), and ORVYL (Stanford Timesharing System).
Control Data Corporation developed the SCOPE operating system in the 1960s, for batch processing. In cooperation with the University of Minnesota, the Kronos and later the NOS operating systems were developed during the 1970s, which supported simultaneous batch and timesharing use. Like many commercial timesharing systems, its interface was an extension of the Dartmouth BASIC operating systems, one of the pioneering efforts in timesharing and programming languages. In the late 1970s, Control Data and the University of Illinois developed the PLATO operating system, which used plasma panel displays and long - distance time sharing networks. Plato was remarkably innovative for its time, featuring real - time chat, and multi-user graphical games.
In 1961, Burroughs Corporation introduced the B5000 with the MCP, (Master Control Program) operating system. The B5000 was a stack machine designed to exclusively support high - level languages with no machine language or assembler, and indeed the MCP was the first OS to be written exclusively in a high - level language -- ESPOL, a dialect of ALGOL. MCP also introduced many other ground - breaking innovations, such as being the first commercial implementation of virtual memory. During development of the AS / 400, IBM made an approach to Burroughs to license MCP to run on the AS / 400 hardware. This proposal was declined by Burroughs management to protect its existing hardware production. MCP is still in use today in the Unisys ClearPath / MCP line of computers.
UNIVAC, the first commercial computer manufacturer, produced a series of EXEC operating systems. Like all early main - frame systems, this batch - oriented system managed magnetic drums, disks, card readers and line printers. In the 1970s, UNIVAC produced the Real - Time Basic (RTB) system to support large - scale time sharing, also patterned after the Dartmouth BC system.
General Electric and MIT developed General Electric Comprehensive Operating Supervisor (GECOS), which introduced the concept of ringed security privilege levels. After acquisition by Honeywell it was renamed General Comprehensive Operating System (GCOS).
Digital Equipment Corporation developed many operating systems for its various computer lines, including TOPS - 10 and TOPS - 20 time sharing systems for the 36 - bit PDP - 10 class systems. Before the widespread use of UNIX, TOPS - 10 was a particularly popular system in universities, and in the early ARPANET community.
From the late 1960s through the late 1970s, several hardware capabilities evolved that allowed similar or ported software to run on more than one system. Early systems had utilized microprogramming to implement features on their systems in order to permit different underlying computer architectures to appear to be the same as others in a series. In fact, most 360s after the 360 / 40 (except the 360 / 165 and 360 / 168) were microprogrammed implementations.
The enormous investment in software for these systems made since the 1960s caused most of the original computer manufacturers to continue to develop compatible operating systems along with the hardware. Notable supported mainframe operating systems include:
The first microcomputers did not have the capacity or need for the elaborate operating systems that had been developed for mainframes and minis; minimalistic operating systems were developed, often loaded from ROM and known as monitors. One notable early disk operating system was CP / M, which was supported on many early microcomputers and was closely imitated by Microsoft 's MS - DOS, which became widely popular as the operating system chosen for the IBM PC (IBM 's version of it was called IBM DOS or PC DOS). In the 1980s, Apple Computer Inc. (now Apple Inc.) abandoned its popular Apple II series of microcomputers to introduce the Apple Macintosh computer with an innovative graphical user interface (GUI) to the Mac OS.
The introduction of the Intel 80386 CPU chip in October 1985, with 32 - bit architecture and paging capabilities, provided personal computers with the ability to run multitasking operating systems like those of earlier minicomputers and mainframes. Microsoft responded to this progress by hiring Dave Cutler, who had developed the VMS operating system for Digital Equipment Corporation. He would lead the development of the Windows NT operating system, which continues to serve as the basis for Microsoft 's operating systems line. Steve Jobs, a co-founder of Apple Inc., started NeXT Computer Inc., which developed the NEXTSTEP operating system. NEXTSTEP would later be acquired by Apple Inc. and used, along with code from FreeBSD as the core of Mac OS X (macOS after latest name change).
The GNU Project was started by activist and programmer Richard Stallman with the goal of creating a complete free software replacement to the proprietary UNIX operating system. While the project was highly successful in duplicating the functionality of various parts of UNIX, development of the GNU Hurd kernel proved to be unproductive. In 1991, Finnish computer science student Linus Torvalds, with cooperation from volunteers collaborating over the Internet, released the first version of the Linux kernel. It was soon merged with the GNU user space components and system software to form a complete operating system. Since then, the combination of the two major components has usually been referred to as simply "Linux '' by the software industry, a naming convention that Stallman and the Free Software Foundation remain opposed to, preferring the name GNU / Linux. The Berkeley Software Distribution, known as BSD, is the UNIX derivative distributed by the University of California, Berkeley, starting in the 1970s. Freely distributed and ported to many minicomputers, it eventually also gained a following for use on PCs, mainly as FreeBSD, NetBSD and OpenBSD.
Unix was originally written in assembly language. Ken Thompson wrote B, mainly based on BCPL, based on his experience in the MULTICS project. B was replaced by C, and Unix, rewritten in C, developed into a large, complex family of inter-related operating systems which have been influential in every modern operating system (see History).
The Unix - like family is a diverse group of operating systems, with several major sub-categories including System V, BSD, and Linux. The name "UNIX '' is a trademark of The Open Group which licenses it for use with any operating system that has been shown to conform to their definitions. "UNIX - like '' is commonly used to refer to the large set of operating systems which resemble the original UNIX.
Unix - like systems run on a wide variety of computer architectures. They are used heavily for servers in business, as well as workstations in academic and engineering environments. Free UNIX variants, such as Linux and BSD, are popular in these areas.
Four operating systems are certified by The Open Group (holder of the Unix trademark) as Unix. HP 's HP - UX and IBM 's AIX are both descendants of the original System V Unix and are designed to run only on their respective vendor 's hardware. In contrast, Sun Microsystems 's Solaris can run on multiple types of hardware, including x86 and Sparc servers, and PCs. Apple 's macOS, a replacement for Apple 's earlier (non-Unix) Mac OS, is a hybrid kernel - based BSD variant derived from NeXTSTEP, Mach, and FreeBSD.
Unix interoperability was sought by establishing the POSIX standard. The POSIX standard can be applied to any operating system, although it was originally created for various Unix variants.
A subgroup of the Unix family is the Berkeley Software Distribution family, which includes FreeBSD, NetBSD, and OpenBSD. These operating systems are most commonly found on webservers, although they can also function as a personal computer OS. The Internet owes much of its existence to BSD, as many of the protocols now commonly used by computers to connect, send and receive data over a network were widely implemented and refined in BSD. The World Wide Web was also first demonstrated on a number of computers running an OS based on BSD called NeXTSTEP.
In 1974, University of California, Berkeley installed its first Unix system. Over time, students and staff in the computer science department there began adding new programs to make things easier, such as text editors. When Berkeley received new VAX computers in 1978 with Unix installed, the school 's undergraduates modified Unix even more in order to take advantage of the computer 's hardware possibilities. The Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency of the US Department of Defense took interest, and decided to fund the project. Many schools, corporations, and government organizations took notice and started to use Berkeley 's version of Unix instead of the official one distributed by AT&T.
Steve Jobs, upon leaving Apple Inc. in 1985, formed NeXT Inc., a company that manufactured high - end computers running on a variation of BSD called NeXTSTEP. One of these computers was used by Tim Berners - Lee as the first webserver to create the World Wide Web.
Developers like Keith Bostic encouraged the project to replace any non-free code that originated with Bell Labs. Once this was done, however, AT&T sued. After two years of legal disputes, the BSD project spawned a number of free derivatives, such as NetBSD and FreeBSD (both in 1993), and OpenBSD (from NetBSD in 1995).
macOS (formerly "Mac OS X '' and later "OS X '') is a line of open core graphical operating systems developed, marketed, and sold by Apple Inc., the latest of which is pre-loaded on all currently shipping Macintosh computers. macOS is the successor to the original classic Mac OS, which had been Apple 's primary operating system since 1984. Unlike its predecessor, macOS is a UNIX operating system built on technology that had been developed at NeXT through the second half of the 1980s and up until Apple purchased the company in early 1997. The operating system was first released in 1999 as Mac OS X Server 1.0, followed in March 2001 by a client version (Mac OS X v10. 0 "Cheetah ''). Since then, six more distinct "client '' and "server '' editions of macOS have been released, until the two were merged in OS X 10.7 "Lion ''.
Prior to its merging with macOS, the server edition -- macOS Server -- was architecturally identical to its desktop counterpart and usually ran on Apple 's line of Macintosh server hardware. macOS Server included work group management and administration software tools that provide simplified access to key network services, including a mail transfer agent, a Samba server, an LDAP server, a domain name server, and others. With Mac OS X v10. 7 Lion, all server aspects of Mac OS X Server have been integrated into the client version and the product re-branded as "OS X '' (dropping "Mac '' from the name). The server tools are now offered as an application.
The Linux kernel originated in 1991, as a project of Linus Torvalds, while a university student in Finland. He posted information about his project on a newsgroup for computer students and programmers, and received support and assistance from volunteers who succeeded in creating a complete and functional kernel.
Linux is Unix - like, but was developed without any Unix code, unlike BSD and its variants. Because of its open license model, the Linux kernel code is available for study and modification, which resulted in its use on a wide range of computing machinery from supercomputers to smart - watches. Although estimates suggest that Linux is used on only 1.82 % of all "desktop '' (or laptop) PCs, it has been widely adopted for use in servers and embedded systems such as cell phones. Linux has superseded Unix on many platforms and is used on most supercomputers including the top 385. Many of the same computers are also on Green500 (but in different order), and Linux runs on the top 10. Linux is also commonly used on other small energy - efficient computers, such as smartphones and smartwatches. The Linux kernel is used in some popular distributions, such as Red Hat, Debian, Ubuntu, Linux Mint and Google 's Android, Chrome OS, and Chromium OS.
Microsoft Windows is a family of proprietary operating systems designed by Microsoft Corporation and primarily targeted to Intel architecture based computers, with an estimated 88.9 percent total usage share on Web connected computers. The latest version is Windows 10.
In 2011, Windows 7 overtook Windows XP as most common version in use.
Microsoft Windows was first released in 1985, as an operating environment running on top of MS - DOS, which was the standard operating system shipped on most Intel architecture personal computers at the time. In 1995, Windows 95 was released which only used MS - DOS as a bootstrap. For backwards compatibility, Win9x could run real - mode MS - DOS and 16 - bit Windows 3. x drivers. Windows ME, released in 2000, was the last version in the Win9x family. Later versions have all been based on the Windows NT kernel. Current client versions of Windows run on IA - 32, x86 - 64 and 32 - bit ARM microprocessors. In addition Itanium is still supported in older server version Windows Server 2008 R2. In the past, Windows NT supported additional architectures.
Server editions of Windows are widely used. In recent years, Microsoft has expended significant capital in an effort to promote the use of Windows as a server operating system. However, Windows ' usage on servers is not as widespread as on personal computers as Windows competes against Linux and BSD for server market share.
ReactOS is a Windows - alternative operating system, which is being developed on the principles of Windows -- without using any of Microsoft 's code.
There have been many operating systems that were significant in their day but are no longer so, such as AmigaOS; OS / 2 from IBM and Microsoft; classic Mac OS, the non-Unix precursor to Apple 's macOS; BeOS; XTS - 300; RISC OS; MorphOS; Haiku; BareMetal and FreeMint. Some are still used in niche markets and continue to be developed as minority platforms for enthusiast communities and specialist applications. OpenVMS, formerly from DEC, is still under active development by Hewlett - Packard. Yet other operating systems are used almost exclusively in academia, for operating systems education or to do research on operating system concepts. A typical example of a system that fulfills both roles is MINIX, while for example Singularity is used purely for research.
Other operating systems have failed to win significant market share, but have introduced innovations that have influenced mainstream operating systems, not least Bell Labs ' Plan 9.
The components of an operating system all exist in order to make the different parts of a computer work together. All user software needs to go through the operating system in order to use any of the hardware, whether it be as simple as a mouse or keyboard or as complex as an Internet component.
With the aid of the firmware and device drivers, the kernel provides the most basic level of control over all of the computer 's hardware devices. It manages memory access for programs in the RAM, it determines which programs get access to which hardware resources, it sets up or resets the CPU 's operating states for optimal operation at all times, and it organizes the data for long - term non-volatile storage with file systems on such media as disks, tapes, flash memory, etc.
The operating system provides an interface between an application program and the computer hardware, so that an application program can interact with the hardware only by obeying rules and procedures programmed into the operating system. The operating system is also a set of services which simplify development and execution of application programs. Executing an application program involves the creation of a process by the operating system kernel which assigns memory space and other resources, establishes a priority for the process in multi-tasking systems, loads program binary code into memory, and initiates execution of the application program which then interacts with the user and with hardware devices.
Interrupts are central to operating systems, as they provide an efficient way for the operating system to interact with and react to its environment. The alternative -- having the operating system "watch '' the various sources of input for events (polling) that require action -- can be found in older systems with very small stacks (50 or 60 bytes) but is unusual in modern systems with large stacks. Interrupt - based programming is directly supported by most modern CPUs. Interrupts provide a computer with a way of automatically saving local register contexts, and running specific code in response to events. Even very basic computers support hardware interrupts, and allow the programmer to specify code which may be run when that event takes place.
When an interrupt is received, the computer 's hardware automatically suspends whatever program is currently running, saves its status, and runs computer code previously associated with the interrupt; this is analogous to placing a bookmark in a book in response to a phone call. In modern operating systems, interrupts are handled by the operating system 's kernel. Interrupts may come from either the computer 's hardware or the running program.
When a hardware device triggers an interrupt, the operating system 's kernel decides how to deal with this event, generally by running some processing code. The amount of code being run depends on the priority of the interrupt (for example: a person usually responds to a smoke detector alarm before answering the phone). The processing of hardware interrupts is a task that is usually delegated to software called a device driver, which may be part of the operating system 's kernel, part of another program, or both. Device drivers may then relay information to a running program by various means.
A program may also trigger an interrupt to the operating system. If a program wishes to access hardware, for example, it may interrupt the operating system 's kernel, which causes control to be passed back to the kernel. The kernel then processes the request. If a program wishes additional resources (or wishes to shed resources) such as memory, it triggers an interrupt to get the kernel 's attention.
Modern microprocessors (CPU or MPU) support multiple modes of operation. CPUs with this capability offer at least two modes: user mode and supervisor mode. In general terms, supervisor mode operation allows unrestricted access to all machine resources, including all MPU instructions. User mode operation sets limits on instruction use and typically disallows direct access to machine resources. CPUs might have other modes similar to user mode as well, such as the virtual modes in order to emulate older processor types, such as 16 - bit processors on a 32 - bit one, or 32 - bit processors on a 64 - bit one.
At power - on or reset, the system begins in supervisor mode. Once an operating system kernel has been loaded and started, the boundary between user mode and supervisor mode (also known as kernel mode) can be established.
Supervisor mode is used by the kernel for low level tasks that need unrestricted access to hardware, such as controlling how memory is accessed, and communicating with devices such as disk drives and video display devices. User mode, in contrast, is used for almost everything else. Application programs, such as word processors and database managers, operate within user mode, and can only access machine resources by turning control over to the kernel, a process which causes a switch to supervisor mode. Typically, the transfer of control to the kernel is achieved by executing a software interrupt instruction, such as the Motorola 68000 TRAP instruction. The software interrupt causes the microprocessor to switch from user mode to supervisor mode and begin executing code that allows the kernel to take control.
In user mode, programs usually have access to a restricted set of microprocessor instructions, and generally can not execute any instructions that could potentially cause disruption to the system 's operation. In supervisor mode, instruction execution restrictions are typically removed, allowing the kernel unrestricted access to all machine resources.
The term "user mode resource '' generally refers to one or more CPU registers, which contain information that the running program is n't allowed to alter. Attempts to alter these resources generally causes a switch to supervisor mode, where the operating system can deal with the illegal operation the program was attempting, for example, by forceably terminating ("killing '') the program).
Among other things, a multiprogramming operating system kernel must be responsible for managing all system memory which is currently in use by programs. This ensures that a program does not interfere with memory already in use by another program. Since programs time share, each program must have independent access to memory.
Cooperative memory management, used by many early operating systems, assumes that all programs make voluntary use of the kernel 's memory manager, and do not exceed their allocated memory. This system of memory management is almost never seen any more, since programs often contain bugs which can cause them to exceed their allocated memory. If a program fails, it may cause memory used by one or more other programs to be affected or overwritten. Malicious programs or viruses may purposefully alter another program 's memory, or may affect the operation of the operating system itself. With cooperative memory management, it takes only one misbehaved program to crash the system.
Memory protection enables the kernel to limit a process ' access to the computer 's memory. Various methods of memory protection exist, including memory segmentation and paging. All methods require some level of hardware support (such as the 80286 MMU), which does n't exist in all computers.
In both segmentation and paging, certain protected mode registers specify to the CPU what memory address it should allow a running program to access. Attempts to access other addresses trigger an interrupt which cause the CPU to re-enter supervisor mode, placing the kernel in charge. This is called a segmentation violation or Seg - V for short, and since it is both difficult to assign a meaningful result to such an operation, and because it is usually a sign of a misbehaving program, the kernel generally resorts to terminating the offending program, and reports the error.
Windows versions 3.1 through ME had some level of memory protection, but programs could easily circumvent the need to use it. A general protection fault would be produced, indicating a segmentation violation had occurred; however, the system would often crash anyway.
The use of virtual memory addressing (such as paging or segmentation) means that the kernel can choose what memory each program may use at any given time, allowing the operating system to use the same memory locations for multiple tasks.
If a program tries to access memory that is n't in its current range of accessible memory, but nonetheless has been allocated to it, the kernel is interrupted in the same way as it would if the program were to exceed its allocated memory. (See section on memory management.) Under UNIX this kind of interrupt is referred to as a page fault.
When the kernel detects a page fault it generally adjusts the virtual memory range of the program which triggered it, granting it access to the memory requested. This gives the kernel discretionary power over where a particular application 's memory is stored, or even whether or not it has actually been allocated yet.
In modern operating systems, memory which is accessed less frequently can be temporarily stored on disk or other media to make that space available for use by other programs. This is called swapping, as an area of memory can be used by multiple programs, and what that memory area contains can be swapped or exchanged on demand.
"Virtual memory '' provides the programmer or the user with the perception that there is a much larger amount of RAM in the computer than is really there.
Multitasking refers to the running of multiple independent computer programs on the same computer; giving the appearance that it is performing the tasks at the same time. Since most computers can do at most one or two things at one time, this is generally done via time - sharing, which means that each program uses a share of the computer 's time to execute.
An operating system kernel contains a scheduling program which determines how much time each process spends executing, and in which order execution control should be passed to programs. Control is passed to a process by the kernel, which allows the program access to the CPU and memory. Later, control is returned to the kernel through some mechanism, so that another program may be allowed to use the CPU. This so - called passing of control between the kernel and applications is called a context switch.
An early model which governed the allocation of time to programs was called cooperative multitasking. In this model, when control is passed to a program by the kernel, it may execute for as long as it wants before explicitly returning control to the kernel. This means that a malicious or malfunctioning program may not only prevent any other programs from using the CPU, but it can hang the entire system if it enters an infinite loop.
Modern operating systems extend the concepts of application preemption to device drivers and kernel code, so that the operating system has preemptive control over internal run - times as well.
The philosophy governing preemptive multitasking is that of ensuring that all programs are given regular time on the CPU. This implies that all programs must be limited in how much time they are allowed to spend on the CPU without being interrupted. To accomplish this, modern operating system kernels make use of a timed interrupt. A protected mode timer is set by the kernel which triggers a return to supervisor mode after the specified time has elapsed. (See above sections on Interrupts and Dual Mode Operation.)
On many single user operating systems cooperative multitasking is perfectly adequate, as home computers generally run a small number of well tested programs. The AmigaOS is an exception, having preemptive multitasking from its very first version. Windows NT was the first version of Microsoft Windows which enforced preemptive multitasking, but it did n't reach the home user market until Windows XP (since Windows NT was targeted at professionals).
Access to data stored on disks is a central feature of all operating systems. Computers store data on disks using files, which are structured in specific ways in order to allow for faster access, higher reliability, and to make better use of the drive 's available space. The specific way in which files are stored on a disk is called a file system, and enables files to have names and attributes. It also allows them to be stored in a hierarchy of directories or folders arranged in a directory tree.
Early operating systems generally supported a single type of disk drive and only one kind of file system. Early file systems were limited in their capacity, speed, and in the kinds of file names and directory structures they could use. These limitations often reflected limitations in the operating systems they were designed for, making it very difficult for an operating system to support more than one file system.
While many simpler operating systems support a limited range of options for accessing storage systems, operating systems like UNIX and Linux support a technology known as a virtual file system or VFS. An operating system such as UNIX supports a wide array of storage devices, regardless of their design or file systems, allowing them to be accessed through a common application programming interface (API). This makes it unnecessary for programs to have any knowledge about the device they are accessing. A VFS allows the operating system to provide programs with access to an unlimited number of devices with an infinite variety of file systems installed on them, through the use of specific device drivers and file system drivers.
A connected storage device, such as a hard drive, is accessed through a device driver. The device driver understands the specific language of the drive and is able to translate that language into a standard language used by the operating system to access all disk drives. On UNIX, this is the language of block devices.
When the kernel has an appropriate device driver in place, it can then access the contents of the disk drive in raw format, which may contain one or more file systems. A file system driver is used to translate the commands used to access each specific file system into a standard set of commands that the operating system can use to talk to all file systems. Programs can then deal with these file systems on the basis of filenames, and directories / folders, contained within a hierarchical structure. They can create, delete, open, and close files, as well as gather various information about them, including access permissions, size, free space, and creation and modification dates.
Various differences between file systems make supporting all file systems difficult. Allowed characters in file names, case sensitivity, and the presence of various kinds of file attributes makes the implementation of a single interface for every file system a daunting task. Operating systems tend to recommend using (and so support natively) file systems specifically designed for them; for example, NTFS in Windows and ext3 and ReiserFS in Linux. However, in practice, third party drivers are usually available to give support for the most widely used file systems in most general - purpose operating systems (for example, NTFS is available in Linux through NTFS - 3g, and ext2 / 3 and ReiserFS are available in Windows through third - party software).
Support for file systems is highly varied among modern operating systems, although there are several common file systems which almost all operating systems include support and drivers for. Operating systems vary on file system support and on the disk formats they may be installed on. Under Windows, each file system is usually limited in application to certain media; for example, CDs must use ISO 9660 or UDF, and as of Windows Vista, NTFS is the only file system which the operating system can be installed on. It is possible to install Linux onto many types of file systems. Unlike other operating systems, Linux and UNIX allow any file system to be used regardless of the media it is stored in, whether it is a hard drive, a disc (CD, DVD...), a USB flash drive, or even contained within a file located on another file system.
A device driver is a specific type of computer software developed to allow interaction with hardware devices. Typically this constitutes an interface for communicating with the device, through the specific computer bus or communications subsystem that the hardware is connected to, providing commands to and / or receiving data from the device, and on the other end, the requisite interfaces to the operating system and software applications. It is a specialized hardware - dependent computer program which is also operating system specific that enables another program, typically an operating system or applications software package or computer program running under the operating system kernel, to interact transparently with a hardware device, and usually provides the requisite interrupt handling necessary for any necessary asynchronous time - dependent hardware interfacing needs.
The key design goal of device drivers is abstraction. Every model of hardware (even within the same class of device) is different. Newer models also are released by manufacturers that provide more reliable or better performance and these newer models are often controlled differently. Computers and their operating systems can not be expected to know how to control every device, both now and in the future. To solve this problem, operating systems essentially dictate how every type of device should be controlled. The function of the device driver is then to translate these operating system mandated function calls into device specific calls. In theory a new device, which is controlled in a new manner, should function correctly if a suitable driver is available. This new driver ensures that the device appears to operate as usual from the operating system 's point of view.
Under versions of Windows before Vista and versions of Linux before 2.6, all driver execution was co-operative, meaning that if a driver entered an infinite loop it would freeze the system. More recent revisions of these operating systems incorporate kernel preemption, where the kernel interrupts the driver to give it tasks, and then separates itself from the process until it receives a response from the device driver, or gives it more tasks to do.
Currently most operating systems support a variety of networking protocols, hardware, and applications for using them. This means that computers running dissimilar operating systems can participate in a common network for sharing resources such as computing, files, printers, and scanners using either wired or wireless connections. Networks can essentially allow a computer 's operating system to access the resources of a remote computer to support the same functions as it could if those resources were connected directly to the local computer. This includes everything from simple communication, to using networked file systems or even sharing another computer 's graphics or sound hardware. Some network services allow the resources of a computer to be accessed transparently, such as SSH which allows networked users direct access to a computer 's command line interface.
Client / server networking allows a program on a computer, called a client, to connect via a network to another computer, called a server. Servers offer (or host) various services to other network computers and users. These services are usually provided through ports or numbered access points beyond the server 's IP address. Each port number is usually associated with a maximum of one running program, which is responsible for handling requests to that port. A daemon, being a user program, can in turn access the local hardware resources of that computer by passing requests to the operating system kernel.
Many operating systems support one or more vendor - specific or open networking protocols as well, for example, SNA on IBM systems, DECnet on systems from Digital Equipment Corporation, and Microsoft - specific protocols (SMB) on Windows. Specific protocols for specific tasks may also be supported such as NFS for file access. Protocols like ESound, or esd can be easily extended over the network to provide sound from local applications, on a remote system 's sound hardware.
A computer being secure depends on a number of technologies working properly. A modern operating system provides access to a number of resources, which are available to software running on the system, and to external devices like networks via the kernel.
The operating system must be capable of distinguishing between requests which should be allowed to be processed, and others which should not be processed. While some systems may simply distinguish between "privileged '' and "non-privileged '', systems commonly have a form of requester identity, such as a user name. To establish identity there may be a process of authentication. Often a username must be quoted, and each username may have a password. Other methods of authentication, such as magnetic cards or biometric data, might be used instead. In some cases, especially connections from the network, resources may be accessed with no authentication at all (such as reading files over a network share). Also covered by the concept of requester identity is authorization; the particular services and resources accessible by the requester once logged into a system are tied to either the requester 's user account or to the variously configured groups of users to which the requester belongs.
In addition to the allow or disallow model of security, a system with a high level of security also offers auditing options. These would allow tracking of requests for access to resources (such as, "who has been reading this file? ''). Internal security, or security from an already running program is only possible if all possibly harmful requests must be carried out through interrupts to the operating system kernel. If programs can directly access hardware and resources, they can not be secured.
External security involves a request from outside the computer, such as a login at a connected console or some kind of network connection. External requests are often passed through device drivers to the operating system 's kernel, where they can be passed onto applications, or carried out directly. Security of operating systems has long been a concern because of highly sensitive data held on computers, both of a commercial and military nature. The United States Government Department of Defense (DoD) created the Trusted Computer System Evaluation Criteria (TCSEC) which is a standard that sets basic requirements for assessing the effectiveness of security. This became of vital importance to operating system makers, because the TCSEC was used to evaluate, classify and select trusted operating systems being considered for the processing, storage and retrieval of sensitive or classified information.
Network services include offerings such as file sharing, print services, email, web sites, and file transfer protocols (FTP), most of which can have compromised security. At the front line of security are hardware devices known as firewalls or intrusion detection / prevention systems. At the operating system level, there are a number of software firewalls available, as well as intrusion detection / prevention systems. Most modern operating systems include a software firewall, which is enabled by default. A software firewall can be configured to allow or deny network traffic to or from a service or application running on the operating system. Therefore, one can install and be running an insecure service, such as Telnet or FTP, and not have to be threatened by a security breach because the firewall would deny all traffic trying to connect to the service on that port.
An alternative strategy, and the only sandbox strategy available in systems that do not meet the Popek and Goldberg virtualization requirements, is where the operating system is not running user programs as native code, but instead either emulates a processor or provides a host for a p - code based system such as Java.
Internal security is especially relevant for multi-user systems; it allows each user of the system to have private files that the other users can not tamper with or read. Internal security is also vital if auditing is to be of any use, since a program can potentially bypass the operating system, inclusive of bypassing auditing.
Every computer that is to be operated by an individual requires a user interface. The user interface is usually referred to as a shell and is essential if human interaction is to be supported. The user interface views the directory structure and requests services from the operating system that will acquire data from input hardware devices, such as a keyboard, mouse or credit card reader, and requests operating system services to display prompts, status messages and such on output hardware devices, such as a video monitor or printer. The two most common forms of a user interface have historically been the command - line interface, where computer commands are typed out line - by - line, and the graphical user interface, where a visual environment (most commonly a WIMP) is present.
Most of the modern computer systems support graphical user interfaces (GUI), and often include them. In some computer systems, such as the original implementation of the classic Mac OS, the GUI is integrated into the kernel.
While technically a graphical user interface is not an operating system service, incorporating support for one into the operating system kernel can allow the GUI to be more responsive by reducing the number of context switches required for the GUI to perform its output functions. Other operating systems are modular, separating the graphics subsystem from the kernel and the Operating System. In the 1980s UNIX, VMS and many others had operating systems that were built this way. Linux and macOS are also built this way. Modern releases of Microsoft Windows such as Windows Vista implement a graphics subsystem that is mostly in user - space; however the graphics drawing routines of versions between Windows NT 4.0 and Windows Server 2003 exist mostly in kernel space. Windows 9x had very little distinction between the interface and the kernel.
Many computer operating systems allow the user to install or create any user interface they desire. The X Window System in conjunction with GNOME or KDE Plasma 5 is a commonly found setup on most Unix and Unix - like (BSD, Linux, Solaris) systems. A number of Windows shell replacements have been released for Microsoft Windows, which offer alternatives to the included Windows shell, but the shell itself can not be separated from Windows.
Numerous Unix - based GUIs have existed over time, most derived from X11. Competition among the various vendors of Unix (HP, IBM, Sun) led to much fragmentation, though an effort to standardize in the 1990s to COSE and CDE failed for various reasons, and were eventually eclipsed by the widespread adoption of GNOME and K Desktop Environment. Prior to free software - based toolkits and desktop environments, Motif was the prevalent toolkit / desktop combination (and was the basis upon which CDE was developed).
Graphical user interfaces evolve over time. For example, Windows has modified its user interface almost every time a new major version of Windows is released, and the Mac OS GUI changed dramatically with the introduction of Mac OS X in 1999.
A real - time operating system (RTOS) is an operating system intended for applications with fixed deadlines (real - time computing). Such applications include some small embedded systems, automobile engine controllers, industrial robots, spacecraft, industrial control, and some large - scale computing systems.
An early example of a large - scale real - time operating system was Transaction Processing Facility developed by American Airlines and IBM for the Sabre Airline Reservations System.
Embedded systems that have fixed deadlines use a real - time operating system such as VxWorks, PikeOS, eCos, QNX, MontaVista Linux and RTLinux. Windows CE is a real - time operating system that shares similar APIs to desktop Windows but shares none of desktop Windows ' codebase. Symbian OS also has an RTOS kernel (EKA2) starting with version 8.0 b.
Some embedded systems use operating systems such as Palm OS, BSD, and Linux, although such operating systems do not support real - time computing.
Operating system development is one of the most complicated activities in which a computing hobbyist may engage. A hobby operating system may be classified as one whose code has not been directly derived from an existing operating system, and has few users and active developers.
In some cases, hobby development is in support of a "homebrew '' computing device, for example, a simple single - board computer powered by a 6502 microprocessor. Or, development may be for an architecture already in widespread use. Operating system development may come from entirely new concepts, or may commence by modeling an existing operating system. In either case, the hobbyist is his / her own developer, or may interact with a small and sometimes unstructured group of individuals who have like interests.
Examples of a hobby operating system include Syllable.
Application software is generally written for use on a specific operating system, and sometimes even for specific hardware. When porting the application to run on another OS, the functionality required by that application may be implemented differently by that OS (the names of functions, meaning of arguments, etc.) requiring the application to be adapted, changed, or otherwise maintained.
Unix was the first operating system not written in assembly language, making it very portable to systems different from its native PDP - 11.
This cost in supporting operating systems diversity can be avoided by instead writing applications against software platforms like Java or Qt. These abstractions have already borne the cost of adaptation to specific operating systems and their system libraries.
Another approach is for operating system vendors to adopt standards. For example, POSIX and OS abstraction layers provide commonalities that reduce porting costs.
Source: Gartner
In 2014, Android was first (currently not replicated by others, in a single year) operating system ever to ship on a billion devices, becoming the most popular operating system by installed base.
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the devil is a part-timer episode 14 english dub | List of the Devil is a Part - Timer! Episodes - wikipedia
The Devil Is a Part - Timer! is 2013 fantasy, comedy Japanese anime series based on the light novels written by Satoshi Wagahara. In another dimension, the Dark Lord Satan and his forces of evil are defeated by the Hero Emilia Justina. Satan and his Demon general Alciel are forced to flee through a portal which drops them off in modern - day Japan. With their magic slowly depleting in an unfamiliar world, they are forced to assume the lives of normal human beings in order to survive. The Hero Emilia Justina follows them through the portal and she too is met with the same circumstances. Although Emilia still harbors negative feelings towards Satan for his past acts of evil, they become unlikely allies in order to survive.
The anime is produced by White Fox and directed by Naoto Hosoda, with series composition by Masahiro Yokotani, character designs by Atsushi Ikariya, art direction by Yoshito Takamine and sound direction by Jin Aketagawa. The thirteen episode series premiered between April 4 and June 27, 2013 on Tokyo MX and was later aired on KBS, SUN - TV, BS Nittele, TVA and AT - X. Pony Canyon released the series in Japan on six Blu - ray and DVD volumes starting on July 3, 2013. The anime was acquired by Funimation for streaming in North America. Manga Entertainment later licensed the series for distribution in the United Kingdom. This was followed by an acquisition by Siren Visual for home media distribution in Australia and New Zealand and online streaming on AnimeLab in 2014.
The opening theme is "Zero!! '' by Minami Kuribayashi while the ending theme is "Gekka '' (月 花, lit. "Moon Flower '') by Nano Ripe. "Star Chart '' (スター チャート) by Nano Ripe is used as the ending theme of episode 5 while "Tsumabiku Hitori '' (ツマビクヒトリ) by Nano Ripe is used as the ending theme of episode 13.
Chiho has a strange dream where Satan leaves Earth and returns to Ente Isla, leaving her behind much to her agony. While recalling the dream to Sadao the next day he confirms that he does n't have enough magic to return since he used it all repairing the city from his and Sariel 's battle the previous day. At the same time, they discover Sariel in MgRonald 's freezer since Sadao 's magical bamboo had redirected his portal. Sariel immediately falls head over heels for Mayumi much to her disgust. Meanwhile, Emi also has a strange dream where Satan conquers Sasakuza. As she goes to visit Sadao and co. Shirō asks Sadao for some time off which makes her suspicious, causing her to enlist Emeralda to see what they might be up to. Later, Emi notices numerous boxes being delivered to Sadao 's apartment and grows even more suspicious. At work, Sadao suddenly asks Mayumi for a shift change which causes Chiho to fear that he might return to Ente Isla, but Sadao apologetically keeps their motives hidden from her. Chiho and Emi decide to follow Sadao the next day to find out what they have been up to and discover that he along with Shirō had taken extra jobs to pay for Hanzo 's GPS trackers which had saved them from Sariel. As Emi questions Sadao on the boxes, they return to the Villa Rosa to discover that Hanzo had been caught in a purchasing scam whereby he was tricked into buying useless items. Sadao and Emi head over to the retailer to claim a refund, and discover that Shirō had been working there, along with a threatening manager who refuses a refund due to a contract Hanzo had signed. Emi is able to solve the situation via a cooling - off period. Eventually Shirō and Sadao celebrate their success by going out to a restaurant, while everyone goes back to living normally in the human world.
Pony Canyon began releasing the series in Japan on Blu - ray and DVD volumes starting on July 3, 2013. The complete series was released on Blu - ray and DVD format by Funimation on July 22, 2014, Siren Visual on September 17, 2014 and Manga Entertainment on October 27, 2014. These releases contained English and Japanese audio options and English subtitles.
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