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outline the significance of cross cultural communication in global business environment | Cross-cultural communication - wikipedia
Cross-cultural communication is a field of study that looks at how people from differing cultural backgrounds communicate, in similar and different ways among themselves, and how they endeavour to communicate across cultures. Intercultural communication is a related field of study.
During the Cold War, the economy of the United States was largely self - contained because the world was polarized into two separate and competing powers: the East and the West. However, changes and advancements in economic relationships, political systems, and technological options began to break down old cultural barriers. Business transformed from individual - country capitalism to global capitalism. Thus, the study of cross-cultural communication was originally found within businesses and government, both seeking to expand globally. Businesses began to offer language training to their employees and programs were developed to train employees to understand how to act when abroad. With this also came the development of the Foreign Service Institute, or FSI, through the Foreign Service Act of 1946, where government employees received trainings and prepared for overseas posts. There began also implementation of a "world view '' perspective in the curriculum of higher education. In 1974, the International Progress Organization, with the support of UNESCO and under the auspices of Senegalese President Léopold Sédar Senghor, held an international conference on "The Cultural Self - comprehension of Nations '' (Innsbruck, Austria, 27 -- 29 July 1974) which called upon United Nations member states "to organize systematic and global comparative research on the different cultures of the world '' and "to make all possible efforts for a more intensive training of diplomats in the field of international cultural co-operation... and to develop the cultural aspects of their foreign policy. ''
There has become an increasing pressure for universities across the world to incorporate intercultural and international understanding and knowledge into the education of their students. International literacy and cross-cultural understanding have become critical to a country 's cultural, technological, economic, and political health. It has become essential for universities to educate, or more importantly, "transform '', to function effectively and comfortably in a world characterized by close, multi-faceted relationships and permeable borders. Students must possess a certain level of global competence to understand the world they live in and how they fit into this world. This level of global competence starts at ground level - the university and its faculty - with how they generate and transmit cross-cultural knowledge and information to students.
Cross-cultural communication endeavours to bring together such relatively unrelated areas as cultural anthropology and established areas of communication. Its core is to establish and understand how people from different cultures communicate with each other. Its charge is to also produce some guidelines with which people from different cultures can better communicate with each other.
Cross-cultural communication, as with many scholarly fields, is a combination of many other fields. These fields include anthropology, cultural studies, psychology and communication. The field has also moved both toward the treatment of interethnic relations, and toward the study of communication strategies used by co-cultural populations, i.e., communication strategies used to deal with majority or mainstream populations.
The study of languages other than one 's own can serve not only to help one understand what we as humans have in common, but also to assist in the understanding of the diversity which underlines our languages ' methods of constructing and organizing knowledge. Such understanding has profound implications with respect to developing a critical awareness of social relationships. Understanding social relationships and the way other cultures work is the groundwork of successful globalization business affairs.
Language socialization can be broadly defined as "an investigation of how language both presupposes and creates anew, social relations in cultural context ''. It is imperative that the speaker understands the grammar of a language, as well as how elements of language are socially situated in order to reach communicative competence. Human experience is culturally relevant, so elements of language are also culturally relevant. One must carefully consider semiotics and the evaluation of sign systems to compare cross-cultural norms of communication. There are several potential problems that come with language socialization, however. Sometimes people can over-generalize or label cultures with stereotypical and subjective characterizations. Another primary concern with documenting alternative cultural norms revolves around the fact that no social actor uses language in ways that perfectly match normative characterizations. A methodology for investigating how an individual uses language and other semiotic activity to create and use new models of conduct and how this varies from the cultural norm should be incorporated into the study of language socialization.
However, with globalization, especially the increase of global trade, it is unavoidable that different cultures will meet, conflict, and blend together. People from different culture find it is difficult to communicate not only due to language barriers, but also are affected by culture styles. For instance, in individualistic cultures, such as in the United States, Canada, and Western Europe, an independent figure or self is dominant. This independent figure is characterized by a sense of self relatively distinct from others and the environment. In interdependent cultures, usually identified as Asian as well as many Latin American, African, and Southern European cultures, an interdependent figure of self is dominant. There is a much greater emphasis on the interrelatedness of the individual to others and the environment; the self is meaningful only (or primarily) in the context of social relationships, duties, and roles. In some degree, the effect brought by cultural difference override the language gap. This culture style difference contributes to one of the biggest challenges for cross-culture communication. Effective communication with people of different cultures is especially challenging. Cultures provide people with ways of thinking -- ways of seeing, hearing, and interpreting the world. Thus the same words can mean different things to people from different cultures, even when they speak the "same '' language. When the languages are different, and translation has to be used to communicate, the potential for misunderstandings increases. The study of cross-cultural communication is a global research area. As a result, cultural differences in the study of cross-cultural communication can already be found. For example, cross-cultural communication is generally considered to fall within the larger field of communication studies in the US, but it is emerging as a sub-field of applied linguistics in the UK.
As the application of cross-cultural communication theory to foreign language education is increasingly appreciated around the world, cross-cultural communication classes can be found within foreign language departments of some universities, while other schools are placing cross-cultural communication programs in their departments of education.
With the increasing pressures and opportunities of globalization, the incorporation of international networking alliances has become an "essential mechanism for the internationalization of higher education ''. Many universities from around the world have taken great strides to increase intercultural understanding through processes of organizational change and innovations. In general, university processes revolve around four major dimensions which include: organizational change, curriculum innovation, staff development, and student mobility. Ellingboe emphasizes these four major dimensions with his own specifications for the internationalization process. His specifications include: (1) college leadership; (2) faculty members ' international involvement in activities with colleagues, research sites, and institutions worldwide; (3) the availability, affordability, accessibility, and transferability of study abroad programs for students; (4) the presence and integration of international students, scholars, and visiting faculty into campus life; and (5) international co-curricular units (residence halls, conference planning centers, student unions, career centers, cultural immersion and language houses, student activities, and student organizations).
Above all, universities need to make sure that they are open and responsive to changes in the outside environment. In order for internationalization to be fully effective, the university (including all staff, students, curriculum, and activities) needs to be current with cultural changes, and willing to adapt to these changes. As stated by Ellingboe, internationalization "is an ongoing, future - oriented, multidimensional, interdisciplinary, leadership - driven vision that involves many stakeholders working to change the internal dynamics of an institution to respond and adapt appropriately to an increasingly diverse, globally focused, ever - changing external environment ''. New distance learning technologies, such as interactive teleconferencing, enable students located thousands of miles apart to communicate and interact in a virtual classroom.
Research has indicated that certain themes and images such as children, animals, life cycles, relationships, and sports can transcend cultural differences, and may be used in international settings such as traditional and online university classrooms to create common ground among diverse cultures (Van Hook, 2011).
The main theories for cross-cultural communication are based on the work done looking at value differences between different cultures, especially the works of Edward T. Hall, Richard D. Lewis, Geert Hofstede, and Fons Trompenaars. Clifford Geertz was also a contributor to this field. Also Jussi V. Koivisto 's model on cultural crossing in internationally operating organizations elaborates from this base of research.
These theories have been applied to a variety of different communication theories and settings, including general business and management (Fons Trompenaars and Charles Hampden - Turner) and marketing (Marieke de Mooij, Stephan Dahl). There have also been several successful educational projects which concentrate on the practical applications of these theories in cross-cultural situations.
These theories have also been criticized mainly by management scholars (e.g. Nigel Holden) for being based on the culture concept derived from 19th century cultural anthropology and emphasizing on culture - as - difference and culture - as - essence. Another criticism has been the uncritical way Hofstede 's dimensions are served up in textbooks as facts (Peter W. Cardon). There is a move to focus on ' cross-cultural interdependence ' instead of the traditional views of comparative differences and similarities between cultures. Cross-cultural management is increasingly seen as a form of knowledge management. Cross cultural communication gives opportunities to share ideas, experiences, and different perspectives and perception by interacting with local people.
WYSE International is a worldwide educational charity specializing in education and development for emerging leaders established in 1989. It is a non-governmental organization associated with the Department of Public Information of the United Nations.
Over 3000 participants from 110 countries have attended their courses, they have run in 5 continents. Its flagship International Leadership Programme is a 12 - day residential course for 30 people from on average 20 different countries (aged 18 -- 35).
WYSE International 's website states its aims are to:
"provide education independently of political, religious or social backgrounds and promote visionary leadership capable of responding to evolving world needs. ''
MEET - Middle East Education through Technology is an innovative educational initiative aimed at creating a common professional language between Israeli and Palestinian young leaders. Israeli and Palestinian students are selected through an application process and work in small bi-national teams to develop technology and business projects for local impact. Through this process of cross-cultural communication, students build mutual respect, cultural competence and understanding of each others.
There are several parameters that may be perceived differently by people of different cultures:
Nonverbal contact involves everything from something as obvious as eye contact and facial expressions to more discreet forms of expression such as the use of space. Experts have labeled the term kinesics to mean communicating through body movement. Huseman, author of Business Communication, explains that the two most prominent ways of communication through kinesics are eye contact and facial expressions.
Eye contact, Huseman goes on to explain, is the key factor in setting the tone between two individuals and greatly differs in meaning between cultures. In the Americas and Western Europe, eye contact is interpreted the same way, conveying interest and honesty. People who avoid eye contact when speaking are viewed in a negative light, withholding information and lacking in general confidence. However, in the Middle East, Africa, and especially Asia eye, contact is seen as disrespectful and even challenging of one 's authority. People who make eye contact, but only briefly, are seen as respectful and courteous.
Facial expressions are their own language by comparison and universal throughout all cultures. Dale Leathers, for example, states that facial expression can communicate ten basic classes of meaning.
The final part to nonverbal communication lies in our gestures, and can be broken down into five subcategories:
Emblems refer to sign language (such as, thumbs up, one of the most recognized symbols in the world)
Illustrators mimic what is spoken (such as gesturing how much time is left by holding up a certain number of fingers).
Regulators act as a way of conveying meaning through gestures (raising up a hand for instance indicates that one has a certain question about what was just said) and become more complicated since the same regulator can have different meanings across different cultures (making a circle with a hand, for instance, in the Americas means agreement, in Japan is symbolic for money, and in France conveys the notion of worthlessness).
Affect displays reveal emotions such as happiness (through a smile) or sadness (mouth trembling, tears).
Adaptors are more subtle such as a yawn or clenching fists in anger.
The last nonverbal type of communication deals with communication through the space around people, or proxemics. Huseman goes on to explain that Hall identifies three types of space:
Oral and written communication is generally easier to learn, adapt and deal with in the business world for the simple fact that each language is unique. The one difficulty that comes into play is paralanguage, how something is said.
According to Michael Walsh and Ghil'ad Zuckermann, Western conversational interaction is typically "dyadic '', between two particular people, where eye contact is important and the speaker controls the interaction; and "contained '' in a relatively short, defined time frame. However, traditional Australian Aboriginal conversational interaction is "communal '', broadcast to many people, eye contact is not important, the listener controls the interaction; and "continuous '', spread over a longer, indefinite time frame.
^ Mary Ellen Guffey, Kathy Rhodes, Patricia Rogin. "Communicating Across Cultures. '' Mary Ellen Guffey, Kathy Rhodes, Patricia Rogin. Business Communication Process and Production. Nelson Education Ltd., 2010. 68 - 89.
^ Everett M. Rogers, William B. Hart, & Yoshitaka Miike (2002). Edward T. Hall and The History of Intercultural Communication: The United States and Japan. Keio Communication Review No. 24, 1 - 5. Accessible at http://www.mediacom.keio.ac.jp/publication/pdf2002/review24/2.pdf. ^ Bartell, M. (2003). Internationalization of universities: A university culture - based framework. Higher Education, 45 (1), 44, 48, 49. ^ Hans Köchler (ed.), Cultural Self - comprehension of Nations. Tübingen: Erdmann, 1978, ISBN 978 - 3 - 7711 - 0311 - 8, Final Resolution, p. 142. ^ ab Bartell, M. (2003). Internationalization of universities: A university culture - based framework. Higher Education, 45 (1), 46. ^ abcde Rymes, (2008). Language Socialization and the Linguistic Anthropology of Education. Encyclopedia of Language and Education, 2 (8, Springer), 1. ^ Teather, D. (2004). The networking alliance: A mechanism for the internationalisation of higher education? Managing Education Matters, 7 (2), 3. ^ Rudzki, R.E.J. (1995). The application of a strategic management model to the internationalization of higher education institutions. Higher Education, 29 (4), 421 - 422. ^ Cameron, K.S. (1984). Organizational adaptation and higher education. Journal of Higher Education 55 (2), 123. ^ Ellingboe, B.J. (1998). Divisional strategies to internationalize a campus portrait: Results, resistance, and recommendations from a case study at a U.S. university, in Mestenhauser, J.A. and Elllingboe, B.J (eds.), Reforming the Higher Education Curriculum: Internationalizing the Campus. Phoenix, AZ: American Council on Education and Oryx Press, 199. ^ Bartell, M. (2003). Internationalization of universities: A university culture - based framework. Higher Education, 45 (1), 48. ^ Van Hook, S.R. (2011, 11 April). Modes and models for transcending cultural differences in international classrooms. Journal of Research in International Education, 10 (1), 5 - 27. http://jri.sagepub.com/content/10/1/5
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is victoria day a stat holiday in quebec | Public holidays in Canada - wikipedia
Public holidays in Canada, known as statutory holidays, stat holidays, or simply stats, consist of a variety of cultural, nationalistic, and religious holidays that are legislated in Canada at the federal or provincial and territorial levels. While many of these holidays are honoured and acknowledged nationwide, provincial and territorial legislation varies in regard to which are officially recognized.
There are five nationwide statutory holidays, and six additional holidays for federal employees. Each of the 13 provinces and territories observes a number of holidays in addition to the nationwide days, but each varies in regard to which are legislated as either statutory, optional, or not at all. Currently, the provinces of Alberta and Prince Edward Island have the most legislated holidays in comparison to other provinces and territories, with 12 days off.
Many public and private employers, as well as school systems, provide additional days off around the end of December, often including at least a full or half - day on December 24 (Christmas Eve) or December 31 (New Year 's Eve), or in some cases the entire week between Christmas and New Year. While not officially legislated in any capacity, internationally notable cultural holidays such as Valentine 's Day, St. Patrick 's Day, Halloween, Mother 's Day, and Father 's Day are traditionally observed by Canadians as part of Canadian culture.
A statutory holiday (also known as "stats '' or "general '' or "public '' holiday) in Canada is legislated either through the federal, or a provincial or territorial government. Most workers, public and private, are entitled to take the day off with regular pay. However, some employers may require employees to work on such a holiday, but the employee must either receive a day off in lieu of the holiday or must be paid at a premium rate -- usually 11⁄2 (known as "time and a half '') or twice (known as "double time '') the regular pay for their time worked that day, in addition to the holiday pay (except for high technology workers in British Columbia). In most provinces, when a statutory holiday falls on a normal day off (generally a weekend), the following work day is considered a statutory holiday. Statistics Canada shows an average of 11 paid statutory holidays per year in regard to all firms and corporations operating within the province.
In Quebec, non-federally regulated employers must give either Good Friday or Easter Monday as a statutory holiday, though some give both days.
In Newfoundland and Labrador, observed as Memorial Day.
In addition to the nationwide holidays listed above, the following holidays are mandated by federal legislation for federally regulated employees. All banks and post offices commemorate these holidays, and they are statutory in some provinces and territories.
Not a statutory holiday in any province or territory; however, in Quebec employers must give either Good Friday or Easter Monday as a statutory holiday, though most give both days.
Banks remain open (legally they can not close for more than three consecutive days except in emergencies), but employees often receive a "floating '' paid day off to be taken on or near the holiday.
This is not one of the nine "General Holidays '' as defined by the Canada Labour Code -- Part III. As such, there is no legal requirement for private sector employers in federally regulated industries to provide Easter Monday as a paid holiday to employees. However, many federal government offices will be closed on this day.
Statutory holiday in Alberta, British Columbia, Manitoba, Northwest Territories, Nunavut, Ontario, Quebec (coincides with National Patriots ' Day), Saskatchewan, and Yukon. A holiday in New Brunswick under the Days of Rest Act.
Not a statutory holiday in the eastern maritime provinces of Nova Scotia, and Prince Edward Island or in Newfoundland and Labrador.
Civic holiday (may be a paid vacation day depending on employer) in Alberta (Heritage Day), Manitoba (Terry Fox Day), Ontario (Colonel By Day + John Galt Day + Simcoe Day + Break for no reason day + others), Nova Scotia (Natal Day), Prince Edward Island (Federal Civic Holiday).
Not observed in Newfoundland and Labrador, Quebec, or Yukon.
Statutory holiday in most jurisdictions of Canada: Alberta, British Columbia, Manitoba, Northwest Territories, Nunavut, Ontario, Quebec, Saskatchewan, and Yukon.
An optional holiday in the Atlantic provinces of Prince Edward Island, Newfoundland and Labrador, New Brunswick and Nova Scotia. In New Brunswick, included under the Days of Rest Act.
Statutory holiday in Alberta, British Columbia, New Brunswick, Newfoundland and Labrador, Northwest Territories, Nunavut, Prince Edward Island, Saskatchewan, and Yukon.
In Manitoba, an "Official day of Observance '', not a statutory holiday.
In Ontario and Nova Scotia, not a statutory holiday in that employers have the option of giving Remembrance Day or an alternate day off. In Nova Scotia Remembrance Day is covered specifically by the Remembrance Day Act which prohibits employers from allowing employees to work and prohibits employees from working with exceptions for required services.
Not a statutory holiday in Quebec.
Provincially, a statutory holiday in Ontario. A holiday in New Brunswick under the Days of Rest Act.
Many employers across the country observe Boxing Day as a paid day off.
British Columbia celebrates its Family Day on the second Monday in February, starting in 2013.
New Brunswick will observe Family Day starting in February 2018.
Not observed elsewhere.
Although March break usually never coincides with the Easter weekend, Prince Edward Island schools are considering merging it with the Easter holiday as of 2018.
Provinces and territories generally adopt the same holidays as the federal government with some variations:
Provincial statutory
Optional
Provincial statutory
Provincial statutory
Optional
Provincial statutory
Optional
Provincial statutory
Optional
These have not been observed as statutory holidays since 1992. They are, however, observed by the provincial government. Unlike most other provinces, there is no province - wide holiday on the first Monday in August. It may be seen as redundant due to the Royal St. John 's Regatta, which is observed as a civic holiday in St. John 's on the first Wednesday in August (or, in case of poor weather, the next suitable day thereafter). Harbour Grace and Labrador City have a similar holiday for their regatta in late July. All other municipalities are entitled to designate one day a year as a civic holiday, however many do not take advantage of this.
Territorial statutory
Provincial statutory
Optional
Territorial statutory
Optional
Provincial statutory
Optional
Provincial statutory
Optional
Provincial statutory
Optional
Provincial statutory
Territorial statutory
Optional
Some municipalities also have local statutory holidays. For instance, the morning of the Stampede Parade is often given as a half - day holiday in the city of Calgary. In Ontario, the August Civic Holiday is not defined provincially, but by each municipality.
In Canada, there are two definitions of the term "civic holiday '':
By law, a civic holiday is defined as any holiday which is legally recognized and for which employers are obliged to offer holiday pay.
In parts of Canada, the term "Civic Holiday '' is a generic name referring to the annual holiday on the first Monday of August. However, this definition is far from uniform nationwide as Quebec, Newfoundland, and Yukon do not recognize it at all (in the Yukon the civic holiday is celebrated instead on the third Monday of August as Discovery Day). Five other provinces (Ontario, Alberta, Manitoba, Nova Scotia, and Prince Edward Island) do not oblige employers to offer holiday pay on this day, thus not making it a civic holiday in the legal sense. No universal name is recognized for this holiday -- the official name varies between the provinces and even between municipalities within Ontario. In Manitoba, Saskatchewan, British Columbia, New Brunswick, Nunavut and the Northwest Territories it is a statutory holiday.
The Civic Holiday is meant to replace a city 's birthday aka Natal Day. Instead of each city and town having a separate birthday celebration and day off, the August Civic Holiday is observed. For example, the Halifax Regional Municipality is made up of former cities Halifax and Dartmouth and the town of Bedford. Each of these places used to hold civic birthday celebrations on different days. Many people lived in one jurisdiction but worked in another. This would be very confusing as to which day a person would be excused from work.
This holiday is commonly referred to as "August Long Weekend '' but this is not a government term.
The other leading candidate for a new holiday is a weekend in February to celebrate the anniversary of the Canadian flag, or more likely a general "Heritage Day ''. February 15 is already designated as Flag Day, but this is simply a day of commemoration, not a statutory holiday.
In the province of Nova Scotia, which has relatively few days off, a bill has been introduced for a new holiday for the third Monday in February, to start in 2015.
In November 2014, Bill C - 597 passed second reading in the House of Commons by a margin of 258 to 2. If the bill becomes law, Remembrance Day would become a federal holiday in Canada.
In 2001, members of the 14th Legislative Assembly passed the National Aboriginal Day Act making the Northwest Territories the first jurisdiction in Canada to recognize this day as a formal statutory holiday.
If a holiday occurs on a day that is normally not worked, then "... another day off with pay will be provided ''. There are some exceptions, however. In Alberta, an employee is not entitled to compensation if a holiday falls on a non-work day.
When New Year 's Day, Canada Day, Remembrance Day, Christmas Day or Boxing Day falls on a Saturday or Sunday you would not normally work, you are entitled to a holiday with pay on the working day immediately before or after the holiday. If one of the other holidays falls on a weekend, then your employer must add a holiday with pay to your annual vacation or give you a paid day off at another mutually convenient time.
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where did the sword in the stone come from | Excalibur - wikipedia
Excalibur, or Caliburn, is the legendary sword of King Arthur, sometimes also attributed with magical powers or associated with the rightful sovereignty of Great Britain. Sometimes Excalibur and the Sword in the Stone (the proof of Arthur 's lineage) are said to be the same weapon, but in most versions they are considered separate. Excalibur was associated with the Arthurian legend very early. In Welsh, it is called Caledfwlch; in Cornish, Calesvol; in Breton, Kaledvoulc'h; and in Latin, Caliburnus.
The name Excalibur ultimately derives from the Welsh Caledfwlch (and Breton Kaledvoulc'h, Middle Cornish Calesvol) which is a compound of caled "hard '' and bwlch "breach, cleft ''. Caledfwlch appears in several early Welsh works, including the poem Preiddeu Annwfn (though it is not directly named - but only alluded to - here) and the prose tale Culhwch and Olwen, a work associated with the Mabinogion and written perhaps around 1100. The name was later used in Welsh adaptations of foreign material such as the Bruts (chronicles), which were based on Geoffrey of Monmouth.
It is often considered to be related to the phonetically similar Caladbolg, a sword borne by several figures from Irish mythology, although a borrowing of Caledfwlch from Irish Caladbolg has been considered unlikely by Rachel Bromwich and D. Simon Evans. They suggest instead that both names "may have similarly arisen at a very early date as generic names for a sword ''; this sword then became exclusively the property of Arthur in the British tradition.
Geoffrey of Monmouth, in his Historia Regum Britanniae (The History of the Kings of Britain, c. 1136), Latinised the name of Arthur 's sword as Caliburnus (potentially influenced by the Medieval Latin spelling calibs of Classical Latin chalybs, from Greek chályps (χάλυψ) "steel ''). Most Celticists consider Geoffrey 's Caliburnus to be derivative of a lost Old Welsh text in which bwlch had not yet been lenited to fwlch.
In Old French sources this then became Escalibor, Excalibor, and finally the familiar Excalibur. Geoffrey Gaimar, in his Old French L'Estoire des Engles (1134 - 1140), mentions Arthur and his sword: "this Constantine was the nephew of Arthur, who had the sword Caliburc '' ("Cil Costentin, li niès Artur, Ki out l'espée Caliburc ''). In Wace 's Roman de Brut (c. 1150 - 1155), an Old French translation and versification of Geoffrey 's Historia, the sword is called Calabrum, Callibourc, Chalabrun, and Calabrun (with alternate spellings such as Chalabrum, Calibore, Callibor, Caliborne, Calliborc, and Escaliborc, found in various manuscripts of the Brut).
In Chrétien de Troyes ' late 12th - century Old French Perceval, Arthur 's knight Gawain carries the sword Escalibor and it is stated, "for at his belt hung Escalibor, the finest sword that there was, which sliced through iron as through wood '' ("Qu'il avoit cainte Escalibor, la meillor espee qui fust, qu'ele trenche fer come fust ''). This statement was probably picked up by the author of the Estoire Merlin, or Vulgate Merlin, where the author (who was fond of fanciful folk etymologies) asserts that Escalibor "is a Hebrew name which means in French ' cuts iron, steel, and wood ' '' ("c'est non Ebrieu qui dist en franchois trenche fer & achier et fust ''; note that the word for "steel '' here, achier, also means "blade '' or "sword '' and comes from medieval Latin aciarium, a derivative of acies "sharp '', so there is no direct connection with Latin chalybs in this etymology). It is from this fanciful etymological musing that Thomas Malory got the notion that Excalibur meant "cut steel '' ("' the name of it, ' said the lady, ' is Excalibur, that is as moche to say, as Cut stele ' '').
In Arthurian romance, a number of explanations are given for Arthur 's possession of Excalibur. In Robert de Boron 's Merlin, the first tale to mention the "sword in the stone '' motif, Arthur obtained the British throne by pulling a sword from an anvil sitting atop a stone that appeared in a churchyard on Christmas Eve. In this account, the act could not be performed except by "the true king, '' meaning the divinely appointed king or true heir of Uther Pendragon. As Malory 's writes: "Whoso pulleth out this sword of this stone and anvil, is rightwise king born. '' This sword is thought by many to be the famous Excalibur, and its identity is made explicit in the later Prose Merlin, part of the Lancelot - Grail cycle. The challenge of drawing a sword from a stone also appears in the Arthurian legends of Galahad, whose achievement of the task indicates that he is destined to find the Holy Grail.
However, in what is called the Post-Vulgate Cycle, Excalibur was given to Arthur by the Lady of the Lake sometime after he began to reign. She calls the sword "Excalibur, that is as to say as Cut - steel. '' In the Vulgate Mort Artu, Arthur orders Griflet to throw the sword into the enchanted lake; after two failed attempts (as he felt such a great sword should not be thrown away), Griflet finally complies with the wounded king 's request and a hand emerges from the lake to catch it. This tale becomes attached to Bedivere instead of Griflet in Malory and the English tradition. Malory records both versions of the legend in his Le Morte d'Arthur, naming both swords as Excalibur.
In Welsh legend, Arthur 's sword is known as Caledfwlch. In Culhwch and Olwen, it is one of Arthur 's most valuable possessions and is used by Arthur 's warrior Llenlleawg the Irishman to kill the Irish king Diwrnach while stealing his magical cauldron. Irish mythology mentions a weapon Caladbolg, the sword of Fergus mac Róich, which was also known for its incredible power and was carried by some of Ireland 's greatest heroes. The name, which can also mean "hard cleft '' in Irish, appears in the plural, caladbuilc, as a generic term for "great swords '' in Togail Troi ("The Destruction of Troy ''), the 10th - century Irish translation of the classical tale.
Though not named as Caledfwlch, Arthur 's sword is described vividly in The Dream of Rhonabwy one of the tales associated with the Mabinogion:
Then they heard Cadwr Earl of Cornwall being summoned, and saw him rise with Arthur 's sword in his hand, with a design of two chimeras on the golden hilt; when the sword was unsheathed what was seen from the mouths of the two chimeras was like two flames of fire, so dreadful that it was not easy for anyone to look. At that the host settled and the commotion subsided, and the earl returned to his tent.
In the late 15th / early 16th - century Middle Cornish play Beunans Ke, Arthur 's sword is called Calesvol, which is etymologically an exact Middle Cornish cognate of the Welsh Caledfwlch. It is unclear if the name was borrowed from the Welsh (if so, it must have been an early loan, for phonological reasons), or represents an early, pan-Brittonic traditional name for Arthur 's sword.
Geoffrey 's Historia is the first non-Welsh source to speak of the sword. Geoffrey says the sword was forged in Avalon and Latinises the name "Caledfwlch '' as Caliburnus. When his influential pseudo-history made it to Continental Europe, writers altered the name further until it finally took on the popular form Excalibur (various spellings in the medieval Arthurian romance and chronicle tradition include: Calabrun, Calabrum, Calibourne, Callibourc, Calliborc, Calibourch, Escaliborc, and Escalibor). The legend was expanded upon in the Vulgate Cycle, also known as the Lancelot - Grail Cycle, and in the Post-Vulgate Cycle which emerged in its wake. Both included the work known as the Prose Merlin, but the Post-Vulgate authors left out the Merlin continuation from the earlier cycle, choosing to add an original account of Arthur 's early days including a new origin for Excalibur.
In several early French works, such as Chrétien de Troyes ' Perceval, the Story of the Grail and the Vulgate Lancelot Proper section, Excalibur is used by Gawain, Arthur 's nephew and one of his best knights. This is in contrast to later versions, where Excalibur belongs solely to the king.
In many versions, Excalibur 's blade was engraved with phrases on opposite sides: "Take me up '' and "Cast me away '' (or similar). In addition, when Excalibur was first drawn, in the first battle testing Arthur 's sovereignty, its blade blinded his enemies. Thomas Malory writes: "thenne he drewe his swerd Excalibur, but it was so breyght in his enemyes eyen that it gaf light lyke thirty torchys. ''
Excalibur 's scabbard was said to have powers of its own. Loss of blood from injuries, for example, would not kill the bearer. In some tellings, wounds received by one wearing the scabbard did not bleed at all. In the later romance tradition, including Le Morte d'Arthur, the scabbard is stolen from Arthur by his half - sister Morgan le Fay in revenge for the death of her beloved Accolon and thrown into a lake, never to be found again. This act later enables the death of Arthur at the Battle of Camlann.
Nineteenth century poet Alfred, Lord Tennyson, described the sword in full Romantic detail in his poem "Morte d'Arthur '', later rewritten as "The Passing of Arthur '', one of the Idylls of the King:
Excalibur is by no means the only weapon associated with Arthur, nor the only sword. Welsh tradition also knew of a dagger named Carnwennan and a spear named Rhongomyniad that belonged to him. Carnwennan ("little white - hilt '') first appears in Culhwch and Olwen, where Arthur uses it to slice the witch Orddu in half. Rhongomyniad ("spear '' + "striker, slayer '') is also first mentioned in Culhwch, although only in passing; it appears as simply Ron ("spear '') in Geoffrey 's Historia.
The Alliterative Morte Arthure, a Middle English poem, mentions Clarent, a sword of peace meant for knighting and ceremonies as opposed to battle, which Mordred stole and then used to kill Arthur. The Prose Lancelot of the Vulgate Cycle mentions a sword called Seure, which belonged to the king but was used by Lancelot in one battle.
In Welsh mythology, the Dyrnwyn ("White - Hilt ''), one of the Thirteen Treasures of the Island of Britain, is said to be a powerful sword belonging to Rhydderch Hael, one of the Three Generous Men of Britain mentioned in the Welsh Triads. When drawn by a worthy or well - born man, the entire blade would blaze with fire. Rhydderch was never reluctant to hand the weapon to anyone, hence his nickname Hael "the Generous '', but the recipients, as soon as they had learned of its peculiar properties, always rejected the sword.
There are other similar weapons described in other mythologies. In particular, Claíomh Solais, which is an Irish term meaning "Sword of Light '', or "Shining Sword '', which appears in a number of orally transmitted Irish folk - tales.
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why did the stamp act of 1765 happen | Stamp Act 1765 - wikipedia
The Stamp Act of 1765 (short title Duties in American Colonies Act 1765; 5 George III, c. 12) was an Act of the Parliament of Great Britain that imposed a direct tax on the Thirteen Colonies and required that many printed materials in the colonies be produced on stamped paper produced in London, carrying an embossed revenue stamp. Printed materials included legal documents, magazines, playing cards, newspapers, and many other types of paper used throughout the colonies. Like previous taxes, the stamp tax had to be paid in valid British currency, not in colonial paper money.
The purpose of the tax was to pay for British military troops stationed in the American colonies after the French and Indian War, which was the North American theater of the Seven Years ' War. However, the colonists had never feared a French invasion to begin with, and they contended that they had already paid their share of the war expenses. They suggested that it was actually a matter of British patronage to surplus British officers and career soldiers who should be paid by London.
The Stamp Act was very unpopular among colonists. A majority considered it a violation of their rights as Englishmen to be taxed without their consent -- consent that only the colonial legislatures could grant. Their slogan was "No taxation without representation. '' Colonial assemblies sent petitions and protests, and the Stamp Act Congress held in New York City was the first significant joint colonial response to any British measure when it petitioned Parliament and the King.
One member of the British Parliament argued that the colonials were no different from the 90 % residents of Great Britain who did not own property and thus could not vote, but who were nevertheless "virtually '' represented by land - owning electors and representatives who had common interests with them. An American attorney refuted this by pointing out that the relations between the Americans and the English electors were "a knot too infirm to be relied on '' for proper representation, "virtual '' or otherwise. Local protest groups established Committees of Correspondence which created a loose coalition from New England to Maryland. Protests and demonstrations increased, often initiated by the Sons of Liberty and occasionally involving hanging of effigies. Very soon, all stamp tax distributors were intimidated into resigning their commissions, and the tax was never effectively collected.
Opposition to the Stamp Act was not limited to the colonies. British merchants and manufacturers pressured Parliament because their exports to the colonies were threatened by boycotts. The Act was repealed on 18 March 1766 as a matter of expedience, but Parliament affirmed its power to legislate for the colonies "in all cases whatsoever '' by also passing the Declaratory Act. A series of new taxes and regulations then ensued -- likewise opposed by the colonists.
The episode played a major role in defining the grievances that were clearly stated within the text of the Indictment of George III section of the United States Declaration of Independence, enabling the organized colonial resistance that led to the American Revolution in 1775.
The British victory in the Seven Years ' War (1756 -- 1763), known in America as the French and Indian War, had been won only at a great financial cost. During the war, the British national debt nearly doubled, rising from £ 72,289,673 in 1755 to almost £ 129,586,789 by 1764. Post-war expenses were expected to remain high because the Bute ministry decided in early 1763 to keep ten thousand British regular soldiers in the American colonies, which would cost about £ 225,000 per year, equal to £ 30 million today. The primary reason for retaining such a large force was that demobilizing the army would put 1,500 officers out of work, many of whom were well - connected in Parliament. This made it politically prudent to retain a large peacetime establishment, but Britons were averse to maintaining a standing army at home so it was necessary to garrison most of the troops elsewhere.
Stationing 10,000 troops to separate American Indians and frontiersmen was one role. The outbreak of Pontiac 's Rebellion in May 1763 apparently reinforced the logic of this decision, as it was an American Indian uprising against the British expansion. The main reason to send 10,000 troops deep into the wilderness was to provide billets for the officers who were part of the British patronage system. John Adams said, "Revenue is still demanded from America, and appropriated to the maintenance of swarms of officers and pensioners in idleness and luxury. ''
George Grenville became prime minister in April 1763 after the failure of the short - lived Bute Ministry, and he had to find a way to pay for this large peacetime army. Raising taxes in Britain was out of the question, since there had been virulent protests in England against the Bute ministry 's 1763 cider tax, with Bute being hanged in effigy. The Grenville ministry therefore decided that Parliament would raise this revenue by taxing the American colonists without their consent. This was something new; Parliament had previously passed measures to regulate trade in the colonies, but it had never before directly taxed the colonies to raise revenue.
Politicians in London had always expected American colonists to contribute to the cost of their own defense. So long as a French threat existed, there was little trouble convincing colonial legislatures to provide assistance. Such help was normally provided through the raising of colonial militias, which were funded by taxes raised by colonial legislatures. Also, the legislatures were sometimes willing to help maintain regular British units defending the colonies. So long as this sort of help was forthcoming, there was little reason for the British Parliament to impose its own taxes on the colonists. But after the peace of 1763, colonial militias were quickly stood down. Militia officers were tired of the disdain shown to them by regular British officers, and were frustrated by the near - impossibility of obtaining regular British commissions; they were unwilling to remain in service once the war was over. In any case, they had no military role, as the Indian threat was minimal and there was no foreign threat. Colonial legislators saw no need for the British troops.
The Sugar Act of 1764 was the first tax in Grenville 's program to raise a revenue in America, which was a modification of the Molasses Act of 1733. The Molasses Act had imposed a tax of 6 pence per gallon (equal to £ 3.81 today) on foreign molasses imported into British colonies. The purpose of the Molasses Act was not actually to raise revenue, but instead to make foreign molasses so expensive that it effectively gave a monopoly to molasses imported from the British West Indies. It did not work; colonial merchants avoided the tax by smuggling or, more often, bribing customs officials. The Sugar Act reduced the tax to 3 pence per gallon (equal to £ 1.63 today) in the hope that the lower rate would increase compliance and thus increase the amount of tax collected. The Act also taxed additional imports and included measures to make the customs service more effective.
American colonists initially objected to the Sugar Act for economic reasons, but before long they recognized that there were constitutional issues involved. The British Constitution guaranteed that British subjects could not be taxed without their consent, which came in the form of representation in Parliament. The colonists elected no members of Parliament, and so it was seen as a violation of the British Constitution for Parliament to tax them. There was little time to raise this issue in response to the Sugar Act, but it came to be a major objection to the Stamp Act the following year.
Parliament announced in April 1764 when the Sugar Act was passed that they would also consider a stamp tax in the colonies. Opposition from the colonies was soon forthcoming to this possible tax, but neither members of Parliament nor American agents in Great Britain (such as Benjamin Franklin) anticipated the intensity of the protest that the tax generated.
Stamp acts had been a very successful method of taxation within Great Britain; they generated over £ 100,000 in tax revenue with very little in collection expenses. By requiring an official stamp on most legal documents, the system was almost self - regulating; a document would be null and void under British law without the required stamp. Imposition of such a tax on the colonies had been considered twice before the Seven Years ' War and once again in 1761. Grenville had actually been presented with drafts of colonial stamp acts in September and October 1763, but the proposals lacked the specific knowledge of colonial affairs to adequately describe the documents subject to the stamp. At the time of the passage of the Sugar Act in April 1764, Grenville made it clear that the right to tax the colonies was not in question, and that additional taxes might follow, including a stamp tax.
The Glorious Revolution had established the principle of parliamentary supremacy. Control of colonial trade and manufactures extended this principle across the ocean. This belief had never been tested on the issue of colonial taxation, but the British assumed that the interests of the thirteen colonies were so disparate that a joint colonial action was unlikely to occur against such a tax -- an assumption that had its genesis in the failure of the Albany Conference in 1754. By the end of December 1764, the first warnings of serious colonial opposition were provided by pamphlets and petitions from the colonies protesting both the Sugar Act and the proposed stamp tax.
For Grenville, the first issue was the amount of the tax. Soon after his announcement of the possibility of a tax, he had told American agents that he was not opposed to the Americans suggesting an alternative way of raising the money themselves. However, the only other alternative would be to requisition each colony and allow them to determine how to raise their share. This had never worked before, even during the French and Indian War, and there was no political mechanism in place that would have ensured the success of such cooperation. On 2 February 1765, Grenville met to discuss the tax with Benjamin Franklin, Jared Ingersoll from New Haven, Richard Jackson, agent for Connecticut, and Charles Garth, the agent for South Carolina (Jackson and Garth were also members of Parliament). These colonial representatives had no specific alternative to present; they simply suggested that the determination be left to the colonies. Grenville replied that he wanted to raise the money "by means the most easy and least objectionable to the Colonies ''. Thomas Whately had drafted the Stamp Act, and he said that the delay in implementation had been "out of Tenderness to the colonies '', and that the tax was judged as "the easiest, the most equal and the most certain. ''
The debate in Parliament began soon after this meeting. Petitions submitted by the colonies were officially ignored by Parliament. In the debate, Charles Townshend said, "and now will these Americans, children planted by our care, nourished up by our Indulgence until they are grown to a degree of strength and opulence, and protected by our arms, will they grudge to contribute their mite to relieve us from heavy weight of the burden which we lie under? '' This led to Colonel Isaac Barré 's response:
They planted by your care? No! Your oppression planted ' em in America. They fled from your tyranny to a then uncultivated and unhospitable country where they exposed themselves to almost all the hardships to which human nature is liable, and among others to the cruelties of a savage foe, the most subtle, and I take upon me to say, the most formidable of any people upon the face of God 's earth...
They nourished by your indulgence? They grew by your neglect of ' em. As soon as you began to care about ' em, that care was exercised in sending persons to rule over ' em, in one department and another, who were perhaps the deputies of deputies to some member of this house, sent to spy out their liberty, to misrepresent their actions and to prey upon ' em; men whose behaviour on many occasions has caused the blood of those sons of liberty to recoil within them...
They protected by your arms? They have nobly taken up arms in your defence, have exerted a valour amidst their constant and laborious industry for the defence of a country whose frontier while drenched in blood, its interior parts have yielded all its little savings to your emolument... The people I believe are as truly loyal as any subjects the king has, but a people jealous of their liberties and who will vindicate them if ever they should be violated; but the subject is too delicate and I will say no more. ''
Massachusetts Royal Governor William Shirley assured London in 1755 that American independence could easily be defeated by force. He argued:
The Stamp Act was passed by Parliament on 22 March 1765 with an effective date of 1 November 1765. It passed 205 -- 49 in the House of Commons and unanimously in the House of Lords. Historians Edmund and Helen Morgan describe the specifics of the tax:
The highest tax, £ 10, was placed... on attorney licenses. Other papers relating to court proceedings were taxed in amounts varying from 3d. to 10s. Land grants under a hundred acres were taxed 1s. 6d., between 100 and 200 acres 2s., and from 200 to 320 acres 2s. 6d., with an additional 2s 6d. for every additional 320 acres (1.3 km). Cards were taxed a shilling a pack, dice ten shillings, and newspapers and pamphlets at the rate of a penny for a single sheet and a shilling for every sheet in pamphlets or papers totaling more than one sheet and fewer than six sheets in octavo, fewer than twelve in quarto, or fewer than twenty in folio (in other words, the tax on pamphlets grew in proportion to their size but ceased altogether if they became large enough to qualify as a book).
The high taxes on lawyers and college students were designed to limit the growth of a professional class in the colonies. The stamps had to be purchased with hard currency, which was scarce, rather than the more plentiful colonial paper currency. To avoid draining currency out of the colonies, the revenues were to be expended in America, especially for supplies and salaries of British Army units who were stationed there.
Two features of the Stamp Act involving the courts attracted special attention. The tax on court documents specifically included courts "exercising ecclesiastical jurisdiction. '' These type of courts did not currently exist in the colonies and no bishops were currently assigned to the colonies, who would preside over the courts. Many colonists or their ancestors had fled England specifically to escape the influence and power of such state - sanctioned religious institutions, and they feared that this was the first step to reinstating the old ways in the colonies. Some Anglicans in the northern colonies were already openly advocating the appointment of such bishops, but they were opposed by both southern Anglicans and the non-Anglicans who made up the majority in the northern colonies.
The Stamp Act allowed admiralty courts to have jurisdiction for trying violators, following the example established by the Sugar Act. However, admiralty courts had traditionally been limited to cases involving the high seas. The Sugar Act seemed to fall within this precedent, but the Stamp Act did not, and the colonists saw this as a further attempt to replace their local courts with courts controlled by England.
Grenville started appointing Stamp Distributors almost immediately after the Act passed Parliament. Applicants were not hard to come by because of the anticipated income that the positions promised, and he appointed local colonists to the post. Benjamin Franklin even suggested the appointment of John Hughes as the agent for Pennsylvania, indicating that even Franklin was not aware of the turmoil and impact that the tax was going to generate on American - British relations or that these distributors would become the focus of colonial resistance.
Debate in the colonies had actually begun in the spring of 1764 over the Stamp Act when Parliament passed a resolution that contained the assertion, "That, towards further defraying the said Expences, it may be proper to charge certain Stamp Duties in the said Colonies and Plantations. '' Both the Sugar Act and the proposed Stamp Act were designed principally to raise revenue from the colonists. The Sugar Act, to a large extent, was a continuation of past legislation related primarily to the regulation of trade (termed an external tax), but its stated purpose was entirely new: to collect revenue directly from the colonists for a specific purpose. The novelty of the Stamp Act was that it was the first internal tax (a tax based entirely on activities within the colonies) levied directly on the colonies by Parliament. It was judged by the colonists to be a more dangerous assault on their rights than the Sugar Act was, because of its potential wide application to the colonial economy.
The theoretical issue that soon held center stage was the matter of taxation without representation. Benjamin Franklin had raised this as far back as 1754 at the Albany Congress when he wrote, "That it is suppos 'd an undoubted Right of Englishmen not to be taxed but by their own Consent given thro ' their Representatives. That the Colonies have no Representatives in Parliament. '' The counter to this argument was the theory of virtual representation. Thomas Whately enunciated this theory in a pamphlet that readily acknowledged that there could be no taxation without consent, but the facts were that at least 75 % of British adult males were not represented in Parliament because of property qualifications or other factors. Members of Parliament were bound to represent the interests of all British citizens and subjects, so colonists were the recipients of virtual representation in Parliament, like those disenfranchised subjects in the British Isles. This theory, however, ignored a crucial difference between the unrepresented in Britain and the colonists. The colonists enjoyed actual representation in their own legislative assemblies, and the issue was whether these legislatures, rather than Parliament, were in fact the sole recipients of the colonists ' consent with regard to taxation.
In May 1764, Samuel Adams of Boston drafted the following that stated the common American position:
For if our Trade may be taxed why not our Lands? Why not the Produce of our Lands & every thing we possess or make use of? This we apprehend annihilates our Charter Right to govern & tax ourselves -- It strikes our British Privileges, which as we have never forfeited them, we hold in common with our Fellow Subjects who are Natives of Britain: If Taxes are laid upon us in any shape without our having a legal Representation where they are laid, are we not reduced from the Character of free Subjects to the miserable State of tributary Slaves.
Massachusetts appointed a five - member Committee of Correspondence in June 1764 to coordinate action and exchange information regarding the Sugar Act, and Rhode Island formed a similar committee in October 1764. This attempt at unified action represented a significant step forward in colonial unity and cooperation. The Virginia House of Burgesses sent a protest of the taxes to London in December 1764, arguing that they did not have the specie required to pay the tax. Massachusetts, New York, New Jersey, Rhode Island, and Connecticut also sent protest to England in 1764. The content of the messages varied, but they all emphasized that taxation of the colonies without colonial assent was a violation of their rights. By the end of 1765, all of the Thirteen Colonies except Georgia and North Carolina had sent some sort of protest passed by colonial legislative assemblies.
The Virginia House of Burgesses reconvened in early May 1765 after news was received of the passage of the Act. By the end of May, it appeared that they would not consider the tax, and many legislators went home, including George Washington. Only 30 out of 116 Burgesses remained, but one of those remaining was Patrick Henry who was attending his first session. Henry led the opposition to the Stamp Act; he proposed his resolutions on 30 May 1765, and they were passed in the form of the Virginia Resolves. The Resolves stated:
Resolved, That the first Adventurers and Settlers of this his majesty 's colony and Dominion of Virginia brought with them, and transmitted to their Posterity, and all other his Majesty 's subjects since inhabiting in this his Majesty 's said Colony, all the Liberties, privileges, Franchises, and Immunities that have at any Time been held, enjoyed, and possessed, by the People of Great Britain.
Resolved, That by the two royal Charters, granted by King James the First, the Colonists aforesaid are declared entitled to all Liberties, Privileges, and Immunities of Denizens and natural Subjects, to all Intents and Purposes, as if they had been abiding and born within the Realm of England.
Resolved, That the Taxation of the People by themselves, or by Persons chosen by themselves to represent them, who could only know what Taxes the People are able to bear, or the easiest method of raising them, and must themselves be affected by every Tax laid on the People, is the only Security against a burdensome Taxation, and the distinguishing characteristick of British Freedom, without which the ancient Constitution can not exist.
Resolved, That his majesty 's liege people of this his most ancient and loyal Colony have without interruption enjoyed the inestimable Right of being governed by such Laws, respecting their internal Polity and Taxation, as are derived from their own Consent, with the Approbation of their Sovereign, or his Substitute; and that the same hath never been forfeited or yielded up, but hath been constantly recognized by the King and People of Great Britain.
On 6 June 1765, the Massachusetts Lower House proposed a meeting for the 1st Tuesday of October in New York City:
That it is highly expedient there should be a Meeting as soon as may be, of Committees from the Houses of Representatives or Burgesses in the several Colonies on this Continent to consult together on the present Circumstances of the Colonies, and the difficulties to which they are and must be reduced by the operation of the late Acts of Parliament for levying Duties and Taxes on the Colonies, and to consider of a general and humble Address to his Majesty and the Parliament to implore Relief.
There was no attempt to keep this meeting a secret; Massachusetts promptly notified Richard Jackson of the proposed meeting, their agent in England and a member of Parliament.
While the colonial legislatures were acting, the ordinary citizens of the colonies were also voicing their concerns outside of this formal political process. Historian Gary B. Nash wrote:
Whether stimulated externally or ignited internally, ferment during the years from 1761 to 1766 changed the dynamics of social and political relations in the colonies and set in motion currents of reformist sentiment with the force of a mountain wind. Critical to this half decade was the colonial response to England 's Stamp Act, more the reaction of common colonists than that of their presumed leaders.
Both loyal supporters of English authority and well - established colonial protest leaders underestimated the self - activating capacity of ordinary colonists. By the end of 1765... people in the streets had astounded, dismayed, and frightened their social superiors.
Early street protests were most notable in Boston. Andrew Oliver was a distributor of stamps for Massachusetts who was hanged in effigy on 14 August 1765 "from a giant elm tree at the crossing of Essex and Orange Streets in the city 's South End. '' Also hung was a jackboot painted green on the bottom ("a Green - ville sole ''), a pun on both Grenville and the Earl of Bute, the two people most blamed by the colonists. Lieutenant Governor Thomas Hutchinson ordered sheriff Stephen Greenleaf to take down the effigy, but he was opposed by a large crowd. All day the crowd detoured merchants on Orange Street to have their goods symbolically stamped under the elm tree, which later became known as the "Liberty Tree ''.
Ebenezer MacIntosh was a veteran of the Seven Years ' War and a shoemaker. One night, he led a crowd which cut down the effigy of Andrew Oliver and took it in a funeral procession to the Town House where the legislature met. From there, they went to Oliver 's office -- which they tore down and symbolically stamped the timbers. Next, they took the effigy to Oliver 's home at the foot of Fort Hill, where they beheaded it and then burned it -- along with Oliver 's stable house and coach and chaise. Greenleaf and Hutchinson were stoned when they tried to stop the mob, which then looted and destroyed the contents of Oliver 's house. Oliver asked to be relieved of his duties the next day. This resignation, however, was not enough. Oliver was ultimately forced by MacIntosh to be paraded through the streets and to publicly resign under the Liberty Tree.
As news spread of the reasons for Andrew Oliver 's resignation, violence and threats of aggressive acts increased throughout the colonies, as did organized groups of resistance. Throughout the colonies, members of the middle and upper classes of society formed the foundation for these groups of resistance and soon called themselves the Sons of Liberty. These colonial groups of resistance burned effigies of royal officials, forced Stamp Act collectors to resign, and were able to get businessmen and judges to go about without using the proper stamps demanded by Parliament.
On 16 August, a mob damaged the home and official papers of William Story, the deputy register of the Vice-Admiralty, who then moved to Marblehead, Massachusetts. Benjamin Hallowell, the comptroller of customs, suffered the almost total loss of his home.
On 26 August, MacIntosh led an attack on Hutchinson 's mansion. The mob evicted the family, destroyed the furniture, tore down the interior walls, emptied the wine cellar, scattered Hutchinson 's collection of Massachusetts historical papers, and pulled down the building 's cupola. Hutchinson had been in public office for three decades; he estimated his loss at £ 2,218 (in today 's money, at nearly $250,000). Nash concludes that this attack was more than just a reaction to the Stamp Act:
But it is clear that the crowd was giving vent to years of resentment at the accumulation of wealth and power by the haughty prerogative faction led by Hutchinson. Behind every swing of the ax and every hurled stone, behind every shattered crystal goblet and splintered mahogany chair, lay the fury of a plain Bostonian who had read or heard the repeated references to impoverished people as "rable '' and to Boston 's popular caucus, led by Samuel Adams, as a "herd of fools, tools, and synchophants. ''
Governor Francis Bernard offered a £ 300 reward for information on the leaders of the mob, but no information was forthcoming. MacIntosh and several others were arrested, but were either freed by pressure from the merchants or released by mob action.
The street demonstrations originated from the efforts of respectable public leaders such as James Otis, who commanded the Boston Gazette, and Samuel Adams of the "Loyal Nine '' of the Boston Caucus, an organization of Boston merchants. They made efforts to control the people below them on the economic and social scale, but they were often unsuccessful in maintaining a delicate balance between mass demonstrations and riots. These men needed the support of the working class, but also had to establish the legitimacy of their actions to have their protests to England taken seriously. At the time of these protests, the Loyal Nine was more of a social club with political interests but, by December 1765, it began issuing statements as the Sons of Liberty.
Rhode Island also experienced street violence. A crowd built a gallows near the Town House in Newport on 27 August, where they carried effigies of three officials appointed as stamp distributors: Augustus Johnson, Dr. Thomas Moffat, and lawyer Martin Howard. The crowd at first was led by merchants William Ellery, Samuel Vernon, and Robert Crook, but they soon lost control. That night, the crowd was led by a poor man named John Weber, and they attacked the houses of Moffat and Howard, where they destroyed walls, fences, art, furniture, and wine. The local Sons of Liberty were publicly opposed to violence, and they refused at first to support Weber when he was arrested. They were persuaded to come to his assistance, however, when retaliation was threatened against their own homes. Weber was released and faded into obscurity.
Howard became the only prominent American to publicly support the Stamp Act in his pamphlet "A Colonist 's Defence of Taxation '' (1765). After the riots, Howard had to leave the colony, but he was rewarded by the Crown with an appointment as Chief Justice of North Carolina at a salary of ₤ 1,000.
In New York, James McEvers resigned his distributorship four days after the attack on Hutchinson 's house. The stamps arrived in New York Harbor on 24 October for several of the northern colonies. Placards appeared throughout the city warning that "the first man that either distributes or makes use of stamped paper let him take care of his house, person, and effects. '' New York merchants met on 31 October and agreed not to sell any English goods until the Act was repealed. Crowds took to the streets for four days of demonstrations, uncontrolled by the local leaders, culminating in an attack by two thousand people on Governor Cadwallader Colden 's home and the burning of two sleighs and a coach. Unrest in New York City continued through the end of the year, and the local Sons of Liberty had difficulty in controlling crowd actions.
In Frederick, Maryland, a court of 12 magistrates ruled the Stamp Act invalid on 23 November 1765, and directed that businesses and colonial officials proceed in all matters without use of the stamps. A week later, a crowd conducted a mock funeral procession for the act in the streets of Frederick. The magistrates have been dubbed the "12 Immortal Justices, '' and 23 November has been designated "Repudiation Day '' by the Maryland state legislature. On 1 October 2015, Senator Cardin (D - MD) read into the Congressional Record a statement noting 2015 as the 250th anniversary of the event. Among the 12 magistrates was William Luckett, who later served as lieutenant colonel in the Maryland Militia at the battle of Germantown.
Other popular demonstrations occurred in Portsmouth, New Hampshire, Annapolis, Maryland, Wilmington and New Bern, North Carolina, and Charleston, South Carolina. In Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, demonstrations were subdued but even targeted Benjamin Franklin 's home, although it was not vandalized. By 16 November, twelve of the stamp distributors had resigned. The Georgia distributor did not arrive in America until January 1766, but his first and only official action was to resign.
The overall effect of these protests was to both anger and unite the American people like never before. Opposition to the Act inspired both political and constitutional forms of literature throughout the colonies, strengthened the colonial political perception and involvement, and created new forms of organized resistance. These organized groups quickly learned that they could force royal officials to resign by employing violent measures and threats.
The main issue was constitutional rights of Englishmen, so the French in Quebec did not react. Some English - speaking merchants were opposed, but were in a fairly small minority. The Quebec Gazette ceased publication until the act was repealed, apparently over the unwillingness to use stamped paper. In neighboring Nova Scotia a number of former New England residents objected, but recent British immigrants and London - oriented business interests based in Halifax, the provincial capital were more influential. The only major public protest was the hanging in effigy of the stamp distributor and Lord Bute. The act was implemented in both provinces, but Nova Scotia 's stamp distributor resigned in January 1766, beset by ungrounded fears for his safety. Authorities there were ordered to allow ships bearing unstamped papers to enter its ports, and business continued unabated after the distributors ran out of stamps. The Act occasioned some protests in Newfoundland, and the drafting of petitions opposing not only the Stamp Act, but the existence of the customhouse at St. John 's, based on legislation dating back to the reign of Edward VI forbidding any sort of duties on the importation of goods related to its fisheries.
Violent protests were few in the Caribbean colonies. Political opposition was expressed in a number of colonies, including Barbados and Antigua, and by absentee landowners living in Britain. The worst political violence took place on St. Kitts and Nevis. Riots took place on 31 October 1765, and again on 5 November, targeting the homes and offices of stamp distributors; the number of participants suggests that the percentage of St. Kitts ' white population involved matched that of Bostonian involvement in its riots. The delivery of stamps to St. Kitts was successfully blocked, and they were never used there. Montserrat and Antigua also succeeded in avoiding the use of stamps; some correspondents thought that rioting was prevented in Antigua only by the large troop presence. Despite vocal political opposition, Barbados used the stamps, to the pleasure of King George. In Jamaica there was also vocal opposition, which included threats of violence. There was much evasion of the stamps, and ships arriving without stamped papers were allowed to enter port. Despite this, Jamaica produced more stamp revenue (£ 2,000) than any other colony.
It was during this time of street demonstrations that locally organized groups started to merge into an inter-colonial organization of a type not previously seen in the colonies. The term "sons of liberty '' had been used in a generic fashion well before 1765, but it was only around February 1766 that its influence extended throughout the colonies as an organized group using the formal name "Sons of Liberty '', leading to a pattern for future resistance to the British that carried the colonies towards 1776. Historian John C. Miller noted that the name was adopted as a result of Barre 's use of the term in his February 1765 speech.
The organization spread month by month after independent starts in several different colonies. By 6 November, a committee was set up in New York to correspond with other colonies, and in December an alliance was formed between groups in New York and Connecticut. In January, a correspondence link was established between Boston and Manhattan, and by March, Providence had initiated connections with New York, New Hampshire, and Newport. By March, Sons of Liberty organizations had been established in New Jersey, Maryland, and Norfolk, Virginia, and a local group established in North Carolina was attracting interest in South Carolina and Georgia.
The officers and leaders of the Sons of Liberty "were drawn almost entirely from the middle and upper ranks of colonial society, '' but they recognized the need to expand their power base to include "the whole of political society, involving all of its social or economic subdivisions. '' To do this, the Sons of Liberty relied on large public demonstrations to expand their base. They learned early on that controlling such crowds was problematical, although they strived to control "the possible violence of extra-legal gatherings. '' The organization professed its loyalty to both local and British established government, but possible military action as a defensive measure was always part of their considerations. Throughout the Stamp Act Crisis, the Sons of Liberty professed continued loyalty to the King because they maintained a "fundamental confidence '' that Parliament would do the right thing and repeal the tax.
John Adams complained that the London ministry was intentionally trying "to strip us in a great measure of the means of knowledge, by loading the Press, the colleges, and even an Almanack and a News - Paper, with restraints and duties. '' The press fought back. By 1760 the fledgling American newspaper industry comprised 24 weekly papers in major cities. Benjamin Franklin had created an informal network so that each one routinely reprinted news, editorials, letters and essays from the others, thus helping form a common American voice. All the editors were annoyed at the new stamp tax they would have to pay on each copy. By informing colonists what the other colonies were saying the press became a powerful opposition force to the Stamp Act. Many circumvented the and most equated taxation without representation with despotism and tyranny, thus providing a common vocabulary of protest for the Thirteen Colonies.
The newspapers reported effigy hangings and stamp master resignation speeches. Some newspapers were on the royal payroll and supported the Act, but most of the press was free and vocal. Thus William Bradford, the foremost printer in Philadelphia, became a leader of the Sons of Liberty. He added a skull and crossbones with the words, "the fatal Stamp, '' to the masthead of his Pennsylvania Journal and weekly Advertiser.
Some of the earliest forms of American propaganda appeared in these printings in response to the law. The articles written in colonial newspapers were particularly critical of the act because of the Stamp Act 's disproportionate effect on printers. David Ramsay, a patriot and historian from South Carolina, wrote of this phenomenon shortly after the American Revolution:
It was fortunate for the liberties of America, that newspapers were the subject of a heavy stamp duty. Printers, when influenced by government, have genereally arranged themselves on the side of liberty, nor are they less remarkable for attention to the profits of their profession. A stamp duty, which openly invaded the first, and threatened a great diminution of the last, provoked their united zealous opposition.
Most printers were critical of the Stamp Act, although a few Loyalist voices did exist. Some of the more subtle Loyalist sentiments can be seen in publications such as The Boston Evening Post, which was run by British sympathizers John and Thomas Fleet. The article detailed a violent protest that occurred in New York in December, 1765, then described the riot 's participants as "imperfect '' and labeled the group 's ideas as "contrary to the general sense of the people. '' These Loyalists beliefs can be seen in some of the early newspaper articles about the Stamp Act, but the anti-British writings were more prevalent and seem to have had a more powerful effect.
Many papers assumed a relatively conservative tone before the act went into effect, implying that they might close if it was n't repealed. However, as time passed and violent demonstrations ensued, the authors became more vitriolic. Several newspaper editors were involved with the Sons of Liberty, such as William Bradford of The Pennsylvania Journal and Benjamin Edes of The Boston Gazette, and they echoed the group 's sentiments in their publications. The Stamp Act went into effect that November, and many newspapers ran editions with imagery of tombstones and skeletons, emphasizing that their papers were "dead '' and would no longer be able to print because of the Stamp Act. However, most of them returned in the upcoming months, defiantly appearing without the stamp of approval that was deemed necessary by the Stamp Act. Printers were greatly relieved when the law was nullified in the following spring, and the repeal asserted their positions as a powerful voice (and compass) for public opinion.
The Stamp Act Congress was held in New York in October 1765. Twenty - seven delegates from nine colonies were the members of the Congress, and their responsibility was to draft a set of formal petitions stating why Parliament had no right to tax them. Among the delegates were many important men in the colonies. Historian John Miller observes, "The composition of this Stamp Act Congress ought to have been convincing proof to the British government that resistance to parliamentary taxation was by no means confined to the riffraff of colonial seaports. ''
The youngest delegate was 26 - year - old John Rutledge of South Carolina, and the oldest was 65 - year - old Hendrick Fisher of New Jersey. Ten of the delegates were lawyers, ten were merchants, and seven were planters or land - owning farmers; all had served in some type of elective office, and all but three were born in the colonies. Four died before the colonies declared independence, and four signed the Declaration of Independence; nine attended the first and second Continental Congresses, and three were Loyalists during the Revolution.
New Hampshire declined to send delegates, and North Carolina, Georgia, and Virginia were not represented because their governors did not call their legislatures into session, thus preventing the selection of delegates. Despite the composition of the congress, each of the Thirteen Colonies eventually affirmed its decisions. Six of the nine colonies represented at the Congress agreed to sign the petitions to the King and Parliament produced by the Congress. The delegations from New York, Connecticut, and South Carolina were prohibited from signing any documents without first receiving approval from the colonial assemblies that had appointed them.
Massachusetts governor Francis Bernard believed that his colony 's delegates to the Congress would be supportive of Parliament. Timothy Ruggles in particular was Bernard 's man, and was elected chairman of the Congress. Ruggles ' instructions from Bernard were to "recommend submission to the Stamp Act until Parliament could be persuaded to repeal it. '' Many delegates felt that a final resolution of the Stamp Act would actually bring Britain and the colonies closer together. Robert Livingston of New York stressed the importance of removing the Stamp Act from the public debate, writing to his colony 's agent in England, "If I really wished to see America in a state of independence I should desire as one of the most effectual means to that end that the stamp act should be enforced. ''
The Congress met for 12 consecutive days, including Sundays. There was no audience at the meetings, and no information was released about the deliberations. The meeting 's final product was called "The Declaration of Rights and Grievances '', and was drawn up by delegate John Dickinson of Pennsylvania. This Declaration raised fourteen points of colonial protest. It asserted that colonists possessed all the rights of Englishmen in addition to protesting the Stamp Act issue, and that Parliament could not represent the colonists since they had no voting rights over Parliament. Only the colonial assemblies had a right to tax the colonies. They also asserted that the extension of authority of the admiralty courts to non-naval matters represented an abuse of power.
In addition to simply arguing for their rights as Englishmen, the congress also asserted that they had certain natural rights solely because they were human beings. Resolution 3 stated, "That it is inseparably essential to the freedom of a people, and the undoubted right of Englishmen, that no taxes be imposed on them, but with their own consent, given personally, or by their representatives. '' Both Massachusetts and Pennsylvania brought forth the issue in separate resolutions even more directly when they respectively referred to "the Natural rights of Mankind '' and "the common rights of mankind ''.
Christopher Gadsden of South Carolina had proposed that the Congress ' petition should go only to the king, since the rights of the colonies did not originate with Parliament. This radical proposal went too far for most delegates and was rejected. The "Declaration of Rights and Grievances '' was duly sent to the king, and petitions were also sent to both Houses of Parliament.
Grenville was replaced by Lord Rockingham as Prime Minister on 10 July 1765. News of the mob violence began to reach England in October. Conflicting sentiments were taking hold in Britain at the same time that resistance was building and accelerating in America. Some wanted to strictly enforce the Stamp Act over colonial resistance, wary of the precedent that would be set by backing down. Others felt the economic effects of reduced trade with America after the Sugar Act and an inability to collect debts while the colonial economy suffered, and they began to lobby for a repeal of the Stamp Act. The colonial protest had included various non-importation agreements among merchants who recognized that a significant portion of British industry and commerce was dependent on the colonial market. This movement had also spread through the colonies; 200 merchants had met in New York City and agreed to import nothing from England until the Stamp Act was repealed.
When Parliament met in December 1765, it rejected a resolution offered by Grenville that would have condemned colonial resistance to the enforcement of the Act. Outside of Parliament, Rockingham and his secretary Edmund Burke, a member of Parliament himself, organized London merchants who started a committee of correspondence to support repeal of the Stamp Act by urging merchants throughout the country to contact their local representatives in Parliament. When Parliament reconvened on 14 January 1766, the Rockingham ministry formally proposed repeal. Amendments were considered that would have lessened the financial impact on the colonies by allowing colonists to pay the tax in their own scrip, but this was viewed to be too little and too late.
William Pitt stated in the Parliamentary debate that everything done by the Grenville ministry "has been entirely wrong '' with respect to the colonies. He further stated, "It is my opinion that this Kingdom has no right to lay a tax upon the colonies. '' Pitt still maintained "the authority of this kingdom over the colonies, to be sovereign and supreme, in every circumstance of government and legislature whatsoever, '' but he made the distinction that taxes were not part of governing, but were "a voluntary gift and grant of the Commons alone. '' He rejected the notion of virtual representation, as "the most contemptible idea that ever entered into the head of man. ''
Grenville responded to Pitt:
Protection and obedience are reciprocal. Great Britain protects America; America is bound to yield obedience. If, not, tell me when the Americans were emancipated? When they want the protection of this kingdom, they are always ready to ask for it. That protection has always been afforded them in the most full and ample manner. The nation has run itself into an immense debt to give them their protection; and now they are called upon to contribute a small share towards the public expence, and expence arising from themselves, they renounce your authority, insult your officers, and break out, I might also say, into open rebellion.
Pitt 's response to Grenville included, "I rejoice that America has resisted. Three millions of people, so dead to all the feelings of liberty as voluntarily to submit to be slaves, would have been fit instruments to make slaves of the rest. ''
Between 17 and 27 January, Rockingham shifted the attention from constitutional arguments to economic by presenting petitions complaining of the economic repercussions felt throughout the country. On 7 February, the House of Commons rejected a resolution by 274 -- 134, saying that it would back the King in enforcing the Act. Henry Seymour Conway, the government 's leader in the House of Commons, introduced the Declaratory Act in an attempt to address both the constitutional and the economic issues, which affirmed the right of Parliament to legislate for the colonies "in all cases whatsoever '', while admitting the inexpediency of attempting to enforce the Stamp Act. Only Pitt and three or four others voted against it. Other resolutions passed which condemned the riots and demanded compensation from the colonies for those who suffered losses because of the actions of the mobs.
The House of Commons heard testimony between 11 and 13 February, the most important witness being Benjamin Franklin on the last day of the hearings. He responded to the question about how the colonists would react if the Act was not repealed: "A total loss of the respect and affection the people of America bear to this country, and of all the commerce that depends on that respect and affection. '' A Scottish journalist observed Franklin 's answers to Parliament and his affect on the repeal; he later wrote to Franklin, "To this very Examination, more than to any thing else, you are indebted to the speedy and total Repeal of this odious Law. ''
A resolution was introduced on 21 February to repeal the Stamp Act, and it passed by a vote of 276 -- 168. The King gave royal assent on 18 March 1766.
Some aspects of the resistance to the act provided a sort of rehearsal for similar acts of resistance to the 1767 Townshend Acts, particularly the activities of the Sons of Liberty and merchants in organizing opposition. The Stamp Act Congress was a predecessor to the later Continental Congresses, notably the Second Continental Congress which oversaw the establishment of American independence. The Committees of Correspondence used to coordinate activities were revived between 1772 and 1774 in response to a variety of controversial and unpopular affairs, and the colonies that met at the 1774 First Continental Congress established a non-importation agreement known as the Continental Association in response to Parliamentary passage of the Intolerable Acts.
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where did the spinning jenny get its name | Spinning jenny - wikipedia
The spinning jenny is a multi-spindle spinning frame, and was one of the key developments in the industrialization of weaving during the early Industrial Revolution. It was invented in 1764 by James Hargreaves in Stanhill, Oswaldtwistle, Lancashire in England. The device reduced the amount of work needed to produce cloth, with a worker able to work eight or more spools at once. This grew to 120 as technology advanced. The yarn produced by the jenny was not very strong until Richard Arkwright invented the water - powered ' Water Frame ', which produced yarn harder and stronger than that of the initial spinning jenny. It started the factory system.
The spinning jenny was invented by James Hargreaves. He was born in Oswaldtwistle, near Blackburn, around 1720. Blackburn was a town with a population of about 5,000, known for the production of "Blackburn greys, '' cloths of linen warp and cotton weft initially imported from India. They were usually sent to London to be printed.
At the time, cotton production could not keep up with demand of the textile industry, and Hargreaves spent some time considering how to improve the process. The flying shuttle (John Kay 1733) had increased yarn demand by the weavers by doubling their productivity, and now the spinning jenny could supply that demand by increasing the spinners ' productivity even more. The machine produced coarse thread.
The idea was developed by Hargreaves as a metal frame with eight wooden spindles at one end. A set of eight rovings was attached to a beam on that frame. The rovings when extended passed through two horizontal bars of wood that could be clasped together. These bars could be drawn along the top of the frame by the spinner 's left hand thus extending the thread. The spinner used his right hand to rapidly turn a wheel which caused all the spindles to revolve, and the thread to be spun. When the bars were returned, the thread wound onto the spindle. A pressing wire (faller) was used to guide the threads onto the right place on the spindle.
In the 17th century, England was famous for its woollen and worsted cloth. That industry was centred in the east and south in towns such as Norwich which jealously protected their product. Cotton processing was tiny: in 1701 only 1,985,868 pounds (900,775 kg) of cotton - wool was imported into England, and by 1730 this had fallen to 1,545,472 pounds (701,014 kg). This was due to commercial legislation (Calico Acts) to protect the woollen industry. Cheap calico prints, imported by the East India Company from "Hindustan '', became popular. In 1700 an Act of Parliament was passed to prevent the importation of dyed or printed calicoes from India, China or Persia. This caused grey cloth (calico that had n't been finished - dyed or printed) to be imported instead, and these were printed in southern England with popular patterns. Lancashire businessmen produced grey cloth with linen warp and cotton weft, which they sent to London to be finished. Cotton - wool imports recovered and by 1720 were almost back to 1701 levels. Again the woollen manufacturers claimed this was taking jobs from workers in Coventry. Another law was passed, to fine anyone caught wearing printed or stained calico; muslins, neckcloths and fustians were exempted. It was this exemption that the Lancashire manufacturers exploited.
The use of coloured cotton weft, with linen warp was permitted in the 1736 Manchester Act. There now was an artificial demand for woven cloth. In 1764, 3,870,392 pounds (1,755,580 kg) of cotton - wool was imported.
In England, before canals, and before the turnpikes, the only way to transport goods such as calicos, broadcloth or cotton - wool was by packhorse. Strings of packhorses travelled along a network of bridle paths. A merchant would be away from home most of the year, carrying his takings in cash in his saddlebag. Later a series of chapmen would work for the merchant, taking wares to wholesalers and clients in other towns, with them would go sample books.
Before 1720, the handloom weaver spent part of each day visiting neighbours buying any weft they had. Carding and spinning could be the only income for that household, or part of it. The family might farm a few acres and card, spin and weave wool and cotton. It took three carders to provide the roving for one spinner, and up to three spinners to provide the yarn for one weaver. The process was continuous, and done by both sexes, from the youngest to the oldest. The weaver would go once a week to the market with his wares and offer them for sale.
A change came about 1740 when fustian masters gave out raw cotton and warps to the weavers and returned to collect the finished cloth (→ Putting - out system). The weaver organised the carding, spinning and weaving to the master 's specification. The master then dyed or printed the grey cloth, and took it to shopkeepers. Ten years later this had changed and the fustian masters were middle men, who collected the grey cloth and took it to market in Manchester where it was sold to merchants who organised the finishing.
To handweave a 12 - pound (5.4 kg) piece of eighteenpenny weft took 14 days and paid 36 shillings in all. Of this nine shillings was paid for spinning, and nine for carding. So by 1750, a rudimentary manufacturing system feeding into a marketing system emerged.
In 1738 John Kay started to improve the loom. He improved the reed, and invented the raceboard, the shuttleboxes and the picker which together allowed one weaver to double his output. This invention is commonly called the fly - shuttle. It met with violent opposition and he fled from Lancashire to Leeds. Though the workers thought this was a threat to their jobs, it was adopted and the pressure was on to speed up carding and spinning.
The shortage of spinning capacity to feed the more efficient looms provided the motivation to develop more productive spinning techniques such as the spinning jenny, and triggered the start of the Industrial Revolution.
Hargreaves kept the machine secret for some time, but produced a number for his own growing industry. The price of yarn fell, angering the large spinning community in Blackburn. Eventually they broke into his house and smashed his machines, forcing him to flee to Nottingham in 1768. This was a centre for the hosiery industry, and knitted silks, cottons and wool. There he set up shop producing jennies in secret for one Mr Shipley, with the assistance of a joiner named Thomas James. He and James set up a textile business in Mill Street. On 12 July 1770, he took out a patent (no. 962) on his invention, the Spinning Jenny -- a machine for spinning, drawing and twisting cotton. By this time a number of spinners in Lancashire were using copies of the machine, and Hargreaves sent notice that he was taking legal action against them. The manufacturers met, and offered Hargreaves £ 3,000. He at first demanded £ 7,000, and stood out for £ 4,000, but the case eventually fell apart when it was learned he had sold several in the past.
The spinning jenny succeeded because it held more than one ball of yarn, making more yarn in a shorter time and reducing the overall cost. The spinning jenny would not have been such a success if the flying shuttle had not been invented and installed in textile factories. Its success was limited in that it required the rovings to be prepared on a wheel, and this was limited by the need to card by hand. It continued in common use in the cotton and fustian industry until about 1810. The spinning jenny was superseded by the spinning mule. The jenny was adapted for the process of slubbing, being the basis of the Slubbing Billy.
The most common story told about the invention of the device and the origin of the Jenny in the machine 's name is that a daughter (or his wife) named Jenny knocked over one of their own spinning wheels. The device kept working as normal, with the spindle now pointed upright. Hargreaves realized there was no particular reason the spindles had to be horizontal, as they always had been, and he could place them vertically in a row.
The name is variously said to derive from this tale. The Registers of Church Kirk show that Hargreaves had several daughters, but none named Jenny (neither was his wife). A more likely explanation of the name is that ' Jenny ' was an abbreviation of ' engine '.
Thomas Highs of Leigh has claimed to be the inventor and the story is repeated using his wife 's name.
Another myth has Thomas Earnshaw inventing a spinning device of a similar description - but destroying it after fearing he might be taking bread out of the mouths of the poor.
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the head of the whole space task group in hidden figures | Space Task Group - wikipedia
The Space Task Group was a working group of NASA engineers created in 1958, tasked with managing America 's manned spaceflight programs. Headed by Robert Gilruth and based at the Langley Research Center in Hampton, Virginia, it managed Project Mercury and follow - on plans. After President John F. Kennedy set the goal in 1961 for the Apollo Program to land men on the Moon, NASA decided a much larger organization and a new facility was required to perform the Task Group 's function, and it was transformed into the Manned Spacecraft Center (now the Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center), located in Houston, Texas.
In later years, the term Space Task Group was ambiguously reused to refer to an ad hoc committee appointed by the President to recommend manned spaceflight programs, usually chaired by the Vice President. For instance, President Richard Nixon appointed such a group in February 1969 to outline a post-Apollo spaceflight strategy, chaired by Vice President Spiro T. Agnew.
Created on November 5, 1958, the Space Task Group was headed by Robert Gilruth. Originally it consisted of 45 people, including eight secretaries and "computers '', the occupational title for women who ran calculations on mechanical adding machines. Of its 37 engineers, 27 were from Langley Research Center, and 10 had been assigned from Lewis Research Center in Cleveland, Ohio. Original members of the group included Charles Donlan, Gilruth 's deputy; Max Faget, head of engineering; Chuck Mathews, head of flight operations; Chris Kraft, also in flight operations; and Glynn Lunney, who at 21 was the youngest member of the group. The head of the public affairs office was John "Shorty '' Powers.
In 1959, the group was expanded by the addition of 32 engineers from Canada, who had been left without jobs when the Avro Arrow project was cancelled. These new engineers included Jim Chamberlin, George Harris, John Hodge, Owen Maynard, Bryan Erb, Rodney Rose, and Tecwyn Roberts.
After President John F. Kennedy set the national goal on May 25, 1961, of landing men on the Moon by the end of the 1960s, it became clear to NASA administrator James E. Webb that Gilruth would need a much larger organization and facilities, in fact a new dedicated NASA center, to administer US manned space programs. Webb got the approval of Kennedy, and the Congress, and in August 1961 appointed a team to select a site for the new center. On September 19, Webb announced the new Manned Spacecraft Center (MSC) would be built on a Houston, Texas site donated by Rice University. Gilruth immediately began the transition of his Task Group into the new MSC, planning his increased staff organization and its move to Houston, using temporary leased office and test facility space on 12 sites while the new facility was being built. By September 1962, his organization was moved to Houston and construction had begun, effectively marking the end of the Task Group. The MSC facility was completed in September 1963.
The National Aeronautics and Space Act of 1958, which established NASA, also directed the President of the United States to chair a National Aeronautics and Space Council (later the National Space Council), including the Secretaries of State and Defense, the NASA Administrator, the Chairman of the Atomic Energy Commission, and any additional members that the president chose to appoint. This council was tasked with making recommendations on the direction of the US civilian and military space programs. Occasionally this council was referred to as a "Space Task Group ''. President John F. Kennedy persuaded Congress to modify the law to give him the authority to appoint the Vice President to chair the council in his place. As the Apollo program reached its climax in 1969, President Richard M. Nixon directed Vice President Spiro T. Agnew 's "Space Task Group '' to recommend a future direction of the US manned space program. Agnew enthusiastically supported an ambitious Space Transportation System program including reusable spacecraft, permanent Earth and Lunar stations, and human flight to Mars. However, Nixon knew the mood in the US Congress would not continue to sustain funding at the level of Apollo, and cut these plans back to only the development of the Space Shuttle, with possible eventual establishment of an Earth orbital space station.
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are the secretary of the treasury and the us treasurer the same | Treasurer of the United States - wikipedia
The Treasurer of the United States is an official in the United States Department of the Treasury who was originally charged with the receipt and custody of government funds, though many of these functions have been taken over by different bureaus of the Department. Responsibility for oversight of the Bureau of Engraving and Printing, the United States Mint, and the United States Savings Bonds Division (now the Savings Bond Marketing Office within the Bureau of the Public Debt) was assigned to the Treasurer in 1981. As of 2002 the Office of the Treasurer underwent a major reorganization. The Treasurer now advises the Director of the Mint, the Director of the Bureau of Engraving and Printing, the Deputy Secretary and the Secretary of the Treasury on matters relating to coinage, currency and the production of other instruments by the United States.
The Treasurer 's signature, as well as the Treasury Secretary 's, appear on Federal Reserve Notes.
President Harry S. Truman appointed Georgia Neese Clark as the first woman Treasurer in 1949. Since then, every subsequent Treasurer has been a woman, and seven of the past eleven Treasurers have also been Hispanic.
Requirement for Senate confirmation for the appointment was dropped as of August 10, 2012.
Since 1949, the length of time the office has been vacant totals 3,688 days, more than 10 years.
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when did mary jane's last dance come out | Mary Jane 's Last Dance - wikipedia
"Mary Jane 's Last Dance '' is a song written by Tom Petty and recorded by American rock band Tom Petty and the Heartbreakers. It was recorded on July 22, 1993, while Petty was recording his Wildflowers album, and was produced by Rick Rubin, guitarist Mike Campbell, and Tom Petty. The sessions would prove to be the last to include drummer Stan Lynch before his eventual departure in 1994. This song was first released as part of the Greatest Hits album in 1993. It rose to No. 14 on the Billboard Hot 100, becoming his first Billboard Top 20 hit of the 1990s, and also topped the Billboard Album Rock Tracks chart for two weeks.
Asked if the song was about drugs, Heartbreaker guitarist Mike Campbell said, "In the verse there is still the thing about an Indiana girl on an Indiana night, just when it gets to the chorus he had the presence of mind to give it a deeper meaning. My take on it is it can be whatever you want it to be. A lot of people think it 's a drug reference, and if that 's what you want to think, it very well could be, but it could also just be a goodbye love song. '' In the rest of the interview, Campbell said that the song was originally titled "Indiana Girl '' and the first chorus "Hey, Indiana Girl, go out and find the world. '' He added that Petty ' just could n't get behind singing about "hey, Indiana Girl, '' ' so he changed the chorus a week later.
The music video, which won the MTV Video Music Award for Best Male Video in 1994, features Petty as a morgue assistant who takes home a beautiful dead woman (played by Kim Basinger). He then tries to bring her back to life by acting as if she were alive, putting her in front of a television set and then dressing her as a bride, sitting her at the dinner table and dancing with her with no effect. A scene in the video featuring the dead woman wearing a wedding dress in a room full of wax candles is loosely based on a passage from the Charles Dickens novel Great Expectations. The plot also has similarities with the French movie Cold Moon, itself inspired by a Charles Bukowski short story ("The Copulating Mermaid of Venice ''). Later, Petty is shown carrying her to a rocky shore and gently releasing her into the sea. At the end of the video, Basinger, who is seen floating in the water, opens her eyes.
During the final scenes of the video, Petty is seen carrying Basinger through a cave before placing her in the water. The cave is located at Leo Carrillo State Park, California, where many movies and television shows were filmed.
I said, "She 's got to look really good, or why would he keep her around after she 's dead? '' I thought, Kim Basinger would be good. I 'd probably keep her for a day or two, let 's go see if she would do it. '' You can make a joke about it, but you have to act a bit to be dead. It 's not easy.
Now that was one of the coolest things I 've ever done in my life. It was classic, was n't it? He was a doll, and he was so sweet and asked me to do it, and both of us are extremely shy so we just said three words to each other the whole time. I 'll never forget how heavy that dress was! And I had to be dead the whole time. You know, it 's really one of the hardest things I 've ever done in my life, because I had to be completely weightless to be in his arms the way I was. It won all those awards, and the kids love it -- even today!
I did the "Mary Jane 's Last Dance '' video (in 1993) for one reason: Tom Petty. I did n't even care what it was about -- I was just blown away when he called. Then I heard the music, and I was so in love with the song. The director (Keir McFarlane) was a gruff guy; it was kind of like, his way or the highway. And I always found Tom to be incredibly sensitive and sort of a backseat guy. He was just very humble, beautifully shy. I 'm not the most outgoing human being in the world, and I thought, "I 'm shy; he 's shy. '' But as the story really unfolded and this director kept saying, "Look, you have got to really play dead -- all your weight, '' we laughed so hard. I just honestly could n't keep it together sometimes! Tom had a great sense of humor. I remember getting out of the pool that day and just being so glad it was over, but so proud that I had worked with him.
Besides Cold Moon and Great Expectations, the plot of the video also bears some semblance to the final segment of the 1987 Belgian film Crazy Love (which in itself, is like Cold Moon, also inspired by the writings of Charles Bukowski, in particular "The Copulating Mermaid of Venice, California ''). However, only in the video for "Mary Jane 's Last Dance '' was any sexual contact between Tom Petty and Kim Basinger ("the corpse '') not shown despite being implied. Also unlike in the later music video, there was no "gotcha ending '' in Crazy Love.
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nagpur metro rail corporation limited (nmrcl) | Nagpur Metro - Wikipedia
Nagpur Metro is an under construction rapid transit system for the city of Nagpur, India. It is estimated to cost ₹ 8,260 crore (US $1.2 billion). In February 2014, the Government of Maharashtra gave approval for the Metro Project, while Government of India 's Ministry of Urban Development had given "In Principle '' approval for the Project. On 20 August 2014, Union Cabinet gave approval for the development of project, and Prime Minister Narendra Modi laid foundation stone on 21 August on his visit to the city. Construction on the project began on 31 May 2015, with trial run began on 30th September 2017 and an anticipated partial commercial operation on Line 1 i.e. Orange line in April 2018.
The project was conceived during the year 2012, when cities having population of more than 20 lakh were made eligible for having the metro rail system. This decision by the government had made 12 cities in India eligible for the metro rail, including Nagpur. Kamal Nath, then Union minister for urban development, then had proposed a metro rail in Nagpur and called for a detailed project report from the state government. On 22 February 2012, the Nagpur Improvement Trust (NIT) signed an agreement with Delhi Metro Rail Corporation (DMRC) to prepare the Detailed Project Report (DPR) for the metro in Nagpur. The Central Ministry had allocated ₹ 24 million (US $330,000) to the State Government for carrying out the DPR work.
As per the plan of East - West corridor of the Nagpur Metro, the route from east side of the Nagpur Railway station passes through the same road as that of the place where the Ram jhula phase II was under construction. This led to a conflict between MSRDC and NMRCL regarding the position of pillars for their respective projects. Even after several meetings no solution came out. The matter was discussed in the High court of Nagpur Bench during the hearing of a PIL filled by Nagpur Chamber of Commerce Ltd (NCCL) for early completion of Ram Jhula, the six - lane cable - stayed railway over-bridge near Santra Market that has been pending for nine years. High court then directed both the parties to submit their plans to superintendent engineer of Public Works Department (PWD), based in Mumbai. The High court also urged the Chief Minister to resolve the deadlock over Ram jhula. In response, Devendra Fadnavis, Chief Minister of Maharashtra, assured that there would be an early resolve on the ongoing conflict between NMRCL and MSRDC. After some meetings between officials of NMRCL and MSRDC, which was facilitated by Chief Minister, both parties found a solution on the conflict. As per the new plan NMRCL has jointly decided with Maharashtra State Road Development Corporation (MSRDC) to lay the metro rail track between two spans of Ramjhula. This alignment, which although technically challenging, will make it unnecessary to demolish a part of Indira Gandhi Government Medical College and Hospital (IGGMCH) and will not disturb the Poddareshwar Ram Temple either....
DMRC submitted the report to the nodal agecy Nagpur Improvement Trust on 12 February 2013. The total cost of the project was estimated at around ₹ 90 billion. The project consisted of two routes: Automotive square, Kamptee to MIHAN Metro depot and Prajapati Nagar, East Wardhaman Nagar to Lokmanya Nagar, Hingna. There would be 17 stations on Route no. 1 with a terminal cum depot at MIHAN and 19 stations on Route no. 2 with a terminal cum depot at Lokmanya Nagar. A cross major station was proposed at Munje Square where the two routes would meet and the commuter would be able to exchange the routes.
It was expected that 12.21 percent of Nagpur 's estimated population of 2.9 million in 2021, i.e., around 363,000 commuters would use the Metro by 2021.
To provide first and last mile connectivity, feeder services such as shuttle buses, battery operated vehicles, pedestrian facilities and bicycle sharing schemes were included in the project. There would be 19 feeder routes covering all stations and a total distance of around 160 km. Feeder services would enhance the accessibility of the Metro for all classes of commuters, to and from homes and offices.
To execute the project, the Cabinet approved setting up of Nagpur Metro Rail Corporation Limited (NMRCL) now known as MahaMetro. NMRCL is a Special Purpose Vehicle (SPV) created for the smooth implementation and operations of the Nagpur Metro Rail Project and is a joint venture of Government of India and Government of Maharashtra, with 50: 50 equity. NMRCL shall be solely responsible for the successful and timely completion of the project and its subsequent operations.
The project is scheduled to be completed by December 2019.
The Total Expenditure of the Project is estimated to ₹ 8680 Cr. with the Central Government and State Government each contributing 20 % share in the form of equity and subordinate debt. Nagpur Municipal Corporation and Nagpur Improvement Trust each giving 5 % share of the expenditure while the rest 50 % is being financed by loan.
Recently, KfW, a German government - owned development bank, has approved a loan of ₹ 3,700 crores (€ 500 million) to NMRCL as a part of fund required for the project. An additional € 60 million (₹ 444 crore) loan will also be provided for funding the proposed feeder service and solar energy installation of Nagpur Metro Rail on mere concessional terms of KfW Germany. The remaining requirement of about € 130 million for the entire project has been funded by AFD France. The 20 - year credit, will be used for funding signalling, telecommunication, automatic fare collection systems, lifts and escalators
In early 2012 Nagpur Improvement Trust (NIT) requested DMRC to provide Consultancy services for preparation of a Detailed Project Report for Metro Rail System in Nagpur, Maharashtra initially for 30 km which was revised to 42 km in July 2012. Thereafter, DMRC conducted Traffic Surveys, Topographical Surveys, Geotechnical Investigations and Environment Impact Assessment Survey. The study area consisted of Nagpur Municipal Corporation Area. The study area totaled to approximately 217 km < sup. Based on the different types of surveys done by DMRC, metro alignments were finalized after repeated inspection of the road network, intersections, passenger traffic flow, traffic congestion, connectivity to important land uses.
On 3 August 2013, a meeting was held at Nagpur by authorities of Ministry for Urban Development to discuss the DPR of Nagpur Metro. In that meeting, the Joint Secretary of MoUD had expressed that the Financial Internal Rate of Return (FIRR) of the project should be at least 8 % since the Ministry had already issued an advisory that FIRR of metro project should not be below 8 %. On 1 October 2013, a presentation on the DPR was made by NIT to The Chief Minister, Government of Maharashtra. The Chief Minister was of the opinion to avoid underground alignment in MIHAN and also construct Maintenance Depot in the land belonging to State Govt Land.
Subsequently, on 21 October 2013, a joint inspection of the North South corridor was done by MADC, NIT and DMRC. The original alignment of Corridor - I proposed was passing through Khamla Road, Airport Area after Sahakar Nagar and finally was ending at MIHAN. The alignment up to old airport station was elevated, then for a length of 3.30 km it was underground with one underground station named as New Airport Station and again elevated in MIHAN Area. Since the cost of underground section of the alignment is much more than the elevated section or the section at grade, alternative alignment was suggested for cost reduction, enhancement in PHPDT and to increase FIRR so that project becomes financially and economically viable. The new proposed alignment suggested in the above inspection, was to pass through a 24 - meter wide road adjacent to London Street after Sahakar Nagar Junction and was proposed to be taken to the east along 24 - meter wide road and London Street up to Wardha Road. From the intersection at Wardha road, the elevated alignment was proposed to be on the central divider on the Wardha Road. After crossing existing intersection point of Wardha Road & Airport Road, the alignment was to be shifted to the MIHAN area.
Alignment in this portion was proposed to be at grade and to run parallel to Wardha road up to ROB and abutting railway line thereafter up - to proposed Car depot. But, while working on this modification of alignment, it was noticed that a very large number of properties were falling along the alignment due to sharp curve at the junction of Sahakar Nagar & 24 - meter wide road and also at the junction of 24 - meter wide road & Wardha Road. As acquiring of these properties will be very tough and may delay the whole project, hence to avoid all such situation, it was decided to take the alignment on Wardha Road only without going on Khamla Road. This decision changed the alignment, and it was decided that North - South Corridor will pass through Wardha Road after Congress Nagar Metro Station. After crossing existing intersection point of Wardha Road & Airport Road, it was decided that the alignment will be shifted to the MIHAN area and alignment in this portion would be at grade and will run parallel to Wardha road up to ROB and parallel to railway line thereafter up - to proposed Car depot. 14 - meter wide stretch of land between the railway boundary line and the road near proposed Container Depot of Container Corporation of India Ltd. would be affected by this proposed alignment of the Metro Rail as the proposed alignment passes through this stretch of land. MADC land of area 73 Ha was available on the west side of railway line and south of existing flyover near Khapri station. Average width of this land was about 80 m and was about 1800 m long. This MADC land would be utilized for Car Depot. Similarly, Depot of East - West Corridor had also been shifted to SRPF Land near proposed Lokmanya Nagar Metro Station.
This has caused deletion of few earlier proposed metro stations on North - South Corridor and addition of new stations on the same.
Final alignment for both the corridors is as below:
(Rail Length: 19.658 km; No of Stations: 20)
This corridor originates from Automotive Square on Kamptee Road; moves along Kamptee Road and reaches the intersection point of Amravati Road and Wardha Road, then after crossing Fly Over moves towards Munje Square, moves towards Dhantoli and along nala moves towards Empire / Dr Munje Marg, leads towards Congress Nagar T - Point, then on Rahate Colony Road and then falls on Wardha Road, leads towards NEERI, then moves along Wardha Road and then west of Railway Track in MIHAN area. And passes through 14m wide stretch of land between the railway boundary line and the road near proposed Container Depot.
Entire length (19.658 km.) of this corridor is proposed as elevated except in 4.6 km at grade after Airport Station and in MIHAN area near Khapri Railway Station. There are 20 stations on this corridor of which 15 stations are elevated and 5 stations are at Grade. Sitaburdi Station is an Inter-change station. Average inter-station distance is 1.20 km approximately varying from 0.54 km to 2.4 km depending upon the site, operational and traffic requirements.
(Rail Length: 18.557 km; No of Stations: 20)
This corridor originates from Prajapati Nagar and runs westwards, through Vaishnodevi Chowk, Ambedkar Chowk, Telephone Exchange, Chittar Oli Chowk, Agarsen Chowk, Doser Vaisya Chowk, Nagpur Railway Station, Sitaburdi, Jhansi Rani Square, Institute of Engineers, Shankar Nagar Square, Lad chowk, Dharmpeth College, Subhash Nagar, Rachna (Ring road Junction), Vasudev Nagar, Bansi Nagar to Lomanya Nagar. The entire corridor is elevated.
The total length of the corridor is 18.557 kilometer. There are 20 stations on this corridor. All stations are elevated stations and Sitaburdi station is an Interchange Station. Average inter-station distance is 1.00 km approximately varying from 0.65 km to 1.29 km depending upon the site, operational and traffic requirements.
The DMRC in its Detailed Project Report (DPR) submitted to Nagpur Improvement Trust has suggested to start the construction work on both the routes simultaneously contradicting the prior suggestion of phase wise development.
Nagpur Metro Rail Corporation Ltd (NMRCL) wa re-constituted to form the Maharashtra Metro Rail Corporation (MahaMetro) for implementation of all Metro Rail Projects in Maharashtra excluding the Mumbai Metropolitan Region. It has already begun implementation of two lines of the Pune Metro Rail Project from December 2016 and implementation of Greater Nashik metro rail will be done later.
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what disney films came out in the 60s | List of Walt Disney Pictures films - wikipedia
This is a list of films released theatrically under the Walt Disney Pictures banner (known as that since 1983, with Never Cry Wolf as its first release) and films released before that under the former name of the parent company, Walt Disney Productions (1929 -- 1983). Most films listed here were distributed in the United States by the company 's distribution division, Walt Disney Studios Motion Pictures (formerly known as Buena Vista Distribution Company (1953 -- 1987) and Buena Vista Pictures Distribution (1987 -- 2007)). The Disney features produced before Peter Pan (1953) were originally distributed by RKO Radio Pictures, and are now distributed by Walt Disney Studios Motion Pictures.
This list is organized by release date and includes live action feature films, animated feature films (including films developed and produced by Walt Disney Animation Studios and Pixar Animation Studios), and documentary films (including titles from the True - Life Adventures series and films produced by the Disneynature label). For an exclusive list of animated films released by Walt Disney Pictures and its previous entities see List of Disney theatrical animated features.
This list is only for theatrical films released under the main Disney banner. The list does not include films released by other existing, defunct or divested labels or subsidiaries owned by Walt Disney Studios (i.e. Marvel Studios, Lucasfilm, Touchstone Pictures, Hollywood Pictures, Miramax Films, Dimension Films, ESPN Films etc.; unless they are credited as co-production partners) nor any direct - to - video releases, TV films, theatrical re-releases, or films originally released by other non-Disney studios.
1930s 1940s 1950s 1960s 1970s 1980s 1990s 2000s 2010s Future releases Notes See also Further Reading References
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what was the first major victory for the naacp | NAACP - wikipedia
Origins of the civil rights movement Civil rights movement Black Power movement
The National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) is a civil rights organization in the United States, formed in 1909 as a bi-racial endeavor to advance justice for African Americans by a group including W.E.B. Du Bois, Mary White Ovington and Moorfield Storey.
Its mission in the 21st century is "to ensure the political, educational, social, and economic equality of rights of all persons and to eliminate race - based discrimination. '' National NAACP initiatives include political lobbying, publicity efforts and litigation strategies developed by its legal team. The group enlarged its mission in the late 20th century by considering issues such as police misconduct, the status of black foreign refugees and questions of economic development. Its name, retained in accordance with tradition, uses the once common term colored people, referring to those with some African ancestry.
The NAACP bestows annual awards to people of color in two categories: Image Awards are for achievement in the arts and entertainment, and Spingarn Medals are for outstanding achievement of any kind. Its headquarters is in Baltimore, Maryland.
The NAACP is headquartered in Baltimore, with additional regional offices in New York, Michigan, Georgia, Maryland, Texas, Colorado and California. Each regional office is responsible for coordinating the efforts of state conferences in that region. Local, youth, and college chapters organize activities for individual members.
In the U.S., the NAACP is administered by a 64 - member board, led by a chairperson. The board elects one person as the president and one as chief executive officer for the organization; Benjamin Jealous is its most recent (and youngest) president, selected to replace Bruce S. Gordon, who resigned in March 2007. Julian Bond, Civil Rights Movement activist and former Georgia State Senator, was chairman until replaced in February 2010 by health - care administrator Roslyn Brock. For decades in the first half of the 20th century, the organization was effectively led by its executive secretary, who acted as chief operating officer. James Weldon Johnson and Walter F. White, who served in that role successively from 1920 to 1958, were much more widely known as NAACP leaders than were presidents during those years.
Departments within the NAACP govern areas of action. Local chapters are supported by the ' Branch and Field Services ' department and the ' Youth and College ' department. The ' Legal ' department focuses on court cases of broad application to minorities, such as systematic discrimination in employment, government, or education. The Washington, D.C., bureau is responsible for lobbying the U.S. government, and the Education Department works to improve public education at the local, state and federal levels. The goal of the Health Division is to advance health care for minorities through public policy initiatives and education.
As of 2007, the NAACP had approximately 425,000 paying and non-paying members.
The NAACP 's non-current records are housed at the Library of Congress, which has served as the organization 's official repository since 1964. The records held there comprise approximately five million items spanning the NAACP 's history from the time of its founding until 2003. In 2011, the NAACP teamed with the digital repository ProQuest to digitize and host online the earlier portion of its archives, through 1972 -- nearly two million pages of documents, from the national, legal, and branch offices throughout the country, which offer first - hand insight into the organization 's work related to such crucial issues as lynching, school desegregation, and discrimination in all its aspects (in the military, the criminal justice system, employment, housing).
The Pan-American Exposition of 1901 in Buffalo, New York featured many American innovations and achievements, but also included a disparaging caricature of slave life in the South as well as a depiction of life in Africa, called "Old Plantation '' and "Darkest Africa, '' respectively. A local African American women, Mary Talbert of Ohio was appalled by the exhibit, as a similar one in Paris highlighted black achievements. She informed W.E.B. DuBois of the situation, and a coalition began to form.
In 1905, a group of thirty - two prominent African - American leaders met to discuss the challenges facing people of color and possible strategies and solutions. They were particularly concerned by the Southern states ' disenfranchisement of blacks starting with Mississippi 's passage of a new constitution in 1890. Through 1908, southern legislatures dominated by white Democrats ratified new constitutions and laws creating barriers to voter registration and more complex election rules. In practice, this caused the exclusion of most blacks and many poor whites from the political system in southern states, crippling the Republican Party in most of the South. Black voter registration and turnout dropped markedly in the South as a result of such legislation. Men who had been voting for thirty years in the South were told they did not "qualify '' to register. White - dominated legislatures also passed segregation and Jim Crow laws.
Because hotels in the US were segregated, the men convened in Canada at the Erie Beach Hotel on the Canadian side of the Niagara River in Fort Erie, Ontario. As a result, the group came to be known as the Niagara Movement. A year later, three non-African - Americans joined the group: journalist William English Walling, a wealthy socialist; and social workers Mary White Ovington and Henry Moskowitz. Moskowitz, who was Jewish, was then also Associate Leader of the New York Society for Ethical Culture. They met in 1906 at Harpers Ferry, West Virginia, and in 1907 in Boston, Massachusetts.
The fledgling group struggled for a time with limited resources and internal conflict, and disbanded in 1910. Seven of the members of the Niagara Movement joined the Board of Directors of the NAACP, founded in 1909. Although both organizations shared membership and overlapped for a time, the Niagara Movement was a separate organization. Historically, it is considered to have had a more radical platform than the NAACP. The Niagara Movement was formed exclusively by African Americans. Three European Americans were among the founders of the NAACP.
The Race Riot of 1908 in Springfield, Illinois, the state capital and President Abraham Lincoln 's hometown, was a catalyst showing the urgent need for an effective civil rights organization in the U.S. In the decades around the turn of the century, the rate of lynchings of blacks, particularly men, was at a high. Mary White Ovington, journalist William English Walling and Henry Moskowitz met in New York City in January 1909 to work on organizing for black civil rights. They sent out solicitations for support to more than 60 prominent Americans, and set a meeting date for February 12, 1909. This was intended to coincide with the 100th anniversary of the birth of President Abraham Lincoln, who emancipated enslaved African Americans. While the first large meeting did not take place until three months later, the February date is often cited as the founding date of the organization.
The NAACP was founded on February 12, 1909, by a larger group including African Americans W.E.B. Du Bois, Ida B. Wells, Archibald Grimké, Mary Church Terrell, and the previously named whites Henry Moskowitz, Mary White Ovington, William English Walling (the wealthy Socialist son of a former slave - holding family), Florence Kelley, a social reformer and friend of Du Bois; Oswald Garrison Villard, and Charles Edward Russell, a renowned muckraker and close friend of Walling. Russell helped plan the NAACP and had served as acting chairman of the National Negro Committee (1909), a forerunner to the NAACP.
On May 30, 1909, the Niagara Movement conference took place at New York City 's Henry Street Settlement House; they created an organization of more than 40, identifying as the National Negro Committee. Among other founding members was Lillian Wald, a nurse who had founded the Henry Street Settlement where the conference took place.
Du Bois played a key role in organizing the event and presided over the proceedings. Also in attendance was Ida B. Wells - Barnett, an African - American journalist and anti-lynching crusader. At their second conference on May 30, 1910, members chose the new organization 's name to be the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People and elected its first officers:
The NAACP was incorporated a year later in 1911. The association 's charter expressed its mission:
To promote equality of rights and to eradicate caste or race prejudice among the citizens of the United States; to advance the interest of colored citizens; to secure for them impartial suffrage; and to increase their opportunities for securing justice in the courts, education for the children, employment according to their ability and complete equality before law.
The larger conference resulted in a more diverse organization, where the leadership was predominantly white. Moorfield Storey, a white attorney from a Boston abolitionist family, served as the president of the NAACP from its founding to 1915. At its founding, the NAACP had one African American on its executive board, Du Bois. Storey was a long - time classical liberal and Grover Cleveland Democrat who advocated laissez - faire free markets, the gold standard, and anti-imperialism. Storey consistently and aggressively championed civil rights, not only for blacks but also for Native Americans and immigrants (he opposed immigration restrictions). Du Bois continued to play a pivotal leadership role in the organization, serving as editor of the association 's magazine, The Crisis, which had a circulation of more than 30,000.
The Crisis was used both for news reporting and for publishing African - American poetry and literature. During the organization 's campaigns against lynching, Du Bois encouraged the writing and performance of plays and other expressive literature about this issue.
The Jewish community contributed greatly to the NAACP 's founding and continued financing.. Jewish historian Howard Sachar writes in his book A History of Jews in America that "In 1914, Professor Emeritus Joel Spingarn of Columbia University became chairman of the NAACP and recruited for its board such Jewish leaders as Jacob Schiff, Jacob Billikopf, and Rabbi Stephen Wise. ''
In its early years, the NAACP was based in New York City. It concentrated on litigation in efforts to overturn disenfranchisement of blacks, which had been established in every southern state by 1908, excluding most from the political system, and the Jim Crow statutes that legalized racial segregation.
In 1913, the NAACP organized opposition to President Woodrow Wilson 's introduction of racial segregation into federal government policy, workplaces, and hiring. African - American women 's clubs were among the organizations that protested Wilson 's changes, but the administration did not alter its assuagement of Southern cabinet members and the Southern block in Congress.
By 1914, the group had 6,000 members and 50 branches. It was influential in winning the right of African Americans to serve as military officers in World War I. Six hundred African - American officers were commissioned and 700,000 men registered for the draft. The following year, the NAACP organized a nationwide protest, with marches in numerous cities, against D.W. Griffith 's silent movie The Birth of a Nation, a film that glamorized the Ku Klux Klan. As a result, several cities refused to allow the film to open.
The NAACP began to lead lawsuits targeting disfranchisement and racial segregation early in its history. It played a significant part in the challenge of Guinn v. United States (1915) to Oklahoma 's discriminatory grandfather clause, which effectively disenfranchised most black citizens while exempting many whites from certain voter registration requirements. It persuaded the Supreme Court of the United States to rule in Buchanan v. Warley in 1917 that state and local governments can not officially segregate African Americans into separate residential districts. The Court 's opinion reflected the jurisprudence of property rights and freedom of contract as embodied in the earlier precedent it established in Lochner v. New York.
In 1916, chairman Joel Spingarn invited James Weldon Johnson to serve as field secretary. Johnson was a former U.S. consul to Venezuela and a noted African - American scholar and columnist. Within four years, Johnson was instrumental in increasing the NAACP 's membership from 9,000 to almost 90,000. In 1920, Johnson was elected head of the organization. Over the next ten years, the NAACP escalated its lobbying and litigation efforts, becoming internationally known for its advocacy of equal rights and equal protection for the "American Negro. ''
The NAACP devoted much of its energy during the interwar years to fighting the lynching of blacks throughout the United States by working for legislation, lobbying and educating the public. The organization sent its field secretary Walter F. White to Phillips County, Arkansas, in October 1919, to investigate the Elaine Race Riot. More than 200 black tenant farmers were killed by roving white vigilantes and federal troops after a deputy sheriff 's attack on a union meeting of sharecroppers left one white man dead. White published his report on the riot in the Chicago Daily News. The NAACP organized the appeals for twelve black men sentenced to death a month later based on the fact that testimony used in their convictions was obtained by beatings and electric shocks. It gained a groundbreaking Supreme Court decision in Moore v. Dempsey 261 U.S. 86 (1923) that significantly expanded the Federal courts ' oversight of the states ' criminal justice systems in the years to come. White investigated eight race riots and 41 lynchings for the NAACP and directed its study Thirty Years of Lynching in the United States.
The NAACP also worked for more than a decade seeking federal anti-lynching legislation, but the Solid South of white Democrats voted as a bloc against it or used the filibuster in the Senate to block passage. Because of disenfranchisement, African Americans in the South were unable to elect representatives of their choice to office. The NAACP regularly displayed a black flag stating "A Man Was Lynched Yesterday '' from the window of its offices in New York to mark each lynching.
In alliance with the American Federation of Labor, the NAACP led the successful fight to prevent the nomination of John Johnston Parker to the Supreme Court, based on his support for denying the vote to blacks and his anti-labor rulings. It organized legal support for the Scottsboro Boys. The NAACP lost most of the internecine battles with the Communist Party and International Labor Defense over the control of those cases and the legal strategy to be pursued in that case.
The organization also brought litigation to challenge the "white primary '' system in the South. Southern state Democratic parties had created white - only primaries as another way of barring blacks from the political process. Since southern states were dominated by the Democrats, the primaries were the only competitive contests. In 1944 in Smith v. Allwright, the Supreme Court ruled against the white primary. Although states had to retract legislation related to the white primaries, the legislatures soon came up with new methods to severely limit the franchise for blacks.
The board of directors of the NAACP created the Legal Defense Fund in 1939 specifically for tax purposes. It functioned as the NAACP legal department. Intimidated by the Department of the Treasury and the Internal Revenue Service, the Legal and Educational Defense Fund, Inc., became a separate legal entity in 1957, although it was clear that it was to operate in accordance with NAACP policy. After 1961 serious disputes emerged between the two organizations, creating considerable confusion in the eyes and minds of the public.
By the 1940s the federal courts were amenable to lawsuits regarding constitutional rights, which Congressional action was virtually impossible. With the rise of private corporate litigators such as the NAACP to bear the expense, civil suits became the pattern in modern civil rights litigation. The NAACP 's Legal department, headed by Charles Hamilton Houston and Thurgood Marshall, undertook a campaign spanning several decades to bring about the reversal of the "separate but equal '' doctrine announced by the Supreme Court 's decision in Plessy v. Ferguson.
The NAACP 's Baltimore chapter, under president Lillie Mae Carroll Jackson, challenged segregation in Maryland state professional schools by supporting the 1935 Murray v. Pearson case argued by Marshall. Houston 's victory in Missouri ex rel. Gaines v. Canada (1938) led to the formation of the Legal Defense Fund in 1939.
The campaign for desegregation culminated in a unanimous 1954 Supreme Court decision in Brown v. Board of Education that held state - sponsored segregation of public elementary schools was unconstitutional. Bolstered by that victory, the NAACP pushed for full desegregation throughout the South. NAACP activists were excited about the judicial strategy. Starting on December 5, 1955, NAACP activists, including Edgar Nixon, its local president, and Rosa Parks, who had served as the chapter 's Secretary, helped organize a bus boycott in Montgomery, Alabama. This was designed to protest segregation on the city 's buses, two - thirds of whose riders were black. The boycott lasted 381 days. The State of Alabama responded by effectively barring the NAACP from operating within its borders because of its refusal to divulge a list of its members. The NAACP feared members could be fired or face violent retaliation for their activities. Although the Supreme Court eventually overturned the state 's action in NAACP v. Alabama, 357 U.S. 449 (1958), the NAACP lost its leadership role in the Civil Rights Movement while it was barred from Alabama.
New organizations such as the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC) and the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC) rose up with different approaches to activism. These newer groups relied on direct action and mass mobilization to advance the rights of African Americans, rather than litigation and legislation. Roy Wilkins, NAACP 's executive director, clashed repeatedly with Martin Luther King Jr. and other civil rights leaders over questions of strategy and leadership within the movement.
The NAACP continued to use the Supreme Court 's decision in Brown to press for desegregation of schools and public facilities throughout the country. Daisy Bates, president of its Arkansas state chapter, spearheaded the campaign by the Little Rock Nine to integrate the public schools in Little Rock, Arkansas.
By the mid-1960s, the NAACP had regained some of its preeminence in the Civil Rights Movement by pressing for civil rights legislation. The March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom took place on August 28, 1963. That fall President John F. Kennedy sent a civil rights bill to Congress before he was assassinated.
President Lyndon B. Johnson worked hard to persuade Congress to pass a civil rights bill aimed at ending racial discrimination in employment, education and public accommodations, and succeeded in gaining passage in July 1964. He followed that with passage of the Voting Rights Act of 1965, which provided for protection of the franchise, with a role for federal oversight and administrators in places where voter turnout was historically low.
After Kivie Kaplan died in 1975, scientist W. Montague Cobb became President of the NAACP and served until 1982. Benjamin Hooks, a lawyer and clergyman, was elected as the NAACP 's executive director in 1977, after the retirement of Roy Wilkins.
In the 1990s, the NAACP ran into debt. The dismissal of two leading officials further added to the picture of an organization in deep crisis.
In 1993 the NAACP 's Board of Directors narrowly selected Reverend Benjamin Chavis over Reverend Jesse Jackson to fill the position of Executive Director. A controversial figure, Chavis was ousted eighteen months later by the same board. They accused him of using NAACP funds for an out - of - court settlement in a sexual harassment lawsuit. Following the dismissal of Chavis, Myrlie Evers - Williams narrowly defeated NAACP chairperson William Gibson for president in 1995, after Gibson was accused of overspending and mismanagement of the organization 's funds.
In 1996 Congressman Kweisi Mfume, a Democratic Congressman from Maryland and former head of the Congressional Black Caucus, was named the organization 's president. Three years later strained finances forced the organization to drastically cut its staff, from 250 in 1992 to 50.
In the second half of the 1990s, the organization restored its finances, permitting the NAACP National Voter Fund to launch a major get - out - the - vote offensive in the 2000 U.S. presidential elections. 10.5 million African Americans cast their ballots in the election. This was one million more than four years before. The NAACP 's effort was credited by observers as playing a significant role in Democrat Al Gore 's winning several states where the election was close, such as Pennsylvania and Michigan.
During the 2000 Presidential election, Lee Alcorn, president of the Dallas NAACP branch, criticized Al Gore 's selection of Senator Joe Lieberman for his Vice-Presidential candidate because Lieberman was Jewish. On a gospel talk radio show on station KHVN, Alcorn stated, "If we get a Jew person, then what I 'm wondering is, I mean, what is this movement for, you know? Does it have anything to do with the failed peace talks? ''... "So I think we need to be very suspicious of any kind of partnerships between the Jews at that kind of level because we know that their interest primarily has to do with money and these kind of things. ''
NAACP President Kweisi Mfume immediately suspended Alcorn and condemned his remarks. Mfume stated, "I strongly condemn those remarks. I find them to be repulsive, anti-Semitic, anti-NAACP and anti-American. Mr. Alcorn does not speak for the NAACP, its board, its staff or its membership. We are proud of our long - standing relationship with the Jewish community and I personally will not tolerate statements that run counter to the history and beliefs of the NAACP in that regard. ''
Alcorn, who had been suspended three times in the previous five years for misconduct, subsequently resigned from the NAACP. He founded what he called the Coalition for the Advancement of Civil Rights. Alcorn criticized the NAACP, saying, "I ca n't support the leadership of the NAACP. Large amounts of money are being given to them by large corporations that I have a problem with. '' Alcorn also said, "I can not be bought. For this reason I gladly offer my resignation and my membership to the NAACP because I can not work under these constraints. ''
Alcorn 's remarks were also condemned by the Reverend Jesse Jackson, Jewish groups and George W. Bush 's rival Republican presidential campaign. Jackson said he strongly supported Lieberman 's addition to the Democratic ticket, saying, "When we live our faith, we live under the law. He (Lieberman) is a firewall of exemplary behavior. '' Al Sharpton, another prominent African - American leader, said, "The appointment of Mr. Lieberman was to be welcomed as a positive step. '' The leaders of the American Jewish Congress praised the NAACP for its quick response, stating that: "It will take more than one bigot like Alcorn to shake the sense of fellowship of American Jews with the NAACP and black America... Our common concerns are too urgent, our history too long, our connection too sturdy, to let anything like this disturb our relationship. ''
In 2004, President George W. Bush declined an invitation to speak to the NAACP 's national convention. Bush 's spokesperson said that Bush had declined the invitation to speak to the NAACP because of harsh statements about him by its leaders. In an interview, Bush said, "I would describe my relationship with the current leadership as basically nonexistent. You 've heard the rhetoric and the names they 've called me. '' Bush said he admired some members of the NAACP and would seek to work with them "in other ways. ''
On July 20, 2006, Bush addressed the NAACP national convention. He made a bid for increasing support by African Americans for Republicans, in the midst of a midterm election. He referred to Republican Party support for civil rights.
In October 2004 the Internal Revenue Service informed the NAACP that it was investigating its tax - exempt status based on chairman Julian Bond 's speech at its 2004 Convention, in which he criticized President George W. Bush as well as other political figures. In general, the US Internal Revenue Code prohibits organizations granted tax - exempt status from "directly or indirectly participating in, or intervening in, any political campaign on behalf of (or in opposition to) any candidate for elective public office. '' The NAACP denounced the investigation as retaliation for its success in increasing the number of African Americans who were voting. In August 2006, the IRS investigation concluded with the agency 's finding "that the remarks did not violate the group 's tax - exempt status. ''
As the American LGBT rights movement gained steam after the Stonewall riots of 1969, the NAACP became increasingly affected by the movement to gain rights for lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender people. Bond, while chairman of the NAACP, became an outspoken supporter of the rights of gays and lesbians, and stated his support for same - sex marriage. He boycotted the 2004 funeral services for Coretta Scott King, as he said the King children had chosen an anti-gay megachurch. This was in contradiction to their mother 's longstanding support for the rights of gay and lesbian people. In a 2005 speech in Richmond, Virginia, Bond said:
In a 2007 speech on the Martin Luther King Day Celebration at Clayton State University in Morrow, Georgia, Bond said, "If you do n't like gay marriage, do n't get gay married. '' His positions have pitted elements of the NAACP against religious groups in the Civil Rights Movement who oppose gay marriage, mostly within the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC). The NAACP became increasingly vocal in opposition against state - level constitutional amendments to ban same - sex marriage and related rights. State NAACP leaders such as William J. Barber, II of North Carolina participated actively against North Carolina Amendment 1 in 2012, but it was passed by conservative voters.
On May 19, 2012, the NAACP 's board of directors formally endorsed same - sex marriage as a civil right, voting 62 - 2 for the policy in a Miami, Florida quarterly meeting. Benjamin Jealous, the organization 's president, said of the decision, "Civil marriage is a civil right and a matter of civil law... The NAACP 's support for marriage equality is deeply rooted in the 14th Amendment of the United States Constitution and equal protection of all people. '' Possibly significant in the NAACP 's vote was its concern with the HIV / AIDS crisis in the black community; while AIDS support organizations recommend that people live a monogamous lifestyle, the government did not recognize same - sex relationships as part of this.
As a result of this endorsement, Rev. Keith Ratliff Sr. of Des Moines, Iowa resigned from the NAACP board.
On June 7, 2017, the NAACP issued a warning for African - American travelers to Missouri:
Individuals traveling in the state are advised to travel with extreme CAUTION. Race, gender and color based crimes have a long history in Missouri. Missouri, home of Lloyd Gaines, Dred Scott and the dubious distinction of the Missouri Compromise and one of the last states to lose its slaveholding past, may not be safe... (Missouri Senate Bill) SB 43 legalizes individual discrimination and harassment in Missouri and would prevent individuals from protecting themselves from discrimination, harassment, and retaliation in Missouri.
Moreover, over-zealous enforcement of routine traffic violations in Missouri against African Americans has resulted in an increasing trend that shows African Americans are 75 % more likely to be stopped than Caucasians.
Missouri NAACP Conference president Rod Chapel, Jr., suggested that visitors to Missouri "should have bail money. ''
The organization 's national initiatives, political lobbying, and publicity efforts were handled by the headquarters staff in New York and Washington DC. Court strategies were developed by the legal team based for many years at Howard University.
NAACP local branches have also been important. When, in its early years, the national office launched campaigns against The Birth of a Nation, it was the local branches that carried out the boycotts. When the organization fought to expose and outlaw lynching, the branches carried the campaign into hundreds of communities. And while the Legal Defense Fund developed a federal court strategy of legal challenges to segregation, many branches fought discrimination using state laws and local political opportunities, sometimes winning important victories.
Those victories were mostly achieved in Northern and Western states before World War II. When the Southern civil rights movement gained momentum in the 1940s and 1950s, credit went both to the Legal Defense Fund attorneys and to the massive network of local branches that Ella Baker and other organizers had spread across the region.
Local organizations built a culture of Black political activism.
Youth sections of the NAACP were established in 1936; there are now more than 600 groups with a total of more than 30,000 individuals in this category. The NAACP Youth & College Division is a branch of the NAACP in which youth are actively involved. The Youth Council is composed of hundreds of state, county, high school and college operations where youth (and college students) volunteer to share their opinions with their peers and address issues that are local and national. Sometimes volunteer work expands to a more international scale.
"The mission of the NAACP Youth & College Division shall be to inform youth of the problems affecting African Americans and other racial and ethnic minorities; to advance the economic, education, social and political status of African Americans and other racial and ethnic minorities and their harmonious cooperation with other peoples; to stimulate an appreciation of the African Diaspora and other people of color 's contribution to civilization; and to develop an intelligent, militant effective youth leadership. ''
Since 1978 the NAACP has sponsored the Afro - Academic, Cultural, Technological and Scientific Olympics (ACT - SO) program for high school youth around the United States. The program is designed to recognize and award African - American youth who demonstrate accomplishment in academics, technology, and the arts. Local chapters sponsor competitions in various categories for young people in grades 9 -- 12. Winners of the local competitions are eligible to proceed to the national event at a convention held each summer at locations around the United States. Winners at the national competition receive national recognition, along with cash awards and various prizes.
The Emerald Cities Collaborative is a partner organization with the NAACP.
In May 2010 right - wing journalist Andrew Breitbart publicized an edited video of a speech at a NAACP - sponsored Georgia event by USDA worker Shirley Sherrod. The mainstream press repeated his words without criticism, and the organization itself added their own words without properly checking what had happened. The NAACP president and CEO has since apologized.
The organization has never had a woman president, except on a temporary basis, and there have been calls to name one. Lorraine C. Miller served as interim president after Benjamin Jealous stepped down. Maya Wiley was rumored to be in line for the position in 2013, but Cornell William Brooks was selected.
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a map of volcanoes in the united states | List of volcanoes in the United States - wikipedia
A list of volcanoes in the United States of America and its territories.
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a megakaryocyte is the precursor to a macrophage | Megakaryocyte - wikipedia
A megakaryocyte (mega - + karyo - + - cyte, "large - nucleus cell '') is a large bone marrow cell with a lobated nucleus responsible for the production of blood thrombocytes (platelets), which are necessary for normal blood clotting. Megakaryocytes usually account for 1 out of 10,000 bone marrow cells in normal people, but can increase in number nearly 10-fold during the course of certain diseases. Owing to variations in combining forms and spelling, synonyms include megalokaryocyte and megacaryocyte.
In general, megakaryocytes are 10 to 15 times larger than a typical red blood cell, averaging 50 -- 100 μm in diameter. During its maturation, the megakaryocyte grows in size and replicates its DNA without cytokinesis in a process called endomitosis. As a result, the nucleus of the megakaryocyte can become very large and lobulated, which, under a light microscope, can give the false impression that there are several nuclei. In some cases, the nucleus may contain up to 64N DNA, or 32 copies of the normal complement of DNA in a human cell.
The cytoplasm, just as the platelets that bud off from it, contains α - granula and dense bodies.
Megakaryocytes are derived from hematopoietic stem cell precursor cells in the bone marrow. They are produced primarily by the liver, kidney, spleen, and bone marrow. These multipotent stem cells live in the marrow sinusoids and are capable of producing all types of blood cells depending on the signals they receive. The primary signal for megakaryocyte production is thrombopoietin or TPO. TPO is sufficient but not absolutely necessary for inducing differentiation of progenitor cells in the bone marrow towards a final megakaryocyte phenotype. Other molecular signals for megakaryocyte differentiation include GM - CSF, IL - 3, IL - 6, IL - 11, chemokines (SDF - 1, FGF - 4). and erythropoietin. The megakaryocyte develops through the following lineage:
CFU - Me (pluripotential hemopoietic stem cell or hemocytoblast) → megakaryoblast → promegakaryocyte → megakaryocyte.
The cell eventually reaches megakaryocyte stage and loses its ability to divide. However, it is still able to replicate its DNA and continue development, becoming polyploid. The cytoplasm continues to expand and the DNA complement can increase up to 64N in human and 256N in mouse. Many of the morphological features of megakaryocyte differentiation can be recapitulated in non-hematopoietic cells by the expression of Class VI β - tubulin (β6) and they provide a mechanistic basis for understanding these changes.
Once the cell has completed differentiation and become a mature megakaryocyte, it begins the process of producing platelets. The maturation process occurs via endomitotic synchronous replication whereby the cytoplasmic volume enlarges as the number of chromosomes multiplies without cellular division. The cell ceases its growth at 4N, 8N or 16N, becomes granular, and begins to produce platelets. Thrombopoietin plays a role in inducing the megakaryocyte to form small proto - platelet processes. Platelets are held within these internal membranes within the cytoplasm of megakaryocytes. There are two proposed mechanisms for platelet release. In one scenario, these proto - platelet processes break up explosively to become platelets. Alternatively, the cell may form platelet ribbons into blood vessels. The ribbons are formed via pseudopodia and they are able to continuously emit platelets into circulation. In either scenario, each of these proto - platelet processes can give rise to 2000 -- 5000 new platelets upon breakup. Overall, 2 / 3 of these newly produced platelets will remain in circulation while 1 / 3 will be sequestered by the spleen.
Thrombopoietin (TPO) is a 353 - amino acid protein encoded on chromosome 3p 27. TPO is primarily synthesized in the liver but can be made by kidneys, testes, brain, and even bone marrow stromal cells. It has high homology with erythropoietin. It is essential for the formation of an adequate quantity of platelets.
After budding off platelets, what remains is mainly the cell nucleus. This crosses the bone marrow barrier to the blood and is consumed in the lung by alveolar macrophages.
Cytokines are signals used in the immune system for intercellular communication. There are many cytokines that affect megakaryocytes. Certain cytokines such as IL - 3, IL - 6, IL - 11, LIF, erythropoietin, and thrombopoietin all stimulate the maturation of megakaryocytic progenitor cells. Other signals such as PF4, CXCL5, CXCL7, and CCL5 inhibit platelet formation.
Megakaryocytes are directly responsible for producing platelets, which are needed for the formation of a thrombus, or blood clot. There are several diseases that are directly attributable to abnormal megakaryocyte function or abnormal platelet function.
Essential thrombocytosis (ET), also known as essential thrombocythemia, is a disorder characterized by elevated numbers of circulating platelets. The disease occurs in 1 -- 2 per 100,000 people. The 2016 WHO requirements for diagnosis include > 450,000 platelets / μL of blood (normal 150,000 -- 400,000) and a bone marrow biopsy. Some of the consequences of having such high numbers of platelets include thrombosis or clots throughout the body. Thrombi form more frequently in arteries than veins. It seems ironic that having platelet counts above 1,000,000 platelets / μL can lead to hemorrhagic events. Recent evidence suggests that the majority of ET cases are due to a mutation in the JAK2 protein, a member of the JAK - STAT pathway. Evidence suggests that this mutation renders the megakaryocyte hypersensitive to thrombopoietin and causes clonal proliferation of megakaryocytes. There is a significant risk of transformation to leukemia with this disorder. The primary treatment consists of anagrelide or hydroxyurea to lower platelet levels.
Congenital amegakaryocytic thrombocytopenia (CAMT) is a rare inherited disorder. The primary manifestations are thrombocytopenia and megakaryocytopenia, i.e. low numbers of platelets and megakaryocytes. There is an absence of megakaryocytes in the bone marrow with no associated physical abnormalities. The cause for this disorder appears to be a mutation in the gene for the TPO receptor, c - mpl, despite high levels of serum TPO. In addition, there may be abnormalities with the central nervous system including the cerebrum and cerebellum that could cause symptoms. The primary treatment for CAMT is bone marrow transplantation.
Bone marrow / stem cell transplant is the only remedy for this genetic disease. Frequent platelet transfusions are required to keep the patient from bleeding to death until transplant has been completed, although this is not always the case.
There appears to be no generic resource for CAMT patients on the web and this is potentially due to the rarity of the disease.
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who plays craig's girlfriend in animal kingdom | Animal Kingdom (TV series) - wikipedia
Animal Kingdom is an American drama television series developed by Jonathan Lisco. It is based on the 2010 Australian film of the same name by David Michôd, who is executive producer for the series, alongside Liz Watts who also produced the movie. The series follows a 17 - year - old boy, who, after the death of his mother, moves in with his estranged relatives, the Codys, a criminal family clan governed by matriarch Smurf. Ellen Barkin portrays the leading role of Janine "Smurf '' Cody, played by Jacki Weaver in the 2010 film.
Animal Kingdom debuted on TNT on June 14, 2016, and was renewed for a second season on July 6, 2016, of thirteen episodes that premiered on May 30, 2017. On July 27, 2017, TNT renewed the series for a third season that debuted on May 29, 2018. On July 2, 2018, TNT renewed the series for a fourth season.
TNT ordered the pilot of Animal Kingdom in May 2015, with Barkin and Speedman the first to be cast in July 2015 as matriarch Smurf and her adopted son Baz, respectively. In August, Cole and Weary were added as J and Deran, with Hatosy and Robson soon cast as the remaining Cody brothers Pope and Craig. Alonso was later announced as Baz 's wife Catherine, and Molly Gordon as J 's girlfriend Nicky.
The project was picked up to series with a 10 - episode order in December 2015. The show debuted on June 14, 2016, and on July 6, 2016 TNT renewed it for a 13 - episode second season. On July 27 TNT announced it would be renewing Animal Kingdom for a third season, which premiered on May 29, 2018. The season three premiere was aired after a game on TNT beginning 12: 30 / 11: 30 central the day before the premiere. On July 2, 2018, TNT renewed the series for a fourth season.
The first season of Animal Kingdom has received positive reviews. On review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, the season has an approval rating of 74 % based on 31 reviews. The consensus is: "Bolstered by Ellen Barkin 's acting prowess, Animal Kingdom is a darkly intriguing, although occasionally predictable, twisted family drama. '' On Metacritic, the series has a score of 65 out of 100, based on 27 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews ''.
In Canada the show is broadcast on Bravo (Canada).
The first season was released in DVD and Blu - ray formats on April 28, 2017. Each set contains behind - the - scenes featurettes and deleted scenes. The home media is distributed by Warner Bros. Home Entertainment.
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who said the whole is greater than the sum of its parts | Gestalt psychology - wikipedia
Gestalt psychology or gestaltism (German: Gestalt (ɡəˈʃtalt) "shape, form '') is a philosophy of mind of the Berlin School of experimental psychology. Gestalt psychology is an attempt to understand the laws behind the ability to acquire and maintain meaningful perceptions in an apparently chaotic world. The central principle of gestalt psychology is that the mind forms a global whole with self - organizing tendencies. The assumed physiological mechanisms on which Gestalt theory rests are poorly defined and support for their existence is lacking. The Gestalt theory of perception has been criticized as being descriptive of the end products of perception without providing much insight into the processes that lead to perception. In the introduction of the vol 126 (2016) special issue of the journal Vision Research on Gestalt perception, the authors concluded that "even though they study the same phenomena as earlier Gestaltists, there is little theoretical coherence. What happened to the Gestalt school that always aspired to provide a unified vision of psychology? Perhaps there is, in fact, little that holds the classic phenomena of Gestalt psychology together. ''
This principle maintains that when the human mind (perceptual system) forms a percept or "gestalt '', the whole has a reality of its own, independent of the parts. The original famous phrase of Gestalt psychologist Kurt Koffka, "The whole is other than the sum of the parts '' is often incorrectly translated as "The whole is greater than the sum of its parts '', and thus used when explaining gestalt theory, and further incorrectly applied to systems theory. Koffka did not like the translation. He firmly corrected students who replaced "other '' with "greater ''. "This is not a principle of addition '' he said. The whole has an independent existence.
In the study of perception, Gestalt psychologists stipulate that perceptions are the products of complex interactions among various stimuli. Contrary to the behaviorist approach to focusing on stimulus and response, gestalt psychologists sought to understand the organization of cognitive processes (Carlson and Heth, 2010). The gestalt effect is the capability of our brain to generate whole forms, particularly with respect to the visual recognition of global figures instead of just collections of simpler and unrelated elements (points, lines, curves, etc.).
In psychology, gestaltism is often opposed to structuralism. Gestalt theory, it is proposed, allows for the deconstruction of the whole situation into its elements.
The concept of gestalt was first introduced in philosophy and psychology in 1890 by Christian von Ehrenfels (a member of the School of Brentano). The idea of gestalt has its roots in theories by David Hume, Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, Immanuel Kant, David Hartley, and Ernst Mach. Max Wertheimer 's unique contribution was to insist that the "gestalt '' is perceptually primary, defining the parts it was composed from, rather than being a secondary quality that emerges from those parts, as von Ehrenfels 's earlier Gestalt - Qualität had been.
Both von Ehrenfels and Edmund Husserl seem to have been inspired by Mach 's work Beiträge zur Analyse der Empfindungen (Contributions to the Analysis of Sensations, 1886), in formulating their very similar concepts of gestalt and figural moment, respectively. On the philosophical foundations of these ideas see Foundations of Gestalt Theory (Smith, ed., 1988).
Early 20th century theorists, such as Kurt Koffka, Max Wertheimer, and Wolfgang Köhler (students of Carl Stumpf) saw objects as perceived within an environment according to all of their elements taken together as a global construct. This ' gestalt ' or ' whole form ' approach sought to define principles of perception -- seemingly innate mental laws that determined the way objects were perceived. It is based on the here and now, and in the way things are seen. Images can be divided into figure or ground. The question is what is perceived at first glance: the figure in front, or the background.
These laws took several forms, such as the grouping of similar, or proximate, objects together, within this global process. Although gestalt has been criticized for being merely descriptive, it has formed the basis of much further research into the perception of patterns and objects (Carlson et al. 2000), and of research into behavior, thinking, problem solving and psychopathology.
The founders of Gestalt therapy, Fritz and Laura Perls, had worked with Kurt Goldstein, a neurologist who had applied principles of Gestalt psychology to the functioning of the organism. Laura Perls had been a Gestalt psychologist before she became a psychoanalyst and before she began developing Gestalt therapy together with Fritz Perls. The extent to which Gestalt psychology influenced Gestalt therapy is disputed, however. In any case it is not identical with Gestalt psychology. On the one hand, Laura Perls preferred not to use the term "Gestalt '' to name the emerging new therapy, because she thought that the gestalt psychologists would object to it; on the other hand Fritz and Laura Perls clearly adopted some of Goldstein 's work. Thus, though recognizing the historical connection and the influence, most gestalt psychologists emphasize that gestalt therapy is not a form of gestalt psychology.
Mary Henle noted in her presidential address to Division 24 at the meeting of the American Psychological Association (1975): "What Perls has done has been to take a few terms from Gestalt psychology, stretch their meaning beyond recognition, mix them with notions -- often unclear and often incompatible -- from the depth psychologies, existentialism, and common sense, and he has called the whole mixture gestalt therapy. His work has no substantive relation to scientific Gestalt psychology. To use his own language, Fritz Perls has done ' his thing '; whatever it is, it is not Gestalt psychology '' With the Gestalt theory however, she restricts herself explicitly to only three of Perls ' books from 1969 and 1972, leaving out Perls ' earlier work, and Gestalt therapy in general.
There are clinical applications of Gestalt psychology in the psychotherapeutic field, foremost in Europe, e.g. Gestalt theoretical psychotherapy.
The school of gestalt practiced a series of theoretical and methodological principles that attempted to redefine the approach to psychological research. This is in contrast to investigations developed at the beginning of the 20th century, based on traditional scientific methodology, which divided the object of study into a set of elements that could be analyzed separately with the objective of reducing the complexity of this object.
The theoretical principles are the following:
Based on the principles above the following methodological principles are defined:
In the 1940s and 1950s, laboratory research in neurology and what became known as cybernetics on the mechanism of frogs ' eyes indicate that perception of ' gestalts ' (in particular gestalts in motion) is perhaps more primitive and fundamental than ' seeing ' as such:
The key principles of gestalt systems are emergence, reification, multistability and invariance.
This is demonstrated by the dog picture, which depicts a Dalmatian dog sniffing the ground in the shade of overhanging trees. The dog is not recognized by first identifying its parts (feet, ears, nose, tail, etc.), and then inferring the dog from those component parts. Instead, the dog appears as a whole, all at once. Gestalt theory does not have an explanation for how this perception of a dog appears.
Reification is the constructive or generative aspect of perception, by which the experienced percept contains more explicit spatial information than the sensory stimulus on which it is based.
For instance, a triangle is perceived in picture A, though no triangle is there. In pictures B and D the eye recognizes disparate shapes as "belonging '' to a single shape, in C a complete three - dimensional shape is seen, where in actuality no such thing is drawn.
Reification can be explained by progress in the study of illusory contours, which are treated by the visual system as "real '' contours.
Multistability (or multistable perception) is the tendency of ambiguous perceptual experiences to pop back and forth unstably between two or more alternative interpretations. This is seen, for example, in the Necker cube and Rubin 's Figure / Vase illusion shown here. Other examples include the three - legged blivet and artist M.C. Escher 's artwork and the appearance of flashing marquee lights moving first one direction and then suddenly the other. Again, gestalt does not explain how images appear multistable, only that they do.
Invariance is the property of perception whereby simple geometrical objects are recognized independent of rotation, translation, and scale; as well as several other variations such as elastic deformations, different lighting, and different component features. For example, the objects in A in the figure are all immediately recognized as the same basic shape, which are immediately distinguishable from the forms in B. They are even recognized despite perspective and elastic deformations as in C, and when depicted using different graphic elements as in D. Computational theories of vision, such as those by David Marr, have provided alternate explanations of how perceived objects are classified.
Emergence, reification, multistability, and invariance are not necessarily separable modules to model individually, but they could be different aspects of a single unified dynamic mechanism.
The fundamental principle of gestalt perception is the law of prägnanz (in the German language, pithiness), which says that we tend to order our experience in a manner that is regular, orderly, symmetrical, and simple. Gestalt psychologists attempt to discover refinements of the law of prägnanz, and this involves writing down laws that, hypothetically, allow us to predict the interpretation of sensation, what are often called "gestalt laws ''.
A major aspect of Gestalt psychology is that it implies that the mind understands external stimuli as whole rather than the sum of their parts. The wholes are structured and organized using grouping laws. The various laws are called laws or principles, depending on the paper where they appear -- but for simplicity 's sake, this article uses the term laws. These laws deal with the sensory modality of vision. However, there are analogous laws for other sensory modalities including auditory, tactile, gustatory and olfactory (Bregman -- GP). The visual Gestalt principles of grouping were introduced in Wertheimer (1923). Through the 1930s and ' 40s Wertheimer, Kohler and Koffka formulated many of the laws of grouping through the study of visual perception.
Some of the central criticisms of Gestaltism are based on the preference Gestaltists are deemed to have for theory over data, and a lack of quantitative research supporting Gestalt ideas. This is not necessarily a fair criticism as highlighted by a recent collection of quantitative research on Gestalt perception.
Other important criticisms concern the lack of definition and support for the many physiological assumptions made by gestaltists and lack of theoretical coherence in modern Gestalt psychology.
In some scholarly communities, such as cognitive psychology and computational neuroscience, gestalt theories of perception are criticized for being descriptive rather than explanatory in nature. For this reason, they are viewed by some as redundant or uninformative. For example, Bruce, Green & Georgeson conclude the following regarding gestalt theory 's influence on the study of visual perception:
The physiological theory of the gestaltists has fallen by the wayside, leaving us with a set of descriptive principles, but without a model of perceptual processing. Indeed, some of their "laws '' of perceptual organisation today sound vague and inadequate. What is meant by a "good '' or "simple '' shape, for example?
Gestalt psychologists find it is important to think of problems as a whole. Max Wertheimer considered thinking to happen in two ways: productive and reproductive.
Productive thinking is solving a problem with insight.
This is a quick insightful unplanned response to situations and environmental interaction.
Reproductive thinking is solving a problem with previous experiences and what is already known. (1945 / 1959).
This is a very common thinking. For example, when a person is given several segments of information, he / she deliberately examines the relationships among its parts, analyzes their purpose, concept, and totality, he / she reaches the "aha! '' moment, using what is already known. Understanding in this case happens intentionally by reproductive thinking.
Another gestalt psychologist, Perkins, believes insight deals with three processes:
Views going against the gestalt psychology are:
Gestalt psychology should not be confused with the gestalt therapy of Fritz Perls, which is only peripherally linked to gestalt psychology. A strictly gestalt psychology - based therapeutic method is Gestalt Theoretical Psychotherapy, developed by the German gestalt psychologist and psychotherapist Hans - Jürgen Walter and his colleagues in Germany, Austria and Switzerland. Other countries, especially Italy, have seen similar developments.
Fuzzy - trace theory, a dual process model of memory and reasoning, was also derived from Gestalt psychology. Fuzzy - trace theory posits that we encode information into two separate traces: verbatim and gist. Information stored in verbatim is exact memory for detail (the individual parts of a pattern, for example) while information stored in gist is semantic and conceptual (what we perceive the pattern to be). The effects seen in Gestalt psychology can be attributed to the way we encode information as gist.
The gestalt laws are used in user interface design, and other design - based activities. The laws of similarity and proximity can, for example, be used as guides for placing radio buttons. They may also be used in designing computers and software for more intuitive human use. Examples include the design and layout of a desktop 's shortcuts in rows and columns. In addition, Gestalt theory can also be used as a guide for creating sonic impressions while mixing audio.
Similarities between Gestalt phenomena and quantum mechanics have been pointed out by, among others, chemist Anton Amann, who commented that "similarities between Gestalt perception and quantum mechanics are on a level of a parable '' yet may give useful insight nonetheless. Physicist Elio Conte and co-workers have proposed abstract, mathematical models to describe the time dynamics of cognitive associations with mathematical tools borrowed from quantum mechanics and has discussed psychology experiments in this context. A similar approach has been suggested by physicists David Bohm, Basil Hiley and philosopher Paavo Pylkkänen with the notion that mind and matter both emerge from an "implicate order ''. The models involve non-commutative mathematics; such models account for situations in which the outcome of two measurements performed one after the other can depend on the order in which they are performed -- a pertinent feature for psychological processes, as it is obvious that an experiment performed on a conscious person may influence the outcome of a subsequent experiment by changing the state of mind of that person.
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what is the name of first arctic station set up in 2008 | Himadri station - wikipedia
Himadri Station is India 's first Arctic research station located at Spitsbergen, Svalbard, Norway. It is located at the International Arctic Research base, Ny - Ålesund. It was inaugurated on the 1st of July, 2008 by the Minister of Earth Sciences. It was set up during India 's second Arctic expedition in June 2008. It is located at a distance of 1,200 kilometres (750 mi) from the North Pole.
The Himadri 's functions include long term monitoring of the fjord (Kongsfjorden) dynamics, and atmospheric research. The primary goals of India 's research includes research on aerosol radiation, space weather, food - web dynamics, microbial communities, glaciers, sedimentology, and carbon recycling. The research base has devoted time for the research of governance and policy of the Arctic. India has prioritised research and study in the fields of genetics, glaciology, geology, pollution in the atmosphere, and space weather among other fields.
In 2012 - 2013, a total of 25 scientists visited the base which was staffed for 185 days to carry out studies under ten distinct projects.
The United States Geological Survey estimates that 22 percent of the world 's oil and natural gas could be located beneath the Arctic. India 's ONGC Videsh is reported to be interested in joint venture with Russia for oil exploration and has reportedly requested Rosneft for stake in a project. In addition, using Arctic sea lanes for shipping would reduce voyage times by 40 % compared to Indian, Pacific or Atlantic ocean routes. On May 15, 2013, India was made a permanent observer at the Arctic Council.
India is the 11th country after Britain, Germany, France, Italy, China, Japan, South Korea, The Netherlands, Sweden and Norway to set up a permanent research station in Ny - Ålesund.
The station was set up in a refurbished two floored building with four bedrooms. The building has an area of 220 m (2,400 sq ft) and has other facilities including a computer room, store room, drawing room and internet. It can host 8 scientists at normal conditions. The crew of the station are given training in shooting with rifles to protect themselves from polar bears.
Established in August 2014. Designed and developed by scientists from the National Centre for Antarctic and Ocean Research (NCAOR) and National Institute of Ocean Technology (NIOT), the observatory has been deployed in the Kongsfjorden fjord of the Arctic, roughly halfway between Norway and the North Pole is named "IndARC ''
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irregular at magic high school tatsuya and saegusa | List of the Irregular at magic High school episodes - wikipedia
The Irregular at Magic High School is a 2014 science fiction Japanese 26 - episode anime series covering the first 7 volumes (excluding volume 5) of the light novel series of the same name written by Tsutomu Satō.
The anime is produced by Madhouse and directed by Manabu Ono, along with original character designs by Kana Ishida and soundtrack music by Taku Iwasaki. The series ran on Tokyo MX, GTV, and GYT in Japan from April 5 to September 27, 2014 with later airings on MBS, CTC, tvk, TVS, TVA, TVQ, TVh, AT - X, BS11. The anime has been licensed for streaming by Aniplex of America.
The series uses four pieces of theme music: two opening themes and two ending themes. The first opening theme is "Rising Hope '' by LiSA while the first ending theme is "Millenario. '' by Elisa. The second opening theme is "Grilleto '' by Garnidelia while the second ending theme is "Mirror '' by Rei Yasuda.
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military powers of the president of the philippines | President of the Philippines - wikipedia
The President of the Philippines (Filipino: Pangulo ng Pilipinas, informally referred to as Presidente ng Pilipinas; or in Spanish: Presidente de Filipinas) is the head of state and head of government of the Philippines. The President leads the executive branch of the Philippine government and is the commander - in - chief of the Armed Forces of the Philippines. The President is directly elected by the people, and is one of only two nationally elected executive officials, the other being the Vice President of the Philippines. However, four vice presidents have assumed the presidency without having been elected to the office, by virtue of a president 's intra-term death or resignation.
Filipinos refer to their President as Pangulo or Presidente. The President serves a single, fixed, six - year term without possibility of re-election. On June 30, 2016, Rodrigo Duterte was sworn in as the 16th and current president.
In Filipino, one of the two official languages of the Philippines, the President is referred to as Pangulo. In the other major languages of the Philippines such as the Visayan languages, Presidente is more common when Filipinos are not actually code - switching with the English word.
Depending on the definition chosen for these terms, a number of persons could alternatively be considered the inaugural holder of the office. Andrés Bonifacio could be considered the first President of a united Philippines since he was the third Supreme President (Spanish: Presidente Supremo; Filipino: Kataas - taasang Pangulo) of the Katipunan, a secret revolutionary society. Its Supreme Council, led by the Supreme President, coordinated provincial and district councils. When the Katipunan started an open revolt against the Spanish colonial government in August 1896, Bonifacio transformed the society into a revolutionary government with him as its head. While the term Katipunan remained, Bonifacio 's government was also known as the Tagalog Republic (Spanish: República Tagala; Filipino: Republikang Tagalog). Although the word Tagalog refers to the Tagalog people, a specific ethno - linguistic group, Bonifacio used it to denote all non-Spanish peoples of the Philippines in place of Filipinos, which had colonial origins. Bonifacio 's revolutionary government never controlled much territory for any significant period. Some historians contend that including Bonifacio as a past president would imply that Macario Sacay and Miguel Malvar should also be included.
In March 1897, during the Philippine Revolution against Spain Emilio Aguinaldo was elected president of the revolutionary government at the Tejeros Convention. The new government was meant to replace the Katipunan, though the latter was not formally abolished until 1899. Aguinaldo was again elected President at Biak - na - Bato in November, leading the Republic of Biak - na - Bato. Aguinaldo therefore signed the Pact of Biak - na - Bato and went into exile in Hong Kong at the end of 1897.
In April 1898, the Spanish -- American War broke out, and the Asiatic Squadron of the United States Navy sailed for the Philippines. At the Battle of Manila Bay on May 1, 1898 the American Navy decisively defeated the Spanish Navy effectively ending Spanish rule in the Philippines. Aquinaldo subsequently returned to the Philippines aboard a U.S. Navy vessel and renewed the revolution. He formed a dictatorial government on May 24, 1898 and issued the Philippine Declaration of Independence on June 12, 1898. On June 23, 1898, Aguinaldo transformed his dictatorial government into a revolutionary government. On January 23, 1899, he was then elected President of the First Philippine Republic, a government constituted by the Malolos Congress under the Malolos Constitution. Consequently, this government is also called the Malolos Republic.
The First Philippine Republic was short - lived and never internationally recognized. The Philippines was transferred from Spanish to American control by the Treaty of Paris of 1898, signed in December of that year. The Philippine -- American War broke out between the United States and Aguinaldo 's government. His government effectively ceased to exist on April 1, 1901, after he pledged allegiance to the United States following his capture by U.S. forces in March.
The current government of the Republic of the Philippines, considers Emilio Aguinaldo to be the first President of the Philippines.
Miguel Malvar continued Aguinaldo 's leadership of the Philippine Republic after the latter 's capture until his own capture in 1902, while Macario Sakay founded a Tagalog Republic in 1902 as a continuing state of Bonifacio 's Katipunan. They are both considered by some scholars as "unofficial presidents '', and along with Bonifacio, are not recognized as Presidents by the government.
Between 1901 and 1935, executive power in the Philippines was exercised by a succession of four American military Governors - General and eleven civil Governors - General.
In October 1935, Manuel L. Quezon was elected the first President of the Commonwealth of the Philippines, which had been established, still under United States sovereignty, under a constitution ratified on 14 May of that year. During its first five years, the President could serve for an unrenewable six - year term. It was later amended in 1940 to limit a President to serving no more than two four - year terms. When President Quezon exiled himself to the United States after the Philippines fell to the Empire of Japan in World War II, he appointed Chief Justice José Abad Santos as Acting President and as Acting Commander - in Chief of the Armed Forces. Abad Santos was subsequently executed by the Imperial Japanese Army on May 2, 1942.
On October 14, 1943, José P. Laurel became President under a constitution imposed by the Japanese occupation. Laurel, an Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the Philippines, had been instructed to remain in the City of Manila by President Quezon, who withdrew to Corregidor and then to the United States to establish a government in exile in the United States. The General Headquarters and Military Camp Base of the Philippine Commonwealth Army was a military station are moved in the province.
After the combined American and Filipino forces liberated the islands in 1945, Laurel officially dissolved the republic on August 17, 1945.
The 1935 Constitution was restored after the Japanese surrender ended World War II, with Vice President Sergio Osmeña becoming President due to Quezon 's death on August 1, 1944. It remained in effect after the United States recognized the sovereignty of the Republic of the Philippines as a separate self - governing nation on July 4, 1946.
A new Constitution ratified on January 17, 1973 under the rule of Ferdinand E. Marcos introduced a parliamentary - style government. Marcos instituted himself as Prime Minister while serving as President in 1978. He later appointed César Virata as Prime Minister in 1981.
This Constitution was in effect until the People Power Revolution of 1986 toppled Marcos 's 21 - year authoritarian regime and replaced him with Corazon C. Aquino.
Ruling by decree during the early part of her tenure and as a president installed by revolutionary means, President Corazon Aquino issued Proclamation No. 3 on March 25, 1986 which abrogated many of the provisions of the then 1973 Constitution, including the provisions associated with the Marcos regime which gave the President legislative powers, as well as the unicameral legislature called the Batasang Pambansa (literally National Legislature in Filipino). Often called the "Freedom Constitution, '' the proclamation retained only parts of the 1973 Constitution that were essential for a return to democratic rule, such as the bill of rights. This constitution was superseded on February 2, 1987 by the present constitution.
Both Bonifacio and Aguinaldo might be considered to have been an inaugural president of an insurgent government. Quezon was the inaugural president of a predecessor state to the current one, while Aquino, mère, was the inaugural president of the currently - constituted government.
The government considers Aguinaldo to have been the first President of the Philippines, followed by Quezon and his successors. Despite the differences in constitutions and government, the line of presidents is considered to be continuous. For instance, the current president, Rodrigo R. Duterte, is considered to be the 16th president.
While the government may consider Aguinaldo as the first president, the First Republic fell under the United States ' jurisdiction due to the 1898 Treaty of Paris which ended the Spanish -- American War; the United States thus does not consider his tenure to have been legitimate. Manuel L. Quezon is considered to be the first president by the United States. He is also the first to win a popular election and a nationwide election.
As with many other Axis - occupied countries in the Second World War, the Philippines had at one point two presidents heading two governments. One was Quezon and the Commonwealth government - in - exile in Washington, D.C., and the other was Manila - based Laurel heading the Japanese - sponsored Second Republic. Notably, Laurel was himself instructed to remain in Manila by President Quezon. Laurel was not formally recognized as a President until the rule of Diosdado Macapagal. His inclusion in the official list coincided with the transfer of the official date of Independence Day from July 4 (the anniversary of the Philippines ' independence from the United States) to June 12 (the anniversary of the 1898 Declaration of Independence).
The inclusion of Laurel thus causes some problems in determining the order of presidents. It is inaccurate to call Laurel the successor of Osmeña or vice versa, since Laurel 's Second Republic was formally repudiated after World War II, its actions not considered legal or binding. Quezon, Osmeña, and Roxas were seen as being in a contiguous line according to the 1935 Constitution, while Laurel was the only president of the Second Republic, which had a separate charter. Thus, Laurel had neither predecessor nor successor, while Osmeña succeeded Quezon after the latter 's death, and was in turn succeeded by Roxas as President of the Third Republic.
The President of the Philippines, being the chief executive, serves as both the head of state and head of government of the Philippines. The constitution vests the executive power with the president who consequently heads the government 's executive branch, including the Cabinet and all executive departments.
The president has power to grant reprieves, commutations and pardons, and remit fines and forfeitures after conviction by final judgment, except in cases of impeachment. The president can grant amnesty with the concurrence of the majority of all the Members of the Congress. The president has authority to contract or guarantee foreign loans on behalf of the Republic but only with the prior concurrence of the Monetary Board and subject to such limitations as may be provided by law.
The president also exercises general supervision over local government units.
The President also serves as the Commander - in - Chief of the Armed Forces of the Philippines. This includes the power to suspend the writ of habeas corpus and to declare Martial law.
With the consent of the Commission on Appointments, the president also appoints the heads of the executive departments, board of members and its leaders from any national government - related institutions, ambassadors, other public ministers and consuls, high - ranking officers of the armed forces, and other officials. The members of the Supreme Court and lower courts are also appointed by the president, but only from the list of nominees prepared by the Judicial and Bar Council. Such appointments do not need the approval of the Commission on Appointments.
Some government agencies report to no specific department but are instead under the Office of the President. These include important agencies such as the National Security Council, Office of The Presidential Adviser on the Peace Process, Commission on Human Rights, Commission on Higher Education, Climate Change Commission, Commission on Population, Housing and Land Use Regulatory Board, Metropolitan Manila Development Authority, Movie and Television Review and Classification Board, Authority of the Freeport Area of Bataan, Subic Bay Metropolitan Authority, and many more. The Presidential Security Group, which is composed mostly of members from the Armed Forces of the Philippines and the Philippine National Police, is directly under the Office of the President.
Article 7, Section 2 of the Constitution reads: "No person may be elected President unless he is a natural - born citizen of the Philippines, a registered voter, able to read and write, at least forty years of age on the day of the election, and a resident of the Philippines for at least ten years immediately preceding such election. '' The Constitution also provides term limits where the President is ineligible for reelection and a person who has succeeded as President and has served as such for more than four years will be ineligible to be elected for a second term. However, with the case of Joseph Estrada who was elected president in 1998, deposed in 2001, and again ran for the presidency in 2010, the Constitution 's wording where "(the) President shall not be eligible for any re-election '' remains unclear as his case was never brought to the Supreme Court. It remains unclear whether the term limit of no re-election applies only to the incumbent President or for any person who has been elected as President.
The President is elected by direct vote every six years, usually on the second Monday of May.
The returns of every election for President and Vice President, duly certified by the board of canvassers of each province or city, shall be transmitted to Congress, directed to the President of the Senate. Upon receipt of the certificates of canvass, the President of the Senate shall open all the certificates in the presence of a joint public session of Congress not later than 30 days after election day. Congress then canvasses the votes upon determining that the polls are authentic and were done in the manner provided by law.
The person with the highest number of votes is declared the winner, but in case two or more have the highest number of votes, the President is elected by a majority of all members of both Houses, voting separately on each.
The President of the Philippines usually takes the Oath of Office at noon of June 30 following the Presidential election
Traditionally, the Vice President takes the Oath first, a little before noon. This is for two reasons: first, according to protocol, no one follows the President (who is last due to his supremacy), and second, to establish a constitutionally valid successor before the President - elect accedes. During the Quezon inauguration, however, the Vice President and the Legislature were sworn in after the President, to symbolise a new start.
As soon as the President takes the Oath of Office, a 21 - gun salute is fired to salute the new head of state, and the Presidential Anthem Mabuhay is played. The President delivers his inaugural address, and then proceeds to Malacañang Palace to climb the Grand Staircase, a ritual which symbolises the formal possession of the Palace. The President then inducts the newly formed cabinet into office in one of the state rooms.
Custom has enshrined three places as the traditional venue for the inauguration ceremony: Barasoain Church in Malolos City, Bulacan; in front of the old Legislative Building (now part of the National Museum) in Manila; or at Quirino Grandstand, where most have been held. In 2004, Gloria Macapagal Arroyo delivered her pre-inaugural address at Quirino Grandstand, took the Oath of Office in Cebu City before Chief Justice Hilario Davide Jr., and the next day held the first cabinet meeting in Butuan City. She broke with precedent, reasoning that she wanted to celebrate her inauguration in each of the three main island groups of the Philippines: Luzon, Visayas, and Mindanao. Her first inauguration also broke precedent as she was sworn in at the EDSA Shrine on January 20, 2001, during the EDSA Revolution of 2001 that removed Joseph Estrada from office.
In the past, elections were held in November and the President 's inauguration was held on December 30 (Rizal Day). This ensured that when the inauguration was usually held at Quirino Grandstand, the new President could see the Rizal Monument on the anniversary of his death. Ferdinand Marcos transferred the dates of both the elections and the inauguration to May and June, respectively, and it remains so to this day.
The dress code at the modern inaugural ceremony is traditional, formal Filipino clothing, which is otherwise loosely termed Filipiniana. Ladies must wear terno, baro 't saya (the formal wear of other indigenous groups is permissible), while men don the Barong Tagalog. Non-Filipinos at the ceremony may wear their respective versions of formal dress, but foreign diplomats have often been seen donning Filipiniana as a mark of cultural respect.
The Constitution provides the following oath or affirmation for the President and Vice President - elect which must be taken before they enter into office:
"I, (name), do solemnly swear (or affirm), that I will faithfully and conscientiously fulfill my duties as President (or Vice-President or Acting President) of the Philippines. Preserve and defend its Constitution, execute its laws, do justice to every man, and consecrate myself to the service of the Nation. So help me God. '' (In case of affirmation, last sentence will be omitted.)
The Filipino text of the oath used for the inaugurations of Fidel V. Ramos, Joseph Ejercito Estrada, and Benigno S. Aquino III reads:
"Ako si (pangalan), ay taimtim kong pinanunumpaan (o pinatototohanan) na tutuparin ko nang buong katapatan at sigasig ang aking mga tungkulin bilang Pangulo (o Pangalawang Pangulo o Nanunungkulang Pangulo) ng Pilipinas, pangangalagaan at ipagtatanggol ang kanyang Konstitusyon, ipatutupad ang mga batas nito, magiging makatarungan sa bawat tao, at itatalaga ang aking sarili sa paglilingkod sa Bansa. Kasihan nawa ako ng Diyos. '' (Kapag pagpapatotoo, ang huling pangungusap ay kakaltasin.)
Impeachment in the Philippines follows procedures similar to the United States. The House of Representatives, one of the houses of the bicameral Congress, has the exclusive power to initiate all cases of impeachment against the President, Vice President, members of the Supreme Court, members of the Constitutional Commissions and the Ombudsman. When a third of its membership has endorsed the impeachment articles, it is then transmitted to the Senate of the Philippines which tries and decide, as impeachment tribunal, the impeachment case. A main difference from US proceedings however is that only a third of House members are required to approve the motion to impeach the President (as opposed to the majority required in the United States). In the Senate, selected members of the House of Representatives act as the prosecutors and the Senators act as judges with the Senate President and Chief Justice of the Supreme Court jointly presiding over the proceedings. Like the United States, to convict the official in question requires that a minimum of two - thirds (i.e., 16 of 24 members) of the senate vote in favour of conviction. If an impeachment attempt is unsuccessful or the official is acquitted, no new cases can be filed against that impeachable official for at least one full year.
The Constitution enumerates the culpable violation of the Constitution, treason, bribery, graft and corruption, other high crimes, and betrayal of public trust as grounds for the impeachment of the President. The same also applies for the Vice President, the Members of the Supreme Court, the Members of the Constitutional Commissions, and the Ombudsman.
Joseph Ejercito Estrada was the first President to undergo impeachment when the House of Representatives voted to raise the impeachment proceedings to the Senate in 2000. However, the trial ended prematurely where anti-Estrada senators walked out of the impeachment sessions when Estrada 's allies in the Senate voted narrowly to block the opening of an envelope which allegedly contained critical evidence on Estrada 's wealth. Estrada was later ousted from office when the 2001 EDSA Revolution forced him out of the presidential palace and when the Supreme Court confirmed that his leaving the palace was his de facto resignation from office.
Several impeachment complaints were filed against Gloria Macapagal - Arroyo but none reached the required endorsement of a third of the House of Representatives.
The official title of the Philippine head of state and government is "President of the Philippines. '' The title in Filipino is Pangulo (cognate of Malay penghulu "leader '', "chieftain ''). The honorific for the President is "Your Excellency '' or "His / Her Excellency '', adopted from the title of the Governor - General of the Philippines during Spanish and American occupation.
The term "President of the Republic of the Philippines '' used under Japanese occupation of the Philippines distinguished the government of then - President José P. Laurel from the Commonwealth government - in - exile under President Manuel L. Quezon. The restoration of the Commonwealth in 1945 and the subsequent independence of the Philippines restored the title of "President of the Philippines '' enacted in the 1935 constitution. The 1973 constitution, though generally referring to the president as "President of the Philippines '' did, in Article XVII, Section 12, once use the term, "President of the Republic. '' In the text of Proclamation No. 1081 that announced martial law in September 1972, President Ferdinand E. Marcos consistently referred to himself as "President of the Philippines. ''
The State of the Nation Address (abbreviated SONA) is an annual event in the Philippines, in which the President of the Philippines reports on the status of the nation, normally to the resumption of a joint session of the Congress (the House of Representatives and the Senate). This is a duty of the President as stated in Article VII, Section 23 of the 1987 Constitution:
The 1935 Constitution originally set the president 's term at six years, without re-election. In 1940, however, the 1935 Constitution was amended and the term of the President (and Vice President) was shortened to four years, with a two - term limit. Under the provisions of the amended 1935 document, only Presidents Manuel L. Quezon (1941) and Ferdinand E. Marcos (1969) were re-elected. Presidents Sergio Osmeña (1946), Elpidio Quirino (1953), Carlos P. Garcia (1961) and Diosdado Macapagal (1965) all failed in seeking a new term.
However, in 1973, a new Constitution was promulgated and allowed then - incumbent President Marcos to seek a new term. In 1981, Marcos was again elected as President against Alejo Santos -- making him the only President to be elected to a third term.
The 1987 Constitution restored the 1935 Constitution 's original ban on presidential reelection. Under Article 7, Section 4 of the current constitution, the term of the President shall begin at noon on the thirtieth day of June next following the day of the election and shall end at noon of the same date, six years thereafter. The incumbent President is not eligible for re-election, even if non-consecutive. Moreover, no president who serves more than four years of a presidential term is allowed to run or serve again.
Under Article 7, Section 7 of the Constitution of the Philippines, In case the president - elect fails to qualify, the Vice President - elect shall act as President until the President - elect shall have qualified.
If at the beginning of the term of the President, the President - elect shall have died or shall have become permanently disabled, the Vice President - elect shall become President.
Where no President and Vice President shall have been chosen or shall have qualified, or where both shall have died or become permanently disabled, the President of the Senate or, in case of his inability, the Speaker of the House of Representatives, shall act as President until a President or a Vice President shall have been chosen and qualified.
Article 7, Sections 8 and 11 of the Constitution of the Philippines provide rules of succession to the presidency. In case of death, permanent disability, removal from office, or resignation of the President, the Vice President will become the President to serve the unexpired term. In case of death, permanent disability, removal from office, or resignation of both the President and Vice President; the President of the Senate or, in case of his inability, the Speaker of the House of Representatives, shall then act as President until the President or Vice President shall have been elected and qualified.
The Congress shall, by law, provide who shall serve as President in case of death, permanent disability, or resignation of the Acting President. He shall serve until the President or the Vice President shall have been elected and qualified, and be subject to the same restrictions of powers and disqualifications as the Acting President.
The line of presidential succession as specified by Article VII, Section 8 of the Constitution of the Philippines are the Vice President, Senate President and the Speaker of the House of Representatives.
The current Presidential line of succession is:
Notes:
Before the Malacañang Palace was designated as the official residence of the President, various establishments served as residence of the chief executive. The Spanish Governor - General, the highest - ranking official in the Philippines during the Spanish Era, resided in the Palacio del Gobernador inside the walled city of Intramuros. However, after an earthquake in 1863, the Palacio del Gobernador was destroyed, and the residence and office of the Governor - General transferred to Malacañang Palace. During the Philippine Revolution, President Aguinaldo resided in his own home in Kawit, Cavite. After his defeat in the Philippine -- American War, Aguinaldo transferred the Capital of the Philippines to different areas while he struggled in the pursuit of American Forces. When the Americans occupied the Philippines, they also used the Palace as an official residence. During the Japanese Occupation of the Philippines, the governmental offices and the presidential residence transferred to Baguio, and the Mansion House was used as the official residence. Meanwhile, President Quezon of the Philippine Commonwealth resided in the Omni Shoreham Hotel in Washington D.C. After the restoration of independence, plans were made for the construction of a new capital city. However, the plans did not push through and Manila remained as the capital city, and Malacañang Palace as the President 's official residence.
The Filipino name is derived from the Tagalog phrase "may lakán diyán '', ("there is a nobleman there ''), and this was eventually shortened to Malakanyáng. There are two variant of the name in official use: "Malacañan Palace '' refers to the structure of the Palace, while "Malacañang '' identifies the office of the President. The latter, along with the term "the Palace '' ("ang Palasyo '') are interchangeable, metonyms for the President and his household in colloquial speech and in the media.
Malacañan Palace serves as the official residence of the President of the Philippines, a privilege entitled to him / her under Article VII, Section 6 of the Constitution. The Palace is located along the north bank of the Pasig River, along J.P. Laurel Street in the district of San Miguel, Manila.
Malacañang Palace is depicted on the reverse side of the 20 - peso bill in the Pilipino, Ang Bagong Lipunan, New Design, and the present New Generation series.
The actual residence of incumbent President Rodrigo Duterte is Bahay Pangarap (English: House of Dreams), a smaller structure located across the Pasig River from Malacañang Palace in Malacañang Park, which is itself part of the Presidential Security Group Complex. Former President Aquino was the first President to live in Bahay Pangarap his official residence.
Malacañang Park was originally built by former President Manuel L. Quezon as a rest house and venue for informal activities and social functions for the First Family. The house was built and designed by architect Juan Arellano in the 1930s, and underwent a number of renovations. In 2008, the house was demolished and rebuilt in contemporary style by architect Conrad Onglao, and a new swimming pool was built, replacing the Commonwealth Era one. The house originally had one bedroom, however, it was renovated for Aquino to have four bedrooms, a guest room, a room for his household staff, and a room for his close - in security. Malacañang Park was refurbished through the efforts of First Lady Eva Macapagal, the second wife of President Diosdado Macapagal, in the early 1960s. Mrs. Macapagal renamed the rest house as Bahay Pangarap.
Under Fidel V. Ramos, Bahay Pangarap was transformed into a clubhouse for the Malacañang Golf Club. The house was subsequently used by President Gloria Macapagal - Arroyo to welcome special guests. Aquino made it clear before he assumed office that he refused to live in the main Palace, or in the nearby Arlegui Mansion (where he once lived during his mother 's rule and where Ramos later stayed), stating that both were too big. He lived in the Aquino family residence along Times Street, Quezon City in the first few days of his rule, although he transferred to Bahay Pangarap because it was deemed a security concern for his neighbours if he stayed in their small, 1970s home.
The President also has other complexes nationwide for official use:
The 250th (Presidential) Airlift Wing of the Philippine Air Force has the mandate of providing safe and efficient air transport for the President of the Philippines and the First Family. On occasion, the wing has also been tasked to provide transportation for other members of government, visiting heads of state, and other state guests.
The fleet includes: 1 Fokker F28, which is primarily used for the President 's domestic trips and it is also called "Kalayaan One '' when the President is on board, 4 Bell 412 helicopters, 3 Sikorsky S - 76 helicopters, 1 Sikorsky S - 70 - 5 Black Hawk, a number of Bell UH - 1N Twin Hueys, as well as Fokker F - 27 Friendships. For trips outside of the Philippines, the Air Force employs a Bombardier Global Express or charters appropriate aircraft from the country 's flag carrier, Philippine Airlines. In 1962, the Air Force chartered aircraft from Pan American World Airways as the international services of Philippine Airlines were suspended. Pan Am later went defunct in 1991. For short - haul flights, PAL used the Boeing 737 until they were replaced by Airbus A320 and Airbus A321 aircraft. For medium to long - haul flights, the airline 's Boeing 747 - 400 's were used until their retirement in September 2014. The Airbus A330 - 300, Airbus A350 - 900 and Boeing 777 - 300ER have since fulfilled these roles. Any PAL aircraft with the flight number PR / PAL 001 and callsign PHILIPPINE 001 is a special plane operated by Philippine Airlines to transport the President of the Philippines. The President sometimes charter private jets for domestic trips within the Philippines due to some airports in the Philippines having small runways.
A Presidential Helicopter Bell 412 crashed on April 7, 2009, in the mountainous Ifugao Province north of Manila. On board were eight people, including two Cabinet undersecretaries and several servicemen. The flight was en route to Ifugao from Baguio City as an advance party of President Macapagal - Arroyo, when the control tower at the now - defunct Loakan Airport lost communication with the craft several minutes after takeoff.
The Arroyo administration planned to buy another aircraft worth of about 1.2 billion pesos before her term ended in June 2010, but cancelled the purchase due to other issues.
BRP Ang Pangulo (BRP stands for Barkó ng Repúblika ng Pilipinas, "Ship of the Republic of the Philippines ''; "Ang Pangulo '' is Filipino for "The President '') was commissioned by the Philippine Navy on March 7, 1959. It was built in and by Japan during the administration of President García as part of Japanese reparations to the Philippines for World War II. It is primarily used in entertaining guests of the incumbent President.
The President of the Philippines uses two black and heavily armored Mercedes - Benz W221 S600 Guard, whereas one is a decoy vehicle. In convoys, the President is escorted by the Presidential Security Group using primarily Nissan Patrol SUVs with the combination of the following vehicles: Audi A6, BMW 7 Series, Chevrolet Suburban, Hyundai Equus, Hyundai Starex, Toyota Camry, Toyota Fortuner, Toyota Land Cruiser, Philippine National Police 400cc motorcycles, Philippine National Police Toyota Altis (Police car variant), other government - owned vehicles, and ambulances at the tail of the convoy; the number depends on the destination. The presidential cars are designated and registered a plate number of 1 or the word PANGULO (President). The limousine bears the Flag of the Philippines and, occasionally, the Presidential Standard.
For regional trips, the President boards a Toyota Coaster or Mitsubishi Fuso Rosa or other vehicles owned by government - owned and controlled corporations or government agencies. In this case, the PSG escorts the President using local police cars with an ambulance at the tail of the convoy.
Former President Benigno Aquino III, preferred to use his personal vehicle, a Toyota Land Cruiser 200 or his relative 's Lexus LX 570 over the black Presidential limousines after their electronic mechanisms were damaged by floodwater. The Palace has announced its interest to acquire a new Presidential limousine.
The current President, Rodrigo Duterte, prefers to utilize a white, bullet - proof armored Toyota Landcruiser as his official presidential vehicle instead of the "luxurious '' Mercedes - Benz W221 S600 Guard, in his commitment to being the "People 's President ''.
The Office of the President has also owned various cars over the decades, including a 1937 Chrysler Airflow that served as the country 's very first Presidential limousine for Manuel L. Quezon.
The Presidential Security Group (abbreviated PSG), is the lead agency tasked with providing security for the President, Vice President, and their immediate families. They also provide protective service for visiting heads of state and diplomats.
Unlike similar groups around the world who protect other political figures, the PSG is not required to handle presidential candidates. However, former Presidents and their immediate families are entitled to a small security detail from the PSG. Currently, the PSG uses Nissan Patrol SUVs as its primary security vehicles.
After leaving office, a number of presidents held various public positions and made an effort to remain in the limelight. Among other honors, former Presidents and their immediate families are entitled to three soldiers as security detail.
As of October 2018, there are four living former Presidents:
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who is the head of the church in england | Church of England - wikipedia
The Church of England (C of E) is the Established Church of England. The Archbishop of Canterbury is the most senior cleric, although the monarch is the supreme governor. The Church of England is also the mother church of the international Anglican Communion. It traces its history to the Christian church recorded as existing in the Roman province of Britain by the third century, and to the 6th - century Gregorian mission to Kent led by Augustine of Canterbury.
The English church renounced papal authority when Henry VIII failed to secure an annulment of his marriage to Catherine of Aragon in 1534. The English Reformation accelerated under Edward VI 's regents, before a brief restoration of papal authority under Queen Mary I and King Philip. The Act of Supremacy 1558 renewed the breach and the Elizabethan Settlement charted a course enabling the English church to describe itself as both catholic and reformed:
In the earlier phase of the English Reformation there were both Catholic martyrs and radical Protestant martyrs. The later phases saw the Penal Laws punish Roman Catholic and nonconforming Protestants. In the 17th century, the Puritan and Presbyterian factions continued to challenge the leadership of the Church which under the Stuarts veered towards a more catholic interpretation of the Elizabethan Settlement especially under Archbishop Laud and the rise of the concept of Anglicanism as the via media. After the victory of the Parliamentarians the Prayer Book was abolished and the Presbyterian and Independent factions dominated. The Episcopacy was abolished. The Restoration restored the Church of England, episcopacy and the Prayer Book. Papal recognition of George III in 1766 led to greater religious tolerance.
Since the English Reformation, the Church of England has used a liturgy in English. The church contains several doctrinal strands, the main three known as Anglo - Catholic, Evangelical and Broad Church. Tensions between theological conservatives and progressives find expression in debates over the ordination of women and homosexuality. The church includes both liberal and conservative clergy and members.
The governing structure of the church is based on dioceses, each presided over by a bishop. Within each diocese are local parishes. The General Synod of the Church of England is the legislative body for the church and comprises bishops, other clergy and laity. Its measures must be approved by both Houses of Parliament.
According to tradition, Christianity arrived in Britain in the 1st or 2nd century, during which time southern Britain became part of the Roman Empire. The earliest historical evidence of Christianity among the native Britons is found in the writings of such early Christian Fathers as Tertullian and Origen in the first years of the 3rd century. Three Romano - British bishops, including Restitutus, are known to have been present at the Council of Arles in 314. Others attended the Council of Serdica in 347 and that of Ariminum in 360, and a number of references to the church in Roman Britain are found in the writings of 4th century Christian fathers. Britain was the home of Pelagius, who opposed Augustine of Hippo 's doctrine of original sin.
While Christianity was long established as the religion of the Britons at the time of the Anglo - Saxon invasion, Christian Britons made little progress in converting the newcomers from their native paganism. Consequently, in 597, Pope Gregory I sent the prior of the Abbey of St Andrew 's (later canonised as Augustine of Canterbury) from Rome to evangelise the Angles. This event is known as the Gregorian mission and is the date the Church of England generally marks as the beginning of its formal history. With the help of Christians already residing in Kent, Augustine established his church at Canterbury, the capital of the Kingdom of Kent, and became the first in the series of Archbishops of Canterbury in 598. A later archbishop, the Greek Theodore of Tarsus, also contributed to the organisation of Christianity in England. The Church of England has been in continuous existence since the days of St Augustine, with the Archbishop of Canterbury as its episcopal head. Despite the various disruptions of the Reformation and the English Civil War, the Church of England considers itself to be the same church which was more formally organised by Augustine.
While some Celtic Christian practices were changed at the Synod of Whitby, the Christian in the British Isles was under papal authority from earliest times. Queen Bertha of Kent was among the Christians in England who recognised papal authority before Augustine arrived, and Celtic Christians were carrying out missionary work with papal approval long before the Synod of Whitby.
The Synod of Whitby established the Roman date for Easter and the Roman style of monastic tonsure in England. This meeting of the ecclesiastics with Roman customs with local bishops was summoned in 664 at Saint Hilda 's double monastery of Streonshalh (Streanæshalch), later called Whitby Abbey. It was presided over by King Oswiu, who did not engage in the debate but made the final ruling.
In 1534, King Henry VIII separated the English Church from Rome. A theological separation had been foreshadowed by various movements within the English Church, such as Lollardy, but the English Reformation gained political support when Henry VIII wanted an annulment of his marriage to Catherine of Aragon so he could marry Anne Boleyn. Pope Clement VII, considering that the earlier marriage had been entered under a papal dispensation and how Catherine 's nephew, Emperor Charles V, might react to such a move, refused the annulment. Eventually, Henry, although theologically opposed to Protestantism, took the position of Supreme Head of the Church of England to ensure the annulment of his marriage. He was excommunicated by Pope Paul III.
In 1536 -- 40 Henry VIII engaged in the Dissolution of the Monasteries, which controlled much of the richest land. He disbanded monasteries, priories, convents and friaries in England, Wales and Ireland, appropriated their income, disposed of their assets, and provided pensions for the former residents. The properties were sold to pay for the wars. Bernard argues:
The population of England at the time is estimated to have been only 2.5 million: half male of whom 750,000 adult. This is one in 75, not 1 in 50. However the latter figure is creditable if secular clergy are included.
Henry maintained a strong preference for traditional Catholic practices and, during his reign, Protestant reformers were unable to make many changes to the practices of the Church of England. Indeed, this part of Henry 's reign saw trials for heresy of Protestants as well as Roman Catholics.
Under his son, King Edward VI, more Protestant - influenced forms of worship were adopted. Under the leadership of the Archbishop of Canterbury, Thomas Cranmer, a more radical reformation proceeded. A new pattern of worship was set out in the Book of Common Prayer (1549 and 1552). These were based on the older liturgy in particular the Prayer Book of 1549, but both influenced by Protestant doctrines such as justification by faith alone, the rejection of the sacrifice of the Mass, and the Real Presence understood as physical presence (Cranmer was Calvinist in that he believed Christ was truly and really present in the Eucharist but after a spiritual manner, although the Words of Administration a the time of Communion were a straightforward statement in the Real Presence as taken from the 1549 BCP and attached to the 1559 book). The confession of the reformed Church of England was set out in the Forty - two Articles (later revised to thirty - nine). The reformation however was cut short by the death of the king. Queen Mary I, who succeeded him, returned England again to the authority of the papacy, thereby ending the first attempt at an independent Church of England. During her co-reign with her husband, King Philip, many leaders and common people were burnt for their refusal to recant of their reformed faith. These are known as the Marian martyrs and the persecution led to her nickname of "Bloody Mary ''.
Mary also died childless and so it was left to the new regime of her half - sister Elizabeth to resolve the direction of the church. The settlement under Queen Elizabeth I (from 1558), known as the Elizabethan Settlement, tried to stir a middle way between radical Protestantism and Roman Catholicism, the via media, (a term that actually only became current in the 1620s), as the character of the Church of England, a church moderately Reformed in doctrine, as expressed in the Thirty - Nine Articles, but also emphasising continuity with the Catholic and Apostolic traditions of the Church Fathers. Kneeling reverently to receive communion was the custom. The three-fold ministry in the Apostolic Succession was maintained; the institutional continuity of the Church was preserved without break (at her accession almost all clergy had been ordained in Catholic Orders using the Roman Pontifical) by consecration of bishops in Catholics Orders, although the character of the organization was changed by the adoption of some reformed doctrines, the simplification of the outwards forms of worship and the abandonment of traditional vestments and art work; the retention of medieval Canon Law, liturgical music and A much shortened Calendar of Saints and Feast Days. It was most peculiar situation: the same organization but with a modified face to the world without much of particular character of its own until the notion of Anglicanism as a distinct variety of Christianity emerged very late in her reign and during the reigns of the early Stuart Kings. It was also an established church (constitutionally established by the state with the Head of State as its supreme governor). The exact nature of the relationship between church and state would be a source of continued friction into the next century.
For the next century, through the reigns of James I, who ordered the translation of the Bible known as the King James Version (Authorized to be used in parishes which does not mean it was the official version), and Charles I, culminating in the English Civil War and the Protectorate of Oliver Cromwell, there were significant swings back and forth between two factions: the Puritans (and other radicals) who sought more far - reaching Protestant reforms, and the more conservative churchmen who aimed to keep closer to traditional beliefs and Catholic practices. The failure of political and ecclesiastical authorities to submit to Puritan demands for more extensive reform was one of the causes of open warfare. By Continental standards the level of violence over religion was not high, since the Civil War was mainly about politics, but the casualties included King Charles I and the Archbishop of Canterbury, William Laud and tens of thousands of civilians who died from the unsettled conditions. Under the Commonwealth and the Protectorate of England from 1649 to 1660, the bishops were dethroned and former practices were outlawed, and Presbyterian ecclesiology was introduced in place of the episcopate. The 39 Articles were replaced by the Westminster Confession, the Book of Common Prayer by the Directory of Public Worship. Despite this, about one quarter of English clergy refused to conform to this form of State Presbyterianism.
With the Restoration of Charles II, Parliament restored the Church of England to a form not far removed from the Elizabethan version. One difference was that the ideal of encompassing all the people of England in one religious organisation, taken for granted by the Tudors, had to be abandoned. The religious landscape of England assumed its present form, with the Anglican established church occupying the middle ground, and those Puritans and Protestants who dissented from the Anglican establishment, having to continue their existence outside the national church rather than trying to influence or trying to gain control of it. One result of the Restoration was the ousting of 2,000 parish ministers who had not been ordained by bishops in the Apostolic Succession or had been by ministers in presbyter 's orders. Continuing official suspicion and legal restrictions continued well into the 19th century. Roman Catholics, perhaps 5 % of the English population (down from 20 % in 1600) were grudgingly tolerated, having had little or no official representation after the Pope 's excommunication of Queen Elizabeth in 1570, though the Stuarts were sympathetic to them. By the end of 18th century they had dwindled to 1 % of the population mostly among eccentric upper middle - class gentry and their tenants and extended families.
By the Fifth Article of the Union with Ireland 1800, the Church of England and Church of Ireland were united into "one Protestant Episcopal church, to be called, the United Church of England and Ireland ''. Although this union was declared "an essential and fundamental Part of the Union '', the Irish Church Act 1869 separated the Irish part of the church again and disestablished it, the Act coming into effect on 1 January 1871.
As the British Empire expanded, British colonists and colonial administrators took the established church doctrines and practices together with ordained ministry and formed overseas branches of the Church of England. As they developed or, beginning with the United States of America, became sovereign or independent states, many of their churches became separate organisationally but remained linked to the Church of England through the Anglican Communion.
In Bermuda, the oldest remaining English colony (now designated a British Overseas Territory), the first Church of England services were performed by the Reverend Richard Buck, one of the survivors of the 1609 wreck of the Sea Venture which initiated Bermuda 's permanent settlement. The nine parishes of the Church of England in Bermuda, each with its own church and glebe land, rarely had more than a pair of ordained ministers to share between them until the Nineteenth Century. From 1825 to 1839, Bermuda 's parishes were attached to the See of Nova Scotia. Bermuda was then grouped into the new Diocese of Newfoundland and Bermuda from 1839. In 1879, the Synod of the Church of England in Bermuda was formed. At the same time, a Diocese of Bermuda became separate from the Diocese of Newfoundland, but both continued to be grouped under the Bishop of Newfoundland and Bermuda until 1919, when Newfoundland and Bermuda each received its own Bishop.
The Church of England in Bermuda was renamed in 1978 as the Anglican Church of Bermuda, which is an extra-provincial diocese, with both metropolitan and primatial authority coming directly from the Archbishop of Canterbury. Among its parish churches is St Peter 's Church in the UNESCO World Heritage Site of St George 's Town, which is both the oldest Anglican and the oldest non-Roman Catholic church in the New World.
Under the guidance of Rowan Williams and with significant pressure from clergy union representatives, the ecclesiastical penalty for convicted felons to be defrocked was set aside from the Clergy Discipline Measure 2003. The clergy union argued that the penalty was unfair to victims of hypothetical miscarriages of criminal justice, because the ecclesiastical penalty is considered irreversible. Although clerics can still be banned for life from ministry, they remain ordained as priests.
The archbishops of Canterbury and York warned in January 2015 that the Church of England will no longer be able to carry on in its current form unless the downward spiral in membership is somehow reversed as typical Sunday attendances had halved to 800,000 in the previous 40 years:
The urgency of the challenge facing us is not in doubt. Attendance at Church of England services has declined at an average of one per cent per annum over recent decades and, in addition, the age profile of our membership has become significantly older than that of the population... Renewing and reforming aspects of our institutional life is a necessary but far from sufficient response to the challenges facing the Church of England... The age profile of our clergy has also been increasing. Around 40 per cent of parish clergy are due to retire over the next decade or so.
However, Sarah Mullally, the fourth woman chosen to become a bishop in the Church of England, insisted in June 2015 that declining numbers at services should not necessarily be a cause of despair for churches because people will still "encounter God '' without ever taking their place in a pew, saying that people might hear the Christian message through social media sites such as Facebook or in a café run as a community project. Additionally, the church 's own statistics reveal that 9.7 million people visit an Anglican church every year and 1 million students are educated at Anglican schools (which number 4,700).
Approximately 30 Church of England parish churches are declared "closed for regular public worship '' (previously termed "redundant '') each year. Between 1969 and 2010, a full 1795 closures were achieved, equalling roughly 11 % of the stock, with just over a third being Listed buildings, either Grade I or II. Of these, closures, only 514 were made since 1990. Some active use is made of about half of the closed churches.
In 2015 the Church of England admitted that it was embarrassed to be paying staff under the living wage. The Church of England had previously campaigned for all employers to pay this minimum amount. The archbishop of Canterbury acknowledged it was not the only area where the church "fell short of its standards ''.
The canon law of the Church of England identifies the Christian scriptures as the source of its doctrine. In addition, doctrine is also derived from the teachings of the Church Fathers and ecumenical councils (as well as the ecumenical creeds) in so far as these agree with scripture. This doctrine is expressed in the Thirty - Nine Articles of Religion, the Book of Common Prayer, and the Ordinal containing the rites for the ordination of deacons, priests, and the consecration of bishops. Unlike other traditions, the Church of England has no single theologian that it can look to as a founder. However, Richard Hooker 's appeal to scripture, church tradition, and reason as sources of authority continue to inform Anglican identity.
The Church of England 's doctrinal character today is largely the result of the Elizabethan Settlement, which sought to establish a comprehensive middle way between Roman Catholicism and Protestantism. The Church of England affirms the Protestant Reformation principle that scripture contains all things necessary to salvation and is the final arbiter in doctrinal matters. The Thirty - nine Articles are the church 's only official confessional statement. Though not a complete system of doctrine, the articles highlight areas of agreement with Lutheran and Reformed positions, while differentiating Anglicanism from Roman Catholicism and Anabaptism.
While embracing some themes of the Protestant Reformation, the Church of England also maintains Catholic traditions of the ancient church and teachings of the Church Fathers, unless these are considered contrary to scripture. It accepts the decisions of the first four ecumenical councils concerning the Trinity and the Incarnation. The Church of England also preserves Catholic Order by adhering to episcopal polity, with ordained orders of bishops, priests and deacons. There are differences of opinion within the Church of England over the necessity of episcopacy. Some consider it essential, while others feel it is needed for the proper ordering of the church. In sum these express the ' Via Media ' viewpoint that the first five centuries of doctrinal development and church order as approved as acceptable be a kind of yardstick by which to gauge authentic catholicity, as minimum and sufficient; Anglicanism did not emerge as the result of charismatic leaders with particular doctrines. It is light on details compared to Roman Catholic, Reformed and Lutheran teachings. The Bible, the Creeds, Apostolic Order, and the administration of the Sacraments are sufficient to establish Catholicity. Indeed, not one major doctrinal development emerged from the English reformation, per Diarmid MacCulloch, The Later Reformation in England, 1990, p. 55. The Reformation in England was initially much concerned about doctrine but the Elizabethan Settlement tried to put a stop to doctrinal contentions. The proponents of further changes, nonetheless, tried to get their way by making changes in Church Order (abolition of bishops), governance (Canon Law) and liturgy (' too Catholic '). They did not succeed because the Monarchy, the Church and resisted and the majority of the population were indifferent. Moreover, "despite all the assumptions of the Reformation founders of that Church, it had retained a catholic character. '' The Elizabethan Settlement had created a cuckoo in a nest... '' a Protestant theology and program within a largely pre-Reformation Catholic structure whose continuing life would arouse a theological interest in the Catholicism that had created it; and would result in the rejection of predestinarian theology in favor of sacraments, especially the eucharist, ceremonial, and anti-Calvinist doctrine '' (ibid pp. 78 -- 86). The existence of cathedrals "without substantial alteration '' and "where the "old devotional world cast its longest shadow for the future of the ethos that would become Anglicanism, '' p. 79. This is "One of the great mysteries of the English Reformation, '' ibid that there was no complete break with the past but a muddle that was per force turned into a virtue. The story of the English Reformation is the tale of retreat from the Protestant advance of 1550 which could not proceed further in the face of the opposition of the institution which was rooted in the medieval past, ibid. p. 142 and the adamant opposition of Queen Elizabeth I.
The Church of England has, as one of its distinguishing marks, a breadth and "open - mindedness ''. This tolerance has allowed Anglicans who emphasise the Catholic tradition and others who emphasise the Reformed tradition to coexist. The three "parties '' (see Churchmanship) in the Church of England are sometimes called high church (or Anglo - Catholic), low church (or evangelical Anglican) and broad church (or liberal). The high church party places importance on the Church of England 's continuity with the pre-Reformation Catholic Church, adherence to ancient liturgical usages and the sacerdotal nature of the priesthood. As their name suggests, Anglo - Catholics maintain many traditional Catholic practices and liturgical forms. The low church party is more Protestant in both ceremony and theology. Historically, broad church has been used to describe those of middle - of - the - road ceremonial preferences who lean theologically towards liberal Protestantism. The balance between these strands of churchmanship is not static: in 2013, 40 % of Church of England worshippers attended evangelical churches (compared with 26 % in 1989), and 83 % of very large congregations were evangelical. Such churches were also reported to attract higher numbers of men and young adults than others.
The Church of England 's official book of liturgy as established in English Law is the Book of Common Prayer (BCP). In addition to this book the General Synod has also legislated for a modern liturgical book, Common Worship, dating from 2000, which can be used as an alternative to the BCP. Like its predecessor, the 1980 Alternative Service Book, it differs from the Book of Common Prayer in providing a range of alternative services, mostly in modern language, although it does include some BCP - based forms as well, for example Order Two for Holy Communion. (This is a revision of the BCP service, altering some words and allowing the insertion of some other liturgical texts such as the Agnus Dei before communion.) The Order One rite follows the pattern of more modern liturgical scholarship.
The liturgies are organised according to the traditional liturgical year and the calendar of saints. The sacraments of baptism and the Eucharist are generally thought necessary to salvation. Infant baptism is practised. At a later age, individuals baptised as infants receive confirmation by a bishop, at which time they reaffirm the baptismal promises made by their parents or sponsors. The Eucharist, consecrated by a thanksgiving prayer including Christ 's Words of Institution, is believed to be "a memorial of Christ 's once - for - all redemptive acts in which Christ is objectively present and effectually received in faith ''.
The use of hymns and music in the Church of England has changed dramatically over the centuries. Traditional Choral evensong is a staple of most cathedrals. The style of psalm chanting harks back to the Church of England 's pre-reformation roots. During the 18th century, clergy such as Charles Wesley introduced their own styles of worship with poetic hymns.
In the latter half of the 20th century, the influence of the Charismatic Movement significantly altered the worship traditions of numerous Church of England parishes, primarily affecting those of evangelical persuasion. These churches now adopt a contemporary worship form of service, with minimal liturgical or ritual elements, and incorporating contemporary worship music.
Women were appointed as deaconesses from 1861 but they could not function fully as deacons and were not considered ordained clergy. Women have been lay readers for a long time. During the First World War, some women were appointed as lay readers, known as "bishop 's messengers '', who also led missions and ran churches in the absence of men. After that no more lay readers were appointed until 1969.
Legislation authorising the ordination of women as deacons was passed in 1986 and they were first ordained in 1987. The ordination of women as priests was passed by the General Synod in 1992 and began in 1994. In 2010, for the first time in the history of the Church of England, more women than men were ordained as priests (290 women and 273 men).
In July 2005, the synod voted to "set in train '' the process of allowing the consecration of women as bishops. In February 2006, the synod voted overwhelmingly for the "further exploration '' of possible arrangements for parishes that did not want to be directly under the authority of a bishop who is a woman. On 7 July 2008, the synod voted to approve the ordination of women as bishops and rejected moves for alternative episcopal oversight for those who do not accept the ministry of bishops who are women. Actual ordinations of women to the episcopate required further legislation, which was narrowly rejected in a vote at General Synod in November 2012.
On 20 November 2013, the General Synod voted overwhelmingly in support of a plan to allow the ordination of women as bishops, with 378 in favour, 8 against and 25 abstentions.
On 14 July 2014, the General Synod approved the ordination of women as bishops. The House of Bishops recorded 37 votes in favour, two against with one abstention. The House of Clergy had 162 in favour, 25 against and four abstentions. The House of Laity voted 152 for, 45 against with five abstentions. This legislation had to be approved by the Ecclesiastical Committee of the Parliament before it could be finally implemented at the November 2014 synod.
In December 2014, Libby Lane was announced as the first woman to become a bishop in the Church of England. She was consecrated as a bishop in January 2015.
In July 2015, Rachel Treweek was the first woman to become a diocesan bishop in the Church of England when she became the Bishop of Gloucester. She and Sarah Mullally, Bishop of Crediton, were the first women to be ordained as bishops at Canterbury Cathedral. Treweek later made headlines by calling for gender - inclusive language, saying that "God is not to be seen as male. God is God. ''
In May 2018, the Diocese of London consecrated Dame Sarah Mullally as the first woman to serve as the Bishop of London. Bishop Sarah Mullally occupies the third most senior position in the Anglican church. Mullally has described herself as a feminist and will ordain both men and women to the priesthood. She is also considered by some to be a theological liberal. On women 's reproductive rights, Mullally describes herself as pro-choice while also being personally pro-life. On marriage, she supports the current stance of the Church of England that marriage is between a man and a woman, but also said that "It is a time for us to reflect on our tradition and scripture, and together say how we can offer a response that is about it being inclusive love. ''
After the consecration of the first women as bishops, Women and the Church (WATCH), a group supporting the ministries of women in the Church of England, called for language referring to God as "Mother ''. This call for more gender inclusive language has receive the outspoken support of the Rt Rev Alan Wilson, the Bishop of Buckingham. In 2015, the Rev Jody Stowell, from WATCH, expressed her support for female images saying "we 're not restricted to understanding God with one gender. I would encourage people to explore those kinds of images. They 're wholly Biblical. ''
The Church of England has been discussing same - sex marriages and LGBT clergy. "The Church of England does not allow gay weddings, but its priests are allowed to be in a civil partnership. '' The church holds that marriage is a union of one man with one woman. However, the church teaches "Same - sex relationships often embody genuine mutuality and fidelity. '' The church also officially supports civil partnerships; "We believe that Civil Partnerships still have a place, including for some Christian LGBTI couples who see them as a way of gaining legal recognition of their relationship. '' The "Church of England does not conduct Civil Partnership Ceremonies or Same Sex Marriages but individual churches can conduct a service of thanksgiving after a ceremony. '' The church says "clergy in the Church of England are permitted to offer prayers of support on a pastoral basis for people in same - sex relationships; '' As such, many Anglican churches, with clergy open to it, "already bless same - sex couples on an unofficial basis. ''
Civil Partnerships for clergy have been allowed since 2005. The church extends pensions to clergy in civil unions. In a missive to clergy, the church communicated that "there was a need for committed same - sex couples to be given recognition and ' compassionate attention ' from the Church, including special prayers. '' "There is no prohibition on prayers ' being said in church or there being a ' service ' '' after a civil union. After same - sex marriage was legalised, the church asked for the government to continue to offer civil unions saying "The Church of England recognises that same - sex relationships often embody fidelity and mutuality. Civil partnerships enable these Christian virtues to be recognised socially and legally in a proper framework. ''
In 2014, the Bishops released guidelines that permit "more informal kind of prayer '' for couples. In the guidelines, "gay couples who get married will be able to ask for special prayers in the Church of England after their wedding, the bishops have agreed. '' In 2016, The Bishop of Grantham, the Rt Rev Nicholas Chamberlain, announced he is gay, in a same - sex relationship and celibate; becoming the first bishop to do so in the church. The church had decided in 2013 that gay clergy in civil partnerships could become bishops. "The House (of Bishops) has confirmed that clergy in civil partnerships, and living in accordance with the teaching of the church on human sexuality, can be considered as candidates for the episcopate. ''
In 2017, the House of Clergy voted against the motion to ' take note ' of the Bishops ' report defining marriage as between a man and a woman. Due to passage in all three houses being required, the motion was rejected. After General Synod rejected the motion, the Archbishops of Canterbury and York called for "radical new Christian inclusion '' that is "based on good, healthy, flourishing relationships, and in a proper 21st century understanding of being human and of being sexual. '' The church officially opposes ' conversion ' therapy, a practice which attempts to change a gay or lesbian person 's sexual orientation, calling it unethical and supports the banning of ' conversion ' therapy in the UK. The Diocese of Hereford approved a motion calling for the church "to create a set of formal services and prayers to bless those who have had a same - sex marriage or civil partnership. ''
Regarding transgender issues, the 2017 General Synod voted in favour of a motion saying that transgender people should be "welcomed and affirmed in their parish church... '' The motion also asked the Bishops "to look into special services for transgender people. '' The House of Bishops declined to create a new liturgy, but advised that clergy adapt the service for an affirmation of baptism to mark a gender transition. "The House notes that the Affirmation of Baptismal Faith, found in Common Worship, is an ideal liturgical rite which trans people can use to mark this moment of personal renewal. '' Transgender people may marry in the Church of England after legally making a transition. "Since the Gender Recognition Act (2004), trans people legally confirmed in their gender identity under its provisions are able to marry someone of the opposite sex in their parish church. '' Since 2000, the church has allowed priests to undergo gender transition and remain in office. The church has ordained openly transgender clergy since 2005.
Just as the Church of England has a large conservative or "traditionalist '' wing, it also has many liberal members and clergy. Approximately one third of clergy "doubt or disbelieve in the physical resurrection ''. Others, such as the Revd Giles Fraser, a contributor to The Guardian, have argued for an allegorical interpretation of the virgin birth of Jesus. The Independent reported in 2014 that, according to a YouGov survey of Church of England clergy, "as many as 16 per cent are unclear about God and two per cent think it is no more than a human construct. '' Moreover, many congregations are seeker - friendly environments. For example, one report from the Church Mission Society suggested that the church open up "a pagan church where Christianity (is) very much in the centre '' to reach out to spiritual people.
The Church of England is generally opposed to abortion but recognises that "there can be - strictly limited - conditions under which it may be morally preferable to any available alternative ''. The church also opposes euthanasia. Its official stance is that "While acknowledging the complexity of the issues involved in assisted dying / suicide and voluntary euthanasia, the Church of England is opposed to any change in the law or in medical practice that would make assisted dying / suicide or voluntary euthanasia permissible in law or acceptable in practice. '' It also states that "Equally, the Church shares the desire to alleviate physical and psychological suffering, but believes that assisted dying / suicide and voluntary euthanasia are not acceptable means of achieving these laudable goals. '' However, George Carey, a former Archbishop of Canterbury, announced that he had changed his stance on euthanasia in 2014 and now advocated legalising "assisted dying ''. On embryonic stem - cell research, the church has announced "cautious acceptance to the proposal to produce cytoplasmic hybrid embryos for research ''.
The Church of England set up the Church Urban Fund in the 1980s to tackle poverty and deprivation. They see poverty as trapping individuals and communities with some people in urgent need. This leads to dependency, homelessness, hunger, isolation, low income, mental health problems, social exclusion and violence. They feel that poverty reduces confidence and life expectancy and that people born in poor conditions have difficulty escaping their disadvantaged circumstances.
In parts of Liverpool, Manchester and Newcastle two - thirds of babies are born to poverty and have poorer life chances, also life expectancy 15 years lower than babies born in most fortunate communities. South Shore, Blackpool, has lowest life expectancy at 66 years for men.
The deep - rooted unfairness in our society is highlighted by these stark statistics. Children being born in this country, just a few miles apart, could n't witness a more wildly differing start to life. In child poverty terms, we live in one of the most unequal countries in the western world. We want people to understand where their own community sits alongside neighbouring communities. The disparity is often shocking but it 's crucial that, through greater awareness, people from all backgrounds come together to think about what could be done to support those born into poverty. (Paul Hackwood, the Chair of Trustees at Church Urban Fund)
Many prominent people in the Church of England have spoken out against poverty and welfare cuts in the United Kingdom. Twenty - seven bishops are among 43 Christian leaders who signed a letter which urged David Cameron to make sure people have enough to eat.
We often hear talk of hard choices. Surely few can be harder than that faced by the tens of thousands of older people who must ' heat or eat ' each winter, harder than those faced by families whose wages have stayed flat while food prices have gone up 30 % in just five years. Yet beyond even this we must, as a society, face up to the fact that over half of people using food banks have been put in that situation by cutbacks to and failures in the benefit system, whether it be payment delays or punitive sanctions.
Benefit cuts, failures and "punitive sanctions '' force thousands of UK citizens to use food banks. The campaign to end hunger considers this "truly shocking '' and called for a national day of fasting on 4 April 2014.
Official figures from 2005 showed there were 25 million baptised Anglicans in England and Wales. Due to its status as the established church, in general, anyone may be married, have their children baptised or their funeral in their local parish church, regardless of whether they are baptised or regular churchgoers.
Between 1890 and 2001, churchgoing in the United Kingdom declined steadily. In the years 1968 to 1999, Anglican Sunday church attendances almost halved, from 3.5 per cent of the population to 1.9 per cent. By the year 2014, Sunday church attendances had declined further to 1.4 per cent of the population. One study published in 2008 suggested that if current trends were to continue, Sunday attendances could fall to 350,000 in 2030 and just 87,800 in 2050.
In 2011, the Church of England published statistics showing 1.7 million people attending at least one of its services each month, a level maintained since the turn of the millennium; approximately one million participating each Sunday and three million taking part in a Church of England service on Christmas Day or Christmas Eve. The church also claimed that 30 % attend Sunday worship at least once a year; more than 40 % attend a wedding in their local church and still more attend a funeral there. Nationally the Church of England baptises one child in ten (2011). In 2015, the church 's statistics showed that 2.6 million people attended a special Advent service, 2.4 million attended a Christmas service, 1.3 million attended an Easter service, and 980,000 attended service during an average week. In 2016, 2.6 million people attended a Christmas service, 1.2 million attended an Easter service, 1.1 million people attended a service in the Church of England each month, an average of 930,000 people attended a weekly service, an additional 180,000 attended a service for school each week, and an average of 740,000 people attended Sunday service. In 2017 Cathedral statstics showed that a total of 135,000 attended a Christmas service, an increase of 13 % and overall Sunday attendance has risen from 7000 in 2000 to 18,000 in 2017 which had increased over the past 10 years.
The Church of England has 18,000 active ordained clergy and 10,000 licensed lay ministers. In 2009, 491 people were recommended for ordination training, maintaining the level at the turn of the millennium, and 564 new clergy (266 women and 298 men) were ordained. More than half of those ordained (193 men and 116 women) were appointed to full - time paid ministry. In 2011, 504 new clergy were ordained, including 264 to paid ministry, and 349 lay readers were admitted to ministry; and the mode age - range of those recommended for ordination training had remained 40 -- 49 since 1999.
Article XIX (' Of the Church ') of the 39 Articles defines the church as follows:
The visible Church of Christ is a congregation of faithful men, in which the pure Word of God is preached, and the sacraments be duly ministered according to Christ 's ordinance in all those things that of necessity are requisite to the same.
The British monarch has the constitutional title of Supreme Governor of the Church of England. The canon law of the Church of England states, "We acknowledge that the Queen 's most excellent Majesty, acting according to the laws of the realm, is the highest power under God in this kingdom, and has supreme authority over all persons in all causes, as well ecclesiastical as civil. '' In practice this power is often exercised through Parliament and the Prime Minister.
The Church of Ireland and the Church in Wales separated from the Church of England in 1869 and 1920 respectively and are autonomous churches in the Anglican Communion; Scotland 's national church, the Church of Scotland, is Presbyterian but the Scottish Episcopal Church is in the Anglican Communion.
In addition to England, the jurisdiction of the Church of England extends to the Isle of Man, the Channel Islands and a few parishes in Flintshire, Monmouthshire, Powys and Radnorshire in Wales which voted to remain with the Church of England rather than joining the Church in Wales. Expatriate congregations on the continent of Europe have become the Diocese of Gibraltar in Europe.
The church is structured as follows (from the lowest level upwards):
All rectors and vicars are appointed by patrons, who may be private individuals, corporate bodies such as cathedrals, colleges or trusts, or by the bishop or directly by the Crown. No clergy can be instituted and inducted into a parish without swearing the Oath of Allegiance to Her Majesty, and taking the Oath of Canonical Obedience "in all things lawful and honest '' to the bishop. Usually they are instituted to the benefice by the bishop and then inducted by the archdeacon into the possession of the benefice property -- church and parsonage. Curates (assistant clergy) are appointed by rectors and vicars, or if priests - in - charge by the bishop after consultation with the patron. Cathedral clergy (normally a dean and a varying number of residentiary canons who constitute the cathedral chapter) are appointed either by the Crown, the bishop, or by the dean and chapter themselves. Clergy officiate in a diocese either because they hold office as beneficed clergy or are licensed by the bishop when appointed, or simply with permission.
The most senior bishop of the Church of England is the Archbishop of Canterbury, who is the metropolitan of the southern province of England, the Province of Canterbury. He has the status of Primate of All England. He is the focus of unity for the worldwide Anglican Communion of independent national or regional churches. Justin Welby has been Archbishop of Canterbury since the confirmation of his election on 4 February 2013.
The second most senior bishop is the Archbishop of York, who is the metropolitan of the northern province of England, the Province of York. For historical reasons (relating to the time of York 's control by the Danes) he is referred to as the Primate of England. John Sentamu became Archbishop of York in 2005. The Bishop of London, the Bishop of Durham and the Bishop of Winchester are ranked in the next three positions.
The process of appointing diocesan bishops is complex, due to historical reasons balancing hierarchy against democracy, and is handled by the Crown Nominations Committee which submits names to the Prime Minister (acting on behalf of the Crown) for consideration.
The Church of England has a legislative body, the General Synod. Synod can create two types of legislation, measures and canons. Measures have to be approved but can not be amended by the British Parliament before receiving the Royal Assent and becoming part of the law of England. Although it is the established church in England only, its measures must be approved by both Houses of Parliament including the non-English members. Canons require Royal Licence and Royal Assent, but form the law of the church, rather than the law of the land.
Another assembly is the Convocation of the English Clergy, which is older than the General Synod and its predecessor the Church Assembly. By the 1969 Synodical Government Measure almost all of the Convocations ' functions were transferred to the General Synod. Additionally, there are Diocesan Synods and deanery synods, which are the governing bodies of the divisions of the Church.
Of the 42 diocesan archbishops and bishops in the Church of England, 26 are permitted to sit in the House of Lords. The Archbishops of Canterbury and York automatically have seats, as do the Bishops of London, Durham and Winchester. The remaining 21 seats are filled in order of seniority by consecration. It may take a diocesan bishop a number of years to reach the House of Lords, at which point he becomes a Lord Spiritual. The Bishop of Sodor and Man and the Bishop of Gibraltar in Europe are not eligible to sit in the House of Lords as their dioceses lie outside the United Kingdom.
Although they are not part of England or the United Kingdom, the Church of England is also the Established Church in the Crown dependencies of the Isle of Man, the Bailiwick of Jersey and the Bailiwick of Guernsey. The Isle of Man has its own diocese of Sodor and Man, and the Bishop of Sodor and Man is an ex officio member of the Legislative Council of the Tynwald on the island. The Channel Islands are part of the Diocese of Winchester, and in Jersey the Dean of Jersey is a non-voting member of the States of Jersey. In Guernsey the Church of England is the Established Church, although the Dean of Guernsey is not a member of the States of Guernsey.
The Archbishop of Canterbury, Justin Welby, has made some effort to prevent complaints of sex abuse cases being covered up. Independent investigators are examining files as far back as the 1950s and Welby hopes this independence will prevent any possibility of a cover - up.
We will systematically bring those transparently and openly first of all working with the survivors where they are still alive and then seeing what they want. The rule is survivors come first, not our own interests, and however important the person was, however distinguished, however well - known, survivors come first. (Justin Welby)
The personal files of all Anglican clergy since the 1950s are being audited in an effort to ensure no cover - up. Welby emphasised repeatedly that no cover - up would be acceptable.
Despite such assurances there is concern that not enough may be done and historic abuse may still sometimes be covered up. Keith Porteous Wood of the National Secular Society stated:
The problem was n't that bishops were n't trained in such matters, it is the institutional culture of denial and the bullying of the abused and whistleblowers into silence. One report suggests that 13 bishops ignored letters written in the 1990s warning of abuse by Ball on behalf of a victim who later committed suicide. I have seen evidence that such bullying persists to this day. I hope that the Archbishop 's review into the case of Peter Ball will deal with such bullying and what appears to be the undue influence exerted on the police and CPS by the Church in dealing with this case. The total failure of procedures, outlined by Ian Elliott, echoes that revealed in the totally damning Cahill Report about the conduct of the Archbishop Hope of York in respect of Robert Waddington. The current Archbishop of York has decided that this report should remain in printed form rather than be more widely available on the web.
Bishop Peter Ball was convicted in October 2015 on several charges of indecent assault against young adult men. There are allegations of large - scale earlier cover - ups involving many British establishment figures which prevented Ball 's earlier prosecution. There have also been allegations of child sex abuse, for example Robert Waddington. A complainant, known only as "Joe '', tried for decades to have action taken over sadistic sex abuse which Garth Moore perpetrated against him in 1976 when "Joe '' was 15 years old. None of the high ranking clergy who "Joe '' spoke to recall being told about the abuse, which "Joe '' considers incredible. A representative of the solicitors firm representing "Joe '' said:
The Church of England wants to bury and discourage allegations of non-recent abuse. They know how difficult it is for survivors to come forward, and it appears from this case that the Church has a plan of making it hard for these vulnerable people to come forward. This survivor has had the courage to press his case. Most do not. Most harbour the psychological fallout in silence. We need to find a way to make the system more approachable for survivors.
Although an established church, the Church of England does not receive any direct government support. Donations comprise its largest source of income, and it also relies heavily on the income from its various historic endowments. In 2005, the Church of England had estimated total outgoings of around £ 900 million.
The Church of England manages an investment portfolio which is worth more than £ 8 billion.
The Church of England supports A Church Near You, an online directory of churches. A user - edited resource, it currently lists 16,400 churches and has 7,000 editors in 42 dioceses. The directory enables parishes to maintain accurate location, contact and event information which is shared with other websites and mobile apps. In 2012, the directory formed the data backbone of Christmas Near You and in 2014 was used to promote the church 's Harvest Near You initiative.
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what are the different parts of a statute | Statute - wikipedia
A statute is a formal written enactment of a legislative authority that governs a state, city or country. Typically, statutes command or prohibit something, or declare policy. Statutes are rules made by legislative bodies; they are distinguished from case law or precedent, which is decided by courts, and regulations issued by government agencies.
In virtually all countries, newly enacted statutes are published in some kind of journal, gazette, or chronological compilation, which is then distributed so that everyone can look up the statutory law.
A universal problem encountered by lawmakers throughout human history is how to organize published statutes. Such publications have a habit of starting small but growing rapidly over time, as new statutes are enacted in response to the exigencies of the moment. Eventually, persons trying to find the law are forced to sort through an enormous number of statutes enacted at various points in time to determine which portions are still in effect.
The solution adopted in many countries is to organize existing statutory law in topical arrangements (or "codified '') within publications called codes, then ensure that new statutes are consistently drafted so that they add, amend, repeal or move various code sections. In turn, in theory, the code will thenceforth reflect the current cumulative state of the statutory law in that jurisdiction. In many nations statutory law is distinguished from and subordinate to constitutional law.
The term statute is also used to refer to an International treaty that establishes an institution, such as the Statute of the European Central Bank, a protocol to the international courts as well, such as the Statute of the International Court of Justice and the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court. Statute is also another word for law. The term was adapted from England in about the 18th century.
In the Autonomous Communities of Spain, the autonomy statute is a legal document similar to a state constitution in a federated state. The autonomies statutes in Spain have the rank of "Ley Organica '', a category of special laws reserved only for the main institutions and issues and mentioned in the Constitution (the highest ranking legal instrument in Spain). Leyes Organicas rank between the Constitution and ordinary laws. The name was chosen, among others, to avoid confusion with the term Constitution (i.e. the Spanish Constitution of 1978).
In biblical terminology, statute (Hebrew chok) refers to a law given without any reason or justification. The classic example is the statute regarding the Red Heifer. (Numbers 19: 2)
The opposite of a chok is a mishpat, a law given for a specified reason, e.g. the Sabbath laws, which were given because "God created the world in six days, but on the seventh day He rested '' (Genesis 2: 2 - 3).
That which upholds, supports or maintains the regulatory order of the universe meaning the Law or Natural Law. This is a concept of central importance in Indian philosophy and religion.
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is the big dipper the same as the plough | Big Dipper - wikipedia
The Big Dipper (US) or the Plough (UK) is an asterism consisting of seven bright stars of the constellation Ursa Major; six of them are of second magnitude and one, Megrez (δ), of third magnitude. Four define a "bowl '' or "body '' and three define a "handle '' or "head ''. It is recognized as a distinct grouping in many cultures.
The North Star (Polaris), the current northern pole star and the tip of the handle of the Little Dipper, can be located by extending an imaginary line through the front two stars of the asterism, Merak (β) and Dubhe (α). This makes it useful in celestial navigation.
The constellation of Ursa Major has been seen as a bear, a wagon, or a ladle. The "bear '' tradition is Greek, but apparently the name "bear '' has parallels in Siberian or North American traditions.
The name "Bear '' is Homeric, and apparently native to Greece, while the "Wain '' tradition is Mesopotamian. Book XVIII of Homer 's Iliad mentions it as "the Bear, which men also call the Wain ''. In Latin, these seven stars were known as the "Seven Oxen '' (septentriones, from septem triōnēs). The classical mythographer identified the "Bear '' as the nymph Callisto, changed into a she - bear by Hera, the jealous wife of Zeus.
In Ireland and the United Kingdom, this pattern is known as the Plough. The symbol of the Starry Plough has been used as a political symbol by Irish Republican and left wing movements. Former names include the Great Wain (i.e., wagon) or Butcher 's Cleaver. The terms Charles 's Wain and Charles his Wain are derived from the still older Carlswæn. A folk etymology holds that this derived from Charlemagne, but the name is common to all the Germanic languages and intended the churls ' wagon (i.e., "the men 's wagon ''), in contrast with the women 's wagon (the Little Dipper). An older "Odin 's Wain '' may have preceded these Nordic designations.
In German, it is known as the "Great Wagon '' (Großer Wagen) and, less often, the "Great Bear '' (Großer Bär). In Scandinavia, it is known by variations of "Charles 's Wagon '' (Karlavagnen, Karlsvogna, or Karlsvognen), but also the "Great Bear '' (Stora Björn). In Dutch, its official name is the "Great Bear '' (Grote Beer), but it is popularly known as the "Saucepan '' (Steelpannetje). In Italian, too, it is called the "Great Wagon '' (Grande Carro).
In Romanian and most Slavic languages, it is known as the "Great Wagon '' as well, but, in Hungarian, it is commonly called "Göncöl 's Wagon '' (Göncölszekér) or, less often, "Big Göncöl '' (Nagy Göncöl) after a táltos (shaman) in Hungarian mythology who carried medicine that could cure any disease. In Finnish, the figure is known as Otava with established etymology in the archaic meaning ' salmon net ', although other uses of the word refer to ' bear ' and ' wheel '. The bear relation is claimed to stem from the animal 's resemblance to -- and mythical origin from -- the asterism rather than vice versa.
In the Lithuanian language, the stars of Ursa Major are known as Didieji Grįžulo Ratai ("Stars of the Riding Hall 's Wheels ''). Other names for the constellation include Perkūno Ratai ("Wheels of Perkūnas ''), Kaušas ("Bucket ''), Vežimas ("Carriage ''), and Samtis ("Summit '').
In traditional Chinese astronomy, which continues to be used throughout East Asia (e.g., in astrology), these stars are generally considered to compose the Right Wall of the Purple Forbidden Enclosure which surrounds the Northern Celestial Pole, although numerous other groupings and names have been made over the centuries. Similarly, each star has a distinct name, which likewise has varied over time and depending upon the asterism being constructed. The Western asterism is now known as the "Northern Dipper '' (北斗) or the "Seven Stars of the Northern Dipper '' (Chinese and Japanese: 北斗 七星; pinyin: Běidǒu Qīxīng; Cantonese Yale: Bak1 - dau2 Cat1 - sing1; rōmaji: Hokutō Shichisei; Korean: 북두칠성; romaja: Bukdu Chilseong; Vietnamese: Sao Bắc Đẩu). The personification of the Big Dipper itself is also known as "Doumu '' (斗 母) in Chinese folk religion and Taoism, and Marici in Buddhism.
In Shinto, the seven largest stars of Ursa Major belong to Amenominakanushi, the oldest and most powerful of all kami.
In North Korea, the constellation is featured on the flag of the country 's special forces.
In South Korea, the constellation is referred to as "the seven stars of the north ''. In the related myth, a widow with seven sons found comfort with a widower, but to get to his house required crossing a stream. The seven sons, sympathetic to their mother, placed stepping stones in the river. Their mother, not knowing who put the stones in place, blessed them and, when they died, they became the constellation.
In Malaysian, it is known as the "Dipper Stars '' (Buruj Biduk); in Indonesian, as the "Canoe Stars '' (Bintang Biduk).
In Burmese, these stars are known as Pucwan Tārā (ပုဇွန် တာရာ, pronounced "bazun taya ''). Pucwan (ပုဇွန်) is a general term for a crustacean, such as prawn, shrimp, crab, lobster, etc.
In Javanese, as known as "Bintang Kartika ''. This name comes from Sanskrit which refers "krttikã '' the same star cluster. In ancient Javanese this brightest seven stars are known as Lintang Wuluh, literally means "seven stars ''. This star cluster is so popular because its emergence into the sky signals the time marker for planting.
In Hindu astronomy, it is referred to as the "Collection of Seven Great Sages '' (Saptarshi Mandala), as each star is named after a mythical Hindu sage.
An Arabian story has the four stars of the Plough 's bowl as a coffin, with the three stars in the handle as mourners, following it.
In Mongolian, it is known as the "Seven Gods '' (Долоон бурхан). In Kazakh, they are known as the Jetiqaraqshi (Жетіқарақшы) and, in Kyrgyz, as the Jetigen (Жетиген).
Within Ursa Major the stars of the Big Dipper have Bayer designations in consecutive Greek alphabetical order from the bowl to the handle.
In the same line of sight as Mizar, but about one light - year beyond it, is the star Alcor (80 UMa). Together they are known as the "Horse and Rider ''. At fourth magnitude, Alcor would normally be relatively easy to see with the unaided eye, but its proximity to Mizar renders it more difficult to resolve, and it has served as a traditional test of sight. Mizar itself has four components and thus enjoys the distinction of being part of an optical binary as well as being the first - discovered telescopic binary (1617) and the first - discovered spectroscopic binary (1889).
Five of the stars of the Big Dipper are at the core of the Ursa Major Moving Group. The two at the ends, Dubhe and Alkaid, are not part of the swarm, and are moving in the opposite direction. Relative to the central five, they are moving down and to the right in the map. This will slowly change the Dipper 's shape, with the bowl opening up and the handle becoming more bent. In 50,000 years the Dipper will no longer exist as we know it, but be re-formed into a new Dipper facing the opposite way. The stars Alkaid to Phecda will then constitute the bowl, while Phecda, Merak, and Dubhe will be the handle.
Not only are the stars in the Big Dipper easily found themselves, they may also be used as guides to yet other stars. Thus it is often the starting point for introducing Northern Hemisphere beginners to the night sky:
Additionally, the Dipper may be used as a guide to telescopic objects:
The "Seven Stars '' referenced in the Bible 's Book of Amos may refer to these stars or, more likely, to the Pleiades.
In addition, the constellation has also been used in corporate logos and the Alaska flag. The seven stars on a red background of the Flag of the Community of Madrid, Spain, are the stars of the Big Dipper Asterism. It can be said the same thing about the seven stars pictured in the bordure azure of the Coat of arms of Madrid, capital of Spain.
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who is in the traveling wilburys video last night | Traveling Wilburys Vol. 1 - wikipedia
The Traveling Wilburys Vol. 1 is the debut album by the Anglo - American supergroup Traveling Wilburys, comprising George Harrison, Jeff Lynne, Bob Dylan, Roy Orbison and Tom Petty. It was released in October 1988 to commercial success and critical acclaim. Although Harrison had long planned to start such a band, the project came about through happenstance. Harrison was in Los Angeles and in need of a B - side for a single from his Cloud Nine album, which resulted in the participants collaborating informally on the song "Handle with Care '' at Dylan 's home. Adopting alter egos as the five Wilbury brothers, they then recorded a full album, produced by Lynne and Harrison.
The Traveling Wilburys Vol. 1 was nominated for the Grammy Award for Album of the Year in 1989 and helped revitalise the careers of Dylan, Orbison and Petty. It has been certified triple platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America.
In early April 1988, George Harrison was in Los Angeles and needed to record a B - side for a European 12 - inch single. Jeff Lynne was also in Los Angeles writing and producing some tracks for Roy Orbison on his album Mystery Girl (released posthumously), as well as Tom Petty 's first solo album, Full Moon Fever. While having dinner with Lynne and Orbison, Harrison related how he needed to record a new track and wanted to do it the next day. Harrison asked if Lynne would help, and Orbison offered his old friend his hand as well, seeing how fun it would be. Needing a studio at short notice, Harrison called Bob Dylan, who agreed to let them use his garage studio. After dinner, Harrison stopped by Petty 's house to pick up a guitar he had left there, and invited Petty along too. Gathering at Dylan 's Malibu home the following day, Harrison, Lynne, Orbison and Petty worked on a song that Harrison had started writing for the occasion, "Handle with Care ''. At first, Dylan 's role was that of a host, maintaining a barbecue to feed the musicians; at Harrison 's invitation, Dylan then joined them in writing lyrics for the song. The ensemble taped the track on Dylan 's Ampex recording equipment, with all five sharing the vocals.
"Handle with Care '' was considered too good to be used as a B - side, so Harrison decided to form a band and record another nine songs for an album. The group got together again for nine days in May, recording the basic tracks and vocals at Dave Stewart 's home studio in Los Angeles. Overdubs and mixing were carried out in England at Harrison 's home studio, FPSHOT (short for Friar Park Studio, Henley - on - Thames).
Masquerading as the Wilbury brothers, the participants would be known as Nelson (Harrison), Otis (Lynne), Lucky (Dylan), Lefty (Orbison), and Charlie T. Jr. (Petty) Wilbury, with drummer Jim Keltner credited as Buster Sidebury. Harrison was no stranger to the use of alternate identities, as he had adopted them with Sgt. Pepper 's Lonely Hearts Club Band and with his plethora of pseudonyms as a session musician, including L'Angelo Misterioso, George O'Hara and Hari Georgeson. During the Beatles 's first tour of Scotland, in 1960, he had used the pseudonym "Carl Harrison '', in reference to one of his favourite musicians, Carl Perkins. With the Traveling Wilburys, this concept was taken a step further, since the participants ' real names do not appear anywhere on the album, liner notes, or the songwriting credits.
With Harrison having the greatest claim to the band, he signed them up to Warner Bros. Records, which distributed his solo recordings, and incorporated their own Wilbury Records label, in addition to producing the sessions with Lynne that spring. Petty subsequently signed to Warner Bros. himself as a solo artist, and one of the company 's subsidiaries, Reprise Records, released Lynne 's solo album Armchair Theatre in 1990.
According to statements by Harrison in the documentary The True History of the Traveling Wilburys (filmed in 1988 about the making of the album and re-released on the bonus DVD included in The Traveling Wilburys Collection), the whole band gave various contributions to all songs, although each song was mainly written by a single member; the joint songwriting credit came from the fact that giving individualized credits looked egotistical.
Lynne commented that the songwriting process was relaxed and enjoyable:
We would arrive about twelve or one o'clock and have some coffee. Somebody would say, ' What about this? ' and start on a riff. Then we 'd all join in, and it 'd turn into something. We 'd finish around midnight and just sit for a bit while Roy would tell us fabulous stories about Sun Records or hanging out with Elvis. Then we 'd come back the next day to work on another one. That 's why the songs are so good and fresh -- because they have n't been second - guessed and dissected and replaced. It 's so tempting to add stuff to a song when you 've got unlimited time.
However, the publishing credits on the Collection book are more revealing about the actual songwriters, as each of the credited publishers belongs to a single member:
The separation was not repeated for the publishing credits of Traveling Wilburys Vol. 3, which show all songs as being published by all four publishers.
Released October 18, 1988, Volume One became the surprise hit of the year, selling two million copies within six months in the US, reaching No. 3 in the US and No. 16 in the UK. With over 50 weeks on the charts, The Traveling Wilburys Vol. 1 was later certified triple - platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America. While Harrison and Petty had had recent successes, Dylan, Orbison (who died of a sudden heart attack on December 6, 1988) and Lynne had not seen an album climb that high in several years. At the time, no Dylan album had ever achieved two million in sales. As one critic put it, it was "one of the great commercial coups of the decade ''. The single "Handle with Care '' was a significant hit in the UK charts, peaking at No. 21, and an even bigger hit in Australia (No. 3) and New Zealand (No. 4), though it stalled at No. 45 on the US Billboard Hot 100.
Most critics said the group 's modest ambitions were fresh and relaxing. During 1989 and 1990 the album won many accolades, including a Grammy for Best Rock Performance by a Duo or Group. The album was also nominated for Album of the Year. In his book The Encyclopedia of Popular Music, Colin Larkin describes the Traveling Wilburys as "the last of the great supergroups '' and writes of the band 's accidental origins: "This wonderful potpourri of stars reintroduced ' having a good time ' to their vocabulary and the result was not a Harrison solo album but the superb debut of the Traveling Wilburys. The outing proved to be a major success, bringing out the best of each artist; in particular, this (album) proved to be the marvellous swan song for Roy Orbison who tragically died soon afterwards. ''
After Harrison 's distribution deal with Warner Bros. expired in 1995, ownership of the Dark Horse Records catalog as well as the two Traveling Wilburys albums reverted to Harrison and the albums went out of print. On June 12, 2007, Volume One and Vol. 3 were reissued by Rhino Records as The Traveling Wilburys Collection, packaged together with bonus tracks and a DVD. The box set debuted at No. 1 on the UK Albums Chart and No. 9 on the US Billboard 200.
All tracks written by Traveling Wilburys.
Traveling Wilburys
Additional personnel
Production
shipments figures based on certification alone
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what was the first thing sent into space | Space exploration - Wikipedia
Space exploration is the discovery and exploration of celestial structures in outer space by means of evolving and growing space technology. While the study of space is carried out mainly by astronomers with telescopes, the physical exploration of space is conducted both by unmanned robotic space probes and human spaceflight.
While the observation of objects in space, known as astronomy, predates reliable recorded history, it was the development of large and relatively efficient rockets during the mid-twentieth century that allowed physical space exploration to become a reality. Common rationales for exploring space include advancing scientific research, national prestige, uniting different nations, ensuring the future survival of humanity, and developing military and strategic advantages against other countries.
Space exploration has often been used as a proxy competition for geopolitical rivalries such as the Cold War. The early era of space exploration was driven by a "Space Race '' between the Soviet Union and the United States. The launch of the first human - made object to orbit Earth, the Soviet Union 's Sputnik 1, on 4 October 1957, and the first Moon landing by the American Apollo 11 mission on 20 July 1969 are often taken as landmarks for this initial period. The Soviet Space Program achieved many of the first milestones, including the first living being in orbit in 1957, the first human spaceflight (Yuri Gagarin aboard Vostok 1) in 1961, the first spacewalk (by Aleksei Leonov) on 18 March 1965, the first automatic landing on another celestial body in 1966, and the launch of the first space station (Salyut 1) in 1971. After the first 20 years of exploration, focus shifted from one - off flights to renewable hardware, such as the Space Shuttle program, and from competition to cooperation as with the International Space Station (ISS).
With the substantial completion of the ISS following STS - 133 in March 2011, plans for space exploration by the U.S. remain in flux. Constellation, a Bush Administration program for a return to the Moon by 2020 was judged inadequately funded and unrealistic by an expert review panel reporting in 2009. The Obama Administration proposed a revision of Constellation in 2010 to focus on the development of the capability for crewed missions beyond low Earth orbit (LEO), envisioning extending the operation of the ISS beyond 2020, transferring the development of launch vehicles for human crews from NASA to the private sector, and developing technology to enable missions to beyond LEO, such as Earth -- Moon L1, the Moon, Earth -- Sun L2, near - Earth asteroids, and Phobos or Mars orbit.
In the 2000s, the People 's Republic of China initiated a successful manned spaceflight program, while the European Union, Japan, and India have also planned future crewed space missions. China, Russia, Japan, and India have advocated crewed missions to the Moon during the 21st century, while the European Union has advocated manned missions to both the Moon and Mars during the 20th and 21st century.
From the 1990s onwards, private interests began promoting space tourism and then public space exploration of the Moon (see Google Lunar X Prize).
The highest known projectiles prior to the rockets of the 1940s were the shells of the Paris Gun, a type of German long - range siege gun, which reached at least 40 kilometers altitude during World War One. Steps towards putting a human - made object into space were taken by German scientists during World War II while testing the V - 2 rocket, which became the first human - made object in space on 3 October 1942 with the launching of the A-4. After the war, the U.S. used German scientists and their captured rockets in programs for both military and civilian research. The first scientific exploration from space was the cosmic radiation experiment launched by the U.S. on a V - 2 rocket on 10 May 1946. The first images of Earth taken from space followed the same year while the first animal experiment saw fruit flies lifted into space in 1947, both also on modified V - 2s launched by Americans. Starting in 1947, the Soviets, also with the help of German teams, launched sub-orbital V - 2 rockets and their own variant, the R - 1, including radiation and animal experiments on some flights. These suborbital experiments only allowed a very short time in space which limited their usefulness.
The first successful orbital launch was of the Soviet uncrewed Sputnik 1 ("Satellite 1 '') mission on 4 October 1957. The satellite weighed about 83 kg (183 lb), and is believed to have orbited Earth at a height of about 250 km (160 mi). It had two radio transmitters (20 and 40 MHz), which emitted "beeps '' that could be heard by radios around the globe. Analysis of the radio signals was used to gather information about the electron density of the ionosphere, while temperature and pressure data was encoded in the duration of radio beeps. The results indicated that the satellite was not punctured by a meteoroid. Sputnik 1 was launched by an R - 7 rocket. It burned up upon re-entry on 3 January 1958.
The second one was Sputnik 2. Launched by the USSR on November 3, 1957, it carried the dog Laika, who became the first animal in orbit.
This success led to an escalation of the American space program, which unsuccessfully attempted to launch a Vanguard satellite into orbit two months later. On 31 January 1958, the U.S. successfully orbited Explorer 1 on a Juno rocket.
The first successful human spaceflight was Vostok 1 ("East 1 ''), carrying 27 - year - old Russian cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin on 12 April 1961. The spacecraft completed one orbit around the globe, lasting about 1 hour and 48 minutes. Gagarin 's flight resonated around the world; it was a demonstration of the advanced Soviet space program and it opened an entirely new era in space exploration: human spaceflight.
The U.S. first launched a person into space within a month of Vostok 1 with Alan Shepard 's suborbital flight on Freedom 7. Orbital flight was achieved by the United States when John Glenn 's Friendship 7 orbited Earth on 20 February 1962.
Valentina Tereshkova, the first woman in space, orbited Earth 48 times aboard Vostok 6 on 16 June 1963.
China first launched a person into space 42 years after the launch of Vostok 1, on 15 October 2003, with the flight of Yang Liwei aboard the Shenzhou 5 (Divine Vessel 5) spacecraft.
The first artificial object to reach another celestial body was Luna 2 in 1959. The first automatic landing on another celestial body was performed by Luna 9 in 1966. Luna 10 became the first artificial satellite of the Moon.
The first crewed landing on another celestial body was performed by Apollo 11 on 20 July 1969.
The first successful interplanetary flyby was the 1962 Mariner 2 flyby of Venus (closest approach 34,773 kilometers). The other planets were first flown by in 1965 for Mars by Mariner 4, 1973 for Jupiter by Pioneer 10, 1974 for Mercury by Mariner 10, 1979 for Saturn by Pioneer 11, 1986 for Uranus by Voyager 2, 1989 for Neptune by Voyager 2. In 2015, the dwarf planets Ceres and Pluto were orbited by Dawn and passed by New Horizons, respectively.
The first interplanetary surface mission to return at least limited surface data from another planet was the 1970 landing of Venera 7 on Venus which returned data to Earth for 23 minutes. In 1975 the Venera 9 was the first to return images from the surface of another planet. In 1971 the Mars 3 mission achieved the first soft landing on Mars returning data for almost 20 seconds. Later much longer duration surface missions were achieved, including over six years of Mars surface operation by Viking 1 from 1975 to 1982 and over two hours of transmission from the surface of Venus by Venera 13 in 1982, the longest ever Soviet planetary surface mission.
The dream of stepping into the outer reaches of Earth 's atmosphere was driven by the fiction of Peter Francis Geraci and H.G. Wells, and rocket technology was developed to try to realize this vision. The German V - 2 was the first rocket to travel into space, overcoming the problems of thrust and material failure. During the final days of World War II this technology was obtained by both the Americans and Soviets as were its designers. The initial driving force for further development of the technology was a weapons race for intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs) to be used as long - range carriers for fast nuclear weapon delivery, but in 1961 when the Soviet Union launched the first man into space, the United States declared itself to be in a "Space Race '' with the Soviets.
Konstantin Tsiolkovsky, Robert Goddard, Hermann Oberth, and Reinhold Tiling laid the groundwork of rocketry in the early years of the 20th century.
Wernher von Braun was the lead rocket engineer for Nazi Germany 's World War II V - 2 rocket project. In the last days of the war he led a caravan of workers in the German rocket program to the American lines, where they surrendered and were brought to the United States to work on their rocket development ("Operation Paperclip ''). He acquired American citizenship and led the team that developed and launched Explorer 1, the first American satellite. Von Braun later led the team at NASA 's Marshall Space Flight Center which developed the Saturn V moon rocket.
Initially the race for space was often led by Sergei Korolyov, whose legacy includes both the R7 and Soyuz -- which remain in service to this day. Korolev was the mastermind behind the first satellite, first man (and first woman) in orbit and first spacewalk. Until his death his identity was a closely guarded state secret; not even his mother knew that he was responsible for creating the Soviet space program.
Kerim Kerimov was one of the founders of the Soviet space program and was one of the lead architects behind the first human spaceflight (Vostok 1) alongside Sergey Korolyov. After Korolyov 's death in 1966, Kerimov became the lead scientist of the Soviet space program and was responsible for the launch of the first space stations from 1971 to 1991, including the Salyut and Mir series, and their precursors in 1967, the Cosmos 186 and Cosmos 188.
Although the Sun will probably not be physically explored at all, the study of the Sun has nevertheless been a major focus of space exploration. Being above the atmosphere in particular and Earth 's magnetic field gives access to the solar wind and infrared and ultraviolet radiations that can not reach Earth 's surface. The Sun generates most space weather, which can affect power generation and transmission systems on Earth and interfere with, and even damage, satellites and space probes. Numerous spacecraft dedicated to observing the Sun, beginning with the Apollo Telescope Mount, have been launched and still others have had solar observation as a secondary objective. Parker Solar Probe, planned for a 2018 launch, will approach the Sun to within 1 / 8th the orbit of Mercury.
Mercury remains the least explored of the Terrestrial planets. As of May 2013, the Mariner 10 and MESSENGER missions have been the only missions that have made close observations of Mercury. MESSENGER entered orbit around Mercury in March 2011, to further investigate the observations made by Mariner 10 in 1975 (Munsell, 2006b).
A third mission to Mercury, scheduled to arrive in 2025, BepiColombo is to include two probes. BepiColombo is a joint mission between Japan and the European Space Agency. MESSENGER and BepiColombo are intended to gather complementary data to help scientists understand many of the mysteries discovered by Mariner 10 's flybys.
Flights to other planets within the Solar System are accomplished at a cost in energy, which is described by the net change in velocity of the spacecraft, or delta - v. Due to the relatively high delta - v to reach Mercury and its proximity to the Sun, it is difficult to explore and orbits around it are rather unstable.
Venus was the first target of interplanetary flyby and lander missions and, despite one of the most hostile surface environments in the Solar System, has had more landers sent to it (nearly all from the Soviet Union) than any other planet in the Solar System. The first successful Venus flyby was the American Mariner 2 spacecraft, which flew past Venus in 1962. Mariner 2 has been followed by several other flybys by multiple space agencies often as part of missions using a Venus flyby to provide a gravitational assist en route to other celestial bodies. In 1967 Venera 4 became the first probe to enter and directly examine the atmosphere of Venus. In 1970, Venera 7 became the first successful lander to reach the surface of Venus and by 1985 it had been followed by eight additional successful Soviet Venus landers which provided images and other direct surface data. Starting in 1975 with the Soviet orbiter Venera 9 some ten successful orbiter missions have been sent to Venus, including later missions which were able to map the surface of Venus using radar to pierce the obscuring atmosphere.
Space exploration has been used as a tool to understand Earth as a celestial object in its own right. Orbital missions can provide data for Earth that can be difficult or impossible to obtain from a purely ground - based point of reference.
For example, the existence of the Van Allen radiation belts was unknown until their discovery by the United States ' first artificial satellite, Explorer 1. These belts contain radiation trapped by Earth 's magnetic fields, which currently renders construction of habitable space stations above 1000 km impractical. Following this early unexpected discovery, a large number of Earth observation satellites have been deployed specifically to explore Earth from a space based perspective. These satellites have significantly contributed to the understanding of a variety of Earth - based phenomena. For instance, the hole in the ozone layer was found by an artificial satellite that was exploring Earth 's atmosphere, and satellites have allowed for the discovery of archeological sites or geological formations that were difficult or impossible to otherwise identify.
The Moon was the first celestial body to be the object of space exploration. It holds the distinctions of being the first remote celestial object to be flown by, orbited, and landed upon by spacecraft, and the only remote celestial object ever to be visited by humans.
In 1959 the Soviets obtained the first images of the far side of the Moon, never previously visible to humans. The U.S. exploration of the Moon began with the Ranger 4 impactor in 1962. Starting in 1966 the Soviets successfully deployed a number of landers to the Moon which were able to obtain data directly from the Moon 's surface; just four months later, Surveyor 1 marked the debut of a successful series of U.S. landers. The Soviet uncrewed missions culminated in the Lunokhod program in the early 1970s, which included the first uncrewed rovers and also successfully brought lunar soil samples to Earth for study. This marked the first (and to date the only) automated return of extraterrestrial soil samples to Earth. Uncrewed exploration of the Moon continues with various nations periodically deploying lunar orbiters, and in 2008 the Indian Moon Impact Probe.
Crewed exploration of the Moon began in 1968 with the Apollo 8 mission that successfully orbited the Moon, the first time any extraterrestrial object was orbited by humans. In 1969, the Apollo 11 mission marked the first time humans set foot upon another world. Crewed exploration of the Moon did not continue for long, however. The Apollo 17 mission in 1972 marked the most recent human visit there, and the next, Exploration Mission 2, is due to orbit the Moon in 2021. Robotic missions are still pursued vigorously.
The exploration of Mars has been an important part of the space exploration programs of the Soviet Union (later Russia), the United States, Europe, Japan and India. Dozens of robotic spacecraft, including orbiters, landers, and rovers, have been launched toward Mars since the 1960s. These missions were aimed at gathering data about current conditions and answering questions about the history of Mars. The questions raised by the scientific community are expected to not only give a better appreciation of the red planet but also yield further insight into the past, and possible future, of Earth.
The exploration of Mars has come at a considerable financial cost with roughly two - thirds of all spacecraft destined for Mars failing before completing their missions, with some failing before they even began. Such a high failure rate can be attributed to the complexity and large number of variables involved in an interplanetary journey, and has led researchers to jokingly speak of The Great Galactic Ghoul which subsists on a diet of Mars probes. This phenomenon is also informally known as the "Mars Curse ''. In contrast to overall high failure rates in the exploration of Mars, India has become the first country to achieve success of its maiden attempt. India 's Mars Orbiter Mission (MOM) is one of the least expensive interplanetary missions ever undertaken with an approximate total cost of ₹ 450 Crore (US $73 million). The first mission to Mars by any Arab country has been taken up by the United Arab Emirates. Called the Emirates Mars Mission, it is scheduled for launch in 2020. The uncrewed exploratory probe has been named "Hope Probe '' and will be sent to Mars to study its atmosphere in detail.
The Russian space mission Fobos - Grunt, which launched on 9 November 2011 experienced a failure leaving it stranded in low Earth orbit. It was to begin exploration of the Phobos and Martian circumterrestrial orbit, and study whether the moons of Mars, or at least Phobos, could be a "trans - shipment point '' for spaceships traveling to Mars.
The exploration of Jupiter has consisted solely of a number of automated NASA spacecraft visiting the planet since 1973. A large majority of the missions have been "flybys '', in which detailed observations are taken without the probe landing or entering orbit; such as in Pioneer and Voyager programs. The Galileo and Juno spacecraft are the only spacecraft to have entered the planet 's orbit. As Jupiter is believed to have only a relatively small rocky core and no real solid surface, a landing mission is nearly impossible.
Reaching Jupiter from Earth requires a delta - v of 9.2 km / s, which is comparable to the 9.7 km / s delta - v needed to reach low Earth orbit. Fortunately, gravity assists through planetary flybys can be used to reduce the energy required at launch to reach Jupiter, albeit at the cost of a significantly longer flight duration.
Jupiter has 69 known moons, many of which have relatively little known information about them.
Saturn has been explored only through uncrewed spacecraft launched by NASA, including one mission (Cassini -- Huygens) planned and executed in cooperation with other space agencies. These missions consist of flybys in 1979 by Pioneer 11, in 1980 by Voyager 1, in 1982 by Voyager 2 and an orbital mission by the Cassini spacecraft, which lasted from 2004 until 2017.
Saturn has at least 62 known moons, although the exact number is debatable since Saturn 's rings are made up of vast numbers of independently orbiting objects of varying sizes. The largest of the moons is Titan, which holds the distinction of being the only moon in the Solar System with an atmosphere denser and thicker than that of Earth. Titan holds the distinction of being the only object in the Outer Solar System that has been explored with a lander, the Huygens probe deployed by the Cassini spacecraft.
The exploration of Uranus has been entirely through the Voyager 2 spacecraft, with no other visits currently planned. Given its axial tilt of 97.77 °, with its polar regions exposed to sunlight or darkness for long periods, scientists were not sure what to expect at Uranus. The closest approach to Uranus occurred on 24 January 1986. Voyager 2 studied the planet 's unique atmosphere and magnetosphere. Voyager 2 also examined its ring system and the moons of Uranus including all five of the previously known moons, while discovering an additional ten previously unknown moons.
Images of Uranus proved to have a very uniform appearance, with no evidence of the dramatic storms or atmospheric banding evident on Jupiter and Saturn. Great effort was required to even identify a few clouds in the images of the planet. The magnetosphere of Uranus, however, proved to be completely unique and proved to be profoundly affected by the planet 's unusual axial tilt. In contrast to the bland appearance of Uranus itself, striking images were obtained of the Moons of Uranus, including evidence that Miranda had been unusually geologically active.
The exploration of Neptune began with the 25 August 1989 Voyager 2 flyby, the sole visit to the system as of 2014. The possibility of a Neptune Orbiter has been discussed, but no other missions have been given serious thought.
Although the extremely uniform appearance of Uranus during Voyager 2 's visit in 1986 had led to expectations that Neptune would also have few visible atmospheric phenomena, the spacecraft found that Neptune had obvious banding, visible clouds, auroras, and even a conspicuous anticyclone storm system rivaled in size only by Jupiter 's small Spot. Neptune also proved to have the fastest winds of any planet in the Solar System, measured as high as 2,100 km / h. Voyager 2 also examined Neptune 's ring and moon system. It discovered 900 complete rings and additional partial ring "arcs '' around Neptune. In addition to examining Neptune 's three previously known moons, Voyager 2 also discovered five previously unknown moons, one of which, Proteus, proved to be the last largest moon in the system. Data from Voyager 2 supported the view that Neptune 's largest moon, Triton, is a captured Kuiper belt object.
The dwarf planet Pluto presents significant challenges for spacecraft because of its great distance from Earth (requiring high velocity for reasonable trip times) and small mass (making capture into orbit very difficult at present). Voyager 1 could have visited Pluto, but controllers opted instead for a close flyby of Saturn 's moon Titan, resulting in a trajectory incompatible with a Pluto flyby. Voyager 2 never had a plausible trajectory for reaching Pluto.
Pluto continues to be of great interest, despite its reclassification as the lead and nearest member of a new and growing class of distant icy bodies of intermediate size (and also the first member of the important subclass, defined by orbit and known as "plutinos ''). After an intense political battle, a mission to Pluto dubbed New Horizons was granted funding from the United States government in 2003. New Horizons was launched successfully on 19 January 2006. In early 2007 the craft made use of a gravity assist from Jupiter. Its closest approach to Pluto was on 14 July 2015; scientific observations of Pluto began five months prior to closest approach and continued for 16 days after the encounter.
Until the advent of space travel, objects in the asteroid belt were merely pinpricks of light in even the largest telescopes, their shapes and terrain remaining a mystery. Several asteroids have now been visited by probes, the first of which was Galileo, which flew past two: 951 Gaspra in 1991, followed by 243 Ida in 1993. Both of these lay near enough to Galileo 's planned trajectory to Jupiter that they could be visited at acceptable cost. The first landing on an asteroid was performed by the NEAR Shoemaker probe in 2000, following an orbital survey of the object. The dwarf planet Ceres and the asteroid 4 Vesta, two of the three largest asteroids, were visited by NASA 's Dawn spacecraft, launched in 2007.
Although many comets have been studied from Earth sometimes with centuries - worth of observations, only a few comets have been closely visited. In 1985, the International Cometary Explorer conducted the first comet fly - by (21P / Giacobini - Zinner) before joining the Halley Armada studying the famous comet. The Deep Impact probe smashed into 9P / Tempel to learn more about its structure and composition and the Stardust mission returned samples of another comet 's tail. The Philae lander successfully landed on Comet Churyumov -- Gerasimenko in 2014 as part of the broader Rosetta mission.
Hayabusa was an unmanned spacecraft developed by the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency to return a sample of material from the small near - Earth asteroid 25143 Itokawa to Earth for further analysis. Hayabusa was launched on 9 May 2003 and rendezvoused with Itokawa in mid-September 2005. After arriving at Itokawa, Hayabusa studied the asteroid 's shape, spin, topography, color, composition, density, and history. In November 2005, it landed on the asteroid to collect samples. The spacecraft returned to Earth on 13 June 2010.
Deep space exploration is the branch of astronomy, astronautics and space technology that is involved with the exploration of distant regions of outer space. Physical exploration of space is conducted both by human spaceflights (deep - space astronautics) and by robotic spacecraft.
Some of the best candidates for future deep space engine technologies include anti-matter, nuclear power and beamed propulsion. The latter, beamed propulsion, appears to be the best candidate for deep space exploration presently available, since it uses known physics and known technology that is being developed for other purposes.
In the 2000s, several plans for space exploration were announced; both government entities and the private sector have space exploration objectives. China has announced plans to have a 60 - ton multi-module space station in orbit by 2020.
The NASA Authorization Act of 2010 provided a re-prioritized list of objectives for the American space program, as well as funding for the first priorities. NASA proposes to move forward with the development of the Space Launch System (SLS), which will be designed to carry the Orion Multi-Purpose Crew Vehicle, as well as important cargo, equipment, and science experiments to Earth 's orbit and destinations beyond. Additionally, the SLS will serve as a back up for commercial and international partner transportation services to the International Space Station. The SLS rocket will incorporate technological investments from the Space Shuttle program and the Constellation program in order to take advantage of proven hardware and reduce development and operations costs. The first developmental flight is targeted for the end of 2017.
The idea of using high level automated systems for space missions has become a desirable goal to space agencies all around the world. Such systems are believed to yield benefits such as lower cost, less human oversight, and ability to explore deeper in space which is usually restricted by long communications with human controllers.
Autonomy is defined by three requirements:
Autonomous technologies would be able to perform beyond predetermined actions. They would analyze all possible states and events happening around them and come up with a safe response. In addition, such technologies can reduce launch cost and ground involvement. Performance would increase as well. Autonomy would be able to quickly respond upon encountering an unforeseen event, especially in deep space exploration where communication back to Earth would take too long.
NASA began its autonomous science experiment (ASE) on Earth Observing 1 (EO - 1) which is NASA 's first satellite in the new millennium program Earth - observing series launched on 21 November 2000. The autonomy of ASE is capable of on - board science analysis, replanning, robust execution, and later the addition of model - based diagnostic. Images obtained by the EO - 1 are analyzed on - board and downlinked when a change or an interesting event occur. The ASE software has successfully provided over 10,000 science images.
An article in science magazine Nature suggested the use of asteroids as a gateway for space exploration, with the ultimate destination being Mars. In order to make such an approach viable, three requirements need to be fulfilled: first, "a thorough asteroid survey to find thousands of nearby bodies suitable for astronauts to visit ''; second, "extending flight duration and distance capability to ever - increasing ranges out to Mars ''; and finally, "developing better robotic vehicles and tools to enable astronauts to explore an asteroid regardless of its size, shape or spin. '' Furthermore, using asteroids would provide astronauts with protection from galactic cosmic rays, with mission crews being able to land on them in times of greater risk to radiation exposure.
The research that is conducted by national space exploration agencies, such as NASA and Roscosmos, is one of the reasons supporters cite to justify government expenses. Economic analyses of the NASA programs often showed ongoing economic benefits (such as NASA spin - offs), generating many times the revenue of the cost of the program. It is also argued that space exploration would lead to the extraction of resources on other planets and especially asteroids, which contain billions of dollars worth of minerals and metals. Such expeditions could generate a lot of revenue. As well, it has been argued that space exploration programs help inspire youth to study in science and engineering.
Another claim is that space exploration is a necessity to mankind and that staying on Earth will lead to extinction. Some of the reasons are lack of natural resources, comets, nuclear war, and worldwide epidemic. Stephen Hawking, renowned British theoretical physicist, said that "I do n't think the human race will survive the next thousand years, unless we spread into space. There are too many accidents that can befall life on a single planet. But I 'm an optimist. We will reach out to the stars. ''
NASA has produced a series of public service announcement videos supporting the concept of space exploration.
Overall, the public remains largely supportive of both crewed and uncrewed space exploration. According to an Associated Press Poll conducted in July 2003, 71 % of U.S. citizens agreed with the statement that the space program is "a good investment '', compared to 21 % who did not.
Arthur C. Clarke (1950) presented a summary of motivations for the human exploration of space in his non-fiction semi-technical monograph Interplanetary Flight. He argued that humanity 's choice is essentially between expansion off Earth into space, versus cultural (and eventually biological) stagnation and death.
Spaceflight is the use of space technology to achieve the flight of spacecraft into and through outer space.
Spaceflight is used in space exploration, and also in commercial activities like space tourism and satellite telecommunications. Additional non-commercial uses of spaceflight include space observatories, reconnaissance satellites and other Earth observation satellites.
A spaceflight typically begins with a rocket launch, which provides the initial thrust to overcome the force of gravity and propels the spacecraft from the surface of Earth. Once in space, the motion of a spacecraft -- both when unpropelled and when under propulsion -- is covered by the area of study called astrodynamics. Some spacecraft remain in space indefinitely, some disintegrate during atmospheric reentry, and others reach a planetary or lunar surface for landing or impact.
Satellites are used for a large number of purposes. Common types include military (spy) and civilian Earth observation satellites, communication satellites, navigation satellites, weather satellites, and research satellites. Space stations and human spacecraft in orbit are also satellites.
Current examples of the commercial use of space include satellite navigation systems, satellite television and satellite radio. Space tourism is the recent phenomenon of space travel by individuals for the purpose of personal pleasure.
Private spaceflight companies such as SpaceX and Blue Origin, and commercial space stations such as the Axiom Space and the Bigelow Commercial Space Station have dramatically changed the landscape of space exploration, and will continue to do so in the near future.
Astrobiology is the interdisciplinary study of life in the universe, combining aspects of astronomy, biology and geology. It is focused primarily on the study of the origin, distribution and evolution of life. It is also known as exobiology (from Greek: έξω, exo, "outside ''). The term "Xenobiology '' has been used as well, but this is technically incorrect because its terminology means "biology of the foreigners ''. Astrobiologists must also consider the possibility of life that is chemically entirely distinct from any life found on Earth. In the Solar System some of the prime locations for current or past astrobiology are on Enceladus, Europa, Mars, and Titan.
Space colonization, also called space settlement and space humanization, would be the permanent autonomous (self - sufficient) human habitation of locations outside Earth, especially of natural satellites or planets such as the Moon or Mars, using significant amounts of in - situ resource utilization.
To date, the longest human occupation of space is the International Space Station which has been in continuous use for 17 years, 229 days. Valeri Polyakov 's record single spaceflight of almost 438 days aboard the Mir space station has not been surpassed. Long - term stays in space reveal issues with bone and muscle loss in low gravity, immune system suppression, and radiation exposure.
Many past and current concepts for the continued exploration and colonization of space focus on a return to the Moon as a "stepping stone '' to the other planets, especially Mars. At the end of 2006 NASA announced they were planning to build a permanent Moon base with continual presence by 2024.
Beyond the technical factors that could make living in space more widespread, it has been suggested that the lack of private property, the inability or difficulty in establishing property rights in space, has been an impediment to the development of space for human habitation. Since the advent of space technology in the latter half of the twentieth century, the ownership of property in space has been murky, with strong arguments both for and against. In particular, the making of national territorial claims in outer space and on celestial bodies has been specifically proscribed by the Outer Space Treaty, which had been, as of 2012, ratified by all spacefaring nations.
Solar System → Local Interstellar Cloud → Local Bubble → Gould Belt → Orion Arm → Milky Way → Milky Way subgroup → Local Group → Virgo Supercluster → Laniakea Supercluster → Observable universe → Universe Each arrow (→) may be read as "within '' or "part of ''.
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who is the creepy girl on americas got talent | The Sacred Riana - wikipedia
Marie Antoinette Riana Graharani, commonly known as The Sacred Riana (born July 13, 1992), is an Indonesian magician and illusionist. She is best known as a bizarre illusionist, who does occasionally break her creepy ghostlike character offstage, but normally does not.
Her name as a magician / illusionist began to be known when she joined the magician talent search show, The Next Mentalist on Trans7, where Riana finished as the runner - up. In 2017, Riana joined the second season of Asia 's Got Talent where she was declared the winner after beating the Filipino hip - hop dance group, DM - X Comvaleñoz, based on the audience votes in the grand final. Videos of her magic performances onstage have garnered over 70 million views on Facebook and YouTube. In 2018, she appeared on season 13 of America 's Got Talent.
Riana is the elder of two siblings. Since childhood, Riana liked everything about magic. She greatly idolized David Copperfield. Assisted by the guidance of her father, who was a magician as well, Riana grew up to become a magician, especially in telekinesis skills.
Riana 's gimmick is a reference to Sadako in the Japanese horror classic The Ring, with a similarity to her long hair falling in front of her face, while her doll calls to mind Annabelle from The Conjuring film.
Riana and her manager chose "The Sacred '' name because they think that doing magic is a sacred thing for some people.
Riana has a unique characteristic in every appearance, such as:
Riana has a habit of twitching her head and her left hand while she is walking or standing.
Riana rarely speaks. Not many words come out of her mouth after doing the magic act, even when she was announced as the winner of Asia 's Got Talent. Riana still did not talk after the host handed the microphone to her. When asked if it was difficult to stay quiet for a long time, her manager replied, "She is a quiet girl by nature, so it 's easy. She is not the talkative type. ''
Riana only talks while performing her magic act onstage with a vibrating and unclear voice.
Riana always shows a flat face expression while performing her magic act. This was even maintained after being announced as the winner of Asia 's Got Talent.
Riana always stands with one of her legs bent.
Riana never shows her full face. She always appears with long and loose hair that covers most of her face.
Each show, Riana has a characteristic in clothing. She always wears a long - sleeved dress and white tights.
Riana has appeared on several television shows or joined several talent search shows. She was the second winner of Asia 's Got Talent and the second Indonesian to enter America 's Got Talent.
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when it was first established the city of constantinople | Constantinople - wikipedia
Greek: Κωνσταντινούπολις
6 km (2.3 sq mi) enclosed within Constantinian Walls
Constantinople (Greek: Κωνσταντινούπολις Kōnstantinoúpolis; Latin: Cōnstantīnopolis) was the capital city of the Roman / Byzantine Empire (330 -- 1204 and 1261 -- 1453), and also of the brief Latin (1204 -- 1261), and the later Ottoman (1453 -- 1923) empires. It was reinaugurated in 324 from ancient Byzantium as the new capital of the Roman Empire by Emperor Constantine the Great, after whom it was named, and dedicated on 11 May 330.
From the mid-5th century to the early 13th century, Constantinople was the largest and wealthiest city in Europe. It was instrumental in the advancement of Christianity during Roman and Byzantine times as the home of the Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople and as the guardian of Christendom 's holiest relics such as the Crown of Thorns and the True Cross. After the final loss of its provinces in the early 15th century, the Byzantine Empire was reduced to just Constantinople and its environs, along with Morea in Greece, and the city eventually fell to the Ottomans after a 53 - day siege on 29 May 1453.
Constantinople was famed for its massive and complex defences. Although besieged on numerous occasions by various peoples, the defences of Constantinople proved invulnerable for nearly nine hundred years before the city was taken in 1204 by the Crusader armies of the Fourth Crusade, and after it was liberated in 1261 by the Byzantine Emperor Michael VIII Palaiologos, a second and final time in 1453 when it was conquered by the Ottoman Sultan Mehmed II. The first wall of the city was erected by Constantine I, and surrounded the city on both land and sea fronts. Later, in the 5th century, the Praetorian Prefect Anthemius under the child emperor Theodosius II undertook the construction of the Theodosian Walls, which consisted of a double wall lying about 2 kilometres (1.2 mi) to the west of the first wall and a moat with palisades in front. This formidable complex of defences was one of the most sophisticated of Antiquity. The city was built intentionally to rival Rome, and it was claimed that several elevations within its walls matched the ' seven hills ' of Rome. Because it was located between the Golden Horn and the Sea of Marmara the land area that needed defensive walls was reduced, and this helped it to present an impregnable fortress enclosing magnificent palaces, domes, and towers, the result of the prosperity it achieved from being the gateway between two continents (Europe and Asia) and two seas (the Mediterranean and the Black Sea).
The city was also famed for its architectural masterpieces, such as the Greek Orthodox cathedral of Hagia Sophia, which served as the seat of the Ecumenical Patriarchate, the sacred Imperial Palace where the Emperors lived, the Galata Tower, the Hippodrome, the Golden Gate of the Land Walls, and the opulent aristocratic palaces lining the arcaded avenues and squares. The University of Constantinople was founded in the fifth century and contained numerous artistic and literary treasures before it was sacked in 1204 and 1453, including its vast Imperial Library which contained the remnants of the Library of Alexandria and had over 100,000 volumes of ancient texts.
Constantinople never truly recovered from the devastation of the Fourth Crusade and the decades of misrule by the Latins. Although the city partially recovered in the early years after the restoration under the Palaiologos dynasty, the advent of the Ottomans and the subsequent loss of the Imperial territories until it became an enclave inside the fledgling Ottoman Empire rendered the city severely depopulated when it fell to the Ottoman Turks, whereafter it replaced Edirne (Adrianople) as the new capital of the Ottoman Empire.
According to Pliny the Elder in his Natural History, the first known name of a settlement on the site of Constantinople was Lygos, a settlement likely of Thracian origin founded between the 13th and 11th centuries BC. The site, according to the founding myth of the city, was abandoned by the time Greek settlers from the city - state of Megara founded Byzantium (Ancient Greek: Βυζάντιον, Byzántion) in around 657 BC, across from the town of Chalcedon on the Asiatic side of the Bosphorus.
The origins of the name of Byzantion, more commonly known by the later Latin Byzantium, are not entirely clear, though some suggest it is of Thraco - Illyrian origin. The founding myth of the city has it told that the settlement was named after the leader of the Megarian colonists, Byzas. The later Byzantines of Constantinople themselves would maintain that the city was named in honour of two men, Byzas and Antes, though this was more likely just a play on the word Byzantion.
The city was briefly renamed Augusta Antonina in the early 3rd century AD by the Emperor Septimius Severus (193 -- 211), having razed the city to the ground in 196 for supporting a rival contender in the civil war and rebuilt, in honour of his son Antoninus, the later Emperor Caracalla. The name appears to have been quickly forgotten and abandoned, and the city reverted to Byzantium / Byzantion after either the assassination of Caracalla in 217 or, at the latest, the fall of the Severan dynasty in 235.
Byzantium took on the name of Kōnstantinoupolis ("city of Constantine '', Constantinople) after its refoundation under Roman emperor Constantine I, who transferred the capital of the Roman Empire to Byzantium in 330 and designated his new capital officially as Nova Roma (Νέα Ῥώμη) ' New Rome '. During this time, the city was also called ' Second Rome ', ' Eastern Rome ', and Roma Constantinopolitana. As the city became the sole remaining capital of the Roman Empire after the fall of the West, and its wealth, population, and influence grew, the city also came to have a multitude of nicknames.
As the largest and wealthiest city in Europe during the 4th -- 13th centuries and a centre of culture and education of the Mediterranean basin, Constantinople came to be known by prestigious titles such as Basileuousa (Queen of Cities) and Megalopolis (the Great City) and was, in colloquial speech, commonly referred to as just Polis (ἡ Πόλις) ' the City ' by Constantinopolitans and provincial Byzantines alike.
In the language of other peoples, Constantinople was referred to just as reverently. The medieval Vikings, who had contacts with the empire through their expansion in eastern Europe (Varangians) used the Old Norse name Miklagarðr (from mikill ' big ' and garðr ' city '), and later Miklagard and Miklagarth. In Arabic, the city was sometimes called Rūmiyyat al - Kubra (Great City of the Romans) and in Persian as Takht - e Rum (Throne of the Romans).
In East and South Slavic languages, including in medieval Russia, Constantinople has been referred to as Tsargrad (Царьград) or Carigrad, ' City of the Caesar (Emperor) ', from the Slavonic words tsar (' Caesar ' or ' King ') and grad (' city '). This was presumably a calque on a Greek phrase such as Βασιλέως Πόλις (Vasileos Polis), ' the city of the emperor (king) '.
The modern Turkish name for the city, İstanbul, derives from the Greek phrase eis tin polin (εἰς τὴν πόλιν), meaning "(in) to the city ''. This name was used in Turkish alongside Kostantiniyye, the more formal adaptation of the original Constantinople, during the period of Ottoman rule, while western languages mostly continued to refer to the city as Constantinople until the early 20th century. In 1928, the Turkish alphabet was changed from Arabic script to Latin script. After that, as part of the 1920s Turkification movement, Turkey started to urge other countries to use Turkish names for Turkish cities, instead of other transliterations to Latin script that had been used in the Ottoman times. In time the city came to be known as Istanbul and its variations in most world languages.
The name "Constantinople '' is still used by members of the Eastern Orthodox Church in the title of one of their most important leaders, the Orthodox patriarch based in the city, referred to as "His Most Divine All - Holiness the Archbishop of Constantinople New Rome and Ecumenical Patriarch. '' In Greece today, the city is still called Konstantinoúpoli (s) (Κωνσταντινούπολις / Κωνσταντινούπολη) or simply just "the City '' (Η Πόλη).
Constantinople was founded by the Roman Emperor Constantine I (272 -- 337) in 324 on the site of an already - existing city, Byzantium, which was settled in the early days of Greek colonial expansion, in around 657 BC, by colonists of the city - state of Megara. This is the first major settlement that would develop on the site of later Constantinople, but the first known settlements was that of Lygos, referred to in Pliny 's Natural Histories. Apart from this, little is known about this initial settlement. The site, according to the founding myth of the city, was abandoned by the time Greek settlers from the city - state of Megara founded Byzantium (((lang grc Βυζάντιον Byzántion) in around 657 BC, across from the town of Chalcedon on the Asiatic side of the Bosphorus.
The city maintained independence as a city - state until it was annexed by Darius I in 512 BC into the Persian Empire, who saw the site as the optimal location to construct a pontoon bridge crossing into Europe as Byzantium was situated at the narrowest point in the Bosphorus strait. Persian rule lasted until 478 BC when as part of the Greek counterattack to the Second Persian Invasion of Greece, a Greek army led by the Spartan general Pausanias captured the city which remained an independent, yet subordinate, city under the Athenians, and later to the Spartans after 411 BC. A farsighted treaty with the emergent power of Rome in c. 150 BC which stipulated tribute in exchange for independent status allowed it to enter Roman rule unscathed. This treaty would pay dividends retrospectively as Byzantium would maintain this independent status, and prosper under peace and stability in the Pax Romana, for nearly three centuries until the late 2nd century AD.
Byzantium was never a major influential city - state like that of Athens, Corinth or Sparta, but the city enjoyed relative peace and steady growth as a prosperous trading city lent by its remarkable position. The site lay astride the land route from Europe to Asia and the seaway from the Black Sea to the Mediterranean, and had in the Golden Horn an excellent and spacious harbour. Already then, in Greek and early Roman times, Byzantium was famous for its strategic geographic position that made it difficult to besiege and capture, and its position at the crossroads of the Asiatic - European trade route over land and as the gateway between the Mediterranean and Black Seas made it too valuable a settlement to abandon, as Emperor Septimius Severus later realized when he razed the city to the ground for supporting Pescennius Niger 's claimancy. It was a move greatly criticized by the contemporary consul and historian Cassius Dio who said that Severus had destroyed "a strong Roman outpost and a base of operations against the barbarians from Pontus and Asia ''. He would later rebuild Byzantium towards the end of his reign, in which it would be briefly renamed Augusta Antonina, fortifying it with a new city wall in his name, the Severan Wall.
Constantine had altogether more colourful plans. Having restored the unity of the Empire, and, being in the course of major governmental reforms as well as of sponsoring the consolidation of the Christian church, he was well aware that Rome was an unsatisfactory capital. Rome was too far from the frontiers, and hence from the armies and the imperial courts, and it offered an undesirable playground for disaffected politicians. Yet it had been the capital of the state for over a thousand years, and it might have seemed unthinkable to suggest that the capital be moved to a different location. Nevertheless, Constantine identified the site of Byzantium as the right place: a place where an emperor could sit, readily defended, with easy access to the Danube or the Euphrates frontiers, his court supplied from the rich gardens and sophisticated workshops of Roman Asia, his treasuries filled by the wealthiest provinces of the Empire.
Constantinople was built over six years, and consecrated on 11 May 330. Constantine divided the expanded city, like Rome, into 14 regions, and ornamented it with public works worthy of an imperial metropolis. Yet, at first, Constantine 's new Rome did not have all the dignities of old Rome. It possessed a proconsul, rather than an urban prefect. It had no praetors, tribunes, or quaestors. Although it did have senators, they held the title clarus, not clarissimus, like those of Rome. It also lacked the panoply of other administrative offices regulating the food supply, police, statues, temples, sewers, aqueducts, or other public works. The new programme of building was carried out in great haste: columns, marbles, doors, and tiles were taken wholesale from the temples of the empire and moved to the new city. In similar fashion, many of the greatest works of Greek and Roman art were soon to be seen in its squares and streets. The emperor stimulated private building by promising householders gifts of land from the imperial estates in Asiana and Pontica and on 18 May 332 he announced that, as in Rome, free distributions of food would be made to the citizens. At the time, the amount is said to have been 80,000 rations a day, doled out from 117 distribution points around the city.
Constantine laid out a new square at the centre of old Byzantium, naming it the Augustaeum. The new senate - house (or Curia) was housed in a basilica on the east side. On the south side of the great square was erected the Great Palace of the Emperor with its imposing entrance, the Chalke, and its ceremonial suite known as the Palace of Daphne. Nearby was the vast Hippodrome for chariot - races, seating over 80,000 spectators, and the famed Baths of Zeuxippus. At the western entrance to the Augustaeum was the Milion, a vaulted monument from which distances were measured across the Eastern Roman Empire.
From the Augustaeum led a great street, the Mese (Greek: Μέση (Οδός) ' "Middle (Street) '' '), lined with colonnades. As it descended the First Hill of the city and climbed the Second Hill, it passed on the left the Praetorium or law - court. Then it passed through the oval Forum of Constantine where there was a second Senate - house and a high column with a statue of Constantine himself in the guise of Helios, crowned with a halo of seven rays and looking toward the rising sun. From there, the Mese passed on and through the Forum Tauri and then the Forum Bovis, and finally up the Seventh Hill (or Xerolophus) and through to the Golden Gate in the Constantinian Wall. After the construction of the Theodosian Walls in the early 5th century, it was extended to the new Golden Gate, reaching a total length of seven Roman miles.
The importance of Constantinople increased, but it was gradual. From the death of Constantine in 337 to the accession of Theodosius I, emperors had been resident only in the years 337 -- 338, 347 -- 351, 358 -- 361, 368 -- 369. Its status as a capital was recognized by the appointment of the first known Urban Prefect of the City Honoratus, who held office from 11 December 359 until 361. The urban prefects had concurrent jurisdiction over three provinces each in the adjacent dioceses of Thrace (in which the city was located), Pontus and Asia comparable to the 100 - mile extraordinary jurisdiction of the prefect of Rome. The emperor Valens, who hated the city and spent only one year there, nevertheless built the Palace of Hebdomon on the shore of the Propontis near the Golden Gate, probably for use when reviewing troops. All the emperors up to Zeno and Basiliscus were crowned and acclaimed at the Hebdomon. Theodosius I founded the Church of John the Baptist to house the skull of the saint (today preserved at the Topkapı Palace), put up a memorial pillar to himself in the Forum of Taurus, and turned the ruined temple of Aphrodite into a coach house for the Praetorian Prefect; Arcadius built a new forum named after himself on the Mese, near the walls of Constantine.
After the shock of the Battle of Adrianople in 378, in which the emperor Valens with the flower of the Roman armies was destroyed by the Visigoths within a few days ' march, the city looked to its defences, and in 413 -- 414 Theodosius II built the 18 - metre (60 - foot) - tall triple - wall fortifications, which were not to be breached until the coming of gunpowder. Theodosius also founded a University near the Forum of Taurus, on 27 February 425.
Uldin, a prince of the Huns, appeared on the Danube about this time and advanced into Thrace, but he was deserted by many of his followers, who joined with the Romans in driving their king back north of the river. Subsequent to this, new walls were built to defend the city and the fleet on the Danube improved.
After the barbarians overran the Western Roman Empire, Constantinople became the indisputable capital city of the Roman Empire. Emperors were no longer peripatetic between various court capitals and palaces. They remained in their palace in the Great City and sent generals to command their armies. The wealth of the eastern Mediterranean and western Asia flowed into Constantinople.
The emperor Justinian I (527 -- 565) was known for his successes in war, for his legal reforms and for his public works. It was from Constantinople that his expedition for the reconquest of the former Diocese of Africa set sail on or about 21 June 533. Before their departure, the ship of the commander Belisarius was anchored in front of the Imperial palace, and the Patriarch offered prayers for the success of the enterprise. After the victory, in 534, the Temple treasure of Jerusalem, looted by the Romans in AD 70 and taken to Carthage by the Vandals after their sack of Rome in 455, was brought to Constantinople and deposited for a time, perhaps in the Church of St. Polyeuctus, before being returned to Jerusalem in either the Church of the Resurrection or the New Church.
Chariot - racing had been important in Rome for centuries. In Constantinople, the hippodrome became over time increasingly a place of political significance. It was where (as a shadow of the popular elections of old Rome) the people by acclamation showed their approval of a new emperor, and also where they openly criticized the government, or clamoured for the removal of unpopular ministers. In the time of Justinian, public order in Constantinople became a critical political issue.
Throughout the late Roman and early Byzantine periods, Christianity was resolving fundamental questions of identity, and the dispute between the orthodox and the monophysites became the cause of serious disorder, expressed through allegiance to the horse - racing parties of the Blues and the Greens. The partisans of the Blues and the Greens were said to affect untrimmed facial hair, head hair shaved at the front and grown long at the back, and wide - sleeved tunics tight at the wrist; and to form gangs to engage in night - time muggings and street violence. At last these disorders took the form of a major rebellion of 532, known as the "Nika '' riots (from the battle - cry of "Conquer! '' of those involved).
Fires started by the Nika rioters consumed Constantine 's basilica of Hagia Sophia (Holy Wisdom), the city 's principal church, which lay to the north of the Augustaeum. Justinian commissioned Anthemius of Tralles and Isidore of Miletus to replace it with a new and incomparable Hagia Sophia. This was the great cathedral of the Orthodox Church, whose dome was said to be held aloft by God alone, and which was directly connected to the palace so that the imperial family could attend services without passing through the streets. The dedication took place on 26 December 537 in the presence of the emperor, who exclaimed, "O Solomon, I have outdone thee! '' Hagia Sophia was served by 600 people including 80 priests, and cost 20,000 pounds of gold to build.
Justinian also had Anthemius and Isidore demolish and replace the original Church of the Holy Apostles built by Constantine with a new church under the same dedication. This was designed in the form of an equal - armed cross with five domes, and ornamented with beautiful mosaics. This church was to remain the burial place of the Emperors from Constantine himself until the 11th century. When the city fell to the Turks in 1453, the church was demolished to make room for the tomb of Mehmet II the Conqueror. Justinian was also concerned with other aspects of the city 's built environment, legislating against the abuse of laws prohibiting building within 100 feet (30 m) of the sea front, in order to protect the view.
During Justinian I 's reign, the city 's population reached about 500,000 people. However, the social fabric of Constantinople was also damaged by the onset of the Plague of Justinian between 541 -- 542 AD. It killed perhaps 40 % of the city 's inhabitants.
In the early 7th century, the Avars and later the Bulgars overwhelmed much of the Balkans, threatening Constantinople with attack from the west. Simultaneously, the Persian Sassanids overwhelmed the Prefecture of the East and penetrated deep into Anatolia. Heraclius, son of the exarch of Africa, set sail for the city and assumed the purple. He found the military situation so dire that he is said to have contemplated withdrawing the imperial capital to Carthage, but relented after the people of Constantinople begged him to stay. The citizens lost their right to free grain in 618 when Heraclius realised that the city could no longer be supplied from Egypt as a result of the Persian wars: the population fell substantially as a result.
While the city withstood a siege by the Sassanids and Avars in 626, Heraclius campaigned deep into Persian territory and briefly restored the status quo in 628, when the Persians surrendered all their conquests. However, further sieges followed the Arab conquests, first from 674 to 678 and then in 717 to 718. The Theodosian Walls kept the city impregnable from the land, while a newly discovered incendiary substance known as Greek Fire allowed the Byzantine navy to destroy the Arab fleets and keep the city supplied. In the second siege, the second ruler of Bulgaria, Khan Tervel, rendered decisive help. He was called Saviour of Europe.
In the 730s Leo III carried out extensive repairs of the Theodosian walls, which had been damaged by frequent and violent attacks; this work was financed by a special tax on all the subjects of the Empire.
Theodora, widow of the Emperor Theophilus (died 842), acted as regent during the minority of her son Michael III, who was said to have been introduced to dissolute habits by her brother Bardas. When Michael assumed power in 856, he became known for excessive drunkenness, appeared in the hippodrome as a charioteer and burlesqued the religious processions of the clergy. He removed Theodora from the Great Palace to the Carian Palace and later to the monastery of Gastria, but, after the death of Bardas, she was released to live in the palace of St Mamas; she also had a rural residence at the Anthemian Palace, where Michael was assassinated in 867.
In 860, an attack was made on the city by a new principality set up a few years earlier at Kiev by Askold and Dir, two Varangian chiefs: Two hundred small vessels passed through the Bosporus and plundered the monasteries and other properties on the suburban Prince 's Islands. Oryphas, the admiral of the Byzantine fleet, alerted the emperor Michael, who promptly put the invaders to flight; but the suddenness and savagery of the onslaught made a deep impression on the citizens.
In 980, the emperor Basil II received an unusual gift from Prince Vladimir of Kiev: 6,000 Varangian warriors, which Basil formed into a new bodyguard known as the Varangian Guard. They were known for their ferocity, honour, and loyalty. It is said that, in 1038, they were dispersed in winter quarters in the Thracesian theme when one of their number attempted to violate a countrywoman, but in the struggle she seized his sword and killed him; instead of taking revenge, however, his comrades applauded her conduct, compensated her with all his possessions, and exposed his body without burial as if he had committed suicide. However, following the death of an Emperor, they became known also for plunder in the Imperial palaces. Later in the 11th Century the Varangian Guard became dominated by Anglo - Saxons who preferred this way of life to subjugation by the new Norman kings of England.
The Book of the Eparch, which dates to the 10th century, gives a detailed picture of the city 's commercial life and its organization at that time. The corporations in which the tradesmen of Constantinople were organised were supervised by the Eparch, who regulated such matters as production, prices, import, and export. Each guild had its own monopoly, and tradesmen might not belong to more than one. It is an impressive testament to the strength of tradition how little these arrangements had changed since the office, then known by the Latin version of its title, had been set up in 330 to mirror the urban prefecture of Rome.
In the 9th and 10th centuries, Constantinople had a population of between 500,000 and 800,000.
In the 8th and 9th centuries, the iconoclast movement caused serious political unrest throughout the Empire. The emperor Leo III issued a decree in 726 against images, and ordered the destruction of a statue of Christ over one of the doors of the Chalke, an act that was fiercely resisted by the citizens. Constantine V convoked a church council in 754, which condemned the worship of images, after which many treasures were broken, burned, or painted over with depictions of trees, birds or animals: One source refers to the church of the Holy Virgin at Blachernae as having been transformed into a "fruit store and aviary ''. Following the death of her son Leo IV in 780, the empress Irene restored the veneration of images through the agency of the Second Council of Nicaea in 787.
The iconoclast controversy returned in the early 9th century, only to be resolved once more in 843 during the regency of Empress Theodora, who restored the icons. These controversies contributed to the deterioration of relations between the Western and the Eastern Churches.
In the late 11th century catastrophe struck with the unexpected and calamitous defeat of the imperial armies at the Battle of Manzikert in Armenia in 1071. The Emperor Romanus Diogenes was captured. The peace terms demanded by Alp Arslan, sultan of the Seljuk Turks, were not excessive, and Romanus accepted them. On his release, however, Romanus found that enemies had placed their own candidate on the throne in his absence; he surrendered to them and suffered death by torture, and the new ruler, Michael VII Ducas, refused to honour the treaty. In response, the Turks began to move into Anatolia in 1073. The collapse of the old defensive system meant that they met no opposition, and the empire 's resources were distracted and squandered in a series of civil wars. Thousands of Turkoman tribesmen crossed the unguarded frontier and moved into Anatolia. By 1080, a huge area had been lost to the Empire, and the Turks were within striking distance of Constantinople.
Under the Comnenian dynasty (1081 -- 1185), Byzantium staged a remarkable recovery. In 1090 -- 91, the nomadic Pechenegs reached the walls of Constantinople, where Emperor Alexius I with the aid of the Kipchaks annihilated their army. In response to a call for aid from Alexius, the First Crusade assembled at Constantinople in 1096, but declining to put itself under Byzantine command set out for Jerusalem on its own account. John II built the monastery of the Pantocrator (Almighty) with a hospital for the poor of 50 beds.
With the restoration of firm central government, the empire became fabulously wealthy. The population was rising (estimates for Constantinople in the 12th century vary from some 100,000 to 500,000), and towns and cities across the realm flourished. Meanwhile, the volume of money in circulation dramatically increased. This was reflected in Constantinople by the construction of the Blachernae palace, the creation of brilliant new works of art, and general prosperity at this time: an increase in trade, made possible by the growth of the Italian city - states, may have helped the growth of the economy. It is certain that the Venetians and others were active traders in Constantinople, making a living out of shipping goods between the Crusader Kingdoms of Outremer and the West, while also trading extensively with Byzantium and Egypt. The Venetians had factories on the north side of the Golden Horn, and large numbers of westerners were present in the city throughout the 12th century. Toward the end of Manuel I Komnenos 's reign, the number of foreigners in the city reached about 60,000 -- 80,000 people out of a total population of about 400,000 people. In 1171, Constantinople also contained a small community of 2,500 Jews. In 1182, all Latin (Western European) inhabitants of Constantinople were massacred.
In artistic terms, the 12th century was a very productive period. There was a revival in the mosaic art, for example: Mosaics became more realistic and vivid, with an increased emphasis on depicting three - dimensional forms. There was an increased demand for art, with more people having access to the necessary wealth to commission and pay for such work. According to N.H. Baynes (Byzantium, An Introduction to East Roman Civilization):
With its love of luxury and passion for colour, the art of this age delighted in the production of masterpieces that spread the fame of Byzantium throughout the whole of the Christian world. Beautiful silks from the workshops of Constantinople also portrayed in dazzling colour animals -- lions, elephants, eagles, and griffins -- confronting each other, or represented Emperors gorgeously arrayed on horseback or engaged in the chase.
From the tenth to the twelfth century Byzantium was the main source of inspiration for the West. By their style, arrangement, and iconography the mosaics of St. Mark 's at Venice and of the cathedral at Torcello clearly reveal their Byzantine origin. Similarly those of the Palatine Chapel, the Martorana at Palermo, and the cathedral of Cefalù, together with the vast decoration of the cathedral at Monreale, demonstrate the influence of Byzantium on the Norman Court of Sicily in the twelfth century. Hispano - Moorish art was unquestionably derived from the Byzantine. Romanesque art owes much to the East, from which it borrowed not only its decorative forms but the plan of some of its buildings, as is proved, for instance, by the domed churches of south - western France. Princes of Kiev, Venetian doges, abbots of Monte Cassino, merchants of Amalfi, and the kings of Sicily all looked to Byzantium for artists or works of art. Such was the influence of Byzantine art in the twelfth century, that Russia, Venice, southern Italy and Sicily all virtually became provincial centres dedicated to its production. ''
On 25 July 1197, Constantinople was struck by a severe fire which burned the Latin Quarter and the area around the Gate of the Droungarios (Turkish: Odun Kapısı) on the Golden Horn. Nevertheless, the destruction wrought by the 1197 fire paled in comparison with that brought by the Crusaders. In the course of a plot between Philip of Swabia, Boniface of Montferrat and the Doge of Venice, the Fourth Crusade was, despite papal excommunication, diverted in 1203 against Constantinople, ostensibly promoting the claims of Alexius, son of the deposed emperor Isaac. The reigning emperor Alexius III had made no preparation. The Crusaders occupied Galata, broke the defensive chain protecting the Golden Horn, and entered the harbour, where on 27 July they breached the sea walls: Alexius III fled. But the new Alexius IV found the Treasury inadequate, and was unable to make good the rewards he had promised to his western allies. Tension between the citizens and the Latin soldiers increased. In January 1204, the protovestiarius Alexius Murzuphlus provoked a riot, it is presumed, to intimidate Alexius IV, but whose only result was the destruction of the great statue of Athena, the work of Phidias, which stood in the principal forum facing west.
In February 1198, the people rose again: Alexius IV was imprisoned and executed, and Murzuphlus took the purple as Alexius V. He made some attempt to repair the walls and organise the citizenry, but there had been no opportunity to bring in troops from the provinces and the guards were demoralised by the revolution. An attack by the Crusaders on 6 April failed, but a second from the Golden Horn on 12 April succeeded, and the invaders poured in. Alexius V fled. The Senate met in Hagia Sophia and offered the crown to Theodore Lascaris, who had married into the Angelid family, but it was too late. He came out with the Patriarch to the Golden Milestone before the Great Palace and addressed the Varangian Guard. Then the two of them slipped away with many of the nobility and embarked for Asia. By the next day the Doge and the leading Franks were installed in the Great Palace, and the city was given over to pillage for three days.
Sir Steven Runciman, historian of the Crusades, wrote that the sack of Constantinople is "unparalleled in history ''.
"For nine centuries, '' he goes on, "the great city had been the capital of Christian civilisation. It was filled with works of art that had survived from ancient Greece and with the masterpieces of its own exquisite craftsmen. The Venetians... seized treasures and carried them off to adorn... their town. But the Frenchmen and Flemings were filled with a lust for destruction. They rushed in a howling mob down the streets and through the houses, snatching up everything that glittered and destroying whatever they could not carry, pausing only to murder or to rape, or to break open the wine - cellars... Neither monasteries nor churches nor libraries were spared. In Hagia Sophia itself, drunken soldiers could be seen tearing down the silken hangings and pulling the great silver iconostasis to pieces, while sacred books and icons were trampled under foot. While they drank merrily from the altar - vessels a prostitute set herself on the Patriarch 's throne and began to sing a ribald French song. Nuns were ravished in their convents. Palaces and hovels alike were entered and wrecked. Wounded women and children lay dying in the streets. For three days the ghastly scenes... continued, till the huge and beautiful city was a shambles... When... order was restored,... citizens were tortured to make them reveal the goods that they had contrived to hide.
For the next half - century, Constantinople was the seat of the Latin Empire. Under the rulers of the Latin Empire, the city declined, both in population and the condition of its buildings. Alice - Mary Talbot cites an estimated population for Constantinople of 400,000 inhabitants; after the destruction wrought by the Crusaders on the city, about one third were homeless, and numerous courtiers, nobility, and higher clergy, followed various leading personages into exile. "As a result Constantinople became seriously depopulated, '' Talbot concludes.
The Latins took over at least 20 churches and 13 monasteries, most prominently the Hagia Sophia, which became the cathedral of the Latin Patriarch of Constantinople. It is to these that E.H. Swift attributed the construction of a series of flying buttresses to shore up the walls of the church, which had been weakened over the centuries by earthquake tremors. However, this act of maintenance is an exception: for the most part, the Latin occupiers were too few to maintain all of the buildings, either secular and sacred, and many became targets for vandalism or dismantling. Bronze and lead were removed from the roofs of abandoned buildings and melted down and sold to provide money to the chronically under - funded Empire for defense and to support the court; Deno John Geanokoplos writes that "it may well be that a division is suggested here: Latin laymen stripped secular buildings, ecclesiastics, the churches. '' Buildings were not the only targets of officials looking to raise funds for the impoverished Latin Empire: the monumental sculptures which adorned the Hippodrome and fora of the city were pulled down and melted for coinage. "Among the masterpieces destroyed, writes Talbot, "were a Herakles attributed to the fourth - century B.C. sculptor Lysippos, and monumental figures of Hera, Paris, and Helen. ''
The Nicaean emperor John III Vatatzes reportedly saved several churches from being dismantled for their valuable building materials; by sending money to the Latins "to buy them off '' (exonesamenos), he prevented the destruction of several churches. According to Talbot, these included the churches of Blachernae, Rouphinianai, and St. Michael at Anaplous. He also granted funds for the restoration of the Church of the Holy Apostles, which had been seriously damaged in an earthquake.
The Byzantine nobility scattered, many going to Nicaea, where Theodore Lascaris set up an imperial court, or to Epirus, where Theodore Angelus did the same; others fled to Trebizond, where one of the Comneni had already with Georgian support established an independent seat of empire. Nicaea and Epirus both vied for the imperial title, and tried to recover Constantinople. In 1261, Constantinople was captured from its last Latin ruler, Baldwin II, by the forces of the Nicaean emperor Michael VIII Palaiologos.
Although Constantinople was retaken by Michael VIII Palaiologos, the Empire had lost many of its key economic resources, and struggled to survive. The palace of Blachernae in the north - west of the city became the main Imperial residence, with the old Great Palace on the shores of the Bosporus going into decline. When Michael VIII captured the city, its population was 35,000 people, but, by the end of his reign, he had succeeded in increasing the population to about 70,000 people. The Emperor achieved this by summoning former residents who had fled the city when the crusaders captured it, and by relocating Greeks from the recently reconquered Peloponnese to the capital. In 1347, the Black Death spread to Constantinople. In 1453, when the Ottoman Turks captured the city, it contained approximately 50,000 people.
Constantinople was conquered by the Ottoman Empire on 29 May 1453. The Ottomans were commanded by 22 - year - old Ottoman Sultan Mehmed II. The conquest of Constantinople followed a seven - week siege which had begun on 6 April 1453.
The Christian Orthodox city of Constantinople was now under Ottoman control. When Mehmed II finally entered Constantinople through what is now known as the Topkapi Gate, he immediately rode his horse to the Hagia Sophia, where he ordered his soldiers to stop hacking at the marbles and ' be satisfied with the booty and captives; as for all the buildings, they belonged to him '. He ordered that an imam meet him there in order to chant the adhan thus transforming the Orthodox cathedral into a Muslim mosque, solidifying Islamic rule in Constantinople.
Mehmed 's main concern with Constantinople had to do with rebuilding the city 's defenses and population. Building projects were commenced immediately after the conquest, which included the repair of the walls, construction of the citadel, and building a new palace. Mehmed issued orders across his empire that Muslims, Christians, and Jews should resettle the city; he demanded that five thousand households needed to be transferred to Constantinople by September. From all over the Islamic empire, prisoners of war and deported people were sent to the city: these people were called "Sürgün '' in Turkish (Greek: σουργούνιδες). Two centuries later, Ottoman traveler Evliya Çelebi gave a list of groups introduced into the city with their respective origins. Even today, many quarters of Istanbul, such as Aksaray, Çarşamba, bear the names of the places of origin of their inhabitants. However, many people escaped again from the city, and there were several outbreaks of plague, so that in 1459 Mehmet allowed the deported Greeks to come back to the city.
Constantinople was the largest and richest urban center in the Eastern Mediterranean Sea during the late Eastern Roman Empire, mostly as a result of its strategic position commanding the trade routes between the Aegean Sea and the Black Sea. It would remain the capital of the eastern, Greek - speaking empire for over a thousand years. At its peak, roughly corresponding to the Middle Ages, it was the richest and largest European city, exerting a powerful cultural pull and dominating economic life in the Mediterranean. Visitors and merchants were especially struck by the beautiful monasteries and churches of the city, in particular the Hagia Sophia, or the Church of Holy Wisdom. According to Russian 14th - century traveler Stephen of Novgorod: "As for Hagia Sophia, the human mind can neither tell it nor make description of it. ''
It was especially important for preserving in its libraries manuscripts of Greek and Latin authors throughout a period when instability and disorder caused their mass - destruction in western Europe and north Africa: On the city 's fall, thousands of these were brought by refugees to Italy, and played a key part in stimulating the Renaissance, and the transition to the modern world. The cumulative influence of the city on the west, over the many centuries of its existence, is incalculable. In terms of technology, art and culture, as well as sheer size, Constantinople was without parallel anywhere in Europe for a thousand years.
Armenians, Syrians, Slavs, and Georgians were part of the Byzantine social hierarchy.
The city provided a defence for the eastern provinces of the old Roman Empire against the barbarian invasions of the 5th century. The 18 - meter - tall walls built by Theodosius II were, in essence, impregnable to the barbarians coming from south of the Danube river, who found easier targets to the west rather than the richer provinces to the east in Asia. From the 5th century, the city was also protected by the Anastasian Wall, a 60 - kilometer chain of walls across the Thracian peninsula. Many scholars argue that these sophisticated fortifications allowed the east to develop relatively unmolested while Ancient Rome and the west collapsed.
Constantinople 's fame was such that it was described even in contemporary Chinese histories, the Old and New Book of Tang, which mentioned its massive walls and gates as well as a purported clepsydra mounted with a golden statue of a man. The Chinese histories even related how the city had been besieged in the 7th century by Muawiyah I and how he exacted tribute in a peace settlement.
The Byzantine Empire used Roman and Greek architectural models and styles to create its own unique type of architecture. The influence of Byzantine architecture and art can be seen in the copies taken from it throughout Europe. Particular examples include St Mark 's Basilica in Venice, the basilicas of Ravenna, and many churches throughout the Slavic East. Also, alone in Europe until the 13th - century Italian florin, the Empire continued to produce sound gold coinage, the solidus of Diocletian becoming the bezant prized throughout the Middle Ages. Its city walls were much imitated (for example, see Caernarfon Castle) and its urban infrastructure was moreover a marvel throughout the Middle Ages, keeping alive the art, skill and technical expertise of the Roman Empire. In the Ottoman period Islamic architecture and symbolism were used.
Constantine 's foundation gave prestige to the Bishop of Constantinople, who eventually came to be known as the Ecumenical Patriarch, and made it a prime center of Christianity alongside Rome. This contributed to cultural and theological differences between Eastern and Western Christianity eventually leading to the Great Schism that divided Western Catholicism from Eastern Orthodoxy from 1054 onwards. Constantinople is also of great religious importance to Islam, as the conquest of Constantinople is one of the signs of the End time in Islam.
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what does yellow card mean in world cup soccer | Penalty card - wikipedia
Penalty cards are used in many sports as a means of warning, reprimanding or penalising a player, coach or team official. Penalty cards are most commonly used by referees or umpires to indicate that a player has committed an offense. The official will hold the card above his or her head while looking or pointing towards the player that has committed the offence. This action makes the decision clear to all players, as well as spectators and other officials in a manner that is language - neutral. The colour or shape of the card used by the official indicates the type or seriousness of the offence and the level of punishment that is to be applied. Yellow and red cards are the most common, typically indicating, respectively, cautions and dismissals.
The idea of using language - neutral coloured cards to communicate a referee 's intentions originated in association football, with English referee Ken Aston. Aston had been appointed to the FIFA Referees ' Committee and was responsible for all referees at the 1966 FIFA World Cup. In the quarter - finals, England met Argentina at the Wembley Stadium. After the match, newspaper reports stated that referee Rudolf Kreitlein had cautioned Englishmen Bobby and Jack Charlton, as well as sending off Argentinian Antonio Rattín. The referee had not made his decision clear during the game, and England manager Alf Ramsey approached FIFA representative for post-match clarification. This incident started Aston thinking about ways to make a referee 's decisions clearer to both players and spectators. Aston realised that a colour - coding scheme based on the same principle as used on traffic lights (yellow -- stop if safe to do so, red -- stop) would transcend language barriers and make it clear that a player had been cautioned or expelled. As a result, yellow cards to indicate a caution and red cards to indicate an expulsion were used for the first time in the 1970 FIFA World Cup in Mexico. The use of penalty cards has since been adopted and expanded by several sporting codes, with each sport adapting the idea to its specific set of rules or laws.
A yellow card is used in many different sporting codes. Its meaning differs among sports; however, it most commonly indicates a caution given to a player regarding his or her conduct, or indicates a temporary suspension. Examples include:
A red card is used in several different sporting codes. Its meaning differs among sports, but it most commonly indicates a serious offence and often results in a player being permanently suspended from the game (commonly known as an ejection, dismissal, expulsion, removal, or sending - off, often with personal embarrassment). In many sports the ejected player 's team can not replace them and thus must continue the rest of the game with one fewer player, which may be a significant disadvantage. Examples include:
A green card is used in some sports to indicate an official warning to a player who has committed a minor offence that does not warrant a more serious sanction.
A white card is used in bandy to indicate a five - minute timed penalty given to a player. The offending player must leave the playing area and wait on a penalty bench near the centre line until the penalty has expired. During the 5 minute period the player may not be replaced, although he or she may be replaced with a different player when the penalty has expired. Offences that can warrant a white card include trying to hinder the opponents from executing a free - stroke, illegal substitution or repeated illegal but non-violent attacks on an opponent.
In the 2012 Super Rugby season in rugby union, a White Card was introduced for incidents of suspected foul play where the referee is unsure of the identity of the perpetrator, or where the referee is unsure if a red card is warranted. The incident is later referred to the citing commissioner, and may result in a suspension for the offending player. It is similar to a citation sign (arms crossed above the head) in rugby league. However, in 2013 the International Rugby Board, now known as World Rugby, extended the powers of the TMO to include reviewing suspected incidents of foul play. As a result, no white cards were issued in 2013.
A blue card or ' Blue Disk ' as pioneered by The Elms, is used in bandy to indicate a ten - minute timed penalty given to a player. The offending player must leave the playing area and wait on a penalty bench near the centre line until the penalty has expired. During the 10 minute period the player may not be replaced, although he or she may be replaced with a different player when the penalty has expired. A blue card is typically shown for offences that are more serious than those warranting a white card including attacking an opponent in a violent or dangerous way, causing advantage by intentionally stopping the ball with a high stick or protesting a referee 's decision.
A blue card is also frequently used in indoor soccer in the United States, signifying that the offender must leave the field and stay in a penalty box (usually 2 -- 5 minutes), during which time their team plays down a man (identical to ice hockey and roller hockey). If a goal is scored by the team opposite of the offender, then the offender may return to the field immediately. It is also used in the Clericus Cup association football league for a 5 - minute bench penalty for unsportsmanlike play. And it is also used in the beach soccer for a 2 - minute bench penalty for unsportsmanlike play.
A Blue Card is also used in quidditch to indicate a technical foul. The fouling player is sent to the penalty box for one minute or until a goal is scored against the fouling player 's team. Unlike a yellow card, there is no additional penalty for multiple blue cards.
In European indoor soccer or Futsal, a Blue Card was used to send a player off the court; however the team was able to replace him with another player. The offending player could not return to play during the match. A blue card was shown directly for foul play or verbal abuse, if the same player had received two yellow cards, or if he had accumulated a total of 5 fouls during the game.
The Blue Card has been in use in Handball since the International Handball Federation announced a rule change that came into effect on July 1, 2016. First the Red Card is shown, then the referee will after a short discussion show the blue card. Following that a written report will accompany the score sheet and the Disciplinary Commission will then decide on further actions against the player.
A black card is used in fencing. It is issued by the director, or the referee for severe rule infractions. A second instance of a Group 3 offence, and all Group 4 offences including deliberate brutality, refusal to fence, refusal to salute, and refusal to shake hands can be punished with a black card. When the black card is issued, the offending fencer is excluded from the remainder of the competition and may be suspended from further tournaments. In the official record of the tournament, his or her name is replaced with the words "FENCER EXCLUDED ''.
A black card is also used in the sport of badminton to indicate disqualification.
In the Gaelic Games of Gaelic football and hurling, a tick or black book -- was formerly recorded against a player for a minor infringement not warranting a yellow card, though multiple bookings will result in the issuance of a yellow card. The act of the referee physically holding up his black notebook in the same manner as a card has been discontinued by the GAA.
Beginning January 1, 2014 a player in Gaelic football can be ordered off the pitch for the remainder of the game with a substitution allowed by being physically shown a Black Card (the referee 's black notebook) in the same manner as any other penalty card for "cynical behaviour, '' including blatant tripping, pulling down and bodychecking. This forced substitution is an intermediate punishment between the yellow and red cards. A player who receives a yellow card and a black card in the same game is sent off without any substitute being permitted.
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who is clay on im dying up here | I 'm Dying up Here - wikipedia
I 'm Dying Up Here is an American comedy - drama television series created by David Flebotte. The pilot was written by Flebotte and directed by Jonathan Levine. It premiered on Showtime on June 4, 2017. The series is executive produced by Flebotte, Jim Carrey, Michael Aguilar, and Christina Wayne. It was announced on January 12, 2016, that Showtime had ordered the pilot to series based on the bestselling book by William Knoedelseder. On September 8, 2017, Showtime renewed the series for a 10 - episode second season. The second season premiered on May 6, 2018.
The series explores the Los Angeles stand - up scene of the early 1970s as a group of young comedians attempt to become successful at Goldie 's comedy club and potentially gain a shot on Johnny Carson 's ' Tonight Show '. Club owner Goldie mentors the young comics with a combination of toughness and encouragement in order to further their chances at success. The show focuses on the daily struggles and successes of both Goldie and the comics.
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what is required to get a certificate of occupancy | Certificate of occupancy - wikipedia
A certificate of occupancy is a document issued by a local government agency or building department certifying a building 's compliance with applicable building codes and other laws, and indicating it to be in a condition suitable for occupancy.
The procedure and requirements for the certificate vary widely from jurisdiction to jurisdiction and on the type of structure. In the United States, obtaining a certificate is generally required whenever:
The purpose of obtaining a certificate of occupancy is to prove that, according to the law, the house or building is in liveable condition. Generally, such a certificate is necessary to be able to occupy the structure for everyday use, as well as to be able to sign a contract to sell the space and close on a mortgage for the space.
A certificate of occupancy is evidence that the building complies substantially with the plans and specifications that have been submitted to, and approved by, the local authority. It complements a building permit -- a document that must be filed by the applicant with the local authority before construction to indicate that the proposed construction will adhere to ordinances, codes, and laws.
A temporary certificate of occupancy grants residents and building owners all of the same rights as a certificate of occupancy, however it is only for a temporary period of time. In New York City, TCOs are usually active for 90 days from the date of issue, after which they expire. It is perfectly legal, and not uncommon in the given situation, for a building owner to re-apply for a TCO, following all the steps and inspections required originally, in order to hypothetically extend their TCO for another period of time.
Temporary certificates of occupancy are generally sought after and acquired when a building is still under minor construction, but there is a certain section or number of floors that are deemed to be habitable, and, upon issuance of TCO, can legally be occupied or sold.
In New York City, for a building to obtain a certificate of occupancy, the structure must pass a series of inspections, as well as a walk - through from the Department of Buildings. In most cases, the inspections include, but are not limited to, plumbing inspections, fire sprinkler system inspections, fire alarm system inspections, electrical inspections, fire pump pressure tests, architectural inspections (where inspector checks if building was built in accordance with an architect 's stamped and approved drawings), elevator inspections, completion of lobby, and an inspection to see if the building complies with the proper number of entrances required for its size. After all inspections are passed, the last step is generally to have a walk - through by a member of the Department of Buildings, who sees that there is no major construction remaining on the job site, that there are no obstructions to the entrances, that there are no safety hazards in the building, and that everything in the building was built according to plan. If the inspector approves his walk - through, a certificate of occupancy is usually granted.
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when did the lombardi trophy get its name | Vince Lombardi trophy - wikipedia
The Vince Lombardi Trophy is the trophy awarded each year to the winning team of the National Football League 's championship game, the Super Bowl. The trophy is named in honor of NFL coach Vince Lombardi, who led the Green Bay Packers to victories in the first two Super Bowl games.
During lunch with NFL commissioner Pete Rozelle in 1966, Tiffany & Co. vice president Oscar Riedner made a sketch on a cocktail napkin of what would become the Vince Lombardi Trophy. The original trophy was produced by Tiffany & Co. in Newark, New Jersey. Others have since been handcrafted by the company in Parsippany, New Jersey. As of 2017, the trophy is produced at the Tiffany & Co Forrest Hills manufacturing facility in Cumberland, Rhode Island. The trophy was first awarded to the Green Bay Packers in January 15, 1967, following the 1966 regular season (when the Super Bowl 's official designation was the AFL - NFL World Championship Game) after they defeated the Kansas City Chiefs, 35 - 10.
Even though it is a national tournament, the award was initially inscribed with the words "World Professional Football Championship ''. It was officially renamed in 1970 in memory of NFL head coach Vince Lombardi, who led the Packers to victories in the first two Super Bowl games, after his death from cancer. It was thus presented for the first time as the Vince Lombardi Trophy in Super Bowl V when the Baltimore Colts defeated the Dallas Cowboys 16 - 13. It has also been referred to as the "Tiffany Trophy '' after the Tiffany & Co.
Since Super Bowl XXX, the award has been presented to the winning team 's owner on the field following the game. Previously, it was presented inside the winning team 's locker room. In the case of the community - owned Packers ' two titles since Super Bowl XXX, the team 's President & CEO has accepted the trophy.
Unlike trophies such as the Stanley Cup and the Grey Cup, a new Vince Lombardi Trophy is made every year and the winning team maintains permanent possession of that trophy, with one notable exception being Super Bowl V 's, won by the then - Baltimore Colts. The city of Baltimore retained that trophy as part of the legal settlement between the team and the city after the Colts ' infamous "Midnight Mayflower '' move to Indianapolis on March 29, 1984. Since then, both the relocated Colts and their replacement in Baltimore, the Ravens, have won the Super Bowl and earned trophies in their own right.
Since Super Bowl XLV, the Vince Lombardi Trophy is also prominently featured in the standardized logo design now used for all future Super Bowl games.
The Vince Lombardi Trophy stands 22 inches (56 cm) tall, weighs 7 pounds (3.2 kg) and depicts a football in a kicking position on a three concave sided stand, and is entirely made of sterling silver.
The words "Vince Lombardi Trophy '' along with the Roman numerals of that year 's Super Bowl are engraved on and the NFL shield is affixed onto the base. After the trophy is awarded, it is sent back to Tiffany 's to be engraved with the names of the participating teams, the date, location, and the game 's final score. It is then sent back to the winning team for them to keep. Smaller replicas are made for each person on the winning team.
For the first four championship games, both the NFL and the AFL logos were in the center of the trophy. Starting from Super Bowl V, only the NFL shield was on the front. Beginning with Super Bowl XXXVIII, the shield took on a frosted appearance. Starting with Super Bowl XLIII, the slightly redesigned NFL shield began appearing on the trophy, still with a frosted appearance. Other than the logo, the trophy has had no significant changes made since the first Super Bowl. While no franchise possesses all four versions, the Green Bay Packers, New England Patriots, New York Giants, and Pittsburgh Steelers have three of the four designs.
The Super Bowl is currently played in early February (the game originally took place in early to mid-January), culminating a season that generally begins in September of the previous calendar year. For example, Super Bowl 50, which was played on February 7, 2016, determined the league champion for the 2015 NFL season. The years shown below refer to the season, not the date that the Super Bowl was actually played.
The Pittsburgh Steelers (1974, 1975, 1978, 1979, 2005, 2008) are first with six Vince Lombardi Trophies. The Dallas Cowboys (1971, 1977, 1992, 1993, 1995), the San Francisco 49ers (1981, 1984, 1988, 1989, 1994), and the New England Patriots (2001, 2003, 2004, 2014, 2016) are tied for second with 5 each. The Green Bay Packers (1966, 1967, 1996, 2010) and the New York Giants (1986, 1990, 2007, 2011) are tied for third with four each. The Oakland Raiders (1976, 1980, 1983), the Washington Redskins (1982, 1987, 1991) and the Denver Broncos (1997, 1998, 2015) are tied for fourth with three each.
Although none of these teams have ever won three straight Super Bowls, two of them have won three Lombardi trophies in four years and one twice in three years: The Dallas Cowboys (1992, 1993, 1995) and the New England Patriots (2001, 2003, 2004) and (2014, 2016). The Pittsburgh Steelers won four Super Bowls in six years (1974, 1975, 1978, 1979).
The trophy has been presented on a stage constructed on the field since Super Bowl XXX in 1996. A personality from the TV network broadcasting the game handles the presentation ceremony. The commissioner, winning owner, winning coach, winning quarterback, and - if not a QB - the MVP, are usually recognized.
From Super Bowl XXX to Super Bowl XXXIX, the trophy was set on the stage to begin the ceremony.
Beginning with Super Bowl XL, a former NFL player, usually a past Super Bowl MVP or notable figure of the host city 's franchise, brings the Lombardi Trophy to the center of the stadium, as he walks past members of the winning team.
The players, along with the Super Bowls in which they participated in the Lombardi Trophy presentation ceremony, are listed below.
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national lampoon's attack of the 5'2 woman | Attack of the 5 Ft. 2 in. Women - wikipedia
National Lampoon 's Attack of the 5 Ft. 2 In. Women is a 1994 Showtime television film that parodies two sensational news stories from the 1990s: The Tonya Harding - Nancy Kerrigan incident, and the John and Lorena Bobbitt incident. The movie is presented as a double feature, with Julie Brown starring in both segments. The title is a takeoff of Attack of the 50 Foot Woman.
The movie is presented as two parts of a double feature, the titles being Tonya: The Battle of Wounded Knee and He Never Gave Me Orgasm: The Lenora Babbitt Story.
Figure skater Tonya Hardly (Brown), desperate to win the gold medal in the Olympics, tries to eliminate competitor Nancy Cardigan (Khrystyne Haje) by hiring someone to injure her; although she only suffers a small bruise. The news story is so tragic and heart - rending that all of Tonya 's co-conspirators turn themselves in and finger her. Sailing above the scandal, she goes on to compete at the 1994 Winter Olympics, but is undone by her lack of talent and undersized panties.
Lenora Babbitt (Brown), having been recently pardoned for her crimes, tells Dick Langley (Sam McMurray) about the events that had led up to her arrest: She had cut off the penis of her drunken husband, Juan Wayne Babbitt (Adam Storke), because he could n't satisfy her sexually. After it was devoured by a dog, Dr. Kelloc (Stanley DeSantis) was able to transplant one from a deceased biker. However, Lenora learns that the biker 's widow (Anne De Salvo) now has "visitation rights '' to it; thus, when she and Juan perform a re-enactment of the incident on TV, she actually cuts off his new one. He ends up becoming a transsexual, saying on talk shows that he now understands how hard it is to be a woman.
The movie includes animated sequences in which Tonya and Lenora are watching the picture at a drive - in theater. They arrive together in a car at the beginning, Tonya cheers after the first feature, and the two grinning women drive off at the end.
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the itcz shifts north during the northern hemisphere summer and south during the winter due to | Intertropical convergence zone - wikipedia
The Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ), known by sailors as the doldrums, is the area encircling Earth near the Equator, where the northeast and southeast trade winds converge.
The ITCZ was originally identified from the 1920s to the 1940s as the "Intertropical Front '' ("ITF ''), 1940s and 1950s of the significance of wind field convergence in tropical weather production, the term ITCZ was then applied. When it lies near the Equator, it is called the near - equatorial trough. Where the ITCZ is drawn into and merges with a monsoonal circulation, it is sometimes referred to as a monsoon trough, a usage more common in Australia and parts of Asia. In the seamen 's speech, the zone is referred to as the doldrums because of its erratic weather patterns with stagnant calms and violent thunderstorms.
The ITCZ appears as a band of clouds, usually thunderstorms, that encircle the globe near the Equator. In the Northern Hemisphere, the trade winds move in a southwestward direction from the northeast, while in the Southern Hemisphere, they move northwestward from the southeast. When the ITCZ is positioned north or south of the Equator, these directions change according to the Coriolis effect imparted by Earth 's rotation. For instance, when the ITCZ is situated north of the Equator, the southeast trade wind changes to a southwest wind as it crosses the Equator. The ITCZ is formed by vertical motion largely appearing as convective activity of thunderstorms driven by solar heating, which effectively draw air in; these are the trade winds. The ITCZ is effectively a tracer of the ascending branch of the Hadley cell and is wet. The dry descending branch is the horse latitudes.
The location of the ITCZ gradually varies with the seasons. Over land, it moves back and forth across the Equator, following the Sun 's zenith point at high noon. Over the oceans, where the convergence zone is better defined, the seasonal cycle is more subtle, as the convection is constrained by the distribution of ocean temperatures. Sometimes, a double ITCZ forms, with one located north and another south of the Equator, one of which is usually stronger than the other. When this occurs, a narrow ridge of high pressure forms between the two convergence zones.
The South Pacific convergence zone (SPCZ) is a reverse - oriented, or west - northwest to east - southeast aligned, trough extending from the west Pacific warm pool southeastwards towards French Polynesia. It lies just south of the equator during the Southern Hemisphere warm season, but can be more extratropical in nature, especially east of the International Date Line. It is considered the largest and most important piece of the ITCZ, and has the least dependence upon heating from a nearby land mass during the summer than any other portion of the monsoon trough. The southern ITCZ in the southeast Pacific and southern Atlantic, known as the SITCZ, occurs during the Southern Hemisphere fall between 3 ° and 10 ° south of the equator east of the 140th meridian west longitude during cool or neutral El Niño -- Southern Oscillation (ENSO) patterns. When ENSO reaches its warm phase, otherwise known as El Niño, the tongue of lowered sea surface temperatures due to upwelling off the South American continent disappears, which causes this convergence zone to vanish as well.
Variation in the location of the intertropical convergence zone drastically affects rainfall in many equatorial nations, resulting in the wet and dry seasons of the tropics rather than the cold and warm seasons of higher latitudes. Longer term changes in the intertropical convergence zone can result in severe droughts or flooding in nearby areas.
In some cases, the ITCZ may become narrow, especially when it moves away from the equator; the ITCZ can then be interpreted as a front along the leading edge of the equatorial air. There appears to be a 15 - to 25 - day cycle in thunderstorm activity along the ITCZ, which is roughly half the wavelength of the Madden -- Julian oscillation (MJO).
Within the ITCZ the average winds are slight, unlike the zones north and south of the equator where the trade winds feed. Early sailors named this belt of calm the doldrums because of the inactivity and stagnation they found themselves in after days of no wind. To find oneself becalmed in this region in a hot and muggy climate could mean death in an era when wind was the only effective way to propel ships across the ocean. Even today leisure and competitive sailors attempt to cross the zone as quickly as possible as the erratic weather and wind patterns may cause unexpected delays.
Tropical cyclogenesis depends upon low - level vorticity as one of its six requirements, and the ITCZ fills this role as it is a zone of wind change and speed, otherwise known as horizontal wind shear. As the ITCZ migrates more than 500 kilometres (300 mi) from the equator during the respective hemisphere 's summer season, increasing Coriolis force makes the formation of tropical cyclones within this zone more possible. Surges of higher pressure from high latitudes can enhance tropical disturbances along its axis. In the north Atlantic and the northeastern Pacific oceans, tropical waves move along the axis of the ITCZ causing an increase in thunderstorm activity, and under weak vertical wind shear, these clusters of thunderstorms can become tropical cyclones.
Thunderstorms along the Intertropical Convergence Zone played a role in the loss of Air France Flight 447, which left Rio de Janeiro -- Galeão International Airport on Sunday, May 31, 2009, at about 7: 00 p.m. local time (6: 00 p.m. EDT or 10: 00 p.m. UTC) and had been expected to land at Charles de Gaulle Airport near Paris on Monday, June 1, 2009, at 11: 15 a.m. (5: 15 a.m. EDT or 9: 15 a.m. UTC) The aircraft crashed with no survivors while flying through a series of large ITCZ thunderstorms, and ice forming rapidly on airspeed sensors was the precipitating cause for a cascade of human errors which ultimately doomed the flight. Most aircraft flying these routes are able to avoid the larger convective cells without incident.
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how many chapters in night of the living dummy | Slappy the Dummy - wikipedia
Slappy the Dummy is a fictional character and antagonist in the Goosebumps children 's series by R.L. Stine. He is one of the series ' most popular villains and the main antagonist of the Night of the Living Dummy saga and a major villain in later series. He is also the main antagonist of the Goosebumps movie. He is a "ventriloquist 's dummy with a serious Napoleonic complex '' that comes alive by these words, "Karru Marri Odonna Loma Molanu Karrano '' (which roughly translate as "You and I are one now ''), and they can be found on a sheet of paper in Slappy 's jacket pocket. After coming to life, Slappy will try to make the person who brought him back to life serve him as a slave, to the point that he will frame that person for things that he does.
According to R.L. Stine, Slappy was inspired by the literary classic The Adventures of Pinocchio. He liked the idea of a wooden puppet coming to life due to the book so he decided to create Slappy.
Unlike other books Slappy never causes any trouble despite being alive. This is explanied by It getting revaled thta Slappy became twice as evil and a thousand times ruder than Mr Wood after the latter died implying during the events of this book Slappy is a kind and friendly dummy.
A girl named Jillian takes her little sisters Katie and Amanda, accompanied by their doll Mary - Ellen, to a puppet show of a teenager named Jimmy O'James, with Slappy the Dummy as his partner. At the show, Slappy spies the twins and Jillian with Mary - Ellen. Slappy then pulls the twins up on stage with Mary - Ellen and makes fun of them. The twins, who are hurt by what he said, take off after the show to give him a piece of their minds and Jillian has to find them. While trying to find her twin sisters, Jillian finds Jimmy and Slappy 's dressing room and walks in on Slappy giving Jimmy a punch in the nose. Jimmy tells her that he and Slappy are just working on a new act. She asks if they have seen her sisters. Jimmy responds with that he has not seen them since they were on stage. After she leaves, Jimmy puts Slappy to sleep and throws him out. Jillian 's friend Harrison finds Slappy and brings him to Jillian 's house as he believes that Slappy is broken and wants Jillian 's dad to fix him. After a series of troublesome events Jillian and Harrison host a birthday party and try to put on a show only to have it be revealed that Mary - Ellen is alive and that she re-awoke Slappy so she could marry him, but Slappy hates Mary - Ellen and desires to marry Jillian. Slappy and Mary Ellen end getting cut to pieces by a saw blaze but Slappys spirt ends up possesing Jillian.
Slappy New Year was a book in a planned to be released series called, Goosebumps Gold. The series was never released due to the expired contract that R.L. Stine had with Scholastic at the time. However R.L. Stine did release the book, but changed the plotline. It was originally going to be the sequel to Slappy 's Nightmare, but over the years since R.L. Stine changed the book 's plot he dropped the idea of it being a sequel. It was released on November 1, 2010.
He also appears in his own series Goosebumps SlappyWorld where he serves as the narrator.
Slappy has also been made into an actual ventriloquist doll available from major retailers. He was first manufactured by Goldberger Doll corporation after a nine - year - old boy from Long Island sent them a letter suggesting the idea in 1998. There is also a mask and a full costume available for sale. Night of the Living Dummy 3 and Bride of the Living Dummy have also been adapted for VHS and DVD, the second on DVD includes "Bride of the Living Dummy ''.
Authors Douglas Preston and Lincoln Child recently posted an announcement via their Facebook status:
This was published 30 September 2014 as Gaslighted: Slappy the Ventriloquist Dummy vs. Aloysius Pendergast.
He was voiced by both Ron Stefanuik and Cathal J. Dodd in the Goosebumps television series and appeared in four episodes:
The original Night of the Living Dummy story was never adapted to television, nor were the six post-Bride stories.
He is the main antagonist in the 2015 Goosebumps movie, where he was voiced by Jack Black, who also is R.L Stine, and the Invisible Boy, from My Best Friend is Invisible. Slappy will also appear in the sequel.
Slappy appears in the comic book series made by IDW and appears in the Goosebumps graphix.
Slappy appears in the video games.
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during vedic period who was the sky god | Rigvedic deities - wikipedia
There are 1000 hymns in the Rigveda, most of them dedicated to specific deities.
Indra, a heroic god, slayer of Vritra and destroyer of the Vala, liberator of the cows and the rivers; Agni the sacrificial fire and messenger of the gods; and Soma, the ritual drink dedicated to Indra, are the most prominent deities.
Invoked in groups are the Vishvedevas (the "all - gods ''), the Maruts, violent storm gods in Indra 's train and the Ashvins, the twin horsemen.
There are two major groups of gods: the Devas and the Asuras. Unlike in later Vedic texts and in Hinduism, the Asuras are not yet demonized, Mitra and Varuna being their most prominent members. Aditi is the mother both of Agni and of the Adityas or Asuras, led by Mitra and Varuna, with Aryaman, Bhaga, Ansa and Daksha.
Surya is the personification of the Sun, but Savitr, Vivasvant, the Ashvins and the Rbhus, semi-divine craftsmen, also have aspects of solar deities. Other natural phenomena deified include Vayu, (the wind), Dyaus and Prithivi (Heaven and Earth), Dyaus continuing Dyeus, the chief god of the Proto - Indo - European religion, and Ushas (the dawn), the most prominent goddess of the Rigveda, and Apas (the waters).
Rivers play an important role, deified as goddesses, most prominently the Sapta Sindhu and the Sarasvati River.
Yama is the first ancestor, also worshipped as a deity, and the god of the underworld and death.
Vishnu and Rudra, the prominent deities of later Hinduism (Rudra being an early form of Shiva), are present as marginal gods.
The names of Indra, Mitra, Varuna and the Nasatyas have also attested in a Mitanni treaty, suggesting that some of the religion of the Mitannis was very close to that of the Rigveda.
List of Rigvedic deities by a number of dedicated hymns, after Griffith (1888). Some dedications are to paired deities, such as Indra - Agni, Mitra - Varuna, Soma - Rudra, here counted double. Vishvadevas (all gods together) have been invoked 70 times.
Minor deities (one single or no dedicated hymn)
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when did aston villa win the fa cup | Aston Villa F.C. - Wikipedia
Aston Villa Football Club (/ ˈæstən ˈvɪlə /; nicknamed Villa, The Villa, The Villans and The Lions) is a professional football club in Aston, Birmingham, that plays in the Championship, the second level of English football. Founded in 1874, they have played at their current home ground, Villa Park, since 1897. Aston Villa were one of the founder members of the Football League in 1888 and of the Premier League in 1992.
Aston Villa are one of only five English clubs to be crowned champions of Europe, having won the 1981 -- 82 European Cup. They have also won the First Division Championship seven times, the FA Cup seven times, the Football League Cup five times, and the UEFA Super Cup once.
They have a fierce local rivalry with Birmingham City and the Second City derby between the sides has been played since 1879. The club 's traditional kit colours are claret shirts with sky blue sleeves, white shorts and sky blue socks. Their traditional badge is of a rampant lion.
The club is currently owned by Recon Group Limited, a company chaired by Chinese businessman Tony Xia, and managed by Steve Bruce.
Aston Villa Football Club were formed in March 1874, by members of the Villa Cross Wesleyan Chapel in Handsworth which is now part of Birmingham. The four founders of Aston Villa were Jack Hughes, Frederick Matthews, Walter Price and William Scattergood. Aston Villa 's first match was against the local Aston Brook St Mary 's Rugby team. As a condition of the match, the Villa side had to agree to play the first half under Rugby rules and the second half under Association rules. After moving to the Wellington Road ground in 1876, Villa soon established themselves as one of the best teams in the Midlands, winning their first honour, the Birmingham Senior Cup in 1880, under the captaincy of Scotsman George Ramsay.
The club won their first FA Cup in 1887 with captain Archie Hunter becoming one of the game 's first household names. Aston Villa were one of the dozen teams that competed in the inaugural Football League in 1888 with one of the club 's directors, William McGregor being the league 's founder. Aston Villa emerged as the most successful English club of the Victorian era, winning no fewer than five League titles and three FA Cups by the end of Queen Victoria 's reign. In 1897, the year Villa won The Double, they moved into their present home, the Aston Lower Grounds. Supporters coined the name "Villa Park ''; no official declaration listed the ground as Villa Park.
Aston Villa won their sixth FA Cup in 1920, soon after though the club began a slow decline that led to Villa, at the time one of the most famous and successful clubs in world football, being relegated in 1936 for the first time to the Second Division. This was largely the result of a dismal defensive record: they conceded 110 goals in 42 games, 7 of them coming from Arsenal 's Ted Drake in an infamous 1 -- 7 defeat at Villa Park. Like all English clubs, Villa lost seven seasons to the Second World War, and that conflict brought several careers to a premature end. The team was rebuilt under the guidance of former player Alex Massie for the remainder of the 1940s. Aston Villa 's first trophy for 37 years came in the 1956 -- 57 season when another former Villa player, Eric Houghton led the club to a then record seventh FA Cup Final win, defeating the ' Busby Babes ' of Manchester United in the final. The team struggled in the league though and were relegated two seasons later, due in large part to complacency. However, under the stewardship of manager Joe Mercer Villa returned to the top - flight in 1960 as Second Division Champions. The following season Aston Villa became the first team to win the Football League Cup.
Mercer 's forced retirement from the club in 1964 signalled a period of deep turmoil. The most successful club in England was struggling to keep pace with changes in the modern game, with Villa being relegated for the third time, under manager Dick Taylor in 1967. The following season the fans called for the board to resign as Villa finished 16th in the Second Division. With mounting debts and Villa lying at the bottom of Division Two, the board sacked Tommy Cummings (the manager brought in to replace Taylor), and within weeks the entire board resigned under overwhelming pressure from fans. After much speculation, control of the club was bought by London financier Pat Matthews, who also brought in Doug Ellis as chairman. However, new ownership could not prevent Villa being relegated to the Third Division for the first time at the end of the 1969 -- 70 season. However, Villa gradually began to recover under the management of former club captain Vic Crowe. In the 1971 -- 72 season they returned to the Second Division as Champions with a record 70 points. In 1974, Ron Saunders was appointed manager. His brand of no - nonsense man - management proved effective, with the club winning the League Cup the following season and, at the end of season 1974 -- 75, he had taken them back into the First Division and into Europe.
Villa were back among the elite as Saunders continued to mould a winning team. This culminated in a seventh top - flight league title in 1980 -- 81. To the surprise of commentators and fans, Saunders quit halfway through the 1981 -- 82 season, after falling out with the chairman, with Villa in the quarter final of the European Cup. He was replaced by his softly - spoken assistant manager Tony Barton who guided the club to a 1 -- 0 victory over Bayern Munich in the European Cup final in Rotterdam courtesy of a Peter Withe goal. The following season Villa were crowned European Super Cup winners, beating Barcelona in the final. This marked a pinnacle though and Villa 's fortunes declined sharply for most of the 1980s, culminating in relegation in 1987. This was followed by promotion the following year under Graham Taylor and a runners - up position in the First Division in the 1989 -- 90 season.
Villa were one of the founding members of the Premier League in 1992, and finished runners - up to Manchester United in the inaugural season. For the rest of the Nineties however Villa went through three different managers and their league positions were inconsistent, although they did win two League Cups and regularly achieved UEFA Cup qualification. Villa reached the FA Cup final in 2000 but lost 1 -- 0 to Chelsea in the last game to be played at the old Wembley Stadium. Again Villa 's league position continued to fluctuate under several different managers and things came to a head in the summer of 2006 when David O'Leary left in acrimony. After 23 years as chairman and single biggest shareholder (approximately 38 %), Doug Ellis finally decided to sell his stake in Aston Villa due to ill - health. After much speculation it was announced the club was to be bought by American businessman Randy Lerner, owner of NFL franchise the Cleveland Browns.
The arrival of a new owner in Lerner and of manager Martin O'Neill marked the start of a new period of optimism at Villa Park and sweeping changes occurred throughout the club including a new badge, a new kit sponsor and team changes in the summer of 2007. The first Cup final of the Lerner era came in 2010 when Villa were beaten 2 -- 1 in the League Cup Final. Villa made a second trip to Wembley in that season losing 3 -- 0 to Chelsea in the FA Cup semifinal. Just five days before the opening day of the 2010 -- 11 season, O'Neill resigned as manager, and after one year with Gérard Houllier in charge, Birmingham City manager Alex McLeish, despite numerous protests from fans against his appointment; this was the first time that a manager had moved directly between the two rivals. McLeish 's contract was terminated at the end of the 2011 -- 12 season after Villa finished in 16th place, and he was replaced by Paul Lambert. In February 2012, the club announced a financial loss of £ 53.9 million, and Lerner put the club up for sale three months later, with an estimated value of £ 200 million. With Lerner still on board, in the 2014 -- 15 season Aston Villa scored just 12 goals in 25 league games, the lowest in Premier League history, and Lambert was sacked in February 2015. Tim Sherwood succeeded him, and steered the club away from relegation while also leading them to the 2015 FA Cup Final, but he was sacked in the 2015 -- 16 season, as was his successor Rémi Garde, in a campaign ended with Villa relegated for the first time since 1987.
In June 2016, Chinese businessman Tony Xia bought the club for £ 76 million. Roberto Di Matteo was appointed as the club 's new manager before the new season, and was sacked after 12 games, to be replaced by former Birmingham manager Steve Bruce.
The club colours are a claret shirt with sky blue sleeves, white shorts with claret and blue trim, and sky blue socks with claret and white trim. They were the original wearers of the claret and blue. Villa 's colours at the outset generally comprised plain shirts (white, grey or a shade of blue), with either white or black shorts. For a few years after that (1877 -- 79) the team wore several different kits from all white, blue and black, red and blue to plain green. By 1880, black jerseys with a red lion embroidered on the chest were introduced by William McGregor. This remained the first choice strip for six years. On Monday, 8 November 1886, an entry in the club 's official minute book states:
(i) Proposed and seconded that the colours be chocolate and sky blue shirts and that we order two dozen.
(ii) Proposed and seconded that Mr McGregor be requested to supply them at the lowest quotation.
The chocolate colour later became claret. Nobody is quite sure why claret and blue became the club 's adopted colours. Several other English football teams adopted their colours; clubs that wear claret and blue include West Ham United and Burnley.
A new badge was revealed in May 2007, for the 2007 -- 08 season and beyond. The new badge includes a star to represent the European Cup win in 1982, and has a light blue background behind Villa 's ' lion rampant '. The traditional motto "Prepared '' remains in the badge, and the name Aston Villa has been shortened to AVFC, FC having been omitted from the previous badge. The lion is now unified as opposed to fragmented lions of the past. Randy Lerner petitioned fans to help with the design of the new badge.
On 6 April 2016, the club confirmed that it would be using a new badge from the 2016 -- 17 season after consulting fan groups for suggestions. The lion in the new badge has claws added to it, and the word "Prepared '' was removed to increase the size of the lion and club initials in the badge.
Aston Villa forwent commercial kit sponsorship for the 2008 -- 09 and 2009 -- 10 seasons; instead advertising the charity Acorns Children 's Hospice, the first deal of its kind in Premier league history. The partnership continued until 2010 when a commercial sponsor replaced Acorns, with the hospice becoming the club 's Official Charity Partner. In 2014 -- 15, the Acorns name returned to Aston Villa 's home and away shirts, but only for children 's shirts re-affirming the club 's support for the children 's charity.
Since 2017 Villa 's shirt sponsors have been Unibet. Previous commercial sponsors have been Davenports (1982 -- 83), Mita (1983 -- 93), Müller (1993 -- 95), AST Computer (1995 -- 98), LDV (1998 -- 2000), NTL (2000 -- 02), Rover (2002 -- 04), DWS Investments (2004 -- 06), 32Red.com (2006 -- 08), FxPro (2010 -- 11), Genting Casinos (2011 -- 13), Dafabet (2013 -- 2015), and Intuit QuickBooks (2015 -- 2017). Since 2016, kit has been manufactured by Under Armour. Previous manufacturers have been Umbro (1972 -- 81, 1990 -- 93), le Coq Sportif (1981 -- 83), Henson (1983 -- 87), Hummel (1987 -- 90, 2004 -- 07), Asics (1993 -- 95), Reebok (1995 -- 2000), Diadora (2000 -- 04), Nike (2007 -- 12) and Macron (2012 -- 16).
Aston Villa 's current home venue is Villa Park, which is a UEFA 5 - star rated stadium, having previously played at Aston Park (1874 -- 1876) and Wellington Road (1876 -- 1897). Villa Park is the largest football stadium in the English Midlands, and the eighth largest stadium in England. It has hosted 16 England internationals at senior level, the first in 1899, and the most recent in 2005. Thus, it was the first English ground to stage international football in three different centuries. Villa Park is the most used stadium in FA Cup semi-final history, having hosted 55 semi-finals. The club have planning permission to extend the North Stand; this will involve the ' filling in ' of the corners to either side of the North Stand. If completed, the capacity of Villa Park will be increased to approximately 51,000.
The current training ground is located at Bodymoor Heath near Kingsbury in north Warwickshire, the site for which was purchased by former chairman Doug Ellis in the early 1970s from a local farmer. Although Bodymoor Heath was state - of - the - art in the 1970s, by the late 1990s the facilities had started to look dated. In November 2005, Ellis and Aston Villa plc announced a state of the art GB £ 13 million redevelopment of Bodymoor in two phases. However, work on Bodymoor was suspended by Ellis due to financial problems, and was left in an unfinished state until new owner Randy Lerner made it one of his priorities to make the site one of the best in world football. The new training ground was officially unveiled on 6 May 2007, by then manager Martin O'Neill, then team captain Gareth Barry and 1982 European Cup winning team captain Dennis Mortimer, with the Aston Villa squad moving in for the 2007 -- 08 season.
It was announced on 6 August 2014, that Villa Park would appear in the FIFA video game from FIFA 15 onwards, with all other Premier League stadiums also fully licensed from this game onwards.
The first shares in the club were issued towards the end of the 19th century as a result of legislation that was intended to codify the growing numbers of professional teams and players in the Association Football leagues. FA teams were required to distribute shares to investors as a way of facilitating trading among the teams without implicating the FA itself. This trading continued for much of the 20th century until Ellis started buying up many of the shares in the 1960s. He was chairman and substantial shareholder of "Aston Villa F.C. '' from 1968 to 1975 and the majority shareholder from 1982 to 2006. The club were floated on the London Stock Exchange (LSE) in 1996, and the share price fluctuated in the ten years after the flotation. In 2006 it was announced that several consortia and individuals were considering bids for Aston Villa.
On 14 August 2006, it was confirmed that Randy Lerner, then owner of the National Football League 's Cleveland Browns, had reached an agreement of £ 62.6 million with Aston Villa for a takeover of the club. A statement released on 25 August to the LSE announced that Lerner had secured 59.69 % of Villa shares, making him the majority shareholder. He also appointed himself Chairman of the club. In Ellis 's last year in charge Villa lost £ 8.2 m before tax, compared with a £ 3m profit the previous year, and income had fallen from £ 51.6 m to £ 49m. Lerner took full control on 18 September, as he had 89.69 % of the shares. On 19 September 2006, Ellis and his board resigned to be replaced with a new board headed by Lerner. Lerner installed Charles Krulak as a non-executive director and Ellis was awarded the honorary position of Chairman Emeritus.
Lerner put the club up for sale in May 2014, valuing it at an estimated £ 200 million.
On 18 May 2016, Randy Lerner agreed the sale of Aston Villa to Recon Group, owned by Chinese businessman Xia Jiantong. The sale was completed on 14 June 2016 for a reported £ 76 million after being approved by the Football League, with the club becoming part of Recon Group 's Sport, Leisure and Tourism division. Recon Group were selected to take over Aston Villa following a selection process by the club.
Aston Villa have a unique relationship with the Acorns Children 's Hospice charity that is groundbreaking in English football. In a first for the Premier League, Aston Villa donated the front of the shirt on their kit, usually reserved for high - paying sponsorships, to Acorns Hospice so that the charity would gain significant additional visibility and greater fund raising capabilities. Outside of the shirt sponsorship the club have paid for hospice care for the charity as well as regularly providing player visits to hospice locations.
In September 2010, Aston Villa launched an initiative at Villa Park called Villa Midlands Food (VMF) where the club will spend two years training students with Aston Villa Hospitality and Events in association with Birmingham City Council. The club will open a restaurant in the Trinity Road Stand staffed with 12 students recruited from within a ten - mile (16 km) radius of Villa Park with the majority of the food served in the restaurant sourced locally.
Aston Villa have a large fanbase and draw support from all over the Midlands and beyond, with supporters ' clubs all across the world. Former Villa chief executive Richard Fitzgerald has stated that the ethnicity of the supporters is currently 98 % white. When Randy Lerner 's regime took over at Villa Park, they aimed to improve their support from ethnic minorities. A number of organisations have been set up to support the local community, including Aston Pride. A Villa in the Community programme has also been set up to encourage support among young people in the region. The new owners have also initiated several surveys aimed at gaining the opinions of Villa fans and to involve them in the decision making process. Meetings also occur every three months where supporters are invited by ballot and are invited to ask questions to the Board. In 2011, the club supported a supporter - based initiative for an official anthem to boost the atmosphere at Villa Park. The song "The Bells Are Ringing '' is to be played before games.
Like many English football clubs, Aston Villa have had several hooligan firms associated with them: Villa Youth, Steamers, Villa Hardcore and the C - Crew, the last mentioned being very active during the 1970s and 1980s. As can be seen across the whole of English football, the hooligan groups have now been marginalised. In 2004, several Villa firms were involved in a fight with QPR fans outside Villa Park in which a steward died. The main groupings of supporters can now be found in a number of domestic and international supporters ' clubs. This includes the Official Aston Villa Supporters Club which also has many smaller regional and international sections. There were several independent supporters clubs during the reign of Doug Ellis but most of these disbanded after his retirement. The supporter group My Old Man Said formed to stand up for Villa supporters ' rights, as a direct result of Villa supporters ' protest against the club 's appointment of Alex McLeish. The club 's supporters also publish fanzines such as Heroes and Villains and The Holy Trinity.
Aston Villa 's arch - rivals are Birmingham City, with games between the two clubs known as the Second City Derby. Historically though, West Bromwich Albion have arguably been Villa 's greatest rivals, a view highlighted in a fan survey, conducted in 2003. The two teams contested three FA Cup finals in the late 19th century. Villa also enjoy less heated local rivalries with Wolverhampton Wanderers and Coventry City. Through the relegation of West Brom and Birmingham City, to the Football League Championship, in the 2005 -- 06 season, at the start of 2006 -- 07 Premiership season, Villa were the only Midlands club in that League. The nearest opposing team Villa faced during that season was Sheffield United, who played 62 miles (100 km) away in South Yorkshire. For the 2010 -- 11 season, West Bromwich Albion were promoted and joined Aston Villa, Wolverhampton Wanderers, and Birmingham City in the Premier League. This marked the first time that the "West Midlands ' Big Four '' clubs have been in the Premier League at the same time, and the first time together in the top flight since the 1983 -- 84 season. Birmingham were relegated at the end of the 2010 -- 11 season, ending this period.
At the end of the 2015 -- 16 season Aston Villa had spent 105 seasons in the top tier of English football; the only club to have spent longer in the top flight are Everton, with 114 seasons, making Aston Villa versus Everton the most - played fixture in English top - flight football. Aston Villa were relegated in from the top tier of English football in 2016, having played in every Premier League season since its establishment in 1992 -- 93. They are seventh in the All - time FA Premier League table, and have the fifth highest total of major honours won by an English club with 21 wins.
Aston Villa currently hold the record number of league goals scored by any team in the English top flight; 128 goals were scored in the 1930 -- 31 season, one more than Arsenal who won the league that season for the very first time, with Villa runners - up. Villa legend Archie Hunter became the first player to score in every round of the FA Cup in Villa 's victorious 1887 campaign. Villa 's longest unbeaten home run in the FA Cup spanned 13 years and 19 games, from 1888 to 1901.
Aston Villa are one of five English teams to have won the European Cup. They did so on 26 May 1982 in Rotterdam, beating Bayern Munich 1 -- 0 thanks to Peter Withe 's goal.
Aston Villa have won European and domestic league honours. The club 's last major honour was in 1996 when they won the League Cup.
Note: Flags indicate national team as defined under FIFA eligibility rules. Players may hold more than one non-FIFA nationality.
Note: Flags indicate national team as defined under FIFA eligibility rules. Players may hold more than one non-FIFA nationality.
These players can also play with the senior squad.
Note: Flags indicate national team as defined under FIFA eligibility rules. Players may hold more than one non-FIFA nationality.
These players can also play with the Under 23s and the senior squad.
Note: Flags indicate national team as defined under FIFA eligibility rules. Players may hold more than one non-FIFA nationality.
There have been many players who can be called notable throughout Aston Villa 's history. These can be classified and recorded in several forms. The Halls of Fame and PFA Players of the Year are noted below. As of 2014, Aston Villa, jointly with Tottenham Hotspur, hold the record for providing the most England internationals with 73. Aston Villa have had several players who were one - club men, including inaugural club Hall of Fame inductee Billy Walker. In 1998, to celebrate the 100th season of League football, The Football League released a list entitled the Football League 100 Legends that consisted of "100 legendary football players. '' There were seven players included on the list who had formerly played for Villa: Danny Blanchflower, Trevor Ford, Archie Hunter, Sam Hardy, Paul McGrath, Peter Schmeichel and Clem Stephenson.
Three Aston Villa players have won the PFA Players ' Player of the Year award. In 1977 Andy Gray won the award. In 1990 it was awarded to David Platt, whilst Paul McGrath won it in 1993. The PFA Young Player of the Year, which is awarded to players under the age of 23, has been awarded to four players from Aston Villa: Andy Gray in 1977; Gary Shaw in 1981; Ashley Young in 2009 and James Milner in 2010. The National Football Museum in Preston, Lancashire administers the English Football Hall of Fame which currently contains two Villa teams, two Villa players and one manager. The 1890s team and 1982 team were inducted into the Hall of Fame in July 2009. Joe Mercer was inducted into the Hall of Fame at the same time for his career as a manager including his time at Aston Villa. The only two Villa players in the Hall of Fame are Danny Blanchflower and Peter Schmeichel.
In 2006 the club announced the creation of an "Aston Villa Hall of Fame. '' This was voted for by fans and the inaugural induction saw 12 former players, managers and directors named. Stiliyan Petrov was added to the list in May 2013.
Reference:
The following managers have all won at least one trophy when in charge or have been notable for Villa in the context of the League, for example Jozef Vengloš who holds a League record.
A number of television programmes have included references to Aston Villa over the past few decades. In the sitcom Porridge, the character Lennie Godber is a Villa supporter. When filming began on Dad 's Army, Villa fan Ian Lavender was allowed to choose Frank Pike 's scarf from an array in the BBC wardrobe; he chose a claret and blue one -- Aston Villa 's colours. The character Nessa in the BBC sitcom Gavin & Stacey was revealed as an Aston Villa fan in an episode screened in December 2009.
In the 1952 film The Card, the main character Denry Machin becomes a town councillor and purchases the rights to locally born Aston Villa player ' Callear ', the "greatest centre - forward in England '', for the failing local football club. Villa have also featured on several occasions in prose. Stanley Woolley, a character in Derek Robinson 's Booker shortlisted novel Goshawk Squadron is an Aston Villa fan and names a pre-war starting eleven Villa side. Together with The Oval, Villa Park is referenced by the poet Philip Larkin in his poem about the First World War, MCMXIV. Aston Villa are also mentioned in Harold Pinter 's play The Dumb Waiter.
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what did american romantic poets use as literary models | English poetry - wikipedia
This article focuses on poetry written in English from the United Kingdom: England, Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland (and Ireland before 1922). However, though the whole of Ireland was politically part of the United Kingdom between January 1801 and December 1922, it can be controversial to describe Irish literature as British, and for some this includes authors from Northern Ireland. The article does not include poetry from other countries where the English language is spoken.
The earliest surviving English poetry, written in Anglo - Saxon, the direct predecessor of modern English, may have been composed as early as the 7th century.
The earliest known English poem is a hymn on the creation; Bede attributes this to Cædmon (fl. 658 -- 680), who was, according to legend, an illiterate herdsman who produced extemporaneous poetry at a monastery at Whitby. This is generally taken as marking the beginning of Anglo - Saxon poetry.
Much of the poetry of the period is difficult to date, or even to arrange chronologically; for example, estimates for the date of the great epic Beowulf range from AD 608 right through to AD 1000, and there has never been anything even approaching a consensus. It is possible to identify certain key moments, however. The Dream of the Rood was written before circa AD 700, when excerpts were carved in runes on the Ruthwell Cross. Some poems on historical events, such as The Battle of Brunanburh (937) and The Battle of Maldon (991), appear to have been composed shortly after the events in question, and can be dated reasonably precisely in consequence.
By and large, however, Anglo - Saxon poetry is categorised by the manuscripts in which it survives, rather than its date of composition. The most important manuscripts are the four great poetical codices of the late 10th and early 11th centuries, known as the Cædmon manuscript, the Vercelli Book, the Exeter Book, and the Beowulf manuscript.
While the poetry that has survived is limited in volume, it is wide in breadth. Beowulf is the only heroic epic to have survived in its entirety, but fragments of others such as Waldere and the Finnesburg Fragment show that it was not unique in its time. Other genres include much religious verse, from devotional works to biblical paraphrase; elegies such as The Wanderer, The Seafarer, and The Ruin (often taken to be a description of the ruins of Bath); and numerous proverbs, riddles, and charms.
With one notable exception (Rhyming Poem), Anglo - Saxon poetry depends on alliterative verse for its structure and any rhyme included is merely ornamental.
With the Norman conquest of England, beginning in 1111 the Anglo - Saxon language rapidly diminished as a written literary language. The new aristocracy spoke predominantly Norman, and this became the standard language of courts, parliament, and polite society. As the invaders integrated, their language and literature mingled with that of the natives: the Oïl dialect of the upper classes became Anglo - Norman, and Anglo - Saxon underwent a gradual transition into Middle English.
While Anglo - Norman or Latin was preferred for high culture, English literature by no means died out, and a number of important works illustrate the development of the language. Around the turn of the 13th century, Layamon wrote his Brut, based on Wace 's 12th century Anglo - Norman epic of the same name; Layamon 's language is recognisably Middle English, though his prosody shows a strong Anglo - Saxon influence remaining. Other transitional works were preserved as popular entertainment, including a variety of romances and lyrics. With time, the English language regained prestige, and in 1362 it replaced French and Latin in Parliament and courts of law.
It was with the 14th century that major works of English literature began once again to appear; these include the so - called Pearl Poet 's Pearl, Patience, Cleanness, and Sir Gawain and the Green Knight; Langland 's political and religious allegory Piers Plowman; Gower 's Confessio Amantis; and the works of Chaucer, the most highly regarded English poet of the Middle Ages, who was seen by his contemporaries as a successor to the great tradition of Virgil and Dante.
The reputation of Chaucer 's successors in the 15th century has suffered in comparison with him, though Lydgate and Skelton are widely studied. A group of Scottish writers arose who were formerly believed to be influenced by Chaucer. The rise of Scottish poetry began with the writing of The Kingis Quair by James I of Scotland. The main poets of this Scottish group were Robert Henryson, William Dunbar and Gavin Douglas. Henryson and Douglas introduced a note of almost savage satire, which may have owed something to the Gaelic bards, while Douglas ' Eneados, a translation into Middle Scots of Virgil 's Aeneid, was the first complete translation of any major work of classical antiquity into an English or Anglic language.
The Renaissance was slow in coming to England, with the generally accepted start date being around 1509. It is also generally accepted that the English Renaissance extended until the Restoration in 1660. However, a number of factors had prepared the way for the introduction of the new learning long before this start date. A number of medieval poets had, as already noted, shown an interest in the ideas of Aristotle and the writings of European Renaissance precursors such as Dante.
The introduction of movable - block printing by Caxton in 1474 provided the means for the more rapid dissemination of new or recently rediscovered writers and thinkers. Caxton also printed the works of Chaucer and Gower and these books helped establish the idea of a native poetic tradition that was linked to its European counterparts. In addition, the writings of English humanists like Thomas More and Thomas Elyot helped bring the ideas and attitudes associated with the new learning to an English audience.
Three other factors in the establishment of the English Renaissance were the Reformation, Counter Reformation, and the opening of the era of English naval power and overseas exploration and expansion. The establishment of the Church of England in 1535 accelerated the process of questioning the Catholic world - view that had previously dominated intellectual and artistic life. At the same time, long - distance sea voyages helped provide the stimulus and information that underpinned a new understanding of the nature of the universe which resulted in the theories of Nicolaus Copernicus and Johannes Kepler.
With a small number of exceptions, the early years of the 16th century are not particularly notable. The Douglas Aeneid was completed in 1513 and John Skelton wrote poems that were transitional between the late Medieval and Renaissance styles. The new king, Henry VIII, was something of a poet himself.
Thomas Wyatt (1503 -- 42), one of the earliest English Renaissance poets. He was responsible for many innovations in English poetry, and alongside Henry Howard, Earl of Surrey (1516 / 1517 -- 47) introduced the sonnet from Italy into England in the early 16th century. Wyatt 's professed object was to experiment with the English tongue, to civilise it, to raise its powers to those of its neighbours. Much of his literary output consists of translations and imitations of sonnets by the Italian poet Petrarch, but he also wrote sonnets of his own. Wyatt took subject matter from Petrarch 's sonnets, but his rhyme schemes make a significant departure. Petrarch 's sonnets consist of an "octave '', rhyming abba abba, followed, after a turn (volta) in the sense, by a sestet with various rhyme schemes; however his poems never ended in a rhyming couplet. Wyatt employs the Petrarchan octave, but his most common sestet scheme is cddc ee. This marks the beginnings of the English sonnet with 3 quatrains and a closing couplet.
The Elizabethan period (1558 to 1603) in poetry is characterized by a number of frequently overlapping developments. The introduction and adaptation of themes, models and verse forms from other European traditions and classical literature, the Elizabethan song tradition, the emergence of a courtly poetry often centred around the figure of the monarch and the growth of a verse - based drama are among the most important of these developments.
A wide range of Elizabethan poets wrote songs, including Nicholas Grimald, Thomas Nashe and Robert Southwell. There are also a large number of extant anonymous songs from the period. Perhaps the greatest of all the songwriters was Thomas Campion. Campion is also notable because of his experiments with metres based on counting syllables rather than stresses. These quantitative metres were based on classical models and should be viewed as part of the wider Renaissance revival of Greek and Roman artistic methods.
The songs were generally printed either in miscellanies or anthologies such as Richard Tottel 's 1557 Songs and Sonnets or in songbooks that included printed music to enable performance. These performances formed an integral part of both public and private entertainment. By the end of the 16th century, a new generation of composers, including John Dowland, William Byrd, Orlando Gibbons, Thomas Weelkes and Thomas Morley were helping to bring the art of Elizabethan song to an extremely high musical level.
Elizabethan poems and plays were often written in iambic meters, based on a metrical foot of two syllables, one unstressed and one stressed. However, much metrical experimentation took place during the period, and many of the songs, in particular, departed widely from the iambic norm.
With the consolidation of Elizabeth 's power, a genuine court sympathetic to poetry and the arts in general emerged. This encouraged the emergence of a poetry aimed at, and often set in, an idealised version of the courtly world.
Among the best known examples of this are Edmund Spenser 's The Faerie Queene, which is effectively an extended hymn of praise to the queen, and Philip Sidney 's Arcadia. This courtly trend can also be seen in Spenser 's Shepheardes Calender. This poem marks the introduction into an English context of the classical pastoral, a mode of poetry that assumes an aristocratic audience with a certain kind of attitude to the land and peasants. The explorations of love found in the sonnets of William Shakespeare and the poetry of Walter Raleigh and others also implies a courtly audience.
Virgil 's Aeneid, Thomas Campion 's metrical experiments, and Spenser 's Shepheardes Calender and plays like Shakespeare 's Antony and Cleopatra are all examples of the influence of classicism on Elizabethan poetry. It remained common for poets of the period to write on themes from classical mythology; Shakespeare 's Venus and Adonis and the Christopher Marlowe / George Chapman Hero and Leander are examples of this kind of work.
Translations of classical poetry also became more widespread, with the versions of Ovid 's Metamorphoses by Arthur Golding (1565 -- 67) and George Sandys (1626), and Chapman 's translations of Homer 's Iliad (1611) and Odyssey (c. 1615), among the outstanding examples.
English Renaissance poetry after the Elizabethan poetry can be seen as belonging to one of three strains; the Metaphysical poets, the Cavalier poets and the school of Spenser. However, the boundaries between these three groups are not always clear and an individual poet could write in more than one manner.
Shakespeare also popularized the English sonnet, which made significant changes to Petrarch 's model. A collection of 154 by sonnets, dealing with themes such as the passage of time, love, beauty and mortality, were first published in a 1609 quarto.
John Milton (1608 -- 74) is considered one of the greatest English poets, and wrote at a time of religious flux and political upheaval. He is generally seen as the last major poet of the English Renaissance, though his most renowned epic poems were written in the Restoration period, including Paradise Lost (1671). Among the important poems Milton wrote during this period are L'Allegro, 1631; Il Penseroso, 1634; Comus (a masque), 1638; and Lycidas (1638). Paradise Regained (1671) and Samson Agonistes (1671) are also highly regarded. William Hayley 's 1796 biography called him the "greatest English author '', and he remains generally regarded "as one of the preeminent writers in the English language ''.
The early 17th century saw the emergence of this group of poets who wrote in a witty, complicated style. The most famous of the Metaphysicals is probably John Donne. Others include George Herbert, Thomas Traherne, Henry Vaughan, Andrew Marvell, and Richard Crashaw. John Milton in his Comus falls into this group. The Metaphysical poets went out of favour in the 18th century but began to be read again in the Victorian era. Donne 's reputation was finally fully restored by the approbation of T.S. Eliot in the early 20th century.
Influenced by continental Baroque, and taking as his subject matter both Christian mysticism and eroticism, Donne 's metaphysical poetry uses unconventional or "unpoetic '' figures, such as a compass or a mosquito, to reach surprise effects. For example, in "Valediction: Forbidding Mourning '', one of Donne 's Songs and Sonnets, the points of a compass represent two lovers, the woman who is home, waiting, being the centre, the farther point being her lover sailing away from her. But the larger the distance, the more the hands of the compass lean to each other: separation makes love grow fonder. The paradox or the oxymoron is a constant in this poetry whose fears and anxieties also speak of a world of spiritual certainties shaken by the modern discoveries of geography and science, one that is no longer the centre of the universe.
Another important group of poets at this time were the Cavalier poets. The Cavalier poets wrote in a lighter, more elegant and artificial style than the Metaphysical poets. They were an important group of writers, who came from the classes that supported King Charles I during the Wars of the Three Kingdoms (1639 -- 51). (King Charles reigned from 1625 and was executed 1649). Leading members of the group include Ben Jonson, Richard Lovelace, Robert Herrick, Edmund Waller, Thomas Carew, Sir John Suckling, and John Denham. The Cavalier poets can be seen as the forerunners of the major poets of the Augustan era, who admired them greatly. They "were not a formal group, but all were influenced '' by Ben Jonson. Most of the Cavalier poets were courtiers, with notable exceptions. For example, Robert Herrick was not a courtier, but his style marks him as a Cavalier poet. Cavalier works make use of allegory and classical allusions, and are influence by Latin authors Horace, Cicero, and Ovid.
John Milton 's Paradise Lost (1667), a story of fallen pride, was the first major poem to appear in England after the Restoration. The court of Charles II had, in its years in France, learned a worldliness and sophistication that marked it as distinctively different from the monarchies that preceded the Republic. Even if Charles had wanted to reassert the divine right of kingship, the Protestantism and taste for power of the intervening years would have rendered it impossible.
John Milton (1608 -- 74), one of the greatest English poets, wrote at this time of religious flux and political upheaval. He is generally seen as the last major poet of the English Renaissance, though his major epic poems were written in the Restoration period. Some of Milton 's important poems, were written before the Restoration, including L'Allegro, 1631; Il Penseroso, 1634; Comus (a masque), 1638; and Lycidas, (1638). His later major works include Paradise Regained, 1671 and Samson Agonistes, 1671. Milton 's works reflect deep personal convictions, a passion for freedom and self - determination, and the urgent issues and political turbulence of his day. Writing in English, Latin, and Italian, he achieved international renown within his lifetime, and his celebrated Areopagitica (1644), written in condemnation of pre-publication censorship, is among history 's most influential and impassioned defences of free speech and freedom of the press. William Hayley 's 1796 biography called him the "greatest English author '', and he remains generally regarded "as one of the preeminent writers in the English language ''.
The world of fashion and scepticism that emerged encouraged the art of satire. All the major poets of the period, Samuel Butler, John Dryden, Alexander Pope and Samuel Johnson, and the Irish poet Jonathan Swift, wrote satirical verse. Their satire was often written in defence of public order and the established church and government. However, writers such as Pope used their gift for satire to create scathing works responding to their detractors or to criticise what they saw as social atrocities perpetrated by the government. Pope 's "The Dunciad '' is a satirical slaying of two of his literary adversaries (Lewis Theobald, and Colley Cibber in a later version), expressing the view that British society was falling apart morally, culturally, and intellectually.
The 18th century is sometimes called the Augustan age, and contemporary admiration for the classical world extended to the poetry of the time. Not only did the poets aim for a polished high style in emulation of the Roman ideal, they also translated and imitated Greek and Latin verse resulting in measured rationalised elegant verse. Dryden translated all the known works of Virgil, and Pope produced versions of the two Homeric epics. Horace and Juvenal were also widely translated and imitated, Horace most famously by John Wilmot, Earl of Rochester and Juvenal by Samuel Johnson 's Vanity of Human Wishes.
A number of women poets of note emerged during the period of the Restoration, including Aphra Behn, Margaret Cavendish, Mary Chudleigh, Anne Finch, Anne Killigrew, and Katherine Philips. Nevertheless, print publication by women poets was still relatively scarce when compared to that of men, though manuscript evidence indicates that many more women poets were practicing than was previously thought. Disapproval of feminine "forwardness '', however, kept many out of print in the early part of the period, and even as the century progressed women authors still felt the need to justify their incursions into the public sphere by claiming economic necessity or the pressure of friends. Women writers were increasingly active in all genres throughout the 18th century, and by the 1790s women 's poetry was flourishing. Notable poets later in the period include Anna Laetitia Barbauld, Joanna Baillie, Susanna Blamire, Felicia Hemans, Mary Leapor, Lady Mary Wortley Montagu, Hannah More, and Mary Robinson. In the past decades there has been substantial scholarly and critical work done on women poets of the long 18th century: first, to reclaim them and make them available in contemporary editions in print or online, and second, to assess them and position them within a literary tradition.
Towards the end of the 18th century, poetry began to move away from the strict Augustan ideals and a new emphasis on sentiment and the feelings of the poet. This trend can perhaps be most clearly seen in the handling of nature, with a move away from poems about formal gardens and landscapes by urban poets and towards poems about nature as lived in. The leading exponents of this new trend include Thomas Gray, George Crabbe, Christopher Smart and Robert Burns as well as the Irish poet Oliver Goldsmith. These poets can be seen as paving the way for the Romantic movement.
See also: Romantic literature in English; English Romantic sonnets
The last quarter of the 18th century was a time of social and political turbulence, with revolutions in the United States, France, Ireland and elsewhere. In Great Britain, movement for social change and a more inclusive sharing of power was also growing. This was the backdrop against which the Romantic movement in English poetry emerged.
The main poets of this movement were William Blake, William Wordsworth, Samuel Taylor Coleridge, Percy Bysshe Shelley, Lord Byron, and John Keats. The birth of English Romanticism is often dated to the publication in 1798 of Wordsworth and Coleridge 's Lyrical Ballads. However, Blake had been publishing since the early 1780s. Much of the focus on Blake only came about during the last century when Northrop Frye discussed his work in his book "The Anatomy of Criticism. '' Shelley is most famous for such classic anthology verse works as Ozymandias, and long visionary poems which include Prometheus Unbound. Shelley 's groundbreaking poem The Masque of Anarchy calls for nonviolence in protest and political action. It is perhaps the first modern statement of the principle of nonviolent protest. Mahatma Gandhi 's passive resistance was influenced and inspired by Shelley 's verse, and would often quote the poem to vast audiences.
In poetry, the Romantic movement emphasised the creative expression of the individual and the need to find and formulate new forms of expression. The Romantics, with the partial exception of Byron, rejected the poetic ideals of the 18th century, and each of them returned to Milton for inspiration, though each drew something different from Milton. They also put a good deal of stress on their own originality.
To the Romantics, the moment of creation was the most important in poetic expression and could not be repeated once it passed. Because of this new emphasis, poems that were not complete were nonetheless included in a poet 's body of work (such as Coleridge 's "Kubla Khan '' and "Christabel ''). This argument has, however, been challenged in Zachary Leader 's study Revision and Romantic Authorship (1996).
Additionally, the Romantic movement marked a shift in the use of language. Attempting to express the "language of the common man '', Wordsworth and his fellow Romantic poets focused on employing poetic language for a wider audience, countering the mimetic, tightly constrained Neo-Classic poems (although it 's important to note that the poet wrote first and foremost for his / her own creative, expression). In Shelley 's "Defense of Poetry '', he contends that poets are the "creators of language '' and that the poet 's job is to refresh language for their society.
The Romantics were not the only poets of note at this time. In the work of John Clare the late Augustan voice is blended with a peasant 's first - hand knowledge to produce arguably some of the finest nature poetry in the English language. Another contemporary poet who does not fit into the Romantic group was Walter Savage Landor. Landor was a classicist whose poetry forms a link between the Augustans and Robert Browning, who much admired it.
The Victorian era was a period of great political change, social and economic change. The Empire recovered from the loss of the American colonies and entered a period of rapid expansion. This expansion, combined with increasing industrialisation and mechanisation, led to a prolonged period of economic growth. The Reform Act 1832 was the beginning of a process that would eventually lead to universal suffrage.
The major Victorian poets were John Clare, Alfred, Lord Tennyson, Robert Browning, Elizabeth Barrett Browning, Matthew Arnold and Gerard Manley Hopkins, though Hopkins was not published until 1918.
John Clare came to be known for his celebratory representations of the English countryside and his lamentation of its disruption. His biographer Jonathan Bate states that Clare was "the greatest labouring - class poet that England has ever produced. No one has ever written more powerfully of nature, of a rural childhood, and of the alienated and unstable self ''.
Tennyson was, to some degree, the Spenser of the new age and his Idylls of the Kings can be read as a Victorian version of The Faerie Queen, that is as a poem that sets out to provide a mythic foundation to the idea of empire.
The Brownings spent much of their time out of England and explored European models and matter in much of their poetry. Robert Browning 's great innovation was the dramatic monologue, which he used to its full extent in his long novel in verse, The Ring and the Book. Elizabeth Barrett Browning is perhaps best remembered for Sonnets from the Portuguese but her long poem Aurora Leigh is one of the classics of 19th century feminist literature.
Matthew Arnold was much influenced by Wordsworth, though his poem Dover Beach is often considered a precursor of the modernist revolution. Hopkins wrote in relative obscurity and his work was not published until after his death. His unusual style (involving what he called "sprung rhythm '' and heavy reliance on rhyme and alliteration) had a considerable influence on many of the poets of the 1940s.
The Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood was a mid-19th century arts movement dedicated to the reform of what they considered the sloppy Mannerist painting of the day. Although primarily concerned with the visual arts, two members, the brother and sister Dante Gabriel Rossetti and Christina Rossetti, were also poets of some ability. Their poetry shares many of the concerns of the painters; an interest in Medieval models, an almost obsessive attention to visual detail and an occasional tendency to lapse into whimsy.
Dante Rossetti worked with, and had some influence on, the leading arts and crafts painter and poet William Morris. Morris shared the Pre-Raphaelite interest in the poetry of the European Middle Ages, to the point of producing some illuminated manuscript volumes of his work.
Towards the end of the century, English poets began to take an interest in French symbolism and Victorian poetry entered a decadent fin - de-siecle phase. Two groups of poets emerged, the Yellow Book poets who adhered to the tenets of Aestheticism, including Algernon Charles Swinburne, Oscar Wilde and Arthur Symons and the Rhymers ' Club group that included Ernest Dowson, Lionel Johnson and William Butler Yeats.
Comic verse abounded in the Victorian era. Magazines such as Punch and Fun magazine teemed with humorous invention and were aimed at a well - educated readership. The most famous collection of Victorian comic verse is the Bab Ballads.
The Victorian era continued into the early years of the 20th century and two figures emerged as the leading representative of the poetry of the old era to act as a bridge into the new. These were Yeats and Thomas Hardy. Yeats, although not a modernist, was to learn a lot from the new poetic movements that sprang up around him and adapted his writing to the new circumstances. Hardy was, in terms of technique at least, a more traditional figure and was to be a reference point for various anti-modernist reactions, especially from the 1950s onwards.
A.E. Housman (1859 -- 1936) was poet who was born in the Victorian era and who first published in the 1890s, but who only really became known in the 20th century. Housman is best known for his cycle of poems A Shropshire Lad (1896). This collection was turned down by several publishers so that Housman published it himself, and the work only became popular when "the advent of war, first in the Boer War and then in World War I, gave the book widespread appeal due to its nostalgic depiction of brave English soldiers ''. The poems ' wistful evocation of doomed youth in the English countryside, in spare language and distinctive imagery, appealed strongly to late Victorian and Edwardian taste, and the fact that several early 20th - century composers set it to music helped its popularity. Housman published a further highly successful collection Last Poems in 1922 while a third volume, More Poems, was published posthumously in 1936.
The Georgian poets were the first major grouping of the post-Victorian era. Their work appeared in a series of five anthologies called Georgian Poetry which were published by Harold Monro and edited by Edward Marsh. The poets featured included Edmund Blunden, Rupert Brooke, Robert Graves, D.H. Lawrence, Walter de la Mare and Siegfried Sassoon. Their poetry represented something of a reaction to the decadence of the 1890s and tended towards the sentimental.
Brooke and Sassoon were to go on to win reputations as war poets and Lawrence quickly distanced himself from the group and was associated with the modernist movement. Graves distanced himself from the group as well and wrote poetry in accordance with a belief in a prehistoric muse he described as The White Goddess. Other notable poets who wrote about the war include Isaac Rosenberg, Edward Thomas, Wilfred Owen, May Cannan and, from the home front, Thomas Hardy and Rudyard Kipling. Kipling is the author of the famous inspirational poem If --, which is an evocation of Victorian stoicism, as a traditional British virtue. Although many of these poets wrote socially - aware criticism of the war, most remained technically conservative and traditionalist.
Among the foremost avant - garde writers were the American - born poets Gertrude Stein, T.S. Eliot, H.D. and Ezra Pound, each of whom spent an important part of their writing lives in England, France and Italy.
Pound 's involvement with the Imagists marked the beginning of a revolution in the way poetry was written. English poets involved with this group included D.H. Lawrence, Richard Aldington, T.E. Hulme, F.S. Flint, Ford Madox Ford, Allen Upward and John Cournos. Eliot, particularly after the publication of The Waste Land, became a major figure and influence on other English poets.
In addition to these poets, other English modernists began to emerge. These included the London - Welsh poet and painter David Jones, whose first book, In Parenthesis, was one of the very few experimental poems to come out of World War I, the Scot Hugh MacDiarmid, Mina Loy and Basil Bunting.
The poets who began to emerge in the 1930s had two things in common; they had all been born too late to have any real experience of the pre-World War I world and they grew up in a period of social, economic and political turmoil. Perhaps as a consequence of these facts, themes of community, social (in) justice and war seem to dominate the poetry of the decade.
The poetic space of the decade was dominated by four poets; W.H. Auden, Stephen Spender, Cecil Day - Lewis and Louis MacNeice, although the last of these belongs at least as much to the history of Irish poetry. These poets were all, in their early days at least, politically active on the Left. Although they admired Eliot, they also represented a move away from the technical innovations of their modernist predecessors. A number of other, less enduring, poets also worked in the same vein. One of these was Michael Roberts, whose New Country anthology both introduced the group to a wider audience and gave them their name.
The 1930s also saw the emergence of a home - grown English surrealist poetry whose main exponents were David Gascoyne, Hugh Sykes Davies, George Barker, and Philip O'Connor. These poets turned to French models rather than either the New Country poets or English - language modernism, and their work was to prove of importance to later English experimental poets as it broadened the scope of the English avant - garde tradition.
John Betjeman and Stevie Smith, who were two other significant poets of this period, who stood outside all schools and groups. Betjeman was a quietly ironic poet of Middle England, with a command of a wide range of verse techniques. Smith was an entirely unclassifiable one - off voice.
The 1940s opened with the United Kingdom at war and a new generation of war poets emerged in response. These included Keith Douglas, Alun Lewis, Henry Reed and F.T. Prince. As with the poets of the First World War, the work of these writers can be seen as something of an interlude in the history of 20th century poetry. Technically, many of these war poets owed something to the 1930s poets, but their work grew out of the particular circumstances in which they found themselves living and fighting.
The main movement in post-war 1940s poetry was the New Romantic group that included Dylan Thomas, George Barker, W.S. Graham, Kathleen Raine, Henry Treece and J.F. Hendry. These writers saw themselves as in revolt against the classicism of the New Country poets. They turned to such models as Gerard Manley Hopkins, Arthur Rimbaud and Hart Crane and the word play of James Joyce. Thomas, in particular, helped Anglo - Welsh poetry to emerge as a recognisable force.
Other significant poets to emerge in the 1940s include Lawrence Durrell, Bernard Spencer, Roy Fuller, Norman Nicholson, Vernon Watkins, R.S. Thomas and Norman MacCaig. These last four poets represent a trend towards regionalism and poets writing about their native areas; Watkins and Thomas in Wales, Nicholson in Cumberland and MacCaig in Scotland.
The 1950s were dominated by three groups of poets, The Movement, The Group, and poets clarified by the term Extremist Art, which was first used by the poet A. Alvarez to describe the work of the American poet Sylvia Plath.
The Movement poets as a group came to public notice in Robert Conquest 's 1955 anthology New Lines. The core of the group consisted of Philip Larkin, Elizabeth Jennings, D.J. Enright, Kingsley Amis, Thom Gunn and Donald Davie. They were identified with a hostility to modernism and internationalism, and looked to Hardy as a model. However, both Davie and Gunn later moved away from this position.
As befits their name, the Group were much more formally a group of poets, meeting for weekly discussions under the chairmanship of Philip Hobsbaum and Edward Lucie - Smith. Other Group poets included Martin Bell, Peter Porter, Peter Redgrove, George MacBeth and David Wevill. Hobsbaum spent some time teaching in Belfast, where he was a formative influence on the emerging Northern Ireland poets including Seamus Heaney.
Other poets associated with Extremist Art included Plath 's one - time husband Ted Hughes, Francis Berry and Jon Silkin. These poets are sometimes compared with the Expressionist German school.
A number of young poets working in what might be termed a modernist vein also started publishing during this decade. These included Charles Tomlinson, Gael Turnbull, Roy Fisher and Bob Cobbing. These poets can now be seen as forerunners of some of the major developments during the following two decades.
In the early part of the 1960s, the centre of gravity of mainstream poetry moved to Northern Ireland, with the emergence of Seamus Heaney, Tom Paulin, Paul Muldoon and others. In England, the most cohesive groupings can, in retrospect, be seen to cluster around what might loosely be called the modernist tradition and draw on American as well as indigenous models.
The British Poetry Revival was a wide - reaching collection of groupings and subgroupings that embraces performance, sound and concrete poetry as well as the legacy of Pound, Jones, MacDiarmid, Loy and Bunting, the Objectivist poets, the Beats and the Black Mountain poets, among others. Leading poets associated with this movement include J.H. Prynne, Eric Mottram, Tom Raworth, Denise Riley and Lee Harwood.
The Mersey Beat poets were Adrian Henri, Brian Patten and Roger McGough. Their work was a self - conscious attempt at creating an English equivalent to the Beats. Many of their poems were written in protest against the established social order and, particularly, the threat of nuclear war. Although not actually a Mersey Beat poet, Adrian Mitchell is often associated with the group in critical discussion. Contemporary poet Steve Turner has also been compared with them.
About half - way from the Beats and the Angry Young Men stands Keith Barnes whose themes are WWII, love, social criticism and death. His Collected Poems were published in France.
Some consider the late Geoffrey Hill to have been the finest English poet of recent years. The last three decades of the 20th century saw a number of short - lived poetic groupings, including the Martians, along with a general trend towards what has been termed ' Poeclectics ', namely an intensification within individual poets ' oeuvres of "all kinds of style, subject, voice, register and form ''. There has also been a growth in interest in women 's writing, and in poetry from England 's minorities, especially the West Indian community. Performance poetry including poetry slam continues to be active. Some poets who emerged in this period include Carol Ann Duffy, Andrew Motion, Craig Raine, Wendy Cope, James Fenton, Blake Morrison, Liz Lochhead, George Szirtes, Linton Kwesi Johnson, Benjamin Zephaniah. Mark Ford is an example of a poet influenced by New York School.
There has been recent activity focused on poets in Bloodaxe Books ' The New Poetry, including Simon Armitage, Kathleen Jamie, Glyn Maxwell, Selima Hill, Maggie Hannan, Michael Hofmann and Peter Reading. The New Generation movement flowered in the 1990s and early 2000s, producing poets such as Don Paterson, Julia Copus, John Stammers, Jacob Polley, KM Warwick, David Morley and Alice Oswald. A new generation of innovative poets has also sprung up in the wake of the Revival grouping, notably Caroline Bergvall, Tony Lopez, Allen Fisher and Denise Riley. Important independent and experimental poetry pamphlet publishers include Barque, Flarestack, Knives, Forks and Spoons Press, Penned in the Margins, Heaventree (founded in 2002 but no longer publishing) and Perdika Press. Throughout this period, and to the present, independent poetry presses such as Enitharmon have continued to promote original work from (among others) Dannie Abse, Martyn Crucefix and Jane Duran.
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what does by order of the peaky blinders mean | Peaky Blinders - wikipedia
The Peaky Blinders were a criminal gang based in Birmingham, England, during the Victorian era.
Members of this gang wore a signature outfit: tailored jackets, a lapel overcoat, button waistcoats, silk scarves, bell - bottom trousers, leather boots, and peaked flat caps.
During the 1890s, the slums of Birmingham were overtaken by violent street gangs who, upon the turn of the 20th century, became highly organised with their own systems of hierarchy. Their violent tendencies led to vast amounts of political control and social power. A gang known as the "Sloggers '' were the first major rivals of the Blinders and fought them in "post code battles '' over land. The Peaky Blinders held various levels of control of Birmingham for nearly twenty years, largely concluded in 1910, when a larger gang, the Birmingham Boys led by Billy Kimber, overtook them.
The name Peaky Blinders is popularly said to be derived from a practice of stitching razor blades into the peak of their flat caps, which could then be used as weapons. Historian and criminal profiler John Douglas asserted that these hats were used as a weapon of choice for members. It is believed that members sewed razor blades into their caps so they could headbutt enemies, essentially blinding them. Reports alternatively issue that members slashed the foreheads of enemies causing blood to pour down into their eyes, temporarily blinding them. Birmingham historian Carl Chinn believes that the name comes solely from the popular usage of "peaky '' as a descriptor for a flat cap with a peak. "Blinder '' was a familiar Birmingham slang term, used even to this day, to describe a dapper appearance, i.e. striking enough to blind.
Members of the gang frequently wore tailored clothing uncommon for gangs at the time. Almost all members wore a peaked flat cap and an overcoat. Their sporting of the flat cap lends itself to debate regarding the naming of the gang. The Peaky Blinders wore tailored suits usually with bell - bottom trousers and button jackets. The weather conditions of the slums prompted members to incorporate leather steel - toed boots into their outfits. Wealthier members wore silk scarfs and starched collars with metal tie buttons. Their distinctive dress was easily recognisable by city inhabitants, police, and rival gang members.
The wives, girlfriends, and mistresses of the gang members were known for wearing lavish clothing. Pearls, silks, and colourful scarves were commonplace.
Low economic growth in central England led to a violent youth subculture. Poor youths frequently robbed and pickpocketed men walking on the streets of slum Birmingham. These efforts were executed through assaults, beatings, stabbings, and manual strangulation. During the 1890s, youth street gangs consisted of men between the ages of twelve and thirty. The late 1890s saw the organisation of these men into a soft hierarchy. The most powerful member of the Peaky Blinders was known as Kevin Mooney. His real name was Thomas Gilbert; however, he routinely changed his last name. Many of the land grabs undertaken by the gang were initiated by him. The most violent of these youth street gangs organised themselves as a singular group known as the "Peaky Blinders. '' After select gangsters attacked a man in 1890, they sent a letter to various national newspapers declaring themselves as members of this specific group. Their first activities primarily revolved around occupying favourable land, notably the communities of Small Heath and Cheapside, Birmingham. Their expansion was noted by their first gang rival, the "Cheapside Sloggers, '' who battled against them in an effort to control land. The Sloggers originated in the 1870s known for street fights in the Bordesley, and Small Heath areas -- extremely poor slums of Birmingham. In 1899, an Irish police constable was contracted to enforce local law in Birmingham. However, police corruption and bribery diminished the effectiveness of his enforcement.
The most prominent members of the gang were David Taylor, Earnest Haynes, Harry Fowles, Stephen McNickle, and Thomas Gilbert. Fowles, known as "Baby - faced Harry, '' was arrested at 19 for stealing a bike in October 1904. McNickle and Haynes were also arrested at the same time for stealing a bike and home invasion, respectively. Each was held for one month for their crimes. West Midlands police records described the three arrested as "foul mouthed young men who stalk the streets in drunken groups, insulting and mugging passers - by. '' Taylor was arrested at age 13 for carrying a loaded firearm.
The Peaky Blinders, after they established controlled territory, began expanding their criminal enterprise in during the late 1800s. Their activities included protection rackets, fraud, bribery, smuggling, hijacking, robbery, and bookmaking. Historian Heather Shor of the University of Leeds claims that the Blinders were more focused on street fighting, robbery, and racketeering, as opposed to more organised crime.
After nearly a decade of political control, their growing influence brought on the attention of a larger gang, the Birmingham Boys. The Peaky Blinders ' expansion into racecourses led to violent backlash from the Birmingham gang. Peaky Blinder families physically distanced themselves from Birmingham 's centre into the countryside. With the Blinders ' withdrawal from the criminal underworld, the Sabini gang moved in on the Birmingham Boys gang and solidified political control over Central England in the 1930s.
As the specific gang known as the Peaky Blinders diminished, their namesake was used as generic term to describe violent street youth. The gangs ' activities lasted from the 1890s until 1910.
The eponymous BBC television drama series Peaky Blinders, starring Cillian Murphy, Sam Neill and Helen McCrory premiered in October 2013. It presents a fictional story in which the Peaky Blinders contend in the underworld with the Birmingham Boys and the Sabini gang and follows a single fictional gang based in post-First World War Birmingham 's Small Heath area. Many of the scenes for the show were shot at the Black Country Living Museum.
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who played halftime at the superbowl last year | List of Super Bowl halftime shows - wikipedia
Halftime shows are a tradition during American football games at all levels of competition. Entertainment during the Super Bowl, the annual championship game of the National Football League (NFL), represents a fundamental link to pop culture, which helps broaden the television audience and nationwide interest. As the Super Bowl itself is typically the most - watched event on television in the United States annually, the halftime show has been equally - viewed in recent years: the halftime show of Super Bowl XLIX featuring Katy Perry was viewed by 118.5 million, as part of an overall telecast that peaked at 120.3 million at its conclusion -- the most - watched television broadcast in U.S. history. The NFL claims that the Super Bowl LI halftime show, with Lady Gaga was the "most - watched musical event of all - time, '' citing a figure of 150 million viewers based on the television audience, as well as unique viewership of video postings of the halftime show on the league 's platforms, and social media interactions (a metric that was never calculated prior to 2017). However, the show was seen by 117.5 million television viewers, making it the second - highest - rated halftime show.
Prior to the early 1990s, the halftime show was based around a theme, and featured university marching bands (the Grambling State University Marching Band has performed at the most Super Bowl halftime shows, featuring in six shows including at least one per decade from the 1960s to the 1990s), drill teams, and other performance ensembles such as Up with People. Beginning in 1991, the halftime show began to feature pop music acts such as New Kids on the Block and Gloria Estefan. In an effort to boost the prominence of the halftime show to increase viewer interest, Super Bowl XXVII featured a headlining performance by Michael Jackson. After Super Bowl XXXVIII, whose halftime show featured an incident where Justin Timberlake exposed one of Janet Jackson 's breasts, the halftime show began to feature classic rock acts until the return of headlining pop musicians in 2011.
During most of the Super Bowl 's first decade, the halftime show featured a college marching band. The show 's second decade featured a more varied show, often featuring drill teams and other performance ensembles; the group Up with People produced and starred in four of the performances. The middle of the third decade, in an effort to counter other networks ' efforts to counterprogram the game, saw the introduction of popular music acts such as New Kids on the Block, Gloria Estefan, Michael Jackson, Clint Black, Patti LaBelle, and Tony Bennett. Starting with Super Bowl XXXII, commercial sponsors presented the halftime show; within five years, the tradition of having a theme -- begun with Super Bowl III -- ended, replaced by major music productions by arena rock bands and other high - profile acts. In the six years immediately following an incident at Super Bowl XXXVIII where Justin Timberlake exposed one of Janet Jackson 's breasts in an alleged "wardrobe malfunction '', all of the halftime shows consisted of a performance by one artist or group, with the musicians in that era primarily being rock artists from the 1960s, 1970s and 1980s. These shows were considered "family friendly '' and the time in which they took place has been described as "the age of reactionary halftime shows. Since Super Bowl XLV, the halftime show has returned to featuring popular contemporary musicians, with the typical format featuring a single headline artist collaborating with a small number of guest acts.
The NFL does not pay the halftime show performers an appearance fee, though it covers all expenses for the performers and their entourage of band members management, technical crew, security personnel, family, and friends. Super Bowl XXVII halftime show with Michael Jackson provided an exception, as the NFL and Frito - Lay agreed to make a donation and provide commercial time for Jackson 's Heal the World Foundation. According to Nielsen SoundScan data, the halftime performers regularly experience significant spikes in weekly album sales and paid digital downloads due to the exposure. For Super Bowl XLIX, it was reported by the Wall Street Journal that league officials asked representatives of potential acts if they would be willing to provide financial compensation to the NFL in exchange for their appearance, in the form of either an up - front fee, or a cut of revenue from concert performances made after the Super Bowl. While these reports were denied by an NFL spokeswoman, the request had, according to the Journal, received a "chilly '' response from those involved.
The following is a list of the performers, producers, themes, and sponsors for each Super Bowl game 's show.
U2 performed 3 songs: "Beautiful Day, '' "MLK, '' and "Where the Streets Have No Name. '' During the beginning of "MLK '' and continuing until the end of "Where The Streets Have No Name, '' a large banner behind the band displayed the names of all the people who lost their lives on the September 11 attacks. Bono ended the song by opening up his jacket, the inside of which displayed the American flag.
For The Rolling Stones, the stage was in the form of the group 's iconic tongue logo (John Pasche 's "Cunning Linguist '' first used in 1971 on their Sticky Fingers album). It was the largest stage ever assembled for a Super Bowl halftime show, with 28 separate pieces assembled in five minutes by a 600 - member volunteer stage crew. The group performed three songs: "Start Me Up, '' "Rough Justice, '' and "(I Ca n't Get No) Satisfaction. '' The show was viewed by 89.9 million people, more than the audiences for the Oscars, Grammys and Emmy Awards combined. In the wake of the Super Bowl XXXVIII halftime show controversy with Janet Jackson and Justin Timberlake, ABC and the NFL imposed a five - second delay and censored lyrics considered too sexually explicit in the first two songs by briefly turning off Mick Jagger 's microphone -- censoring to which the group had previously agreed. However, the choice of The Rolling Stones sparked controversy in the Detroit community because the band did not represent the traditional Detroit "Motown Sound, '' and no artists from the area were included.
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what does it mean to be a united methodist | United Methodist Church - wikipedia
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The United Methodist Church (UMC) is a mainline Protestant denomination and a major part of Methodism. In the 19th century, its main predecessor, the Methodist Episcopal Church, was a leader in evangelicalism. The present denomination was founded in 1968 in Dallas, Texas, by union of The Methodist Church and the Evangelical United Brethren Church. The UMC traces its roots back to the revival movement of John and Charles Wesley in England, as well as the Great Awakening in the United States. As such, the church 's theological orientation is decidedly Wesleyan. It embraces both liturgical and evangelical elements.
The United Methodist Church has a connectional polity, a typical feature of a number of Methodist denominations. It is organized into conferences. The highest level is called the General Conference and is the only organization which may speak officially for the UMC. The church is a member of the World Council of Churches, the World Methodist Council, and other religious associations.
With at least 12 million members as of 2014, the UMC is the largest denomination within the wider Methodist movement of approximately 80 million people across the world. In the United States, the UMC ranks as the largest mainline Protestant denomination, the largest Protestant church after the Southern Baptist Convention, and the third largest Christian denomination. In 2014, its worldwide membership was distributed as follows: 7 million in the United States, and 4.4 million in Africa, Asia and Europe. In 2015, Pew Research estimated that 3.6 percent of the US population, or 9 million adult adherents, self - identify with the United Methodist Church revealing a much larger number of adherents than registered membership.
The movement which would become the United Methodist Church began in the mid-18th century within the Church of England. A small group of students, including John Wesley, Charles Wesley and George Whitefield, met on the Oxford University campus. They focused on Bible study, methodical study of scripture and living a holy life. Other students mocked them, saying they were the "Holy Club '' and "the Methodists '', being methodical and exceptionally detailed in their Bible study, opinions and disciplined lifestyle. Eventually, the so - called Methodists started individual societies or classes for members of the Church of England who wanted to live a more religious life.
In 1735, John and Charles Wesley went to America, hoping to teach the gospel to the American Indians in the colony of Georgia. Instead, John became vicar of the church in Savannah. His preaching was very legalistic and full of harsh rules, and the congregation rejected him. After two years in America, he returned to England dejected and confused. On his journey to America, he had been very impressed with the faith of the German Moravians on board, and when he returned to England he spent time with a German Moravian who was passing through England, Peter Böhler. Peter believed a person is saved solely through the grace of God and not by works, and John had many conversations with Peter about this topic. On May 25, 1738, after listening to a reading of Martin Luther 's preface to Romans, John came to the understanding that his good works could not save him and he could rest in God 's grace for salvation. For the first time in his life, he felt complete peace and the assurance of salvation. In less than two years, the "Holy Club '' disbanded. John Wesley met with a group of clergy. He said "they appeared to be of one heart, as well as of one judgment, resolved to be Bible - Christians at all events; and, wherever they were, to preach with all their might plain, old, Bible Christianity ''. The ministers retained their membership in the Church of England. Though not always emphasized or appreciated in the Anglican churches of their day, their teaching emphasized salvation by God 's grace, acquired through faith in Christ. Three teachings they saw as the foundation of Christian faith were:
Very quickly these clergy became popular, attracting large congregations. The nickname students had used against the Wesleys was revived; they and their followers became known as Methodists.
The first official organization in the United States occurred in Baltimore, Maryland, in 1784, with the formation of the Methodist Episcopal Church at the Christmas Conference with Francis Asbury and Thomas Coke as the leaders.
Though John Wesley originally wanted the Methodists to stay within the Church of England, the American Revolution decisively separated the Methodists in the American colonies from the life and sacraments of the Anglican Church. In 1784, after unsuccessful attempts to have the Church of England send a bishop to start a new church in the colonies, Wesley decisively appointed fellow priest Thomas Coke as superintendent (bishop) to organize a separate Methodist Society. Together with Coke, Wesley sent a revision of the Anglican Prayerbook and the Articles of Religion which were received and adopted by the Baltimore Christmas Conference of 1784, officially establishing the Methodist Episcopal Church. The conference was held at the Lovely Lane Methodist Church, considered the Mother Church of American Methodism.
The new church grew rapidly in the young country as it employed circuit riders, many of whom were laymen, to travel the mostly rural nation by horseback to preach the Gospel and to establish churches until there was scarcely any village in the United States without a Methodist presence. With 4,000 circuit riders by 1844, the Methodist Episcopal Church rapidly became the largest Protestant denomination in the country.
St. George 's United Methodist Church, located at the corner of 4th and New Streets, in the Old City neighborhood of Philadelphia, is the oldest Methodist church in continuous use in the United States, beginning in 1769. The congregation was founded in 1767, meeting initially in a sail loft on Dock Street, and in 1769 it purchased the shell of a building which had been erected in 1763 by a German Reformed congregation. At this time, Methodists had not yet broken away from the Anglican Church and the Methodist Episcopal Church was not founded until 1784.
Richard Allen and Absalom Jones became the first African Americans ordained by the Methodist Church. They were licensed by St. George 's Church in 1784. Three years later, protesting racial segregation in the worship services, Allen led most of the black members out of St. George 's; eventually they founded the Mother Bethel A.M.E. Church and the African Methodist Episcopal denomination. Absalom Jones became an Episcopal priest. In 1836, the church 's basement was excavated to make room for a Sunday School. In the 1920s a court case saved the church from being demolished to make way for the Benjamin Franklin Bridge. The case resulted in the bridge being relocated. Historic St Georges welcomes visitors and is home to archives and a museum on Methodism.
In the more than 220 years since 1784, Methodism in the United States, like many other Protestant denominations, has seen a number of divisions and mergers. In 1830, the Methodist Protestant Church split from the Methodist Episcopal Church over the issue of laity having a voice and vote in the administration of the church, insisting that clergy should not be the only ones to have any determination in how the church was to be operated. In 1844, the General Conference of the Methodist Episcopal Church split into two conferences because of tensions over slavery and the power of bishops in the denomination.
The two general conferences, Methodist Episcopal Church (the northern section) and Methodist Episcopal Church, South remained separate until 1939. That year, the northern and southern Methodist Episcopal Churches and the Methodist Protestant Church merged to create The Methodist Church. The uniting conference took place at First Methodist Church (now First United Methodist Church) of Marion, Indiana.
On April 23, 1968, the United Methodist Church was created when the Evangelical United Brethren Church (represented by Bishop Reuben H. Mueller) and The Methodist Church (represented by Bishop Lloyd Christ Wicke) joined hands at the constituting General Conference in Dallas, Texas. With the words, "Lord of the Church, we are united in Thee, in Thy Church and now in The United Methodist Church '' the new denomination was given birth by both churches which had distinguished histories and influential ministries in various parts of the world.
The United Methodist Church seeks to create disciples for Christ through outreach, evangelism, and through seeking holiness, also called sanctification, by the power of the Holy Spirit. The flame in the church logo represents the work of the Holy Spirit in the world, and the two parts of the flame also represent the predecessor denominations, the Methodist Church and the Evangelical United Brethren, united at the base symbolizing the 1968 merger.
The United Methodist Church understands itself to be part of the holy catholic (or universal) church and it recognizes the historic ecumenical creeds, the Apostles ' Creed and the Nicene Creed; which are used frequently in services of worship. The Book of Discipline also recognizes the importance of the Chalcedonian Creed of the Council of Chalcedon. It upholds the concept of the "visible and invisible Church, '' meaning that all who are truly believers in every age belong to the holy Church invisible, while the United Methodist Church is a branch of the Church visible, to which all believers must be connected as it is the only institution wherein the Word of God is preached and the Sacraments are administered.
Some argue that the United Methodist Church can lay a claim on apostolic succession, as understood in the traditional sense. As a result of the American Revolution, John Wesley was compelled in 1784 to break with standard practice and ordain two of his lay preachers as presbyters, Thomas Vasey and Richard Whatcoat. Thomas Coke, already an Anglican priest, assisted Wesley in this action. Coke was then "set apart '' as a superintendent (bishop) by Wesley and dispatched with Vasey and Whatcoat to America to take charge of Methodist activities there. In defense of his action to ordain, Wesley himself cited an ancient opinion from the Church of Alexandria, which held that bishops and presbyters constituted one order and therefore, bishops are to be elected from and by the presbyterate. He knew that for two centuries the succession of bishops in the Church of Alexandria was preserved through ordination by presbyters alone and was considered valid by the ancient church. Methodists today who would argue for apostolic succession would do so on these grounds.
While many United Methodist congregations operate in the evangelical tradition, others reflect the mainline Protestant traditions. Although United Methodist practices and interpretation of beliefs have evolved over time, these practices and beliefs can be traced to the writings of the church 's founders, especially John Wesley and Charles Wesley (Anglicans), but also Philip William Otterbein and Martin Boehm (United Brethren), and Jacob Albright (Evangelical Association). With the formation of the United Methodist Church in 1968, theologian Albert C. Outler led the team which systematized denominational doctrine. Outler 's work proved pivotal in the work of union, and he is largely considered the first United Methodist theologian.
The officially established Doctrinal Standards of United Methodism are:
These Doctrinal Standards are constitutionally protected and nearly impossible to change or remove. Other doctrines of the United Methodist Church are found in the Book of Discipline of the United Methodist Church.
The basic beliefs of the United Methodist Church include:
The key emphasis of Wesley 's theology relates to how divine grace operates within the individual. Wesley defined the Way of Salvation as the operation of grace in at least three parts: Prevenient Grace, Justifying Grace, and Sanctifying Grace.
Prevenient grace, or the grace that "goes before '' us, is given to all people. It is that power which enables us to love and motivates us to seek a relationship with God through Jesus Christ. This grace is the present work of God to turn us from our sin - corrupted human will to the loving will of the Father. In this work, God desires that we might sense both our sinfulness before God and God 's offer of salvation. Prevenient grace allows those tainted by sin to nevertheless make a truly free choice to accept or reject God 's salvation in Christ.
Justifying Grace or Accepting Grace is that grace, offered by God to all people, that we receive by faith and trust in Christ, through which God pardons the believer of sin. It is in justifying grace we are received by God, in spite of our sin. In this reception, we are forgiven through the atoning work of Jesus Christ on the cross. The justifying grace cancels our guilt and empowers us to resist the power of sin and to fully love God and neighbor. Today, justifying grace is also known as conversion, "accepting Jesus as your personal Lord and Savior, '' or being "born again ''. John Wesley originally called this experience the New Birth. This experience can occur in different ways; it can be one transforming moment, such as an altar call experience, or it may involve a series of decisions across a period of time.
Sanctifying Grace is that grace of God which sustains the believers in the journey toward Christian Perfection: a genuine love of God with heart, soul, mind, and strength, and a genuine love of our neighbors as ourselves. Sanctifying grace enables us to respond to God by leading a Spirit - filled and Christ - like life aimed toward love. Wesley never claimed this state of perfection for himself but instead insisted the attainment of perfection was possible for all Christians. Here the English Reformer parted company with both Luther and Calvin, who denied that a man would ever reach a state in this life in which he could not fall into sin. Such a man can lose all inclination to evil and can gain perfection in this life.
Wesleyan theology maintains that salvation is the act of God 's grace entirely, from invitation, to pardon, to growth in holiness. Furthermore, God 's prevenient, justifying, and sanctifying grace interact dynamically in the lives of Christians from birth to death.
According to Wesleyan understanding, good works are the fruit of one 's salvation, not the way in which that salvation was earned. Faith and good works go hand in hand in Methodist theology: a living tree naturally and inevitably bears fruit. Wesleyan theology rejects the doctrine of eternal security, believing that salvation can be rejected. Wesley emphasized that believers must continue to grow in their relationship with Christ, through the process of Sanctification.
A key outgrowth of this theology is the United Methodist dedication not only to the Evangelical Gospel of repentance and a personal relationship with God, but also to the Social Gospel and a commitment to social justice issues that have included abolition, women 's suffrage, labor rights, civil rights, and ministry with the poor.
Wesleyan theology stands at a unique crossroads between evangelical and sacramental, between liturgical and charismatic, and between Anglo - Catholic and Reformed theology and practice. It has been characterized as Arminian theology with an emphasis on the work of the Holy Spirit to bring holiness into the life of the participating believer. The United Methodist Church believes in prima scriptura, seeing the Bible as the primary authority in the Church and using sacred tradition, reason, and experience to interpret it, with the aid of the Holy Spirit (see Wesleyan Quadrilateral). Therefore, according to The Book of Discipline, United Methodist theology is at once "catholic, evangelical, and reformed. '' Today, the UMC is generally considered one of the more moderate and tolerant denominations with respect to race, gender, and ideology, though the denomination itself actually includes a very wide spectrum of attitudes. Comparatively, the UMC stands to the right of liberal and progressive Protestant groups such as the United Church of Christ and the Episcopal Church on certain issues (especially regarding sexuality), but to the left of historically conservative evangelical traditions such as the Southern Baptists and Pentecostalism, in regard to theological matters such as social justice and Biblical interpretation. However, it should be noted that the UMC is made up of a broad diversity of thought, and so there are many clergy and laity within the UMC that hold differing viewpoints on such theological matters.
In making an appeal to a tolerance of diversity of theological opinion, John Wesley said, "Though we may not think alike, may we not all love alike? '' The phrase "In essentials, unity; in non-essentials, liberty; in all things, charity '' has also become a maxim among Methodists, who have always maintained a great diversity of opinion on many matters within the Church.
The United Methodist Church allows for a wide range of theological and political beliefs. For example, former President George W. Bush (R - TX), former First Lady Laura Bush and current Attorney General of the United States, Jeff Sessions, are United Methodists, as are Senator Elizabeth Warren (D - MA), former Secretary of State Hillary Clinton (D - NY) and former Senator Max Cleland (D - GA).
The Pew Research Center 's 2014 US Religious Landscape Study concluded that the political preferences of US adult members of the United Methodist Church was 54 percent Republican / lean Republican, 35 percent Democrat / lean Democrat, and 11 percent independent / no lean / other.
The topic of abortion is complex. The United Methodist Church affirms these two sentences in The Social Principles: Our belief in the sanctity of unborn human life makes us reluctant to approve abortion. But we are equally bound to respect the sacredness of the life and well - being of the mother and the unborn child. (Book of Discipline ¶ 161. J). These statements express the complexity of a topic that does not lend itself to easy answers. The denomination is committed to "assist (ing) the ministry of crisis pregnancy centers and pregnancy resource centers that compassionately help women find feasible alternatives to abortion. '' In 2016, the United Methodist General Conference voted to withdraw from the Religious Coalition for Reproductive Choice, an organization in which it formerly held membership. At the same General Conference, delegates voted to delete a four - decade - old statement from the Book of Resolutions which affirmed the Roe v. Wade Supreme Court decision on the legality of abortion. A new resolution was re-adopted 56 -- 2 in a resolutions subcommittee, decrying gender - selective abortion while also describing abortion as "violent '' and opposing abortions done for "trivial reasons ''. The resolution passed in the daily consent agenda with no debate. As an official organization, however, "the General Board of Church and Society continues to be an advocate for a full range of safe and legal reproductive health care -- including, in certain cases, the option to safely and legally end a pregnancy ''.
Nevertheless, the United Methodist Church holds that "while we understand the need for women to have access to safe, legal abortions, we also ' mourn and are committed to promoting the diminishment of high abortion rates '. '' and they "are equally bound to respect the sacredness of the life and well - being of the mother, for whom devastating damage may result from an unacceptable pregnancy. In continuity with past Christian teaching, we recognize tragic conflicts of life with life that may justify abortion, (in the eyes of God) and in such cases we support the legal option of abortion under proper medical procedures. '' The Church cautions that "Governmental laws and regulations do not provide all the guidance required by the informed Christian conscience. '' The Church emphasizes the need of a supportive ministry to women who have experienced abortions: "We further encourage local churches to make available contact information for counseling agencies that offer programs to address post-abortion stress for all seeking help. ''
Members of the United Methodist Church who identify with the pro-life position come mostly from the Confessing Movement within the denomination and have organized into the Taskforce of United Methodists on Abortion and Sexuality (TUMAS) to further their position within the denomination. On the other side, the Methodist Federation for Social Action and United Methodist Women continue to represent pro-choice views.
Historically, the Methodist Church has supported the temperance movement. John Wesley warned against the dangers of drinking in his famous sermon, "The Use of Money '', and in his letter to an alcoholic. Today the United Methodist Church states that it "affirms our long - standing support of abstinence from alcohol as a faithful witness to God 's liberating and redeeming love for persons. '' In fact, the United Methodist Church uses unfermented grape juice in the sacrament of Holy Communion, thus "expressing pastoral concern for recovering alcoholics, enabling the participation of children and youth, and supporting the church 's witness of abstinence. '' Moreover, in 2011 and 2012, the United Methodist Church 's General Board of Church and Society called on all United Methodists to abstain from alcohol for Lent.
The United Methodist Church, along with some other Methodist churches, condemns capital punishment, saying that it can not accept retribution or social vengeance as a reason for taking human life. The Church also holds that the death penalty falls unfairly and unequally upon marginalized persons including the poor, the uneducated, ethnic and religious minorities, and persons with mental and emotional illnesses. The United Methodist Church also believes that Jesus explicitly repudiated the lex talionis in Matthew 5: 38 -- 39 and abolished the death penalty in John 8: 7. The General Conference of the United Methodist Church calls for its bishops to uphold opposition to capital punishment and for governments to enact an immediate moratorium on carrying out the death penalty sentence.
The United Methodist Church, like many mainline Protestant denominations and the Roman Catholic Church, has determined that there is no conflict between faith and the theory of evolution. Many clergy have stated that "it 's time for people of faith to accept evolution ''. Additionally, the UMC officially affirms the theory of evolution and "opposes introducing theories such as Creationism or Intelligent Design into public school curriculum ''. In 2016, the denomination denied approval for a creationist group to be officially represented at the church 's General Conference.
The United Methodist Church is opposed to euthanasia and assisted suicide. The official stance mentions that "The church has an obligation to see that all persons have access to needed pastoral and medical care and therapy in those circumstances that lead to loss of self - worth, suicidal despair, and / or the desire to seek physician - assisted suicide. '' It also states that "If death is deliberately sought as the means to relieve suffering, that must be understood as direct and intentional taking of life... The United Methodist tradition opposes the taking of life as an offense against God 's sole dominion over life, and an abandonment of hope and humility before God. ''
The United Methodist Church opposes gambling, believing that it is a sin which feeds on human greed and which invites people to place their trust in possessions, rather than in God, whom Christians should "love... with all your heart. '' It quotes the Apostle Paul who states:
But those who want to be rich fall into temptation and are trapped by many senseless and harmful desires that plunge people into ruin and destruction. For the love of money is a root of all kinds of evil, and in their eagerness to be rich some have wandered away from the faith and pierced themselves with many pains.
The United Methodist Church therefore holds that:
The United Methodist Church supports federal legislative efforts for strict gun control measures in the United States, and outright bans of most weapons in other nations. The Church also declares every church to be "a weapon - free zone ''.
According to The United Methodist Book of Discipline (set by General Conference every four years), the Church "affirm (s) that all persons are individuals of sacred worth, created in the image of God '' and encourages United Methodists to be in ministry with and for all people. In accordance with its view of Scripture, the Church considers "the practice of homosexuality (to be) incompatible with Christian teaching. '' It states that "self - avowed practicing homosexuals '' can not be ordained as ministers, and supports "... laws in civil society that define marriage as the union of one man and one woman. '' However, this official position remains controversial and hotly debated within the denomination; for instance, the Western Jurisdiction of the UMC voted to elect the denomination 's first openly gay bishop. According to polling from Pew Research, the majority of United Methodists in the US support the inclusion of homosexual persons, 60 percent of United Methodists said "homosexuality should be accepted by society '', and 49 percent supported same - sex marriage.
The United Methodist Church prohibits of same - sex unions. It also forbids any United Methodist board, agency, committee, commission, or council to give United Methodist funds to any gay organization or group, or otherwise use such funds to promote the acceptance of homosexuality. Jimmy Creech was defrocked after a highly publicized church trial in 1999 on account of his participation in same - sex union ceremonies. Other ministers have been defrocked for officiating at same - sex weddings and several trials of others are scheduled. Frank Schaefer, who was defrocked and penalized because he had officiated his son 's same - sex wedding, was in 2014, re-instated as "the denomination 's top court upheld a June decision by a regional appeals committee to reinstate Schaefer 's ministerial credentials ''. Other clergy, who officiated at same - sex marriages, have avoided trials. In 2016, it was announced that Val Rosenquist "will avoid a church trial and keep her job after she co-officiated with retired Bishop Melvin Talbert at the April same - gender wedding of two church members ''. In 2016, the Judicial Council further ruled against mandatory penalties for clergy leaving the current options in place. Nevertheless, the United Methodist Church "implore (s) families and churches not to reject or condemn lesbian and gay members and friends '' and commits itself to be in ministry with all persons, affirming that God 's grace, love, and forgiveness is available to all. Also, while "clergy can not preside over the wedding ceremony... bishops say, clergy can assist same - gender couples in finding other venues for their wedding; provide pre-marital counseling; attend the ceremony; read Scripture, pray or offer a homily ''. The denomination also, for non-ordained employees, decided that "now same - sex spouses of some church employees can receive church benefits '' if the state or country allows same - sex marriage.
In 1987, a United Methodist church court in New Hampshire defrocked Methodist minister Rose Mary Denman for openly living with a same - sex partner. In 2005, clergy credentials were removed from Irene Elizabeth Stroud after she was convicted in a church trial of violating church law by engaging in a lesbian relationship; this conviction was later upheld by the Judicial Council, the highest court in the denomination. The Judicial Council also affirmed that a Virginia pastor had the right to deny local church membership to a man in an openly gay relationship. This affirmation, however, was based upon a senior pastor 's right to judge the readiness of a congregant to join as a full member of the church. On the other hand, hundreds of United Methodist ministers have openly defied the official position of the United Methodist Church and have publicly revealed their "lesbian, gay or bisexual '' sexual orientation, an action that could result in their suspension. The official website of the United Methodist Church reported that "Retired United Methodist Bishop Melvin Talbert, for the second time, has defied church law to officiate at a ceremony celebrating the union of two men. '' One Annual Conference of the United Methodist Church, the New York Annual Conference, has voiced disagreement with the denomination 's official stance on homosexuality and "announced it would not consider sexual orientation in evaluating a clergy candidate ''. The New York body also ordained the first openly gay and lesbian clergy. In addition, the Baltimore - Washington Conference of the UMC approved the appointment of an openly partnered lesbian to the diaconate. In 2016, the Western Jurisdiction elected the denomination 's first openly and partnered lesbian bishop. While not elected, the UMC reported that the North Central Jurisdiction considered the nomination of an openly gay pastor for bishop. Additionally, the Northeastern Jurisdiction passed a resolution calling for change to the Book of Discipline.
However, two United Methodist bishops "voided two resolutions in the Northeastern United States that called for defying church restrictions ''. Similarly, the United Methodist Bishops of the Central Conferences of Africa unanimously called for "unreserved commitment to the Holy Bible as the primary authority for faith and practice in the Church '' and proclaimed that "sexual relations are affirmed only within the covenant bond of a faithful monogamous, heterosexual marriage, and not within same - sex unions or polygamy ''. At the same time, the Alabama - West Florida Conference '' passed resolutions upholding the denomination 's rules on homosexuality '' and the Eastern Pennsylvania Conference "approved a resolution that urges the conference to demand clergy accountability to the Discipline 's ' rules of our common covenant, ' and to call upon clergy to challenge those rules only ' through legitimate channels of holy conferencing, rather than breaking that covenant. ' '' The Southeastern Jurisdiction also voted to maintain the current language in the Book of Discipline.
Although there is no official policy, the Judicial Council of the UMC ruled, in 2008, that ordained transgender pastors could serve in congregations within the denomination. In particular, the first openly transgender pastor within the UMC received overwhelming support from his congregation. In 2016, the South Carolina Annual Conference passed a resolution urging support for non-discrimination protections for transgender people. In 2017, the Northern Illinois Conference commissioned M Barclay as a Deacon and became the first openly non-binary trans person commissioned in the denomination.
A committee known as the Connectional Table, which itself does not have legislative authority, voted in favor of legislation to be presented in the 2016 General Conference that called for a localized option that would permit "clergy to perform ceremonies that celebrate same - sex unions in United Methodist churches if they wish; clergy who do not wish to perform such ceremonies would not be required to do so ''. In 2016, the General Conference voted to defer the conversation and authority over some issues of human sexuality to the Council of Bishops (COB), which will "appoint a commission to re-evaluate rules on gay, lesbian and transgender clergy and marriage ''.
On April 28, 2017, the Judicial Council ruled that consecrating a bishop in a same - sex marriage or partnership is a violation of church law and that public marriage records could be considered as evidence of self - avowed homosexuality. In regards to the specific case of Bishop Karen Oliveto, the denomination 's first openly gay bishop, the Judicial Council ruled that she "remains in good standing '' pending the outcome of any administrative or judicial processes initiated within the Western Jurisdiction, since the Judicial Council itself does not have jurisdiction to review Bishop Oliveto 's status. The Judicial Council also ruled that Boards of Ordained Ministry must evaluate all candidates regarding issues of sexuality.
On May 7, 2018 the Council of Bishops in the United Methodist Church, have proposed allowing individual pastors and regional church bodies to decide whether to ordain LGBT clergy and perform same - sex weddings, though this proposal can only be approved by the General Conference. The General Conference is scheduled to meet in May, 2020 where this proposal will be put to vote. http://www.umc.org/who-we-are/commission-on-general-conference-looks-toward-2019-and-2020
According to The Book of Resolutions of The United Methodist Church, "The United Methodist Church calls upon all who choose to take up arms or who order others to do so to evaluate their actions in accordance with historic church teaching limiting resort to war, including questions of proportionality, legal authority, discrimination between combatants and noncombatants, just cause, and probability of success... ''
The United Methodist Church opposes conscription as incompatible with the teaching of Scripture. Therefore, the Church supports and extends its ministry to those persons who conscientiously oppose all war, or any particular war, and who therefore refuse to serve in the armed forces or to cooperate with systems of military conscription. However, the United Methodist Church also supports and extends its ministry to those persons who conscientiously choose to serve in the armed forces or to accept alternative service. The church also states that "as Christians they are aware that neither the way of military action, nor the way of inaction is always righteous before God. ''
The United Methodist Church maintains that war is incompatible with Christ 's message and teachings. Therefore, the Church rejects war as an instrument of national foreign policy, to be employed only as a last resort in the prevention of such evils as genocide, brutal suppression of human rights, and unprovoked international aggression. It insists that the first moral duty of all nations is to resolve by peaceful means every dispute that arises between or among them; that human values must outweigh military claims as governments determine their priorities; that the militarization of society must be challenged and stopped; that the manufacture, sale, and deployment of armaments must be reduced and controlled; and that the production, possession, or use of nuclear weapons be condemned. Consequently, the United Methodist Church endorses general and complete disarmament under strict and effective international control.
The United Methodist Church teaches that pornography is "about violence, degradation, exploitation, and coercion '' and "deplore (s) all forms of commercialization, abuse, and exploitation of sex. '' The Sexual Ethics Task Force of The United Methodist Church states that "Research shows it (pornography) is not an ' innocent activity. ' It is harmful and is generally addictive. Persons who are addicted to pornography are physiologically altered, as is their perspective, relationships with parishioners and family, and their perceptions of girls and women. ''
The UMC supports federal funding for research on embryos created for in vitro fertilization that remain after the procreative efforts have ceased, if the embryos were provided for research instead of being destroyed, were not obtained by sale, and those donating had given prior informed consent for the research purposes. The UMC stands in "opposition to the creation of embryos for the sake of research '' as "a human embryo, even at its earliest stages, commands our reverence. '' It supports research on stem cells retrieved from umbilical cords and adult stem cells, stating that there are "few moral questions '' raised by this issue.
The United Methodist Church includes a variety of approaches to public worship. The common pattern of worship is found in the official liturgies of the church, while the practices of congregations across the denomination are quite diverse.
The common pattern comes from John Wesley, who wrote that "there is no Liturgy in the world, either in ancient or modern language, which breathes more of a solid, scriptural, rational piety, than the Common Prayer of the Church of England. '' When the Methodists in America were separated from the Church of England, John Wesley himself provided a revised version of The Book of Common Prayer called The Sunday Service of the Methodists; With Other Occasional Services. Wesley 's Sunday Service has shaped the official liturgies of the Methodists ever since.
Like other historic Christian churches, the United Methodist Church has official liturgies for services of Holy Communion, baptism, weddings, funerals, ordination, anointing of the sick and daily office prayer services. Some clergy offer healing services, while exorcism is an occasional practice by some clergy in The United Methodist Church in Africa. These services involve the laying on of hands and anointing with oil. Along with these, there are also special services for holy days such as All Saints Day, Ash Wednesday, Maundy Thursday, Good Friday, and Easter Vigil. These services are contained in The United Methodist Hymnal and The United Methodist Book of Worship (1992). Many of these liturgies are derived from the Anglican tradition 's Book of Common Prayer. In most cases, congregations also use other elements of liturgical worship, such as candles, vestments, paraments, banners, and liturgical art.
Typical worship services in United Methodism will include:
Many larger United Methodist congregations have incorporated more contemporary styles of music and audio - visual technology into some of their worship services, though these churches generally also offer more traditional services.
As John Wesley advocated outdoor evangelism, revival services are a traditional worship practice of Methodism that are often held in United Methodist churches, as well as at outdoor camp meetings and at tent revivals.
The chancel of United Methodist churches usually features a lectern and baptismal font on one side of the altar table and a pulpit on the other side. The chancel also features the Christian Flag and sometimes, a processional cross. The chancel is often delimited by chancel rails, sometimes with a mourner 's bench in front of it.
A typical United Methodist order of worship may include the following elements:
The United Methodist Church 's understanding of a "saint '' is not unique among Protestants, yet differs significantly from the Roman Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, Anglican, and Lutheran view. Methodists do not have a process for electing people to sainthood. They do not pray to saints, nor do they believe that saints serve as mediators to God. The denomination considers all faithful Christians to be saints.
Methodist institutions may be named after a biblical figure (e.g., "St. James UMC ''). Methodists also honor notable heroes and heroines of the Christian faith and look to these prominent saints as providing examples of holy living and commitment to Christ that are worthy of imitation (see 1 Corinthians 11: 1). Such exemplary saints include martyrs, confessors of the Faith, evangelists, or important biblical figures such as Saint Matthew, Lutheran theologian and martyr to the Nazis Dietrich Bonhoeffer, Salvation Army Founder William Booth, African missionary David Livingstone and Methodism 's revered founder John Wesley are among many cited as Protestant saints.
Article XIV of The United Methodist Articles of Religion explicitly rejects "invocation of saints '' (praying to saints). The text reads "-- Of Purgatory -- The Romish doctrine concerning purgatory, pardon, worshiping, and adoration, as well of images as of relics, and also invocation of saints, is a fond thing, vainly invented, and grounded upon no warrant of Scripture, but repugnant to the Word of God. ''
The church is decentralized with the General Conference being the official governing body. However, administratively the church has a governing structure that is similar to that of the United States government:
The United Methodist Church is organized into conferences. The highest level is called the General Conference and is the only organization which may speak officially for the church. The General Conference meets every four years (quadrennium). Legislative changes are recorded in The Book of Discipline which is revised after each General Conference. Non-legislative resolutions are recorded in the Book of Resolutions, which is published after each General Conference, and expire after eight years unless passed again by a subsequent session of General Conference. The last General Conference was held in Portland, Oregon in 2016. The event is currently rotated between the US jurisdictions of the church. Bishops, councils, committees, boards, elders, etc., are not permitted to speak on behalf of the United Methodist Church as this authority is reserved solely for the General Conference in accordance with the Book of Discipline.
The plenary session is presided over by an active bishop who has been selected by a committee of delegates to the conference. It is not uncommon for different bishops to preside on different days. The presiding officer usually is accompanied by parliamentarians.
Subordinate to the General Conference are the jurisdictional and central conferences which also meet every four years. The United States is divided into five jurisdictions: Northeastern, Southeastern, North Central, South Central and Western. Outside the United States the church is divided into seven central conferences: Africa, Congo, West Africa, Central & Southern Europe, Germany, Northern Europe and the Philippines. The main purpose of the jurisdictions and central conferences is to elect and appoint bishops, the chief administrators of the church. Bishops thus elected serve episcopal areas, which consist of one or more annual conferences.
Decisions in - between the four - year meetings are made by the Mission Council (usually consisting of church bishops). One of the most high - profile decisions in recent years by one of the councils was a decision by the Mission Council of the South Central Jurisdiction which in March 2007 approved a 99 - year lease of 36 acres (150,000 m) at Southern Methodist University for the George W. Bush Presidential Library. The decision generated controversy in light of Bush 's support of the Iraq War which the church bishops have criticized. A debate over whether the decision should or could be submitted for approval by the Southern Jurisdictional Conference at its July 2008 meeting in Dallas, Texas, remains unresolved.
The Judicial Council is the highest court in the denomination. It consists of nine members, both laity and clergy, elected by the General Conference for an eight - year term. The ratio of laity to clergy alternates every eight years. The Judicial Council interprets the Book of Discipline between sessions of General Conference, and during General Conference, the Judicial Council rules on the constitutionality of laws passed by General Conference. The Council also determines whether actions of local churches, annual conferences, church agencies, and bishops are in accordance with church law. The Council reviews all decisions of law made by bishops The Judicial Council can not create any legislation; it can only interpret existing legislation. The Council meets twice a year at various locations throughout the world. The Judicial Council also hears appeals from those who have been accused of chargeable offenses that can result in defrocking or revocation of membership.
The Annual Conference, roughly the equivalent of a diocese in the Anglican Communion and the Roman Catholic Church or a synod in some Lutheran denominations such as the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America, is the basic unit of organization within the UMC. The term Annual Conference is often used to refer to the geographical area it covers as well as the frequency of meeting. Clergy are members of their Annual Conference rather than of any local congregation, and are appointed to a local church or other charge annually by the conference 's resident Bishop at the meeting of the Annual Conference. In many ways, the United Methodist Church operates in a connectional organization of the Annual Conferences, and actions taken by one conference are not binding upon another.
Annual conferences are further divided into Districts, each served by a District Superintendent. The district superintendents are also appointed annually from the ordained elders of the Annual Conference by the bishop. District superintendents, upon completion of their service as superintendent, routinely return to serving local congregations. The Annual Conference cabinet is composed of the bishop and the district superintendents.
The Book of Discipline is the guidebook for local churches and pastors and describes in considerable detail the organizational structure of local United Methodist churches. All UM churches must have a board of trustees with at least three members and no more than nine members and it is recommended that no gender should hold more than a 2 / 3 majority. All churches must also have a nominations committee, a finance committee and a church council or administrative council. Other committees are suggested but not required such as a missions committee, or evangelism or worship committee. Term limits are set for some committees but not for all. The church conference is an annual meeting of all the officers of the church and any interested members. This committee has the exclusive power to set pastors ' salaries (compensation packages for tax purposes) and to elect officers to the committees.
There is no official headquarters of church although many of its biggest administrative offices are in Nashville, Tennessee and are physically located near Vanderbilt University (which has historic Methodist ties but is no longer associated with the church).
While the General Conference is the only organization that can officially speak for The United Methodist Church as a whole, there are 13 agencies, boards and commissions of the general church. These organizations address specific topic areas of denomination - wide concern with administrative offices throughout the United States.
Throughout its history, the United Methodist Church has placed great emphasis on the importance of education. As such, the United Methodist Church established and is affiliated with around one hundred colleges and universities in the United States, including American University, Syracuse University, Boston University, Emory University, Duke University, Drew University, University of Denver, University of Evansville, and Southern Methodist University. Most are members of the International Association of Methodist - related Schools, Colleges, and Universities. The church operates three hundred sixty schools and institutions overseas.
United Methodist clergy consist of elders, local pastors, associate members and deacons. They hold membership in the annual conference and not in the local church. Additionally provisional clergy hold membership in the annual conference while they are under appointment to a local church or extension ministry. There are several offices of ministry within the United Methodist Church.
Certified lay ministers may also be appointed to serve a church but under the supervision and direction of an elder.
The first Methodist clergy were ordained by John Wesley, a priest of the Church of England, because of the crisis caused by the American Revolution which isolated the Methodists in the States from the Church of England and its sacraments. Today, the clergy includes men and women who are ordained by bishops as elders and deacons and are appointed to various ministries. Elders in the United Methodist Church itenerate and are subject to the authority and appointment of their bishops. They generally serve as pastors in local congregations. Deacons are in service ministry and may serve as musicians, liturgists, educators, business administrators, and a number of other areas. Elders and deacons are required to obtain a master 's degree (generally an M. Div.), or another equivalent degree, before commissioning and then ultimately ordination. Elders in full connection are each a member of their Annual Conference Order of Elders. Likewise each deacon in full connection is a member of their Annual Conference Order of Deacons.
The Methodist Church has allowed ordination of women with full rights of clergy since 1956, when Maud Jensen was ordained and admitted into full connection in the Central Pennsylvania Annual Conference. This action was based upon its understanding of biblical principles. The United Methodist Church, along with some other Protestant churches, holds that when the historical contexts involved are understood, a coherent Biblical argument can be made in favor of women 's ordination.
All clergy appointments are made and fixed annually by the resident bishop on the advice of the Annual Conference Cabinet, which is composed of the Area Provost / Dean (if one is appointed) and the several district superintendents of the districts of the Annual Conference. Until the bishop has read the appointments at the session of the Annual Conference, no appointments are officially fixed. Many Annual Conferences try to avoid making appointment changes between sessions of Annual Conference. While an appointment is made one year at a time, it is most common for an appointment to be continued for multiple years. Appointment tenures in extension ministries, such as military chaplaincy, campus ministry, missions, higher education and other ministries beyond the local church are often even longer.
Elders are called by God, affirmed by the church, and ordained by a bishop to a ministry of Word, Sacrament, Order and Service within the church. They may be appointed to the local church, or to other valid extension ministries of the church. Elders are given the authority to preach the Word of God, administer the sacraments of the church, to provide care and counseling, and to order the life of the church for ministry and mission. Elders may also be assigned as district superintendents, and they are eligible for election to the episcopacy. Elders serve a term of 2 -- 3 years as provisional elders prior to their ordination.
Deacons are called by God, affirmed by the church, and ordained by a bishop to servant leadership within the church. They are ordained to ministries of word, service, compassion, and justice. They may be appointed to ministry within the local church or to an extension ministry that supports the mission of the church. Deacons give leadership, preach the Word, contribute in worship, conduct marriages, bury the dead, and aid the church in embodying its mission within the world. Deacons assist elders in the sacraments of Holy Communion and Baptism, and may be granted sacramental authority if they are appointed as the pastor in a local church. Deacons serve a term of 2 -- 3 years as provisional deacons prior to their ordination.
At the 1996 General Conference the ordination order of transitional deacon was abolished. This created new orders known as "provisional elder '' or "provisional deacon '' for those who seek to be ordained in the respective orders. The provisional elder / deacon is a seminary graduate who serves a two - three - year term in a full - time appointment after being commissioned. During this two or three - year period, the provisional elder is granted sacramental ministry in their local appointment. For the first time in its history non-ordained pastors became a normal expectation, rather than an extraordinary provision for ministry.
Local Pastors are called by God, affirmed by the church, and appointed by a bishop to a ministry of Word, Sacrament, Order and Service within the church. The Local Pastors are given the authority to preach the Word of God, administer the sacraments of the church, to provide care and counseling, and to order the life of the church for ministry and mission, but are not ordained. When elders are not available to be appointed to a local church, either through shortage of personnel or financial hardship of a pastoral charge, the bishop may appoint a "local pastor '' to serve the pastoral appointment. Local Pastors are often bi-vocational, living out their ministerial call in the local church and in their field of employment. Full - time and part - time licensed local pastors under appointment are clergy and hold membership in the annual conference and not in the local church. A Local Pastor 's official title is ' Licensed Local Pastor ' and is appointed as clergy to the local church where they preach, conduct divine worship and perform the regular duties of a pastor. The licensed local pastor has the authority of a pastor only within the context and during the time of the appointment and shall not extend beyond it. Local pastors are not required to have advanced degrees but are required to attend licensing school and attend and pass an approved five - year course of study at an approved United Methodist seminary or course of study school, successfully complete written and oral examinations, and appear before the District Committee on Ministry and the Conference Board of Ordained Ministry. They may continue towards Associate Membership allowing them to retire as clergy. They also may continue towards ordination if they complete their bachelor 's degree, requirements of their particular Conference Board of Ordained Ministry, as well as an advanced course or study or prescribed seminary courses at an approved seminary. Upon retirement, local pastors return to their charge conference as lay members.
There are two classes of lay membership in the UMC: Baptized Members and Professing Members.
The United Methodist Church (UMC) practices infant and adult baptism. Baptized Members are those who have been baptized as an infant or child, but who have not subsequently professed their own faith. These Baptized Members become Professing Members through confirmation and sometimes the profession of faith. Individuals who were not previously baptized are baptized as part of their profession of faith and thus become Professing Members in this manner. Individuals may also become a Professing Member through transfer from another Christian denomination.
Unlike confirmation and profession of faith, Baptism is a sacrament in the UMC. The Book of Discipline of the United Methodist Church directs the local church to offer membership preparation or confirmation classes to all people, including adults. The term confirmation is generally reserved for youth, while some variation on membership class is generally used for adults wishing to join the church. The Book of Discipline normally allows any youth at least completing sixth grade to participate, although the pastor has discretionary authority to allow a younger person to participate. In confirmation and membership preparation classes, students learn about Church and the Methodist - Christian theological tradition in order to profess their ultimate faith in Christ.
Lay members are extremely important in the UMC. The Professing Members are part of all major decisions in the church. General, Jurisdictional, Central, and Annual Conferences are all required to have an equal number of laity and clergy.
In a local church, many decisions are made by an administrative board or council. This council is made up of laity representing various other organizations within the local church. The elder or local pastor sits on the council as a voting member.
Additionally, Laity may serve the church in several distinct roles including:
Another position in the United Methodist Church is that of the lay servant. Although not considered clergy, lay servants often preach during services of worship when an ordained elder, Local Pastor, Associate Member or deacon is unavailable. There are two categories of lay servants: local church lay servant, who serve in and through their local churches, and certified lay servants, who serve in their own churches, in other churches, and through district or conference projects and programs. To be recognized as local church lay servant, they must be recommended by their pastor and Church Council or Charge Conference, and complete the basic course for lay servant. Each year they must reapply, reporting how they have served and continued to learn during that year. To be recognized as certified lay servant, they must be recommended by their pastor and Church Council or Charge Conference, complete the basic course and one advanced lay servant course, and be interviewed by the District or Conference Committee on Lay Speaking. They must report and reapply annually; and they must complete at least one advanced course every three years.
The 2004 General Conference created another class of ministry, the certified lay minister (CLM). CLMs are not considered clergy but instead remain lay members of the United Methodist Church. A Certified Lay Minister (CLM) is a qualified United Methodist layperson called to congregational leadership as part of a ministry team under the supervision an ordained minister. Paragraph 271 in the 2012 Book of Discipline explains Certified Lay Ministry, requirements, and service distinction.
A person wishing to become a CLM enters the certification process, which includes training, support, supervision, and accountability to the District Committee on Ordained Ministry. CLMs are laypeople serving out their call as disciples of Jesus Christ.
The United Methodist Church is one tradition within the Christian Church. The United Methodist Church is active in ecumenical relations with other Christian groups and denominations. It is a member of the National Council of Churches, the World Council of Churches, Churches Uniting in Christ, and Christian Churches Together. In addition, it voted to seek observer status in the National Association of Evangelicals and in the World Evangelical Fellowship. However, there are some in The United Methodist Church who feel that false ecumenism might result in the "blurring of theological and confessional differences in the interests of unity. ''
In April 2005, the United Methodist Council of Bishops approved "A Proposal for Interim Eucharistic Sharing. '' This document was the first step toward full communion with the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America (ELCA). The ELCA approved this same document in August 2005. At the 2008 General Conference, the United Methodist Church approved full communion with the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America. The ELCA approved this document on August 20, 2009 at its annual churchwide assembly.
The United Methodist Church has since 1985 been exploring a possible merger with three historically African - American Methodist denominations: the African Methodist Episcopal Church, the African Methodist Episcopal Zion Church, and the Christian Methodist Episcopal Church. A Commission on Pan Methodist Cooperation and Union formed in 2000 to carry out work on such a merger. In May 2012, The United Methodist Church entered into full communion with the African Methodist Episcopal Church, African Methodist Episcopal Zion Church, African Union Methodist Protestant Church, Christian Methodist Episcopal Church, and Union American Methodist Episcopal Church, in which these Churches agreed to "recognize each other 's churches, share sacraments, and affirm their clergy and ministries. ''
There are also a number of churches such as the Evangelical Methodist Church in Argentina, Evangelical Church of Uruguay, and Methodist Church in India (MCI), that are "autonomous affiliated '' churches in relation to the United Methodist Church.
The UMC is also a member of the Wesleyan Holiness Consortium, which seeks to reconceive and promote Biblical holiness in today 's Church. It is also active in the World Methodist Council, an interdenominational group composed of various churches in the tradition of John Wesley to promote the Gospel throughout the world. On July 18, 2006, delegates to the World Methodist Council voted unanimously to adopt the "Joint Declaration on the Doctrine of Justification '', which was approved in 1999 by the Vatican and the Lutheran World Federation.
Like many other mainline Protestant denominations in the United States, the United Methodist Church has experienced significant membership losses in recent decades. At the time of its formation, the UMC had about 11 million members in nearly 42,000 congregations. In 1975, membership dropped below 10 million for the first time. In 2005, there were about 8 million members in over 34,000 congregations. Membership is concentrated primarily in the Midwest and in the South. Texas has the largest number of members, with about 1 million. The states with the highest membership rates are Oklahoma, Iowa, Mississippi, West Virginia, and North Carolina.
By the opening of the 2008 General Conference, total UMC membership was estimated at 11.4 million, with about 7.9 million in the US and 3.5 million overseas. Significantly, about 20 percent of the conference delegates were from Africa, with Filipinos and Europeans making up another 10 percent. During the conference, the delegates voted to finalize the induction of the Methodist Church of the Ivory Coast and its 700,000 members into the denomination. Given current trends in the UMC -- with overseas churches growing, especially in Africa, and US churches collectively losing about 1,000 members a week -- it has been estimated that Africans will make up at least 30 percent of the delegates at the 2012 General Conference, and it is also possible that 40 percent of the delegates will be from outside the US. One Congolese bishop has estimated that typical Sunday attendance of the UMC is higher in his country than in the entire United States.
Contributions to the local church not only benefit the local congregation, but also have regional, national, and international impact through the United Methodist Church 's connectional giving system. The power of this collective giving enables the church to educate clergy, encourage cooperation with other faith communions, fund General Conference, nurture historically black colleges and Africa University, and support bishops.
Individuals may also choose to give to the church by naming the Permanent Fund for the United Methodist Church as beneficiary in their estate plans. The Permanent Fund provides a permanent source of funding for the ministries of the United Methodist Church.
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what's in a manhattan drink on the rocks | Manhattan (cocktail) - wikipedia
A Manhattan is a cocktail made with whiskey, sweet vermouth and bitters. While rye is the traditional whiskey of choice, other commonly used whiskeys include Canadian whisky, bourbon, blended whiskey and Tennessee whiskey. The cocktail is usually stirred then strained into a cocktail glass and garnished with a Maraschino cherry. A Manhattan may also be served on the rocks in a lowball glass.
The whiskey - based Manhattan is one of five cocktails named for a New York City borough. It is closely related to the Brooklyn cocktail, which uses dry vermouth and Maraschino liqueur in place of the Manhattan 's sweet vermouth, and Amer Picon in place of the Manhattan 's angostura bitters.
The Manhattan is one of six basic drinks listed in David A. Embury 's classic The Fine Art of Mixing Drinks.
A popular history suggests that the drink originated at the Manhattan Club in New York City in the early 1870s, where it was invented by Dr. Iain Marshall for a banquet hosted by Jennie Jerome (Lady Randolph Churchill, mother of Winston) in honor of presidential candidate Samuel J. Tilden. The success of the banquet made the drink fashionable, later prompting several people to request the drink by referring to the name of the club where it originated -- "the Manhattan cocktail ''. However, Lady Randolph was in France at the time and pregnant, so the story is likely a fiction.
However, there are prior references to various similar cocktail recipes called "Manhattan '' and served in the Manhattan area. By one account it was invented in the 1860s by a bartender named Black at a bar on Broadway near Houston Street.
The original "Manhattan cocktail '' was a mix of "American Whiskey, Italian Vermouth and Angostura bitters ''. During Prohibition (1920 -- 1933) Canadian whisky was primarily used because it was available.
An early record of the cocktail can be found in William Schmidt 's "The Flowing Bowl '', published in 1891. In it, he details a drink containing 2 dashes of gum (gomme syrup), 2 dashes of bitters, 1 dash of absinthe, ⁄ portion of whiskey and ⁄ portion of vermouth.
The same cocktail appears listed as a "Tennessee Cocktail '' in Shake ' em Up! by V. Elliott and P. Strong, copyright 1930 (p. 39): "Two parts of whiskey, one part of Italian Vermouth and a dash of bitters poured over ice and stirred vigorously. ''
On the small North Frisian island of Föhr, the Manhattan cocktail is a standard drink at almost every cafe, restaurant, and "get together '' of locals. The story goes, that many of the people of Föhr emigrated to Manhattan during deep sea fishing trips, took a liking to the drink, and brought it back to Föhr with them. The drink is usually mixed 1 part (the ' perfect ' is said to be half white / half red) vermouth to 2 parts whiskey, with a dash of bitters, served ice cold, in an ice cold glass, or with ice and a cherry garnish.
Traditional views insist that a Manhattan be made with American rye whiskey. However it can also be made with bourbon or Canadian whisky. The Manhattan is subject to considerable variation and innovation, and is often a way for the best bartenders to show off their creativity. Some shake the ingredients with ice in a cocktail shaker instead of stirring it, creating a froth on the surface of the drink. Angostura is the classic bitters, but orange bitters or Peychaud 's Bitters may be used. Some make their own bitters and syrups, substitute comparable digestifs in place of vermouth, specialize in local or rare whiskeys, or use other exotic ingredients. A lemon peel may be used as garnish. Some add juice from the cherry jar or Maraschino liqueur to the cocktail for additional sweetness and color.
Originally, bitters were considered an integral part of any cocktail, as the ingredient that differentiated a cocktail from a sling. Over time, those definitions of cocktail and sling have become archaic, as sling has fallen out of general use (other than in certain drink names), and cocktail can mean any drink that resembles a martini, or simply any mixed drink.
The following are other variations on the classic Manhattan:
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when did the florida marlins become a team | History of the Miami Marlins - wikipedia
The Miami Marlins are a Major League Baseball team that currently plays in the city of Miami. Founded in 1991 as the Florida Marlins, the Marlins began play in 1993 in the suburb of Miami Gardens, and moved to the city in 2012, becoming the Miami Marlins at that time.
On March 7, 1990, Wayne Huizenga, CEO of Blockbuster Entertainment Corporation, announced he had purchased 15 percent of the NFL 's Miami Dolphins and 50 percent of the Dolphins ' home, Joe Robbie Stadium, for an estimated $30 million. Huizenga stated his intention to aggressively pursue an expansion franchise. MLB had announced a few months earlier that it intended to add two new teams to the National League. It was a foregone conclusion that one of them would be placed in Florida; the only question was whether Huizenga would beat out competing groups from Orlando and Tampa Bay. Orlando fielded a very spirited campaign bolstered by its family - oriented tourism industry. Tampa Bay already had a baseball park -- the Florida Suncoast Dome in St. Petersburg, completed in 1990. However, on June 10, 1991, the National League awarded a Miami - based franchise to Huizenga for a $95 million expansion fee. One name considered early on was the Florida Flamingos. The franchise adopted the nickname "Marlins '' from previous minor league teams, the Miami Marlins of the International League from 1956 to 1960, and the Miami Marlins (1962 -- 70) and Miami Marlins (1982 -- 88) teams that played in the Florida State League.
In November 1991, the Marlins hired Fredi González as the Marlins first Minor League manager.
On December 16, 1991, they made their first - ever signing, inking 16 - year - old Dominican pitcher Clemente Núñez to a contract. They selected catcher Charles Johnson of the University of Miami with their first - ever first round draft pick in June 1992. Later that year Marlins President Carl Barger collapsed and died at the baseball winter meetings in Louisville, Kentucky. The Marlins later retired the number 5 in honor of Barger 's favorite player, Joe DiMaggio, but would put the number back into circulation when they moved to the city of Miami in 2012, honoring Barger instead with a plaque at the new Marlins Park.
The Marlins ' first manager was Rene Lachemann, a former catcher who had previously managed the Seattle Mariners and Milwaukee Brewers, and who at the time of his hiring was a third base coach for the Oakland Athletics. The team drafted its initial lineup of players in the 1992 MLB Expansion Draft. The Marlins defeated the Houston Astros 12 -- 8 in their inaugural Spring training game. Jeff Conine hit Florida 's first homer before a crowd of 6,696 at the Cocoa Expo Sports Complex. The Marlins won their first game on April 5, 1993, against the Dodgers. Charlie Hough was the starting pitcher for that game. Jeff Conine went 4 - 4 as well, making him an immediate crowd favorite. By the end of his tenure with Florida, he would earn the nickname "Mr. Marlin. '' Gary Sheffield and Bryan Harvey represented the Marlins as the club 's first All - Star Game selections, and Sheffield homered in the Marlins first All - Star Game at - bat. The team finished the year five games ahead of the last - place New York Mets and with an attendance of 3,064,847. In that season, the Marlins traded their young set - up reliever Trevor Hoffman and two minor - league prospects to the San Diego Padres for third baseman Gary Sheffield. While Sheffield helped Florida immediately and became an all - star, Hoffman eventually emerged as the best closer in the National League. After the 1993 season, Donald A. Smiley was named the second President in club history. The Marlins finished last (51 -- 64) in their division in the strike - shortened season of 1994 and fourth (67 - 76) in 1995. Lachemann was replaced as manager midway through the 1996 season by director of player development John Boles.
The Marlins had some bright spots on the mound and behind the plate in 1996. The team 's 3.95 ERA ranked third in the NL, thanks in large part to newcomer Kevin Brown, who finished the season with a 17 -- 11 win - loss record and an impressive 1.89 ERA. On May 11, Al Leiter pitched the first no - hitter in Marlins history. Catcher Charles Johnson led the league with a. 995 fielding percentage, threw out a league - high 48 percent of base runners, and collected his second straight Gold Glove Award for fielding excellence. After a slow start, the Marlins finished the year with an 80 -- 82 win - loss record to place third in their division. Boles returned to his previous position as director of player development, and former Pittsburgh Pirates manager Jim Leyland was hired to lead the club in 1997.
In addition to hiring Leyland as manager, the Marlins signed third baseman Bobby Bonilla, outfielder Moisés Alou, and pitcher Alex Fernandez to lucrative free - agent contracts, raising expectations to levels far beyond anything in franchise history.
The Marlins franchise got its second no - hitter from ace Kevin Brown on June 10, 1997. Brown nearly had the perfect game, but he hit the Giants ' Marvin Benard with a pitch in the 8th inning when Benard attempted to bunt. With Brown, Leiter, and Fernandez heading the rotation, and Robb Nen closing out games, the Marlins ' staff was almost systematic during their regular season run. In 1997, the Marlins finished nine games back of the Division Champion Atlanta Braves, but earned the wild card berth. Veteran additions such as LF Moisés Alou, 3B Bobby Bonilla, and trade - deadline additions Darren Daulton and Jim Eisenreich added experience and clutch hits. Talented young stars Luis Castillo (2B) and Édgar Rentería (SS) comprised one of the best double play combos in the League. Castillo did not perform to expectations offensively, and was replaced by Craig Counsell before the playoffs began. The Marlins swept the San Francisco Giants 3 -- 0 in the National League Division Series, and then went on to beat the Atlanta Braves 4 -- 2 in the National League Championship Series, overcoming the loss of Alex Fernandez to a torn rotator cuff, and Kevin Brown to a virus. Brown 's place was taken in Game 5 by rookie pitcher Liván Hernández, who had earned a spot in the rotation in the second half of the season, but was not in the rotation during the postseason. Hernandez struck out 15 Braves and outdueled multiple Cy Young Award winner Greg Maddux to a 2 -- 1 victory and a 3 -- 2 series lead. Brown returned to the mound for Game 6, pitching a complete game victory to secure the Marlins their first - ever National League pennant. The underdog Marlins went on to face the Cleveland Indians in the 1997 World Series, and won in seven games. In Game 7, Craig Counsell 's sacrifice fly in the bottom of the ninth tied the game at 2, then, with the bases loaded and two outs in the bottom of the 11th, Édgar Rentería 's soft liner glanced off the glove of Cleveland pitcher Charles Nagy and into center field to score Counsell and give the Marlins the win.
Following the World Series victory, Huizenga dismantled the team, claiming financial losses despite winning the World Series. He traded most of the club 's best players in one of the biggest fire sales in sports history. The first deal came days after the World Series, when outfielder Moisés Alou was traded to the Houston Astros for pitchers Oscar Hernandez and Manuel Barrios. The Marlins then traded Kevin Brown to the San Diego Padres for Derrek Lee and 2 minor leaguers. Finally, in May 1998, they dealt Bobby Bonilla, Gary Sheffield, Charles Johnson, Jim Eisenreich, and Manuel Barrios to the Los Angeles Dodgers for Mike Piazza and Todd Zeile, both of whom would be gone via trades by midseason. On the flip side, these trades brought promising youngsters Derrek Lee and A.J. Burnett.
The Marlins slumped to 54 -- 108 in 1998, the worst record in the major leagues that year, and the most losses in franchise history. They are the only team to lose 100 games a year after winning the World Series. Leyland resigned as manager in October 1998, and was replaced by John Boles. Huizenga soon sold the club to John Henry, a commodities trader from Boca Raton, during the off - season. The Marlins had the second overall pick in the 1999 draft and drafted Josh Beckett, a high school pitcher from the Houston area.
In 1999, the Marlins were the first MLB team to host a game in which instant replay was used. While playing the Cardinals, Cliff Floyd hit a ball to the top of the left field scoreboard. Originally ruled a home run, NL umpire Frank Pulli reversed the call to a double, after consulting a dugout TV monitor. The Cardinals won the game, 5 -- 2. After the game, the NL League Office declared the umpires erred in using instant replay. MLB would not use instant replay again for almost a decade. The Marlins finished the 1999 season with the worst record in baseball at 64 -- 98, and traded World Series MVP Liván Hernández to the San Francisco Giants. The Marlins also drafted P Johan Santana from Houston in the Rule 5 draft but traded him to Minnesota in a prearranged deal for P Jared Camp.
A month prior to the regular season, the Marlins hired David Dombrowski as the third President in club history, making him both President and General Manager. After posting the worst record in baseball for the 1999 season, the Marlins had the first overall pick in the 2000 first - year player draft and selected first baseman Adrian Gonzalez, an 18 - year - old native of Bonita, California. The Eastlake High School product agreed to terms with the Marlins that same day. The Marlins went on that season to finish 79 -- 82 and third in the NL East. This was thanks to the emergence of OF Preston Wilson who had 31 home runs and 121 RBIs. Derrek Lee and Luis Castillo broke out this year as well, as Castillo posted a. 334 batting average and Lee had 28 homers in his first full season. Antonio Alfonseca posted a then - club record 45 saves.
The club slowly worked its way back to respectability with a third - place finish in 2000, driven by young stars such as A.J. Burnett, Brad Penny, Preston Wilson, Luis Castillo, and Mike Lowell. Burnett pitched the Marlins ' third no - hitter on May 12, 2001, against the Padres, despite walking nine batters and throwing only half of his pitches for strikes. Three weeks after the no - no, Manager John Boles was fired and Hall of Famer Tony Pérez was named interim manager for the rest of the season. The club finished 76 -- 86 and in fourth place, thanks to Brad Penny 's and A.J. Burnett 's emergence.
The offseason following the 2001 regular season included an overhaul of the ownership and front office. Tony Pérez resigned and returned to his previous role as the front - office Baseball Operations assistant. About a month later, David Dombrowski resigned as President and General Manager of the Florida Marlins and accepted the position as President of the Detroit Tigers. Entering the new year, Henry sold the Marlins to Montreal Expos owner Jeffrey Loria, clearing the way for Henry to buy the Boston Red Sox. Loria brought the entire Expos management and coaching staff to the Marlins. David Samson became team president, Larry Beinfest became General Manager and Jeff Torborg became manager.
Prior to the 2002 season, the Marlins traded RHP Matt Clement and RHP Antonio Alfonseca to the Cubs for RHP Julián Tavárez, LHP Dontrelle Willis, RHP Jose Cueto and C Ryan Jorgensen. The Marlins had their ups as Luis Castillo had a team record 35 - game hitting streak and Kevin Millar had a 25 - game hit streak. Around the All - Star break they made their second big trade, sending OF Cliff Floyd to the Expos for RHP Carl Pavano, RHP Justin Wayne, INF Mike Mordecai, LHP Graeme Lloyd, RHP Don Levinski and INF Wilton Guerrero. The same day, the Fish dealt RHP Ryan Dempster to the Cincinnati Reds for OF Juan Encarnación and LHP Ryan Snare. The Marlins finished 79 -- 83, the second - best season in team history up to that time, but their fifth straight losing season since winning the World Series.
The Marlins also turned their first ever triple play in franchise history on July 28, 2002.
During the offseason, the Marlins signed free agent catcher Iván Rodríguez -- a 10 - time Gold Glove Award winner -- and acquired speedy outfielder Juan Pierre from the Colorado Rockies hoping to offset the loss of sluggers Cliff Floyd and Preston Wilson. The Marlins did acquire P Mike Hampton but dealt him and his hefty contract to the Braves for P Tim Spooneybarger.
The Marlins struggled in the opening stages of the season, going 16 -- 22. During that span, Florida lost its top three pitchers: A.J. Burnett, Josh Beckett, and Mark Redman. On May 11, Florida replaced manager Jeff Torborg with 72 - year - old Jack McKeon. On May 22, the Marlins hit bottom with a major league worst record of 19 -- 29, having lost 6 straight games. However, help was on the way.
On May 9, the Marlins called up high - kicking southpaw Dontrelle Willis from the Double - A Carolina Mudcats and helped carry the injury - plagued Marlins with an 11 -- 2 record in his first 17 starts. Miguel Cabrera (also from the Mudcats) filled in well, hitting a walk off home run in his first major league game, against the Tampa Bay Devil Rays at Pro Player Stadium. Both Willis and Cabrera would later prove to be essential parts of the Marlin 's playoff success. Jeff Conine -- an original Marlin and member of the 1997 World Series team -- returned from Baltimore, and closer Ugueth Urbina arrived from the Texas Rangers. These acquisitions helped to keep the team in contention, and although they finished ten games behind the Braves, the Marlins captured the NL wild card.
The Marlins won the Division Series against the favored San Francisco Giants three games to one. The series ended with a dramatic collision between Marlins catcher Rodríguez and Giants first baseman J.T. Snow, making it the first postseason series ever to end with the potential tying run being thrown out at the plate. It was the second time that the Marlins defeated the Giants in the Division Series, having done so in 1997.
On October 15, the Marlins defeated the Chicago Cubs four games to three in the Championship Series, coming back from a three games to one deficit. A Beckett complete - game shutout in Game 5 kept the Marlins alive. Game 6 saw the Marlins play a role in one of baseball 's most infamous moments: "The Inning ''. With 1 one out in the 8th inning and the Cubs 3 runs ahead, Marlins 2nd baseman Luis Castillo hit a pop foul a row into the stands along the third base line. Cubs fan Steve Bartman reached for the ball, preventing Cubs LF Moisés Alou from making the out and setting off an 8 - run Marlins rally. The incident with Steve Bartman and a come - from - behind win in Wrigley Field in Game 7 helped the Marlins capture their second NL pennant, keeping the "Curse of the Billy Goat '' alive and well.
In the 2003 World Series, the Marlins defeated the heavily favored New York Yankees in six games, winning the sixth game in Yankee Stadium. Shortstop Álex González helped the Marlins in Game 4 of the series with a walk off home run in extra innings. Josh Beckett was named the Most Valuable Player for the series after twirling a five - hit complete - game shutout in Game 6. Skipper Jack McKeon became the oldest manager ever to win a World Series title. The Marlins became the first opposing team to win a Series championship on the field at Yankee Stadium since 1981, when the Los Angeles Dodgers did it. The Marlins are also the last team to win a World Series at the original Yankee Stadium; the Yankees themselves would not participate in another World Series until 2009, when they defeated the then - defending champion Philadelphia Phillies at the new Yankee Stadium. The Marlins won the series despite scoring fewer runs (17) than the Yankees (21).
The offseason after their second World Series title, the Marlins made a questionable cost - cutting move as Derrek Lee was traded to Chicago Cubs for Hee - seop Choi and pitcher Mike Nannini. The Marlins also lost key parts of their second championship team, Ugueth Urbina and Iván Rodríguez left via free agency (signed by the Detroit Tigers). Marlins third base coach Ozzie Guillén also departed to be manager of the Chicago White Sox. The Marlins did get good news though as Dontrelle Willis was named NL Rookie of the Year and Jack McKeon named Manager of the Year. They also signed Mike Lowell to a new four - year contract.
After winning the 2003 World Series, the Marlins entered 2004 with high hopes and a retooled roster. Retaining a core of stars from their title team and hoping that newly acquired 1B Hee - seop Choi would emerge, the Marlins fell short of reaching the postseason, but they posted the third winning season in franchise history, boasting an 83 - 79 record. During the season, the Marlins were to make one of the biggest trades in club history as Los Angeles got P Brad Penny, 1B Choi and Double - A left - hander Bill Murphy in exchange for P Guillermo Mota, C Paul Lo Duca and OF Juan Encarnación. Pitchers Carl Pavano and Armando Benítez turned in record - setting performances. Pavano went 18 - 8 with a 3.30 ERA, and his 18 wins established a season high by a Marlin. Benitez became the club 's season saves leader with 47 (in 51 saves attempts). Pavano, Benitez, Mike Lowell and Miguel Cabrera each enjoyed All - Star seasons, with Cabrera belting 33 homers (second-most ever in a season by a Marlin) while driving in 112 runs.
While losing All - Stars Carl Pavano and Armando Benítez in the off - season, the Marlins signed P Al Leiter and 1B Carlos Delgado. Delgado 's contract was the biggest in franchise history at $52 million over 4 years, with an option for a fifth year. Meanwhile, play - by - play TV broadcaster Len Kasper was also lost to the Chicago Cubs and replaced by Rich Waltz (who had previously been with the Seattle Mariners), and radio announcer John "Boog '' Sciambi was replaced by Roxy Bernstein.
With the addition of Delgado, many sportswriters expected the Marlins to finish the 2005 season in either first or second place in the NL East. However, at the All - Star break they were 44 -- 42, and the NL East was unusually competitive, as all five of its teams had a winning record at the break. While Cabrera, Willis, and several others posted very good first - half numbers, Lowell was one of the least productive regular major - league starters, and Leiter went 3 -- 7 with an ERA of 6.64 before being traded to the New York Yankees on July 15 for a player to be named later. Additionally, Guillermo Mota, who was acquired by Florida in 2004 along with Paul Lo Duca and Juan Encarnación and was expected to be their closer, was inconsistent, and the Marlins gave the closer job to veteran Todd Jones, whom they signed in the offseason. However, the Marlins did send four players to the All - Star Game (Willis, Lo Duca, Castillo, and Cabrera), tying a team record.
The club was expected to be quite active at the trading deadline (July 31), as Burnett was slated to be a free agent after the season and had already declared his desire to test the market like Pavano did. Burnett was mentioned in possible trades with the Chicago White Sox, Boston Red Sox, New York Yankees, Toronto Blue Jays, and Texas Rangers, with many rumors also including Lowell or Encarnacion. The Marlins did not make a huge move at the deadline, instead trading minor - leaguer Yorman Bazardo to the Seattle Mariners for left - handed pitcher Ron Villone.
The Marlins did have some pleasant surprises during the season. Dontrelle Willis became the 13th member of the Black Aces when he defeated the Washington Nationals to earn his 20th win. He finished the season 22 - 10 with a 2.63 ERA, and he was considered a favorite to win the Cy Young Award for much of the season. Also, Jones, a journeyman who had been signed as a setup man, had one of the best years of his career as a closer; he earned 40 saves and had a 2.13 ERA. In addition, late - season call up Jeremy Hermida, a highly regarded prospect who has been compared to the Atlanta Braves ' Jeff Francoeur, hit a pinch - hit grand slam in his first major - league at - bat and a game - tying two - run homer in the last game of the season.
The Marlins led the NL wild - card race as late as September 13, then lost 12 of their next 14 games. The Marlins closed the season by sweeping the Braves, and their final record for the season stood at 83 -- 79. After the season, lingering stadium issues forced the Marlins to ponder big moves with their roster and also ponder possible relocation to another city.
The 2005 offseason would prove to be one of busiest for the Marlins in years, Jack McKeon announced his retirement on October 2 after the Marlins ' last game of the season. Former Tampa Bay Devil Rays manager Lou Piniella, Braves third base coach Fredi González (who previously managed in the Marlins ' farm system), New York Yankees bench coach Joe Girardi, and even Yankees manager Joe Torre who most thought could have been let go after a short stint postseason, were named as possible replacements for McKeon. On October 19, Girardi was hired as the new manager. Girardi, who was hired at age 41, became one of the youngest current managers in the major leagues at the time.
Few of the coaching staff, aside from infield / first base coach Perry Hill and bullpen coordinator Pierre Arsenault, were expected to return. Pitching coach Mark Wiley and bullpen coach Luis Dorante came under fire during the season due to the late - season struggles of Burnett and the season - long struggles of the Marlins ' bullpen. Similarly, hitting coach Bill Robinson was often blamed for the Marlins ' offensive woes throughout the season, and in particular for his failure to get Pierre and Lowell out of season - long slumps. Girardi hired Jim Presley as a replacement for Robinson, and also hired Rick Kranitz as the new pitching coach and Bobby Meacham as the new third - base coach.
On October 3, the first day after the end of the regular season, the Marlins made their first offseason moves, releasing relief pitchers John Riedling and Tim Spooneybarger. Riedling had a 4 -- 1 record and a 7.14 ERA during the season; Spooneybarger, who had not played since 2003 due to rehabilitation from Tommy John surgery, had to have the surgery a second time during the season and missed the 2006 season as well. Screwball specialist Jim Mecir retired following the Marlins ' last game of the season.
Closer Todd Jones, pitchers A.J. Burnett, Brian Moehler, Ismael Valdéz, Paul Quantrill, first baseman Jeff Conine, infielder Lenny Harris, outfielder Juan Encarnación, and shortstop Álex González were among the Marlins ' players whose contracts expired following the 2005 season. Burnett signed a five - year deal with the Toronto Blue Jays worth $55 million and Jones signed for two years with the Detroit Tigers, while Moehler elected to remain with the Marlins. The team declined to offer arbitration to Conine, Valdéz, Quantrill, Encarnación, Damion Easley, and Mike Mordecai, effectively ending their tenures with the club. Soon after announcing a plan to relocate (see below), the Marlins started to shed payroll by dealing their highest - paid players for minor league prospects, in a series of moves reminiscent of the "fire sale '' in the 1997 offseason. In response, the club announced that it was, in their opinion, a "market correction '', brought about by the lack of a stadium deal. On November 24, Josh Beckett, Mike Lowell, and Guillermo Mota were traded to the Red Sox for four minor - league prospects: shortstop Hanley Ramírez, and pitchers Aníbal Sánchez, Jesús Delgado, and Harvey García. The trade left Dontrelle Willis as the only remaining member of the team 's 2005 Opening Day rotation. The Marlins filled most of the remaining rotation spots with young pitchers such as Jason Vargas, Josh Johnson, and Scott Olsen, all of whom they had recalled from their Class AA affiliate during the 2005 season.
On November 23, the Mets and the Marlins agreed on a deal to move Carlos Delgado to the Mets for first baseman Mike Jacobs and pitching prospect Yusmeiro Petit. Also, the Marlins would have to pay $7 million of Delgado 's remaining contract. When the deal was made official the next day, the Marlins also received minor - league infielder Grant Psomas. According to the Fort Lauderdale Sun - Sentinel, the Marlins passed up the Mets ' offer to give them center fielder Lastings Milledge, who was at the time ranked the Mets ' top prospect according to Baseball America. Combined, the two trades allowed the Marlins to reduce their 2006 payroll by $27 million.
However, the Marlins were not yet done reducing payroll. Paul Lo Duca was traded to the Mets for two players to be named later, with the Marlins sending pitcher Gabriel Hernandez and outfielder Dante Brinkley to New York to complete the deal. Longtime second baseman Luis Castillo was traded to the Twins for pitchers Travis Bowyer and Scott Tyler, and Juan Pierre to the Cubs for pitchers Sergio Mitre, Ricky Nolasco, and Renyel Pinto. Of the seven players that the Marlins acquired in these three deals, only Mitre and Bowyer had any major - league experience when they came to the Marlins. To replace Castillo, the Marlins signed veteran Pokey Reese, but Reese was released during spring training after going AWOL, and was replaced by Dan Uggla, who had been selected from the Arizona Diamondbacks in the Rule 5 draft. Uggla played in the Arizona organization at the Class AA level in 2005.
At the start of the year, the Marlins had a team salary close to $21 million. Not only was it the lowest team salary in all of MLB, but New York Yankees third baseman Alex Rodriguez alone made more money than the entire Marlins team. The Marlins made MLB history when they started six rookies in their Opening Day lineup. Sporting the league 's youngest team, the Marlins were predicted before the season to lose more than 100 games. Instead, the youthful squad greatly exceeded expectations, often in historical fashion. After getting off to an 11 - 31 start, the Marlins found themselves at 73 - 72 on September 12, making them the first team in the modern baseball era to improve to better than. 500 after being as much as 20 games under. 500. Also, for the first time in MLB history, four rookies topped double digits in wins: Josh Johnson, Scott Olsen, Ricky Nolasco and Aníbal Sánchez.
On September 6, 2006, Sanchez threw the fourth no - hitter in franchise history, beating Arizona, 2 - 0, at Dolphin Stadium. Miguel Cabrera finished second in the N.L. in batting average, and set a franchise season mark with his. 339 average. Dan Uggla became the first Rule 5 pick to be selected to the All - Star Game in the season in which he was drafted and won Sporting News Rookie of the Year for the National League and won the Players ' Choice award as the league 's most outstanding rookie. Hanley Ramírez won the N.L. Rookie of the Year Award, and Joe Girardi was voted N.L. Manager of the Year. Dan Uggla finished third in the voting and starting pitcher Josh Johnson, fourth; starting pitchers Scott Olsen and Aníbal Sánchez and left fielder Josh Willingham received one third - place vote each.
Additionally, the Marlins had four of their rookie starting pitchers (Aníbal Sánchez, Josh Johnson, Scott Olsen, and Ricky Nolasco) win at least ten games, becoming the first team in major - league history to do so. The 2006 Marlins also had five ten - game winners for the first time in franchise history (including Dontrelle Willis).
Shortly after the 2006 season ended and following months of speculation, Marlins manager Joe Girardi was fired on October 3, 2006 not long after winning the National League Manager of the Year award. This was due to a game against the Los Angeles Dodgers earlier in the year in which Girardi did not challenge a call that pitcher Taylor Tankersley thought was a strike and this prompted owner Jeffrey Loria, who was in the stands and a few feet away from the dugout, to call out Girardi who refused to listen to him. This was n't the only thing that triggered the feud; earlier in the year Girardi reportedly wanted 1B Mike Jacobs to start off the year in triple A, Willingham to start at catcher, Miguel Cabrera to start at first base. Within hours, Atlanta Braves third base coach Fredi González was named his replacement and was signed to a three - year contract.
After a 2006 season which saw them defy expectations time and again, the Marlins entered 2007 hanging on to the belief that they could compete with anyone. It did n't turn out that way. Injuries ravaged the starting rotation and the Marlins struggled all season, ultimately finishing in last place in the National League East for the first time since 1999. Josh Johnson underwent Tommy John surgery and Aníbal Sánchez had right shoulder surgery. Ricky Nolasco dealt with a sore elbow all season. Suddenly, the strength of the team -- the starting rotation -- was minus three key players. Despite a disappointing finish, there certainly were a number of highs -- Kevin Gregg emerged as a dominant closer, Hanley Ramírez developed into a legitimate superstar and Miguel Cabrera proved why he already was one -- but none of them could ultimately overcome the odds heavily stacked against the Marlins. On the downside, southpaws Dontrelle Willis and Scott Olsen had disappointing campaigns. What was encouraging was an otherwise disappointing season ended on a high note. The team won five of six to end the season (sweeping the Cubs and taking two of three with the Mets at Shea Stadium). Still, after the season, the franchise went in a different direction. The year was capped by the trading of their two biggest stars, slugger Miguel Cabrera and pitcher Dontrelle Willis. Talks with both the Los Angeles Angels and San Francisco Giants fell apart. On December 5, 2007, the Marlins agreed to the terms of a trade with the Detroit Tigers. The trade would surprisingly send not only Cabrera, but also Willis, to the Tigers. In return, the Marlins did not receive four players, but six. The Marlins received center fielder Cameron Maybin, catcher Mike Rabelo, and pitchers Andrew Miller, Eulogio De La Cruz, Burke Badenhop, and Dallas Trahern.
The Marlins did have some bright spots on offense as they set club records for runs scored (790), hits (1,504), doubles (340), home runs (201), RBIs (749) and slugging percentage (. 448). As the Marlins wrapped up the season they announced that pitching coach Rick Kranitz would not be back with the club and extended Larry Beinfest and Michael Hill to long term deals that run through 2015 along with promotions to President of Baseball Operations and Vice President / General Manager, respectively.,
The Marlins began 2008 on a positive note. Analysts expected a lackluster performance on the field, citing the low payroll and loss of Dontrelle Willis and Miguel Cabrera during the offseason. However, the Marlins got off to one of the best starts in team history. At one point the Marlins were 30 -- 20, the first time since September 14, 2005 the team had been 10 games over. 500. They jumped atop of the National League East in April and May, the first time since 2002 that they held the lead that late in the season. The good start was attributed to powerful offensive production from their core of Mike Jacobs, Hanley Ramírez, Dan Uggla, Josh Willingham, and Jorge Cantú and quality pitching by southpaw Scott Olsen and right - hander Ricky Nolasco. The Marlins ' hot start made them a rare buyer at the July trade deadline, where they were involved in talks on a three - way deal with the Pittsburgh Pirates and Boston Red Sox which could have brought Manny Ramírez to South Florida. The Marlins backed out at the last second when trade talks turned to their coveted power - hitting prospect, Giancarlo Stanton. Instead, Manny Ramírez ended up with the Dodgers and the Marlins wound up trading for Arthur Rhodes.
The team also received encouraging news when injured pitcher Josh Johnson made a fast recovery from Tommy John surgery and Aníbal Sánchez came back from a torn labrum in the shoulder, both leaping into the rotation right away along with newly called up prized prospect Chris Volstad. In addition, the Marlins sent two players, Hanley Ramírez, who started the game at shortstop, and reserve Dan Uggla to the last All - Star Game at Yankee Stadium. The Marlins signed Hanley Ramírez to a 6 - year, $70 million deal, making him the richest Marlin in history.
The team struggled in the month of August, when they went 11 -- 16 due to lack of the offense they had in the early part of the season. In September, the Marlins rallied with a nine - game winning streak, tying the franchise record, thanks in part to prized prospect, Cameron Maybin. However they lost four straight afterwards and were eliminated from playoff contention, although but they did manage to eliminate the New York Mets for the second consecutive season on the final day, winning the final game at Shea Stadium, 4 - 2.
The team finished with a franchise record for most home runs in a season at 208. Mike Jacobs, Dan Uggla, Hanley Ramírez and Jorge Cantú made MLB history by becoming the first foursome of infielders to hit at least 25 homers in a season. Just a day after the World Series concluded, the Marlins began wheeling and dealing. They traded first baseman Mike Jacobs to the Royals for reliever Leo Núñez, who the Marlins hoped could become a setup - man in late innings. A few weeks later, the Marlins traded power hitting outfielder Josh Willingham and southpaw Scott Olsen to the Nationals for utility player Emilio Bonifacio and two minor leaguers. Soon after the Marlins traded closer Kevin Gregg to the Cubs for relief prospect José Ceda.
A few weeks before the regular season, the Florida Marlins ' 15 - year quest for a permanent home became a reality by agreeing to bankroll a big share of a $634 million stadium complex to rise on the grounds of the old Orange Bowl site. The Marlins hoped to open at the new stadium on Opening Day 2012 with a new name of Miami Marlins.
The Marlins kicked off the new season with the youngest team in baseball and with the lowest payroll for the fourth consecutive season. New leadoff man Emilio Bonifacio stole the show on Opening Day. He hit the first Opening Day inside - the - park home run since Carl Yastrzemski did it for the Boston Red Sox in 1968 and had three stolen bases to go along with four hits. Hanley Ramírez hit his first career grand slam as the Marlins went on to score 12 runs, the most ever in franchise history on Opening Day.
The Marlins started the 2009 season hot by sweeping the Washington Nationals, only the second time they started the season with sweep since the 1997 Marlins team. The Marlins won their first four games for the first time in franchise history and started 11 -- 1, which included 2 out of 3 wins from the Mets, the first Marlins franchise sweep at Turner Field, and three comeback late - inning wins against the Nationals in Washington, sweeping the teams ' second series matchup. The 11 -- 1 start was the best start in Marlins history. They then lost their next seven games starting with the 62 - 99 Pittsburgh Pirates making them the first team in NL history to win seven straight games then lose the next seven. But even though they were below. 500 by as many as five games, they rebounded to 2 games above. 500 as of July 1, 2009. Cody Ross, the leader of the rebound, hit 2 grand slams in 2 weeks. The Marlins also amazed many in the final series before the All - Star break against the Arizona Diamondbacks. Originally trailing by seven runs after five innings, the Marlins entered the eighth inning down 7 - 4, they sent 14 batters to the plate. In the benchmark frame, they collected eight hits, and had eight different players score for a total of ten runs in the inning. In all the Marlins collected 14 unanswered runs as they came back for their 21st come from behind victory of the season. After the first 100 games of the season they stood second in the NL East with a record of 52 - 48.
Coming out of the All - Star break, the Marlins were swept in three games by the Phillies, but they responded by sweeping the Padres in San Diego before taking two of three against the Dodgers. That 5 - 1 West Coast road trip -- from July 20 -- 26 -- reinforced to management that the team was in contention. Instead of being sellers at the July 31 non-waiver trade deadline, first baseman Nick Johnson was acquired from the Nationals for pitching prospect Aaron Thompson, in the hopes that Johnson would bring his renowned plate discipline to the forefront of the Marlins ' lineup. However other rumors began to surface that the team was exploring options in deals that would bring major players to Florida, including superstars Roy Halladay and Adrian Gonzalez, as well as closer Heath Bell.
In August, the Marlins offense would take off. Rookie Chris Coghlan set a club record with ten consecutive multihit games. In addition, the Marlins would set a team record with 14 consecutive games with 10 or more hits, becoming the first team since the 1937 St. Louis Browns to reach that milestone. August would also see the Marlins sweeping the division leading Philadelphia Phillies after getting swept by the division cellar Washington Nationals. In light of being in the playoff race, the Marlins were rumored to have been targeting veteran pitchers John Smoltz and ex-Marlin Brad Penny. The Marlins ended the 2009 Season with their 3rd best record in franchise history, 87 - 75, topped only by the 1997 (92 wins) and 2003 (91) World Series championship teams. However, the status of Fredi González for the 2010 season was put in question when a report by ESPN 's Buster Olney said the Marlins had made contact with Bobby Valentine. The Marlins put those rumors to rest days later confirming that the all - time winningest manager in franchise history would remain at the helm. On the other hand, pitching coach Mark Wiley and infield / first - base coach Andy Fox were not retained.
Soon after the World Series, the Marlins began their off - season. On November 5, Jeremy Hermida was dealt to the Boston Red Sox in exchange for 2 prospects, pitchers Hunter Jones and José Álvarez. The team also saw a higher number of awards handed out to the team, as Ramirez notched his second straight Silver Slugger award, and Chris Coghlan was named the National League Rookie of the Year. Miami native and Marlins ' Special Assistant to the President Andre Dawson was elected by the eligible members of the Baseball Writers ' Association of America to the 2010 Class of the Baseball Hall of Fame. Dawson played with the Marlins in his final two seasons (1995 & 1996) The Marlins were also active on the international front, targeting and offering Cuban defector Aroldis Chapman a five - year offer worth $16 million, but lost out to the Cincinnati Reds, who signed the heralded lefty for $30 million for over six years.
The Marlins announced in a statement on January 5, 2010, in preparation for the move to the new ballpark and name change, that the Marlins road jersey would no longer bear the name "Florida '' on the front. Also the "F '' marlin sleeve patch would no longer be on the jersey.
On January 12, 2010, as part of an agreement between Major League Baseball and the players ' union, the Marlins agreed to increase payroll in line with the money it receives each year from revenue sharing. It could have meant that the Marlins would be more inclined to hang on to All - Star second baseman Dan Uggla rather than trade him as they had been trying to do for several months. A few days after agreeing with MLB to increase payroll, the Marlins signed their ace right - hander, Josh Johnson to a four - year deal worth $39 million, the second biggest contract ever for a pitcher heading into his second salary arbitration year. The only bigger deal was signed by Johan Santana, then of the NY Mets, for $40 million over four years. The deal locked up the team 's pitching ace beyond the opening of the new stadium in 2012, along with Hanley Ramírez. Not too long after the deal, the Marlins avoided arbitration with all - star second baseman Dan Uggla by signing a one - year, $7.8 million deal which was the third - highest single season total in franchise history behind Iván Rodríguez 's $10 million in 2003 and Gary Sheffield 's $14.9 million in 1998.
Coming out of spring training, there were playoff aspirations for the Marlins, which had held the same nucleus since 2006 despite the fact they had the National League 's third - lowest payroll. Marlins owner Jeffrey Loria expressed high hopes saying, "I expect us to make the playoffs, we 've got all the ammunition we need. ''
However, those aspirations proved to be misplaced, as little went right in Miami. In mid-May, Hanley Ramírez was suspended for a game by manager Fredi González for not hustling towards a fly ball which cost the team runs and a loss. Nearly two weeks later, Roy Halladay threw a perfect game against Florida, which was the first one thrown against the Marlins in franchise history.
On June 23, with the team sitting at 34 - 36 along with having a shaky bullpen and inconsistent situational hitting and bench, Loria decided to fire Fredi González along with bench coach Carlos Tosca and hitting coach Jim Presley on June 23. At the time of his dismissal, Gonzalez 's record for the season was 32 - 34. Edwin Rodriguez was promoted from Triple - A New Orleans as Florida 's new manager. Sandwiched between those two announcements were talks with former Rangers and Mets manager Bobby Valentine but those talks broke down. Edwin Rodriguez 's first game was a June 23 win against the Baltimore Orioles.
Other disappointments came in the way of injuries to core players, Chris Coghlan, the 2009 NL Rookie of the Year, tore the meniscus in his left knee while jamming a shaving - cream pie in Wes Helms ' face. Ricky Nolasco tore the meniscus in his right knee when he took off a shoe. When all was said and done, a club - record 57 players rotated through the clubhouse.
At the All - Star Break, Hanley Ramírez participated in the State Farm Home Run Derby and became the first Marlin to reach the finals. Ramirez lost to David Ortiz but set a Marlins record for most home runs hit in the Derby with 26.
After the All - Star Break, the Marlins went on a surge, getting off to an 11 - 5 start thanks in large part to Dan Uggla, who also set a Marlins franchise record for total home runs at 144, passing Mike Lowell. In that same week (July 19 - July 25), the Marlins had four walk - off base hits, two by Donnie Murphy and one each from Ronny Paulino and Wes Helms. It was that week which brought up the need to be buyers at the trade deadline. Considered in contention for the playoffs, the Marlins traded Rick VandenHurk to the Baltimore Orioles for lefty Will Ohman to shore up a shaky bullpen.
The second half also saw the emergence of rookie outfielders Michael Stanton and Logan Morrison, who replaced the injured Chris Coghlan. Rookie first baseman Gaby Sánchez also put up good numbers, at the top of most lists in home runs, RBIs, and batting average, to contend for the NL Rookie of the Year award.
The Marlins 2010 season was considered a disappointment, as they finished under. 500 for the first time since 2007.
Soon after the World Series, the team began its offseason on trying to improve its defense and bullpen while filling a dire need at catcher. Out of the gate, the Florida Marlins became one of the most active teams on the market. After retaining Edwin Rodríguez and bringing back defensive guru Perry Hill, the team traded the disappointing results of the notorious Miguel Cabrera -- Dontrelle Willis trade. Andrew Miller was the first to go when he was traded to the Boston Red Sox on November 12 in exchange for another lefty, Dustin Richardson, a relief pitcher. The next day, the team shipped out young center fielder Cameron Maybin to the San Diego Padres for relief pitchers Ryan Webb and Edward Mujica to help in the expected overhaul of the team 's disappointing bullpen.
As soon as the season ended, the team began negotiations for a long - term deal that would keep All - Star second baseman Dan Uggla with the team. After rejecting the team 's offer of $48 million over four years because of his desire for a fifth year totaling $71 million, the team reached a stalemate with Uggla, meaning his days with the team were numbered. Days later on November 16, in order to get some kind of return for Uggla, the team dealt him to their divisional rivals, the Atlanta Braves, for fellow All - Star and utility man Omar Infante and relief pitcher Mike Dunn.
Earlier in that same day, the team came to terms on a three - year deal with All - Star catcher John Buck, formerly of the Kansas City Royals and Toronto Blue Jays. With even more money left to spend, the team later signed free agent pitcher Javier Vázquez to a one - year, $7 million contract which had a no - trade clause. It signaled a change in the philosophy of the franchise who had n't made such a free agent signing since 2005 when they had signed Carlos Delgado to a multi-year contract.
The team was n't done yet, as they signed yet another of their current players to an extension. Ricky Nolasco agreed to a three - year deal that would pay him $26.5 million through 2013, making him one of five players on the roster with a multi-year contract (the others being Hanley Ramírez, Josh Johnson, John Buck, and Randy Choate).
After the Marlins began the season with the best start in franchise history through 50 games (30 -- 20), they had one of the worst runs in MLB history. Starting the month of June with a. 053 winning percentage (1 -- 18), manager Edwin Rodríguez resigned, and the Marlins hired former manager and special assistant to the GM Jack McKeon. The Marlins finished the month at a franchise worst 5 -- 23, but began July at 10 -- 4. The Marlins dropped from the second - best record in the National League to last place in the National League East. In the final 112 games of the season, the Marlins played 40 -- 72, finishing with 72 wins and 90 losses, last in the National League East.
For the first 19 years of its existence, the team played its home games at Sun Life Stadium in Miami Gardens. In 2012, it moved into the newly constructed Marlins Park in Miami 's Little Havana.
In September 2011, the Marlins acquired manager Ozzie Guillén in a trade with the Chicago White Sox. The Marlins unveiled a new set of uniforms and color schemes on November 11, 2011, officially becoming the "Miami Marlins ''. They signed several high - profile free agents during the off - season in Jose Reyes, Heath Bell, and former White Sox pitcher Mark Buehrle, who played for Ozzie Guillén from 2004 to 2011. They opened Marlins Park and the 2012 season against the St. Louis Cardinals on April 4, losing 4 -- 1. The Marlins struggled through the first 100 games, only winning 46, despite going a franchise record 21 -- 8 through May, resulting in the trades of Omar Infante, Aníbal Sánchez, and Hanley Ramírez. The team finished 69 -- 93, its worst record since 1999. This resulted in Guillén being fired after one season. Mike Redmond succeeded him as the Marlins ' manager. There was another fire sale, with the sale of almost every other major Marlins player of 2012 but Giancarlo Stanton.
In 2013, the team started the season with consecutive losses to the Washington Nationals, 0 - 2, 0 - 3, and 1 - 6. The Marlins finished 62 -- 100, the second 100 - loss season for the team, and the first since 1998. However, the season ended on a good note, as the Marlins, already out of contention, beat the Detroit Tigers as Henderson Álvarez threw the franchise 's fifth no - hitter in a 1 - 0 season - ending victory at Marlins Park and José Fernández won the NL Rookie of the Year.
Prior to the 2014 season, the Marlins acquired several hitters in an attempt to supplement their strong pitching and defense, including Garrett Jones, Casey McGehee, Jarrod Saltalamacchia and Rafael Furcal. The Marlins finished 77 -- 85 in 2014, losing both José Fernández and Giancarlo Stanton to major injuries. After the season 's conclusion, Stanton was signed to the largest contract in MLB history: 13 years and $325 million. The Marlins then acquired Aaron Crow from the Kansas City Royals, Dee Gordon and Dan Haren from the Los Angeles Dodgers, and Mat Latos from the Cincinnati Reds and then signed free agents Michael Morse and Ichiro Suzuki, who became the first - ever Japanese - born Marlin in franchise history.
With the Marlins ' talented roster, they entered the 2015 season with high expectations. However, after beginning the season 16 -- 22, Redmond was fired from the Marlins ' managerial position on May 17. Then - general manager Dan Jennings replaced Redmond as manager, despite Jennings having never previously coached or managed in any MLB organization.
Tragedy struck the Miami Marlins on September 25, 2016, when star pitcher José Fernández died in a boating accident.
In 2017, Jeffrey Loria advertised for bids to sell the Miami Marlins. Former New York Yankees shortstop Derek Jeter expressed interest in being involved with an ownership group, attempting initially to join a bid with former Florida Governor Jeb Bush. Eventually, he became a minority partner in the eventual winning bid, a $1.2 - billion offer led by Bruce Sherman, which was accepted on August 11, 2017. The bid was officially submitted to Major League Baseball for analysis and approval on August 15. Jeter and Sherman immediately held a complete firesale, in an attempt to bring the franchise back to profitability, trading away Marcell Ozuna to the Cardinals and fan - favorite and superstar Giancarlo Stanton to the Yankees.
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where are the collecting ducts in the kidney | Collecting duct system - wikipedia
The collecting duct system of the kidney consists of a series of tubules and ducts that physically connect nephrons to a minor calyx or directly to the renal pelvis. The collecting duct system participates in electrolyte and fluid balance through reabsorption and excretion, processes regulated by the hormones aldosterone and vasopressin (antidiuretic hormone).
There are several components of the collecting duct system, including the connecting tubules, cortical collecting ducts, and medullary collecting ducts.
The segments of the system are as follows:
With respect to the renal corpuscle, the "connecting tubule '' is the most proximal part of the collecting duct system. It is adjacent to the distal convoluted tubule, the most distal segment of the renal tubule. Connecting tubules from several adjacent nephrons merge to form cortical collecting tubules, and these may join to form cortical collecting ducts. Connecting tubules of some juxtamedullary nephrons may arch upward, forming an arcade.
The connecting tubule derives from the metanephric blastema, but the rest of the system derives from the ureteric bud. Because of this, some sources group the connecting tubule as part of the nephron, rather than grouping it with the collecting duct system.
The initial collecting tubule is a segment with a constitution similar as the collecting duct, but before the convergence with other tubules.
The "cortical collecting ducts '' receive filtrate from multiple initial collecting tubules and descend into the renal medulla to form medullary collecting ducts.
"Medullary collecting ducts '' are divided into outer and inner segments, the latter reaching more deeply into the medulla. The variable reabsorption of water and, depending on fluid balances and hormonal influences, the reabsorption or secretion of sodium, potassium, hydrogen and bicarbonate ion continues here. Urea passively transports out of duct here and creates 500mOsm gradient.
The outer segment of the medullary collecting duct follows the cortical collecting duct. It reaches the level of the renal medulla where the thin descending limb of loop of Henle borders with the thick ascending limb of loop of Henle
The inner segment is the part of the collecting duct system between the outer segment and the papillary ducts.
The terminal portions of the medullary collecting ducts are the "papillary ducts '', which end at the renal papilla and empty into a minor calyx.
Each component of the collecting duct system contains two cell types, intercalated cells and a segment - specific cell type:
The principal cell mediates the collecting duct 's influence on sodium and potassium balance via sodium channels and potassium channels located on the cell 's apical membrane. Aldosterone determines expression of sodium channels (especially the ENaC). Increases in aldosterone increase expression of luminal sodium channels. Aldosterone also increases the number of Na + / K + - ATPase pumps that allow increased sodium reabsorption and potassium secretion. Vasopressin determines the expression of aquaporin channels that provide a physical pathway for water to pass through the principal cells. Together, aldosterone and vasopressin let the principal cell control the quantity of water that is reabsorbed.
Intercalated cells come in α and β varieties and participate in acid - base homeostasis.
For their contribution to acid - base homeostasis, the intercalated cells play important roles in the kidney 's response to acidosis and alkalosis. Damage to the α - intercalated cell 's ability to secrete acid can result in distal renal tubular acidosis (RTA type I, classical RTA) (reference).
The collecting duct system is the final component of the kidney to influence the body 's electrolyte and fluid balance. In humans, the system accounts for 4 -- 5 % of the kidney 's reabsorption of sodium and 5 % of the kidney 's reabsorption of water. At times of extreme dehydration, over 24 % of the filtered water may be reabsorbed in the collecting duct system.
The wide variation in water reabsorption levels for the collecting duct system reflects its dependence on hormonal activation. The collecting ducts, in particular, the outer medullary and cortical collecting ducts, are largely impermeable to water without the presence of antidiuretic hormone (ADH, or vasopressin).
The collecting duct system participates in the regulation of other electrolytes, including chloride, potassium, hydrogen ions, and bicarbonate.
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when did day of the dead start being celebrated | Memorial Day - wikipedia
Memorial Day or Decoration Day is a federal holiday in the United States for remembering the people who died while serving in the country 's armed forces. The holiday, which is currently observed every year on the last Monday of May, was held on May 29, 2017. The holiday was held on May 30 from 1868 to 1970. It marks the start of the unofficial summer vacation season, while Labor Day marks its end. The holiday, from latest to earliest, is slightly more likely to fall on May 30, May 28 or May 25 (58 in 400 years each) than on May 27 or May 26 (57), and slightly less likely to occur on May 31 or May 29 (56).
Many people visit cemeteries and memorials, particularly to honor those who have died in military service. Many volunteers place an American flag on each grave in national cemeteries.
Memorial Day is not to be confused with Veterans Day -- Memorial Day is a day of remembering the men and women who died while serving, whereas Veterans Day celebrates the service of all U.S. military veterans.
The practice of decorating soldiers ' graves with flowers is an ancient custom. Soldiers ' graves were decorated in the U.S. before and during the American Civil War.
Some believe that an annual cemetery decoration practice began before the American Civil War and thus may reflect the real origin of the "memorial day '' idea. Annual Decoration Days for particular cemeteries are still held on a Sunday in late spring or early summer in some rural areas of the American South, notably in the mountain areas. In cases involving a family graveyard where remote ancestors as well as those who were deceased more recently are buried, this may take on the character of an extended family reunion to which some people travel hundreds of miles. People gather, put flowers on graves and renew contacts with relatives and others. There often is a religious service and a picnic - like "dinner on the grounds, '' the traditional term for a potluck meal at a church.
On June 3, 1861, Warrenton, Virginia was the location of the first Civil War soldier 's grave ever to be decorated, according to a Richmond Times - Dispatch newspaper article in 1906. In 1862, women in Savannah, Georgia decorated Confederate soldiers ' graves according to the Savannah Republican. The 1863 cemetery dedication at Gettysburg, Pennsylvania, was a ceremony of commemoration at the graves of dead soldiers. On July 4, 1864, ladies decorated soldiers ' graves according to local historians in Boalsburg, Pennsylvania. and Boalsburg promotes itself as the birthplace of Memorial Day.
In April 1865, following President Abraham Lincoln 's assassination, commemorations were ubiquitous. The more than 600,000 soldiers of both sides who died in the Civil War meant that burial and memorialization took on new cultural significance. Under the leadership of women during the war, an increasingly formal practice of decorating graves had taken shape. In 1865, the federal government began creating national military cemeteries for the Union war dead.
A decoration day observance on May 1, 1865, in Charleston, South Carolina led historian David W. Blight to claim that "African Americans invented Memorial Day in Charleston, South Carolina '', based on accounts in the Charleston Daily Courier and coverage by the New - York Tribune. In 2012, Blight stated that he "has no evidence '' that the event in Charleston inspired the establishment of Memorial Day across the country. Accordingly, Snopes labeled the claim that the holiday began in Charleston "false. ''
In 1868, General John A. Logan of the Grand Army of the Republic, an organization of Union veterans founded in Decatur, Illinois, established Decoration Day as a time for the nation to decorate the graves of the Union war dead with flowers. By the 20th century, various Union and Confederate memorial traditions, celebrated on different days, merged, and Memorial Day eventually extended to honor all Americans who died while in the military service.
On May 26, 1966, President Lyndon B. Johnson designated an "official '' birthplace of the holiday by signing the presidential proclamation naming Waterloo, New York, as the holder of the title. This action followed House Concurrent Resolution 587, in which the 89th Congress had officially recognized that the patriotic tradition of observing Memorial Day had begun one hundred years prior in Waterloo, New York. The village credits druggist Henry C. Welles and county clerk John B. Murray as the founders of the holiday. Snopes and Live Science discredit the Waterloo account.
On May 5, 1868, General John A. Logan issued a proclamation calling for "Decoration Day '' to be observed annually and nationwide; he was commander - in - chief of the Grand Army of the Republic, the veterans ' organization for Union Civil War veterans. With his proclamation, Logan adopted the Memorial Day practice that had begun in the Southern states three years earlier.
The first northern Memorial Day was observed on May 30, 1868. One author claims that the date was chosen because it was not the anniversary of any particular battle. According to a White House address in 2010, the date was chosen as the optimal date for flowers to be in bloom in the North.
The northern states quickly adopted the holiday. In 1868, memorial events were held in 183 cemeteries in 27 states, and 336 in 1869. In 1871, Michigan made "Decoration Day '' an official state holiday and by 1890, every northern state had followed suit. The ceremonies were sponsored by the Women 's Relief Corps, the women 's auxiliary of the Grand Army of the Republic (GAR), which had 100,000 members. By 1870, the remains of nearly 300,000 Union dead had been reinterred in 73 national cemeteries, located near major battlefields and thus mainly in the South. The most famous are Gettysburg National Cemetery in Pennsylvania and Arlington National Cemetery, near Washington, DC.
Memorial Day speeches became an occasion for veterans, politicians, and ministers to commemorate the Civil War and, at first, to rehash the "atrocities '' of the enemy. They mixed religion and celebratory nationalism for the people to make sense of their history in terms of sacrifice for a better nation. People of all religious beliefs joined together and the point was often made that the German and Irish soldiers had become true Americans in the "baptism of blood '' on the battlefield.
Since 1868 Doylestown, Pennsylvania has run annual Memorial Day parades which it claims to be the nation 's oldest continuously running; however, the Memorial Day parade in Rochester, Wisconsin predates Doylestown 's by one year.
The U.S. National Park Service and numerous scholars attribute the beginning of a Memorial Day practice in the South to the ladies of Columbus, Georgia. On April 25, 1866, women in Columbus, Mississippi laid flowers on the graves of both the Union and Confederate dead in the city 's cemetery. The early southern Memorial Day celebrations were simple, somber occasions for veterans and their families to honor the dead and tend to local cemeteries.
Historians acknowledge the Ladies Memorial Association played a key role in these rituals of preservation of Confederate "memory. '' Various dates ranging from April 25 to mid-June were adopted in different Southern states. Across the South, associations were founded, many by women, to establish and care for permanent cemeteries for the Confederate dead, organize commemorative ceremonies, and sponsor appropriate monuments as a permanent way of remembering the Confederate dead. The most important of these was the United Daughters of the Confederacy, which grew from 17,000 members in 1900 to nearly 100,000 women by World War I. They were "strikingly successful at raising money to build Confederate monuments, lobbying legislatures and Congress for the reburial of Confederate dead, and working to shape the content of history textbooks. ''
In 1868, some southerners appended the label "Confederate '' to what they originally called "Memorial Day '' after northerners co-opted the holiday. The tradition of observances were linked to the South, they served as the prototype for the national day of memory embraced by the nation in 1868.
By 1890, there was a shift from the emphasis on honoring specific soldiers to a public commemoration of the Confederate south. Changes in the ceremony 's hymns and speeches reflect an evolution of the ritual into a symbol of cultural renewal and conservatism in the South. By 1913, David Blight argues, the theme of American nationalism shared equal time with the Confederate.
Starting in 1868, the ceremonies and Memorial Day address at Gettysburg National Park became nationally known. In July 1913, veterans of the United States and Confederate armies gathered in Gettysburg to commemorate the fifty - year anniversary of the Civil War 's bloodiest and most famous battle.
The four - day "Blue - Gray Reunion '' featured parades, re-enactments, and speeches from a host of dignitaries, including President Woodrow Wilson, the first Southerner elected to the White House after the War. James Heflin of Alabama gave the main address. Heflin was a noted orator; His choice as Memorial Day speaker was criticized, as he was opposed for his support of segregation; however, his speech was moderate in tone and stressed national unity and goodwill, gaining him praise from newspapers.
Since the cemetery dedication at Gettysburg occurred on November 19, that day (or the closest weekend) has been designated as their own local memorial day that is referred to as Remembrance Day.
The preferred name for the holiday gradually changed from "Decoration Day '' to "Memorial Day, '' which was first used in 1882. Memorial Day did not become the more common name until after World War II, and was not declared the official name by Federal law until 1967. On June 28, 1968, Congress passed the Uniform Monday Holiday Act, which moved four holidays, including Memorial Day, from their traditional dates to a specified Monday in order to create a convenient three - day weekend. The change moved Memorial Day from its traditional May 30 date to the last Monday in May. The law took effect at the federal level in 1971. After some initial confusion and unwillingness to comply, all 50 states adopted Congress ' change of date within a few years.
Memorial Day endures as a holiday which most businesses observe because it marks the unofficial beginning of summer. The Veterans of Foreign Wars (VFW) and Sons of Union Veterans of the Civil War (SUVCW) advocate returning to the original date, although the significance of the date is tenuous. The VFW stated in a 2002 Memorial Day Address:
Changing the date merely to create three - day weekends has undermined the very meaning of the day. No doubt, this has contributed a lot to the general public 's nonchalant observance of Memorial Day.
Starting in 1987 Hawaii 's Senator Daniel Inouye, a World War II veteran, introduced a measure to return Memorial Day to its traditional date. Inouye continued introducing the resolution until his death in 2012.
On Memorial Day, the flag of the United States is raised briskly to the top of the staff and then solemnly lowered to the half - staff position, where it remains only until noon. It is then raised to full - staff for the remainder of the day.
The half - staff position remembers the more than one million men and women who gave their lives in service of their country. At noon, their memory is raised by the living, who resolve not to let their sacrifice be in vain, but to rise up in their stead and continue the fight for liberty and justice for all.
The National Memorial Day Concert takes place on the west lawn of the United States Capitol. The concert is broadcast on PBS and NPR. Music is performed, and respect is paid to the men and women who gave their lives for their country.
For many Americans, the central event is attending one of the thousands of parades held on Memorial Day in large and small cities all over the country. Most of these feature marching bands and an overall military theme with the National Guard and other servicemen participating along with veterans and military vehicles from various wars.
One of the longest - standing traditions is the running of the Indianapolis 500, an auto race which has been held in conjunction with Memorial Day since 1911. It runs on the Sunday preceding the Memorial Day holiday. Since 1961 NASCAR 's Coca - Cola 600 has been held the same day. Since 1976 The Memorial Tournament golf event has been held on or close to the Memorial Day weekend. The final of the NCAA Division I Men 's Lacrosse Championship is held on Memorial Day.
In 2000, Congress passed the National Moment of Remembrance Act, asking people to stop and remember at 3: 00 PM.
In 1915, following the Second Battle of Ypres, Lieutenant Colonel John McCrae, a physician with the Canadian Expeditionary Force, wrote the poem, "In Flanders Fields ''. Its opening lines refer to the fields of poppies that grew among the soldiers ' graves in Flanders.
In 1918, inspired by the poem, YWCA worker Moina Michael attended a YWCA Overseas War Secretaries ' conference wearing a silk poppy pinned to her coat and distributed over two dozen more to others present. In 1920, the National American Legion adopted it as their official symbol of remembrance.
Scholars, following the lead of sociologist Robert Bellah, often make the argument that the United States has a secular "civil religion '' -- one with no association with any religious denomination or viewpoint -- that has incorporated Memorial Day as a sacred event. With the Civil War, a new theme of death, sacrifice and rebirth enters the civil religion. Memorial Day gave ritual expression to these themes, integrating the local community into a sense of nationalism. The American civil religion, in contrast to that of France, was never anticlerical or militantly secular; in contrast to Britain, it was not tied to a specific denomination, such as the Church of England. The Americans borrowed from different religious traditions so that the average American saw no conflict between the two, and deep levels of personal motivation were aligned with attaining national goals.
Memorial Day has been called a "modern cult of the dead ''. It incorporates Christian themes of sacrifice while uniting citizens of various faiths.
Poems commemorating Memorial Day include:
(federal) = federal holidays, (state) = state holidays, (religious) = religious holidays, (week) = weeklong holidays, (month) = monthlong holidays, (36) = Title 36 Observances and Ceremonies Bold indicates major holidays commonly celebrated in the United States, which often represent the major celebrations of the month.
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what is the full form of fc uk | French Connection (clothing) - Wikipedia
French Connection (also branded as FCUK) is a UK - based global retailer and wholesaler of fashion clothing, accessories and homeware. Founded in the early 1970s by Stephen Marks, who remains chief executive, it is based in London and its parent French Connection Group PLC is listed on the London Stock Exchange.
French Connection distributes its clothing and accessories through its own stores in the UK, US and Canada and through franchise and wholesale arrangements globally. The company became notorious for the use of the "fcuk '' initialism in its advertising campaigns in the early 2000s.
Other brands currently within the group include Great Plains, Toast and YMC. Former brands include Nicole Farhi.
Stephen Marks, who started out in business in 1969 as the Stephen Marks brand, established French Connection in 1972 -- a year after the film of the same name was released. Initially designed as a mid-market women 's brand, he has said the name came about because he managed to acquire a large shipment of Indian cheesecloth shirts -- via a French contact -- that could be resold in the UK at a large profit. The business expanded into menswear in 1976.
In 1978, Nicole Farhi joined French Connection as a designer. In 1983, her eponymous higher - end label was launched by the French Connection parent group and this was not sold until 2010.
After Marks floated the French Connection brand on the London Stock Exchange in 1984, he was listed as the 15th richest man in Britain, but by the late 1980s the company was in trouble. He took control of the direction of French Connection again in 1991.
French Connection began using the branding "fcuk '' (usually written in lowercase, and deliberately similar to the taboo - word "fuck '') in advertising after 1991 when Marks regained control. Reportedly, the first use of the initialism was on faxes sent between Hong Kong and London offices, headed "FCHK to FCUK ''. Marks said in a subsequent interview that the faxes were not intended to be rude. The advertising campaign came about after he was so impressed by a bra advert featuring Eva Herzigová that he contacted the advertising executive behind it, Trevor Beattie, even though the company did not have a budget for an advertising campaign at the time. It was Beattie who spotted the marketing potential of the initialism and a campaign was launched around it.
Use of this term caused widespread controversy due to its similarity to "fuck ''.
The success of the branding in raising French Connection 's profile led to similar tactics from other organisations. French Connection launched a trademark infringement case in the London High Court challenging the owner of "First Consultants UK Ltd '', a computer company, over its use of the "fcuk '' initialism. The case found that the Internet Domain fcuk.com was registered prior to French Connection applying for the UK Trademark and its claim for passing off was dismissed. Mr Justice Rattee refused to grant an injunction, describing French Connection 's use of the initialism as "a tasteless and obnoxious campaign. '' The company threatened legal action against the political youth organisation Conservative Future, which had briefly adopted the spoof abbreviation "cfuk '' (short for "Conservative Future UK '').
Following a number of complaints about advertising campaigns using the initialism, the UK 's Advertising Standards Authority requested that the company submit all poster campaigns for approval before running them. In the United States, the American Family Association urged a boycott of fcuk products. French Connection stopped using the initialism in advertising in 2005, and reduced its profile in its shops. However it is still used on certain menswear products and in - store branding. Despite this lowering of the profile, French Connection remains known as "fcuk '', particularly by the UK press. In 2016 it was reported that French Connection was to bring back its FCUK slogan campaign.
While the revival of the UK brand 's fortunes in the 1990s has been attributed to the success of the FCUK logo, it has had mixed financial fortunes during the 2000s, reflected in its poor share prices in the UK. After reportedly losing market share to rivals such as Zara, Topshop and ASOS -- with some analysts suggesting its pricing was out of step with other competitor brands -- its position improved in 2014. As of 2014 the French Connection brand had 131 stores in the UK and Europe.
French Connection distributes its branded womenswear and menswear through a network of owned stores, through franchised stores in major markets around the world, through concessions in department stores in the UK and also through other multi-brand retailers. French Connection also has a variety of licensed products, including eyeglasses, sunglasses, toiletries, shoes, jewellery and watches, which are sold through its own stores and specialist retailers, such as Boots and Specsavers.
French Connection represents the majority of French Connection Group 's revenue (some 88 per cent in 2014), however it owns a number of other clothing / homewear brands, including YMC, Great Plains and TOAST. Toast now has twelve UK stores.
French Connection has produced perfumes as an extension to the main clothing brand. This is a partial list
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which two rivers are the main rivers in south africa | List of rivers of South Africa - wikipedia
This is a list of rivers of South Africa.
It is quite common to find the Afrikaans word - rivier as part of the name. Another common suffix is "- kamma '', from the Khoisan term for "river '' (often tautologically the English term "river '' is added to the name). The Zulu word amanzi (water) also forms part of some river names.
The Afrikaans term spruit (compare spring) often labels small rivers.
Topographic map of South Africa.
Course and watershed of the Orange River with topography shading and political boundaries.
Grootrivier in Nature 's Valley, stained a tea colour by plant tannins
Amanzimtoti River at Ilanda Wilds
Amanzimtoti River at Ilanda Wilds
Amanzimtoti Lagoon
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what is the name of the special forces in the marines | United States Marine Corps Forces Special Operations Command - wikipedia
3,195 positions authorized:
War on Terror
United States Marine Corps Forces Special Operations Command (MARSOC) is a component command of the United States Special Operations Command that comprises the Marine Corps ' contribution to SOCOM. Its core capabilities are direct action, special reconnaissance and foreign internal defense. MARSOC has also been directed to conduct counter-terrorism, and information operations.
Its creation was announced on 23 November 2005 by US Defense Secretary Donald Rumsfeld, following a meeting between him, the USSOCOM commander General Bryan D. Brown, and the Marine Corps Commandant General Michael Hagee on 28 October 2005. MARSOC was officially activated on 24 February 2006 with ceremonies at Camp Lejeune, North Carolina.
The potential participation of the Marine Corps in SOCOM has been controversial since SOCOM was formed in 1986. At the time, Marine Corps leaders felt that their Force Reconnaissance units were best kept in the Marine Corps ' MAGTF command structure, and that the detachment of an elite Marine Special Operations unit from the Marine Corps would be to the detriment of the Marine Corps as a whole. A re-evaluation following the September 11 attacks and the War on Terrorism, along with new policy established by Secretary Rumsfeld and then - Commandant Gen. James L. Jones at The Pentagon, caused the Marine Corps to work towards integration with SOCOM. The establishment of MARSOC represented the most significant step towards that goal, and followed the establishment of MCSOCOM Detachment One (DET1), a small Marine Corps detachment formed as a pilot program to test Marine Corps integration into SOCOM. It was made up of mostly Force Recon Marines from 1st and 2nd Force Reconnaissance Companies along with other hand - picked support men and served with Navy SEALs under Naval Special Warfare Group One. Detachment 1 conducted a multitude of special operations in Iraq alongside their Special Operations brothers of the sister services. SOCOM conducted a study of the unit 's deployment, which clearly indicated success and strong performance. Detachment 1 was disbanded in 2006 soon after the creation of MARSOC.
The first Marine Special Operations Company was stood up in June 2006. MARSOC 's initial deployment to Afghanistan in 2007 was mired with controversy when the units Fox company was sent back to the United States and its commander relieved from duty after a shooting incident. The incident that resulted in as many as 19 civilians killed involved a complex ambush by insurgents that included a suicide VBIED and small arms fire, it was alleged that the MARSOC operators killed the civilians whilst attempting to suppress the enemy firing points. MARSOC Marines also took part in Operation Enduring Freedom -- Philippines.
Following General Petraeus ' take over of command in Afghanistan in 2010, in support of the ALP / VSO programme (Afghan Local Police / Village Stability Operations), SOF in Afghanistan were task - organised into battalion level SOTF (Special Operations Task Forces), each with a geographic area of responsibility - for MARSOC, this was western Afghanistan and Helmand Province. In March 2012, MARSOC teams suffered several casualties to Green on Blue attacks. In July 2012, a patrol of Afghan Army Commandos was ambushed by insurgents from a number of buildings in Badghis Province, three Afghans were wounded by small arms fire, Gunnery Sergeants Jonathan Gifford and Daniel Price raced forward on an ATV to retrieve the wounded under direct fire from the enemy. After evacuating the wounded to an emergency HLZ (Helicopter Landing Zone) from where they were safely medevaced, they returned to firefight and assaulted the enemy positions in a fierce close - quarter battle. Whilst throwing grenades down the chimney of an insurgent - occupied building, they were struck and killed by PKM fire, for his actions that day Price was awarded the Silver Star.
It was deployed supporting the Global War on Terrorism in December 2013 alongside the 26th Marine Expeditionary Unit (Special Operations Capable) where they conducted various special operations missions, ranging from Direct action (military), reconnaissance and other mission sets.
Since MARSOC 's first deployment, it has become a strong partner in SOCOM and proven itself able to conduct full - spectrum special operations. They have successfully conducted both long - term counterinsurgency under the VSO program and carried out complex Direct Action tasks.
The first Marine Special Operations Individual Training Course began at Camp Lejeune on 6 October 2008. MARSOC 's stated end - goal is 850 CSOs.
MARSOC 's organization was finalized in 2007. The base unit of MARSOC is the fourteen - man Marine Special Operations Team (MSOT), commanded by a captain (O - 3) as Team Commander, assisted by a master sergeant (E-8) as Team Chief. Each team has two identical squads, or Tactical Elements, each led by a gunnery sergeant (E-7) as Element Leader. MARSOC is based at Camp Lejeune, North Carolina and is split into three subordinate commands:
Special Operations Combat Service Specialists (SOCS - Ss) are Combat Service Support Marines who serve one standard tour with MARSOC in their primary MOS, such as Motor Transport or Logistics. Their training includes core skills for joint and interagency work as well as enhanced SOF combat skills training to enable their successful integration and survivability in special operations environments.
Special Operations Capabilities Specialists (SOCS) are Combat Support Marines that are able to join MARSOC based upon their MOS skill. They receive advanced special operations forces training and certification. SOCSs are operational and tactical force multipliers and frequently deploy alongside Critical Skills Operators (CSOs). SOCS billet fields include Intelligence, Communications, Explosive Ordnance Disposal, Dog Handlers, and Fire - Control Specialists. Special Operations Capabilities Specialist are awarded the AMOS of 8071, and return to the operating forces after an extended tour of service with MARSOC.
All Marines are screened to ensure that the Marines joining MARSOC meet the established prerequisites for duty within the command.
Selection of the right personnel begins with a rigorous screening process designed to identify the right Marines for the right billet within MARSOC. Operational billets were opened to females as of 2016. Screening takes place in 3 stages: record screening, physical screening, and a psychological and medical evaluation.
The Special Operations Training Course (STC) is six weeks of unhindered, realistic, challenging basic and intermediate Special Operations Forces (SOF) war fighting skills training. During STC the Special Operations Capabilities Specialists will also attend Survival, Evasion, Resistance and Escape (SERE) training along with a MARSOF Level 1 Course specific to their MOS: Explosive Ordnance Disposal (6 weeks), Communications (12 weeks), Intelligence (4 -- 6 weeks), Joint Terminal Attack Controller (4 weeks), Multi-Purpose Canine (10 weeks).
Critical Skills Operators are the primary special operations Marines within MARSOC. They are trained to execute a variety of missions. Specialized training also provides capabilities in language fluency necessary for crossing cultural barriers, allowing CSOs to connect with the local forces as well as civilians. Marines designated CSOs are awarded MOS 0372. Critical Skills Operators (CSOs) are assigned to Marine Special Operations Teams (MSOT), Companies (MSOC) and Battalions (MSOBs).
On 6 August 2014, MARSOC claimed and officially bestowed the prestigious Marine Raider moniker upon their subordinate combat units (Marine Special Operations Regiment) in commemoration of the fabled and elite amphibious light infantry unit that operated during World War II.
In August 2016, the Marine Corps approved a new Marine Special Operator Insignia for wear by graduates of the five - phase Individual Training Course. Upon its approval, Maj. Gen. Carl Mundy III, MARSOC commander, said in a statement: "The individual MARSOC operator must be trained and educated to think critically and function in an increasingly complex operating environment -- to understand and interact in dynamic, dangerous and politically - sensitive battlefields. Our rigorous training pipeline ensures that a newly minted critical skills operator has developed the skills required for full spectrum special operations. This badge serves as a visual certification that they have trained and prepared to accept their new responsibilities. ''
The pin device will first be issued to the next ITC graduating class of critical skills operators. Critical skills operators and special operations officers already in the field will receive their pins later.
This article incorporates public domain material from websites or documents of the United States Marine Corps.
Media related to United States Marine Corps Forces Special Operations Command at Wikimedia Commons
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what is the book of hosea about in the bible | Book of Hosea - wikipedia
The Book of Hosea is one of the books of the Hebrew Bible. According to the traditional order of most Hebrew Bibles, it is the first of the twelve Minor Prophets.
Set around the fall of the Northern Kingdom of Israel, the Book of Hosea denounces the worship of gods other than Yahweh, metaphorically comparing Israel 's abandonment of Yahweh to a woman being unfaithful to her husband. According to the book 's narrative, the relationship between Hosea and his unfaithful wife Gomer is comparable to the relationship between Yahweh and his unfaithful people Israel. The eventual reconciliation of Hosea and Gomer is treated as a hopeful metaphor for the eventual reconciliation between Yahweh and Israel.
Hosea (הושֵעַ) prophesied during a dark and melancholic era of Israel 's history, the period of the Northern Kingdom 's decline and fall in the 8th century BC. According to the book, the apostasy of the people was rampant, having turned away from God in order to serve both the calves of Jeroboam and Baal, a Canaanite god.
The Book of Hosea says that, during Hosea 's lifetime, the kings of the Northern Kingdom, their aristocratic supporters, and the priests had led the people away from the Law of God, as given in the Pentateuch. It says that they forsook the worship of God; they worshiped other gods, especially Baal, the Canaanite storm god, and Asherah, a Canaanite fertility god. Other sins followed, says the Book, including homicide, perjury, theft, and sexual sin. Hosea declares that unless they repent of these sins, God will allow their nation to be destroyed, and the people will be taken into captivity by Assyria, the greatest nation of the time.
The prophecy of Hosea centers around God 's unending love towards a sinful Israel. In this text, God 's agony is expressed over the betrayal of Israel. Stephen Cook asserts that the prophetic efforts of this book can be summed up in this passage "I have been the Lord your God ever since the land of Egypt; you know no God but me, and besides me there is no savior '' (Hosea 13: 4) Hosea 's job was to speak these words during a time when they had been essentially forgotten.
The Book of Hosea contains a number of YHWH prophecies and messages for both Judah and Northern Israel (Samaria). These are delivered by the prophet Hosea.
A brief outline of the concepts presented in the Book of Hosea exist below:
No further breakdown of ideas is clear in 4 -- 14: 9 / 14: 10. Following this, the prophecy is made that someday this will all be changed, that God will indeed have pity on Israel.
Chapter two describes a divorce. This divorce seems to be the end of the covenant between God and the Northern Kingdom. However, it is probable that this was again a symbolic act, in which Hosea divorced Gomer for infidelity, and used the occasion to preach the message of God 's rejection of the Northern Kingdom. He ends this prophecy with the declaration that God will one day renew the covenant, and will take Israel back in love.
In Chapter three, at God 's command, Hosea seeks out Gomer once more. Either she has sold herself into slavery for debt, or she is with a lover who demands money in order to give her up, because Hosea has to buy her back. He takes her home, but refrains from sexual intimacy with her for many days, to symbolize the fact that Israel will be without a king for many years, but that God will take Israel back, even at a cost to Himself.
Chapters 4 -- 14 spell out the allegory at length. Chapters 1 -- 3 speaks of Hosea 's family, and the issues with Gomer. Chapters 4 -- 10 contain a series of oracles, or prophetic sermons, showing exactly why God is rejecting the Northern Kingdom (what the grounds are for the divorce). Chapter 11 is God 's lament over the necessity of giving up the Northern Kingdom, which is a large part of the people of Israel, whom God loves. God promises not to give them up entirely. Then, in Chapter 12, the prophet pleads for Israel 's repentance. Chapter 13 foretells the destruction of the kingdom at the hands of Assyria, because there has been no repentance. In Chapter 14, the prophet urges Israel to seek forgiveness, and promises its restoration, while urging the utmost fidelity to God.
Matthew 2: 13 cites Hosea 's prophecy in Hosea 11: 1 that God would call His Son out of Egypt as foretelling the flight into Egypt and return to Israel of Joseph, Maria, and the infant Jesus.
The capital of the Northern Kingdom fell in 722 BC. All the members of the upper classes and many of the ordinary people were taken captive and carried off to live as prisoners of war.
First, Hosea was directed by God to marry a promiscuous woman of ill - repute, and he did so. Marriage here is symbolic of the covenantal relationship between God and Israel. However, Israel has been unfaithful to God by following other gods and breaking the commandments which are the terms of the covenant, hence Israel is symbolized by a harlot who violates the obligations of marriage to her husband.
Second, Hosea and his wife, Gomer, have a son. God commands that the son be named Jezreel. This name refers to a valley in which much blood had been shed in Israel 's history, especially by the kings of the Northern Kingdom. (See I Kings 21 and II Kings 9: 21 -- 35). The naming of this son was to stand as a prophecy against the reigning house of the Northern Kingdom, that they would pay for that bloodshed. Jezreel 's name means God Sows.
Third, the couple have a daughter. God commands that she be named Lo - ruhamah; Unloved, or, Pity or Pitied On to show Israel that, although God will still have pity on the Southern Kingdom, God will no longer have pity on the Northern Kingdom; its destruction is imminent. In the NIV translation, the omitting of the word ' him ' leads to speculation as to whether Lo - Ruhamah was the daughter of Hosea or one of Gomer 's lovers. James Mays, however, says that the failure to mention Hosea 's paternity is "hardly an implication '' of Gomer 's adultery.
Fourth, a son is born to Gomer. It is questionable whether this child was Hosea 's, for God commands that his name be Lo - ammi. The child bore this name of shame to show that the Northern Kingdom would also be shamed, for its people would no longer be known as God 's People. In other words, the Northern Kingdom had been rejected by God.
In Hosea 2, the woman in the marriage metaphor could be Hosea 's wife Gomer, or could be referring to the nation of Israel, invoking the metaphor of Israel as God 's bride. The woman is not portrayed in a positive light. This is reflected throughout the beginning of Hosea 2. "I will strip her naked and expose her as in the day she was born '' (Hosea 2: 3). "Upon her children I will have no pity, because they are children of whoredom '' (Hosea 2: 4). "For she said, I will go after my lovers... '' (Hosea 2: 5).
Biblical scholar Ehud Ben Zvi reminds readers of the socio - historical context in which Hosea was composed. In his article Observations on the marital metaphor of YHWH and Israel in its ancient Israelite context: general considerations and particular images in Hosea 1.2, Ben Zvi describes the role of the Gomer in the marriage metaphor as one of the "central attributes of the ideological image of a human marriage that was shared by the male authorship and the primary and intended male readership as building blocks for their imagining of the relationship. ''
Tristanne J. Connolly makes a similar observation, stating that the husband - wife motif reflects marriage as it was understood at the time. Connolly also suggests that in context the marriage metaphor was necessary in that it truly exemplified the unequal interaction between Yahweh and the people Israel. Biblical scholar Michael D. Coogan describes the importance of understanding the covenant in relation to interpreting Hosea. According to Coogan, Hosea falls under a unique genre called "covenant lawsuit '' where God accuses Israel of breaking their previously made agreement. God 's disappointment towards Israel is therefore expressed through the broken marriage covenant made between husband and wife.
Brad E. Kelle has referred to ' many scholars ' finding references to cultic sexual practices in the worship of Baal, in Hosea 2, to be evidence of an historical situation in which Israelites were either giving up Yahweh worship for Baal, or blending the two. Hosea 's references to sexual acts being metaphors for Israelite ' apostasy '.
Hosea 13: 1 -- 3 describes how the Israelites are abandoning Yahweh for the worship of Baal, and accuses them of making or using molten images for ' idol ' worship. Chief among these was the image of the bull at the northern shrine of Bethel, which by the time of Hosea was being worshipped as an image of Baal.
Hosea is believed to be the first prophet to use marriage as a metaphor of the covenant between God and Israel, and he influenced latter prophets such as Jeremiah. He is among the first writing prophets, and the last chapter of Hosea has a format similar to wisdom literature.
Like Amos, Hosea elevated the religion of Israel to the altitude of ethical monotheism, being the first to emphasize the moral side of God 's nature. Israel 's faithlessness, which resisted all warnings, compelled Him to punish the people because of His own holiness. Hosea considers infidelity as the chief sin, of which Israel, the adulterous wife, has been guilty against her loving husband, God. Against this he sets the unquenchable love of God, who, in spite of this infidelity, does not cast Israel away forever, but will take His people unto Himself again after the judgment.
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what do you call a group of jelly fish | Jellyfish - wikipedia
Jellyfish or jellies are softbodied, free - swimming aquatic animals with a gelatinous umbrella - shaped bell and trailing tentacles. The bell can pulsate to acquire propulsion and locomotion. The tentacles may be utilized to capture prey or defend against predators by emitting toxins in a painful sting. Jellyfish species are classified in the subphylum Medusozoa which makes up a major part of the phylum Cnidaria, although not all Medusozoa species are considered to be jellyfish.
Jellyfish are found in every ocean, from the surface to the deep sea. Scyphozoans (the "true jellyfish '') are exclusively marine, but some hydrozoans live in freshwater. Large, often colorful, jellyfish are common in coastal zones worldwide. Jellyfish have roamed the seas for at least 500 million years, and possibly 700 million years or more, making them the oldest multi-organ animal.
The popular English name jellyfish has been in use since 1796. It has traditionally also been applied to other animals sharing a superficial resemblance, for example ctenophores (members from another phylum of common, gelatinous and generally transparent or translucent, free - swimming planktonic carnivores now known as comb jellies) were included as "jellyfishes ''. Even some scientists include the phylum ctenophora when they are referring to jellyfish. Other scientists prefer to use the more all - encompassing term gelatinous zooplankton, when referring to these, together with other soft - bodied animals in the water column.
As jellyfish are not true fish, which are vertebrates, the word jellyfish is considered by some to be a misnomer. Public aquaria often use the terms jellies or sea jellies instead. The term "jellies '' may have become more popular than "jellyfish ''. In scientific literature, "jelly '' and "jellyfish '' are often used interchangeably. Some sources may use the term "jelly '' to refer to organisms in this taxon, as "jellyfish '' may be considered inappropriate.
Many textbooks and sources refer to only scyphozoans as "true jellyfish ''.
A group of jellyfish is sometimes called a bloom or a swarm. "Bloom '' is usually used for a large group of jellyfish that gather in a small area, but may also have a time component, referring to seasonal increases, or numbers beyond what was expected. Other collective names for a group of jellyfish are "fluther '' and "smack, '' though neither term is commonly used by scientists who study jellyfish. Jellyfish are "bloomy '' by nature of their life cycles, being produced by their benthic polyps usually in the spring when sunshine and plankton increase, so they appear rather suddenly and often in large numbers, even when an ecosystem is in balance. Using "swarm '' usually implies some kind of active ability to stay together, which a few species such as Aurelia, the moon jelly, demonstrate.
Medusa jellyfish may be classified as scyphomedusae ("true '' jellyfish), stauromedusae (stalked jellyfish), cubomedusae (box jellyfish), or hydromedusae, according to which clade their species belongs.
The term medusa was coined by Linnaeus in 1752, alluding to the tentacled head of Medusa in Greek mythology. This term refers exclusively to the non-polyp life - stage which occurs in many cnidarians, which is typified by a large pulsating gelatinous bell with long trailing tentacles. All medusa - producing species belong to the sub-phylum Medusozoa.
In biology, a medusa (plural: medusae) is a form of cnidarian in which the body is shaped like an umbrella, in contrast with polyps. Medusae vary from bell - shaped to the shape of a thin disk, scarcely convex above and only slightly concave below. The upper or aboral surface is called the exumbrella and the lower surface is called the subumbrella; the mouth is located on the lower surface, which may be partially closed by a membrane extending inward from the margin (called the velum). The digestive cavity consists of the gastrovascular cavity and radiating canals which extend toward the margin; these canals may be simple or branching, and vary in number from few to many. The margin of the disk bears sensory organs and tentacles.
German biologist Ernst Haeckel popularized medusae through his vivid illustrations, particularly in Kunstformen der Natur.
Most jellyfish do not have specialized digestive, osmoregulatory, central nervous, respiratory, or circulatory systems. The manubrium is a stalk - like structure hanging down from the centre of the underside, often surrounded by oral arms, which connects with the mouth / anus at the base of the bell. This opens into the gastrovascular cavity, where digestion takes place and nutrients are absorbed. It is joined to the radial canals which extend to the margin of the bell, where tentacles are attached. Nematocysts, which deliver the sting, are located mostly on the tentacles; scyphozoans also have them around the mouth and stomach. Jellyfish do not need a respiratory system since their skin is thin enough that the body is oxygenated by diffusion. They have limited control over movement, but can use their hydrostatic skeleton to navigate through contraction - pulsations of the bell - like body; some species actively swim most of the time, while others are mostly passive. Depending on the species, the body contains between 95 and 98 % water. Most of the umbrella mass is a gelatinous material -- the jelly -- called mesoglea which is surrounded by two layers of protective skin. The top layer is called the epidermis, and the inner layer is referred to as gastrodermis, which lines the gut.
Jellyfish employ a loose network of nerves, located in the epidermis, which is called a "nerve net ''. Although traditionally thought not to have a central nervous system, nerve net concentration and ganglion - like structures could be considered to constitute one in most species. A jellyfish detects various stimuli including the touch of other animals via this nerve net, which then transmits impulses both throughout the nerve net and around a circular nerve ring, through the rhopalial lappet, located at the rim of the jellyfish body, to other nerve cells.
Some jellyfish have ocelli: light - sensitive organs that do not form images but which can detect light and are used to determine up from down, responding to sunlight shining on the water 's surface. These are generally pigment spot ocelli, which have some cells (not all) pigmented.
Certain species of jellyfish, such as the box jellyfish, have more advanced vision than their counterparts. The box jellyfish has 24 eyes, two of which are capable of seeing color, and four parallel information processing areas or rhopalia that act in competition, supposedly making it one of the few creatures to have a 360 - degree view of its environment.
The eyes are suspended on stalks with heavy crystals on one end, acting like a gyroscope to orient the eyes skyward. They look upward to navigate from roots in mangrove swamps to the open lagoon and back, watching for the mangrove canopy, where they feed.
Jellyfish range from about one millimeter in bell height and diameter to nearly 2 metres (6.6 ft) in bell height and diameter; the tentacles and mouth parts usually extend beyond this bell dimension.
The smallest jellyfish are the peculiar creeping jellyfish in the genera Staurocladia and Eleutheria, which have bell disks from 0.5 mm to a few millimeters in diameter, with short tentacles that extend out beyond this, which these jellyfish use to move across the surface of seaweed or the bottoms of rocky pools. Many of these tiny creeping jellyfish can not be seen in the field without a hand lens or microscope; they can reproduce asexually by splitting in half (called fission). Other very small jellyfish, which have bells about one millimeter, are the hydromedusae of many species that have just been released from their parent polyps; some of these live only a few minutes before shedding their gametes in the plankton and then dying, while others will grow in the plankton for weeks or months. The hydromedusae Cladonema radiatum and Cladonema californicum are also very small, living for months, yet never growing beyond a few mm in bell height and diameter. Another small species of jellyfish is the Australian Irukandji, which is about the size of a fingernail.
The lion 's mane jellyfish, Cyanea capillata, was long - cited as the largest jellyfish, and arguably the longest animal in the world, with fine, thread - like tentacles that may extend up to 36.5 metres (120 ft) long (though most are nowhere near that large). They have a moderately painful, but rarely fatal, sting.
The increasingly common giant Nomura 's jellyfish, Nemopilema nomurai, found in some, but not all years in the waters of Japan, Korea and China in summer and autumn is another candidate for "largest jellyfish '', in terms of diameter and weight, since the largest Nomura 's jellyfish in late autumn can reach 200 centimetres (79 in) in bell (body) diameter and about 200 kilograms (440 lb) in weight, with average specimens frequently reaching 90 centimetres (35 in) in bell diameter and about 150 kilograms (330 lb) in weight. The large bell mass of the giant Nomura 's jellyfish can dwarf a diver and is nearly always much greater than the up - to - 100 centimetres (39 in) bell diameter Lion 's Mane.
The rarely encountered deep - sea jellyfish Stygiomedusa gigantea is another candidate for "largest jellyfish '', with its thick, massive bell up to 100 centimetres (39 in) wide, and four thick, "strap - like '' oral arms extending up to 6 metres (20 ft) in length, very different from the typical fine, threadlike tentacles that rim the umbrella of more - typical - looking jellyfish, including the Lion 's Mane.
Jellyfish belong to Medusozoa, the clade of cnidarians which excludes Anthozoa (e.g., corals and anemones). This suggests that the medusa form evolved after the polyps.
The phylogenetics of this group are complex and evolving. The Medusozoa and Octocorallia are proposed as sister groups according to research published in 2012. That research also proposes coronate Scyphozoa and Cubozoa as a sister clade to Hydrozoa and discomedusan Scyphozoa, which are themselves sister groups. The hydroidolinans are a sister group to Limnomedusae, also called Trachylina. Semaeostomae is paraphyletic with Rhizostomeae. The class Storozoa was the earliest group of Medusozoa to diverge and the Limnomedusae were the earliest Hydrozoa to diverge.
The four major classes of medusozoan Cnidaria are:
Some other animals are frequently associated with or mistaken for medusa jellyfish.
There are over 200 species of Scyphozoa, about 50 species of Staurozoa, about 20 species of Cubozoa, and the Hydrozoa includes about 1000 -- 1500 species that produce medusae (and many more hydrozoan species that do not produce medusae).
Many scientists who work on relationships between these groups are reluctant to assign ranks, although there is general agreement on the different groups, regardless of their absolute rank. Here is one scheme, which includes all groups that produce jellyfish, derived from several expert sources:
Jellyfish development occurs in multiple phases. Sperm fertilize eggs which develop into larval planulae, become polyps, bud into ephyrae and then transform into adult medusae. In some species, specimens may skip some phases.
The planula is a small larva covered with cilia. It settles onto a firm surface and develops into a polyp.
The polyp is generally a small stalk with a mouth that is ringed by upward - facing tentacles. The polyps resemble the closely related Cnidaria anthozoan (sea anemones and corals) polyps. The jellyfish polyp may be sessile, living on the bottom or on another substrate such as floats or boat hulls, or it may be free - floating or attached to tiny bits of free - living plankton or rarely, fish or other invertebrates. Polyps may be solitary or colonial. Polyp colonies form by strobilation, in which multiple polyps share a common stomach cavity. Most polyps are only millimeters in size. They feed continuously. The polyp stage may last for years.
The next stage is the ephyra, which is a free - swimming precursor of the final adult stage.
The ephyra then develops into a medusa. The medusa is the life stage that is typically identified as a jellyfish.
Jellyfish reproduce both sexually and asexually. Upon reaching adult size, jellyfish spawn daily given enough food. In most species, spawning is controlled by light, so the entire population spawns at about the same time of day, often at either dusk or dawn. Jellyfish are usually either male or female (with occasional hermaphrodites). In most cases, adults release sperm and eggs into the surrounding water, where the (unprotected) eggs are fertilized and mature into new organisms.
After a growth interval, the polyp begins reproducing asexually by budding and, in the Scyphozoa, is called a segmenting polyp, or a scyphistoma. Budding produces more scyphistomae and also ephyrae. Budding sites vary by species; from the tentacle bulbs, the manubrium (above the mouth), or the gonads of hydromedusae. Polyps asexually produce free - swimming ephyra, which then become a medusa. New specimens (usually only a millimeter or two across) swim away from the polyp and then grow. Some polyps can asexually produce a creeping frustule larval form, which then develops into another polyp.
A few species can produce new medusae by budding directly from the medusan stage. Some hydromedusae reproduce by fission (splitting in half). A few omit the planula, polyp and ephyra phases and produce new medusae directly from eggs.
In a few species, the sperm swim into the female 's mouth, fertilizing the eggs within her body, where they remain during early development stages. In moon jellies, the eggs lodge in pits on the oral arms, which form a temporary brood chamber for the developing planula larvae.
Jellyfish lifespans typically range from a few hours (in the case of some very small hydromedusae) to several months; there are some indications that deep sea species may live on the order of years. Life span varies by species. Most large coastal jellyfish live 2 to 6 months, during which they grow from a millimeter or two to many centimeters in diameter.
Aquarium jellyfish that are carefully tended, fed daily even when food might be seasonally rare in the wild, and sometimes treated with antibiotics if they develop infections, may live several years, though this would be very unusual in the wild.
An unusual species, Turritopsis dohrnii, formerly classified as T. nutricula, might be effectively immortal because of its ability under certain circumstances to transform from medusa back to the polyp stage, thereby escaping the death that typically awaits medusae post-reproduction if they have not otherwise been eaten by some other ocean organism. So far this reversal has been observed only in the laboratory. At least one professor at the Seto Marine Biological Laboratory at Kyoto University in Japan has concluded that there are three species of jellyfish that are immortal, and says their immortality may hold the key to immortality for human beings, as he says that genetically they are not that much different from humans.
Jellyfish have been proven to be the most energy efficient swimmers of all animals. They move through the water by radially expanding and contracting their bell - shaped bodies to push water behind them. They pause between the contraction and expansion to create two vortex rings. Muscles are used for the contraction of the body, which sheds the first vortex and pushes the animal forward, but the mesoglea is so elastic that the expansion is powered exclusively by relaxing the bell, which releases the energy stored from the contraction. By doing so, the second vortex ring rolls under it and begins to spin faster. This sucks in water which refills the bell and is pushed up against the centre of the body, giving it a secondary and "free '' boost forward. The mechanism, called passive energy recapture, only works at low speeds and relatively small body sizes, allowing the animal to travel 30 percent farther on each swimming cycle. Jellyfish achieved a 48 percent lower cost of transport (the amount of food and oxygen consumed, versus energy spent in movement) than other animals in similar studies.
Medusae are carnivorous, feeding on plankton, crustaceans, fish eggs, small fish and other jellyfish, ingesting and voiding through the same hole in the middle of the bell. Jellies hunt passively using their tentacles as drift nets. Their swimming technique also helps them to capture prey; when their body expands it displaces more water which brings more potential prey within the reach of their tentacles.
Other species of jellyfish are among the most common and important jellyfish predators, some of which specialize in jellies. Sea anemones may eat jellyfish that drift into their range. Other predators include tunas, sharks, swordfish, sea turtles, penguins, and at least one species of Pacific salmon. In general however, there are few predators preying on jellyfish and they can be considered top predators in the food chain. Not only do they eat fish eggs and juvenile fish, but they also compete for food resources, leading to jellyfish having a difficult - to - reverse dominant position in the ecosystem.
Sea birds sometimes pick symbiotic crustaceans from the jellyfish bells near the sea 's surface, inevitably feeding also on the jellyfish hosts of these amphipods or young crabs and shrimp.
Jellyfish bloom formation is a complex process that depends on ocean currents, nutrients, sunshine, temperature, season, prey availability, reduced predation and oxygen concentrations. Ocean currents tend to congregate jellyfish into large swarms or "blooms '', consisting of hundreds or thousands of individuals. Blooms can also result from unusually high populations in some years. A recent study tracking swimming jellyfish revealed that these medusae can detect marine currents and swim against the current to congregate in blooms. Jellyfish are better able to survive in nutrient - rich, oxygen - poor water than competitors, and thus can feast on plankton without competition. Jellyfish may also benefit from saltier waters, as saltier waters contain more iodine, which is necessary for polyps to turn into jellyfish. Rising sea temperatures caused by climate change may also contribute to jellyfish blooms, because many species of jellyfish are relatively better able to survive in warmer waters.
One hypothesis is that the global increase in jellyfish bloom frequency may stem from human impact. In some locations jellyfish may be filling ecological niches formerly occupied by now overfished creatures, but this hypothesis lacks supporting data. Youngbluth states that "jellyfish feed on the same kinds of prey as adult and young fish, so if fish are removed from the equation, jellyfish are likely to move in. ''
Some jellyfish populations that have shown clear increases in the past few decades are invasive species, newly arrived from other habitats: examples include the Black Sea, Caspian Sea, Baltic Sea, central and eastern Mediterranean, Hawaii, and tropical and subtropical parts of the West Atlantic (including the Caribbean, Gulf of Mexico and Brazil). Invasive populations can expand rapidly because they often face no predators in the new habitat.
Increased nutrients, ascribed to agricultural runoff, have been cited as contributing to jellyfish proliferation. Graham states, "ecosystems in which there are high levels of nutrients... provide nourishment for the small organisms on which jellyfish feed. In waters where there is eutrophication, low oxygen levels often result, favoring jellyfish as they thrive in less oxygen - rich water than fish can tolerate. The fact that jellyfish are increasing is a symptom of something happening in the ecosystem. ''
Jellyfish populations may be expanding globally as a result of overfishing of their natural predators and the availability of excessive nutrients due to land runoff. When marine ecosystems become disturbed jellyfish can proliferate. For example, jellyfish reproduce rapidly and have fast growth rates; they predate many species, while few species predate them; and they feed via touch rather than visually, so they can feed effectively at night and in turbid waters. It may become difficult for fish stocks to reestablish themselves in marine ecosystems once they have become dominated by jellyfish, because jellyfish feed on plankton, which includes fish eggs and larvae.
Most jellyfish are marine animals, although a few hydromedusae inhabit freshwater. The best known freshwater example is the cosmopolitan hydrozoan jellyfish, Craspedacusta sowerbii. It is less than an inch (2.5 cm) in diameter, colorless and it does not sting.
Some jellyfish populations have become restricted to coastal saltwater lakes, such as Jellyfish Lake in Palau.
Although what first comes to mind as the common domain of jellyfish is living well up off the ocean floor in the plankton, a few species of jellyfish are closely associated with the bottom for much of their lives (that is, they can be considered benthic). The upside - down jellyfish in the genus Cassiopea typically lie on the bottom of shallow lagoons where they sometimes pulsate gently with their umbrella top facing down. The tiny creeping jellyfish Staurocladia and Eleutheria (see section on Size, above) can not swim and "walk '' around on seaweed fronds or rocky bottoms on their tentacles. Most hydromedusae and scyphomedusae that live in coastal habitats find themselves on the bottom periodically, where they may stop swimming for a while, and certain box jellyfish species also rest on the sea bed in shallow water. Even some deep - sea species of hydromedusae and scyphomedusae are usually collected on or near the bottom. All of the stauromedusae are found attached to either seaweed or rocky or other firm material on the bottom.
Some species explicitly adapt to tidal flux. In Roscoe Bay, jellyfish ride the current at ebb tide until they hit a gravel bar, and then descend below the current. They remain in still waters until the tide rises, ascending and allowing it to sweep them back into the bay. They also actively avoid fresh water from mountain snowmelt, diving until they find enough salt.
Jellyfish function as hosts for a wide variety of organisms. Endoparasitic helminths are transmitted from intermediate host jellyfish to definitive host fish via predation. Some digenean trematodes, especially species of the family Lepocreadiidae, are known to use jellyfish as their second intermediate hosts and / or paratenic hosts. Medusivorous fish become infected by trematodes through predation of infected jellyfish and act as definitive hosts.
Fisheries have begun harvesting the American cannonball jellyfish, Stomolophus meleagris, along the southern Atlantic coast of the United States and in the Gulf of Mexico for export to Asia.
Jellyfish are also harvested for their collagen, which can be used for a variety of applications including the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis.
In some countries, such as China, Japan, and Korea, jellyfish are known as a delicacy. "Dried jellyfish '' has become increasingly popular throughout the world. The jellyfish is dried to prevent spoiling; if not dried they can spoil within a matter of hours. Once dried, they can be stored for weeks at a time. Only scyphozoan jellyfish belonging to the order Rhizostomeae are harvested for food; about 12 of the approximately 85 species. Most of the harvest takes place in southeast Asia. Rhizostomes, especially Rhopilema esculentum in China (海蜇 hǎizhé, "sea stingers '') and Stomolophus meleagris (cannonball jellyfish) in the United States, are favored because of their larger and more rigid bodies and because their toxins are harmless to humans.
Traditional processing methods, carried out by a Jellyfish Master, involve a 20 - to 40 - day multi-phase procedure in which after removing the gonads and mucous membranes, the umbrella and oral arms are treated with a mixture of table salt and alum, and compressed. Processing reduces liquefaction, odor, and the growth of spoilage organisms, and makes the jellyfish drier and more acidic, producing a "crunchy and crispy texture. '' Jellyfish prepared this way retain 7 -- 10 % of their original weight, and the processed product contains approximately 94 % water and 6 % protein. Freshly processed jellyfish has a white, creamy color and turns yellow or brown during prolonged storage.
In China, processed jellyfish are desalted by soaking in water overnight and eaten cooked or raw. The dish is often served shredded with a dressing of oil, soy sauce, vinegar and sugar, or as a salad with vegetables. In Japan, cured jellyfish are rinsed, cut into strips and served with vinegar as an appetizer. Desalted, ready - to - eat products are also available.
In Israel, a start - up company called Cine'al has developed a super-absorbent substance made from jellyfish known as hydromash which they claim can be used to make diapers, tampons, and paper towels. Hydrosmash was inspired by research from the University of Tel Aviv, which found that jellyfish were made up of a material that could "absorb high volume of liquids and hold them without disintegrating or dissolving. ''
In 1961, Osamu Shimomura extracted green fluorescent protein (GFP) and another bioluminescent protein, called aequorin, from the large and abundant hydromedusa Aequorea victoria, while studying photoproteins that cause bioluminescence in this species. Three decades later, Douglas Prasher sequenced and cloned the gene for GFP. Martin Chalfie figured out how to use GFP as a fluorescent marker of genes inserted into other cells or organisms. Roger Tsien later chemically manipulated GFP to produce other fluorescent colors to use as markers. In 2008, Shimomura, Chalfie and Tsien won the Nobel Prize in Chemistry for their work with GFP.
Man - made GFP became commonly used as a fluorescent tag to show which cells or tissues express specific genes. The genetic engineering technique fuses the gene of interest to the GFP gene. The fused DNA is then put into a cell, to generate either a cell line or (via IVF techniques) an entire animal bearing the gene. In the cell or animal, the artificial gene turns on in the same tissues and the same time as the normal gene, making GFP instead of the normal protein. Illuminating the animal or cell reveals what tissues express that protein -- or at what stage of development. The fluorescence shows where the gene is expressed.
Jellyfish are displayed in many public aquariums. Often the tank 's background is blue and the animals are illuminated by side light, increasing the contrast between the animal and the background. In natural conditions, many jellies are so transparent that they are nearly invisible.
Jellyfish are not adapted to closed spaces. They depend on currents to transport them from place to place. Professional exhibits feature precise water flows, typically in circular tanks to avoid trapping specimens in corners. The Monterey Bay Aquarium uses a modified version of the kreisel (German for "spinning top '') for this purpose. The outflow is spread out over a large surface area and the inflow enters as a sheet of water in front of the outflow, so the jellyfish do not get sucked into it. As of 2009, jellyfish were becoming popular in home aquariums. These home aquariums generate this special water flow pattern using an air - lift pump and require special food for the jellyfish, which can be shipped from suppliers to their final destination.
Jellyfish sting their prey using nematocysts, also called cnidocysts, stinging structures located in specialized cells called cnidocytes, which are characteristic of all Cnidaria. Contact with a jellyfish tentacle can trigger millions of nematocysts to pierce the skin and inject venom, yet only some species ' venom cause an adverse reaction in humans. When a nematocyst is triggered by contact by predator or prey, pressure builds up rapidly inside it up to 2,000 pounds per square inch (14,000 kPa) until it bursts. A lance inside the nematocyst pierces the victim 's skin, and venom flows through into the victim. Touching or being touched by a jellyfish can be very uncomfortable, sometimes requiring medical assistance; sting effects range from no effect to extreme pain to death. Even beached and dying jellyfish can still sting when touched.
Scyphozoan jellyfish stings range from a twinge to tingling to agony. Most jellyfish stings are not deadly, but stings of some species of the class Cubozoa (box jellyfish), such as the famous and especially toxic Irukandji jellyfish, can be deadly. Stings may cause anaphylaxis, which can be fatal. Medical care may include administration of an antivenom.
In 2010, at a New Hampshire beach, pieces of a single dead lion 's mane jellyfish stung between 125 and 150 people. Jellyfish kill 20 to 40 people a year in the Philippines alone. In 2006 the Spanish Red Cross treated 19,000 stung swimmers along the Costa Brava.
The sea wasp, a box jellyfish found in Australian waters, and more recently, Florida, can kill an adult human within a few minutes. A thin skin covering such as pantyhose was found to be sufficient protection. The pantyhose were formerly thought to work because of the length of the nematocysts, but it is now known to be related to the way the stinger cells work. The stinging cells on a box jellyfish 's tentacles are not triggered by pressure. Instead, they are triggered by the chemicals found on skin. Pantyhose hinders the detection of the chemicals preventing the nematocysts from firing.
The three goals of first aid for uncomplicated stings are to prevent injury to rescuers, deactivate the nematocysts, and remove tentacles attached to the patient. Rescuers usually wear barrier clothing, such as pantyhose, wet suits or full - body sting - proof suits while removing jellies or tentacles from injured. Deactivating the nematocysts (stinging cells) prevents further injection of venom.
Vinegar (3 -- 10 % aqueous acetic acid) may be used as a common remedy to help with box jellyfish stings, but not the stings of the Portuguese man o ' war (which is not a true jellyfish, but a siphonophore). For stings on or around the eyes, a towel dampened with vinegar may be used to dab around the eyes, with care taken to avoid the eyeballs. Salt water may be used as an alternative if vinegar is unavailable; and may be preferred over vinegar. Fresh water is not usually used if the sting occurs in salt water, as changes in tonicity can release additional venom. Rubbing wounds, or using alcohol, spirits, ammonia, or urine may have strongly negative effects as these can encourage the release of venom.
Clearing the area of jelly, tentacles, and wetness further reduces nematocyst firing. Scraping the affected skin with a knife edge, safety razor, or credit card may remove remaining nematocysts.
Beyond initial first aid, antihistamines such as diphenhydramine (Benadryl) may control skin irritation (pruritus). Ice or fresh water is not usually applied to stings, since they may cause nematocysts to continue to release toxin. Immunobased antivenins have been available since the 1970s; administration requires medical personnel and refrigeration and are used in extreme cases as with regard to the box jellyfish, Chironex fleckeri.
Jellyfish adversely affect humanity by interfering with public systems and harming swimmers. The most obvious consequences are human injury or death and reduced coastal tourism. Jellies destroy fish nets, poison or crush captured fish, and consume fish eggs and young fish. The most venomous jellyfish is the box jellyfish which produces enough poison to kill 60 humans and is the reason for 1 death per year.
Jellyfish can clog cooling equipment, disabling power plants in several countries. Jellyfish caused a cascading blackout in the Philippines in 1999, as well as damaging the Diablo Canyon Power Plant in California in 2008. Clogging can stop desalination plants, as well as clogging ship engines and infesting fishing nets.
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who is the actress that plays gloria on modern family | Sofia Vergara - wikipedia
Sofía Margarita Vergara Vergara (Spanish pronunciation: (soˈfi. a βerˈɣaɾa); born July 10, 1972) is a Colombian American actress and model.
Vergara rose to prominence while co-hosting two television shows for Spanish - language television network Univisión in the late 1990s. Her first notable acting job in English was in the film Chasing Papi (2003). Subsequently, she appeared in other films, including Four Brothers (2005) and two Tyler Perry films: Meet the Browns (2008) and Madea Goes to Jail (2009), receiving an ALMA Award nomination for the latter. Vergara 's success on television has earned her roles in films The Smurfs (2011), New Year 's Eve (2011), Happy Feet Two (2011), The Three Stooges (2012), Escape from Planet Earth (2013), Machete Kills (2013), Chef (2014), and Hot Pursuit (2015). In 2012, 2013, and 2016, she was the top - earning actress on US television.
Vergara stars on the ABC series Modern Family as Gloria Delgado - Pritchett, for which she has been nominated for four Golden Globe Awards, four Primetime Emmy Awards, and seven Screen Actors Guild Awards.
Vergara was born to a Roman Catholic family in Barranquilla. Her mother, Margarita Vergara de Vergara, was a homemaker, and her father, Julio Enrique Vergara Robayo, was a cattle rancher for the meat industry. She was nicknamed "Toti '' by her five siblings and many cousins. Vergara initially studied three years of dentistry at a university in Colombia, but left two semesters away from her degree to pursue opportunities in modeling and show business. She subsequently moved to Miami, Florida, leaving behind unrest in Colombia, where her older brother Rafael was murdered in 1998 during an attempt to kidnap him. Her cousin and adopted sister, Sandra, is also a television actress in the United States.
Vergara was discovered by a photographer while walking on a Colombian beach and was quickly presented with offers of modeling and television work. Vergara was "apprehensive about doing her first television commercial -- until her Catholic schoolteachers gave her their personal permission to take the assignment. '' Vergara made her first appearance, aged 17, in a Pepsi commercial which was aired in Latin America.
She then began studies at the Creative Workshops School of Acting, where Gloria Estefan also trained.
In 2011, Vergara was supposed to star in The Paperboy, an independent drama directed by Lee Daniels. When shooting was delayed for a week and conflicted with her shooting schedule for the third season of Modern Family, she dropped out.
In July 2011, she finished filming the Farrelly brothers ' The Three Stooges, which was her first major leading role in a film. Vergara said, "I play a mean woman that tries to manipulate the Three Stooges into killing her husband so that she gets all the money. ''
In April 2012, she appeared in her son Manolo 's YouTube web series Vida con Toty. Vergara was the highest - earning woman in U.S. television, earning $19 million for the previous 12 months on a list released by Forbes.com on July 18, 2012. Vergara was named one of People magazine 's "50 most beautiful people '' and named by The Hollywood Reporter and Billboard as one of the most influential Latin women in Hollywood.
Vergara received a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame on May 7, 2015.
In June 2016, the Human Rights Campaign released a video in tribute to the victims of the 2016 Orlando gay nightclub shooting; in the video, Vergara and others told the stories of the people killed there.
She stars on the ABC sitcom Modern Family as Gloria Delgado - Pritchett, for which she was nominated for the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Comedy Series for 2010, 2011, 2012, and 2013.
In 2011, Vergara was named the face of CoverGirl, with the first advertisements appearing in January 2012. In April 2011, Vergara appeared in a Diet Pepsi commercial with David Beckham and another in January 2012.
In 2011, it was announced that Vergara is designing a clothing line for Kmart targeting soccer moms and appeared in a number of commercials for Comcast 's Xfinity brand and State Farm.
In 2013, she signed endorsement contracts with Diet Pepsi, Rooms To Go, and medicine Synthroid.
In March 2017, Vergara reached a settlement with Venus Concept for alleged improper use of her likeness, which Vergara said created the false impression that she endorsed their beauty products.
Vergara was married at the age of 18 to her high - school sweetheart, Joe Gonzalez. They have a son named Manolo, who was born in September 1991. They divorced in 1993.
Vergara was diagnosed with thyroid cancer in 2000. She had her thyroid removed, underwent radioiodine therapy, and made a full recovery. She takes medication to prevent hypothyroidism.
On May 9, 2011, Vergara 's younger brother Julio was deported from the United States to Colombia after being arrested in April that year; Julio also had a longtime drug addiction and previous brushes with the law. Vergara told Parade magazine, "To see somebody dying over 10 years, little by little, that 's the worst punishment. Now he 's like another person. ''
On July 10, 2012, Us Weekly reported that Vergara and her boyfriend Nicholas M. Loeb were engaged. On May 23, 2014, Vergara announced that the engagement had been called off.
In July 2014, the Daily Mail reported that Vergara began dating True Blood star Joe Manganiello. The pair became engaged on Christmas Day 2014 after dating for six months. They married in Palm Beach, Florida on November 21, 2015.
During her December 2014 appearance on Jimmy Kimmel Live!, Vergara revealed that she had become a United States citizen after getting a perfect score on her citizenship test.
In 2015, Forbes estimated Vergara 's annual income at $28.5 million. As of September 2016, Forbes reported that Vergara was the highest paid actress in television, bringing in $43 million in the past year.
On May 1, 2015, it was reported that Vergara and her former fiancé Loeb were in dispute regarding the future of two embryos. These embryos were produced by in vitro fertilization while they were together and are in storage in cryopreservation in a medical clinic in California. In December 2016, a right - to - live lawsuit against Vergara was initiated in Louisiana by three plaintiffs, namely Vergara 's embryos, named "Emma '' and "Isabella '', and their "trustee '', James Charbonnet. The purpose of the suit is to give the embryos a chance to further develop using a surrogate carrier, hence to be born, and to benefit from an inheritance trust that had been created for them and is administered by Charbonnet. While a contract between Vergara and Loeb had been signed prior to the creation of the embryos stipulating that neither party could use the embryos without the consent of the other, the lawsuit tries to void this agreement. The suit also tries to terminate parental rights of Vergara because by keeping them in a tank in a medical clinic she allegedly abandoned and neglected the embryos. Loeb is not part of the lawsuit. The legal case is novel and takes advantage of Louisiana 's embryo laws. In August 2017, a Louisiana judge dismissed the case on the grounds that the court had no jurisdiction over the embryos, which were conceived in California.
In 2014, Vergara was ranked as the 32nd most powerful woman in the world by Forbes. She had risen from her 2013 position at no. 38.
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where is lesotho and what is the capital | Lesotho - wikipedia
Coordinates: 29 ° 36 ′ S 28 ° 18 ′ E / 29.6 ° S 28.3 ° E / - 29.6; 28.3
-- in Africa (light blue & dark grey) -- in the African Union (light blue)
Lesotho (/ lɪˈsuːtuː / (listen); li - SOO - too), officially the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: ' Muso oa Lesotho), is an enclaved, landlocked country in southern Africa completely surrounded by South Africa. It is just over 30,000 km (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million. Its capital and largest city is Maseru.
Previously known as Basutoland, Lesotho declared independence from the United Kingdom on 4 October 1966. It is a member of the United Nations, the Commonwealth of Nations and the Southern African Development Community (SADC). The name Lesotho translates roughly into the land of the people who speak Sesotho. About 40 % of the population lives below the international poverty line of US $1.25 a day.
The original inhabitants of the area now known as Lesotho were the San people. Examples of their rock art can be found in the mountains throughout the area.
The present Lesotho, then called Basutoland, emerged as a single polity under King Moshoeshoe I in 1822. Moshoeshoe, a son of Mokhachane, a minor chief of the Bakoteli lineage, formed his own clan and became a chief around 1804. Between 1821 and 1823, he and his followers settled at the Butha - Buthe Mountain, joining with former adversaries in resistance against the Lifaqane associated with the reign of Shaka Zulu from 1818 to 1828.
Subsequent evolution of the state hinged on conflicts between British and Dutch colonists leaving the Cape Colony following its seizure from the French - allied Dutch by the British in 1795, and subsequently associated with the Orange River Sovereignty and subsequent Orange Free State. Missionaries invited by Moshoeshoe I, Thomas Arbousset, Eugène Casalis and Constant Gosselin from the Paris Evangelical Missionary Society, placed at Morija, developed orthography and printed works in the Sesotho language between 1837 and 1855. Casalis, acting as translator and providing advice on foreign affairs, helped to set up diplomatic channels and acquire guns for use against the encroaching Europeans and the Griqua people.
Trekboers from the Cape Colony showed up on the western borders of Basutoland and claimed land rights, beginning with Jan de Winnaar, who settled in the Matlakeng area in May -- June 1838. As more Boers were moving into the area they tried to colonise the land between the two rivers, even north of the Caledon, claiming that it had been abandoned by the Sotho people. Moshoeshoe subsequently signed a treaty with the British Governor of the Cape Colony, Sir George Thomas Napier, that annexed the Orange River Sovereignty that many Boers had settled. These outraged Boers were suppressed in a brief skirmish in 1848. In 1851 a British force was defeated by the Basotho army at Kolonyama, touching off an embarrassing war for the British. After repelling another British attack in 1852, Moshoeshoe sent an appeal to the British commander that settled the dispute diplomatically, then defeated the Batlokoa in 1853.
In 1854 the British pulled out of the region, and in 1858 Moshoeshoe fought a series of wars with the Boers in the Free State -- Basotho War, losing a great portion of the western lowlands. The last war in 1867 ended when Moshoeshoe appealed to Queen Victoria, who agreed to make Basutoland a British protectorate in 1868.
In 1869, the British signed a treaty at Aliwal North with the Boers that defined the boundaries of Basutoland, and later Lesotho, which by ceding the western territories effectively reduced Moshoeshoe 's Kingdom to half its previous size.
Following the cession in 1869, the British initially transferred functions from Moshoeshoe 's capital in Thaba Bosiu to a police camp on the northwest border, Maseru, until administration of Basutoland was transferred to the Cape Colony in 1871. Moshoeshoe died on 11 March 1870, marking the end of the traditional era and the beginning of the colonial era. He was buried at Thaba Bosiu. In the early years of British rule between 1871 and 1884, Basutoland was treated similarly to other territories that had been forcefully annexed, much to the chagrin of the Basotho. This led to the Gun War in 1881. In 1884, Basutoland was restored its status as a protectorate, with Maseru again its capital, but remained under direct rule by a governor, though effective internal power was wielded by traditional chiefs.
Basutoland gained its independence from Britain and became the Kingdom of Lesotho in 1966.
In January 1970, the ruling Basotho National Party (BNP) lost the first post-independence general elections, with 23 seats to the Basutoland Congress Party 's 36. Prime Minister Leabua Jonathan refused to cede power to the Basotho Congress Party (BCP), declared himself Tona Kholo (Sesotho translation of prime minister), and imprisoned the BCP leadership.
BCP began a rebellion and then received training in Libya for its Lesotho Liberation Army (LLA) under the pretense of being Azanian People 's Liberation Army (APLA) soldiers of the Pan Africanist Congress (PAC). Deprived of arms and supplies by the Sibeko faction of the PAC in 1978, the 178 - strong LLA was rescued from their Tanzanian base by the financial assistance of a Maoist PAC officer, but they launched the guerrilla war with only a handful of old weapons. The main force was defeated in northern Lesotho, and later guerrillas launched sporadic but usually ineffectual attacks. The campaign was severely compromised when BCP 's leader, Ntsu Mokhehle, went to Pretoria. In the early 1980s, several Basotho who sympathised with the exiled BCP were threatened with death and attacked by the government of Leabua Jonathan. In September 1981, the family of Benjamin Masilo was attacked. A few days later, Edgar Mahlomola Motuba was taken from his home and murdered.
The BNP ruled from 1966 until January 1970. What later ensued was a de facto government led by Dr Leabua Jonathan until 1986 when a military coup forced it out of office. The Transitional Military Council that came to power granted executive powers to King Moshoeshoe II, who was until then a ceremonial monarch. But in 1987 the King was forced into exile after coming up with a six - page memorandum on how he wanted the Lesotho 's constitution to be, which would have given him more executive powers had the military government agreed. His son was installed as King Letsie III.
The chairman of the military junta, Major General Justin Metsing Lekhanya, was ousted in 1991 and replaced by Major General Elias Phisoana Ramaema, who handed over power to a democratically elected government of the BCP in 1993. Moshoeshoe II returned from exile in 1992 as an ordinary citizen. After the return to democratic government, King Letsie III tried unsuccessfully to persuade the BCP government to reinstate his father (Moshoeshoe II) as head of state.
In August 1994, Letsie III staged a military - backed coup that deposed the BCP government, after the BCP government refused to reinstate his father, Moshoeshoe II, according to Lesotho 's constitution. The new government did not receive full international recognition. Member states of the Southern African Development Community (SADC) engaged in negotiations to reinstate the BCP government. One of the conditions Letsie III put forward for this was that his father should be re-installed as head of state. After protracted negotiations, the BCP government was reinstated and Letsie III abdicated in favour of his father in 1995, but he ascended the throne again when Moshoeshoe II died at the age of fifty - seven in a supposed road accident, when his car plunged off a mountain road during the early hours of 15 January 1996. According to a government statement, Moshoeshoe had set out at 1 am to visit his cattle at Matsieng and was returning to Maseru through the Maluti Mountains when his car left the road.
In 1997, the ruling BCP split over leadership disputes. Prime Minister Ntsu Mokhehle formed a new party, the Lesotho Congress for Democracy (LCD), and was followed by a majority of members of parliament, which enabled him to form a new government. Pakalitha Mosisili succeeded Mokhehle as party leader and the LCD won the general elections in 1998. Although the elections were pronounced free and fair by local and international observers and a subsequent special commission appointed by SADC, the opposition political parties rejected the results.
Opposition protests in the country intensified, culminating in a peaceful demonstration outside the royal palace in August 1998. Exact details of what followed are greatly disputed, both in Lesotho and South Africa. While the Botswana Defence Force troops were welcomed, tensions with South African National Defence Force troops were high, resulting in fighting. Incidences of sporadic rioting intensified when South African troops hoisted a South African flag over the Royal Palace. By the time the SADC forces withdrew in May 1999, much of the capital of Maseru lay in ruins, and the southern provincial capital towns of Mafeteng and Mohale 's Hoek had seen the loss of over a third of their commercial real estate. A number of South Africans and Basotho also died in the fighting.
An Interim Political Authority (IPA), charged with reviewing the electoral structure in the country, was created in December 1998. The IPA devised a proportional electoral system to ensure that the opposition would be represented in the National Assembly. The new system retained the existing 80 elected Assembly seats, but added 40 seats to be filled on a proportional basis. Elections were held under this new system in May 2002, and the LCD won again, gaining 54 % of the vote. But for the first time, opposition political parties won significant numbers of seats, and despite some irregularities and threats of violence from Major General Lekhanya, Lesotho experienced its first peaceful election. Nine opposition parties now hold all 40 of the proportional seats, with the BNP having the largest share (21). The LCD has 79 of the 80 constituency - based seats. Although its elected members participate in the National Assembly, the BNP has launched several legal challenges to the elections, including a recount; none has been successful.
On 30 August 2014, an abortive military coup took place forcing then Prime Minister Thomas Thabane to flee to South Africa for three days.
The Lesotho Government is a parliamentary or constitutional monarchy. The Prime Minister, Tom Thabane, is head of government and has executive authority. The King of Lesotho, Letsie III, serves a largely ceremonial function; he no longer possesses any executive authority and is prohibited from actively participating in political initiatives.
The Democratic Congress leads a coalition government in the National Assembly, the lower house of parliament.
The upper house of parliament, called the Senate, is composed of twenty - two principal chiefs whose membership is hereditary, and eleven appointees of the king, acting on the advice of the prime minister.
The constitution provides for an independent judicial system, made up of the High Court, the Court of Appeal, Magistrate 's Courts, and traditional courts that exist predominantly in rural areas. All but one of the Justices on the Court of Appeal are South African jurists. There is no trial by jury; rather, judges make rulings alone or, in the case of criminal trials, with two other judges as observers.
The constitution also protects basic civil liberties, including freedom of speech, freedom of association, freedom of the press, freedom of peaceful assembly and freedom of religion. Lesotho was ranked 12th out of 48 sub-Saharan African countries in the 2008 Ibrahim Index of African Governance.
As of 2010 the People 's Charter Movement called for the practical annexation of the country by South Africa due to the AIDS epidemic. Nearly a quarter of the population is infected with HIV. The country faced high unemployment, economic collapse, a weak currency and poor travel documents restricting movement. An African Union report called for economic integration of Lesotho with South Africa but stopped short of suggesting annexation. In May 2010 the Charter Movement delivered a petition to the South African High Commission requesting integration. South Africa 's home affairs spokesman Ronnie Mamoepa rejected the idea that Lesotho should be treated as a special case. "It is a sovereign country like South Africa. We sent envoys to our neighbours -- Botswana, Zimbabwe, Swaziland and Lesotho -- before we enforced the passport rule. When you travel from Britain to South Africa, do n't you expect to use a passport? ''
Lesotho 's geographic location makes it extremely vulnerable to political and economic developments in South Africa. It is a member of many regional economic organisations, including the Southern African Development Community (SADC), and the Southern African Customs Union (SACU). It is also active in the United Nations (UN), the African Union, the Non-Aligned Movement, the Commonwealth, and many other international organisations.
Prince Seeiso Simoné Seeiso is the present High Commissioner of the Kingdom of Lesotho to the Court of St. James 's. The UN is represented by a resident mission as well, including UNDP, UNICEF, WHO, FAO, WFP, UNFPA and UNAIDS.
Lesotho also has maintained ties with the United Kingdom (Wales in particular), Germany, the United States and other Western states. Although in 1990 it broke relations with the People 's Republic of China (PRC) and re-established relations with the Republic of China (Taiwan), it later restored ties with the PRC.
Lesotho also recognises the State of Palestine and the Republic of Kosovo.
In the past, it was a strong public opponent of apartheid in South Africa and granted a number of South African refugees political asylum during the apartheid era.
Lesotho does not have a single code containing its laws; it draws them from a variety of sources including: Constitution, Legislation, Common Law, Judicial precedent, Customary Law, and Authoritative texts.
The Constitution of Lesotho came into force after the publication of the Commencement Order. Constitutionally, legislation refers to laws that have been passed by both houses of parliament and have been assented to by the king (section 78 (1)). Subordinate legislation refers to laws passed by other bodies to which parliament has by virtue of section 70 (2) of the Constitution validly delegated such legislative powers. These include government publications, ministerial orders, ministerial regulations and municipal by - laws.
Although Lesotho shares with South Africa, Botswana, Swaziland, Namibia and Zimbabwe a mixed general legal system which resulted from the interaction between the Roman - Dutch Civilian law and the English Common Law, its general law operates independently. Lesotho also applies the common law, which refers to unwritten law or law from non-statutory sources, but excludes customary law. Decisions from South African courts are only persuasive, and courts refer to them in formulating their decisions. Decisions from similar jurisdictions can also be cited for their persuasive value. Magistrates ' courts decisions do not become precedent since these are lower courts. They are however bound by decisions of the High Court and the Court of Appeal. At the apex of the Lesotho justice system is the Court of Appeal, which is the final appellate forum on all matters. It has a supervisory and review jurisdiction over all the courts of Lesotho.
Lesotho has a dual legal system consisting of customary and general laws operating side by side. Customary law is made up of the customs of the Basotho, written and codified in the Laws of Lerotholi whereas general law consists of Roman Dutch Law imported from the Cape and the Lesotho statutes. The codification of customary law came about after a council was appointed in 1903 to advise the British Resident Commissioner on what was best for the Basotho in terms of laws that would govern them. Until this time, the Basotho customs and laws were passed down from generation to generation through oral tradition. The council was then given the task of codifying them, came up with the Laws of Lerotholi which are applied by customary courts today (local courts). Written works of eminent authors have persuasive value in the courts of Lesotho. These include writings of the old authorities as well as contemporary writers from similar jurisdictions.
For administrative purposes, Lesotho is divided into ten districts, each headed by a district administrator. Each district has a capital known as a camptown.
The districts are further subdivided into 80 constituencies, which consist of 129 local community councils.
Lesotho covers 30,355 km (11,720 sq mi). It is the only independent state in the world that lies entirely above 1,000 metres (3,281 ft) in elevation. Its lowest point of 1,400 metres (4,593 ft) is thus the highest in the world. Over 80 % of the country lies above 1,800 metres (5,906 ft). Lesotho is also the southernmost landlocked country in the world and is entirely surrounded by South Africa. It lies between latitudes 28 ° and 31 ° S, and longitudes 27 ° and 30 ° E.
Because of its altitude, Lesotho remains cooler throughout the year than other regions at the same latitude. Most of the rain falls as summer thunderstorms. Maseru and surrounding lowlands often reach 30 ° C (86 ° F) in summer. Winters can be cold with the lowlands getting down to − 7 ° C (19 ° F) and the highlands to − 18 ° C (0 ° F) at times. Snow is common in the highlands between May and September; the higher peaks can experience snowfalls year - round.
There are known to be 339 bird species in Lesotho, including 10 globally threatened species and 2 introduced species, 17 reptile species, including geckos, snakes and lizards, and 60 mammal species endemic to Lesotho, including the endangered white - tailed rat.
Lesotho flora is Alpine, due to the high and mountainous terrain. The Katse Botanical Gardens houses a collection of medicinal plants and has a large seed bank of plants from the Malibamat'so River area.
Lesotho is geographically surrounded by South Africa and economically integrated with it as well. The economy of Lesotho is based on agriculture, livestock, manufacturing and mining, and depends heavily on inflows of workers ' remittances and receipts from the Southern African Customs Union (SACU). The majority of households subsist on farming. The formal sector employment consists of mainly the female workers in the apparel sector, the male migrant labour, primarily miners in South Africa for 3 to 9 months and employment in the Government of Lesotho (GOL). The western lowlands form the main agricultural zone. Almost 50 % of the population earn income through informal crop cultivation or animal husbandry with nearly two - thirds of the country 's income coming from the agricultural sector. The percentage of the population living below USD Purchasing Power Parity (PPP) US $1.25 / day fell from 48 percent to 44 percent between 1995 and 2003. The country is among the "Low Human Development '' countries (rank 160 of 187 on the Human Development Index as classified by the UNDP, with 48.2 years of life expectancy at birth. Adult literacy is as high as 82 %. Among the children below the age of 5 years, 20 % are under weight.
Lesotho has taken advantage of the African Growth and Opportunity Act (AGOA) to become the largest exporter of garments to the US from sub-Saharan Africa. US brands and retailers sourcing from Lesotho include: Foot Locker, Gap, Gloria Vanderbilt, JCPenney, Levi Strauss, Saks, Sears, Timberland and Wal - Mart. In mid-2004 its employment reached over 50,000, mainly female workers, marking the first time that manufacturing sector workers outnumbered government employees. In 2008 it exported goods worth 487 million dollars mainly to the USA. Since 2004 employment in the sector was somehow reduced to about 45,000, in mid-2011, due to intense international competition in the garment sector. It was the largest formal sector employer in Lesotho in 2011. In 2007, the average earnings of an employee in the textile sector were $103 per month, and the official minimum wage for a general textile worker was $93 per month. The average gross national income per capita in 2008 was $83 per month. The sector initiated a major program to fight HIV / AIDS called Apparel Lesotho Alliance to Fight AIDS (ALAFA). It is an industry - wide program providing prevention and treatment for the workers. (see below HIV).
Water and diamonds are Lesotho 's significant natural resources. Water is utilised through the 21 - year, multibillion - dollar Lesotho Highlands Water Project (LHWP), under the authority of the Lesotho Highlands Development Authority. The project commenced in 1986. The LHWP is designed to capture, store, and transfer water from the Orange River system to South Africa 's Free State and greater Johannesburg area, which features a large concentration of South African industry, population, and agriculture. Completion of the first phase of the project has made Lesotho almost completely self - sufficient in the production of electricity and generated approximately $70 million in 2010 from the sale of electricity and water to South Africa. The World Bank, African Development Bank, European Investment Bank, and many other bilateral donors financed the project.
Diamonds are produced at the Letseng, Mothae, Liqhobong and Kao mines, which combined are estimated to produce 240,000 carats of diamonds in 2014, worth $300 million. The Letseng mine is estimated to produce diamonds with an average value of $2172 / carat, making it the worlds richest mine on an average price per - carat basis. The sector suffered a set back in 2008 as the result of the world recession but rebounded in 2010 and 2011. Export of diamonds reached $230 million in 2010 / 11. In 1957, a South African adventurer, colonel Jack Scott, accompanied by a young man named Keith Whitelock, set out prospecting for diamonds. They found their diamond mine at 3,100 m altitude, on top of the Maluti Mountains in northeastern Lesotho, some 70 km from Mokhotlong at Letseng. In 1967, a 601 - carat (120.2 g) diamond (Lesotho Brown) was discovered in the mountains by a Mosotho woman. In August 2006, a 603 - carat (120.6 g) white diamond, the Lesotho Promise, was discovered at the Letseng - la - Terae mine. Another 478 - carat (95.6 g) diamond was discovered at the same location in 2008.
Lesotho has progressed in moving from a predominantly subsistence - oriented economy to a lower middle income economy exporting natural resources and manufacturing goods. The exporting sectors have brought higher and more secure incomes to a significant portion of the population.
The global economic crisis hit the Lesotho economy hard through: the loss of textile exports and jobs in the sector due largely to the economic slowdown in the United States which is a major export destination; reduced diamond mining and exports, including weak prices for diamonds; drop in SACU revenues due to the economic slowdown in the South African economy; and reduction in worker remittances due to weakening of the South African economy and contraction of the mining sector and related job losses in South Africa. In 2009, GDP growth slowed to 0.9 percent.
The official currency is the loti (plural: maloti), but can be used interchangeably with the South African rand. Lesotho, Swaziland, Namibia, and South Africa also form a common currency and exchange control area known as the Common Monetary Area (CMA). The loti is at par with the rand. One hundred lisente (singular: sente) equal one loti.
Lesotho is a member of the Southern African Customs Union (SACU), in which tariffs have been eliminated on the trade of goods between other member countries Botswana, Namibia, South Africa, and Swaziland. Lesotho has received economic aid from a variety of sources, including the United States, the World Bank, Republic of Ireland, the United Kingdom, the European Union, and Germany.
Lesotho has a population of approximately 2,203,821. The population distribution of Lesotho is 25 % urban and 75 % rural. However, it is estimated that annual increase of urban population is 3.5 %. Population density is lower in the highlands than in the western lowlands. Although the majority of the population -- 60.2 % -- is between 15 and 64 years of age, Lesotho has a substantial youth population numbering around 34.8 %.
Lesotho 's ethno - linguistic structure consists almost entirely of the Basotho, a Bantu - speaking people: an estimated 99.7 % of the people identify as Basotho. Basotho subgroups include the Bakuena (Kuena), Batloung (the Tlou), Baphuthi (the Phuti), Bafokeng, Bataung (the Tau), Batšoeneng (the Tšoene), Matebele etc.
The main language, Sesotho (or Sotho), is also the first official and administrative language, and it is what Basotho speak on an ordinary basis.
The population of Lesotho is estimated to be around 90 % Christian. Protestants represent 45 % of the population (Evangelicals 26 %, Anglican and other Protestant groups an additional 19 %). Roman Catholics also represent 45 % of the population, pastorally served by the province of the Metropolitan Archbishop of Maseru and his three suffragans (the bishops of Leribe, Mohale 's Hoek and Qacha 's Nek), who also form the national episcopal conference.
Members of other religions (Muslims, Hindus, Buddhists and Bahá'í) and members of traditional indigenous religions comprise the remaining 10 % of the population.
According to recent estimates, 85 % of those older than 14 are literate. As such, Lesotho holds one of the highest literacy rates in Africa, in part because Lesotho invests over 12 % of its GDP in education. Unlike in most other countries, in Lesotho female literacy (94.5 %) exceeds male literacy. According to a study by the Southern and Eastern Africa Consortium for Monitoring Educational Quality in 2000, 37 % of grade 6 pupils in Lesotho (average age 14 years) are at or above reading level 4, "Reading for Meaning. '' A pupil at this level of literacy can read ahead or backwards through various parts of text to link and interpret information. Although education is not compulsory, the Government of Lesotho is incrementally implementing a program for free primary education.
Despite their literacy, Lesotho 's residents struggle for access to vital services, such as healthcare, travel and educational resources, as, according to the International Telecommunication Union, only 3.4 % of the population use the Internet. A service from Econet Telecom Lesotho expanded the country 's access to email through entry - level, low - end mobile phones and, consequently, improved access to educational information. The African Library Project works to establish school and village libraries in partnership with US Peace Corps Lesotho and the Butha Buthe District of Education.
Infant mortality is at about 8.3 %. There are 5 physicians per 100,000 persons.
Lesotho is severely afflicted by HIV / AIDS. According to 2009 estimates, the prevalence is about 23.6 %, one of the highest in the world. In urban areas, about 50 % of women under 40 have HIV. The UNDP stated that in 2006 life expectancy in Lesotho was estimated at 42 years for men and women.
The country regards HIV as one of its most important development issues, and the government is addressing the pandemic through its HIV / AIDS National Strategic Plan. Coverage of some key HIV / AIDS interventions has improved, including prevention of mother to child transmission and antiretroviral therapy. Prevention of mother to child transmission coverage increased from about 5 percent in 2005, to 31 percent in 2007. The roll - out of antiretroviral therapy has made good progress, with 38,586 people receiving treatment by 2008.
The "Know Your Status '' campaign boosted the number of people being tested for HIV to 229,092 by the end of 2007, 12 percent of the population and three times the number tested in 2005. The program is funded by the Clinton Foundation and started in June 2006. Bill Clinton and Microsoft chairman Bill Gates visited Lesotho in July 2006 to assess its fight against AIDS. As a result, the annual rate at which adults in the population who are HIV - negative become HIV - positive declined from 2.9 percent in 2005 to 2.3 percent in 2007, lowering the estimated annual number of new infections from 26,000 to 21,560. These are the first signs of a decline in the HIV epidemic.
The Apparel Lesotho Alliance to Fight AIDS (ALAFA) is an industry - wide program providing prevention and treatment, including ARVs when these are necessary, for the 46,000 mainly women workers in the Lesotho apparel industry. It was launched in May 2006. The program is helping to combat two of the key drivers of the HIV / AIDS epidemic: poverty and gender inequality. Surveys within the industry by ALAFA show that 43 % of the employees have HIV.
Prince Harry of UK co-founded the charity Sentebale in Lesotho, for children with HIV / AIDS. The other co-founder is the Prince of Lesotho.
The internal and external security of Lesotho is the responsibility of the Defence Commission, which is established and defined by article 145 of the Lesotho national Constitution. The Prime Minister is the Chairman ex officio, and there are six other Defence Commission members, namely the Commander and Deputy Commander of the Lesotho Defence Force, the Commissioner and Assistant Commissioner of the Lesotho Mounted Police Service, and the Director and Deputy Director of the Lesotho National Security Service. The Defence Commission has power to strategically direct the defence force, the police, and the prison service, but not the security service, which is answerable only to the Government. The Defence Commission has power to appoint or remove the senior staff of the defence force, police, and prison service, but not the security service, whose Director and Deputy Director are personal appointments of the Prime Minister.
The Lesotho Defence Force (LDF) is established under article 146 of the national Constitution, and charged with the maintenance of internal security and the defence of Lesotho. Its chief officer is designated Commander by the Constitution, and usually holds the rank of Lieutenant General. The LDF has a total strength of just over 3,000. The largest component is infantry, but they are supported by small artillery, logistics, and air force units, and a single armoured reconnaissance company.
The Lesotho Mounted Police Service (LMPS) is established under article 147 of the national Constitution, and charged with the maintenance of law and order. Its chief officer is designated Commissioner by the Constitution. The LMPS provides uniformed policing, criminal detection, and traffic policing. There are specialist units dealing with high - tech crime, immigration, wildlife, and terrorism. The current force has existed, despite changes of name, continuously since 1872.
The Lesotho National Security Service (LNSS) is established under article 148 of the national Constitution, and charged with the protection of national security. Its chief officer is designated Director by the Constitution. The LNSS is an intelligence service, reporting directly to the Government. The power to appoint or dismiss a Director is vested directly in the Prime Minister.
Traditional musical instruments include lekolulo, a kind of flute used by herding boys, setolo - tolo, played by men using their mouth, and the woman 's stringed thomo.
The national anthem of Lesotho is "Lesotho Fatše La Bo - ntata Rona '', which literally translates into "Lesotho, Land of Our Fore - Fathers ''.
The traditional style of housing in Lesotho is called a mokhoro. Many older houses, especially in smaller towns and villages, are of this type, with walls usually constructed from large stones cemented together. Baked mud bricks and especially concrete blocks are also used nowadays, with thatched roofs still common, although often replaced by corrugated roofing sheets.
Traditional attire revolves around the Basotho blanket, a thick covering made primarily of wool. The blankets are ubiquitous throughout the country during all seasons, and worn differently by men and women.
The Morija Arts & Cultural Festival is a prominent Sesotho arts and music festival. It is held annually in the historical town of Morija, where the first missionaries arrived in 1833.
The cuisine of Lesotho includes African traditions and British influences.
Significant levels of child labour exist in Lesotho, and the country is in the process of formulating an Action Program on the Elimination of Child Labor (APEC). According to the UN, Lesotho has the highest rape rate of any country (91.6 per 100,000 people rate for reported rape in 2008).
Treatment of people with disabilities is another major issue facing the country. According to the Lesotho Census 2006 around 4 % of the population is thought to have some sort of disability. However, there are concerns regarding the reliability of the methodologies used and the real figure is thought to be closer to the global estimate of 15 %. According to a survey conducted by the Lesotho National Federation of Organisations of the Disabled in conjunction with SINTEF, people with disability in Lesotho face significant social and cultural barriers which prevent them from accessing education, healthcare, and employment on an equal basis with others.
On 2 December 2008 Lesotho became the 42nd country in the world to sign the UN Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities. However, to date the treaty has yet to be domesticated. Despite lobbying efforts from disabled persons organisations, there have been no moves to develop disability specific legislation to protect the rights of people with disabilities. Although the National Disability and Rehabilitation Policy was developed in 2011, as yet there has been no budget allocated for its implementation.
Sexual violence in Lesotho is a serious problem. International data from UNODC found the incidence of rapes recorded in 2008 by the police to be the highest in Lesotho.
One study in Lesotho found that 61 % of women reported having experienced sexual violence at some point in their lives, of which 22 % reported being physically forced to have sexual intercourse. In the 2009 DHS survey 15.7 % of men said that a husband is justified in hitting or beating his wife if she refuses to have sex with him, while 16 % said a husband is justified to use force to have sex. In another study, researchers have concluded that "Given the high prevalence of HIV in Lesotho, programs should address women 's right to control their sexuality. ''
The Married Persons Equality Act 2006 gives equal rights to wives in regard to their husbands, abolishing the husband 's marital power.
The World Economic Forum 's 2015 Gender Gap Report ranks Lesotho 61st in the world for gender parity, while neighboring South Africa ranks 17th.
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which is the no 1 laptop brand in india | List of laptop brands and manufacturers - wikipedia
This is a list of laptop brands and manufacturers.
The vast majority of laptops on the market (94 % in 2011) are manufactured by a small handful of Taiwan - based Original Design Manufacturers (ODM), although their production bases are located mostly in mainland China.
Major relationships include:
There is a discrepancy between the 2009 numbers due to the various sources cited; i.e. the units sold by all ODMs add up to 144.3 million laptops, which is much more than the given total of 125 million laptops. The market share percentages currently refer to those 144.3 million total. Sources may indicate hard drive deliveries to the ODM instead of actual laptop sales, though the two numbers may be closely correlated.
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which of these famous indian painters was awarded the padma bhushan in 1991 | List of Padma Bhushan award recipients (1990 -- 1999) - wikipedia
The Padma Bhushan is the third - highest civilian award of the Republic of India. Instituted on 2 January 1954, the award is given for "distinguished service of a high order '', without distinction of race, occupation, position, or sex. The recipients receive a Sanad, a certificate signed by the President of India and a circular - shaped medallion with no monetary association. The recipients are announced every year on Republic Day (26 January) and registered in The Gazette of India -- a publication used for official government notices and released weekly by the Department of Publication, under the Ministry of Urban Development. The conferral of the award is not considered official without its publication in the Gazette. The name of recipient, whose award have been revoked or restored, both of which require the authority of the President, is archived and they are required to surrender their medal when their name is struck from the register; none of the conferments of Padma Bhushan during 1990 -- 1999 have been revoked or restored. The recommendations are received from all the state and the union territory governments, as well as from Ministries of the Government of India, the Bharat Ratna and the Padma Vibhushan awardees, the Institutes of Excellence, the Ministers, the Chief Ministers and the Governors of State, and the Members of Parliament including private individuals.
When instituted in 1954, the Padma Bhushan was classified as "Dusra Warg '' (Class II) under the three - tier Padma Vibhushan awards, which were preceded by the Bharat Ratna in hierarchy. On 15 January 1955, the Padma Vibhushan was reclassified into three different awards as the Padma Vibhushan, the Padma Bhushan and the Padma Shri. The criteria included "distinguished service of a high order in any field including service rendered by Government servants '', but excluded those working with the public sector undertakings with the exception of doctors and scientists. The 1954 statutes did not allow posthumous awards; this was subsequently modified in the January 1955 statute. The design was also changed to the form that is currently in use; it portrays a circular - shaped toned bronze medallion 1 ⁄ inches (44 mm) in diameter and ⁄ inch (3.2 mm) thick. The centrally placed pattern made of outer lines of a square of 1 ⁄ inches (30 mm) side is embossed with a knob carved within each of the outer angles of the pattern. A raised circular space of diameter 1 ⁄ inches (27 mm) is placed at the centre of the decoration. A centrally located lotus flower is embossed on the obverse side of the medal and the text "Padma '' is placed above and the text "Bhushan '' is placed below the lotus written in Devanagari script. The State Emblem of India is displayed in the centre of the reverse side, together with the national motto of India, "Satyameva Jayate '' (Truth alone triumphs) in Devanagari script, which is inscribed on the lower edge. The rim, the edges and all embossing on either side is of standard gold with the text "Padma Bhushan '' of gold gilt. The medal is suspended by a pink riband 1 ⁄ inches (32 mm) in width with a broad white stripe in the middle. It is ranked fifth in the order of precedence of wearing of medals and decorations of the Indian civilian and military awards.
In the 1990s, a total of 113 people were conferred with the award. Twenty - four awards were presented in both 1990 and 1991, followed by thirty - three in 1992. In February 1992, a writ petition was filed in the Kerala High Court questioning whether the civilian awards presented the Government of India were "titles '' as per the Article 18 (1) of the Constitution of India. The subject constitutional article states that "no title, not being a military or academic distinction, shall be conferred by the State ''. Similar petition was also filed in August 1992 in the Indore Bench of the Madhya Pradesh High Court and a notice was issued on 25 August that led to provisional suspension of all civilian awards. A Special Divisional Bench of the Supreme Court of India was set up with a panel of five judges that delivered the verdict on 15 December 1995 that the "Bharat Ratna and Padma awards are not titles within Article 18 of the Constitution of India ''. Later in 1998 when the presentation of the awards resumed, eighteen recipients received the award followed by fourteen in 1999. The Padma Bhushan in the 1990s was also conferred upon five foreign recipients -- two from the United Kingdom and one each from Japan, New Zealand, and the United States. Individuals from ten fields were honoured that included twenty - six artists, twenty - three from literature and education, eighteen from science and engineering, fifteen from medicine, eleven from public affairs, ten from social work, three sportspersons, three from trade and industry, and two from civil services and other fields each.
Journalist Nikhil Chakravarty declined the award in 1990 so as to "not be identified with the establishment ''. Historian Romila Thapar declined to accept the award in 1992, and later again in 2005, stating that she would accept awards only "from academic institutions or those associated with my professional work ''. Similar to Chakravarty, journalist and civil servant K. Subrahmanyam also refused the honour citing that "bureaucrats and journalists should not accept any award from the government because they are more liable to be favoured. ''
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when did the rams win the super bowl | Super Bowl XXXIV - wikipedia
Super Bowl XXXIV was an American football game between the National Football Conference (NFC) champion St. Louis Rams (now the Los Angeles Rams) and the American Football Conference (AFC) champion Tennessee Titans to decide the National Football League (NFL) champion for the 1999 season. The Rams defeated the Titans by the score of 23 -- 16, capturing their first Super Bowl win and first NFL championship since 1951. The game, played on January 30, 2000 at the Georgia Dome in Atlanta, was the fourth Super Bowl to be held a week after the conference championship games (the previous time this happened was Super Bowl XXVIII, and coincidentally that game was also played on January 30 at the Georgia Dome in Atlanta).
The Rams entered their second Super Bowl in team history with an NFC - best 13 -- 3 regular season record. It was the franchise 's first playoff appearance since 1989, when they were still in Los Angeles. The Titans, who were originally the Houston Oilers, also finished the regular season with a 13 -- 3 record, but advanced to their first Super Bowl in team history after entering the playoffs as a wild - card team. Tennessee finished in second place in the AFC Central division behind the 14 -- 2 Jacksonville Jaguars.
The first two quarters of Super Bowl XXXIV were largely a defensive battle. Despite outgaining the Titans in total offensive yards in the first half, 294 -- 89, the Rams held only a 9 -- 0 halftime lead on three field goals. St. Louis later scored their first touchdown midway through the 3rd quarter to go up 16 -- 0. Tennessee then responded by scoring 16 consecutive points to tie the game with 2: 12 left in regulation. This was the largest deficit to be erased in a Super Bowl and the first deficit that was greater than 10 points. On the Rams ' ensuing drive, quarterback Kurt Warner completed a 73 - yard touchdown pass to wide receiver Isaac Bruce to regain the lead. The Titans then drove to the St. Louis 10 - yard line with six seconds remaining, but on the final play of the game, Rams linebacker Mike Jones tackled Tennessee wide receiver Kevin Dyson one yard short of the goal line to prevent a potential game - tying touchdown. This play went into NFL lore as One Yard Short, or simply The Tackle. Warner was then named Super Bowl MVP, becoming the sixth player to win both that award and the NFL MVP during the same season. At the time, his 414 passing yards and 45 pass attempts without an interception broke Super Bowl records.
This game is often referred to as the "Dot - com Super Bowl '' due to the large amount of advertisements purchased by dot - com companies. This game was later featured as one of NFL 's Greatest Games as The Longest Yard.
NFL owners awarded Super Bowl XXXIV to Atlanta during their October 31, 1996 meeting held in New Orleans. Other cities under consideration were Miami, Tampa, and Los Angeles. Owners initially planned on selecting only two hosts (XXXIII and XXXIV), but decided to name three after strong showings by the respective delegations. Miami, Atlanta, and Tampa were selected to host XXXIII, XXXIV, and XXXV, respectively.
The Rams entered 1999 having been among the league 's stragglers for a decade. The reasons are many, including, some suggest, mismanagement by executive John Shaw. The franchise moved to a taxpayer - funded stadium in St. Louis, Missouri for the 1995 season but continued to struggle. In 1997, the team hired Dick Vermeil as their head coach, bringing him back to the NFL after 15 years of retirement. Vermeil had previously turned the Philadelphia Eagles from one of the worst teams in the league into a Super Bowl team in 1980, but his first two seasons in St. Louis were hardly stellar, winning just 5 games in 1997 and 4 in 1998.
Little was expected of the Rams for 1999. Indeed, ESPN The Magazine 's 1999 NFL preview predicted the Rams would be the worst team in the NFL; worse even than the Cleveland Browns, who had returned as an expansion team that year.
The Rams proceeded to shock the NFL with an NFC - best 13 -- 3 regular season record and outscored their opponents 526 -- 242, the highest scoring margin (284) of any Super Bowl champion. This was the Rams ' first playoff appearance since 1989 and only the second Super Bowl appearance in team history. St. Louis was led by undrafted quarterback Kurt Warner, who started the season as a backup to Trent Green. Green suffered a season - ending knee injury in the preseason, making Warner the team 's new starter. Warner previously played for the Iowa Barnstormers of the Arena Football League and the Amsterdam Admirals of NFL Europe.
In his first NFL season in 1998, Warner played only one game and threw just 11 passes. But in 1999, he experienced one of the most spectacular seasons ever by a quarterback, recording a passer rating of 109.2, completing 65.1 percent of his passes for 4,353 yards, 41 touchdowns, and just 13 interceptions, and earning the NFL Most Valuable Player Award. Warner was not the only Rams player compiling significant statistics, though. Running back Marshall Faulk, in his first year in St. Louis after spending five seasons with the Indianapolis Colts, won the NFL Offensive Player of the Year Award. He scored 12 touchdowns, rushed for 1,381 yards, and recorded a team - leading 87 receptions for 1,048 yards. In all, Faulk gained a record 2,429 total yards and became just the second running back in NFL history to gain over 1,000 yards rushing and receiving in the same season (Roger Craig was the first to do it, in 1985). Faulk held the NFL record for yards from scrimmage in a single season until Tennessee 's Chris Johnson broke it in 2009.
Faulk was n't the only weapon at Warner 's disposal in 1999. Veteran receiver Isaac Bruce was the top Rams receiver with 77 receptions for 1,165 yards and 12 touchdowns. while breakout rookie wide receiver Torry Holt recorded 52 receptions, 788 yards, and 6 touchdowns. Even the team 's third wide receiver, Az - Zahir Hakim, was a big contributor by catching 36 passes for 677 yards and 8 touchdowns, while also returning punts for 461 yards and another touchdown. The Rams ' offensive line was led by Pro Bowlers Orlando Pace and Adam Timmerman. Timmerman, acquired by the Rams in 1999, had previously won Super Bowl XXXI with the Green Bay Packers. On special teams, receiver Tony Horne returned 30 kickoffs for 892 yards and 2 touchdowns, giving him an NFL - leading 29.7 yards per return average.
Overall, St. Louis ' offense led the league in total yards gained (6,639), scoring (526 points), and passing touchdowns (42).
The Rams ' defense led the league in fewest rushing yards allowed (1,189) and fewest rushing touchdowns allowed (4), while giving up just 242 points. Overall, the defense ranked 4th in the league in fewest total yards allowed (5,056). The line was anchored by Pro Bowl defensive end Kevin Carter and defensive end Grant Wistrom. Carter led the league with 17 sacks, while Wistrom recorded 8.5 sacks and 2 interceptions, returning both for touchdowns and a combined total of 131 yards. Behind them, the Rams had three linebackers: London Fletcher (66 tackles and 3 sacks), Mike Jones (4 interceptions for 96 return yards and 2 touchdowns, and 2 fumble recoveries for 51 return yards and 1 touchdown), and Todd Collins (72 tackles, 1 sack, and 2 interceptions for 16 yards). The secondary was led by Pro Bowler Todd Lyght (6 interceptions), Dexter McCleon (4 interceptions), and rookie Dré Bly (3 interceptions).
The Titans advanced to their first Super Bowl in team history, after originating as a charter member of the American Football League. From 1960 to 1996, the team was owned by Houston, Texas businessman Bud Adams and known as the Houston Oilers. By 1995, however, Adams, like Frontiere, was lured to move his team from Houston, in this case to a new stadium in Nashville, Tennessee. Since this new stadium was not ready until the 1999 season, Adams decided to move his team to Liberty Bowl Memorial Stadium in Memphis, Tennessee in 1997 after playing before small Houston crowds in 1996.
The renamed Tennessee Oilers also played before sparse Memphis crowds, and thus spent the 1998 season playing at Nashville 's Vanderbilt Stadium. After the new Adelphia Coliseum (now known as Nissan Stadium) was completed in 1999, the team 's name was changed to Tennessee Titans. With Tennessee 's Super Bowl appearance, every former AFL team had now played in the Super Bowl, including the original eight AFL teams and two AFL expansion teams: the Miami Dolphins and the Cincinnati Bengals.
The 1999 Titans were led by quarterback Steve McNair and running back Eddie George. McNair had missed five games due to injuries during the season, but he was still able to put up solid numbers, throwing for 2,179 yards and 12 touchdowns with only 8 interceptions. Despite his injury problems, McNair finished the season as the second - leading rusher on the team with 337 yards and scoring 8 touchdowns. George also had an outstanding season, rushing for 1,304 yards, and catching 47 passes for 458 yards (his receptions, receiving yards, and receiving touchdowns were all career highs). In all, George scored a grand total of 13 rushing and receiving touchdowns, and was selected to play in the Pro Bowl for the 3rd consecutive year.
Another contributor on the Titans ' offense was fullback Lorenzo Neal, who frequently served as George 's lead blocker and was widely considered one of the best blocking backs in the league. The team did not have any outstanding deep threats, but wide receiver Yancey Thigpen recorded 38 receptions for 648 yards, wide receiver Kevin Dyson had 54 receptions for 658 yards, and tight end Frank Wycheck caught 69 passes for 641 yards. Up front, their line was anchored by Pro Bowl tackle Bruce Matthews.
Tennessee 's defense was also extremely effective. Pro Bowl defensive end Jevon Kearse anchored the line, recording 14.5 sacks to go along with 8 forced fumbles and was named the NFL 's Defensive Rookie of the Year. The linebacking corps was led by Eddie Robinson, who recorded 64 tackles and 6 sacks. Their secondary was led by cornerback Samari Rolle, who led the team with 4 interceptions.
The Titans finished the regular season with a 13 -- 3 record (including a home win over the Rams), but finished second behind the 14 -- 2 Jacksonville Jaguars in the AFC Central. The Jaguars ' only two losses were to the Titans, but Tennessee 's three losses forced them to enter the playoffs as a wild - card team.
Playing in his first ever NFL playoff game, Warner threw for 395 yards and 5 touchdowns, with 1 interception, as the Rams defeated the Minnesota Vikings, 49 -- 37, by scoring 35 unanswered points in the second half. Bruce caught 4 passes for 133 yards and a touchdown. Faulk gained 101 combined rushing / receiving yards and scored 2 touchdowns. Although Vikings quarterback Jeff George threw for 423 yards and 4 touchdowns, three of his scores occurred late in the 4th quarter, after the Rams had already put the game away.
The Rams then narrowly defeated the Tampa Bay Buccaneers, 11 -- 6 in a hard - fought defensive struggle in the NFC Championship Game. The first half ended with the Rams leading 5 -- 3 on a Jeff Wilkins field goal and after a bad snap by the Buccaneers went through their own end zone for a safety. Tampa Bay then scored a field goal in the 3rd quarter to take the lead. But Warner threw a 30 - yard go - ahead touchdown pass to receiver Ricky Proehl with 4: 44 left in the game.
Meanwhile, the Titans started out their postseason by narrowly defeating the Buffalo Bills, 22 -- 16 on a famous, trick kickoff return play that became known in NFL lore as the Music City Miracle. Tennessee jumped to a 12 -- 0 halftime lead with an Al Del Greco field goal, a safety by Kearse, and a McNair touchdown run. However, Buffalo came back to take the lead, 13 -- 12 with Antowain Smith 's two touchdown runs in the second half (the two - point conversion after Smith 's second touchdown failed). In the 4th quarter, the Titans regained the lead after Del Greco kicked his second field goal. With 16 seconds left in the game, Bills kicker Steve Christie made what seemed to be the game - winning 41 - yard field goal to give his team the lead, 16 -- 15. However, Neal received the ensuing kickoff and handed the ball off to Wycheck, who then lateraled the ball to Dyson on the other side of the field, who eventually ran 75 yards to the end zone for the game - winning touchdown. The play was reviewed to determine whether Wycheck had lateraled the ball to Dyson or made an illegal forward pass. Referee Phil Luckett upheld the original call on the field of a touchdown, giving Tennessee the win.
The Titans then defeated the Indianapolis Colts 19 -- 16. After both teams exchanged field goals in the first half, George scored on a 68 - yard touchdown run to give his team a 13 -- 9 lead. Del Greco then kicked two more field goals in the 4th quarter to put the game away. George finished the game with a franchise playoff record 162 rushing yards and a touchdown, while Del Greco made four field goals.
The Titans then eliminated the Jacksonville Jaguars, 33 -- 14, in the AFC Championship Game. The Jaguars finished the 1999 regular season with a league - best 14 -- 2 record, and advanced to the AFC title game after crushing the Miami Dolphins 62 -- 7 and limiting future Hall of Fame quarterback Dan Marino to just 11 of 25 completions for 95 yards and 1 touchdown, with 2 interceptions. However, Tennessee 's defense dominated the Jaguars in the AFC Championship Game, forcing 6 turnovers. Jacksonville led 14 -- 10 at halftime, but the Titans then scored 23 unanswered points on two touchdown runs by McNair, a safety, and Derrick Mason 's 80 - yard kickoff return for a touchdown. Although McNair passed for only 112 yards and one touchdown with one interception, he rushed for 91 yards and 2 touchdowns on 9 carries. George rushed for 86 yards and caught 3 passes for 19 yards.
In January 2000, two ice storms struck the Atlanta area within a week of each other. The second storm occurred during the week the Super Bowl was hosted. Despite the rare adverse weather conditions, city and state crews kept streets and sidewalks free of ice, and MARTA public transport kept running. The Atlanta region does not receive more ice storms than most other areas of the country, and Super Bowl XXXIV was played indoors and unaffected by the elements. But some residents believe the poor weather during Super Bowl week negatively impacted the city 's chances of hosting another Super Bowl, including the bid it lost for the Super Bowl XLIII. That bid included meteorological data showing the rarity of such storms in the area.
Nashville, home of the Titans, is also the midway point of the Atlanta - St. Louis highway corridor, which contains the entirety of Interstate 24, and uses other highways to complete the route.
This is, to date, the most recent Super Bowl in which neither team had won a Super Bowl before.
ABC televised the game in the United States with play - by - play announcer Al Michaels and color commentator Boomer Esiason. Chris Berman from Disney - owned corporate sibling ESPN hosted all the events. Berman was joined by fellow ESPN analyst Steve Young, while ESPN 's Mike Tirico was on hand for the post-game presentation of the Vince Lombardi Trophy. Lesley Visser and Lynn Swann served as sideline reporters.
It was also the first Super Bowl to be aired in high definition and 5.1 Dolby Digital. ABC Sports chose to use the 720p format.
Ironically, the ABC affiliate in St. Louis, KDNL - TV, has been regarded as one of the network 's weakest affiliates since joining the network in 1995. The previous ABC affiliate, KTVI, in contrast, was one of the strongest affiliates -- it had become a Fox station in 1995, and thus, has televised the majority of the Rams ' games in this period.
The game was later featured as one of the NFL 's Greatest Games as The Longest Yard.
The pregame show featured a tribute to "The Great American Music of the 20th Century ''. Narrated by the Smothers Brothers, the show highlighted some of the unique American musical styles such as gospel, big band, classical, country and rock. Singers Tina Turner and Travis Tritt along with the Georgia Tech Marching Band and the Georgia Mass Choir performed during the show.
Country singer Faith Hill then sang the national anthem.
To celebrate the 30th anniversary of Super Bowl IV, the following participants of the game were featured during the coin toss ceremony: Bud Grant, Lamar Hunt, Bobby Bell, Paul Krause, Willie Lanier, Alan Page, and Jan Stenerud.
The E-Trade halftime show was produced by Disney and titled "Tapestry of Nations '' after the Epcot parade of the same name. The show, narrated by actor Edward James Olmos, was inspired by Walt Disney World 's millennium celebration. It featured a full symphony orchestra conducted by Steven Byess; a multi-generational, 80 - person choir; and singers Phil Collins, Christina Aguilera, Enrique Iglesias, Tina Turner, and Toni Braxton.
Setlist:
This game is often referred to as the "dot - com '' Super Bowl since it was held during the height of the dot - com bubble, and several Internet companies purchased television commercials. E-Trade ran a commercial featuring a chimpanzee dancing in an E-Trade T - shirt and the text "Well, we just wasted 2 million bucks. '' Lifeminders.com ran a commercial of plain typewritten text beginning with the line "This is the worst commercial on the Super Bowl. But it might be the best thing you see tonight. '' Pets.com famously paid millions for an advertisement featuring a sock puppet, though the company would collapse before the end of the year.
The two teams ' defenses seemed to dominate most of the first half. The Rams started the game out strong by taking the opening kickoff and marching to the Tennessee 17 - yard line. But on third down, safety Blaine Bishop pressured quarterback Kurt Warner to throw an incomplete pass. Then the ensuing field goal attempt failed when punter / holder Mike Horan fumbled the snap. The Titans responded by moving the ball to the St. Louis 29 - yard line, aided with running back Eddie George 's 32 - yard reception. However, they also came up empty after kicker Al Del Greco missed a 47 - yard field goal attempt.
For the rest of the half, the Titans were forced to punt on all of their possessions. In contrast, the Rams were able to reach inside the Tennessee 20 - yard line on all four of their remaining drives before halftime, but on each one, the Titans ' defense forced St. Louis to settle for field goal attempts from kicker Jeff Wilkins, who was successful in making three of them, but missed one attempt from 34 yards. The Rams ended up leading at halftime, 9 -- 0, but their scoring margin over the Titans seemed somewhat small, considering they drove into scoring range on every one of their first - half possessions and outgained Tennessee in total yards, 294 -- 89.
Both teams ' offenses started to get going in the second half. The Titans took the opening kickoff of the 3rd quarter and drove 43 yards to the St. Louis 29 - yard line. But Tennessee remained scoreless after defensive back Todd Lyght blocked Del Greco 's 47 - yard field goal attempt. After that, Warner converted a third down situation with a completion to Marshall Faulk, then on the next two plays threw a 31 - yard strike to Isaac Bruce and a 16 - yard completion to tight end Ernie Conwell before finishing the 68 - yard drive with a 9 - yard touchdown pass to Torry Holt, giving St. Louis a 16 -- 0 lead. On the completion to Conwell, Bishop combined to make the tackle, but suffered a spinal injury and had to leave the game. The game was delayed for several minutes while Bishop was being treated.
Tennessee wide receiver Derrick Mason returned the ensuing kickoff 35 yards to the 34 - yard line. From there, five runs by George good for 24 yards, three completions from quarterback Steve McNair to tight end Frank Wycheck for 15 yards and a run by McNair for two advanced the ball to the St. Louis 25 - yard line. Then McNair scrambled 23 yards to the 2 - yard line, setting up a 1 - yard touchdown run by George two plays later. The touchdown cut the Titans ' deficit to 16 -- 6 after McNair 's pass to Wycheck on the two - point conversion attempt fell incomplete.
The Titans ' first score sparked them to rally. After forcing the Rams to punt on their ensuing possession, a pair of 21 - yard completions from McNair to tight end Jackie Harris and wide receiver Isaac Byrd aided a 13 - play, 79 - yard drive that was capped by George 's 2 - yard touchdown run to make the score 16 -- 13. The Tennessee defense then forced the Rams to a three - and - out, and Horan 's 30 - yard punt gave the Titans the ball back at their 47 - yard line. The Titans ' offense then drove only 28 yards on their ensuing possession, but it was close enough for Del Greco to attempt a 43 - yard field goal. This time, Del Greco 's kick was good, tying the score at 16 -- 16 with just 2: 12 left in the game. The 16 - point deficit was the largest deficit to be erased in a Super Bowl and the first greater than 10 points. It was also the first time in any Super Bowl a team down double digits in the 4th quarter had tied the game. Also, however, the Titans only tied the game and had n't yet gained the lead.
Then on the Rams ' first play of their ensuing drive, Warner threw a long pass that was caught at the Titans ' 38 - yard line by Bruce, who then ran it all the way into the end zone for a 73 - yard touchdown to give St. Louis a 23 -- 16 lead. Likewise, in the 1951 NFL Championship Game, quarterback Norm Van Brocklin 's 73 - yard game - winning touchdown pass to wide receiver Tom Fears broke a 17 -- 17 tie in the fourth quarter and gave the Rams a seven - point victory to win the NFL title. Warner 's touchdown pass to Bruce was his only completion of the 4th quarter.
The Titans took over the ball at their own 12 - yard line with 1: 48 left in the game after committing a holding penalty on the ensuing kickoff. McNair started out the drive with a pair of completions to Mason and Wycheck for gains of 9 and 7 yards to reach the 28 - yard line. After an incomplete pass, defensive back Dré Bly 's 15 - yard facemask penalty while tackling McNair on a 12 - yard scramble gave the Titans a 1st down at the St. Louis 45 - yard line. On the next play, St. Louis was penalized 5 yards for being offsides, moving the ball to the 40 - yard line with 59 seconds left. McNair then ran for 2 yards, then threw a 7 - yard completion to wide receiver Kevin Dyson. On the next play, Tennessee nearly lost the ball when Bly stepped in front of a pass intended for Mason, only to have it go right through his arms. Two plays later, with the Titans facing 3rd down and 5 to go, McNair was hit by two Rams defenders, but he escaped and completed a 16 - yard pass to Dyson to gain a 1st down at the Rams 10 - yard line. Tennessee then used up their final timeout with just six seconds left in the game, giving them a chance for one last play. This final play has gone down in NFL history as simply "The Tackle ''.
The Titans had just used their final timeout with six seconds remaining. With the ball on the Rams ' 10 - yard line, the Titans were trailing by a touchdown and had one last opportunity to tie the game. The plan was to use tight end Frank Wycheck as a decoy. Wycheck would run straight up the field on the right side, to lure linebacker Mike Jones away from receiver Kevin Dyson. Dyson would then slant left through the middle of the field. With Jones occupying Wycheck, quarterback Steve McNair would pass the ball to Dyson, who would be open from about five yards out for the score.
As the play began, everything appeared to go as planned. Jones ran with Wycheck up the field at the beginning of the play. However, as the pass was being delivered to Dyson, Jones, who was at the goal line, glanced over his left shoulder and noticed an open Dyson catching the ball. Jones switched directions and ran towards the Titans receiver. Dyson ran directly toward the end zone, but his legs were wrapped up by Jones with about two and a half yards left to the goal line.
Since Dyson was being tackled by the legs, there was still the possibility he could reach towards the end zone and get the ball across the goal line. Both players went into a rolling motion as Dyson outstretched his hand with the football towards the goal line in the hopes of scoring the touchdown. Though his reach was close, and the ball mere inches away from the end zone, it was still not enough to score. As the rolling motion came to an end, with Jones now on top of Dyson 's legs, his shoulder had touched the ground and, therefore, the game was over. Had Dyson scored and the extra point been converted, it would have been the first Super Bowl ever to go into overtime. Alternatively, had Dyson scored, the Titans could have attempted a 2 - point conversion for the outright win.
Considering the magnitude of the Super Bowl, and the wild game that preceded it, "The Tackle '' is considered one of the greatest and most exciting game - ending plays in modern NFL history. The image of Dyson stretching the ball towards the goal line with Jones wrapped around him has become a staple of NFL highlights. ESPN.com ranked "The Tackle '' as the 35th greatest moment of the past 25 years in sports (as of 2007). NFL.com ranked Jones ' tackle of Dyson as the fourth greatest clutch moment in Super Bowl history. Fox Sports ranked The Tackle as the Greatest Clutch Play in Super Bowl History (as of 2007). Like Dallas Cowboys cornerback Larry Brown, Jones was included on the NFL Network 's "Top 10 One - Hit Wonders '' list (Jones was # 10, Brown was # 3), although Jones also mirrored Brown in having a solid if unspectacular career outside of his Super Bowl heroics.
After the game, many sports writers commented on Warner 's rise from an unknown backup to a Super Bowl MVP, but Warner himself was n't impressed by it. "How can you be in awe of something that you expect yourself to do? '' Warner pointed out. "People think this season is the first time I touched a football; they do n't realize I 've been doing this for years -- just not on this level, because I never got the chance. Sure, I had my tough times, but you do n't sit there and say, ' Wow, I was stocking groceries five years ago, and look at me now. ' You do n't think about it, and when you do achieve something, you know luck has nothing to do with it. ''
However, he later told The New York Times "I guess it is sort of a storybook ending. When you think about where I was and where I am now, it seems pretty incredible. ''
at Georgia Dome, Atlanta
Bruce caught 6 passes for 162 yards (3rd highest) and a touchdown, an average of 27 yards per catch. Holt had 7 receptions for 109 yards (the most ever by a rookie in a Super Bowl) and a touchdown. Bruce and Holt became the fourth pair of teammates to each have over 100 yards receiving in a Super Bowl, joining the Steelers ' John Stallworth and Lynn Swann in Super Bowl XIII, the Bengals ' Cris Collinsworth and Dan Ross in Super Bowl XVI, and the Redskins ' Gary Clark and Art Monk in Super Bowl XXVI.
Rams starting running back Marshall Faulk was held to just 17 rushing yards, but gained 90 receiving yards on 5 receptions. McNair set a Super Bowl record for rushing yards by a quarterback, recording 64 yards on 8 carries. He also completed 22 out of 36 passes for 214 yards. George finished the game with 95 rushing yards, 35 receiving yards, and 2 touchdowns. Harris was the top receiver for Tennessee with 7 catches for 64 yards. Mason returned 5 kickoffs for 122 yards, and caught 2 passes for 18 yards.
Rams coach Dick Vermeil became the oldest coach ever to win a Super Bowl (age 63). He also set the record for the longest amount of time between going to his first Super Bowl (Super Bowl XV in the 1980 season) to winning it for the first time.
This is the second, and to date, most recent, Super Bowl in which neither team committed any turnovers. The only other Super Bowl to date with this distinction is Super Bowl XXV.
Sources: NFL.com Super Bowl XXXIV, Super Bowl XXXIV Play Finder StL, Super Bowl XXXIV Play Finder Ten, USA Today Super Bowl XXXIV Play by Play
Completions / attempts Carries Long gain Receptions Times targeted
The following records were set in Super Bowl XXXIV, according to the official NFL.com boxscore, the 2016 NFL Record & Fact Book and the Pro-Football-Reference.com game summary.
Turnovers are defined as the number of times losing the ball on interceptions and fumbles.
Hall of Fame ‡
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when do u get a free kick in soccer | Direct free kick - wikipedia
A direct free kick is a method of restarting play in a game of association football that is awarded to a team following most types of fouls. In a direct free kick, the fouled team is entitled to freely kick the ball from the spot of the foul, with opponents required to be at least 10 yards (9.1 m) from the ball. The kicking team may score a goal directly from a direct free kick, that is, without the ball having first touched another player. This is in contrast with an indirect free kick -- a restart with a similar procedure that is usually awarded for technical infringements -- where the ball must contact another player before a goal is scored. If a player commits a foul punishable by a direct freekick within his / her own penalty area, a penalty kick is awarded instead.
Direct free kicks awarded near the opponent 's goal can often lead to scoring opportunities, either from the kick itself or from an ensuing set piece. Accordingly, developing plays from free kicks are an important part of team strategy, and defending against them is an important skill for defenders.
The kick is taken from where the foul occurred, unless it was within the fouled team 's own goal area, in which case it may be taken from anywhere within the goal area. The ball must be stationary prior to being kicked. Opponents must remain 10 yards (9.1 metres) from the ball (and outside the penalty area if the kick is taken from within the kicking team 's penalty area) until the ball is in play.
The ball becomes in play as soon as it is kicked and moves, unless the kick was taken from within the kicking team 's penalty area, in which case it is in play once it has passed directly beyond the penalty area.
A goal may be scored directly from a direct free kick, but only against the opposing side (i.e. an own goal may not be scored). Should the ball directly land in the kicking team 's own goal, a corner kick is awarded to the opposing team. A player may be penalised for an offside offence committed from a direct free kick; with the exception of receiving the ball directly from a goal kick or corner kick.
A team may choose to take a "quick '' free kick, that is, take the kick while opponents are within the 10 - yard (9.1 m) minimum required distance. This is usually done for some strategic reason, such as surprising the defence or taking advantage of their poor positioning. The referee has full discretion on whether to allow a quick free kick, and all other rules on free kicks still apply. However, in taking a quick free kick the kicking team waives their entitlement to retake the kick if an opponent who was within 10 yards intercepts the ball. Football governing bodies may provide further instruction to referees on administering quick free kicks; for example, the United States Soccer Federation advises that referees should not allow a quick free kick if a card is shown prior to the restart, if a trainer has to enter the field to attend to an injured player, if the kicking team requests enforcement of the 10 - yard rule, or if the referee needs to slow the pace of the match (e.g., to talk to a player).
There are various techniques used with direct free kicks. First, the player taking the direct free kick may blast the ball as hard as he can, usually with the laces of the boot. Alternatively, some players try to curl the ball around the keeper or the wall, with the inside or outside the boot. Additionally, certain free - kick specialists will choose to kick the ball with minimal spin, making the ball behave unpredictably in the air (similar to the action of a knuckleball pitch in baseball). The kicker may also attempt to drive the shot under the wall formed by the opposition defenders. Free kick takers may also attempt to cross the ball to their centre - backs or strikers to get a header on goal, since they usually are the tallest members of the team, especially if the position of the free kick is close to the wings.
If an opponent is less than 10 yards (9.1 m) from the spot where the kick is taken, the kick is re-taken unless the kicking team chooses to do a quick free kick (see above). An opponent also may be cautioned (yellow card) for failing to retreat 10 yards.
For a kick taken by a team inside their own penalty area, the ball is not considered in play until it has left the area. If the ball fails to travel directly out of the penalty area the kick is retaken.
The kicker will concede an indirect free kick to their opponents if they touch the ball again before another player (of either team) has touched it. If this second touch is an illegal handling of the ball offence, this takes priority and is penalised (with a direct free kick or penalty) accordingly.
Most teams have one or two designated free kick takers, depending on the distance from goal and the side of the field the free kick is to be taken from. The strategy may be to score a goal directly from the free kick, or to use the free kick as the beginning of a set piece leading towards a goal scoring opportunity.
The kicking team may have more than one player line up behind the ball, run up to the ball, and / or feint a kick in order to confuse or deceive the defence as to their intentions; this is usually legal as long as no other infringements occur.
Where there is a potential for a shot on goal to occur from a direct free kick, often the defending side will erect a "wall '' of players standing side - by - side as a barrier to the shot. The number of players composing the wall varies based on distance and strategy. It is not fully known when the wall was started. A kicker who has the skill to curl the ball around a wall is at a distinct advantage. Since 2000, referees at the highest levels of football have used vanishing spray to enforce the 10 - yard minimum required distance for the wall; referees without vanishing spray may indicate the minimum distance verbally and / or with hand gestures.
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who is going on tour with taylor swift 2018 | Taylor Swift 's Reputation Stadium Tour - wikipedia
Taylor Swift 's Reputation Stadium Tour is the fifth concert tour by American singer - songwriter Taylor Swift, in support of her sixth studio album, Reputation (2017). The tour began on May 8, 2018 in Glendale and is set to conclude on November 21, 2018 in Tokyo, comprising 53 concerts. The supporting acts for the tour are Charli XCX and Camila Cabello.
In August 2017, Billboard reported that Swift would be using Ticketmaster 's Verified Fan program to prevent bots and ticket scalpers from purchasing tickets. The program, named "Taylor Swift Tix '', allowed fans to purchase tickets in advance of the public on - sale by participating in boost activities to increase chances of getting a pre-sale access code.
On November 13, 2017, Swift 's management announced the first round of dates for the tour jointly with Ticketmaster. Tickets went on sale to the general public on December 13, 2017, the day of Swift 's 28th birthday.
In late November, Swift announced shows in Manchester, Dublin, and London. Due to overwhelming demand, additional dates were announced for all three cities. Furthermore, the singer also announced extra shows in North America for Pasadena, Chicago, East Rutherford, Foxborough, Toronto, and Atlanta due to popular demand before the pre-sale began. On December 3, Swift announced five dates for Oceania. In January 2018, due to huge demand, Swift went on to add second dates in Santa Clara, Landover, Philadelphia, Minneapolis and Arlington and third dates in East Rutherford and Foxborough, totalling 40 shows for the tour 's North American leg.
On March 1, 2018, Swift officially announced Camila Cabello and Charli XCX as the opening acts for the Reputation Stadium Tour. Cabello was previously speculated as the opening act because her Never Be the Same Tour dates did n't coincide with Swift 's tour dates; Portland 's Live 95.5 also announced her in a sweepstake for the concert of June 22, 2018 at the Wembley Stadium in London through a since - deleted post on Twitter, a day before Swift confirmed her as the opening act.
On May 8, 2018, Swift announced 2 shows in Tokyo, with Charli XCX as the opening act.
The tour has received rave reviews, being commonly labeled as the best of Swift 's career thus far and the best tour of 2018. Ed Masley, from The Arizona Republic, wrote that "there were many moments in the course Swift 's performance that felt like she was playing to the back rows of the stadium by simply sharing with her fans '', while complimenting the tour 's production and highlighting Swift 's connection with the crowd. Jim Harrington, from The Mercury News, praised the improvement of the singer 's vocal work and performance skills over the years: "Her game is well - rounded enough that she can excel equally at every different aspect of the show. '' Chris Tuite, from CBS San Francisco, wrote: "The only thing more prominent than the singer herself during her current costume - change filled spectacle are the massive, vicious looking snakes that symbolically appear throughout the set. '' Michael Tritsch from 303 Magazine commented the tour "broke new ground and set the bar high for future stadium tours '' while adding "The reputation of this show burned its way into the history books ''.
After four days of sales through the Verified Fan platform and three days of sales to the general public that began December 13, the tour had already grossed $180 million from 33 dates in North America alone. Pollstar reported data supplied by the Gridiron Stadium Network, a consortium of NFL facilities that work together to book concerts at their buildings, which showed at least 35,000 tickets had been sold at ten of the stadiums on the route as of December 18. The tickets sold ranged from 35,419 at Heinz Field in Pittsburgh to a high of 48,039 at Lincoln Financial Field in Philadelphia. With more than 47,000 tickets sold, it was reported the May 12, 2018 date at Levi 's Stadium in Santa Clara was generating close to $9 million in ticket revenue, which prompted the addition of an extra date.
According to StubHub, the tour is the best - selling female tour in the United Kingdom in 2018.
The first seven shows of the tour grossed $54 million with 390,000 tickets sold, leading Swift to the top of Billboard 's Hot Tours chart in June 2018. She performed to sold out crowds of 59,157 in Glendale and 107,550 in Santa Clara (over two nights), grossing $7.21 million and $14 million respectively, while the Pasadena shows combined for a gross of nearly $16.3 million and Seattle accounted more than $8.6 million. The concerts in Louisville and Columbus, reported in July 2018, grossed $11.5 million with around 115,000 tickets sold, with the latter city having the highest gross and most tickets sold, with approximately 63,000 tickets and $6.6 million. These concerts led the singer once again to the top of Hot Tours chart.
The tour has broken multiple venue attendance and grossing records. The debut performance at University of Phoenix Stadium set new venue records in both gross and attendance, topping Metallica 's $5.2 million gross earned in August 2017 by almost $2 million. With 59,157 tickets sold, she also broke the attendance record set during One Direction 's Where We Are Tour in 2014 by 2,633 seats. With a $14 million take from 107,550 sold tickets at Levi 's Stadium she topped her own gross and attendance counts set during The 1989 World Tour in 2015. With more than 118,000 fans in attendance at the Rose Bowl, the two - show run earned $16.2 million and set a new gross record for a single headliner at the venue, surpassing U2 's 2017 record by over $467,000. Grossing records previously set by U2 as well were broken at Seattle 's CenturyLink Field, where she topped their Joshua Tree Tour 2017 gross by $2.4 million, and Denver 's Sports Authority Field at Mile High, where she surpassed the $6.6 million gross set by the band in 2011 during their 360 ° Tour by $1.2 million.
Swift made history by becoming the first female artist to headline Dublin 's Croke Park twice, with around 136,000 fans reportedly attending both nights. Similarly, she achieved the milestone of becoming the first woman to headline three consecutive nights at MetLife Stadium and Gillette Stadium.
Following the tour 's 29th show in North American soil at Hard Rock Stadium in Miami, it had grossed about $202.3 million in the continent ($191.1 million from the United States and $11.1 million from Canada) thus breaking Swift 's own record of having the highest grossing tour by a female artist in North American history, surpassing her 1989 World Tour (2015) in much lesser dates.
This set list is from the concert on May 8, 2018 in Glendale, Arizona. It is not intended to represent all shows from the tour.
The following songs were performed by Swift in place of "All Too Well '':
Swift surprised fans throughout the tour with special guests, performing a duet with them.
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otal internal reflection occurs when the angle of incidence | Total internal reflection - wikipedia
Total internal reflection is the phenomenon which occurs when a propagated wave strikes a medium boundary at an angle larger than a particular critical angle with respect to the normal to the surface. If the refractive index is lower on the other side of the boundary and the incident angle is greater than the critical angle, the wave can not pass through and is entirely reflected. The critical angle is the angle of incidence above which the total internal reflection occurs. This is particularly common as an optical phenomenon, where light waves are involved, but it occurs with many types of waves, such as electromagnetic waves in general or sound waves. When a wave reaches a boundary between different materials with different refractive indices, the wave will in general be partially refracted at the boundary surface, and partially reflected. However, if the angle of incidence is greater (i.e. the direction of propagation is closer to being parallel to the boundary) than the critical angle -- the angle of incidence at which light is refracted such that it travels along the boundary -- then the wave will not cross the boundary, but will instead be totally reflected back internally. This can only occur when the wave in a medium with a higher refractive index (n) reaches a boundary with a medium of lower refractive index (n). For example, it will occur with light reaching air from glass, but not when reaching glass from air.
Total internal reflection of light can be demonstrated using a semi-circular block of glass or plastic. A "ray box '' shines a narrow beam of light (a "ray '') onto the glass medium. The semi-circular shape ensures that a ray pointing towards the centre of the flat face will hit the curved surface at a right angle; this will prevent refraction at the air / glass boundary of the curved surface. At the glass / air boundary of the flat surface, what happens will depend on the angle. If θ is the critical angle, then the following scenarios depict what will happen according to the size of the incident angle.
This physical property makes optical fibers useful and prismatic binoculars possible. It is also what gives diamonds their distinctive sparkle, as diamond has an unusually high refractive index.
The critical angle is the angle of incidence for which the angle of refraction is 90 °. The angle of incidence is measured with respect to the normal at the refractive boundary (see diagram illustrating Snell 's law). Consider a light ray passing from glass into air. The light emanating from the interface is bent towards the glass. When the incident angle is increased sufficiently, the transmitted angle (in air) reaches 90 degrees. It is at this point no light is transmitted into air. The critical angle θ c (\ displaystyle \ theta _ (c)) is given by Snell 's law,
Rearranging Snell 's Law, we get incidence
To find the critical angle, we find the value for θ i (\ displaystyle \ theta _ (i)) when θ t = (\ displaystyle \ theta _ (t) =) 90 ° and thus sin θ t = 1 (\ displaystyle \ sin \ theta _ (t) = 1). The resulting value of θ i (\ displaystyle \ theta _ (i)) is equal to the critical angle θ c (\ displaystyle \ theta _ (c)).
Now, we can solve for θ i (\ displaystyle \ theta _ (i)), and we get the equation for the critical angle:
If the incident ray is precisely at the critical angle, the refracted ray is tangent to the boundary at the point of incidence. If for example, visible light were traveling through acrylic glass (with an index of refraction of approximately 1.50) into air (with an index of refraction of 1.00), the calculation would give the critical angle for light from acrylic into air, which is
Light incident on the border with an angle less than 41.8 ° would be partially transmitted, while light incident on the border at larger angles with respect to normal would be totally internally reflected.
If the fraction n 2 / n 1 (\ displaystyle (n_ (2)) / (n_ (1))) is greater than 1, then arcsine is not defined -- meaning that total internal reflection does not occur even at very shallow or grazing incident angles.
So the critical angle is only defined when n 2 / n 1 (\ displaystyle (n_ (2)) / (n_ (1))) is less than or equal to 1.
An important side effect of total internal reflection is the appearance of an evanescent wave beyond the boundary surface. Essentially, even though the entire incident wave is reflected back into the originating medium, there is some penetration into the second medium at the boundary. The evanescent wave appears to travel along the boundary between the two materials, leading to the Goos - Hänchen shift.
If a plane wave, confined to the xz plane, is incident on a dielectric with an angle θ I (\ displaystyle \ theta _ (I)) and wavevector k I (\ displaystyle \ mathbf (k_ (I))) then a transmitted ray will be created with a corresponding angle of transmittance as shown in the figure above. The transmitted wavevector is given by:
If n 1 > n 2 (\ displaystyle n_ (1) > n_ (2)), then sin (θ T) > 1 (\ displaystyle \ sin (\ theta _ (T)) > 1) since in the relation sin (θ T) = n 1 n 2 sin (θ I) (\ displaystyle \ sin (\ theta _ (T)) = (\ frac (n_ (1)) (n_ (2))) \ sin (\ theta _ (I))) obtained from Snell 's law, n 1 n 2 sin (θ I) (\ displaystyle (\ frac (n_ (1)) (n_ (2))) \ sin (\ theta _ (I))) is greater than one for θ I > θ C (\ displaystyle \ theta _ (I) > \ theta _ (C))
As a result of this cos (θ T) (\ displaystyle \ cos (\ theta _ (T))) becomes complex:
The electric field of the transmitted plane wave is given by E T = E 0 e i (k T ⋅ r − ω t) (\ displaystyle \ mathbf (E_ (T)) = \ mathbf (E_ (0)) e ^ (i (\ mathbf (k_ (T)) \ cdot \ mathbf (r) - \ omega t))) and so evaluating this further one obtains:
and
Using the fact that k T = ω n 2 c (\ displaystyle k_ (T) = (\ frac (\ omega n_ (2)) (c))) and Snell 's law, one finally obtains
where κ = ω c (n 1 sin (θ I)) 2 − n 2 2 (\ displaystyle \ kappa = (\ frac (\ omega) (c)) (\ sqrt ((n_ (1) \ sin (\ theta _ (I))) ^ (2) - n_ (2) ^ (2)))) and k = ω n 1 c sin (θ I) (\ displaystyle k = (\ frac (\ omega n_ (1)) (c)) \ sin (\ theta _ (I))).
This wave in the optically less dense medium is known as the evanescent wave. It is characterized by its propagation in the x direction and its exponential attenuation in the z direction. Although there is a field in the second medium, it can be shown that no energy flows across the boundary. The component of Poynting vector in the direction normal to the boundary is finite, but its time average vanishes. Whereas the other two components of Poynting vector (here x-component only) and their time averaged values are in general found to be finite (i.e. nonzero).
It is important to note that the Goos - Hänchen effect only occurs for linearly polarized light. If the light is circularly or elliptically polarized, it will undergo the analogous Imbert -- Fedorov effect.
Under ordinary conditions, the evanescent wave transmits zero net energy across the interface. However, if a third medium with a higher refractive index than the low - index second medium is placed within less than several wavelengths distance from the interface between the first medium and the second medium, the evanescent wave will be different from the usual one, and it will pass energy across the second into the third medium. (See evanescent wave coupling.) This process is called "frustrated '' total internal reflection (FTIR) and is very similar to quantum tunneling. The quantum tunneling model is mathematically analogous if one thinks of the electromagnetic field as being the wave function of the photon. The low index medium can be thought of as a potential barrier through which photons can tunnel.
The transmission coefficient for FTIR is highly sensitive to the spacing between the third medium and the second medium (the function is approximately exponential until the gap is almost closed), so this effect has often been used to modulate optical transmission and reflection with a large dynamic range.
An important aspect of total internal reflection is the appearance of a significant (rather than just 0 ° or 180 °) phase shift upon reflection. Mathematically this is expressed by the Fresnel reflection coefficients acquiring an imaginary part. This resulting phase advance grows as the incidence angle increases beyond the critical angle, but unequally for the s and p polarization components of the incident wave.
This polarization dependent phase shift was discovered and quantitatively explained by Augustin - Jean Fresnel who employed it in his invention, the Fresnel rhomb, in which the angles of incidence are adjusted such that the two internal reflections cause a relative phase shift of 90 ° between the two polarizations of an incident wave. This performs the same function as a quarter - wave plate, but is more achromatic (phase shift has less dependence on wavelength). Either type of quarter - wave retarder may be used, for instance, to transform linear polarization to circular polarization (which Fresnel also discovered) and vice versa.
The polarization dependent phase shift is also the reason why TE and TM guided modes have different dispersion relations.
Total internal reflection can be observed while swimming, when one opens one 's eyes just under the water 's surface. If the water is calm, the surface appears mirror - like (except directly overhead, in Snell 's window).
Diamonds used for jewelry are normally shaped in such a way as to maximize the amount of light that is totally internally reflected from the back side of the diamond. The very high refractive index of diamond gives a small critical angle allowing almost all the light entering the diamond to be reflected back for optimized diamond cuts such as the brilliant.
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where is smoking most common in the world | List of countries by cigarette consumption per capita - wikipedia
This is a list of countries by annual per capita consumption of tobacco cigarettes.
Cigarettes are smoked by over 1 billion people, which is nearly 20 % of the world population in 2014. About 800 million of these smokers are men. While smoking rates have leveled off or declined in developed nations, especially among men, in developing nations tobacco consumption continues to rise. More than 80 % of all smokers now live in countries with low or middle incomes, and 60 % in just 10 countries, a list headed by China. Smokers are over half of adult males in Indonesia (57 %, but mostly kretek, a local form of cigarette) and China (53 % estimated), and nearly half in Bangladesh, though for women the figure is much lower.
Smoking rates in the United States have dropped by half from 1965 to 2006 falling from 42 % to 20.8 % of adults, with further significant decline to 18 % by 2012. There are large regional differences in smoking rates, with Kentucky, West Virginia, Oklahoma and Mississippi topping the list, and Idaho, California and Utah at significantly lower rates.
In Australia the incidence of smoking is in decline, with figures from 2011 -- 13 showing 16.1 % of the population (over 18) to be daily smokers, a decline from 22.4 % in 2001. Young adults are the most likely age group to smoke, with a marked decline in smoking rates with increasing age. The prevalence of smoking is strongly associated with socioeconomic disadvantage (low earners), with over double the rate in the most disadvantaged quintile of the population as compared to the least. Smoking rates in rural areas is higher than in city areas; for example, some areas in Tasmania have smoking rates of over 36 % according to one study.
The worldwide average is 1083 cigarettes per year per person above age 14 according to the same source.
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what does st depression on an ekg mean | ST depression - wikipedia
ST depression refers to a finding on an electrocardiogram, wherein the trace in the ST segment is abnormally low below the baseline.
ST segment depression may be determined by measuring the vertical distance between the patient 's trace and the isoelectric line at a location 2 - 3 millimeters from the QRS complex.
It is significant if it is more than 1 mm in V5 - V6, or 1.5 mm in AVF or III.
In a cardiac stress test, an ST depression of at least 1 mm after adenosine administration indicates a reversible ischaemia, while an exercise stress test requires an ST depression of at least 2 mm to significantly indicate reversible ischaemia.
For non-transmural ischemia (subendocardial ischemia) injured cells are closer to the inside of heart wall, resulting in a systolic injury current. A systolic injury current results from a greater depolarization in healthier cells. Because the subepicardial region is more depolarized (more positive) compared to the endomyocardial cells the current in the left ventricle flows toward the endomyocardial cells. The current flows from the more positive subepicardium to the less positive subendocardium during phase 2 of the fast fiber type depolarization, which on ECG occurs during ST segment. The positive electrodes on the anterior chest wall detect the movement of positive charge away from the electrode and record it as a downward deflection on the ECG paper.
It is often a sign of myocardial ischemia, of which coronary insufficiency is a major cause. Other ischemic heart diseases causing ST depression include:
Depressed but upsloping ST segment generally rules out ischemia as a cause.
Also, it can be a normal variant or artifacts, such as:
Other, non-ischemic, causes include:
A mnemonic can be used for some causes of ST depression, namely DEPRESSED ST:
D - Drooping valve (MV Prolapse) E - Enlargement of the left ventricle P - Potassium loss R - Reciprocal ST depression (e.g. inferior MI) E - Encephalon hemorrhage S - Subendocardial infarct S - Subendocardial ischemia E - Embolism (pulmonary) D - Dilated cardiomyopathy S - Shock T - Toxicity (digitalis / quinidine)
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difference between sieve tube element and xylem vessel | Sieve tube element - wikipedia
Phloem is highly organized tissue that contains many specialized cells including sieve elements. In plant anatomy, sieve cells and sieve tube members constitute sieve elements, which are conducting cells. They are specialized cells in the phloem tissue of flowering plants. Companion cells and Sieve cells originate from meristems, which are tissues that actively divide throughout a plant 's lifetime. They are similar to the development of xylem. Sieve elements ' major function includes transporting sugars over long distance through plants by acting as a channel. Sieve elements elongate cells containing sieve areas on their walls. Pores on sieve areas allow for cytoplasmic connections to neighboring cells. Structurally, they are elongated and parallel to the organ or tissue that they are located in. Sieve elements typically lack a nucleus and contain none to a very few amount of ribosomes.
Main functions of sieve tube elements include maintaining cells and transporting necessary molecules with the help of companion cells. The sieve tubes are living cells (which do not contain a nucleus) that are responsible for transporting carbohydrates throughout the plant. As stated earlier, there are two categories of sieve elements and these are sieve cells and sieve tube members / elements. Sieve Tube elements are associated with companion cells which are cells that combined with sieve tubes create the sieve element - companion cell complex. This allows for supply and maintenance of the plan cells and allow for signaling between distant organs within the organism. Because sieve tube members do not have ribosomes or a nucleus and thus need companion cells to act as transport molecules. Companion cells provide Sieve tube elements with proteins necessary for signaling and ATP. It is the companion cells that helps transports carbohydrates from outside the cells into the sieve tube elements.
While sieve tubes are responsible for a lot of the signaling necessary for the plant 's organs, only some proteins are active within the sieve tubes. It is still hard to determine which sieve elements are carrying out their function with actively functioning protein units while which ones are inactive.
Sieve tube elements and companion cells are connected through plasmodesmata. Structurally, the walls of sieve tubes tend to be dispersed with plasmodesmata grouped together and it is these areas of the tube walls and plasmodesmata that develop into sieve plates over time. Sieve tubes tend to be found largely in angiosperms. They are very long and have horizontal end walls containing sieve plates. Sieve plates contain sieve pores which can regulate the size of the openings in the plates with changes in the surroundings of the plants.
Formed through the vertical connections between multiple sieve tube members, sieve tubes are directly responsible for the transport through the minimum resistance surrounding their walls. By having the assistance of these pores that constitute a majority of the structure of sieve plates, the diameter of the sieve tubes can be regulated. This regulation is necessary for the sieve tubes to respond to changes in the environment and conditions within the organism.
Sieve cells are long, conducting cells in the phloem that do not form sieve tubes. The major difference between sieve cells and sieve tube members is the lack of sieve plates in sieve cells. They have a very narrow diameter and tend to be longer in length than sieve tube elements as they are generally associated with albuminous cells. They have long, unspecialized areas with ends that overlap with those of other sieve cells. Sieve cells are also associated with gymnosperms because they lack the companion cell and sieve member complexes that angiosperms have. Sieve cells are very uniform and have an even distribution across of sieve areas. Their narrow pores are necessary in their function in most seedless vascular plants and gymnosperms which lack these sieve - tube members.
Just as Sieve tube elements have companion cells which form complexes and function together, sieve cells have albuminous cells that aid them in functioning. These albuminous cells work between phloem and parenchyma. They connect parenchyma with mature sieve cells to help participate in transport of cells. There can be many of these albuminous cells that belong to one sieve cell, depending on the function of the tissue or organ.
Sieve pores are very common in the areas that have overlapping sieve cells. In order to observe the activity of sieve cells and tubes, callose levels can be measured. Callose acts as a block to the sieve pores that are present in both of these sieve elements. A lack callose suggests that the sieve elements are more active and therefore can regulate their pores more actively in response to environmental changes.
Sieve elements were first discovered by the forest botanist Theodor Hartig in 1837. Since this discovery, the structure and physiology of phloem tissue has taken a turn as there has been greater focus on its specialized components such as the sieve cells. Phloem was introduced by Carl Nägeli in 1858 after the discovery of sieve elements. Since then multiple studies have been conducted on how sieve elements function in phloem in terms of working as a transport mechanism. An example of analysis of phloem through sieve elements was conducted in the study of Arabidopsis leaves. By studying the phloem of the leaves in vivo through laser microscopy and the usage of fluorescent markers (placed in both companion cells and sieve elements), the network of companion cells with the compact sieve tubes was highlighted. The markers for sieve elements and companion cells was used to study the network and organization of phloem cells.
Because the plant vascular system is vital in growth and development of plant cells and the organs within the plant, it is important to recognize the role of phloem in the transport of necessary carbohydrates and macromolecules. This can be applied to agriculture to to observe the way resources are distributed to various parts of the plant. Plasmodesmata connect companion cells to sieve elements and parenchyma cells can connect the sieve tubes to various tissues within the plant. This system between the plasmodesmata, companion cells, and sieve tubes allow for the delivery of necessary metabolites. The yield of agricultural product could potentially be increased to maximize the delivery system of these specialized cells within the phloem in a way that diffusion can be maximized. It has been discovered that the angiosperm phloem can use the sieve tubes as a way to transport various forms of RNA to sink tissues which can help alter transcriptional activity. Such changes can affect plant growth and development.
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i will not go softly into the night | Do not go gentle into that good night - wikipedia
"Do not go gentle into that good night '' is a poem in the form of a villanelle, and the most famous work of Welsh poet Dylan Thomas (1914 -- 1953). Though first published in the journal Botteghe Oscure in 1951, it was written in 1947 when he was in Florence with his family. It was published, along with other stories previously written, as part of his In Country Sleep, And Other Poems in 1952.
It has been suggested that it was written for Thomas ' dying father, although he did not die until just before Christmas 1952. It has no title other than its first line, "Do not go gentle into that good night '', a line that appears as a refrain throughout. Its other refrain is "Rage, rage against the dying of the light ''.
The poem currently remains under copyright, although the text is available on - line.
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which type of cpu socket has the pins located on the motherboard | CPU Socket - wikipedia
In computer hardware, a CPU socket or CPU slot comprises one or more mechanical components providing mechanical and electrical connections between a microprocessor and a printed circuit board (PCB). This allows for placing and replacing the central processing unit (CPU) without soldering.
Common sockets have retention clips that apply a constant force, which must be overcome when a device is inserted. For chips with a large number of pins, zero insertion force (ZIF) sockets are preferred. Common sockets include Pin Grid Array (PGA) or Land Grid Array (LGA). These designs apply a compression force once either a handle (PGA type) or a surface plate (LGA type) is put into place. This provides superior mechanical retention while avoiding the risk of bending pins when inserting the chip into the socket. Certain devices use Ball Grid Array (BGA) sockets, although these require soldering and are generally not considered user replaceable.
CPU sockets are used on the motherboard in desktop and server computers. Because they allow easy swapping of components, they are also used for prototyping new circuits. Laptops typically use surface - mount CPUs, which take up less space on the motherboard than a socketed part.
In the past, dual in - line package (DIP) sockets have been used for processors such as Motorola 68000. Other types used include PLCC and CLCC sockets.
A CPU socket is made of plastic, and often comes with a lever or latch, and with metal contacts for each of the pins or lands on the CPU. Many packages are keyed to ensure the proper insertion of the CPU. CPUs with a PGA (pin grid array) package are inserted into the socket and, if included, the latch is closed. CPUs with an LGA (land grid array) package are inserted into the socket, the latch plate is flipped into position atop the CPU, and the lever is lowered and locked into place, pressing the CPU 's contacts firmly against the socket 's lands and ensuring a good connection, as well as increased mechanical stability.
Table legend:
Slotkets are special adapters for using socket processors in bus - compatible slot motherboards.
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who played laverne in malcolm in the middle | Characters of Malcolm in the Middle - wikipedia
The following characters had significant roles in the American television comedy series Malcolm in the Middle, which was originally televised from 2000 to 2006 on the Fox Network.
Originally there were four brothers (although Malcolm 's oldest brother attended a military school away from home, so Malcolm was still the middle sibling left at home). A fifth son was introduced in the show 's fourth season, a boy named Jamie. The boys are, from eldest to youngest: Francis, Reese, Malcolm, Dewey, and Jamie. In the final episode, Lois discovered she was pregnant with a sixth child. In the third season, Francis travels home (to celebrate his father 's birthday) with an Alaskan girl named Piama, and reveals that they are married.
During the first season, the writers decided to keep the family 's last name a mystery. In the fifth season episode "Reese Joins the Army (1) '', Reese uses a fake ID by the name of "Jetson '' to lie about his age. In the series finale, "Graduation '', Francis ' employee ID reads "Nolastname '' (or "No Last Name '', a joke referring to the fact that the family name was never spoken aloud). In the same episode when Malcolm was introduced to give the graduation speech, the speaker announces Malcolm 's name, but microphone feedback makes his surname inaudible, even though he does appear to mouth the phrase "No last name ''.
In the pilot episode, the name Wilkerson can be seen on the name badge of the uniform Francis is wearing at Marlin Academy. In the sleeve notes for the season 5 DVD released in Europe, the family is referred to as the Wilkersons in the description for the episode "Block Party ''. British television advertisements and some Fox promotional material also occasionally referred to the family as the Wilkersons, although this name was never spoken aloud in the series. In an early version of the pilot, Malcolm had an exchange of dialogue with a classmate, who claims to have overheard his parents talking about Malcolm 's family and asks him what his last name is. When Malcolm responds, "Wilkerson, why? '' the friend replied with the punchline, "Oh... who are the ' Pariahs '? ''
Out of the show 's six leads, Cranston, Muniz, Berfield and Sullivan were the only ones to appear in all 151 episodes.
Hal, played by Bryan Cranston (all 151 episodes), is the father of the family. Though relaxed in his parenting when compared to Lois, Hal has shown that he can slide into a disciplinarian when confronted by the boys ' bad behavior. He comes from a wealthy family who resent his choice to marry Lois over Susan (an action also shared by Victor and Ida). Hal has a hard time making good decisions, which he often deferred to Lois. Despite the fact many of the neighbors hate his family, Hal blends in well with them. He loves Lois more than she loves him, never even thinking about other women. He is also very scared of her, even more than the boys are, which is why he often bribes their sons to take the fall for his wrongdoings. He is very neurotic and has a slight obsessive - compulsive disorder, and also enjoys unusual hobbies. Hal is also a sex addict, this was revealed in the episode "Forbidden Girlfriend '' when Lois is taking medication and is unable to have sex for an entire week, it is mentioned again in the episode "Poker 2 '' when Hal tells his friends he has sex 14 times per week. It was also revealed that Hal was a chain smoker before quitting the habit. Hal 's best friend is Abe Kenarban.
Francis, played by Christopher Masterson (119 episodes), is the oldest of the brothers, whom Malcolm often looks up to. It is revealed in the episodes "Sleepover '' and "The Bots and the Bees '' in season one that Francis was a breech birth, and in "Flashback '' in season 2, that Lois was in labor with him during her and Hal 's wedding. A rebel from birth, showing signs of Attention - Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder and Conduct Disorder, he was exiled to Marlin Academy by Lois for his behavior before eventually emancipating himself to run away from the Academy to work in Alaska, incurring his mother 's wrath. Upon moving to Alaska, he marries a local woman named Piama, who is about one year older than him, and had previously been married briefly, and whom Lois does n't like. In the series finale, Hal discovers that Francis has taken a job with Amerysis, and Francis admits he likes sitting at a desk sorting computer data. However, he also admits that he has no intentions of telling Lois about the job and enjoys torturing her by telling her that he 's still unemployed.
Malcolm, portrayed by Frankie Muniz (all 151 episodes), is the protagonist of the series. He is Three years younger than his oldest brother Francis, one 1 / 2 years younger than his older brother Reese, five years older than his younger brother Dewey, and about 15 years older than his youngest brother Jamie. In the first episode of the series, he is discovered to be a child prodigy and immediately moved from his regular class into the ' Krelboynes ', a class for gifted students. Despite his high intelligence, he still gets into mischief either alongside or working against his brothers (in particular, Reese), although he becomes more self - absorbed and egotistical in the later seasons as he goes through puberty. Malcolm, like Reese, is not very popular. However, he has had a number of girlfriends during the series run. Even though he is very intelligent, Malcolm has a short temper, can be easily manipulated and also has problems containing his opinion about himself. Malcolm also occasionally serves as the voice of reason, and does have a conscience, (for instance, despite emotionally manipulating a grieving Hal to buy him a car in the episode "Hal Grieves, '' when the time comes to make the purchase he finds he ca n't go through with it). In the series finale, it is revealed that Lois intended him to have a hard life, knowing that he is destined to assume the role of President of the United States; she wants him to remember where he came from to get there and try to help families like his own when he assumes the office. Malcolm eventually comes to terms with his future, after being unable to tell Lois he ca n't do it. In the series finale, Malcolm begins taking classes at Harvard University. Throughout the series, Malcolm frequently breaks the fourth wall and talks to the viewer about either the current situation or giving exposition about past events.
Lois, played by Jane Kaczmarek (146 episodes), is Francis, Reese, Malcolm, Dewey, and Jamie 's angry and temperamental mother. She is an overbearing control freak despised by the neighbors to the point that they refuse to invite her to their gatherings, revealed in "Mono ''. Unlike Malcolm, Lois is n't bothered by it and tries her best to blend in with it. She was revealed to be a charming and a nurturing mother while Francis was little, but toughened up. She is also always stubbornly right, to the point of being unable to say that she was wrong. It was also shown that she is overbearing and mad as a result of her children 's bad behavior, and not her pure hate. At the series finale, Lois is revealed to be pregnant with a sixth child (actually twins). Her unfairness and behavior also come from her miserable childhood, living with a tough mother and an uncaring father (both of whom favored her younger sister, Susan).
Reese, played by Justin Berfield (all 151 episodes), is the second oldest of the sons. He is two years younger than his older brother Francis, one year older than his younger brother Malcolm, six years older than his younger brother Dewey, and about 16 years older than his youngest brother Jamie. It was revealed in the episode "Flashback '', in season 2, that Reese has been vicious from the womb, so vicious in fact that when he kept kicking Lois during labor, she pushed him out by force. A complete moron from birth, Reese is the worst - behaved of the brothers. Reese is inclined to beat up the Krelboynes. He is intimidated by certain students, including Ira, a dumb jock at school. Despite his violent, idiotic nature, Reese is a culinary prodigy, after finding that he has a talent and genuine love for cooking and baking. He is also the favorite grandson of his grandmother Ida, who taught him the importance of having patsies. In the series finale, Reese moves in with Craig Feldspar and is a janitor at his alma mater North High.
Dewey, played by Erik Per Sullivan (all 151 episodes), is portrayed as being quieter and more inclined to the arts than his brothers. He soon finds he is a musical prodigy, and as the series goes on he becomes more caring and thoughtful especially in regards to his younger brother Jamie, whom he decides not to bully like he was by Malcolm and Reese. Lois remarks at one point that unlike Malcolm, who would have to work hard to achieve success, Dewey would have success handed to him. Dewey joins the Buseys, a class for the emotionally disturbed, by mistake and ends up becoming their unofficial teacher. He ended up caring for his fellow students so much that, when the mistake was uncovered, he feigned severe emotional problems so he could remain. In the final few seasons, Dewey becomes increasingly bitter towards his parents due to them overlooking him throughout his childhood and neglecting his interests. Because of this, he forces them to give Jamie the childhood he never had. In the last episode, he and Jamie (the only other remaining brother living at home) continued the tradition of causing havoc all over the house.
Jamie was played by identical twin brothers James and Lukas Rodriguez (35 episodes). The youngest brother born who is the only brother to have beaten Lois in her own game, bordering to attacking her (though Reese was mostly responsible for feeding him soda). Like Malcolm and Dewey, Jamie is revealed to be intelligent, evident when he tricked Reese into taking a marker after he colored part of the wall.
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er episode where carter and lucy get stabbed | ER (season 6) - wikipedia
The sixth season of the American fictional drama television series ER first aired on September 30, 1999 and concluded on May 18, 2000. The sixth season consists of 22 episodes.
In the first major cast change in ER, the sixth season sees the addition of four new characters including long term cast members Dr. Luka Kovač and nurse, later third - year medical student, Abby Lockhart, also added are Dr. Cleo Finch and Dr. Dave Malucci. Paul McCrane is now billed as a series regular and the return of Deb Chen from season 1, now known as Dr. Jing - Mei Chen. Physician Assistant Jeanie Boulet leaves to care for her HIV - positive child. Lucy Knight and John Carter are attacked and stabbed by a psychotic patient. They are unable to save Lucy who succumbs to her wounds and dies.
In addition Croatian doctor Luka Kovač joins the team and struggles to gain the respect and trust from his new colleagues in the ER. Hathaway struggles to begin parenting on her own, then decides to leave Chicago to begin a new life with Doug Ross. Greene and Corday begin their relationship and he deals with the death of his father. Abby Lockhart begins her third - year - med - student rotation. While still recovering from the violent attack that left him near death and killed Lucy, Carter develops an addiction to pain medication, forcing Greene, Weaver along with Benton and the other doctors into an intervention to get Carter to realize that he 's an addict. Carter then accepts that he 's an addict and checks into a rehab in the season finale with Benton accompanying him.
Original executive producers John Wells and Michael Crichton reprised their roles. Lydia Woodward also returned as an executive producer but left the crew with the close of the season. Long - time crew member and fifth season executive producer Christopher Chulack moved on to executive produce Wells ' new series Third Watch but remained a consulting producer for ER. Fifth season supervising producers Jack Orman and Neal Baer were promoted to co-executive producers for the sixth season. R. Scott Gemmill joined the crew as a supervising producer and writer. Fifth season producers Penny Adams and Wendy Spence Rosato returned for the sixth season. Fifth season co-producers Richard Thorpe and Jonathan Kaplan were promoted to producers for the sixth season. They were joined by new producers Doug Palau and Patrick Harbinson. Palau left the crew mid-season and Adams and Harbinson left at the end of the season. Michael Salmunovich returned as a co-producer and Teresa Salamunovich joined the crew, initially as a production co-ordinator but was promoted to associate producer mid-season. She was joined by new associate producer Vicki Voltarel who was on staff for the second half of the season only.
Wells and Woodward continued to write episodes and Wells contributed two episodes while Woodward wrote three. Orman wrote four episodes and Baer, Harbinson, and Gemmill each wrote three. Series medical expert and fifth season story editor Joe Sachs was promoted to executive story editor for the sixth season and he wrote a further two episodes. Regular writer Linda Gase replaced him as story editor and contributed a further episode. New writer Sandy Kroopf wrote a single episode.
Producers Kaplan and Thorpe served as the seasons regular directors; Kaplan directed five episodes and Thorpe helmed three. Cast members Laura Innes and Anthony Edwards each directed a further episode. Returning directors were Lesli Linka Glatter, Félix Enríquez Alcalá, Christopher Misiano, David Nutter, and Steve De Jarnatt. New directors include Ken Kwapis, Marita Grabiak, medical consultant Fred Einesman, Kevin Hooks, and Peter Markle.
Greene and Weaver agree to go out on a limb to oppose Romano 's appointment as chief of staff. However, soon Greene finds he is out there and alone, while Weaver reaps immediate benefits for her treachery. Plus: Luka Kovač is an able, yet untrusted, physician from Croatia arrives at the ER for his first day of work; Carter 's interested in a romance with his cousin 's ex-wife; and Hathaway adjusts to being pregnant alone.
Who 's the boss? Weaver may be head of the ER, but Greene has his own ideas about how to handle situations and after his mother 's death the two of them have their worst conflict on the job yet. Boulet says "yes '' to Reggie, and Corday accepts Romano 's surprise job offer. A brash new resident arrives and manages to annoy just about everyone. Carla confronts Benton about not allowing her to leave the country with their son. Carter and Elaine 's relationship continues.
Boulet resigns to be a full - time mother. An elderly woman bids farewell to her dying husband, and Lawrence admits he is in the early stages of Alzheimer 's, and that his distinguished career is over. Hathaway takes action regarding the pregnant drug - addict case. An explosion rocks the ER, and Benton tells Carla why he is fighting to stay in his son 's life.
It is Thanksgiving, and Hathaway has two more reasons to give thanks after overcoming complications and delivering twins Tess and Kate. Greene 's family celebration comes with its own complications. Malucci stuns the staff by actually having a valid idea to treat a patient that works.
Deb Chen returns to the ER as Jing - Mei Chen and immediately shows off her great photographic memory to Carter 's annoyance. Kovač 's strong sense of family involves him in the fate of brothers facing separation. Greene invites his dad to reside with him in Chicago. Malucci fixes Weaver 's car and learns a young patient has a fatal disease. Goofball students arrive in the ER to do a scavenger hunt. Benton does not agree with Cleo 's approach to an overstressed young high school athlete.
The ER 's Valentine Day party continues as Weaver arrives for her shift. Weaver later stumbles into an Exam Room and discovers both Carter and Lucy on the floor of patient Paul Sobriki 's room, both doctors unconscious and bleeding heavily after Sobriki attacked and stabbed them while suffering a psychotic episode. The celebrations then abruptly ends as the ER staff jump into action and find themselves battling against the clock and ever - decreasing odds to save their grievously wounded colleagues, both of whom are hovering between life and death. As Carter and Lucy are brought up to surgery, the ER staff attempt to come to terms with what has happened. Luka tries with little success to convince Sobriki 's wife, Samantha, that her husband is gravely ill. In the OR, it 's chaos as Benton and Anspaugh fight to save Carter while in another operating room, Corday and Romano battle to save Lucy. Meanwhile Cleo finds herself being forced into a surgical role when it becomes obvious that Benton will not leave Carter. Corday and Romano desperately try to save Lucy 's life, but she succumbs to her injuries and dies, leaving the entire ER team grief - stricken and devastated.
Do open arms still await her in Seattle? Touched by a family tragedy at the ER, Hathaway realizes she must see Ross. Chen notices Carter 's increasing unreliability and mood swings. Abby is supervised by Malucci on a case that leads Corday to tell him that no one at County thinks he is any good at his job.
NOTE 1: Final Regular Appearance of Nurse Manager Carol Hathaway.
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garth brooks song need to feel the thunder | That Summer (song) - wikipedia
"That Summer '' is a song co-written and recorded by American country music artist Garth Brooks. It was released in April 1993 as the fourth single from his album The Chase and also appears on The Hits, The Ultimate Hits, The Limited Series and Double Live. It reached number - one on the Billboard Country Charts in 1993. The song was written by Garth Brooks, Pat Alger and Brooks ' then - wife Sandy Mahl.
On the 1996 television special, "The Garth Brooks Story '', Garth talks about writing the song:
"That Summer started out as a single guy and a married woman meeting at a party. The married woman being ignored by whom she was with, and they snuck off together. Allen Reynolds told me, "Man, I just do n't find myself pulling for these characters. It does n't seem innocently cool. '' I was thinking that he was right. Going home that night in the truck I started singing she has a need to feel the thunder. Sandy started helping me write the chorus and we got the chorus done. Probably one of the neat things that I love about That Summer is that I think the song is very sexy. ''
The song is about a teenage boy "far from home '' who goes to work for a "lonely widowed woman hellbent to make it on her own ''. The woman apparently lives on a wheat farm ("wheat fields as far as I could see '').
The apparently older woman slowly takes a liking to the young boy, to the point where one night she dons a dress "she had n't worn in quite a while ''; it is then implied by the rest of the second verse that the teenage boy loses his virginity by having sex with the more than willing middle - aged woman.
The third verse takes the now adult man back to the scene of his coming of age, having not seen the woman since long ago. Although the man has been with several other women by this point, he rarely does n't see her face. And every time he passes a wheat field, he feels her hungry arms again.
"That Summer '' debuted at number 54 on the U.S. Billboard Hot Country Singles & Tracks for the week of May 8, 1993.
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which soldier was awarded the param vir chakra after he was martyred during un peacekeeping mission | Gurbachan Singh Salaria - Wikipedia
Captain Gurbachan Singh Salaria, PVC (29 November 1935 -- 5 December 1961) was an Indian Army officer and member of a United Nations peacekeeping force. He is the only UN peacekeeper to receive the Param Vir Chakra (PVC), India 's highest wartime military decoration. Singh was an alumnus of King George 's Royal Military College and the National Defence Academy. He was the first NDA alumnus and only UN Peacekeeper to be awarded a PVC.
In December 1961, Salaria was among the Indian troops deployed to the Republic of the Congo as part of the United Nations Operation in the Congo. On 5 December, Salaria 's battalion was tasked to clear a roadblock of two armoured cars manned by 150 gendarmes of the secessionist State of Katanga on the way to the Elizabethville Airport. The plan was that Salaria and his men were to block their retreat. His rocket launcher team attacked and destroyed the Katangese armoured cars. This unforeseen move confused the gendarmerie, and Salaria felt it would be best to attack before they reorganised. Though his troops were badly outnumbered, they charged towards the Katangese and killed 40 men in a kukri assault. During the attack, Salaria was shot twice in the neck and eventually succumbed to his injuries. The remaining gendarmes fled in utter confusion leaving their dead and wounded behind. This helped the main battalion to easily overrun the Katangese and clear the roadblock. For his duty and courage, and disregard for his own safety during the battle, Salaria was awarded the Param Vir Chakra.
Gurbachan Singh Salaria was born on 29 November 1935, in Janwal, a village near Shakargarh, Punjab, British India (now in Pakistan). He was the second of five children of Munshi Ram and Dhan Devi. His father had earlier been drafted into the Dogra Squadron of the Hodson 's Horse in the British Indian Army. Listening to tales of his father and his regiment motivated Salaria to join the army at a very young age.
As a result of the partition of India, Salaria 's family moved to the Indian part of Punjab and settled in Jangal village in Gurdaspur district. Salaria enrolled in the local village school and later, in 1946, he was admitted to King George 's Royal Military College (KGRMC) in Bangalore. In August 1947, he was transferred to the KGRMC in Jalandhar. After passing out from KGRMC, he joined the Joint Services Wing of the National Defence Academy (NDA). On graduating from the NDA in 1956, he enrolled in the Indian Military Academy, completing his studies on 9 June 1957. Salaria was initially commissioned into the 2nd battalion, 3 Gorkha Rifles, but was later transferred to the 3rd battalion, 1 Gorkha Rifles in March 1960.
In June 1960, the Republic of the Congo became independent from Belgium. But during the first week of July, a mutiny broke out in the Congolese Army and violence erupted between black and white civilians. Belgium sent troops to protect fleeing whites and two areas of the country, Katanga and South Kasai, subsequently seceded with Belgian support. The Congolese government asked the United Nations (UN) for help, and on 14 July 1960, the organisation responded by establishing the United Nations Operation in the Congo, a large multi-national peacekeeping force and aid mission. Between March -- June 1961, under the command of Brigadier K.A.S. Raja, India contributed the 99th Infantry Brigade, around 3,000 men, to the UN force.
After attempts at reconciliation between the Congolese government and Katanga failed, on 24 November, the UN Security Council approved UN Security Council Resolution 169. The resolution condemned Katanga 's secession and authorised the use of force to immediately resolve the conflict and establish peace in the region. In response, the Katangese Gendarmerie took two senior UN officials hostage. They were later released, but Major Ajit Singh of the 1 Gorkha Rifles was also captured and eventually killed, as was his driver. Roadblocks were erected by the gendarmes to prevent communication between the UN detachments and isolating them from each other, making it easier to take down the detachments one by one. On 4 December a block was established on the road between the city of Élisabethville and the nearby airport. UN troops reacted by initiating Operation Unokat to defend their positions and reestablish their freedom of movement in the region.
On 5 December 1961, the 3rd battalion, 1 Gorkha Rifles was tasked to clear the roadblock on the way to Élizabethville Airport at a strategic roundabout. The roadblock was held by 150 gendarmes with two armoured cars. The plan was for the first attack to be made by Charlie Company, led by Major Govind Sharma. Captain Salaria, with a platoon from Alpha Company close to the airport road, was to block the gendarmes ' retreat, and to attack them if required. The rest of Alpha Company was kept in reserve. The plan was to be executed at midday.
Captain Salaria and his troops reached the specified location with their armoured personnel carriers. They were positioned around 1,500 yards (1,400 m) from the target. His rocket launcher team was soon able to get to close enough to the gendarmes ' armoured cars to destroy them. This unforeseen move left the gendarmerie confused and disorganised. Salaria felt that it was the prudent to attack before the gendarmes reorganised. His last words over the radio to another officer were, "I am going in for attack. I am certain I will win. ''
Though his troops were heavily outnumbered by the gendarmes to a ratio of 4: 25, he charged towards them, engaging in a hand - to - hand kukri assault whilst shouting the Gorkha war cry Ayo Gorkhali (English: The Gorkhas have arrived). Salaria and his men killed 40 gendarmes before he was shot twice in the neck by automatic gunfire. Eventually Salaria collapsed due to blood loss at the last line of trenches. His second - in - command was ordered to evacuate him in an armoured personnel carrier to the airport hospital as soon as possible. Regardless, Salaria succumbed to his injuries.
The close engagement with the Indian troops resulted in the gendarmerie losing about half their men; they fled in utter confusion leaving their dead and the injured behind. This enabled the main battalion to easily overrun the Katangese force, clear the roadblock, and prevent the gendarmes from encircling the UN Headquarters in Élisabethville. For his duty and courage, and disregard for his own safety, Salaria was awarded the Param Vir Chakra.
For his gallant actions on 5 December 1961, Captain Gurbachan Singh Salaria was awarded the Param Vir Chakra. The citation read:
On 5 December 1961, 3 / 1 Gorkha Rifles was ordered to clear a roadblock established by the gendarmerie at a strategic roundabout at Elizabethville, Katanga. The plan was that one company with 2 Swedish armoured cars would attack the position frontally and Captain Gurbachan Singh Salaria with two sections of Gorkhas and two Swedish armoured personnel carriers would advance towards this roadblock from the airfield to act as a cutting - off force. Captain Salaria with his small force arrived at a distance of 1500 yards from the roadblock at approximately 1312 hours on 5 December 1961 and came under heavy automatic and small - arms fire from an undetected enemy position dug in on his right flank. The enemy also had two armoured cars and about 90 men opposing Captain Salaria 's small force. Captain Salaria appreciating that he had run into a subsidiary roadblock and ambush and that this enemy force might reinforce the strategic roundabout and thus jeopardise the main operation, decided to remove this opposition. He led a charge with bayonets, khukris, and grenades supported by a rocket launcher. In this gallant engagement, Captain Salaria killed 40 of the enemy and knocked out the two armoured cars. This unexpected bold action completely demoralised the enemy who fled despite their numerical superiority and protected positions. Captain Salaria was wounded in his neck by a burst of automatic fire but continued to fight till he collapsed due to profuse bleeding. Captain Salaria 's gallant action prevented any enemy movement of the enemy force towards the main battle scene and thus contributed very largely to the success of the main battalion 's action at the roundabout and prevented the encirclement of UN Headquarters in Elizabethville. Captain Salaria subsequently died of his wounds.
Salaria was the first graduate of NDA to win a PVC, and also the only UN Peacekeeper to be awarded a PVC.
In the 1980s, the Shipping Corporation of India (SCI), a Government of India enterprise under the aegis of the Ministry of Shipping, named fifteen of its crude oil tankers in honour of the PVC recipients. The tanker MT Capt. Gurbachan Singh Salaria, PVC was delivered to SCI on 26 October 1984, and served for 25 years before being phased out. During an October 2017 episode of the radio progamme Mann Ki Baat about Indian contribution to international peacekeeping, Prime Minister of India Narendra Modi said, "Who can forget the sacrifice of Captain Gurbachan Singh Salaria who laid down his life while fighting in Congo in Africa? Every Indian feels proud while remembering him. ''
Footnotes
Citations
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who said war is peace freedom is slavery | Nineteen Eighty - Four - wikipedia
Nineteen Eighty - Four, often published as 1984, is a dystopian novel published in 1949 by English author George Orwell. The novel is set in Airstrip One (formerly known as Great Britain), a province of the superstate Oceania in a world of perpetual war, omnipresent government surveillance, and public manipulation. The superstate and its residents are dictated to by a political regime euphemistically named English Socialism, shortened to "Ingsoc '' in Newspeak, the government 's invented language. The superstate is under the control of the privileged elite of the Inner Party, a party and government that persecutes individualism and independent thinking as "thoughtcrime '', which is enforced by the "Thought Police ''.
The tyranny is ostensibly overseen by Big Brother, the Party leader who enjoys an intense cult of personality, but who may not even exist. The Party "seeks power entirely for its own sake. It is not interested in the good of others; it is interested solely in power. '' The protagonist of the novel, Winston Smith, is a member of the Outer Party, who works for the Ministry of Truth (or Minitrue in Newspeak), which is responsible for propaganda and historical revisionism. His job is to rewrite past newspaper articles, so that the historical record always supports the party line. The instructions that the workers receive portray the corrections as fixing misquotations and never as what they really are: forgeries and falsifications. A large part of the Ministry also actively destroys all documents that have not been edited and do not contain the revisions; in this way, no proof exists that the government is lying. Smith is a diligent and skillful worker but secretly hates the Party and dreams of rebellion against Big Brother. The heroine of the novel, Julia, is based on Orwell 's second wife, Sonia Orwell.
As literary political fiction and dystopian science - fiction, Nineteen Eighty - Four is a classic novel in content, plot, and style. Many of its terms and concepts, such as Big Brother, doublethink, thoughtcrime, Newspeak, Room 101, telescreen, 2 + 2 = 5, and memory hole, have entered into common use since its publication in 1949. Nineteen Eighty - Four popularised the adjective Orwellian, which describes official deception, secret surveillance, and manipulation of recorded history by a totalitarian or authoritarian state. In 2005, the novel was chosen by Time magazine as one of the 100 best English - language novels from 1923 to 2005. It was awarded a place on both lists of Modern Library 100 Best Novels, reaching number 13 on the editor 's list, and 6 on the readers ' list. In 2003, the novel was listed at number 8 on the BBC 's survey The Big Read.
Orwell "encapsulate (d) the thesis at the heart of his unforgiving novel '' in 1944, the implications of dividing the world up into zones of influence, which had been conjured by the Tehran Conference. Three years later, he wrote most of it on the Scottish island of Jura from 1947 to 1948 despite being seriously ill with tuberculosis. On 4 December 1948, he sent the final manuscript to the publisher Secker and Warburg, and Nineteen Eighty - Four was published on 8 June 1949. By 1989, it had been translated into 65 languages, more than any other novel in English until then. The title of the novel, its themes, the Newspeak language and the author 's surname are often invoked against control and intrusion by the state, and the adjective Orwellian describes a totalitarian dystopia that is characterised by government control and subjugation of the people.
Orwell 's invented language, Newspeak, satirises hypocrisy and evasion by the state: the Ministry of Love (Miniluv) oversees torture and brainwashing, the Ministry of Plenty (Miniplenty) oversees shortage and rationing, the Ministry of Peace (Minipax) oversees war and atrocity and the Ministry of Truth (Minitrue) oversees propaganda and historical revisionism.
The Last Man in Europe was an early title for the novel, but in a letter dated 22 October 1948 to his publisher Fredric Warburg, eight months before publication, Orwell wrote about hesitating between that title and Nineteen Eighty - Four. Warburg suggested choosing the main title to be the latter, a more commercial one.
In the novel 1985 (1978), Anthony Burgess suggests that Orwell, disillusioned by the onset of the Cold War (1945 -- 91), intended to call the book 1948. The introduction to the Penguin Books Modern Classics edition of Nineteen Eighty - Four reports that Orwell originally set the novel in 1980 but that he later shifted the date to 1982 and then to 1984. The introduction to the Houghton Mifflin Harcourt edition of Animal Farm and 1984 (2003) reports that the title 1984 was chosen simply as an inversion of the year 1948, the year in which it was being completed, and that the date was meant to give an immediacy and urgency to the menace of totalitarian rule.
Throughout its publication history, Nineteen Eighty - Four has been either banned or legally challenged, as subversive or ideologically corrupting, like Aldous Huxley 's Brave New World (1932), We (1924) by Yevgeny Zamyatin, Darkness at Noon (1940) by Arthur Koestler, Kallocain (1940) by Karin Boye and Fahrenheit 451 (1951) by Ray Bradbury. Some writers consider the Russian dystopian novel We by Zamyatin to have influenced Nineteen Eighty - Four, and the novel bears significant similarities in its plot and characters to Darkness at Noon, written years before by Arthur Koestler, who was a personal friend of Orwell.
The novel is in the public domain in Canada, South Africa, Argentina, Australia, and Oman. It will be in the public domain in the United Kingdom and Brazil in 2021 (70 years after the author 's death), and in the United States in 2044.
Nineteen Eighty - Four is set in Oceania, one of three inter-continental superstates that divided the world after a global war.
Smith 's memories and his reading of the proscribed book, The Theory and Practice of Oligarchical Collectivism by Emmanuel Goldstein, reveal that after the Second World War, the United Kingdom became involved in a war fought in Europe, western Russia, and North America during the early 1950s. Nuclear weapons were used during the war, leading to the destruction of Colchester. London would also suffer widespread aerial raids, leading Winston 's family to take refuge in a London Underground station. Britain fell to civil war, with street fighting in London, before the English Socialist Party, abbreviated as Ingsoc, emerged victorious and formed a totalitarian government in Britain. The British Commonwealth was absorbed by the United States to become Oceania. Eventually, the English Socialist Party, abbreviated as Ingsoc, emerged to form a totalitarian government in the country.
Simultaneously, the Soviet Union conquered continental Europe and established the second superstate of Eurasia. The third superstate of Eastasia would emerge in the Far East after several decades of fighting. The three superstates wage perpetual war for the remaining unconquered lands of the world in "a rough quadrilateral with its corners at Tangier, Brazzaville, Darwin, and Hong Kong '' through constantly shifting alliances. Although each of the three states are said to have sufficient natural resources, the war continues in order to maintain ideological control over the people.
However, due to the fact that Winston barely remembers these events and due to the Party 's manipulation of history, the continuity and accuracy of these events are unclear. Winston himself notes that the Party has claimed credit for inventing helicopters, airplanes and trains, while Julia theorizes that the perpetual bombing of London is merely a false - flag operation designed to convince the populace that a war is occurring. If the official account was accurate, Smith 's strengthening memories and the story of his family 's dissolution suggest that the atomic bombings occurred first, followed by civil war featuring "confused street fighting in London itself '' and the societal postwar reorganisation, which the Party retrospectively calls "the Revolution ''.
Most of the plot takes place in London, the "chief city of Airstrip One '', the Oceanic province that "had once been called England or Britain ''. Posters of the Party leader, Big Brother, bearing the caption "BIG BROTHER IS WATCHING YOU '', dominate the city, while the ubiquitous telescreen (transceiving television set) monitors the private and public lives of the populace. Military parades, propaganda films, and public executions are said to be commonplace.
The class hierarchy of Oceania has three levels:
As the government, the Party controls the population with four ministries:
The protagonist Winston Smith, a member of the Outer Party, works in the Records Department of the Ministry of Truth as an editor, revising historical records, to make the past conform to the ever - changing party line and deleting references to unpersons, people who have been "vaporised '', i.e., not only killed by the state but denied existence even in history or memory.
The story of Winston Smith begins on 4 April 1984: "It was a bright cold day in April, and the clocks were striking thirteen. '' Yet he is uncertain of the true date, given the regime 's continual rewriting and manipulation of history.
Winston Smith is a man who lives in Airstrip One, the remnants of Britain broken down by war, civil conflict, and revolution in the year 1984. A member of the middle class Outer Party, Winston lives in a one - room London flat in the Victory Mansions. Smith lives on rations consisting of black bread, synthetic meals, and "Victory '' - branded gin. Telescreens in every building, accompanied by microphones and cameras, allow the Thought Police to identify anyone who might compromise the Party 's regime, and threat of surveillance forces citizens to display an obligatory optimism regarding the country, who are afraid for being arrested for thoughtcrime, the infraction of expressing thoughts contradictory to the Party 's ideology. Children are encouraged to inform the officials about potential thought criminals, including their parents, and are indoctrinated by Party propaganda from an early age. Winston 's neighbor, Mr. Parsons, is deeply involved in patriotic activism, and his children are highly indoctrinated with Party propaganda and desensitized to violence.
Winston works at the Ministry of Truth, or "Minitrue '', as an editor. He is responsible for historical revisionism; he rewrites records and alters photographs to conform to the state 's ever - changing version of history itself, rendering the deleted people "unpersons ''; the original documents are destroyed by fire in a "memory hole ''. At work, he re-writes a Times article reporting on a government official condemned as a thoughtcriminal by writing a story on a nonexistent war hero named "Comrade Ogilvy '', and notes the state - sponsored media reporting an increase in the chocolate ration during an actual decrease. Despite his proficiency in his profession, Winston becomes mesmerized by the true past after seeing a photograph of three former high - ranking upper class Inner Party officials in New York, discounting the official government account that they had been collaborating with Eurasian officials. Winston tries to get more information about the true past, and purchases an old journal in an antiques shop in a proletarian neighborhood of London. In a place beside his flat 's telescreen where he believes he can not be seen, he begins writing a journal criticizing the Party and its enigmatic leader, Big Brother. By doing so, he commits a crime that, if discovered by the Thought Police, warrants certain death, and Winston quickly resigns himself to the fact that he will eventually be arrested for thoughtcrime. In the journal, he records his sexual frustration over a young woman maintaining the novel - writing machines at the ministry named Julia, whom Winston is attracted to but suspects is an informant. He also suspects that his superior, an Inner Party official named O'Brien, is a secret agent for an enigmatic underground resistance movement known as the Brotherhood, a group formed by Big Brother 's reviled political rival Emmanuel Goldstein.
The next day, Julia surreptitiously hands Winston a note confessing her love for him. Winston and Julia begin an affair after Winston realizes she shares his loathing of the Party, first meeting in the country, and eventually in a rented room at the top of the antiques shop where Winston purchased the diary, which is owned by the seemingly kindly Mr. Charrington. They believe that the shop is safe, as the room has no telescreen. During his affair with Julia, Winston remembers the death of his family; during the civil war of the 1950 's, Winston stole rationed chocolate from his malnourished infant sister and his mother, and would return home to discover that they had disappeared. He also recounts his terse relationship with his ex-wife Katharine, whom he was forced to have sex with and despised to such an extent that he considered pushing her off a cliff during a nature walk. Winston also interacts with his colleague Syme, who is writing a dictionary for a revised version of the English language called Newspeak. After Syme insightfully reveals that the true purpose of Newspeak is to reduce the capacity of human thought, Winston speculates that he will be vaporized. He is later proven correct when Syme disappears without a trace, and no one acknowledges his absence.
Weeks later, Winston is approached by O'Brien. They arrange a meeting at O'Brien's flat where both Winston and Julia swear allegiance to the Brotherhood. A week later, O'Brien clandestinely sends Winston a copy of "The Book '', The Theory and Practice of Oligarchical Collectivism by Emmanuel Goldstein, the publicly reviled leader of the Brotherhood. Through The Book, the author explains the structure and practices of Oceania. In particular, The Book explains the concept of perpetual war, the true meanings of the slogans "War is peace '', "Freedom is slavery '', and "Ignorance is strength '', and how the Party can be overthrown through means of the political awareness of the proles (proletarians).
The Thought Police capture Winston along with Julia in their rented room. The two are then delivered to the Ministry of Love (Miniluv) for interrogation. Mr. Charrington, the shopkeeper who rented the room to them, reveals himself as a Thought Police agent. O'Brien is also an agent of the Thought Police. He is part of a special sting operation used by the police to find and arrest suspected thoughtcriminals. Winston is placed in a prison cell with Parsons, who had been reported by his children and believes himself to be guilty. O'Brien interrogates and tortures Winston with electroshock, telling Winston that he can "cure '' himself of his "insanity '' -- his manifest hatred for the Party -- through controlled manipulation of perception. Winston is held in the prison for an unspecified length of time, and confesses to crimes that O'Brien tells him to say that he has committed, but O'Brien understands that Winston has not betrayed Julia. After awakening from a nightmare in which he confesses his love for Julia, O'Brien sends him to Room 101 for the final stage of re-education, a room which contains each prisoner 's worst fear. Winston shouts "Do it to Julia! '' as a wire cage holding hungry rats is fitted onto his face, thus betraying her.
After being put back into society, Winston meets Julia in a park. She admits that she was also tortured, and both reveal betraying the other. Later, Winston sits alone in the Chestnut Tree Cafe. As he remembers a rare happy memory of his family, he convinces himself that it is false. A raucous celebration begins outside, celebrating Oceania 's "decisive victory '' over Eurasian armies in Africa, and Winston imagines himself as a part of the crowd. As Winston imagines a gun being pointed at his head, he feels that he has at last ended his "stubborn, self - willed exile '' from the love of Big Brother -- a love Winston returns quite happily as he looks up in admiration at a portrait of Big Brother.
Ingsoc (English Socialism) is the predominant ideology and pseudophilosophy of Oceania, and Newspeak is the official language of official documents.
In London, the capital city of Airstrip One, Oceania 's four government ministries are in pyramids (300 m high), the façades of which display the Party 's three slogans. The ministries ' names are the opposite (doublethink) of their true functions: "The Ministry of Peace concerns itself with war, the Ministry of Truth with lies, the Ministry of Love with torture and the Ministry of Plenty with starvation. '' (Part II, Chapter IX -- The Theory and Practice of Oligarchical Collectivism)
The Ministry of Peace supports Oceania 's perpetual war against either of the two other superstates:
The primary aim of modern warfare (in accordance with the principles of doublethink, this aim is simultaneously recognized and not recognized by the directing brains of the Inner Party) is to use up the products of the machine without raising the general standard of living. Ever since the end of the nineteenth century, the problem of what to do with the surplus of consumption goods has been latent in industrial society. At present, when few human beings even have enough to eat, this problem is obviously not urgent, and it might not have become so, even if no artificial processes of destruction had been at work.
The Ministry of Plenty rations and controls food, goods, and domestic production; every fiscal quarter, it publishes false claims of having raised the standard of living, when it has, in fact, reduced rations, availability, and production. The Ministry of Truth substantiates Ministry of Plenty 's claims by revising historical records to report numbers supporting the current, "increased rations ''.
The Ministry of Truth controls information: news, entertainment, education, and the arts. Winston Smith works in the Minitrue RecDep (Records Department), "rectifying '' historical records to concord with Big Brother 's current pronouncements so that everything the Party says is true.
The Ministry of Love identifies, monitors, arrests, and converts real and imagined dissidents. In Winston 's experience, the dissident is beaten and tortured, and, when near - broken, he is sent to Room 101 to face "the worst thing in the world '' -- until love for Big Brother and the Party replaces dissension.
The keyword here is blackwhite. Like so many Newspeak words, this word has two mutually contradictory meanings. Applied to an opponent, it means the habit of impudently claiming that black is white, in contradiction of the plain facts. Applied to a Party member, it means a loyal willingness to say that black is white when Party discipline demands this. But it means also the ability to believe that black is white, and more, to know that black is white, and to forget that one has ever believed the contrary. This demands a continuous alteration of the past, made possible by the system of thought which really embraces all the rest, and which is known in Newspeak as doublethink. Doublethink is basically the power of holding two contradictory beliefs in one 's mind simultaneously, and accepting both of them.
Three perpetually warring totalitarian super-states control the world:
The perpetual war is fought for control of the "disputed area '' lying "between the frontiers of the super-states '', which forms "a rough parallelogram with its corners at Tangier, Brazzaville, Darwin and Hong Kong '', and Northern Africa, the Middle East, India and Indonesia are where the superstates capture and use slave labour. Fighting also takes place between Eurasia and Eastasia in Manchuria, Mongolia and Central Asia, and all three powers battle one another over various Atlantic and Pacific islands.
Goldstein 's book, The Theory and Practice of Oligarchical Collectivism, explains that the superstates ' ideologies are alike and that the public 's ignorance of this fact is imperative so that they might continue believing in the detestability of the opposing ideologies. The only references to the exterior world for the Oceanian citizenry (the Outer Party and the Proles) are Ministry of Truth maps and propaganda to ensure their belief in "the war ''.
Winston Smith 's memory and Emmanuel Goldstein 's book communicate some of the history that precipitated the Revolution. Eurasia was formed when the Soviet Union conquered Continental Europe, creating a single state stretching from Portugal to the Bering Strait. Eurasia does not include the British Isles because the United States annexed them along with the rest of the British Empire and Latin America, thus establishing Oceania and gaining control over a quarter of the planet. Eastasia, the last superstate established, emerged only after "a decade of confused fighting ''. It includes the Asian lands conquered by China and Japan. Although Eastasia is prevented from matching Eurasia 's size, its larger populace compensates for that handicap.
The annexation of Britain occurred about the same time as the atomic war that provoked civil war, but who fought whom in the war is left unclear. Nuclear weapons fell on Britain; an atomic bombing of Colchester is referenced in the text. Exactly how Ingsoc and its rival systems (Neo-Bolshevism and Death Worship) gained power in their respective countries is also unclear.
While the precise chronology can not be traced, most of the global societal reorganization occurred between 1945 and the early 1960s. Winston and Julia once meet in the ruins of a church that was destroyed in a nuclear attack "thirty years '' earlier, which suggests 1954 as the year of the atomic war that destabilised society and allowed the Party to seize power. It is stated in the novel that the "fourth quarter of 1983 '' was "also the sixth quarter of the Ninth Three - Year Plan '', which implies that the first quarter of the first three - year plan began in July 1958. By then, the Party was apparently in control of Oceania.
In 1984, there is a perpetual war between Oceania, Eurasia and Eastasia, the superstates that emerged from the global atomic war. The Theory and Practice of Oligarchical Collectivism, by Emmanuel Goldstein, explains that each state is so strong it can not be defeated, even with the combined forces of two superstates, despite changing alliances. To hide such contradictions, history is rewritten to explain that the (new) alliance always was so; the populaces are accustomed to doublethink and accept it. The war is not fought in Oceanian, Eurasian or Eastasian territory but in the Arctic wastes and in a disputed zone comprising the sea and land from Tangiers (Northern Africa) to Darwin (Australia). At the start, Oceania and Eastasia are allies fighting Eurasia in northern Africa and the Malabar Coast.
That alliance ends and Oceania, allied with Eurasia, fights Eastasia, a change occurring on Hate Week, dedicated to creating patriotic fervour for the Party 's perpetual war. The public are blind to the change; in mid-sentence, an orator changes the name of the enemy from "Eurasia '' to "Eastasia '' without pause. When the public are enraged at noticing that the wrong flags and posters are displayed, they tear them down; the Party later claims to have captured Africa.
Goldstein 's book explains that the purpose of the unwinnable, perpetual war is to consume human labour and commodities so that the economy of a superstate can not support economic equality, with a high standard of life for every citizen. By using up most of the produced objects like boots and rations, the proles are kept poor and uneducated and will neither realise what the government is doing nor rebel. Goldstein also details an Oceanian strategy of attacking enemy cities with atomic rockets before invasion but dismisses it as unfeasible and contrary to the war 's purpose; despite the atomic bombing of cities in the 1950s, the superstates stopped it for fear that would imbalance the powers. The military technology in the novel differs little from that of World War II, but strategic bomber aeroplanes are replaced with rocket bombs, helicopters were heavily used as weapons of war (they did not figure in World War II in any form but prototypes) and surface combat units have been all but replaced by immense and unsinkable Floating Fortresses, island - like contraptions concentrating the firepower of a whole naval task force in a single, semi-mobile platform (in the novel, one is said to have been anchored between Iceland and the Faroe Islands, suggesting a preference for sea lane interdiction and denial).
The society of Airstrip One and, according to "The Book '', almost the whole world, lives in poverty: hunger, disease and filth are the norms. Ruined cities and towns are common: the consequence of the civil war, the atomic wars and the purportedly enemy (but possibly false flag) rockets. Social decay and wrecked buildings surround Winston; aside from the ministerial pyramids, little of London was rebuilt. Members of the Outer Party consume synthetic foodstuffs and poor - quality "luxuries '' such as oily gin and loosely - packed cigarettes, distributed under the "Victory '' brand. (That is a parody of the low - quality Indian - made "Victory '' cigarettes, widely smoked in Britain and by British soldiers during World War II. They were smoked because it was easier to import them from India than it was to import American cigarettes from across the Atlantic because of the War of the Atlantic.)
Winston describes something as simple as the repair of a broken pane of glass as requiring committee approval that can take several years and so most of those living in one of the blocks usually do the repairs themselves. (Winston himself is called in by Mrs. Parsons to repair her blocked sink. All Outer Party residences include telescreens that serve both as outlets for propaganda and to monitor the Party members; they can be turned down, but they can not be turned off.
In contrast to their subordinates, the Inner Party upper class of Oceanian society reside in clean and comfortable flats in their own quarter of the city, with pantries well - stocked with foodstuffs such as wine, coffee and sugar, all denied to the general populace. Winston is astonished that the lifts in O'Brien's building work, the telescreens can be switched off and O'Brien has an Asian manservant, Martin. All members of the Inner Party are attended to by slaves captured in the disputed zone, and "The Book '' suggests that many have their own motorcars or even helicopters. Nonetheless, "The Book '' makes clear that even the conditions enjoyed by the Inner Party are only "relatively '' comfortable, and standards would be regarded as austere by those of the prerevolutionary élite.
The proles live in poverty and are kept sedated with alcohol, pornography and a national lottery whose winnings are never actually paid out; that is obscured by propaganda and the lack of communication within Oceania. At the same time, the proles are freer and less intimidated than the middle - class Outer Party: they are subject to certain levels of monitoring but are not expected to be particularly patriotic. They lack telescreens in their own homes and often jeer at the telescreens that they see. "The Book '' indicates that is because the middle class, not the lower class, traditionally starts revolutions. The model demands tight control of the middle class, with ambitious Outer - Party members neutralised via promotion to the Inner Party or "reintegration '' by the Ministry of Love, and proles can be allowed intellectual freedom because they lack intellect. Winston nonetheless believes that "the future belonged to the proles ''.
The standard of living of the populace is low overall. Consumer goods are scarce, and all those available through official channels are of low quality; for instance, despite the Party regularly reporting increased boot production, more than half of the Oceanian populace goes barefoot. The Party claims that poverty is a necessary sacrifice for the war effort, and "The Book '' confirms that to be partially correct since the purpose of perpetual war consumes surplus industrial production. Outer Party members and proles occasionally gain access to better items in the market, which deals in goods that were pilfered from the residences of the Inner Party.
Nineteen Eighty - Four expands upon the subjects summarised in Orwell 's essay "Notes on Nationalism '' about the lack of vocabulary needed to explain the unrecognised phenomena behind certain political forces. In Nineteen Eighty - Four, the Party 's artificial, minimalist language ' Newspeak ' addresses the matter.
O'Brien concludes: "The object of persecution is persecution. The object of torture is torture. The object of power is power. ''
In the book, Inner Party member O'Brien describes the Party 's vision of the future:
There will be no curiosity, no enjoyment of the process of life. All competing pleasures will be destroyed. But always -- do not forget this, Winston -- always there will be the intoxication of power, constantly increasing and constantly growing subtler. Always, at every moment, there will be the thrill of victory, the sensation of trampling on an enemy who is helpless. If you want a picture of the future, imagine a boot stamping on a human face -- forever.
A major theme of Nineteen Eighty - Four is censorship, especially in the Ministry of Truth, where photographs are modified and public archives rewritten to rid them of "unpersons '' (persons who are erased from history by the Party). On the telescreens, figures for all types of production are grossly exaggerated or simply invented to indicate an ever - growing economy, when the reality is the opposite. One small example of the endless censorship is Winston being charged with the task of eliminating a reference to an unperson in a newspaper article. He proceeds to write an article about Comrade Ogilvy, a made - up party member who displayed great heroism by leaping into the sea from a helicopter so that the dispatches he was carrying would not fall into enemy hands.
The inhabitants of Oceania, particularly the Outer Party members, have no real privacy. Many of them live in apartments equipped with two - way telescreens so that they may be watched or listened to at any time. Similar telescreens are found at workstations and in public places, along with hidden microphones. Written correspondence is routinely opened and read by the government before it is delivered. The Thought Police employ undercover agents, who pose as normal citizens and report any person with subversive tendencies. Children are encouraged to report suspicious persons to the government, and some denounce their parents. Citizens are controlled, and the smallest sign of rebellion, even something so small as a facial expression, can result in immediate arrest and imprisonment. Thus, citizens, particularly party members, are compelled to obedience.
"The Principles of Newspeak '' is an academic essay appended to the novel. It describes the development of Newspeak, the Party 's minimalist artificial language meant to ideologically align thought and action with the principles of Ingsoc by making "all other modes of thought impossible ''. (A linguistic theory about how language may direct thought is the Sapir -- Whorf hypothesis.)
Whether or not the Newspeak appendix implies a hopeful end to Nineteen Eighty - Four remains a critical debate, as it is in Standard English and refers to Newspeak, Ingsoc, the Party etc., in the past tense: "Relative to our own, the Newspeak vocabulary was tiny, and new ways of reducing it were constantly being devised '' p. 422). Some critics (Atwood, Benstead, Milner, Pynchon) claim that for the essay 's author, both Newspeak and the totalitarian government are in the past.
Nineteen Eighty - Four uses themes from life in the Soviet Union and wartime life in Great Britain as sources for many of its motifs. American producer Sidney Sheldon wrote to Orwell in the early 1950s, interested in adapting the novel to the Broadway stage. Orwell sold the American stage rights to Sheldon, explaining that his basic goal with Nineteen Eighty - Four was imagining the consequences of Stalinist government ruling British society:
(Nineteen Eighty - Four) was based chiefly on communism, because that is the dominant form of totalitarianism, but I was trying chiefly to imagine what communism would be like if it were firmly rooted in the English speaking countries, and was no longer a mere extension of the Russian Foreign Office.
The statement "2 + 2 = 5 '', used to torment Winston Smith during his interrogation, was a communist party slogan from the second five - year plan, which encouraged fulfillment of the five - year plan in four years. The slogan was seen in electric lights on Moscow house - fronts, billboards and elsewhere.
The switch of Oceania 's allegiance from Eastasia to Eurasia and the subsequent rewriting of history ("Oceania was at war with Eastasia: Oceania had always been at war with Eastasia. A large part of the political literature of five years was now completely obsolete ''; ch 9) is evocative of the Soviet Union 's changing relations with Nazi Germany. The two nations were open and frequently vehement critics of each other until the signing of the 1939 Treaty of Non-Aggression. Thereafter, and continuing until the Nazi invasion of the Soviet Union in 1941, no criticism of Germany was allowed in the Soviet press, and all references to prior party lines stopped -- including in the majority of non-Russian communist parties who tended to follow the Russian line. Orwell had criticised the Communist Party of Great Britain for supporting the Treaty in his essays for Betrayal of the Left (1941). "The Hitler - Stalin pact of August 1939 reversed the Soviet Union 's stated foreign policy. It was too much for many of the fellow - travellers like Gollancz (Orwell 's sometime publisher) who had put their faith in a strategy of construction Popular Front governments and the peace bloc between Russia, Britain and France. ''
The description of Emmanuel Goldstein, with a "small, goatee beard '', evokes the image of Leon Trotsky. The film of Goldstein during the Two Minutes Hate is described as showing him being transformed into a bleating sheep. This image was used in a propaganda film during the Kino - eye period of Soviet film, which showed Trotsky transforming into a goat. Goldstein 's book is similar to Trotsky 's highly critical analysis of the USSR, The Revolution Betrayed, published in 1936.
The omnipresent images of Big Brother, a man described as having a moustache, bears resemblance to the cult of personality built up around Joseph Stalin.
The news in Oceania emphasised production figures, just as it did in the Soviet Union, where record - setting in factories (by "Heroes of Socialist Labor '') was especially glorified. The best known of these was Alexey Stakhanov, who purportedly set a record for coal mining in 1935.
The tortures of the Ministry of Love evoke the procedures used by the NKVD in their interrogations, including the use of rubber truncheons, being forbidden to put your hands in your pockets, remaining in brightly lit rooms for days, torture through the use of provoked rodents, and the victim being shown a mirror after their physical collapse.
The random bombing of Airstrip One is based on the Buzz bombs and the V - 2 rocket, which struck England at random in 1944 -- 1945.
The Thought Police is based on the NKVD, which arrested people for random "anti-soviet '' remarks. The Thought Crime motif is drawn from Kempeitai, the Japanese wartime secret police, who arrested people for "unpatriotic '' thoughts.
The confessions of the "Thought Criminals '' Rutherford, Aaronson and Jones are based on the show trials of the 1930s, which included fabricated confessions by prominent Bolsheviks Nikolai Bukharin, Grigory Zinoviev and Lev Kamenev to the effect that they were being paid by the Nazi government to undermine the Soviet regime under Leon Trotsky 's direction.
The song "Under the Spreading Chestnut Tree '' ("Under the spreading chestnut tree, I sold you, and you sold me '') was based on an old English song called "Go no more a-rushing '' ("Under the spreading chestnut tree, Where I knelt upon my knee, We were as happy as could be, ' Neath the spreading chestnut tree. ''). The song was published as early as 1891. The song was a popular camp song in the 1920s, sung with corresponding movements (like touching your chest when you sing "chest '', and touching your head when you sing "nut ''). Glenn Miller recorded the song in 1939.
The "Hates '' (Two Minutes Hate and Hate Week) were inspired by the constant rallies sponsored by party organs throughout the Stalinist period. These were often short pep - talks given to workers before their shifts began (Two Minutes Hate), but could also last for days, as in the annual celebrations of the anniversary of the October revolution (Hate Week).
Orwell fictionalized "newspeak '', "doublethink '', and "Ministry of Truth '' as evinced by both the Soviet press and that of Nazi Germany. In particular, he adapted Soviet ideological discourse constructed to ensure that public statements could not be questioned.
Winston Smith 's job, "revising history '' (and the "unperson '' motif) are based on the Stalinist habit of airbrushing images of ' fallen ' people from group photographs and removing references to them in books and newspapers. In one well - known example, the Soviet encyclopaedia had an article about Lavrentiy Beria. When he fell in 1953, and was subsequently executed, institutes that had the encyclopaedia were sent an article about the Bering Strait, with instructions to paste it over the article about Beria.
Big Brother 's "Orders of the Day '' were inspired by Stalin 's regular wartime orders, called by the same name. A small collection of the more political of these have been published (together with his wartime speeches) in English as "On the Great Patriotic War of the Soviet Union '' By Joseph Stalin. Like Big Brother 's Orders of the day, Stalin 's frequently lauded heroic individuals, like Comrade Ogilvy, the fictitious hero Winston Smith invented to ' rectify ' (fabricate) a Big Brother Order of the day.
The Ingsoc slogan "Our new, happy life '', repeated from telescreens, evokes Stalin 's 1935 statement, which became a CPSU slogan, "Life has become better, Comrades; life has become more cheerful. ''
In 1940 Argentine writer Jorge Luis Borges published Tlön, Uqbar, Orbis Tertius which described the invention by a "benevolent secret society '' of a world that would seek to remake human language and reality along human - invented lines. The story concludes with an appendix describing the success of the project. Borges ' story addresses similar themes of epistemology, language and history to 1984.
During World War II, Orwell believed that British democracy as it existed before 1939 would not survive the war. The question being "Would it end via Fascist coup d'état from above or via Socialist revolution from below ''? Later, he admitted that events proved him wrong: "What really matters is that I fell into the trap of assuming that ' the war and the revolution are inseparable '. ''
Nineteen Eighty - Four (1949) and Animal Farm (1945) share themes of the betrayed revolution, the person 's subordination to the collective, rigorously enforced class distinctions (Inner Party, Outer Party, Proles), the cult of personality, concentration camps, Thought Police, compulsory regimented daily exercise, and youth leagues. Oceania resulted from the US annexation of the British Empire to counter the Asian peril to Australia and New Zealand. It is a naval power whose militarism venerates the sailors of the floating fortresses, from which battle is given to recapturing India, the "Jewel in the Crown '' of the British Empire. Much of Oceanic society is based upon the USSR under Joseph Stalin -- Big Brother. The televised Two Minutes Hate is ritual demonisation of the enemies of the State, especially Emmanuel Goldstein (viz Leon Trotsky). Altered photographs and newspaper articles create unpersons deleted from the national historical record, including even founding members of the regime (Jones, Aaronson and Rutherford) in the 1960s purges (viz the Soviet Purges of the 1930s, in which leaders of the Bolshevik Revolution were similarly treated). A similar thing also happened during the French Revolution in which many of the original leaders of the Revolution were later put to death, for example Danton who was put to death by Robespierre, and then later Robespierre himself met the same fate.
In his 1946 essay "Why I Write '', Orwell explains that the serious works he wrote since the Spanish Civil War (1936 -- 39) were "written, directly or indirectly, against totalitarianism and for democratic socialism ''. Nineteen Eighty - Four is a cautionary tale about revolution betrayed by totalitarian defenders previously proposed in Homage to Catalonia (1938) and Animal Farm (1945), while Coming Up for Air (1939) celebrates the personal and political freedoms lost in Nineteen Eighty - Four (1949). Biographer Michael Shelden notes Orwell 's Edwardian childhood at Henley - on - Thames as the golden country; being bullied at St Cyprian 's School as his empathy with victims; his life in the Indian Imperial Police in Burma and the techniques of violence and censorship in the BBC as capricious authority.
Other influences include Darkness at Noon (1940) and The Yogi and the Commissar (1945) by Arthur Koestler; The Iron Heel (1908) by Jack London; 1920: Dips into the Near Future by John A. Hobson; Brave New World (1932) by Aldous Huxley; We (1921) by Yevgeny Zamyatin which he reviewed in 1946; and The Managerial Revolution (1940) by James Burnham predicting perpetual war among three totalitarian superstates. Orwell told Jacintha Buddicom that he would write a novel stylistically like A Modern Utopia (1905) by H.G. Wells.
Extrapolating from World War II, the novel 's pastiche parallels the politics and rhetoric at war 's end -- the changed alliances at the "Cold War 's '' (1945 -- 91) beginning; the Ministry of Truth derives from the BBC 's overseas service, controlled by the Ministry of Information; Room 101 derives from a conference room at BBC Broadcasting House; the Senate House of the University of London, containing the Ministry of Information is the architectural inspiration for the Minitrue; the post-war decrepitude derives from the socio - political life of the UK and the US, i.e., the impoverished Britain of 1948 losing its Empire despite newspaper - reported imperial triumph; and war ally but peace - time foe, Soviet Russia became Eurasia.
The term "English Socialism '' has precedents in his wartime writings; in the essay "The Lion and the Unicorn: Socialism and the English Genius '' (1941), he said that "the war and the revolution are inseparable... the fact that we are at war has turned Socialism from a textbook word into a realisable policy '' -- because Britain 's superannuated social class system hindered the war effort and only a socialist economy would defeat Adolf Hitler. Given the middle class 's grasping this, they too would abide socialist revolution and that only reactionary Britons would oppose it, thus limiting the force revolutionaries would need to take power. An English Socialism would come about which "will never lose touch with the tradition of compromise and the belief in a law that is above the State. It will shoot traitors, but it will give them a solemn trial beforehand and occasionally it will acquit them. It will crush any open revolt promptly and cruelly, but it will interfere very little with the spoken and written word. ''
In the world of Nineteen Eighty - Four, "English Socialism '' (or "Ingsoc '' in Newspeak) is a totalitarian ideology unlike the English revolution he foresaw. Comparison of the wartime essay "The Lion and the Unicorn '' with Nineteen Eighty - Four shows that he perceived a Big Brother regime as a perversion of his cherished socialist ideals and English Socialism. Thus Oceania is a corruption of the British Empire he believed would evolve "into a federation of Socialist states, like a looser and freer version of the Union of Soviet Republics ''.
When first published, Nineteen Eighty - Four was generally well received by reviewers. V.S. Pritchett, reviewing the novel for the New Statesman stated: "I do not think I have ever read a novel more frightening and depressing; and yet, such are the originality, the suspense, the speed of writing and withering indignation that it is impossible to put the book down. '' P.H. Newby, reviewing Nineteen Eighty - Four for The Listener magazine, described it as "the most arresting political novel written by an Englishman since Rex Warner 's The Aerodrome. '' Nineteen Eighty - Four was also praised by Bertrand Russell, E.M. Forster and Harold Nicolson. On the other hand, Edward Shanks, reviewing Nineteen Eighty - Four for The Sunday Times, was dismissive; Shanks claimed Nineteen Eighty - Four "breaks all records for gloomy vaticination ''. C.S. Lewis was also critical of the novel, claiming that the relationship of Julia and Winston, and especially the Party 's view on sex, lacked credibility, and that the setting was "odious rather than tragic ''.
Nineteen Eighty - Four has been adapted for the cinema, radio, television and theatre at least twice each, as well as for other art media, such as ballet and opera.
The effect of Nineteen Eighty - Four on the English language is extensive; the concepts of Big Brother, Room 101, the Thought Police, thoughtcrime, unperson, memory hole (oblivion), doublethink (simultaneously holding and believing contradictory beliefs) and Newspeak (ideological language) have become common phrases for denoting totalitarian authority. Doublespeak and groupthink are both deliberate elaborations of doublethink, and the adjective "Orwellian '' means similar to Orwell 's writings, especially Nineteen Eighty - Four. The practice of ending words with "- speak '' (such as mediaspeak) is drawn from the novel. Orwell is perpetually associated with 1984; in July 1984, an asteroid was discovered by Antonín Mrkos and named after Orwell.
References to the themes, concepts and plot of Nineteen Eighty - Four have appeared frequently in other works, especially in popular music and video entertainment. An example is the worldwide hit reality television show Big Brother, in which a group of people live together in a large house, isolated from the outside world but continuously watched by television cameras.
The book touches on the invasion of privacy and ubiquitous surveillance. From mid-2013 it was publicized that the NSA has been secretly monitoring and storing global internet traffic, including the bulk data collection of email and phone call data. Sales of Nineteen Eighty - Four increased by up to seven times within the first week of the 2013 mass surveillance leaks. The book again topped the Amazon.com sales charts in 2017 after a controversy involving Kellyanne Conway using the phrase "alternative facts '' to explain discrepancies with the media.
The book also shows mass media as a catalyst for the intensification of destructive emotions and violence. Since the 20th century, news and other forms of media have been publicizing violence more often. In 2013, the Almeida Theatre and Headlong staged a successful new adaptation (by Robert Icke and Duncan Macmillan), which twice toured the UK and played an extended run in London 's West End. The play opened on Broadway in 2017.
In the decades since the publication of Nineteen Eighty - Four, there have been numerous comparisons to the Aldous Huxley 's novel Brave New World, which had been published 17 years earlier, in 1932. They are both predictions of societies dominated by a central government and are both based on extensions of the trends of their times. However, members of the ruling class of Nineteen Eighty - Four use brutal force, torture and mind control to keep individuals in line, but rulers in Brave New World keep the citizens in line by addictive drugs and pleasurable distractions.
In October 1949, after reading Nineteen Eighty - Four, Huxley sent a letter to Orwell and wrote that it would be more efficient for rulers to stay in power by the softer touch by allowing citizens to self - seek pleasure to control them rather than brute force and to allow a false sense of freedom:
Within the next generation I believe that the world 's rulers will discover that infant conditioning and narco - hypnosis are more efficient, as instruments of government, than clubs and prisons, and that the lust for power can be just as completely satisfied by suggesting people into loving their servitude as by flogging and kicking them into obedience.
Elements of both novels can be seen in modern - day societies, with Huxley 's vision being more dominant in the West and Orwell 's vision more prevalent with dictators in ex-communist countries and the theocracies and the dictatorships of the Middle East, as is pointed out in essays that compare the two novels, including Huxley 's own Brave New World Revisited. However, that assessment was reconsidered in 2017 with the presidency of Donald Trump and the associated burst in popularity of Orwell 's novel.
Comparisons with other dystopian novels like The Handmaid 's Tale, Virtual Light, The Private Eye and Children of Men have also been drawn.
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who plays the detective in the orient express | Murder on the Orient Express (2017 film) - wikipedia
Murder on the Orient Express is a 2017 mystery drama film directed by Kenneth Branagh with a screenplay by Michael Green, based on the 1934 novel of the same name by Agatha Christie. The film stars Branagh as Hercule Poirot, with Penélope Cruz, Willem Dafoe, Judi Dench, Johnny Depp, Josh Gad, Derek Jacobi, Leslie Odom Jr., Michelle Pfeiffer, and Daisy Ridley in supporting roles. The film is the fourth screen adaptation of Christie 's novel, following the 1974 film, a 2001 TV film version, and a 2010 episode of the television series Agatha Christie 's Poirot. The plot follows Poirot, a world - renowned detective, as he seeks to solve a murder on the famous trans - European train in the 1930s.
Principal photography began in November 2016 in the United Kingdom; it is one of the few productions in recent decades to have used 65mm film cameras. Murder on the Orient Express had its world premiere on November 2, 2017 at Royal Albert Hall in London, and was released in theatres in the United Kingdom on November 3, 2017, and in the United States on November 10, 2017, by 20th Century Fox. The film grossed over $351 million worldwide and received mixed reviews from critics, with praise for the cast 's performances and the production value, but some criticism for not adding anything new to previous adaptations. A sequel, titled Death on the Nile, is scheduled for a release on December 20, 2019.
In 1934, famous Belgian detective Hercule Poirot solves a theft at the Church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem. The obsessive - compulsive -- who seeks balance in life, and considers his case - solving ability to see a lie amid truth to be a curse -- wants to rest in Istanbul, but must return to London for another case. His friend Bouc, director of the Simplon Orient Express, offers him a room aboard the train.
Unscrupulous businessman Edward Ratchett offers to hire Poirot as his bodyguard during the three - day journey, having received threatening letters from an unknown party, but Poirot refuses. That night, Poirot hears strange noises coming from Ratchett 's compartment, and later sees someone in a red kimono running down the hallway. An avalanche derails the train 's engine, stranding the passengers.
The next morning, Poirot discovers Ratchett was murdered during the night after having been stabbed a dozen times. Poirot and Bouc investigate the other passengers as repairs begin. Evidence indicates that Ratchett was murdered by one person, and Caroline Hubbard, a fellow passenger, claims that a man had been in her compartment in the night. Poirot discovers a partially burned note connecting Ratchett to the kidnapping of Daisy Armstrong, a child who was abducted from her bedroom and held for ransom. Though the family paid the ransom, Daisy was murdered nonetheless. Ratchett 's true identity is revealed: he was John Cassetti, Daisy 's kidnapper and murderer. The shock of her death caused her mother Sonia to die after giving premature birth to a stillborn baby; her father, Colonel John Armstrong, then committed suicide. The family 's nursemaid Susanne was wrongly suspected of complicity, leading to her being arrested and subsequent suicide in police custody, only to be found innocent afterward.
More evidence is found, including a bloodstained handkerchief, and, in Mrs. Hubbard 's compartment, the button of a conductor 's uniform. The uniform is later found, as is the red kimono -- in Poirot 's own suitcase. Hubbard is suddenly stabbed in the back; she survives but can not identify the culprit. Poirot discovers many of the passengers have direct connections to the Armstrong family and uncovers their hidden pasts. While interviewing governess Mary Debenham, Doctor John Arbuthnot shoots Poirot in the shoulder, claiming responsibility for the murder, but Bouc stops him from killing Poirot. Poirot realizes that Arbuthnot -- a medical doctor and former army sniper -- never meant to kill him.
Poirot confronts the suspects outside the train, offering two theories of how Cassetti died. The first is simple but does not meet all of the facts: A murderer disguised as a conductor boarded the train at a previous stop, murdered Cassetti, and fled at the stop as the train left. The second is more complex: with every single suspect connected to the Armstrongs, Susanne, or her trial in some way, they all had a motive against Cassetti. Poirot predicts that they acted together. Hubbard is revealed to be Linda Arden, a former stage actress and aspiring director, and Sonia Armstrong 's mother.
Hubbard confirms the latter, admitting that she planned the murder and had recruited everyone else to help her. All the other passengers and the Conductor, Pierre Michel (Susanne 's brother), took turns stabbing Cassetti. Mary wore the kimono, and Arbuthnot stabbed Hubbard without endangering her life, to convince Poirot of a lone killer. Poirot challenges the passengers and Michel to shoot him with a confiscated gun since he is the only one who can expose their plot; Bouc can lie, but Poirot, obsessed with truth and balance, can not. Hubbard grabs the gun and tries to kill herself, but it is not loaded; Poirot wanted to see how the suspects would react.
With the train back on track, Poirot concludes that justice is impossible in this case, as Cassetti deserved death; for the first time, Poirot will have to live with a lie and imbalance. He presents the lone killer theory to the Yugoslavian police, allowing the others to leave on the train. As he disembarks, a British Army messenger asks him to investigate a death on the Nile. Poirot accepts the case.
20th Century Fox announced the project in December 2013. Michael Green wrote the screenplay for a new film adaptation of Murder on the Orient Express. On June 16, 2015, it was reported Fox was in talks with Kenneth Branagh to direct. On November 20, 2015, it was announced that Branagh would both direct the film and star in the role of detective Hercule Poirot. He later said that he "enjoyed finding the sort of obsessive - compulsive in (Poirot) rather than the dandy. ''
Principal photography on the film began on November 22, 2016, in the United Kingdom, and concluded in May 2017. It used some of the same 65mm film cameras as Christopher Nolan 's Dunkirk, which Branagh had acted in shortly before the production. The two were among the very few to be shot on 65mm film since Branagh 's Hamlet in 1996, and the only ones released in 2017. While in post-production, Branagh "was Skyped in from thousands of miles away '' to watch Pfeiffer record an original song called "Never Forget '' for the film 's finale. "As soon as we added it on to the end of the film, it joined seamlessly and gave a moment of reflection and consideration that the film needed and wanted, '' said Branagh.
A first look at the film and cast was released on May 3, 2017, in an exclusive article by Entertainment Weekly.
Murder on the Orient Express was released in the United Kingdom on November 3, 2017 and in the United States on November 10, 2017, by 20th Century Fox. The film was released on Digital HD on February 20, 2018, and on DVD and Blu - ray on February 27, 2018.
Murder on the Orient Express grossed $102.8 million in the United States and Canada, and $249 million in other territories, for a worldwide total of $351.8 million, against a production budget of $55 million.
In the United States and Canada, Murder on the Orient Express was released alongside Daddy 's Home 2, and was projected to gross around $20 million from 3,341 theaters in its opening weekend. The film made $10.9 million on its first day, including $1.6 million from Thursday night previews at 2,775 theaters. It ended up grossing $28.7 million, finishing third at the box office, behind holdover Thor: Ragnarok, and Daddy 's Home 2. 51 % of the film 's opening weekend audience was over the age of 35. In its second weekend, the film took in $13.8 million (a drop of 51.9 %), finishing fifth, behind Justice League, Wonder, Thor: Ragnarok and Daddy 's Home 2.
On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 57 %, based on 241 reviews, with an average rating of 6.1 / 10. The website 's critical consensus reads, "Stylish production and an all - star ensemble keep this Murder on the Orient Express from running off the rails, even if it never quite builds up to its classic predecessor 's illustrious head of steam. '' On Metacritic the film has a weighted average score of 52 out of 100, based on 45 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews ''. Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "B '' on an A+ to F scale.
Leah Greenblatt of Entertainment Weekly gave the film a B+, calling it "a lushly old - fashioned adaptation wrapped in a veritable turducken of pearls, monocles, and international movie stars. '' Blake Goble of Consequence of Sound said, "Handsomely staged, exceptionally well - cast, and reasonably faithful, Branagh has revived Murder on the Orient Express in a highly pleasing fashion. '' Trace Thurman of Bloody Disgusting gave the film three and a half skulls and said, "For those looking for an involving murder mystery that is respectful of its source material and filled with an all - star cast, look no further than Murder on the Orient Express. '' Matt Goldberg of Collider gave the film a B −, calling it a "handsomely crafted production, '' albeit one that "falls apart at the climax of the film. '' Josephine Livingstone of The New Republic praised the film 's "stylized gorgeousness, '' but wrote that Branagh 's change of "Poirot 's fussiness... into obsessive compulsive tendencies '' was "less distinct and, ultimately, less interesting ''.
On the negative side, Matthew Jacobs of The Huffington Post was impressed by the cast, but ultimately felt "Agatha Christie 's whodunit has no steam. '' Peter Travers of Rolling Stone found that there were many dull moments and that the film was a needless remake. Richard Roeper of Chicago Sun - Times gave the film two and a half stars, and stated that he felt it focused too much on Poirot to the detriment of the other characters, adding, "Never let it be said the director misses an opportunity to place his star front and center, unfortunately relegating just about everyone else in the obligatory International All - Star Cast to a paper - thin character with one or at most two defining personality traits. '' Ignatiy Vishnevetsky of The A.V. Club rated the film a C+ and complained that Branagh 's "erratic direction -- more interested in cut glass and overhead shots than in suspicions and uncertainties -- bungles both the perfect puzzle logic of the crime and its devious solution. '' Christopher Orr of The Atlantic said the film was "visually sumptuous yet otherwise inert '' and summed up, "Murder on the Orient Express is not a bad movie per se, merely one that feels self - indulgent and thoroughly unnecessary. ''
In 2015, Christie 's great - grandson James Prichard, Chairman of Agatha Christie Ltd., expressed enthusiasm for sequels, citing the positive collaboration with Branagh and the production team. In May 2017, Branagh expressed interest in further installments if the film were successful. On November 20, 2017, 20th Century Fox announced that a sequel, based on the 1937 novel Death on the Nile, was in active development, with Michael Green, screenwriter of the first film, returning to write the screenplay. Branagh will again be both director and star.
In an interview with Associated Press in December 2017, Branagh discussed developing an adaptation of Death on the Nile with the possibility of even more films to follow, potentially creating a new "cinematic universe '' of Poirot films:
"I think there are possibilities, are n't there? With 66 books and short stories and plays, she -- and she often brings people together in her own books actually, so innately -- she enjoyed that, '' he says. "You feel as though there is a world -- just like with Dickens, there 's a complete world that she 's created -- certain kinds of characters who live in her world -- that I think has real possibilities. ''
In February 2018, Fox scheduled Death on the Nile for release on November 8, 2019 with Branagh officially signed on to direct and star. However, in June 2018, the film was pushed back to December 20, 2019.
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name the scientist who is known for classification of metals and non metals | Nonmetal - wikipedia
In chemistry, a nonmetal (or non-metal) is a chemical element that mostly lacks metallic attributes. Physically, nonmetals tend to be highly volatile (easily vaporized), have low elasticity, and are good insulators of heat and electricity; chemically, they tend to have high ionization energy and electronegativity values, and gain or share electrons when they react with other elements or compounds. Seventeen elements are generally classified as nonmetals; most are gases (hydrogen, helium, nitrogen, oxygen, fluorine, neon, chlorine, argon, krypton, xenon and radon); one is a liquid (bromine), and a few are solids (carbon, phosphorus, sulphur, selenium, and iodine).
Moving rightward across the standard form of the periodic table, nonmetals adopt structures that have progressively fewer nearest neighbours. Polyatomic nonmetals have structures with either three nearest neighbours, as is the case (for example) with carbon (in its standard state of graphite), or two nearest neighbours (for example) in the case of sulfur. Diatomic nonmetals, such as hydrogen, have one nearest neighbour, and the monatomic noble gases, such as helium, have none. This gradual fall in the number of nearest neighbours is associated with a reduction in metallic character and an increase in nonmetallic character. The distinction between the three categories of nonmetals, in terms of receding metallicity is not absolute. Boundary overlaps occur as outlying elements in each category show (or begin to show) less - distinct, hybrid - like or atypical properties.
Although five times more elements are metals than nonmetals, two of the nonmetals -- hydrogen and helium -- make up over 99 per cent of the observable Universe, and one -- oxygen -- makes up close to half of the Earth 's crust, oceans and atmosphere. Living organisms are also composed almost entirely of nonmetals, and nonmetals form many more compounds than metals.
There is no rigorous definition of a nonmetal. They show more variability in their properties than metals do. The following are some of the chief characteristics of nonmetals. Physically, they largely exist as monatomic gases, with a few having more substantial (but still open - packed) diatomic or polyatomic forms, unlike metals, which are nearly all solid and close - packed; if solid, they generally have a submetallic or dull appearance and are brittle, as opposed to metals, which are lustrous, ductile or malleable; they usually have lower densities than metals; are poor conductors of heat and electricity when compared to metals; and have significantly lower melting points and boiling points than those of metals (with the exception of carbon). Chemically, the nonmetals have relatively high ionisation energy and high electronegativity; they usually exist as anions or oxyanions in aqueous solution; generally form ionic or interstitial compounds when mixed with metals, unlike metals, which form alloys; and have acidic oxides whereas the common oxides of the metals are basic.
The elements generally classified as nonmetals include one element in group 1 (hydrogen); one in group 14 (carbon); two in group 15 (nitrogen and phosphorus); three in group 16 (oxygen, sulfur and selenium); most of group 17 (fluorine, chlorine, bromine and iodine); and all of group 18 (with the possible exception of oganesson).
The distinction between nonmetals and metals is by no means clear. The result is that a few borderline elements lacking a preponderance of either nonmetallic or metallic properties are classified as metalloids; and some elements classified as nonmetals are instead sometimes classified as metalloids, or vice versa. For example, selenium (Se), a nonmetal, is sometimes classified instead as a metalloid, particularly in environmental chemistry; and astatine (At), which is a metalloid and a halogen, is sometimes classified instead as a nonmetal.
Nonmetals have structures in which each atom usually forms (8 − N) bonds with (8 − N) nearest neighbours, where N is the number of valence electrons. Each atom is thereby able to complete its valence shell and attain a stable noble gas configuration. Exceptions to the (8 − N) rule occur with hydrogen (which only needs one bond to complete its valence shell), carbon, nitrogen and oxygen. Atoms of the latter three elements are sufficiently small such that they are able to form alternative (more stable) bonding structures, with fewer nearest neighbours. Thus, carbon is able to form its layered graphite structure, and nitrogen and oxygen are able to form diatomic molecules having triple and double bonds, respectively. The larger size of the remaining non-noble nonmetals weakens their capacity to form multiple bonds and they instead form two or more single bonds to two or more different atoms. Sulfur, for example, forms an eight - membered molecule in which the atoms are arranged in a ring, with each atom forming two single bonds to different atoms.
From left to right across the standard form of periodic table, as metallic character decreases, nonmetals therefore adopt structures that show a gradual reduction in the numbers of nearest neighbours -- three or two for the polyatomic nonmetals, through one for the diatomic nonmetals, to zero for the monatomic noble gases. A similar pattern occurs more generally, at the level of the entire periodic table, in comparing metals and nonmetals. There is a transition from metallic bonding among the metals on the left of the table through to covalent or Van der Waals (electrostatic) bonding among the nonmetals on the right of the table. Metallic bonding tends to involve close - packed centrosymmetric structures with a high number of nearest neighbours. Post-transition metals and metalloids, sandwiched between the true metals and the nonmetals, tend to have more complex structures with an intermediate number of nearest neighbours. Nonmetallic bonding, towards the right of the table, features open - packed directional (or disordered) structures with fewer or zero nearest neighbours. As noted, this steady reduction in the number of nearest neighbours, as metallic character decreases and nonmetallic character increases, is mirrored among the nonmetals, the structures of which gradually change from polyatomic, to diatomic, to monatomic.
As is the case with the major categories of metals, metalloids and nonmetals, there is some variation and overlapping of properties within and across each category of nonmetal. Among the polyatomic nonmetals, carbon, phosphorus and selenium -- which border the metalloids -- begin to show some metallic character. Sulfur (which borders the diatomic nonmetals), is the least metallic of the polyatomic nonmetals but even here shows some discernible metal - like character (discussed below). Of the diatomic nonmetals, iodine is the most metallic. Its number of nearest neighbours is sometimes described as 1 + 2 hence it is almost a polyatomic nonmetal. Within the iodine molecule, significant electronic interactions occur with the two next nearest neighbours of each atom, and these interactions give rise, in bulk iodine, to a shiny appearance and semiconducting properties. Of the monatomic nonmetals, radon is the most metallic and begins to show some cationic behaviour, which is unusual for a nonmetal.
Four nonmetals are distinguished by polyatomic bonding in their standard states, in either discrete or extended molecular forms: carbon (C, as graphite sheets); phosphorus (as P molecules); sulfur (as S molecules); and selenium (Se, as helical chains). Consistent with their higher coordination numbers (2 or 3), the polyatomic nonmetals show more metallic character than the neighbouring diatomic nonmetals; they are all solid, mostly semi-lustrous semiconductors with electronegativity values that are intermediate to moderately high (2.19 -- 2.58). Sulfur is the least metallic of the polyatomic nonmetals given its dull appearance, brittle comportment, and low conductivity -- attributes common to all sulfur allotropes. It nevertheless shows some metallic character, either intrinsically or in its compounds with other nonmetals. Examples include the malleability of plastic sulfur and the lustrous - bronze appearance and metallic conductivity of polysulfur nitride (SN).
The polyatomic nonmetals are distinguished from the diatomic nonmetals by virtue of having higher coordination numbers, higher melting points (in their thermodynamically most stable forms), and higher boiling points; and having wider liquid ranges and lower room temperature volatility. More generally they show a marked tendency to exist in allotropic forms, and a stronger inclination to catenate; and have a weaker ability to form hydrogen bonds. The ability of carbon to catenate, in particular, is fundamental to the field of organic chemistry and life on Earth. All of the polyatomic nonmetals are solids, and all are known in either malleable, pliable or ductile forms; most also have lower ionisation energies and electronegativities than those of the diatomic nonmetals.
Seven nonmetals exist as diatomic molecules in their standard states: hydrogen (H); nitrogen (N); oxygen (O); fluorine (F); chlorine (Cl); bromine (Br); and iodine (I). They are generally highly insulating, highly electronegative, non-reflective gases, noting that bromine, a liquid, and iodine, a solid, are both volatile at room temperature. Exceptions to this generalised description occur at the boundaries of the category: hydrogen has a comparatively low electronegativity due to its unique atomic structure; iodine, in crystalline form, is semi-lustrous, and a semiconductor in the direction of its layers, both of these attributes being consistent with incipient metallic character.
The diatomic nonmetals are distinguished from the polyatomic nonmetals by virtue of having lower coordination numbers, lower melting points (compared to the polyatomic nonmetals in their thermodynamically most stable forms), and lower boiling points; and having narrower liquid ranges and greater room temperature volatility. More generally, they show less inclination to exist in allotropic forms, and to catenate; and have a stronger ability to form hydrogen bonds. Most are also gases, and have higher ionisation energies and higher electronegativities than those of the polyatomic nonmetals.
Six nonmetals occur naturally as monatomic noble gases: helium (He), neon (Ne), argon (Ar), krypton (Kr), xenon (Xe), and the radioactive radon (Rn). They comprise a group of chemical elements with very similar properties. In their standard states they are all colorless, odourless, nonflammable gases with characteristically very low chemical reactivity.
With their closed valence shells, the noble gases have the highest first ionization potentials in each of their periods, and feeble interatomic forces of attraction, with the latter property resulting in very low melting and boiling points. That is why they are all gases under standard conditions, even those with atomic masses larger than many normally solid elements.
The status of the period 7 congener of the noble gases, oganesson (Og), is not known -- it may or may not be a noble gas. It was originally predicted to be a noble gas but may instead be a fairly reactive solid with an anomalously low first ionisation potential, due to relativistic effects. On the other hand, if relativistic effects peak in period 7 at element 112, copernicium (as is thought to be the case), oganesson may turn out to be a noble gas after all, albeit more reactive than either xenon or radon. Regardless, oganesson is predicted to be a nonmetal, and probably the only one in period 7.
Hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, fluorine, chlorine, plus the noble gases are collectively referred to as the elemental gases. These elements are gaseous at standard temperature and pressure (STP). They are also distinguished by having the lowest densities, lowest melting and boiling points, strongest insulating properties, and highest electronegativity and ionization energy values in the periodic table.
It is not known if any synthetic elements with atomic number above 99 are gases. If it transpires that copernicium and flerovium are gaseous metals at or near room temperature, as some calculations as well as preliminary experimental results have suggested, the category of elemental gases may need to be sub-divided into metallic and nonmetallic gases.
Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus and sulfur are sometimes referred to or categorised as organogens, CHON PS elements or biogens. Collectively these six nonmetals are required for all life on Earth. They are further distinguished -- in comparison to the halogens (F, Cl, Br, I, At) and noble gases -- by their general capacity (or potential) to form allotropes; high atomisation energies; intermediate electron affinities; reactivity combined with low toxicity; ability to form alloys with metals; and the weak or neutral acid - base character of their group hydrides.
Selenium, and possibly boron, silicon, arsenic and tellurium, plus the organogen elements are sometimes categorized together as other nonmetals, as they fall outside the halogens and noble gases. The first five of these (Se; B, Si, As, Te) differ from the organogens: none are universally required for life; arsenic is notoriously poisonous; and tellurium hydride is a fairly strong, rather than weak, acidic hydride.
Characteristic and other properties of polyatomic nonmetals, diatomic nonmetals, and the monatomic noble gases are summarized in the following table. Physical properties are listed in loose order of ease of determination; chemical properties run from general to specific, and then to descriptive.
Many nonmetals have less stable allotropes, with either nonmetallic or metallic properties. Graphite, the standard state of carbon, has a lustrous appearance and is a fairly good electrical conductor. The diamond allotrope of carbon is clearly nonmetallic, however, being translucent and having a relatively poor electrical conductivity. Carbon is also known in several other allotropic forms, including semiconducting buckminsterfullerene (C). Nitrogen can form gaseous tetranitrogen (N), an unstable polyatomic molecule with a lifetime of about one microsecond. Oxygen is a diatomic molecule in its standard state; it also exists as ozone (O), an unstable polyatomic nonmetallic allotrope with a half - life of around half an hour. Phosphorus, uniquely, exists in several allotropic forms that are more stable than that of its standard state as white phosphorus (P). The red and black allotropes are probably the best known; both are semiconductors; black phosphorus, in addition, has a lustrous appearance. Phosphorus is also known as diphosphorus (P), an unstable diatomic allotrope. Sulfur has more allotropes than any other element; all of these, except plastic sulfur (a metastable ductile mixture of allotropes) have nonmetallic properties. Selenium has several nonmetallic allotropes, all of which are much less electrically conducting than its standard state of grey "metallic '' selenium. Iodine is also known in a semiconducting amorphous form. Under sufficiently high pressures, just over half of the nonmetals, starting with phosphorus at 1.7 GPa, have been observed to form metallic allotropes.
Hydrogen and helium are estimated to make up approximately 99 per cent of all ordinary matter in the universe. Less than five per cent of the Universe is believed to be made of ordinary matter, represented by stars, planets and living beings. The balance is made of dark energy and dark matter, both of which are poorly understood at present.
Hydrogen, carbon, nitrogen, and oxygen constitute the great bulk of the Earth 's atmosphere, oceans, crust, and biosphere; the remaining nonmetals have abundances of 0.5 per cent or less. In comparison, 35 per cent of the crust is made up of the metals sodium, magnesium, aluminium, potassium and iron; together with a metalloid, silicon. All other metals and metalloids have abundances within the crust, oceans or biosphere of 0.2 per cent or less.
Nonmetals, in their elemental forms, are extracted from: brine: Cl, Br, I; liquid air: N, O, Ne, Ar, Kr, Xe; minerals: C (coal; diamond; graphite); F (fluorite); P (phosphates); I (in sodium iodate NaIO and sodium iodide NaI); natural gas: H, He, S; and from ores, as processing byproducts: Se (especially copper ores); and Rn (uranium bearing ores).
Nonmetals do not have any universal or near - universal applications. This is not the case with metals, most of which have structural uses; nor the metalloids, the typical uses of which extend to (for example) oxide glasses, alloying components, and semiconductors.
Shared applications of different subsets of the nonmetals instead encompass their presence in, or specific uses in the fields of cryogenics and refrigerants: H, He, N, O, F and Ne; fertilisers: H, N, P, S, Cl (as a micronutrient) and Se; household accoutrements: H (primary constituent of water), He (party balloons), C (in pencils, as graphite), N (beer widgets), O (as peroxide, in detergents), F (as fluoride, in toothpaste), Ne (lighting), P (matches), S (garden treatments), Cl (bleach constituent), Ar (insulated windows), Se (glass; solar cells), Br (as bromide, for purification of spa water), Kr (energy saving fluorescent lamps), I (in antiseptic solutions), Xe (in plasma TV display cells), while Rn also sometimes occurs, but then as an unwanted, potentially hazardous indoor pollutant; industrial acids: C, N, F, P, S and Cl; inert air replacements: N, Ne, S (in sulfur hexafluoride SF), Ar, Kr and Xe; lasers and lighting: He, C (in carbon dioxide lasers, CO), N, O (in a chemical oxygen iodine laser), F (in a hydrogen fluoride laser, HF), Ne, S (in a sulfur lamp), Ar, Kr and Xe; and medicine and pharmaceuticals: He, O, F, Cl, Br, I, Xe and Rn.
The number of compounds formed by nonmetals is vast. The first nine places in a "top 20 '' table of elements most frequently encountered in 8,427,300 compounds, as listed in the Chemical Abstracts Service register for July 1987, were occupied by nonmetals. Hydrogen, carbon, oxygen and nitrogen were found in the majority (greater than 64 per cent) of compounds. The highest rated metal, with an occurrence frequency of 2.3 per cent, was iron, in 11th place.
Sulfur and carbon were known in antiquity. The earliest known use of charcoal dates to around 3750 BCE. The Egyptians and Sumerians employed it for the reduction of copper, zinc, and tin ores in the manufacture of bronze. Diamonds were probably known from as early as 2500 BCE. The first true chemical analyses were made in the 18th century; Lavoisier recognized carbon as an element in 1789. Sulfur usage dates from before 2500 BCE; it was recognized as an element by Antoine Lavoisier in 1777.
Phosphorus was prepared from urine, by Hennig Brand, in 1669. It was the first element to be chemically discovered.
Cavendish, in 1766, was the first to distinguish hydrogen from other gases, although Paracelsus around 1500, Robert Boyle (1670), and Joseph Priestley (?) had observed its production by reacting strong acids with metals. Lavoisier named it in 1793. Carl Wilhelm Scheele obtained oxygen by heating mercuric oxide and nitrates in 1771, but did not publish his findings until 1777. Priestley also prepared this new "air '' by 1774, but only Lavoisier recognized it as a true element; he named it in 1777. Daniel Rutherford discovered nitrogen while he was studying at the University of Edinburgh. He showed that the air in which animals breathed, after removal of exhaled carbon dioxide, was no longer able to burn a candle. Scheele, Henry Cavendish, and Priestley also studied this element at about the same time; Lavoisier named it in 1775 - 6. Scheele obtained chlorine from hydrochloric acid, but thought it was an oxide. Only in 1808 did Humphry Davy recognize it as an element.
Courtois, in 1811, discovered iodine in the ashes of seaweed. In 1817, when Berzelius and Johan Gottlieb Gahn were working with lead they discovered a substance that was similar to tellurium. After more investigation Berzelius concluded that it was a new element, related to sulfur and tellurium. Because tellurium had been named for the Earth, Berzelius named the new element "selenium '', after the moon. Balard and Gmelin both discovered bromine in the autumn of 1825 and published their results in the following year.
In 1868, Janssen and Lockyer independently observed a yellow line in the solar spectrum that did not match that of any other element. In 1895, in each case at around the same time, Ramsay, Cleve, and Langlet independently observed helium trapped in cleveite. André - Marie Ampère predicted an element analogous to chlorine obtainable from hydrofluoric acid, and between 1812 and 1886 many researchers tried to obtain it. Fluorine was eventually isolated by Moissan, in 1886. In 1894, Lord Rayleigh and Ramsay discovered argon by comparing the molecular weights of nitrogen prepared by liquefaction from air and nitrogen prepared by chemical means. It was the first noble gas to be isolated. In 1898, within a period of three weeks, Ramsay and Travers successively separated krypton, neon and xenon from liquid argon by their differences in boiling points. In 1898, Dorn discovered a radioactive gas resulting from the radioactive decay of radium; Ramsay and Robert Whytlaw - Gray subsequently isolated radon in 1910.
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what is the national identification number in india | National identification number - wikipedia
A national identification number, national identity number, or national insurance number is used by the governments of many countries as a means of tracking their citizens, permanent residents, and temporary residents for the purposes of work, taxation, government benefits, health care, and other governmentally - related functions. The number appears on identity documents issued by several of the countries.
The ways in which such a system is implemented vary among countries, but in most cases citizens are issued an identification number upon reaching legal age, or when they are born. Non-citizens may be issued such numbers when they enter the country, or when granted a temporary or permanent residence permit.
Many countries issued such numbers for a singular purpose, but over time, they become a de facto national identification number. For example, the United States developed its Social Security number (SSN) system as a means of organizing disbursing of Social Security benefits. However, due to function creep, the number has become used for other purposes to the point where it is almost essential to have one to, among other things, open a bank account, obtain a credit card, or drive a car. Although some countries are required to collect Taxpayer Identification Number (TIN) information for overseas payment procedures, some countries, like the US, are not required to collect other nations ' TIN if other requirements are met, such as date of birth. Authorities use databases and they need a unique identifier in order to be that data actually refer to the searched person. In countries where there is no established nationwide number, authorities need to create their own number for each person, though there is a risk of mismatching people.
In The Gambia, the National Identification Number (NIN) consists of 11 digits in the form DDMMYY - PG - # # CS. DD MM YY indicates date of birth, PG indicates place of issuance and nationality, # # is a serial number and also indicates sex and CS is a check sum.
The Nigerian National Identification Number (NIN) is issued and managed by National Identity Management Commission (NIMC), and it 's a set of eleven digits (e.g.: 134789009), assigned to 16 + years old Nigerians and legal residents by the Government.
In the Republic of South Africa every citizen must apply for an Identity Document from the age of 16 years. The ID number is already allocated at the time the birth certificate is generated and required for child passport applications. This passport - size document contains only 8 pages - the first page containing the national identification number (also in barcoded format), name of bearer, district or country of birth, as well as a photograph of the bearer. The other pages are used for recording of voting participation, a page for driver 's license information (although it is no longer used since the introduction of plastic card type licenses), as well as pages for fire arms licenses (also plastic card type now). The document is required to apply for a passport, car learner 's license (over 17), motorcycle learner 's license (over 16), driving license (over 18), motorcycle license (over 16 or 18 depending on cc) and to vote (over 18). The Identity Document is not used for international travel purposes (a separate passport is issued) but usually is acceptable photographic identification for internal flights, and mainly serves as proof of identification. Some authorities may accept the driver 's license as proof of identity, but the Identity Document is the only universally accepted form of identification. The government has started issuing ID cards which contains a biometric chip which, in turn, holds biographical information which is unique to the holder of that specific card. The South African government wishes to phase out the old Green Barcoded ID book and replace it with the Identity Card. The Identity number is also used when the holder applies for a grant from the South African Social Security Agency (SASSA).
A South African person identification number is a 13 - digit number containing only numeric characters, and no whitespace, punctuation, or alpha characters. It is defined as YYMMDDSSSSCAZ:
Using ID Number 8001015009087 as an example, it would read as follows:
The ID indicates that a male citizen was born on 1 January 1980; he was the 10th male to be registered (assuming that the first male to be registered on that day would be assigned the sequence number 5000).
The checksum digit is calculated using the Luhn algorithm:
During the apartheid era the next to last digit, "A '', denoted "race ''. Since these documents were not then issued to the majority population, the "race '' code does not include those classified as Black. i.e. 7605300675088
"A '' Classification:
After about 1987, the racial classification was eliminated, and all existing numbers were reissued with new digits in the last two fields (AZ).
In contrast to other countries the South African ID number is not unique, at least because of the use of a two - digit year. Other issues with duplications exist: however the Department of Home Affairs HANIS Project has planned to rectify that with ID smart cards. The timeline for that is undetermined as the last budget request for 08 / 09 and 09 / 10 included requests for budget for it despite the project being active since 1997.
Upon reaching the age of 16 the applicant then has to go to the registrar generals offices in their district to obtain a national ID. Foreigners in Zimbabwe have their ID number with the district of origin as 00 meaning they are foreigners so their ID number would look like 12 345678 A00. Zimbabweans who are not of black race also get a district of origin shown as 00, even those who are of mixed race.
In Argentina the only nationally issued identification is the DNI, Documento Nacional de Identidad (National Identity Document). It is a number not related to anything in particular about the person (except for immigrants who get assigned numbers starting at 92,000,000). It is assigned at birth by the Registro Nacional de las Personas (National Registry for People), but parents need to sign up their children, and because of this there are some people, especially the poor, who do not have a DNI.
The ID is required for applying for credit, opening a bank account, and for voting. Law requires a person to show his or her DNI when using a credit card. Prior to the DNI the LC (Libreta Cívica, for women), and LE (Libreta de Enrolamiento, for men) were used. This was later unified in the DNI.
For taxpaying purposes, the CUIT and CUIL (Código Único de Identificación Tributaria, Unique Code for Taxpaying Identification and Código Único de Identificación Laboral, Unique Code for Laboral Identification). An example of the ID is 20 - 10563145 - 8. It is based on the DNI and appends 2 numbers at the beginning and one at the end. For example, 20 and 23 for men, 27 for women, and one control digit at the end. Employees have a CUIL (assigned at the moment the DNI is created), and employers have a CUIT. The first two digits to identify the CUIT for companies are for instance: 30 or 33. If a person decides to open a company of its own, his CUIL usually becomes his CUIT. The CUIT was needed because a different identification is required for companies, who can not be identified by a DNI number.
In Brazil there are two systems. The first, the Registro Geral (RG) is a number associated to the official ID card. Although the ID cards are supposedly national, the RG numbers are assigned by the states and a few other organizations, such as the armed forces. So, not only is it possible for a person to have the same RG number as a person from other state (which is usually dealt with by specifying the state which issued the ID card), but it is also possible to (legally) have more than one RG, from different states.
The other system, the Cadastro de Pessoas Físicas (CPF) is federal and supposedly unique (barring fraud), but it was created originally for purposes of taxation (a related system is used for companies, which is called Cadastro Nacional de Pessoas Jurídicas - CNPJ). One, the other or both numbers are required for many common tasks in Brazil, such as opening a bank account or getting a driver 's license. The RG system is more widespread, but its shortcomings have led to debate about merging both systems into a new one, which would be based around the CPF.
Another type of registration is the Social Security Number, which is originated when a person creates one in the National Social Security Institute 's site or starts to work for a company, when this one has to register the employee in the Social Integration Program.
There is another number for elections, which are mandatory participation for citizens from 18 to 70 years old.
The use of the Social Insurance Number (SIN) as a "de facto '' ID number ended in 2004 with passage of The Personal Information Protection and Electronic Documents Act. There are only certain instances where an organization may ask for a SIN (namely for tax or retirement benefit related issues). The SIN must be guarded as confidential personal information, and therefore can not be used as a general ID number. Nevertheless, the SIN is still used as a unique identifier for the Canada Revenue Agency to track individuals who are filing their income tax returns.
In Chile the National Identification Number is called RUN (Rol Único Nacional), but is usually called RUT (Rol Único Tributario) since the number is the same as the one used for tax purposes. The main difference between them is that RUN is only assigned to natural persons, while juristic persons can only get a RUT number.
In the case of natural persons, RUN / RUT number is used as a national identification number, tax payer number, social insurance number, driver 's license number, for employment, etc. It is also commonly used as a customer number in banks, retailers, insurance companies, airlines, etc. Until the end of August 2013, the RUN was also used as the passport number. After this date, Chilean passports have had unique numbers.
Since well before 1990, every baby born is given a RUN number; previously it was assigned at the moment of applying to get the ID card. Non-Chilean residents also get a RUN and an identification card. Every company or organization also must have a RUT for taxation purposes.
The RUN or RUT has 7 or 8 digits (for people alive today; in the past, there were persons with a 5 - or 6 - digit one, but have died off) plus a check digit or letter (xx. xxx. xxx - z, z is (0 - 9, K)).
Some open source libraries have been already written for Java and Clojure.
Another good resource and implementation example in C# it 's available here
In Colombia, each person is issued a basic ID card during childhood (Tarjeta de Identidad). The ID number includes the date of birth and a short serial number. Upon reaching the age of 18, every citizen is reissued a citizenship card (Cédula de Ciudadanía), and the ID number on it is used and required in all instances, public and private.
Every Colombian national traveling abroad is issued a passport document (which includes a passport number related to the national identification number); in this manner foreign governments can track Colombian nationals with their consulates.
There is as well a number assigned to companies: NIT (Número de Identificación Tributaria). Tributary Identification Number (for its Spanish acronym). Among other things, it is used for tax reports.
RUT (Registro único tributario) (taxpayer identification number) (10)
As of 2003 created the NUIP (Número Único de Identificación Personal), starting the numbering per billion (1,000,000,000).
In Mexico, the ID number is called the CURP (Clave Única de Registro de Población) although the most important and accepted ID card would be the election card ("credencial de elector '' or else "credencial del INE, '' as per the initials of "Instituto Nacional Electoral / National Institute of Elections, the institution responsible for electoral procedures). There are, however, other important ID numbers in Mexico: for instance, the social security number, which is the number assigned by Instituto Mexicano del Seguro Social (Mexican Institute of Social Security, or IMSS) to every citizen who starts working, or the RFC (Registro Federal del Contribuyente) which is assigned by the Treasury and has the same format as the CURP but a shorter length.
In the United States, a Selective Service Number must be applied for by all male citizens turning age 18. An optional national identity number is the Social Security number (SSN), a nine - digit number issued to U.S. citizens, permanent residents, and temporary (working) residents. Its purpose was to identify individuals for the purposes of Social Security, but it is now also used to track individuals for taxation purposes. There is no legal requirement to have a SSN if it is not required for Social Security or taxation purposes, but in practice one is required for many other purposes, for example to open a bank account or apply for a driving license, so that nearly all U.S. citizens and permanent residents have one. The SSN has therefore become a de facto national identification number, despite the fact that originally it was expressly not for this purpose. In fact, a valid SSN can be easily guessed, as they were issued serially prior to June 25, 2011.
In Venezuela, the SAIME (DIEX) issues an ID card for individuals in their teens (Cédula de Identidad). The ID card includes date of birth, a correlative number (population continuous number for nationals, greater than 80,000,000 for foreign - born residents), a photo, marital status, expiration date (an expired ID card is still valid for nationals), and a fingerprint. Newly issued ID cards are valid for 10 years.
Companies are assigned an RIF (Fiscal Information Registry) number for taxable purposes. For physical persons, it is their ID number + checksum digit.
In Bahrain every citizen and resident must hold an Identification Card (Arabic: بطاقة الهوية ) and thus has a Personal Number (Arabic: الرقم الشخصي ) which consists of 8 digits followed by a check digit (Total: 9 digits). In general, it has the following format: YYMMNNNNC, where YYMM is the year and month of birth, NNNN is a random number, C is the check digit. However, a minority of citizens and residents have Personal Numbers that do not follow that format.
It is possible to obtain a Distinctive Personal Number (Arabic: الرقم الشخصي المميز ), only for newborn infants and it is optional and not compulsory, for a fee (US $130, 200, or 260 depending on the category).
Another local name for the Personal number is Central Population Registration (CPR) Number (Arabic: الرقم السكاني ) which was used before the inception of the Central Informatics Organization (CIO) (Arabic: الجهاز المركزي للمعلومات ).
In Bangladesh national ID card is issued by Election Commission.
In the PRC, an ID card is mandatory for all citizens who are over 16 years old. The ID number has 18 digits and is in the format RRRRRRYYYYMMDDSSSC, which is the sole and exclusive identification code for the holder (an old ID card only has 15 digits in the format RRRRRRYYMMDDIII). RRRRRR is a standard code for the administrative division where the holder is born (county or a district of a city), YYYYMMDD is the birth date of the holder, and SSS is a sequential code for distinguishing people with identical birthdates and birthplaces. The sequential code is odd for males and even for females. The final character, C, is a checksum value over the first 17 digits. To calculate the checksum, each digit in order is multiplied by a weight in the ordered set (7 9 10 5 8 4 2 1 6 3 7 9 10 5 8 4 2) and summed together. The sum modulus 11 is used as an index into the ordered set (1 0 X 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2), with the first index being zero. The indexed value is the checksum digit. In 15 digit IDs, III is an identification number created through certain mathematical methods (the last digit might be an English letter, such as X). The ID card is used for residential registration, army enrollment registration, registration of marriage / divorce, going abroad, taking part in national exams, and other social or civil matters.
In Hong Kong, a Hong Kong Identity Card (HKID) is mandatory for all residents aged over 11, subject to limited exceptions. HKID cards contain the bearer 's HKID number, of which the standard format is X123456 (A). X represents one or two letters of the alphabet. The numerals may represent any Arabic number. A is the check digit, which has 11 possible values from 0 to 9 and A. The letters and numbers are not assigned arbitrarily. Additionally, one can view the international securities identification numbers organization that helps assign ISIN codes to securities.
As World 's biggest Biometric ID Programme, the Indian Government on 28 January 2009, established an Authority called the Unique Identification Authority of India (UIDAI) to issue a Unique Identification Number to all citizens and residents of India. UIDAI 's Aadhaar card project gives each Indian citizen a unique 12 digit identification number, along with recording their biometrics such as iris scan and fingerprints on a UIDAI database and the card is being rolled out to all eligible citizens. The first Aadhaar number was launched in Maharashtra in the village of Tembhli, on 29 September 2010. So far up to February 2016, 984 million (98 crores) Aadhaar Numbers have been issued. In October 2015, 93 percent of adult Indians have an Aadhaar card. There is no Aadhaar smart card but UID information of a card can be printed on a piece of paper or on a plastic card. After the recent order by the supreme court of India Aadhar card is not mandatory for availing public services.
Before Aadhaar, the closest India has come to this is the Permanent account number (PAN), issued by the Income Tax Office, for purposes of tracking income and income taxes. It has gained use as a means of identification for activities like getting a phone connection. A total of 24.37 crore (243.7 million) PANs have been allotted as of 24 February 2016.
In Indonesia, 16 digit number is used as a unique number for each citizens. It is known as Nomor Induk Kependudukan. The number is given to all Indonesian citizen. The format is PPRRSSDDMMYYXXXX where PP is two digits province code, RR is two digits regency or city code, SS is two digits sub-district code, DDMMYY is date of birth (DD is added by 40 for female), and XXXX is a four digits computerized number. The number is stated in Indonesian identity card. Add with individual state code as per issue state a unique no of district. and its no to be reflected from (like District no + state No + India National N
This program is designed on the basis of UIDAI of India. Though Indonesia started late, Indonesia National ID program is growing at much rapid pace and assumed to complete earlier than India due to smaller population.
Since 2012, the government rolls out e-KTP ("Elektronik Kartu Tanda Penduduk '', "Electronic Citizen ID Card '') which is an RFID card containing encrypted information of the electronic signature, iris scan, ten - finger fingerprint scan and a high - resolution passport photo.
In Iran ID card named (کارت ملی) Iranian national identity card karte - meli, ID card is mandatory for all citizens who are over 15 years old and National Identification Number is a 10 - digit number in the format of XXX - XXXXXX - X; (e.g. 012 - 345678 - 9). The government started NIDs and 10 - digit postal codes in 1989.
Every Iraqi citizen must have a Nationality Certificate (شهادة الجنسية) and a civil Identification Document (هوية الأحوال المدنية). In 2016, both documents were replaced with National Card (البطاقة الوطنية), a biometric ID card.
An Identity Number (Hebrew: מספר זהות Mispar Zehut) is issued to all Israeli citizens at birth by the Ministry of the Interior. It is composed of nine digits: a one - digit prefix, seven digits, and a final check digit. Blocks of numbers are distributed to hospitals, and individual numbers are issued to babies upon discharge from hospital. Temporary residents (category A-5) are assigned a number when they receive temporary resident status.
An Identity Card, (Hebrew: Teudat Zehut), bearing an Identity Number, is issued to all residents over 16 years old who have legal temporary or permanent residence status, including non-citizens.
Japan 's national identification number system, known within the country as "My Number '' (Japanese: マイ ナンバー), went into effect from 2016. The number consists of 12 digits, and one is assigned to each resident of Japan, including non-Japanese long - term residents with valid residency permits.
In Kazakhstan there is a 12 - digit Individual Identification Number for natural persons (abbreviated in Kazakh: ЖСН, ZhSN; in Russian: ИИН, IIN, with first six digits representing person 's date of birth in the YYMMDD format) and a 12 - digit Business Identification Number ru: Бизнес - идентификационный номер for legal entities (companies).
Until its abolishment on 1 January 2013, the 12 - digit Taxpayer 's Registration Number (Kazakh: Салық төлеушінің тіркеу нөмірі; Russian: Регистрационный номер налогоплательщика, usually abbreviated as РНН, RNN) was more popular in dealings with authorities as well as with businesses.
In Kuwait, the 12 - digit national identification number is the Civil Number (Arabic: الرقم المدني ), it follows the format (NYYMMDDNNNNN), and is issued and put on the Civil ID and managed by Public Agency for Civil Information (PACI) Arabic: الهيئة العامة للمعلومات المدنية .
The Civil ID contains holder 's name in Arabic and English, picture, gender, date of birth, current address and a digital memory.
The Civil Number is issued for citizens and residents, and it 's used for a lot of tasks like opening a bank account, getting free medical care or even for taking some tests like the IELTS exam. Passports can be used instead for those who do n't have Civil IDs like tourists.
In Macau, there are two types of ID cards: Permanent Resident Identity Card (BIRP) and Non-Permanent Resident Identity Card (BIRNP). The identification number has 8 - digit standard format: NNNNNNN (N), where N is a numeric digit 0 - 9. The first numeric digit N has special meaning, and it can be one of the following digits: ' 1 ', ' 5 ' or ' 7 '.
During Portuguese rule, Macau had no unified identification system, and several departments had the authority to issue identity cards to Macau citizens and residents. Since 1992, the Identification Department (once known as SIM, now called DSI) has become the unitary authority to issue identity cards. It has adopted the above - mentioned numbering policy.
Macau 's Finance Department has also adopted identification number as a tax reporting number, for tax filing purposes.
In Malaysia, a 12 - digit number (format: YYMMDD - SS - # # # G, since 1991) known as the National Registration Identification Card Number (NRIC No.) is issued to citizens and permanent residents on a MyKad. Prior to January 1, 2004, a separate social security (SOCSO) number (also the old IC number in format ' S # # # # # # # # # ', S denotes state of birth or country of origin (alphabet or number), # is a 9 - digit serial number) was used for social security - related affairs.
The first group of numbers (YYMMDD) are the date of birth. The second group of numbers (SS) represents the place of birth of the holder - the states (01 - 13), the federal territories (14 - 16) or the country of origin (60 - 85). The last group of numbers (# # # G) is a serial number in an unidentified pattern which is randomly generated. The last digit (G) is an odd number for a male, while an even number is given for a female.
Nepal is soon introducing National Identification Card. It is a Bio-metric smart card which will hold all the important details of an individual. A department level central body under the Ministry of Home Affairs named National ID Management Center has been established on 2011 - 07 - 17 AD, pursuant to the decision of 2010 - 06 - 30 AD of Nepal Government. (11)
After the independence of Pakistan, Prime Minister Liaquat Ali Khan launched the Personal Identity System (PIS) program to issue national identification cards to the citizens of Pakistan and Muslim refugees settling in Pakistan. Since the 1960s, Pakistan has been issuing National Identity Card (commonly known by the acronym, NIC) numbers to its citizens. These numbers are assigned at birth when the parents complete the child 's birth registration form (B - Form), and then a National Identity Card (NIC) with the same number is issued at the age of 18. Until, 2001 NIC numbers were 11 digits long. In 2001 -- 2002, the National Database and Registration Authority (NADRA), started issuing 13 - digit NIC numbers along with their new biometric ID cards. The first 5 digits are based on the applicant 's locality, the next 7 are serial numbers, and the last digit is a check digit. The last digit also indicates the gender of the applicant; an even number indicates a female and an odd number indicates a male. The old numbers are invalid as of 2004.
As of 2012, NADRA has started to issue SMART ID cards which include an encrypted chip. The SMART card plan is to be extended to disburse social benefits as well as to allow the heirs of the card to get life insurance at the death of the card holder.
Every citizen has an NIC number for activities such as paying taxes, opening a bank account, getting a utility connection (phone, cell phone, gas, electricity). However, since a majority of births in the country are not registered, and a large number of Pakistanis do not conduct any of the activities described above, most do not have ID cards. Obtaining an NIC card costs 100 rupees (US $1.66 - almost the average daily income), and this reduces the number of people who can afford it. In 2006, NADRA announced that it had issued 50 million CNIC (the C standing for Computerized) numbers, which is approximately one - third of the population. In June 2008, the federal government announced it would start issuing CNIC cards for free.
In addition to NIC / CNIC companies and individuals in business and employment with taxable income are required to register with Central Board of Revenue and have their National Tax Number (commonly known as NTN). The tax number is mainly used only for taxation purposes and is rarely used otherwise as compared to other countries. New NTN certificates are being issued with computerized NIC numbers and old NTN certificates bearing old NIC numbers will become invalid.
In Singapore the National Registration Identity Card (NRIC) is issued to Singapore citizens and permanent residents. Permanent residents (PR) are issued with NRIC number similar to citizens.
The NRIC contains a unique number that identifies the person holding it, and is used for almost all identification purposes in Singapore, including authentication when accessing the Singapore government 's web portal. Citizens and permanent residents are issued with identity number starts with prefix S (born before 2000) and T (born in or after year 2000), followed with a 7 - digit number and a checksum alphabet. For citizens and permanent residents born after 1968, the first two digits of the 7 - digit number indicate their birth year.
Long - term pass holders (e.g. people holding work permits, employment passes or student passes) are issued a similarly formatted Foreign Identification Number (FIN) on their long - term passes, with prefix F (registered before year 2000) and G (registered in or after year 2000).
In South Korea, every Korean resident is assigned a Resident 's Registration Number (주민등록번호), which has the form 000000 - 0000000. The last seven digits have his / her birthday and gender, where the first six digits are in the format YYMMDD. The first digit of the last seven digits is determined by the century and the gender as follows:
(For example, a male citizen who was born on 27 May 2001 is assigned the number 010527 ‒ 3 * * * * * *, and a female citizen which was born on 24 March 1975 is assigned the number 750324 ‒ 2 * * * * * *.)
The next four digits mean the region of his / her birth registration, and the next 1 digit is a serial number of registration within the date and the region. The last digit is a check digit.
In Sri Lanka, all citizens over the age of 16 need to apply for a National Identity Card (NIC). Each NIC has a unique 10 digit number, in the format 000000000A (where 0 is a digit and A is a letter). The first two digits of the number are your year of birth (e.g.: 88xxxxxxxx for someone born in 1988). Add 500 to middle 3 numbers after first two numbers for females. The final letter is generally a ' V ' or ' X '. An NIC number is required to apply for a passport (over 16), driving license (over 18) and to vote (over 18). In addition, all citizens are required to carry their NIC on them as proof of identity. NICs are not issued to non-citizens, but they too are required to carry some form of photo identification (such as a photocopy of their passport or foreign driving license).
In Taiwan, an ID card is mandatory for all citizens who are over 14 years old. Every citizen has a unique ID number. The ID card has been uniformly numbered since 1965. A valid National Identification number consists of one letter and nine - digits, in the format A# # # # # # # # C. The letter ("A '') records the card holder 's first location of household registration, which is usually where they were born. The first digit depends on gender; 1 for male, 2 for female. The last digit ("C '') is a checksum. Thus the total number of IDs is 208,000,000.
The letter usage (i.e., indicating the household registration location) is as follows:
In Thailand, the Population Identification Code has been issued by the Department of Provincial Administration of the Ministry of Interior since 1976. It consists of a 13 - digit string in the format N - NNNN - NNNNN - NN - N, which is assigned at birth or upon receiving citizenship. The first digit signifies type of citizenship, the second to fifth the office where the number was issued, the sixth to twelfth are group and sequence numbers, and the last digit acts as a check digit.
The Emirates Identity Authority (Arabic: هيئة الإمارات للهوية ) issues an Identity Card (Arabic: بطاقة الهوية ) to each citizen and resident. The cardholder 's name, nationality, gender and date of birth are printed on the card. The card also bears a unique 15 - digit Identification Number (Arabic: رقم الهوية ), which is used for identity verification by the government and some private entities. Inside the card is an electronic chip which contains personal and biometric data about the cardholder.
The Identification Number has the following format: 784 - YYYY - NNNNNNN - C, where 784 is the ISO 3166 - 1 numeric code for the UAE, YYYY is the year of birth, NNNNNNN is a random 7 - digit number, and C is a check digit.
In Vietnam, a Vietnam ID card (Vietnamese: Thẻ căn cước công dân), is issued by Provincial Police Department for Vietnamese citizens. The ID card number is a combination of 12 digits.
The expiry date of the ID card is 15 years.
In Albania, the Identity Number (Albanian: Numri i Identitetit (NID)) is issued by the Central Civic Registry Service (Ministry of Interior). The coding structure and algorithm is regulated by a decision of the Council of Ministers of Albania (No. 827, Dated 11.12. 2003). From 2004 to 2007, the Identity Number was referred to as the Citizen Identity Number (Albanian: Numri i Identitetit të Shtetasit (NISH)). As of 2007, with the introduction the new legislation regarding the new biometric ID cards and biometric passports, it is referred to as the Identity Number. The Albanian national identification number appears in the Albanian national ID cards and biometric passports under the ' personal no. ' section.
The Albanian Identity Number is a unique personal identification number of 10 characters in the format YYMMDDSSSC, where YYMMDD indicates the date of birth and sex (for males MM is 01 - 12, for females 50 is added to the month of birth so that MM is 51 - 62), SSS is a sequence number of persons born on the same date (001 -- 999), and C is a checksum letter (A -- W). The YY part of the date of birth is calculated from the following table:
e.g. For people born in the year 2003, YY would be K3.
In Austria there are two schemes to identify individuals:
The Sector - Specific Personal Identifier (ssPIN) tries to do away with the problems of the SSN. Its legal foundation is the Austrian E-Government Act, and it is derived from the Central Register of Residents (CRR). Its specification is related with the Austrian Citizen Card.
Its computation (specification) is a two - stage process: The CCR ID is encoded into the Source Identification Number (Source PIN) with a symmetrical crypto - function. This is again one - way encoded into the ssPIN per sector of governmental activity. For the storage of SourcePINs is not limited to citizen cards, and an application can not convert a ssPIN from one sector to the ssPIN from applications of other sectors, the link - up of data of sectors by PINs is constricted. However, there is a legal exception to this rule: applications may query for and store ssPINs from other sectors if they are encrypted in a way that makes them only usable in the target application. This enables the application to communicate across sectors.
In Belgium every citizen has a National Register Number, which is created by using the citizen 's date of birth (encoded in six digits), followed by a serial number (three digits) and a checksum (two digits). The serial number is used so that men get the odd numbers, while women get the even numbers; thus, there can be only 500 men or women on each day.
The national number is unique to each person and in that capacity used by most government institutions; however, because one can immediately read the date of birth and the sex of the numbers ' holder and because it is the key in most government databases (including that of the tax administration, the social security, and others), it is considered a privacy - sensitive number. For that reason, although it is put on the identity card by default, with the old ID cards a citizen could request that this would not be done. With the newer Digital ID cards that Belgium is rolling out, this is no longer possible, since the National Number is used as the serial number for the private cryptography keys on the card...
Each citizen receives 13 number Unique Master Citizen Number (Bosnian: Jedinstveni matični broj građana) upon birth. Unique Master Citizen Number comprises 13 digits in DDMMYYY RR XXX C format. DD / MM / YYY represents citizens birth date. RR indicates one of 10 Bosnian regions (10: Banja Luka, 11: Bihać, 12: Doboj, 13: Goražde, 14: Livno, 15: Mostar, 16: Prijedor, 17: Sarajevo, 18: Tuzla, 19: Zenica) where the citizen was born. XXX is a unique sequential number where 000 - 499 is used for males and 500 - 999 for females. The final number is a check - sum.
Foreign citizens born or residing in Bosnia & Herzegovina can also receive a Unique Master Citizen Number (UMCN). The RR sequence foreign nationals is 01. Upon gaining Bosnian citizenship, a former foreign national can request new UMCN where the RR part is represented by the region where they were first registered.
Every citizen or permanent resident of Bulgaria has a unique 10 - digit Uniform Civil Number (Bulgarian: Единен граждански номер, Edinen grazhdanski nomer, usually abbreviated as ЕГН, EGN), generated from the person 's date of birth (encoded in six digits in the form YYMMDD), followed by a three - digit serial number and a single - digit checksum. The last digit of serial number indicates gender: odd numbers are used for females and even numbers for males.
For persons born prior to 1900, the month identifier (third and fourth digits) is increased by 20 (e.g. 952324XXXX denotes a person born on 24 March 1895). Similarly, 40 is added to denote that a person was born after 1999 (e.g. 054907XXXX denotes a person born on 7 September 2005).
EGNs were introduced in 1977 and are used in virtually all dealings with public service agencies, and often with private businesses. EGNs are also printed on Bulgarian identity cards and passports, under the heading "ЕГН / Personal number ''.
In Croatia, the Personal Identification Number (Croatian: Osobni identifikacijski broj (OIB)), is used for identifying the citizens and legal persons in many government and civilian systems. The OIB - system was introduced on January 1, 2009 and replaced the old JMBG system, renamed to Master Citizen Number (Croatian: Matični broj građana (MBG)) in 2002, that was used in former Yugoslavia. The OIB consists of eleven random digits and the last number is a control number. Although the OIB is in use, the MBG is still issued and used for data coordination among government registries.
Czech Republic and Slovakia uses a system called Birth Number (Czech / Slovak: rodné číslo (RČ)). The system was introduced in the former Czechoslovakia.
The form is YYXXDD / SSSC, where XX = MM (month of birth) for male (numbers 01 - 12) and XX = MM + 50 for female (numbers 51 - 62), SSS is a serial number separating persons born on the same date and C is a check digit, but for people born before 1 January 1954 the form is without the check digit - YYXXDD / SSS. This enables the system to work until the year 2054. The whole number must be divisible by 11.
The system is raising privacy concerns, since the age and the gender of the bearer can be decoded from the number. Therefore, the birth number is considered a sensitive piece of personal information.
A Personal Identification Number (Da. CPR, Det Centrale Personregister) in Denmark is used in dealings with public agencies, from health care to the tax authorities. It is also used as a customer number in banks and insurance companies. People must be registered with a CPR number if they reside in Denmark, if they own property or if they pay tax.
In Denmark, there has been a systematic registration since 1924, however it was in 1968 that the electronic CPR register was established.
In the 1980s, the electronic system was exported to Kuwait, Jamaica, Malaysia, Thailand, Romania, Cyprus, Estonia, Latvia, Slovakia, and Saint Petersburg.
The CPR number is a ten - digit number with the format DDMMYY - SSSS, where DDMMYY is the date of birth and SSSS is a sequence number. The first digit of the sequence number encodes the century of birth (so that centenarians are distinguished from infants, 0 - 4 in odd centuries, 5 - 9 in even centuries), and the last digit of the sequence number is odd for males and even for females.
Prior to 2007, the last digit was also a check digit such that less than 240 SSSS values were available for any given combination of gender and date of birth, but due to an administrative practice of assigning Jan 1 and similar dates for immigrants with unknown date of birth, any SSSS value consistent with gender and century of birth may now be issued, even for birth dates prior to 2007.
Companies and other taxable non-humans are issued an eight - digit "CVR '' number which is a mostly sequential number, there is no defined rule preventing the issuance of a CVR number with the same digits as a CPR number of an unrelated person, so the type of number must always be indicated, but CPR are always 10 - digit and CVR 8 - digit. VAT registration numbers for Danish companies are simply "DK '' followed by the CVR number, but far from all CVR numbered entities are VAT registered (companies with no need for a VAT number, such as holding companies, typically do not request a VAT registration for their CVR).
Government entities are numbered in a variety of ways, but since 2003 all government entities (however small) now have EAN numbers for billing purposes. Some Government entities also have CVR numbers. Only one Government Entity (the Queen) has a CPR number.
The CPR number gives government agencies access to state - controlled databases with information about the person. The information includes: The person 's marital status and spouse, parents, children, current and former addresses, the cars the person has owned, the criminal record and other information about the person.
Foreigners who are not eligible to get a CPR - number, but who need one, includes persons who have witnessed a crime, persons who have been charged with a crime, or are victims of a crime. These persons are registered with a CPR - number with the format: DDMMYY - XXXX where XXXX are four letters instead of four numbers.
In Estonia, a Personal Identification Code (Estonian: isikukood (IK)) is defined as a number formed on the basis of the sex and date of birth of a person which allows the identification of the person and used by government and other systems where identification is required, as well as by digital signatures using the nation ID - card and its associated certificates. An Estonian Personal identification code consists of 11 digits, generally given without any whitespace or other delimiters. The form is GYYMMDDSSSC, where G shows sex and century of birth (odd number male, even number female, 1 - 2 19th century, 3 - 4 20th century, 5 - 6 21st century), SSS is a serial number separating persons born on the same date and C a checksum.
Within the European Economic Area and Switzerland, a card known as the European Health Insurance Card is issued to any resident who so wishes, proving the right of health care anywhere in the area. This card lists a code called "Identification Number '', which in some cases may be the national identification number of the residence country, for Germany the health insurance number.
In Finland, the Personal Identity Code (Finnish: henkilötunnus (HETU), Swedish: personbeteckning), also known as Personal Identification Number, was introduced in 1964 and it is used for identifying the citizens in government and many corporate and other transactions. It consists of eleven characters of the form DDMMYYCZZZQ, where DDMMYY is the date of birth, C the century sign, ZZZ the individual number and Q the control character (checksum). The sign for the century is either + (1800 -- 1899), - (1900 -- 1999), or A (2000 -- 2099). The individual number ZZZ is odd for males and even for females and for people born in Finland its range is 002 - 899 (larger numbers may be used in special cases). An example of a valid code is 311280 - 888Y.
The control character is calculated as the remainder of DDMMYYZZZ divided by 31, i.e. drop the century sign and divide the resulting nine digit number by 31. For remainders below ten, the remainder itself is the control character, otherwise pick the corresponding character from string "0123456789ABCDEFHJKLMNPRSTUVWXY ''. For example, 311280888 divided by 31 gives the remainder as 30, and since A = 10, B = 11, etc. ending up with Y = 30.
A Personal Identity Code is given to every Finnish citizen born in Finland. Foreign citizens whose residence in Finland is permanent or exceeds one year are also issued a personal identity code by law. The Personal Identity Code is a means to distinguish between individuals having the same name. It can be found in some public documents (such as the deed of purchase of real estate). Therefore, knowing the code should not be used as a proof of identity, although this sometimes happens in the commercial sector. Employers need the personal identity code to report payment of wages to Finnish Tax Administration, the pension funds, etc.
The number is shown in all forms of valid identification:
During 1964 -- 1970 the personal identity code was known as sosiaaliturvatunnus (SOTU, Social Security number). The term is still widely in use unofficially (and incorrectly).
In France, the INSEE code is used as a social insurance number, a national identification number, for taxation purposes, for employment, etc. It was invented under the Vichy regime.
In Germany, there is no national identification number in the full meaning of the term. Until 2007 only decentralized databases were kept by social insurance companies, who allocate a social insurance number to almost every person.
Since 2008 new Taxpayer Identification Numbers (German: Steuerliche Identifikationsnummer or Steuer - IdNr) replace the former Tax File Number. Persons who are both employees and self - employed at the same time may receive two taxpayer identification numbers. The corresponding number for organizations, also issued by the tax administration, is named economy identification number (Wirtschafts - Identifikationsnummer). These numbering concepts are national systems, organized by the Federal Central Tax Office. For special purpose further value - added tax identification numbers are issued for persons and organizations that are subject to paying VAT as a deduct from their revenues. This is a Europe - wide unified concept. Additionally for all persons joining the military service, a Service Number is issued.
None of these numbers are commonly used for other than their specific purpose, nor is such (ab) use legal. German identity documents do not contain any of the mentioned numbers, only a document number. People are not expected to know their number when dealing with an authority, so there are some troubles about people being mismatched.
For some time, the West German government intended to create a 12 - digit personal identification number (Personenkennzeichen, PKZ) for all citizens, registered alien residents on its territory, as well as for all non-resident Nazi victims entitled to compensation payments. The system, which was to be implemented by the 1973 federal law on civil registry, was rejected in 1976, when the Bundestag found the concept of an identification system for the entire population to be incompatible with the existing legal framework. In East Germany, a similar system named Personenkennzahl (PKZ) was set up in 1970 and remained in use until the state ceased to exist in 1990.
As Germany is part of the Visa Waiver Program German citizens can enter the USA for up to 90 days without the need of a visa. In order to participate in this program it is required to fill out an online form called ESTA. This formular specifically asks German citizens about a national identification number. US authorities expect to provide the document number of the German identity card.
In Greece, there are a number of national identification numbers.
The ID card number is not unique and changes if the person gets a new identity card. The tax identity number is unique for every citizen and company. Social security number is also unique.
In Hungary, there is no national identification number. The Constitutional Court decided in 1991: "A general, uniform personal identification code which may be used without restriction (i.e. a personal number) distributed to every citizen and to every resident of the country based on an identical principle is unconstitutional. ''
Although the universal use of national identification number (known as "Personal Identification Number '') is considered to be unconstitutional, it is still used in many places. The structure of such number is GYYMMDDXXXC, whereas G is the gender (1 - male, 2 - female, other numbers are also possible for citizens born before 1900 or citizens with double citizenship), YYMMDD is the birth date year, month, day, XXX is the serial number, and C is a checksum digit.
The meanings of the first number:
Until 1997 also were used the following first numbers:
As the "Personal Identification Number '' is considered to be unconstitutional, another identification form, the ID - card number is in use.
So an average Hungarian has these identifiers: personal identification number, ID card identification number, social security number ("TAJ '' number), tax identification number. They may also have passport identification number, driving license number.
All Icelanders, as well as foreign citizens residing in Iceland and corporations and institutions, have a kennitala ' (lit. identification number) identifying them in the National Register. The number is composed of 10 digits, of which the first six are the individual 's birth date or corporation 's founding date in the format DDMMYY. The next two digits are chosen at random when the kennitala is allocated, the ninth digit is a check digit, and the last digit indicates the century in which the individual was born (for instance, ' 9 ' for the period 1900 -- 1999, or ' 0 ' for the period 2000 -- 2099). An example would be 120174 - 3399, the person being born on the twelfth day of January 1974. The Icelandic system is similar to that in other Scandinavian and European countries, but the use of the identification number is unusually open and extensive in Iceland. Businesses and universities use the kennitala as a customer or student identifier, and all banking transactions include it. The National Registry (Icelandic: Þjóðskrá) oversees the system. A database matching names to numbers is freely accessible (after login) on all Icelandic online banking sites. Given this openness, the kennitala is never used as an authenticator. It is worth noting that the completeness of the National Register eliminates any need for Iceland to take censuses.
In Ireland the Personal Public Service Number (PPS No) is gaining the characteristics of a national identification number as it is used for a variety of public services - although it is stated that it is not a national identifier and its use is defined by law. The PPS No. is in the basic form of 1234567T (PPS Numbers allocated from 1 January 2013 will have the format 1234567TA) and is unique to each person.
For certain public services the collection or retention of numbers of the general public is not allowed, thus Garda Síochána (Irish police) is only given an exemption for its own employees or other people defined under the Immigration Act, 2003 - the latter who are people who are not European Union nationals. Similarly the Irish Defence Forces may only collect and retain the number for their own employees.
The PPS Number can not be used for private or commercial transactions. The number is used in the private sector, but is limited to a few procedures that lawfully required the production of a number, for transactions with public services and in this regard the private sector will be acting as the agent of a public body entitled to collect and retain the number. Thus, for instance, students who attend college or university will have their number (or other personal data) collected at registration - this will then be sent to Department of Social Protection to ensure that a student is not simultaneously claiming social welfare. Banks may collect the number for the administration of accounts that give interest or tax reliefs which the state funds, through the Revenue Commissioners. A bank may not use the number as a customer identification number.
In Italy, the fiscal code (Italian: Codice fiscale) is issued to Italians at birth. It is in the format "SSSNNNYYMDDZZZZX '', where: SSS are the first three consonants in the family name (the first vowel and then an X are used if there are not enough consonants); NNN is the first name, of which the first, third and fourth consonants are used -- exceptions are handled as in family names; YY are the last digits of the birth year; M is the letter for the month of birth -- letters are used in alphabetical order, but only the letters A to E, H, L, M, P, R to T are used (thus, January is A and October is R); DD is the day of the month of birth -- in order to differentiate between genders, 40 is added to the day of birth for women (thus a woman born on May 3 has... E43...); ZZZZ is an area code specific to the municipality where the person was born -- country - wide codes are used for foreign countries; X is a parity character as calculated by adding together characters in the even and odd positions, and dividing them by 26. Numerical values are used for letters in even positions according to their alphabetical order. Characters in odd positions have different values.
A letter is then used which corresponds to the value of the remainder of the division in the alphabet. An exception algorithm exists in case of perfectly matching codes for two persons. Issuance of the code is centralized to the Ministry of Treasure. The fiscal code uniquely identifies an Italian citizen or permanently resident alien, and is thus used. However, since it can be calculated from personal information (whether real, or not), it is not generally regarded as an extremely reserved piece of information, nor as official proof of identity / existence of an individual.
In Latvia the Personal Code (Latvian: Personas kods) consists of 11 digits in form DDMMYY - XNNNC where the first six digits are person 's date of birth, the next one stands for a century person was born in (0 for XIX, 1 for XX and 2 for XXI), NNN is birth serial number in that day, and C is checksum digit. From July 1, 2017 Personal Codes are issued without indication to date of birth.
In Lithuania the Personal Code (Lithuanian: Asmens kodas) consists of 11 digits, and currently is in the form G YYMMDD NNN C, where G is gender & birth century, YYMMDD is the birthday, NNN is a serial number, C is a checksum digit. In this scheme, the first number (G) shows both the person 's gender (odd if male, even if female) and birth century. For example, 4 would mean female, born between 1900 -- 1999. This number can be calculated as:
The checksum is calculated using this formula (provided here as JavaScript code):
Recently (as of May 2015) there are plans to start issuing opaque codes instead, keeping the same overall format and checksum, but containing no personal information.
Macedonia uses a 13 - number identification code Unique Master Citizen Number (Macedonian: Единствен матичен број на граѓанинот, acronym ЕМБГ).
The Unique Master Citizen Number is composed of 13 digits (DDMMYYYRRSSSC) arranged in six groups: two digits (DD) for the citizen 's day of birth, two digits (MM) for the month of birth, last three digits (YYY) of the year of birth, two digits (RR) as a registry number, three digits (SSS) as a combination of the citizen 's sex and ordinal number of birth, and one digit (C) as a control number.
The two digit registry number depends on the citizens place of birth. There are nine registry codes that define the place of birth: 41 for the municipalities of Bitola, Demir Hisar and Resen; 42 for the municipalities of Kumanovo, Kratovo and Kriva Palanka; 43 for the municipalities of Ohrid, Struga, Debar and Kičevo; 44 for the municipalities of Prilep, Kruševo and Makedonski Brod; 45 for the City of Skopje; 46 for the municipalities of Strumica, Valandovo and Radoviš; 47 for the municipalities of Tetovo and Gostivar; 48 for the municipalities of Veles, Gevegelija, Kavadarci and Negotino; and 49 for the municipalities of Štip, Berovo, Vinica, Delčevo, Kočani, Probištip and Sveti Nikole.
The combination of the citizen 's sex and ordinal number of birth is presented as a 3 digit number - from 000 to 499 for the male, and from 500 to 999 for the female citizens.
The last digit is a computer generated control digit.
In the Republic of Moldova, all citizens receive at birth a Personal Code (IDNP - Numarul de Identificare), which is composed of 13 digits. This code is shown on all identity documents:
Montenegro uses a 13 - number identification code Jedinstveni matični broj građana / Јединствени матични број грађана (JMBG) - Unique Master Citizen Number.
In the Netherlands, all people receive a Burgerservicenummer (BSN) (Citizen Service Number) when they are born. It is printed on driving licenses, passports and international ID cards, under the header Personal Number. Before 2007, the BSN was known as sofinummer (the acronym sofi stands for so - ciaal (social) fi - scaal (fiscal)). The number is unique. However, initially it was issued by regionally operating branches of the tax department which were all assigned ranges; in densely populated areas the assigned ranges would overflow thus causing duplicate numbers. This mistake was corrected during the transition from SOFI to BSN by issuing a new number to people having a duplicate one. The number does not contain any information about the person to whom it is assigned (i.e. no information, such as gender or date of birth, can be derived from a BSN).
Norway 's eleven - digit birth number (fødselsnummer) is assigned at birth, or on migration into the country. The register is maintained by the Norwegian Tax Office. The number has been in use since the 1960s and was first introduced to the public in 1968. The number is not as widely and openly used as in some other Scandinavian countries, and a 2007 report criticized the common misperception by the Norwegian public that the number is suitable for use as a PIN code.
Historically, the number has been composed of the date of birth (DDMMYY), a three digit individual number, and two check digits. The individual number and the check digits are collectively known as the Personal Number.
In 2017, the Norwegian Ministry of Finance approved changes to the numbering system. After the changes, the number will no longer indicate gender, and the first check digit will be ' released ' to become part of the individual number.
In Poland, a Public Electronic Census System (Polish Powszechny Elektroniczny System Ewidencji Ludności - PESEL) number is mandatory for all permanent residents of Poland and for temporary residents living in Poland for over 2 months. It has the form YYMMDDZZZXQ, where YYMMDD is the date of birth (with century encoded in month field), ZZZ is the personal identification number, X denotes sex (even for females, odd for males) and Q is a parity number.
The Constitution of Portugal - in its 35th Article - expressly prohibits the assignment of a national single number to the citizens. This prohibition is related with the protection of the personal rights, liberties and guaranties. As such, a national identification number does not exist, but instead each citizen has several different identification numbers for use in the different single purposes.
The existing main identification numbers are:
The NIC and the NIF are the mostly commonly used identification numbers in Portugal. These two numbers are used for a broad number of purposes - both in the public and the private sectors - and not only for the specific purposes for which they were originally conceived.
In the past, to each of the above identification numbers corresponded a separate identification document. However, in 2006, the single Citizen Card was implemented. This card includes the civil identification, the tax identification, the Social Security and the Healthcare user numbers, replacing the old corresponding identification cards. Besides this, the Citizen Card also replaced the previous Voter 's Card, although not including the voter 's number. The replacing of the previous separate identification documents by the single Citizen Card is a gradual process, only being mandatory for a citizen, when one of his / her old documents expires. The driver 's license continues to be an entirely separate document.
In Romania each citizen has a Personal Numerical Code (Cod Numeric Personal, CNP), which is created by using the citizen 's gender and century of birth (1 / 3 / 5 / 7 for male, 2 / 4 / 6 / 8 for female and 9 for foreign citizen), date of birth (six digits, YYMMDD), the country zone (two digits, from 01 to 52, or 99), followed by a serial number (3 digits), and finally a checksum digit.
The first digit encodes the gender of person as follows:
The country zone is a code of Romanian county in alphabetical order. For Bucharest the code is 4 followed by the sector number.
To calculate the checksum digit, every digit from CNP is multiplied with the corresponding digit in number 279146358279; the sum of all these multiplications is then divided by 11. If the remainder is 10 then the checksum digit is 1, otherwise it 's the remainder itself.
In San Marino there exists the Codice ISS (Istituto Sicurezza Sociale), which is composed of 5 digits. It is given to all San Marino citizens and permanent residents.
Serbia uses a 13 - number identification code Unique Master Citizen Number (Serbian: Јединствени матични број грађана / Jedinstveni matični broj građana, acronym JMBG).
In Slovakia there are two kinds of National identification numbers. The first one is the Birth Number (Slovak: Rodné číslo (RČ)), issued at birth by the civic records authority (Slovak: matrika) and recorded on the birth certificate. Its format is YYMMDD / XXXX with YYMMDD being the date of birth and XXXX being a semi-unique identifier. For females, the month of the date of birth is advanced by 50. Full identification number in the form YYMMDDXXXX must be divisible by 11. Since this system does not provide a truly unique identifier (the numbers are repeated every century) and contains what might be considered private information, it may be updated in the future.
The second system is the Citizen 's Identification Card Number (Slovak: Číslo občianskeho preukazu (ČOP)) which is in the form AA XXXXXX (A-alphabetic, X-numeric) and is used on Slovak identity cards. Identification Cards are issued by the state authority (police) for every citizen who reaches 15 years of age. In contrast to the Birth Number, this identifier can change over the citizen 's lifetime if a new ID card is issued, for reasons such as expiration, loss or change of residence. The ID number is used, among other things, for voter registration (because of the domicile record verification provided by the ID). A similar system, with both types of identification numbers, is used in the Czech Republic.
Slovenia uses a 13 - number identification code Enotna matična številka občana (EMŠO) - Unique Master Citizen Number.
It is composed of 13 digits as follows DDMMYYYRRSSSX.
DD - day of birth > MM - month of birth YYY - year of birth, last three digits RR - a constant value 50 This is a remnant of Yugoslavia, a registry number that marked the birth zone: - 00 - 09 -- foreigners - 10 - 19 -- Bosnia and Herzegovina - 20 - 29 -- Montenegro - 30 - 39 -- Croatia (33 - Zagreb) - 40 - 49 -- Macedonia - 50 - 59 -- Slovenia (only 50 is used) - 60 - 69 -- (not in use) - 70 - 79 -- Central Serbia (71 - Belgrade) - 80 - 89 -- Province of Vojvodina (80 -- Novi Sad) - 90 - 99 -- Province of Kosovo SSS - serial number or combination of sex and serial numbers for persons born on the same day (000 - 499 for men and 500 - 999 for women) X - checksum of first 12
In Spain, all resident Spanish citizens can obtain (mandatorily after 14 years old) a National Identity Document (Spanish: Documento Nacional de Identidad (DNI)), with a unique number, in the format 00000000 - A, where 0 is a digit and A is a checksum letter. Since 2010, foreign residents are no longer issued with identity cards, although they are assigned a number in the format X-0000000 - A (again, 0 is a digit, A is a checksum letter, and X is a letter, generally X but lately also Y), called an NIE Number (Número de Identificación de Extranjeros, Foreigner 's Identification Number). The DNI is required for all transactions related with tax authority, as well as to access the ubiquitous Spanish National Health System (although it has its own insured identification document), apply for marriage licences, receive unemployment compensation, and in general all interactions with law enforcement and any government or government - supervised institution.
Foreign residents are required to use their passports together with the document containing their NIE number
In Sweden a Personal Identity Number (Swedish: personnummer) is used in dealings with public agencies, from health care to the tax authorities. Public record. It appears on all approved identity documents. It is also used as a customer code by banks, insurance companies, and landlords. Most companies that keep records of their customers store it. The number uses ten digits, YYMMDD - NNGC. The first six give the birth date in YYMMDD format. Digits seven to nine (NNG) are used to make the number unique, where digit nine (G) is odd for men and even for women. For numbers issued before 1990, the seventh and eighth digit identify the county of birth or foreign - born people, but privacy - related criticism caused this system to be abandoned for new numbers. The tenth digit (C) is created using the Luhn, or "mod 10 '', checksum algorithm.
Registration numbers of Swedish corporations and other legal entities follow the same ten - digit format, but are not based on dates.
Since the introduction of a national pension scheme in 1948, most persons resident in Switzerland are allocated a Social Security Number (AHV - Nr. (de) / No AVS (fr)), which is also used for other governmental purposes. The eleven - digit format in use since 1968 is of the form AAA. BB. CCC. DDD and encodes information about the name, birth date and sex of its holder:
As of 2008, an anonymous thirteen - digit number is being issued to all Swiss residents. It is of the form 756. XXXX. XXXX. XY, where 756 is the ISO 3166 - 1 code for Switzerland, XXXX. XXXX. X is a random number and Y is an EAN - 13 check digit.
During the application for a national ID card, every Turkish citizen is assigned a unique personal identification number called Turkish Identification Number (Turkish: Türkiye Cumhuriyeti Kimlik Numarası or abbreviated as T.C. Kimlik No.), an 11 - digit number with two trailing check digits. This assignment is organized through the MERNIS (abbreviation for English: Central Personal Registration Administration System) project that started on 28 October 2000. The national ID card is compulsory for every citizen and is issued at birth. Parents need to register to the authorities with the child 's birth certificate.
The identification number is used by public institutions in their certificates and documents like identity card, passport, international family book, driving license, form and manifesto they issue to citizens. It is used by services such as taxation, security, voting, education, social security, health care, military recruitment, and banking.
Individual Identification Number is a 10 digit number issued by the tax administration. The first 5 digits represent birthday as the number of days since 01 / 01 / 1900 (more numbers can be assigned to the same day, this additional or alternative numbers have greate first digit, typically 8). The next four digits is a serial number, it is used so that men get the odd numbers, and women get the even numbers. The last digit is a check digit. The algorithm is not publicly revealed. Similar numbers are issued to residents and foreigners. A person can opt out of receiving an Individual Identification Number based on religious or other beliefs, however it is associated with minor tax disadvantages. The Individual Identification Numbers are issued according to a Law of Ukraine 320 / 94 - BP passed on December 22, 1994. Since 2016, identification no. is one details of Ukrainian identity card (compared to being a separate paper document (still in force during transition period) in the past). It takes up to 5 days to obtain taxpayer identification number or tax ID in Ukraine.
There is no legal requirement in UK to obtain or carry any identification document or other proof of identity, however some form of identification is required for many things like renting a flat.
A National Insurance number, generally called an NI Number (NINO), is used to administer state benefits, but has not gained the ubiquity of its US equivalent, and is, quite rightly, not considered proof of identity. As it is the only number that is unique to each individual, does not change during the course of the person 's lifetime, and is issued to virtually every adult throughout the UK, it is used by Her Majesty 's Revenue and Customs (HMRC) to track individuals for income tax purposes. The number is stylised as LL NN NN NN L, for example AA 01 23 44 B.
Each baby born in the England and Wales is issued a National Health Service number, taking the form NNN - NNN - NNNN, for example 122 - 762 - 9257 (the last number being a check digit). They were formerly of the style "LLLNNL NNN '', for example KWB91M 342, which continued patterns used in World War II identity cards. However, due to the decentralized nature of local NHS organizations issuing the numbers, some patients have been allocated several numbers, the ratio is more often more (one person: many numbers) than (one person: one number). The National Programme for Information Technology (NPfIT) has also shown that one person can have many numbers, although measures are being undertaken to fix duplicates in the data.
Babies born in Scotland are issued a CHI (Community Health Index) number, taking the form DDMMYY - NNNN, with the DDMMYY representing their date of birth and a four digit unique number thereafter (e.g. someone born on 1 January 2010, would have the number 010110 - NNNN, with the four digit number allocated upon entering newborn details on to the local health board 's patient administration system). The second last N is even for females and odd for males.
In Australia, the Tax File Number (TFN) is issued by the Australian Taxation Office (ATO) to individuals and businesses to track them for income tax purposes. Similar to the Social Security Number (SSN) in the US, each individual 's TFN is unique, and does not change throughout their lifetime. However, unlike its U.S. counterpart, Australian law specifically prohibits the use of the TFN as a national identification number, and restricts the use of the TFN to tracking individuals for filing income taxes, superannuation contributions and receiving state welfare benefits.
In New Zealand, an Inland Revenue Department (IRD) number is issued by the IRD to every taxpayer (a natural or juristic person), and is needed with dealings with the IRD. It must be given to any employer or bank responsible for charging withholding tax, and to apply for or use a student loan. Driver 's licences carry a unique number, often recorded when providing them as identification.
The social security and student support services of the Ministry of Social Development (Work and Income, and StudyLink) issue a Work and Income client number, assigned at the occurrence of a person 's first contact with either service. A general letter of enquiry about a service appears to be sufficient for one to be logged and may be assigned without the letter writer 's knowledge.
A National Health Index (NHI) number is assigned to all newborn New Zealanders at birth, and those who use a health and disability support service that do not already have one.
The small population means a name and date of birth can usually uniquely identify someone, though identity theft is easily possible when two people share a name and birthdate.
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the strand of dna that gets transcribed to mrna is called the | Coding strand - wikipedia
When referring to DNA transcription, the coding strand is the DNA strand whose base sequence corresponds to the base sequence of the RNA transcript produced (although with thymine replaced by uracil). It is this strand which contains codons, while the non-coding strand contains anticodons. During transcription, RNA Pol II binds the non-coding strand, reads the anti-codons, and transcribes their sequence to synthesize an RNA transcript with complementary bases.
By convention, the coding strand is the strand used when displaying a DNA sequence. It is presented in the 5 ' to 3 ' direction.
Wherever a gene exists on a DNA molecule, one strand is the coding strand (or sense strand), and the other is the noncoding strand (also called the antisense strand, anticoding strand, template strand or transcribed strand).
During transcription, RNA polymerase unwinds a short section of the DNA double helix near the start of the gene (the transcription start site). This unwound section is known as the transcription bubble. The RNA polymerase, and with it the transcription bubble, travels along the noncoding strand in the opposite, 3 ' to 5 ', direction, as well as polymerizing a newly synthesized strand in 5 ' to 3 ' or downstream direction. The DNA double helix is rewound by RNA polymerase at the rear of the transcription bubble. Like how two adjacent zippers work, when pulled together, they unzip and rezip as they proceed in a particular direction. Various factors can cause double - stranded DNA to break; thus, reorder genes or cause cell death.
Where the helix is unwound, the coding strand consists of unpaired bases, while the template strand consists of an RNA: DNA composite, followed by a number of unpaired bases at the rear. This hybrid consists of the most recently added nucleotides of the RNA transcript, complementary base - paired to the template strand. The number of base - pairs in the hybrid is under investigation, but it has been suggested that the hybrid is formed from the last 10 nucleotides added.
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what are people's homes like in india | Housing in India - wikipedia
Housing in India varies from palaces of erstwhile maharajas to modern apartment buildings in big cities to tiny huts in far - flung villages. There has been tremendous growth in India 's housing sector as incomes have risen.
With modernization there is a growing number of nuclear families, in which each couple occupies its own house after marriage, in urban areas. It is still rare, albeit not impossible, amongst traditional communities for senior citizens to live alone. It is extremely rare even in urban areas for couples to live together before marriage. Some single young adults live in same - sex dormitories or in shared accommodation during college and the early working years.
The life - style in villages takes advantage of the warm weather. Many families bathe outdoors in rivers and ponds. Most of the day is spent outdoors around or near the house. Cooking is conducted outdoors in earthen stoves powered by organic fuels or in modern kerosene stoves. Water is obtained from hand - drawn wells. Men perform their ablutions in designated spots throughout the day; Visitors to villages may find residents squatting down for an afternoon card game under trees or while sitting on charpois (traditional hand - made beds) brought outside during the day. Consequently, they use their indoor space primarily to sleep, change and, in electrified homes, to watch TV.
According to the Times of India, "a majority of Indians have per capita space equivalent to or less than a 10 feet x 10 feet room for their living, sleeping, cooking, washing and toilet needs. '' The average is 103 sq ft per person in rural areas and 117 sq ft per person in urban areas.
44 percent of rural households have access to electricity. Although cities have better facilities than villages, except for the major metros, no city in India provides full - day water supply.
States such as Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh and others provides continuous power supply. Some 400 million Indians do not have access to a proper toilet and the situation is even worse in slums across Indian cities.
The national and state governments are running programs, some funded by the World Bank, to improve conditions. Bharat Nirman is targeting clean water, the Jawaharlal Nehru Urban Renewal Mission is building public toilets and sewage systems. The private sector, including companies such as Tata, have started to enter the low - income residential projects.
In 2013, the Government of India and National Housing Bank borrowed US $100 million to fund their Low Income Housing Finance project. The money will be loaned to low income residents who wish to purchase or renovate a home.
Mumbai experiences similar urbanisation challenges as other fast growing cities in developing countries: wide disparities in housing between the affluent, middle - income and low - income segments of the population.
Highly desirable neighborhoods such as Colaba, Malabar Hill, Marine Drive, Bandra and Juhu house professionals, industrialists, Bollywood movie stars and expatriates. Up - scale flats have 3 or more bedrooms, ocean views, tasteful interior decoration, parking for luxury cars and sleeping quarters for maids and cooks. Only a tiny fraction of people in Mumbai live in these luxury high - rises. In 2007, Mumbai condominiums were the priciest in the developing world at around US $9,000 to US $10,200 per square metre. Mumbai has more than 1,500 high rise buildings, many of which are just planned, but some already constructed or under construction.
Despite the recent economic growth, there is still vast poverty, unemployment and therefore poor housing conditions for a huge section of the population. With available space at a premium, working - class Mumbai residents often reside in cramped and poor quality, yet relatively expensive housing, usually far from workplaces. Despite this, Mumbai 's economic boom continues to attract migrants in search of opportunities from across the country. The number of migrants to Mumbai from outside Maharashtra during the 1991 -- 2001 decade was 1.12 million, which amounted to 54.8 % of the net addition to the population of Mumbai.
Over 9 million people, over 60 % of the population of Mumbai, live in informal housing or slums, yet they cover only 6 -- 8 % of the city 's land area. Slum growth rate in Mumbai is greater than the general urban growth rate. Financial Times writes that "Dharavi is the grand panjandrum of the Mumbai slums ''. Dharavi, Asia 's second largest slum is located in central Mumbai and houses over 1 million people. Slums are a growing tourist attraction in Mumbai.
Most of the remaining live in chawls and on footpaths. Chawls are a quintessentially Mumbai phenomenon of multi-storied terrible quality tenements, typically a bit higher quality than slums. 80 per cent of chawls have only one room. Pavement dwellers refers to Mumbai dwellings built on the footpaths / pavements of city streets.
With rising incomes, many residents of slums and chawls now have modern amenities such as mobile phones, access to electricity, often illegally, and television.
Rent control laws have helped to create a housing shortage. Most of the investors are looking to invest in ongoing real estate projects to get maximum returns.
Delhi has witnessed rapid suburban growth over the past decade. South Delhi, Gurgaon and Noida have added thousands of apartment buildings, houses, shopping centres and highways. New Delhi 's famous Lutyens bungalows house the prime minister, members of his cabinet, top political and government leaders, military officials, senior judges and top bureaucrats. New Delhi is also home to thousands of diplomatic staff of foreign countries and the United Nations. With India 's growth, Delhi has developed into a business center, especially for outsourcing, IT consultancy, high - tech, research, education and health care services. Employees of these institutions are the source of growing demand for high - end housing provided by major builders such as DLF.
Roughly 18.7 % of Delhi 's population lives in slums, according to 2001 government statistics.
In the 1990s the information technology boom hit Bangalore. Y2K projects in America 's IT industry resulted in shortages for skilled computer scientists and systems programmers. Bangalore has transformed into the Silicon Valley of India as over 500,000 well - paying jobs for young college graduates were created. The demographics of the city changed, new high - rise were built, campus - style office parks sprouted, vast shopping centers started to thrive, streets became crowded with new cars and gated expatriate housing estates emerged.
Roughly 3 % of Bangalore 's population lives in slums.
The most sought - after neighbourhoods of Calcutta are generally centered around Park Street, Camac Street, Lower Circular Road, Sarat Bose Road, Salt Lake, Ballygunge, Anwar Shah Road, Chowringhee and Golf Green. A recent building boom has converted sprawling British - era bungalows into high - rise condominiums and apartment - buildings with modern amenities. Kolkata currently has the second most number of highrises and tall buildings in the country, second only to Mumbai. The highest of them is at 50 floors (under construction). New suburbs are constantly being developed in Rajarhat and along the Eastern Metropolitan Bypass. Once completed, these suburbs shall consist partially of major condominiums, complete with penthouses, many designed primarily for NRIs, expats and wealthier residents. Avani is also a major builder. The tallest buildings in the city, The South City Towers, are also condominiums.
North Calcutta contains mansions built in the early 20th century during Calcutta 's heyday as capital of British India, which covered all of South Asia plus Burma and Aden. These buildings include a courtyard surrounded by balconies, large rooms with tall ceilings, marble floors, tall pillars and crumbling artwork. Most of them are poorly maintained. The Marble Palace and other buildings received "heritage status '' which provides them municipal funds and incentives to repair and restore. These mansions serve as reminder of the era of Bengali Renaissance when Tagore 's music and dance graced the living rooms of wealthy Bengali merchants.
In Hyderabad, housing in modern ages in the 21st century is more modernized and developed than it has been in the past. The housing sector in Hyderabad has relatively sophisticated infrastructure. and is suitable for gated communities and villas, as well as higher - standard flats and condominiums. Hyderabad is home to several skyscrapers, including The Botanika, Lodha Belezza, etc. Many residential infrastructure companies are well - established in Hyderabad.
In general India 's crime rates trails those of other developing countries. There is a large developed housing market with major builders and promoters. Some municipal and other government officials, elected politicians, real estate developers and a few law enforcement officials, acquire, develop and sell land in illegal ways. Sometimes, government land or land ostensibly acquired for some legitimate government purpose is then handed over to real estate developers who build commercial and residential properties and sell them in the open market, with the connivance of a small section of the administrative and police officials. In one set of allegations in Karnataka, a lake was filled in and government buildings torn down after illegal transfers to a developer by mafia - connected officials. Eminent domain laws, intended to procure private land at relatively low prices for public benefit or redistribution to poorer people under social justice programs, are abused to pressure existing landholders to sell land to a government entity, which transfers the land to developers at those low prices, and who in turn sell it back on the market at much higher prices.
Corruption is sometimes a reaction to well - meaning social activists ' opposition to development. Environmentalists, "not in my backyard '' activists and court cases slow down the ability to expand housing. The computerization of records relating to the classification of tracts and land ownership is a key tool in countering the illegal activities of land mafias, since it creates transparency on all information relating to a given parcel of land. This approach has been effective in Bangalore, but efforts to extend it elsewhere have sometimes met with strong resistance by land mafias, manifesting itself as bureaucratic inaction.
The Indian property bubble refers to the concern expressed by some Indian economists that housing market in some major Indian cities may be in a bubble. The real estate sector is thought to be collapsing due to increasing costs of financing. Real estate projects in India take a long time to complete due to a complicated and corrupt regulatory mechanism. Several of the India 's publicly traded real estate firms are in debt. The inventory of unsold real estate assets is growing and it is expected the market will undergo price corrections. According to Mumbai - based market research agency, Liases Foras, 30 % of the transaction in the real estate sector is done with black money.
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most points in an nba all star game | NBA All - Star game records - wikipedia
This article lists all - time leading figures achieved in the NBA All - Star Game in every major statistical category recognized by the league. This includes statistical records set by individuals in single All - Star games and over the course of their careers.
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discuss the effects of the us neutrality laws | Neutrality Acts of the 1930s - wikipedia
The Neutrality Acts were passed by the United States Congress in the 1930s, in response to the growing turmoil in Europe and Asia that eventually led to World War II. They were spurred by the growth in isolationism and non-interventionism in the US following its costly involvement in World War I, and sought to ensure that the US would not become entangled again in foreign conflicts.
The legacy of the Neutrality Acts is widely regarded as having been generally negative: they made no distinction between aggressor and victim, treating both equally as "belligerents ''; and they limited the US government 's ability to aid Britain and France against Nazi Germany. The acts were largely repealed in 1941, in the face of German submarine attacks on U.S. vessels and the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor.
The Nye Committee hearings between 1934 and 1936 and several best - selling books of the time, like H.C. Engelbrecht 's The Merchants of Death (1934), supported the conviction of many Americans that the U.S. entry into World War I had been orchestrated by bankers and arms dealers for profit reasons. This strengthened the position of isolationists and non-interventionists in the country.
Powerful forces in United States Congress pushing for non-interventionism and strong Neutrality Acts were the Republican Senators William Edgar Borah, Arthur H. Vandenberg, Gerald P. Nye and Robert M. La Follette, Jr., but support of non-interventionism was not limited to the Republican party. The Ludlow Amendment, requiring a public referendum before any declaration of war except in cases of defense against direct attack, was introduced several times without success between 1935 and 1940 by Democratic Representative Louis Ludlow.
Democratic President Roosevelt and especially his Secretary of State Cordell Hull were critical of the Neutrality Acts, fearing that they would restrict the administration 's options to support friendly nations. Even though both the House and Senate had large Democratic majorities throughout these years, there was enough support for the Acts among Democrats (especially those representing Southern states) to ensure their passage. Although Congressional support was insufficient to override a presidential veto, Roosevelt felt he could not afford to snub the South and anger public opinion, especially while facing re-election in 1936 and needing Congressional co-operation on domestic issues. With considerable reluctance, the president signed the Neutrality Acts into law.
Roosevelt 's State Department had lobbied for embargo provisions that would allow the President to impose sanctions selectively. This was rejected by Congress. The 1935 act, signed on August 31, 1935, imposed a general embargo on trading in arms and war materials with all parties in a war. It also declared that American citizens traveling on warring ships traveled at their own risk. The act was set to expire after six months.
When Congress passed the Neutrality Act of 1935, the State Department established an office to enforce the provisions of the Act. The Office of Arms and Munitions Control, renamed the Division of Controls in 1939 when the office was expanded, consisted of Joseph C. Green and Charles W. Yost.
Roosevelt invoked the act after Italy 's invasion of Ethiopia in October 1935, preventing all arms and ammunition shipments to Italy and Ethiopia. He also declared a "moral embargo '' against the belligerents, covering trade not falling under the Neutrality Act.
The Neutrality Act of 1936, passed in February of that year, renewed the provisions of the 1935 act for another 14 months. It also forbade all loans or credits to belligerents.
However, this act did not cover "civil wars '', such as that in Spain (1936 -- 1939), nor did it cover materials such as trucks and oil. U.S. companies such as Texaco, Standard Oil, Ford, General Motors, and Studebaker exploited this loophole to sell such items to General Franco on credit. By 1939, Franco owed these and other companies more than $100,000,000.
In January 1937, the Congress passed a joint resolution outlawing the arms trade with Spain. The Neutrality Act of 1937 was passed in May and included the provisions of the earlier acts, this time without expiration date, and extended them to cover civil wars as well. Furthermore, U.S. ships were prohibited from transporting any passengers or articles to belligerents, and U.S. citizens were forbidden from traveling on ships of belligerent nations.
In a concession to Roosevelt, a "cash - and - carry '' provision that had been devised by his advisor Bernard Baruch was added: the President could permit the sale of materials and supplies to belligerents in Europe as long as the recipients arranged for the transport and paid immediately with cash, with the argument that this would not draw the U.S. into the conflict. Roosevelt believed that cash - and - carry would aid France and Great Britain in the event of a war with Germany, since they were the only countries that controlled the seas and were able to take advantage of the provision. The cash - and - carry clause was set to expire after two years.
Japan invaded China in July 1937, starting the Second Sino - Japanese War. President Roosevelt, who supported the Chinese side, chose not to invoke the Neutrality Acts since the parties had not formally declared war. In so doing, he ensured that China 's efforts to defend itself would not be hindered by the legislation: China was dependent on arms imports and only Japan would have been able to take advantage of cash - and - carry. This outraged the isolationists in Congress who claimed that the spirit of the law was being undermined. Roosevelt stated that he would prohibit American ships from transporting arms to the belligerents, but he allowed British ships to transport American arms to China. Roosevelt gave his Quarantine Speech in October 1937, outlining a move away from neutrality and toward "quarantining '' all aggressors. He then imposed a "moral embargo '' on exports of aircraft to Japan.
Early in 1939, after Nazi Germany had invaded Czechoslovakia, Roosevelt lobbied Congress to have the cash - and - carry provision renewed. He was rebuffed, the provision lapsed, and the mandatory arms embargo remained in place.
In September 1939, after Germany had invaded Poland, Great Britain and France declared war on Germany. Roosevelt invoked the provisions of the Neutrality Act but came before Congress and lamented that the Neutrality Acts may give passive aid to an aggressor country. Congress was divided. Nye wanted to broaden the embargo, and other isolationists like Vandenberg and Hiram Johnson vowed to fight "from hell to breakfast '' Roosevelt 's desire to loosen the embargo. An "outstanding Republican leader '' who supported helping nations under attack, however, told H.V. Kaltenborn that the embargo was futile because a neutral country like Italy could buy from the US and sell its own weapons to Germany, while US companies would relocate factories to Canada.
Roosevelt prevailed over the isolationists, and on November 4 the Neutrality Act of 1939 was passed, allowing for arms trade with belligerent nations (Great Britain and France) on a cash - and - carry basis, thus in effect ending the arms embargo. Furthermore, the Neutrality Acts of 1935 and 1937 were repealed, American citizens and ships were barred from entering war zones designated by the President, and the National Munitions Control Board (which had been created by the 1935 Neutrality Act) was charged with issuing licenses for all arms imports and exports. Arms trade without a license became a federal crime, with a penalty of up to two years in prison.
The end of neutrality policy came with the Lend - Lease Act of March 1941, which allowed the U.S. to sell, lend or give war materials to nations the US administration wanted to support.
After repeated attacks by German submarines on U.S. ships, Roosevelt announced on September 11, 1941, that he had ordered the U.S. Navy to attack German and Italian war vessels in the "waters which we deem necessary for our defense ''. Following the sinking of the U.S. destroyer Reuben James on October 31, many of the provisions of the Neutrality Acts were repealed on November 17, 1941: merchant vessels were allowed to be armed and to carry any cargoes to belligerent nations. The U.S. formally declared war on Japan on December 8, 1941 following the attack on Pearl Harbor of the previous day; Germany and Italy declared war on the U.S. on December 11, 1941, and the U.S. responded with a declaration of war on the same day.
The provision against unlicensed arms trades of the 1939 act remains in force.
In 1948, Charles Winters, Al Schwimmer and Herman Greenspun were convicted under the 1939 Act after smuggling B - 17 Flying Fortress bombers from Florida to the nascent state of Israel during the 1948 Arab -- Israeli War. All three received Presidential pardons in subsequent decades.
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where is eminent domain found in the constitution | Eminent domain - wikipedia
Eminent domain (United States, Philippines), land acquisition (Singapore), compulsory purchase (United Kingdom, New Zealand, Ireland), resumption (Hong Kong, Uganda), resumption / compulsory acquisition (Australia), or expropriation (France, Italy, Mexico, South Africa, Canada, Brazil, Portugal, Spain, Chile, Denmark, Sweden) is the power of a state, provincial, or national government to take private property for public use. However, this power can be legislatively delegated by the state to municipalities, government subdivisions, or even to private persons or corporations, when they are authorized by the legislature to exercise the functions of public character.
In the Anglo - American historical context, property taken could be used only by the government taking the property in question. The most common uses of property taken by eminent domain have been for roads, government buildings and public utilities. However, in the mid-20th century, a new application of eminent domain was pioneered, in which the government could take the property and transfer it to a private third party. This was initially done only to "blighted '' property, on the principle that such properties had a negative impact upon surrounding property owners, but was later expanded to allow the taking of any private property when the new 3rd party owner could develop the property in such a way as to bring in increased tax revenues to the government.
Some jurisdictions require that the taker make an offer to purchase the subject property, before resorting to the use of eminent domain. However, once the property is taken and the judgment is final, the condemnor owns it in fee simple, and may put it to uses other than those specified in the eminent domain action.
Takings may be of the subject property in its entirety (total take) or in part (part take), either quantitatively or qualitatively (either partially in fee simple or, commonly, an easement, or any other interest less than the full fee simple title).
The term "eminent domain '' was taken from the legal treatise De jure belli ac pacis (On the Law of War and Peace), written by the Dutch jurist Hugo Grotius in 1625, which used the term dominium eminens (Latin for supreme lordship) and described the power as follows:
... The property of subjects is under the eminent domain of the state, so that the state or those who act for it may use and even alienate and destroy such property, not only in the case of extreme necessity, in which even private persons have a right over the property of others, but for ends of public utility, to which ends those who founded civil society must be supposed to have intended that private ends should give way. But, when this is done, the state is bound to make good the loss to those who lose their property.
The exercise of eminent domain is not limited to real property. Condemnors may also take personal property, even intangible property such as contract rights, patents, trade secrets, and copyrights. Even the taking of a professional sports team 's franchise has been held by the California Supreme Court to be within the purview of the "public use '' constitutional limitation, although eventually, that taking (of the Oakland Raiders ' NFL franchise) was not permitted because it was deemed to violate the interstate commerce clause of the U.S. Constitution.
A taking of property must be accompanied by payment of "just compensation '' to the (former) owner. In theory, this is supposed to put the owner in the same position "pecuniarily '' that he would have been in had his property not been taken. But in practice courts have limited compensation to the property 's fair market value, considering its highest and best use. But though rarely granted, this is not the exclusive measure of compensation; see Kimball Laundry Co. v. United States (business losses in temporary takings) and United States v. Pewee Coal Co. (operating losses caused by government operations of a mine seized during World War II). In most takings owners are not compensated for a variety of incidental losses caused by the taking of their property that, though incurred and readily demonstrable in other cases, are deemed by the courts to be noncompensable in eminent domain. The same is true of attorneys ' and appraisers fees. But as a matter of legislative grace rather than constitutional requirement some of these losses (e.g., business goodwill) have been made compensable by state legislative enactments, and may be partially covered by provisions of the federal Uniform Relocation Assistance Act.
Most states use the term eminent domain, but some U.S. states use the term appropriation (New York) or expropriation (Louisiana) as synonyms for the exercise of eminent domain powers. The term condemnation is used to describe the formal act of exercising this power to transfer title or some lesser interest in the subject property.
The constitutionally required "just compensation '' in partial takings is usually measured by fair market value of the part taken, plus severance damages (the diminution in value of the property retained by the owner (remainder) when only a part of the subject property is taken). Where a partial taking provides economic benefits specific to the remainder, those must be deducted, typically from severance damages. The former owners of the property rarely receive full market value because some elements of value are deemed noncompensable in eminent domain law.
The practice of condemnation came to the American colonies with the common law. When it came time to draft the United States Constitution, differing views on eminent domain were voiced. The Fifth Amendment to the Constitution requires that the taking be for a "public use '' and mandates payment of "just compensation '' to the owner.
In federal law, Congress may take private property directly (without recourse to the courts) by passing an Act transferring title of the subject property directly to the government. In such cases, the property owner seeking compensation must sue the United States for compensation in the U.S. Court of Federal Claims. The legislature may also delegate the power to private entities like public utilities or railroads, and even to individuals. The U.S. Supreme Court has consistently deferred to the right of states to make their own determinations of "public use ''.
In Canada, expropriation is governed by federal or provincial statutes. Under these statutory regimes, public authorities have the right to acquire private property for public purposes, so long as the acquisition is approved by the appropriate government body. Once a property is taken, an owner is entitled to "be made whole '' by compensation for: the market value of the expropriated property, injurious affection to the remainder of the property (if any), disturbance damages, business loss, and special difficulty relocating. Owners can advance claims for compensation above that initially provided by the expropriating authority by bringing a claim before the court or an administrative body appointed by the governing legislation.
In many European nations, the European Convention on Human Rights provides protection from an appropriation of private property by the state. Article 8 of the Convention provides that "Everyone has the right to respect for his private and family life, his home, and his correspondence '' and prohibits interference with this right by the state, unless the interference is in accordance with law and necessary in the interests of national security, public safety, economic well - being of the country, prevention of disorder or crime, protection of health or morals, or protection of the rights and freedoms of others. This right is expanded by Article 1 of the First Protocol to the Convention, which states that "Every natural person or legal person is entitled to the peaceful enjoyment of his possessions. '' Again, this is subject to exceptions where state deprivation of private possessions is in the general or public interest, is in accordance with law, and, in particular, to secure payment of taxes. Settled case - law of ECHR provides that just compensation has to be paid in cases of expropriation.
In France, the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen similarly mandates just and preliminary compensation before expropriation; and a Déclaration d'utilité publique is commonly required, to demonstrate a public benefit.
Notably, in 1945, by decree of General Charles de Gaulle based on untried accusations of collaboration, the Renault company was expropriated from Louis Renault posthumously and nationalised as Régie Nationale des Usines Renault -- without compensation.
After his victory in 1066, William the Conqueror seized virtually all land in England. Although he maintained absolute power over the land, he granted fiefs to landholders who served as stewards, paying fees and providing military services. During the Hundred Years War in the 14th century, Edward III used the Crown 's right of purveyance for massive expropriations. Chapter 28 of Magna Carta required that immediate cash payment be made for expropriations. As the king 's power was broken down in the ensuing centuries, tenants were regarded as holding ownership rights rather than merely possessory rights over their land. In 1427, a statute was passed granting commissioners of sewers in Lincolnshire the power to take land without compensation. After the early 16th century, however, Parliamentary takings of land for roads, bridges, etc. generally did require compensation. The common practice was to pay 10 % more than the assessed value. However, as the voting franchise was expanded to include more non-landowners, the bonus was eliminated. In spite of contrary statements found in some American law, in the United Kingdom, compulsory purchase valuation cases were tried to juries well into the 20th century, such as Attorney - General v De Keyser 's Royal Hotel Ltd (1919).
In England and Wales, and other jurisdictions that follow the principles of English law, the related term compulsory purchase is used. The landowner is compensated with a price agreed or stipulated by an appropriate person. Where agreement on price can not be achieved, the value of the taken land is determined by the Upper Tribunal. The operative law is a patchwork of statutes and case law. The principal Acts are the Lands Clauses Consolidation Act 1845, the Land Compensation Act 1961, the Compulsory Purchase Act 1965, the Land Compensation Act 1973, the Acquisition of Land Act 1981, part IX of the Town and Country Planning Act 1990, the Planning and Compensation Act 1991, and the Planning and Compulsory Purchase Act 2004.
The Basic Law for the Federal Republic of Germany states in its Article 14 (3) that "an expropriation is only allowed for the public good '' and just compensation must be made. It also provides for the right to have the amount of the compensation checked by a court.
Esproprio, or more formally espropriazione per pubblica utilità (literally "expropriation for public utility '') in Italy takes place within the frame of civil law, as an expression of the potere ablatorio (ablative power). The law regulating expropriation is the D.P.R. n. 327 of 2001, amended by D. Lgs. n. 302 of 2002; it supersedes the old expropriation law, the Royal Decree n. 2359 of 1865. Also other national and regional laws may apply, not always giving a full compensation to the owner. Expropriation can be total (the whole property is expropriated) or partial; permanent or temporary.
The article 42 of the Italian Constitution and the article 834 of the Italian Civil Code state that a private good can be expropriated for public utility. Furthermore, the article 2 of the Constitution binds Italian citizens to respect their mandatory duties of political, economical and social solidarity.
The implementation of the eminent domain follows two principles:
Nazionalizzazione ("nationalization ''), instead, is provided for by article 43 of the Constitution; it transfers to governmental authority and property a whole industrial sector, if it is deemed to be a natural or de facto monopoly, and an essential service of public utility. The most famous nationalization in Italy was the 1962 nationalization of the electrical power sector.
Article 33.3 of the Spanish Constitution of 1978 allows forced expropriation ("expropiación forzosa '') only where justified on the grounds of public utility or social interest and subject to the payment of appropriate compensation as provided for in law.
Expropriation. The right of state or municipality to buy property when it is determined to be of "particular public interest '', is regulated in Expropriationslagen (1972: 719). The government purchases the property at an estimated market value plus a 25 % compensation. The law also states that the property owner shall not suffer economic harm because of the expropriation.
In Australia, section 51 (xxxi) of the Australian Constitution permits the Commonwealth Parliament to make laws with respect to "the acquisition of property on just terms from any State or person for any purpose in respect of which the Parliament has power to make laws. '' This has been construed as meaning that just compensation may not always include monetary or proprietary recompense, rather it is for the court to determine what is just. It may be necessary to imply a need for compensation in the interests of justice, lest the law be invalidated.
Property subject to resumption is not restricted to real estate as authority from the Federal Court has extended the states ' power to resume property to any form of physical property. For the purposes of section 51 (xxxi), money is not property that may be compulsorily acquired. (The following is cited by a dead link) A statutory right to sue has been considered "property '' under this section.
The Commonwealth must also derive some benefit from the property acquired, that is, the Commonwealth can "only legislate for the acquisition of Property for particular purposes ''. Accordingly, the power does not extend to allow legislation designed merely to seek to extinguish the previous owner 's title. The states and territories ' powers of resumption on the other hand are not so limited. The section 43 (1) of the Lands Acquisition Act 1998 (NT) grants the Minister the power to acquire land ' for any purpose whatever '. The High Court of Australia interpreted this provision literally, relieving the Territory government of any public purpose limitation on the power. This finding permitted the Territory government to acquire land subject to Native Title, effectively extinguishing the Native Title interest in the land. Kirby J in dissent, along with a number of commentators, viewed this as a missed opportunity to comment on the exceptional nature of powers of resumption exercised in the absence of a public purpose limitation.
The term resumption is a reflection of the fact that, as a matter of Australian law, all land was originally owned by the Crown before it was sold, leased or granted and that, through the act of compulsory acquisition, the Crown is "resuming '' possession.
Brazil 's expropriation laws are governed by the Presidential Decree No. 3365 of July 21, 1941.
Art. 19, No. 24, of the Chilean Constitution says in part, "In no case may anyone be deprived of his property, of the assets affected or any of the essential faculties or powers of ownership, except by virtue of a general or a special law which authorizes expropriation for the public benefit or the national interest, duly qualified by the legislator. The expropriated party may protest the legality of the expropriation action before the ordinary courts of justice and shall, at all times, have the right to indemnification for patrimonial harm actually caused, to be fixed by mutual agreement or by a sentence pronounced by said courts in accordance with the law. ''
The Constitution originally provided for the right to property under Articles 19 and 31. Article 19 guaranteed to all citizens the right to ' acquire, hold and dispose of property '. Article 31 provided that "No person shall be deprived of his property save by authority of law. '' It also provided that compensation would be paid to a person whose property had been ' taken possession of or acquired ' for public purposes. In addition, both the state government as well as the union (federal) government were empowered to enact laws for the "acquisition or requisition of property '' (Schedule VII, Entry 42, List III). It is this provision that has been interpreted as being the source of the state 's ' eminent domain ' powers.
The provisions relating to the right to property were changed a number of times. The 44th amendment act of 1978 deleted the right to property from the list of Fundamental Rights. A new article, Article 300 - A, was added to the constitution to provide, "No person shall be deprived of his property save by authority of law. '' Thus, if a legislature makes a law depriving a person of his property, it will not be unconstitutional. The aggrieved person shall have no right to move the court under Article 32. Thus, the right to property is no longer a fundamental right, though it is still a constitutional right. If the government appears to have acted unfairly, the action can be challenged in a court of law by citizens.
Land acquisition in India is currently governed by The Right to Fair Compensation and Transparency in Land Acquisition, Rehabilitation and Resettlement Act, 2013, which came into force from 1 January 2014. Until 2013, land acquisition in India was governed by Land Acquisition Act of 1894. However the new LARR (amendment) ordinance 31 December 2014 diluted many clauses of the original act. The liberalisation of the economy and the Government 's initiative to set up special economic zones have led to many protests by farmers and have opened up a debate on the reinstatement of the fundamental right to private property.
Under the Land Acquisition Act, 1894, the government has the power to compulsorily acquire private land at the prevailing market rate for public purposes such as roads, highways, railways, dams, airports, etc.
Many countries recognize eminent domain to a much lesser extent than the English - speaking world or do not recognize it at all. Japan, for instance, has very weak eminent domain powers, as evidenced by the high - profile opposition to the expansion of Narita International Airport, and the disproportionately large amounts of financial inducement given to residents on sites slated for redevelopment in return for their agreement to leave, one well - known recent case being that of Roppongi Hills.
There are other countries such as the People 's Republic of China that practice eminent domain whenever it is convenient to make space for new communities and government structures. Singapore practices eminent domain under the Land Acquisitions Act, which allows it to carry out its Selective En bloc Redevelopment Scheme for urban renewal. The Amendments to the Land Titles Act allowed property to be purchased for purposes of urban renewal against an owner sharing a collective title if the majority of the other owners wish to sell and the minority did not. Thus, eminent domain often invokes concerns of majoritarianism.
In the Bahamas, the Acquisition of Land Act operates to permit the acquisition of land where it is deemed likely to be required for a public purpose. The land can be acquired by private agreement or compulsory purchase (s7 of the Act). Under section 24 of the Acquisition of Land Act, the purchaser may purchase the interest of the mortgagee of any land acquired under the Act. To do so, the purchaser must pay the principal sum and interest, together with costs and charges plus 6 months ' additional interest.
Since the 1990s, the Zimbabwean government under Robert Mugabe has seized a great deal of land and homes of mainly white farmers in the course of the land reform movement in Zimbabwe. The government argued that such land reform was necessary to redistribute the land to Zimbabweans dispossessed of their lands during colonialism -- these farmers were never compensated for this seizure.
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what does dra. stand for in spanish | Dra - wikipedia
DRA or Dra may refer to:
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in what season does ted meet the mother | The Mother (How I Met Your Mother) - wikipedia
Tracy McConnell, better known as "The Mother '', is the title character from the CBS television sitcom How I Met Your Mother. The show, narrated by Future Ted, tells the story of how Ted Mosby met The Mother. Tracy McConnell appears in 8 episodes from "Lucky Penny '' to "The Time Travelers '' as an unseen character; she was first seen fully in "Something New '' and was promoted to a main character in season 9. The Mother is played by Cristin Milioti.
The story of how Ted met The Mother is the framing device behind the series; many facts about her are revealed throughout the series, including the fact that Ted once unwittingly owned her umbrella before accidentally leaving it behind in her apartment. Ted and The Mother meet at the Farhampton train station following Barney Stinson and Robin Scherbatsky 's wedding; this scene is shown in "Last Forever '', the series finale. The Mother 's death from an unspecified terminal illness in 2024, also revealed in the series finale, received a mixed reaction from fans.
An alternate ending was released in the ninth season DVD. In the alternate ending, Tracy Mosby is still living when Ted is telling the story in 2030. In the video, future Ted is heard saying, "... When I think how lucky I am to wake up next to your mom every morning, I ca n't help but be amazed how easy it all really was... '', indirectly stating that The Mother is alive. The video ends right after the train passes at Farhampton station and credits start rolling, implying that Ted never went back to Robin as he lived a successful married life with Tracy Mosby.
During its first eight seasons, the successful sitcom How I Met Your Mother often hinted at the unseen character of The Mother. Well - known actresses often made guest appearances on the show. Many fans expected that another would play one of the most - wanted roles in Hollywood, but creators Carter Bays and Craig Thomas wanted an unknown. Using Anne Hathaway and Amy Adams as examples, Thomas said that "We did n't want it to be a big famous star because we did n't want the wider audience to have associations with whatever actress this would be... The whole idea is that Ted 's never seen this woman before, so it better feel that way to the audience '', similar to how Cobie Smulders being cast as Robin Scherbatsky had "kept the show alive '' when it began. Bays and Thomas also did not want a large casting call.
They chose Cristin Milioti after seeing her on 30 Rock and Once; her musical ability was also helpful, as The Mother had been described as a band member. After competing for the role against at least two others, Milioti filmed her first scene -- for the last episode of season 8 -- having never watched How I Met Your Mother; she recalled, "I had ignorance on my side. So I did n't know what it meant. '' Milioti learned of the character 's importance only after binge watching the show during the summer.
The Mother was born on September 19, 1984.
The Mother, joined by her roommate Kelly awaits the arrival of her boyfriend Max only to receive a call informing her of his death. After the funeral service, she returns to the apartment to open Max 's last gift to her -- a ukulele. The Mother spends the next few years grieving the passing of the man she believes was her one true love.
In "Wait for It '', it is revealed that the short story of how they met involved her yellow umbrella. In "No Tomorrow '', Ted finds the umbrella at a club and takes it home after attending a St. Patrick 's Day party which she also attended, as it had been two and a half years since the death of Max, her late boyfriend. She is still grieving, but her roommate Kelly encourages her to go out and date again, bringing her to the same bar where Ted and Barney are celebrating. The two women run into Mitch, her old orchestra instructor; The Mother offers to give Mitch her cello for his work at a school and they head to her apartment. After they start talking, Mitch encourages her to pursue her dreams. The Mother expresses her desire to end poverty by taking up economics in college.
On his first day of teaching as Professor Mosby, as seen in the season 4 finale "The Leap '', he is seen in front of the classroom of students, one of which Future Ted says is the titular mother. But in the first episode of season 5, "Definitions '', it is revealed that he was actually in the wrong classroom -- Economics instead of Architecture. At the same time in "How Your Mother Met Me '', the Mother sits her first session in Economics 305 and meets another graduate student named Cindy (Rachel Bilson), whom she offers to move in with her as her roommate. They see Ted enter the room, but when he announces the subject, The Mother thinks she is in the wrong room and runs off. She heads back to the room after seeing Ted scramble to his actual classroom.
Later, in "Girls Versus Suits '', Ted dates Cindy, not knowing that her roommate is his future wife. Throughout the episode, Ted notes that Cindy had spent most of their first date talking jealously about her roommate. When in Cindy and the mother 's apartment he picks up many of The Mother 's belongings, attempting to show how compatible he and Cindy are (thinking the items are Cindy 's) and glimpses the mother 's foot as she disappears into her room after taking a shower. Ted finds out at this time that she plays bass guitar in a band. Ted forgets to take the yellow umbrella with him when he goes out and Future Ted mentions, "this is how your mother got her yellow umbrella back. '' In "How Your Mother Met Me '', it is revealed that, after Ted left the apartment, the Mother had discovered the umbrella and, upon going to question Cindy, finds her in a state. As she tried to console her, Cindy said that she was a much better match for Ted, and began to lovingly list all of the reasons that Ted would find the mother attractive, before spontaneously kissing her, revealing that her jealousy towards her roommate was actually a crush. While this incident made Cindy realise that she is a lesbian, it also made the Mother decide to go back into dating, as the kiss was her first in a long time.
Some time after this, a man named Darren approaches The Mother and is welcomed into her band named Superfreakonomics. Darren gradually takes over the band.
In the season 6 opener "Big Days '' it is revealed Ted meets his future wife "the day of '' the wedding at which he is the best man. In the episode "False Positive '' Robin asks Ted to be her future best man, should she ever get married. In the episode "Challenge Accepted '', it is revealed that Ted meets the mother of his children the day of Barney 's wedding. In the last episode of season 7, "The Magician 's Code '' it is shown that Barney will marry Robin, and Ted will meet the mother "the day of '' their wedding. On the premiere of season 8, Ted 's wife appears after Barney and Robin 's wedding, outside at the "Farhampton '' station while holding a yellow umbrella and her bass guitar.
In the season 8 episode "Band or DJ?, '' Ted runs into Cindy on the subway and tells her that the band Barney and Robin hired to play at their wedding cancelled at the last minute. The end result of the encounter is that Cindy 's (now ex -) roommate 's band plays at Barney and Robin 's wedding.
The Mother is first shown meeting Louis in "How Your Mother Met Me '' as she is left to carry the band equipment while the now - lead band member Darren talks to his fans. Later at MacLaren 's Pub, she tells him she 's not yet ready to date. Louis asks her to give him a call if she changes her mind and they begin dating not long after.
The Mother meets all of Ted 's best friends (Barney, Lily, Marshall and Robin) before she meets him. The Mother is responsible for convincing Barney to pursue Robin, as revealed through a flashback in "Platonish ''. In "The Locket '', Tracy meets Lily on a train journey.
In "Bass Player Wanted '', the Mother picks up a hitchhiking Marshall, carrying his son Marvin, on her way to Farhampton Inn. On their way, it is revealed that the Mother is a bass player in the band, that is scheduled to play at the wedding reception. But the band 's leader, Darren, forced her to quit. The Mother ultimately decides to confront Darren and retake the band. She ends up alone at the bar, and while practicing a speech to give Darren, Darren walks up to her furious the groom 's best man punched him for "no reason. '' Amused by this, the Mother laughs, and Darren quits the band in anger.
In "How Your Mother Met Me '', it is shown that after this incident, the Mother returns to Louis ' summer cottage not far from the Farhampton Inn where she has been staying for the duration of the wedding weekend. As she walks in the door, Louis proposes to her, but she goes outside to think about it for a few minutes. She declines Louis ' proposal and leaves his cottage, going to check in at Farhampton Inn. On her room 's balcony, she plays the ukulele and sings "La Vie en Rose ''. Ted hears her singing from his room next door.
In "Gary Blauman '', Ted and the Mother are on their first date. Ted picks her up at her New York City apartment and they proceed to walk to a Scottish - Mexican fusion restaurant for dinner. On the way there, Ted is telling her a story when they nearly have a run - in with Louis. She says that she is in the "weirdest place on earth '' right now and that it is too soon for her to be dating. Ted walks her back to her apartment. They say goodnight and Ted begins to walk away. The Mother then stops him and asks him to finish the story he was telling her. When the story is over, they say goodnight again. The Mother takes a step towards Ted and they kiss for the first time, before deciding to carry on their date.
In a flashforward in "The Lighthouse '', Ted proposes to the Mother at the top of the lighthouse near Farhampton Inn. She immediately accepts. In another flashfoward in "Unpause '', the Mother is revealed to be pregnant with their second child, Luke, in the year 2017. She goes into labor while she and Ted are staying at Farhampton.
The Mother 's real name is not revealed until the series finale, "Last Forever ''. When Ted meets her at the Farhampton train station, she reveals that her name is Tracy McConnell. In the season 1 episode "Belly Full of Turkey '', Ted meets a stripper named Tracy and says "... that, kids, is the true story of how I met your mother ''. The children react in surprise and appear to believe Ted before he admits he is joking, which led some fans to correctly guess that The Mother 's name is Tracy.
In the series finale, it is revealed that six years prior to Ted telling the story to his children, Tracy died in 2024 from an undisclosed illness. In the finale the characters do not directly state that the mother is dead. Ted says that she "became sick '' and his children saying that she has been "gone '' for six years. Many fans expressed considerable disappointment to The Mother 's death. Milioti cried when she learned her character was supposed to die, but came to accept the ending was what the writers had planned from the beginning. Bill Kuchman from Popculturology said that The Mother was "an amazing character '' and that "over the course of this final season HIMYM made us care about Tracy. Kuchman said that "asking fans to drop all of that with a simple line about The Mother getting sick and passing away was a very difficult request '', that the finale "advanced too quickly '' and that "HIMYM was a victim of its own success on this issue ''.
A petition was started, aiming to rewrite and reshoot the finale. The petition has over 20,000 signatures and considerable online news coverage. On April 5, 2014, Carter Bays announced on Twitter that an alternate ending would be included on the Season 9 DVD. No new material was shot for this scene. In the alternate ending, the mother is still living when Ted is telling the story in 2030.
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the early republicans (who evolved into today's democrats) were led by | History of the United states Republican party - wikipedia
The Republican Party, also commonly called the GOP (for "Grand Old Party ''), is one of the world 's oldest extant political parties. It is the second oldest existing political party in the United States after its primary rival, the Democratic Party. It emerged in 1854 to combat the Kansas -- Nebraska Act, an act that dissolved the terms of the Missouri Compromise and allowed slave or free status to be decided in the territories by popular sovereignty. The party had almost no presence in the Southern United States, but by 1858 in the North it had enlisted former Whigs and former Free Soil Democrats to form majorities in nearly every Northern state.
With its election of Abraham Lincoln in 1860 and its success in guiding the Union to victory and abolishing slavery, the party came to dominate the national political scene until 1932. The Republican Party was based on northern white Protestants, businessmen, small business owners, professionals, factory workers, farmers and African Americans. It was pro-business, supporting banks, the gold standard, railroads and high tariffs to protect factory workers and grow industry faster. Under William McKinley and Theodore Roosevelt, it emphasized an expansive foreign policy.
The GOP lost its majorities during the Great Depression (1929 -- 1940). Instead, the Democrats under Franklin D. Roosevelt formed a winning "New Deal '' coalition, which was dominant from 1932 through 1964. That coalition collapsed in the mid-1960s, partly because of white Southern Democrats ' disaffection with passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964. Republicans won five of the six presidential elections from 1968 to 1988, with Ronald Reagan as the party 's iconic conservative hero. From 1992 to 2016, the Republican candidate has been elected to the White House in three of the seven presidential elections.
The GOP expanded its base throughout the South after 1968 (excepting 1976), largely due to its strength among socially conservative white Evangelical Protestants and traditionalist Roman Catholics. As white Democrats in the South lost dominance of the Democratic Party once U.S. courts declared the Democratic White Primary elections unconstitutional, the region began taking on the two - party apparatus which characterized most of the nation. The Republican Party 's transforming leader by 1980 was Reagan, whose conservative policies called for reduced government spending and regulation, lower taxes and a strong anti-Soviet foreign policy. His influence upon the party persists, as nearly every GOP speaker still reveres him. This includes current U.S. President Donald Trump, who prominently utilized his own version of Reagan 's "(Let 's) Make America Great Again '' slogan during the 2016 U.S. election. Social scientists Theodore Caplow et al. argue: "The Republican party, nationally, moved from right - center toward the center in the 1940s and 1950s, then moved right again in the 1970s and 1980s ''.
The Republican Party began as a coalition of anti-slavery "Conscience Whigs '' and Free Soil Democrats opposed to the Kansas -- Nebraska Act, submitted to Congress by Stephen Douglas in January 1854. The Act opened Kansas Territory and Nebraska Territory to slavery and future admission as slave states, thus implicitly repealing the prohibition on slavery in territory north of 36 ° 30 ′ latitude, which had been part of the Missouri Compromise. This change was viewed by Free Soil and abolitionist Northerners as an aggressive, expansionist maneuver by the slave - owning South.
The Act was supported by all Southerners, by Northern "Doughface '' (pro-Southern) Democrats and by other Northern Democrats persuaded by Douglas ' doctrine of "popular sovereignty ''. In the North, the old Whig Party was almost defunct. The opponents were intensely motivated and began forming a new party.
The new party went well beyond the issue of slavery in the territories. It envisioned modernizing the United States -- emphasizing giving free western land to farmers ("free soil '') as opposed to letting slave owners buy up the best lands, expanded banking, more railroads and factories. They vigorously argued that free market labor was superior to slavery and the very foundation of civic virtue and true republicanism -- this was the "Free Soil, Free Labor, Free Men '' ideology.
The Republicans absorbed the previous traditions of its members, most of whom had been Whigs, while others had been Democrats or members of third parties (especially the Free Soil Party and the American Party, also known as the Know Nothings). Many Democrats who joined were rewarded with governorships, or seats in the U.S. Senate, or House of Representatives. Since its inception, its chief opposition has been the Democratic Party, but the amount of flow back and forth of prominent politicians between the two parties was quite high from 1854 to 1896.
Historians have explored the ethnocultural foundations of the party, along the line that ethnic and religious groups set the moral standards for their members, who then carried those standards into politics. The churches also provided social networks that politicians used to sign up voters. The pietistic churches emphasized the duty of the Christian to purge sin from society. Sin took many forms -- alcoholism, polygamy and slavery became special targets for the Republicans.
The Yankees, who dominated New England, much of upstate New York and much of the upper Midwest were the strongest supporters of the new party. This was especially true for the pietistic Congregationalists and Presbyterians among them and (during the war), the Methodists, along with Scandinavian Lutherans. The Quakers were a small tight - knit group that was heavily Republican. By contrast, the liturgical churches (Roman Catholic, Episcopal and German Lutheran) largely rejected the moralism of the Republican Party and most of their adherents voted Democratic.
The early standard bearers of the party expressed views of government that marked the first years of its existence. For instance, William H. Seward, New York governor who vied with Lincoln for the nomination in 1860, had called for welcoming immigrants with "all the sympathy that their misfortunes at home, their condition as strangers here, and their devotion to liberty, ought to excite ''. In his 1861 message to Congress, Lincoln argued that the essential reason for preserving the central government was to maintain "in the world, that form, and substance of government, whose leading object is to elevate the condition of men -- to lift artificial weights from all shoulders -- to clear the paths of laudable pursuit for all -- to afford all, an unfettered start, and a fair chance, in the race of life ''.
The first "anti-Nebraska '' local meeting where "Republican '' was suggested as a name for a new anti-slavery party was held in Ripon, Wisconsin schoolhouse on March 20, 1854. The first statewide convention that formed a platform and nominated candidates under the name "Republican '' was held near Jackson, Michigan on July 6, 1854. It declared their new party opposed to the expansion of slavery into new territories and selected a statewide slate of candidates. The Midwest took the lead in forming state party tickets, while the eastern states lagged a year or so. There were no efforts to organize the party in the North, apart from St. Louis and a few areas adjacent to free states. The party initially had its base in the Northeast and Midwest.
The party launched its first national convention in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania on February 22, 1856, with its first national nominating convention held in the summer in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, presided by Francis Preston Blair, Sr...
John C. Frémont ran as the first Republican nominee for President in 1856 behind the slogan: "Free soil, free silver, free men, Frémont and victory! '' and although Frémont 's bid was unsuccessful, the party showed a strong base. It dominated in New England, New York and the northern Midwest and had a strong presence in the rest of the North.It had almost no support in the South, where it was roundly denounced in 1856 -- 1860 as a divisive force that threatened civil war.
Without using the term "containment '', the new party in the mid-1850s proposed a system of containing slavery, once it gained control of the national government. Historian James Oakes explains the strategy:
The federal government would surround the south with free states, free territories, and free waters, building what they called a ' cordon of freedom ' around slavery, hemming it in until the system 's own internal weaknesses forced the slave states one by one to abandon slavery.
Leading up to the second presidential election after the party 's establishment, disdain for it grew considerably among Democrats, particularly those from the South. In reference to the Republicans ' anti-slavery position, prominent Democrats applied the slur "Black Republican '' against them, as seen repeatedly in the speeches of Senator Stephen Douglas during the Lincoln -- Douglas debates of 1858 in Illinois. During the presidential campaign in 1860, at a time of escalating tension between the North and South, Abraham Lincoln addressed the harsh treatment of Republicans in the South in his famous Cooper Union speech:
(W) hen you speak of us Republicans, you do so only to denounce us as reptiles, or, at the best, as no better than outlaws. You will grant a hearing to pirates or murderers, but nothing like it to "Black Republicans. ''... But you will not abide the election of a Republican president! In that supposed event, you say, you will destroy the Union; and then, you say, the great crime of having destroyed it will be upon us! That is cool. A highwayman holds a pistol to my ear, and mutters through his teeth, "Stand and deliver, or I shall kill you, and then you will be a murderer! ''
The election of Lincoln in 1860 opened a new era of Republican dominance based in the industrial North and agricultural Midwest.
The Third Party System was dominated by the Republican Party (it lost the presidency only in 1884 and 1892). Lincoln proved brilliantly successful in uniting the factions of his party to fight for the Union. However, he usually fought the Radical Republicans who demanded harsher measures. Most Democrats at first were War Democrats and supportive until the Fall of 1862. When Lincoln added the abolition of slavery as a war goal, many War Democrats became "Peace Democrats ''.
Most of the state Republican parties accepted the antislavery goal except Kentucky. In Congress, the party passed major legislation to promote rapid modernization, including a national banking system, high tariffs, the first temporary income tax, many excise taxes, paper money issued without backing ("greenbacks ''), a huge national debt, homestead laws, railroads and aid to education and agriculture.
The Republicans denounced the peace - oriented Democrats as disloyal Copperheads and won enough War Democrats to maintain their majority in 1862. In 1864, they formed a coalition with many War Democrats as the National Union Party which reelected Lincoln easily. During the war, upper middle - class men in major cities formed Union Leagues to promote and help finance the war effort.
In Reconstruction, how to deal with the ex Confederates and the freed slaves, or freedmen, were the major issues. By 1864, Radical Republicans controlled Congress and demanded more aggressive action against slavery and more vengeance toward the Confederates. Lincoln held them off, but just barely as Republicans at first welcomed President Andrew Johnson. while the Radicals thought he was one of them and would take a hard line in punishing the South.
However, Johnson broke with them and formed a loose alliance with moderate Republicans and Democrats. The showdown came in the Congressional elections of 1866, in which the Radicals won a sweeping victory and took full control of Reconstruction, passing key laws over the veto. Johnson was impeached by the House, but acquitted by the Senate.
With the election of Ulysses S. Grant in 1868, the Radicals had control of Congress, the party and the army and attempted to build a solid Republican base in the South using the votes of Freedmen, Scalawags and Carpetbaggers, supported directly by U.S. Army detachments. Republicans all across the South formed local clubs called Union Leagues that effectively mobilized the voters, discussed issues and when necessary fought off Ku Klux Klan (KKK) attacks. Thousands died on both sides.
Grant supported radical reconstruction programs in the South, the Fourteenth Amendment and equal civil and voting rights for the freedmen. Most of all he was the hero of the war veterans, who marched to his tune. The party had become so large that factionalism was inevitable; it was hastened by Grant 's tolerance of high levels of corruption typified by the Whiskey Ring.
Many of the founders of the GOP joined the liberal movement, as did many powerful newspaper editors. They nominated Horace Greeley for President, who also gained the Democratic nomination, but the ticket was defeated in a landslide. The depression of 1873 energized the Democrats. They won control of the House and formed "Redeemer '' coalitions which recaptured control of each southern state, in some cases using threats and violence.
Reconstruction came to an end when the contested election of 1876 was awarded by a special electoral commission to Republican Rutherford B. Hayes, who promised through the unofficial Compromise of 1877 to withdraw federal troops from control of the last three southern states. The region then became the Solid South, giving overwhelming majorities of its electoral votes and Congressional seats to the Democrats through 1964.
In terms of racial issues, Sarah Woolfolk Wiggins argues that in Alabama:
Social pressure eventually forced most Scalawags to join the conservative / Democratic Redeemer coalition. A minority persisted and formed the "tan '' half of the "Black and Tan '' Republican Party, a minority in every Southern state after 1877.
In several Southern states, the "Lily Whites '', who sought to recruit white Democrats to the Republican Party, attempted to purge the Black and Tan faction or at least to reduce its influence. Among such "Lily White '' leaders in the early 20th century, Arkansas ' Wallace Townsend was the party 's gubernatorial nominee in 1916 and 1920 and its veteran national GOP committeeman.
Starting in the 1870s Southern Republicans were divided into two factions: the lily - white faction, which was practically all - white; and the biracial black - and - tan faction. The factionalism flared up in 1928 and 1952. The final victory of its opponent the lily - white faction came in 1964.
The GOP (short for "Grand Old Party '', as it was now nicknamed) split into factions in the late 1870s. The Stalwarts, followers of Senator Roscoe Conkling, defended the spoils system. The Half - Breeds, who followed Senator James G. Blaine of Maine, pushed for reform of the Civil service. Independents who opposed the spoils system altogether were called "Mugwumps ''. In 1884, Mugwumps rejected James G. Blaine as corrupt and helped elect Democrat Grover Cleveland, though most returned to the party by 1888.
As the Northern post-war economy boomed with industry, railroads, mines and fast - growing cities as well as prosperous agriculture, the Republicans took credit and promoted policies to keep the fast growth going. The Democratic Party was largely controlled by pro-business Bourbon Democrats until 1896. The GOP supported big business generally, the gold standard, high tariffs and generous pensions for Union veterans. However, by 1890 the Republicans had agreed to the Sherman Anti-Trust Act and the Interstate Commerce Commission in response to complaints from owners of small businesses and farmers. The high McKinley Tariff of 1890 hurt the party and the Democrats swept to a landslide in the off - year elections, even defeating McKinley himself.
Foreign affairs seldom became partisan issues (except for the annexation of Hawaii, which Republicans favored and Democrats opposed). Much more salient were cultural issues. The GOP supported the pietistic Protestants (especially the Methodists, Congregationalists, Presbyterians and Scandinavian Lutherans) who demanded prohibition. That angered wet Republicans, especially German Americans, who broke ranks in 1890 -- 1892, handing power to the Democrats.
Demographic trends aided the Democrats, as the German and Irish Catholic immigrants were mostly Democrats and outnumbered the British and Scandinavian Republicans. During the 1880s, elections were remarkably close. The Democrats usually lost, but won in 1884 and 1892. In the 1894 Congressional elections, the GOP scored the biggest landslide in its history as Democrats were blamed for the severe economic depression 1893 -- 1897 and the violent coal and railroad strikes of 1894.
From 1860 to 1912, the Republicans took advantage of the association of the Democrats with "Rum, Romanism, and Rebellion ''. Rum stood for the liquor interests and the tavernkeepers, in contrast to the GOP, which had a strong dry element. "Romanism '' meant Roman Catholics, especially Irish Americans, who ran the Democratic Party in every big city and whom the Republicans denounced for political corruption. "Rebellion '' stood for the Democrats of the Confederacy, who tried to break the Union in 1861; and the Democrats in the North, called "Copperheads '', who sympathized with them.
Demographic trends aided the Democrats, as the German and Irish Catholic immigrants were Democrats and outnumbered the English and Scandinavian Republicans. During the 1880s and 1890s, the Republicans struggled against the Democrats ' efforts, winning several close elections and losing two to Grover Cleveland (in 1884 and 1892).
Religious lines were sharply drawn. Methodists, Congregationalists, Presbyterians, Scandinavian Lutherans and other pietists in the North were tightly linked to the GOP. In sharp contrast, liturgical groups, especially the Catholics, Episcopalians and German Lutherans, looked to the Democratic Party for protection from pietistic moralism, especially prohibition. Both parties cut across the class structure, with the Democrats more bottom - heavy.
Cultural issues, especially prohibition and foreign language schools became important because of the sharp religious divisions in the electorate. In the North, about 50 % of the voters were pietistic Protestants (Methodists, Scandinavian Lutherans, Presbyterians, Congregationalists and Disciples of Christ) who believed the government should be used to reduce social sins, such as drinking.
Liturgical churches (Roman Catholics, German Lutherans and Episcopalians) comprised over a quarter of the vote and wanted the government to stay out of the morality business. Prohibition debates and referendums heated up politics in most states over a period of decade as national prohibition was finally passed in 1919 (repealed in 1933), serving as a major issue between the wet Democrats and the dry GOP.
The election of William McKinley in 1896 is widely seen as a resurgence of Republican dominance and is cited as a realigning election.
The Progressive Era (or "Fourth Party System '') was dominated by Republican Presidents, with the sole exception of Democrat Woodrow Wilson (1913 -- 1921). McKinley promised that high tariffs would end the severe hardship caused by the Panic of 1893 and that the GOP would guarantee a sort of pluralism in which all groups would benefit. He denounced William Jennings Bryan, the Democratic nominee, as a dangerous radical whose plans for "Free Silver '' at 16 -- 1 (or Bimetallism) would bankrupt the economy.
McKinley relied heavily on finance, railroads, industry and the middle classes for his support and cemented the Republicans as the party of business. His campaign manager, Ohio 's Mark Hanna, developed a detailed plan for getting contributions from the business world and McKinley outspent his rival William Jennings Bryan by a large margin. This emphasis on business was in part mitigated by Theodore Roosevelt, the presidential successor after McKinley 's assassination in 1901, who engaged in trust - busting. McKinley was the first President to promote pluralism, arguing that prosperity would be shared by all ethnic and religious groups.
Theodore Roosevelt, who became President in 1901, had the most dynamic personality of the era. Roosevelt had to contend with men like Senator Mark Hanna, whom he outmaneuvered to gain control of the convention in 1904 that renominated him and he won after promising to continue McKinley 's policies. More difficult to handle was conservative House Speaker Joseph Gurney Cannon.
Roosevelt achieved modest legislative gains in terms of railroad legislation and pure food laws. He was more successful in Court, bringing antitrust suits that broke up the Northern Securities Company trust and Standard Oil. Roosevelt moved to the left in his last two years in office, but was unable to pass major Square Deal proposals. He did succeed in naming his successor Secretary of War William Howard Taft who easily defeated Bryan again in the 1908 presidential election.
The tariff issue was pulling the GOP apart. Roosevelt tried to postpone the issue, but Taft had to meet it head on in 1909 with the Payne -- Aldrich Tariff Act. Eastern conservatives led by Nelson W. Aldrich wanted high tariffs on manufactured goods (especially woolens), while Midwesterners called for low tariffs. Aldrich tricked them by lowering the tariff on farm products, which outraged the farmers. Insurgent Midwesterners led by George Norris revolted against the conservatives led by Speaker Cannon. The Democrats won control of the House in 1910 as the rift between insurgents and conservatives widened.
In 1912, Roosevelt broke with Taft and tried for a third term, but he was outmaneuvered by Taft and lost the nomination. Roosevelt led his delegates out of the convention and created a new party (the Progressive, or "Bull Moose '' ticket), in the election of 1912. Few party leaders followed him except Hiram Johnson of California. Roosevelt had the support of many notable women reformers, including Jane Addams. The Roosevelt - caused split in the Republican vote resulted in a decisive victory for Democrat Woodrow Wilson, temporarily interrupting the Republican era.
The Republicans welcomed the Progressive Era at the state and local level. The first important reform mayor was Hazen S. Pingree of Detroit (1890 -- 1897), who was elected governor of Michigan in 1896. In New York City, the Republicans joined nonpartisan reformers to battle Tammany Hall and elected Seth Low (1902 -- 1903). Golden Rule Jones was first elected mayor of Toledo as a Republican in 1897, but was reelected as an independent when his party refused to renominate him. Many Republican civic leaders, following the example of Mark Hanna, were active in the National Civic Federation, which promoted urban reforms and sought to avoid wasteful strikes.
The party controlled the presidency throughout the 1920s, running on a platform of opposition to the League of Nations, high tariffs, and promotion of business interests. Warren G. Harding, Calvin Coolidge and Herbert Hoover were resoundingly elected in 1920, 1924 and 1928, respectively. The breakaway efforts of Senator Robert La Follette in 1924 failed to stop a landslide for Coolidge and his movement fell apart. The Teapot Dome Scandal threatened to hurt the party, but Harding died and Coolidge blamed everything on him as the opposition splintered in 1924.
The pro-business policies of the decade seemed to produce an unprecedented prosperity -- until the Wall Street Crash of 1929 heralded the Great Depression. Although the party did very well in large cities and among ethnic Catholics in presidential elections of 1920 -- 1924, it was unable to hold those gains in 1928. By 1932, the cities -- for the first time ever -- had become Democratic strongholds.
Hoover was by nature an activist and attempted to do what he could to alleviate the widespread suffering caused by the Depression, but his strict adherence to what he believed were Republican principles precluded him from establishing relief directly from the federal government. The Depression cost Hoover the presidency with the 1932 landslide election of Franklin D. Roosevelt. Roosevelt 's New Deal coalition controlled American politics for most of the next three decades, excepting the two - term presidency of Republican Dwight Eisenhower. The Democrats made major gains in the 1930 midterm elections, giving them congressional parity (though not control) for the first time since Woodrow Wilson 's presidency.
The Republican Party had a progressive element, typified in the early 20th century by Theodore Roosevelt in the 1907 -- 1912 period (Roosevelt was more conservative at other points), Senator Robert M. La Follette, Sr. and his sons in Wisconsin (from about 1900 to 1946) and western leaders such as Senator Hiram Johnson in California, Senator George W. Norris in Nebraska, Senator Bronson M. Cutting in New Mexico, Congresswoman Jeannette Rankin in Montana and Senator William Borah in Idaho. They were generally progressive in domestic policy, supported unions and supported much of the New Deal, but were isolationist in foreign policy. This element died out by the 1940s. Outside Congress, of the leaders who supported Theodore Roosevelt in 1912, most opposed the New Deal.
Starting in the 1930s a number of Northeastern Republicans took liberal positions regarding labor unions, spending and New Deal policies. They included Mayor Fiorello La Guardia in New York City, Governor Thomas E. Dewey of New York, Governor Earl Warren of California, Governor Harold Stassen of Minnesota, Senator Clifford P. Case of New Jersey, Henry Cabot Lodge, Jr. of Massachusetts, Senator Prescott Bush of Connecticut (father and grandfather of the two Bush Presidents), Senator Jacob K. Javits of New York, Senator John Sherman Cooper of Kentucky, Senator George Aiken of Vermont, Governor and later Senator Mark Hatfield of Oregon, Governor William Scranton of Pennsylvania and Governor George W. Romney of Michigan. The most notable of them all was Governor Nelson A. Rockefeller of New York. They generally advocated a free - market, but with some level of regulation. Rockefeller required employable welfare recipients to take available jobs or job training.
While the media sometimes called them "Rockefeller Republicans '', the liberal Republicans never formed an organized movement or caucus and lacked a recognized leader. They promoted economic growth and high state and federal spending while accepting high taxes and much liberal legislation, with the provision they could administer it more efficiently. They opposed the Democratic big city machines while welcoming support from labor unions and big business alike. Religion was not high on their agenda, but they were strong believers in civil rights for African Americans and women 's rights and most liberals were pro-choice. They were also strong environmentalists and supporters of higher education. In foreign policy they were internationalists, throwing their support to Dwight D. Eisenhower over the conservative leader Robert A. Taft in 1952. They were often called the "Eastern Establishment '' by conservatives such as Barry Goldwater.
The Goldwater conservatives fought this establishment from 1960, defeated it in 1964 and eventually retired most of its members, although some became Democrats like Senator Charles Goodell and Mayor John Lindsay in New York. President Richard Nixon adopted many of their positions, especially regarding health care, welfare spending, environmentalism and support for the arts and humanities. After Congressman John B. Anderson of Illinois bolted the party in 1980 and ran as an independent against Reagan, the liberal GOP element faded away. Their old strongholds in the Northeast are now mostly held by Democrats.
From its inception in 1854 to 1964, when Senate Republicans pushed hard for passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 against a filibuster by Senate Democrats, the GOP had a reputation for supporting blacks and minorities. In 1869, the Republican - controlled legislature in Wyoming Territory and its Republican governor John Allen Campbell made it the first jurisdiction to grant voting rights to women. In 1875, California swore in the first Hispanic governor, Republican Romualdo Pacheco. In 1916 Jeannette Rankin of Montana became the first woman in Congress -- and indeed the first woman in any high level government position. In 1928, New Mexico elected the first Hispanic U.S. Senator, Republican Octaviano Larrazolo. In 1898, the first Jewish U.S. Senator elected from outside of the former Confederacy was Republican Joseph Simon of Oregon. In 1924, the first Jewish woman elected to the U.S. House of Representatives was Republican Florence Kahn of California. In 1928, the Republican U.S. Senate Majority Leader, Charles Curtis of Kansas, who grew up on the Kaw Indian reservation, became the first person of significant non-European ancestry to be elected to national office, as Vice President of the United States for Herbert Hoover.
Blacks generally identified with the GOP until the 1930s. Every African American who served in the U.S. House of Representatives before 1935 and all of the African Americans who served in the U.S. Senate before 1979, were Republicans. Frederick Douglass after the Civil War and Booker T. Washington in the early 20th century were prominent Republican spokesmen. In 1870, Hiram Revels of Massachusetts became the first African American popularly elected to the United States Senate.
Historian George H. Nash argues:
Unlike the "moderate, '' internationalist, largely eastern bloc of Republicans who accepted (or at least acquiesced in) some of the "Roosevelt Revolution '' and the essential premises of President Truman 's foreign policy, the Republican Right at heart was counterrevolutionary. Anticollectivist, anti-Communist, anti-New Deal, passionately committed to limited government, free market economics, and congressional (as opposed to executive) prerogatives, the G.O.P. conservatives were obliged from the start to wage a constant two - front war: against liberal Democrats from without and "me - too '' Republicans from within.
The Old Right emerged in opposition to the New Deal of Franklin D. Roosevelt. Hoff says that "moderate Republicans and leftover Republican Progressives like Hoover composed the bulk of the Old Right by 1940, with a sprinkling of former members of the Farmer - Labor party, Non-Partisan League, and even a few midwestern prairie Socialists ''.
After Roosevelt took office in 1933, New Deal legislation sailed through Congress at lightning speed. In the 1934 midterm elections, ten Republican senators went down to defeat, leaving them with only 25 against 71 Democrats. The House of Representatives was also split in a similar ratio. The "Second New Deal '' was heavily criticized by the Republicans in Congress, who likened it to class warfare and socialism. The volume of legislation, as well as the inability of the Republicans to block it, soon made the opposition to Roosevelt develop into bitterness and sometimes hatred for "that man in the White House ''. Former President Hoover became a leading orator crusading against the New Deal, hoping unrealistically to be nominated again for President.
Most major newspaper publishers favored Republican moderate Alf Landon for President. In the nation 's 15 largest cities the newspapers that editorially endorsed Landon represented 70 % of the circulation, while Roosevelt won 69 % of the actual voters in those cities. Ignoring the press and used the radio to reach voters directly.
Roosevelt carried 46 of the 48 states thanks to traditional Democrats along with newly energized labor unions, city machines and the WPA. The realignment creating the Fifth Party System was firmly in place. Since 1928, the GOP had lost 178 House seats, 40 Senate seats and 19 governorships, though it retained a mere 89 seats in the House and 16 in the Senate.
The black vote held for Hoover in 1932, but started moving toward Roosevelt. By 1940, the majority of northern blacks were voting Democratic. Roosevelt made sure blacks had a share in relief programs, the wartime Army and wartime defense industry, but did not challenge segregation or the denial of voting rights in the South.
Minority parties tend to factionalize and after 1936 the GOP split into a conservative faction (dominant in the West and Midwest) and a liberal faction (dominant in the Northeast) -- combined with a residual base of inherited progressive Republicanism active throughout the century. In 1936, Kansas governor Alf Landon and his young followers defeated the Herbert Hoover faction. Landon generally supported most New Deal programs, but carried only two states in the Roosevelt landslide with his moderate campaign. The GOP was left with only 16 senators and 88 representatives to oppose the New Deal, with Massachusetts Senator Henry Cabot Lodge, Jr. as the sole victor over a Democratic incumbent.
Roosevelt alienated many conservative Democrats in 1937 by his unexpected plan to "pack '' the Supreme Court via the Judiciary Reorganization Bill of 1937. Following a sharp recession that hit early in 1938, major strikes all over the country, the CIO and AFL competing with each other for membership and Roosevelt 's failed efforts to radically reorganize the Supreme Court, the Democrats were in disarray. Meanwhile, the GOP was united as they had shed their weakest members in a series of defeats since 1930. Re-energized Republicans focused attention on strong fresh candidates in major states, especially Robert A. Taft the conservative from Ohio, Earl Warren the moderate who won both the Republicans and the Democratic primaries in California and Thomas E. Dewey the crusading prosecutor from New York. The GOP comeback in 1938 was made possible by carrying 50 % of the vote outside the South, giving GOP leaders confidence it had a strong base for the 1940 presidential election.
The GOP gained 75 House seats in 1938, but were still a minority. Conservative Democrats, mostly from the South, joined with Republicans led by Senator Robert A. Taft to create the conservative coalition, which dominated domestic issues in Congress until 1964.
From 1939 through 1941, there was a sharp debate within the GOP about support for Britain in World War II. Internationalists, such as Henry Stimson and Frank Knox, wanted to support Britain and isolationists, such as Robert A. Taft and Arthur Vandenberg, strongly opposed these moves as unwise, if not unconstitutional. The America First movement was a bipartisan coalition of isolationists. In 1940, a total unknown Wendell Willkie at the last minute won over the party, the delegates and was nominated. He crusaded against the inefficiencies of the New Deal and Roosevelt 's break with the strong tradition against a third term.
The Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor in 1941 ended the isolationist - internationalist debate. The Republicans further cut the Democratic majority in the 1942 midterm elections. With wartime production creating prosperity, the conservative coalition terminated most New Deal relief programs.
Senator Robert A. Taft of Ohio represented the wing of the party that continued to oppose New Deal reforms and continued to champion non-interventionism. Governor Thomas E. Dewey of New York, represented the Northeastern wing of the party. Dewey did not reject the New Deal programs, but demanded more efficiency, more support for economic growth and less corruption. He was more willing than Taft to support Britain in 1939 -- 1940. After the war the isolationists wing strenuously opposed the United Nations and was half - hearted in opposition to world communism.
As a minority party, the GOP had two wings: The left - wing supported most of the New Deal while promising to run it more efficiently and the right - wing opposed the New Deal from the beginning and managed to repeal large parts during the 1940s in cooperation with conservative Southern Democrats in the conservative coalition. Liberals, led by Dewey, dominated the Northeast while conservatives, led by Taft, dominated the Midwest. The West was split and the South was still solidly Democratic.
In 1944, a clearly frail Roosevelt defeated Dewey for his fourth consecutive term, but Dewey made a good showing that would lead to his selection as the candidate in 1948.
Roosevelt died in April 1945 and Harry S. Truman, a less liberal Democrat became President and replaced most of Roosevelt 's top appointees. With the end of the war, unrest among organized labor led to many strikes in 1946 and the resulting disruptions helped the GOP. With the blunders of the Truman administration in 1945 and 1946, the slogans "Had Enough? '' and "To Err is Truman '' became Republican rallying cries and the GOP won control of Congress for the first time since 1928, with Joseph William Martin, Jr. as Speaker of the House. The Taft - Hartley Act of 1947 was designed to balance the rights of management and labor. It was the central issue of many elections in industrial states in the 1940s to 1950s, but the unions were never able to repeal it.
In 1948, with Republicans split left and right, Truman boldly called Congress into a special session and sent it a load of liberal legislation consistent with the Dewey platform and dared them to act on it, knowing that the conservative Republicans would block action. Truman then attacked the Republican "Do - Nothing Congress '' as a whipping boy for all of the nation 's problems. Truman stunned Dewey and the Republicans in the election with a plurality of just over two million popular votes (out of nearly 49 million cast), but a decisive 303 -- 189 victory in the Electoral College.
In 1952, Dwight D. Eisenhower, an internationalist allied with the Dewey wing, was drafted as a GOP candidate by a small group of Republicans led by Henry Cabot Lodge, Jr. in order that he challenge Taft on foreign policy issues. The two men were not far apart on domestic issues. Eisenhower 's victory broke a twenty - year Democratic lock on the White House. Eisenhower did not try to roll back the New Deal, but he did expand the Social Security system and built the Interstate Highway System.
After 1945, the isolationists in the conservative wing opposed the United Nations and were half - hearted in opposition to the expansion of communism around the world. A garrison state to fight communism, they believed, would mean regimentation and government controls at home. Eisenhower, the Supreme Headquarters Allied Expeditionary Force Commander, defeated Taft in 1952 on foreign policy issues.
To circumvent the local Republican Party apparatus mostly controlled by Taft supporters, the Eisenhower forces created a nationwide network of grass - roots clubs, "Citizens for Eisenhower ''. Independents and Democrats were welcome, as the group specialized in canvassing neighborhoods and holding small group meetings. Citizens for Eisenhower hoped to revitalize the GOP by expanding its activist ranks and by supporting moderate and internationalist policies. It did not endorse candidates other than Eisenhower, but he paid it little attention after he won and it failed to maintain its impressive starting momentum. Instead the conservative Republicans became energized, leading to the Barry Goldwater nomination of 1964. Long - time Republican activists viewed the newcomers with suspicion and hostility. More significantly, activism in support of Eisenhower did not translate into enthusiasm for the party cause.
Once in office, Eisenhower was not an effective party leader and Nixon increasingly took that role. Historian David Reinhard concludes that Eisenhower lacked sustained political commitment, refused to intervene in state politics, failed to understand the political uses of presidential patronage and overestimated his personal powers of persuasion and conciliation. Eisenhower 's attempt in 1956 to convert the GOP to "Modern Republicanism '' was his "grandest flop ''. It was a vague proposal with weak staffing and little financing or publicity that caused turmoil inside the local parties across the country. The GOP carried both houses of Congress in 1952 on Eisenhower 's coattails, but in 1954 lost both and would not regain the Senate until 1980 nor the House until 1994. The problem, says Reinhard, was the "voters liked Ike -- but not the GOP ''.
Eisenhower was an exception to most Presidents in that he usually let Vice President Richard Nixon handle party affairs (controlling the national committee and taking the roles of chief spokesman and chief fundraiser). Nixon was defeated in 1960 in a close election, weakening his moderate wing of the party.
The conservatives in 1964 made a comeback under the leadership of Barry Goldwater who defeated moderates and liberals such as Nelson Rockefeller and Henry Cabot Lodge, Jr., as the Republican candidate for the 1964 election. Goldwater was strongly opposed to the New Deal and the United Nations, but he rejected isolationism and containment, calling for an aggressive anti-communist foreign policy.
In the presidential election of 1964, he was defeated by Lyndon Johnson in a landslide that brought down many senior Republican Congressmen across the country. Goldwater won five states in the deep South, the strongest showing by a Republican presidential candidate in the South since 1872. Goldwater blamed the magnitude of his defeat on the assassination of John F. Kennedy a year before the election and on Johnson running a successful campaign.
The New Deal Coalition collapsed in the mid-1960s in the face of urban riots, the Vietnam War, the opposition of many Southern Democrats to desegregation and the Civil Rights Movement and disillusionment that the New Deal could be revived by Lyndon Johnson 's Great Society. Nixon defeated both Hubert Humphrey and George C. Wallace in 1968. When the Democratic left took over their party in 1972, Nixon won reelection by carrying 49 states.
Nixon 's involvement in Watergate brought disgrace and a forced resignation in 1974 and any long - term movement toward the GOP was interrupted by the scandal. Gerald Ford succeeded Nixon and gave him a full pardon -- thereby giving the Democrats a powerful issue they used to sweep the 1974 off - year elections. Ford never fully recovered and in 1976 he barely defeated Ronald Reagan for the nomination. The one positive to come from Ford 's brief presidency was the outspoken personality of First Lady Betty Ford. Ford took several liberal positions on social issues regarding breast cancer awareness following her Mastectomy in 1974. To add to her outspoken persona, she was a staunch supporter of and activist for the Equal Rights Amendment, (ERA). Pro-choice on abortion and a leader in the women 's movement, she gained fame as one of the most candid first ladies in history, commenting on every hot button issue of the time, including feminism, equal pay, the ERA, sex, drugs, abortion, civil rights, and gun control. Her liberal positions and her outspoken personality garnered her high approval ratings throughout her husband 's term in office despite opposition from the conservative wing of the GOP who objected to her liberal stances and even a few members of Ford 's cabinet like Dick Cheney and Donald Rumsfeld advised Ford to ask her to tone down her outspoken views to avoid losing voters, but Ford declined to do so. Despite the candid nature of the First Lady and the end of the Vietnam War, Democrats ended up with major gains in Congress and the taint of Watergate and the nation 's economic difficulties contributed to the election of Democrat Jimmy Carter in 1976, running as a Washington outsider.
Ronald Reagan was elected President in the 1980 election by a landslide vote, not predicted by most voter polling. Running on a "Peace Through Strength '' platform to combat the communist threat and massive tax cuts to revitalize the economy, Reagan 's strong persona proved too much for Carter. Reagan 's election also gave Republicans control of the Senate for the first time in decades.
Dubbed the "Reagan Revolution '', he fundamentally altered several long standing debates in Washington, namely dealing with the Soviet threat and reviving the economy. His election saw the conservative wing of the party gain control. While reviled by liberal opponents in his day, his proponents contend his programs provided unprecedented economic growth and spurred the collapse of the Soviet Union.
Detractors of Reagan 's policies note that although Reagan promised to simultaneously slash taxes, massively increase defense spending and balance the budget, by the time he left office the nation 's budget deficit had tripled in his eight years in office. In 2009, Reagan 's budget director noted that the "debt explosion has resulted not from big spending by the Democrats, but instead the Republican Party 's embrace, about three decades ago, of the insidious doctrine that deficits do n't matter if they result from tax cuts ''. He inspired conservatives to greater electoral victories by being reelected in a landslide against Walter Mondale in 1984, but oversaw the loss of the Senate in 1986.
The term "Rockefeller Republican '' was used 1960 -- 1980 to designate a faction of the party holding "moderate '' views similar to those of Nelson Rockefeller, governor of New York from 1959 to 1974 and Vice President under President Gerald Ford in 1974 -- 1977. Before Rockefeller, Thomas E. Dewey, governor of New York (1942 -- 1954) and GOP presidential nominee in 1944 and 1948 was the leader. Dwight Eisenhower and his aide Henry Cabot Lodge, Jr. reflected many of their views.
An important moderate leader in the 1950s was Connecticut Republican Senator Prescott Bush, father and grandfather of Presidents George H.W. Bush and George W. Bush, respectly. After Rockefeller left the national stage in 1976, this faction of the party was more often called "moderate Republicans '', in contrast to the conservatives who rallied to Ronald Reagan.
Historically, Rockefeller Republicans were moderate or liberal on domestic and social policies. They favored New Deal programs, including regulation and welfare. They were very strong supporters of civil rights. They were strongly supported by big business on Wall Street (New York City). In fiscal policy they favored balanced budgets and relatively high tax levels to keep the budget balanced. They sought long - term economic growth through entrepreneurship, not tax cuts.
In state politics, they were strong supporters of state colleges and universities, low tuition and large research budgets. They favored infrastructure improvements, such as highway projects. In foreign policy they were internationalists and anti-communists. They felt the best way to counter communism was sponsoring economic growth (through foreign aid), maintaining a strong military and keeping close ties to NATO. Geographically their base was the Northeast, from Maine to Pennsylvania, where they had the support of major corporations and banks and worked well with labor unions.
The moderate Republicans were top - heavy, with a surplus of high visibility national leaders and a shortage of grass roots workers. Most of all they lack the numbers, the enthusiasm and excitement the conservatives could mobilize -- the moderates decided it must be an un-American level of fanaticism that drove their opponents. Doug Bailey, a senior Rockefeller aide recalled, "there was a mentality in (Rockefeller 's) campaign staff that, ' Look, we have got all this money. We should be able to buy the people necessary to get this done. And you buy from the top down ' ''. Bailey discovered that the Rockefeller team never understood that effective political organizations are empowered from the bottom up, not the top down.
Barry Goldwater crusaded against the Rockefeller Republicans, beating Rockefeller narrowly in the California primary of 1964 giving the Arizona senator, all of the California delegates and a majority at the presidential nominating convention. The election was a disaster for the conservatives, but the Goldwater activists now controlled large swaths of the GOP and they had no intention of retreating. The stage was set for a conservative takeover, based in the South and West, in opposition to the Northeast. Ronald Reagan continued in the same theme. George H.W. Bush was more closely associated with the moderates, but his son George W. Bush was firmly allied with the conservatives.
Before Reconstruction and for a century thereafter, the white South identified with the Democratic Party. The Democratic Party 's dominance in the Southern states was so strong that the region was called the Solid South. The Republicans controlled certain parts of the Appalachian Mountains and they sometimes did compete for statewide office in the border states.
Before 1948, the Southern Democrats saw their party as the defender of the Southern way of life, which included a respect for states ' rights and an appreciation for traditional southern values. They repeatedly warned against the aggressive designs of Northern liberals and Republicans as well as the civil rights activists they denounced as "outside agitators '', thus there was a serious barrier to becoming a Republican.
In 1948, Democrats alienated white Southerners in two ways. The Democratic National Convention adopted a strong civil rights plank, leading to a walkout by Southerners. Two weeks later, President Harry Truman signed Executive Order 9981 integrating the armed forces. In 1948, the Deep South walked out, formed a new regional party and nominated J. Strom Thurmond who carried the Deep South, but the outer South stayed with Truman and the "Dixiecrats '' returned to the party.
By 1964, the Democratic lock on the South remained strong, but cracks began to appear. One long - term cause was that the region was becoming more like the rest of the nation and could not long stand apart in terms of racial segregation. Modernization brought factories, businesses and larger cities as well as millions of migrants from the North, as far more people graduated from high school and college. Meanwhile, the cotton and tobacco basis of the traditional South faded away as former farmers moved to town or commuted to factory jobs. Segregation, requiring separate dining and lodging arrangements for employees, was a serious obstacle to business development.
The highly visible immediate cause of the political transition involved civil rights. The Civil Rights Movement caused enormous controversy in the white South with many attacking it as a violation of states ' rights. When segregation was outlawed by court order and by the Civil Rights acts of 1964 and 1965, a die - hard element resisted integration, led by Democratic governors Orval Faubus of Arkansas, Lester Maddox of Georgia, Ross Barnett of Mississippi and, especially George Wallace of Alabama. These populist governors appealed to a less - educated, blue - collar electorate that on economic grounds favored the Democratic Party and supported segregation.
After passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, most Southerners accepted the integration of most institutions (except public schools). With the old barrier to becoming a Republican removed, Southerners joined the new middle class and the Northern transplants in moving toward the Republican Party. Integration thus liberated Southern politics from the old racial issues. In 1963, the federal courts declared unconstitutional the practice of excluding African - American voters from the Democratic primaries, which had been the only elections that mattered in most of the South. Meanwhile, the newly enfranchised black voters supported Democratic candidates at the 85 -- 90 % level, a shift which further convinced many white segregationists that the Republicans were no longer the black party.
Some critics, most notably Dan Carter, have alleged that the rapid growth in Republican strength in the South came from a secretly coded message to Wallacites and segregationists that the GOP was a racist anti-black party seeking their votes. Political scientists and historians point out that the timing does not fit the "Southern strategy '' model. Nixon carried 49 states in 1972, so he operated a successful national rather than regional strategy, but the Republican Party remained quite weak at the local and state level across the entire South for decades. Matthew Lassiter argues that Nixon 's appeal was not to the Wallacites or segregationists, but rather to the rapidly emerging suburban middle - class. Many had Northern antecedents and they wanted rapid economic growth and saw the need to put backlash politics to rest. Lassiter says the Southern strategy was a "failure '' for the GOP and that the Southern base of the Republican Party "always depended more on the middle - class corporate economy and on the top - down politics of racial backlash ''. Furthermore, "realignment in the South quote came primarily from the suburban ethos of New South metropolises such as Atlanta and Charlotte, North Carolina, not to the exportation of the working - class racial politics of the Black Belt ''.
The South 's transition to a Republican stronghold took decades and manifested an incremental seepage downward from national to state to local levels. First the states started voting Republican in presidential elections -- the Democrats countered that by nominating Southerners who could carry some states in the region, such as Jimmy Carter in 1976 and Bill Clinton in 1992 and 1996. However, the strategy narrowly failed with Al Gore in 2000. Then the states began electing Republican senators to fill open seats caused by retirements and finally governors and state legislatures changed sides.
Georgia was the last state to fall, with Sonny Perdue taking the governorship in 2002. Republicans aided the process with redistricting that protected the African - American and Hispanic vote (as required by the Civil Rights laws), but split up the remaining white Democrats so that Republicans mostly would win. In 2006, the Supreme Court endorsed nearly all of the gerrymandering engineered by Tom DeLay that swung the Texas Congressional delegation to the GOP in 2004. DeLay himself was acquitted on appeal in 2013 of illegally funding the state GOP.
In addition to its white middle class base, Republicans attracted strong majorities from the evangelical Christian vote (including Southern pockets of traditionalist Roman Catholics as in South Louisiana), which had been nonpolitical before 1980. The national Democratic Party 's support for liberal social stances such as abortion drove many former Democrats into a Republican Party that was embracing the conservative views on these issues. Conversely, liberal Republicans in the northeast began to join the Democratic Party.
In 1969 in The Emerging Republican Majority, Kevin Phillips argued that support from Southern whites and growth in the South, among other factors, were driving an enduring Republican electoral realignment. Today, the South is again generally solid in state elections, and mostly solid in presidential contests, but now for the Republicans. Exit polls in 2004 showed that George W. Bush led John Kerry 70 % to 30 % among whites, who constituted 71 % of Southern voters.
Kerry had a 90 % to 9 % lead among the 18 % of black voters. One - third of the Southerners said they were white evangelicals and they voted for Bush, 80 % to 20 %. In 2008. Barack Obama carried Florida, North Carolina and Virginia, but in 2010 the GOP regained their losses. Since the Reagan administration, U.S. presidential elections have been close. However, the Republican presidential candidate won a majority of the popular vote only in 2004, while coming in second in 1992, 1996, 2000, 2008, 2012 and 2016.
Political scientists Nicholas A. Valentino and David O. Sears argue that conventional wisdom concerning partisanship today focuses more on the size of government, national security and moral issues, while disagreements on racial issues plays a smaller role.
Ronald Reagan produced a major realignment with his 1980 and 1984 landslides. In 1980, the Reagan coalition was possible because of Democratic losses in most social - economic groups. In 1984, Reagan won nearly 60 % of the popular vote and carried every state except his Democratic opponent Walter Mondale 's home state of Minnesota and the District of Columbia, creating a record 525 electoral vote total (out of 538 possible votes). Even in Minnesota, Mondale won by a mere 3,761 votes, meaning Reagan came within less than 3,800 votes of winning in all fifty states.
Political commentators, trying to explain how Reagan had won by such a large margin, coined the term "Reagan Democrat '' to describe a Democratic voter who had voted for Reagan in 1980 and 1984 (as well as for George H.W. Bush in 1988), producing their landslide victories. They were mostly white, blue - collar and were attracted to Reagan 's social conservatism on issues such as abortion and to his hawkish foreign policy. Stan Greenberg, a Democratic pollster, concluded that Reagan Democrats no longer saw Democrats as champions of their middle class aspirations, but instead saw it as being a party working primarily for the benefit of others, especially African Americans and social liberals.
Reagan reoriented American politics ad claimed credit in 1984 for an economic renewal -- "It 's morning in America again! '' was the successful campaign slogan. Income taxes were slashed 25 % and the upper tax rates abolished. The frustrations of stagflation were resolved under the new monetary policies of Federal Reserve Chairman Paul Volcker, as no longer did soaring inflation and recession pull the country down. Working again in bipartisan fashion, the Social Security financial crises were resolved for the next 25 years.
In foreign affairs, bipartisanship was not in evidence. Most Democrats doggedly opposed Reagan 's efforts to support the contra guerrillas against the Sandinista government of Nicaragua and to support the dictatorial governments of Guatemala, Honduras and El Salvador against communist guerrilla movements. He took a hard line against the Soviet Union, alarming Democrats who wanted a nuclear freeze, but he succeeded in increasing the military budget and launching the Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI) -- labeled "Star Wars '' by its opponents -- that the Soviets could not match.
When Mikhail Gorbachev came to power in Moscow, many conservative Republicans were dubious of the growing friendship between him and Reagan. Gorbachev tried to save communism in the Soviet Union first by ending the expensive arms race with America, then in 1989 by shedding the East European empire. Communism finally collapsed in the Soviet Union in 1991.
President George H.W. Bush, Reagan 's successor, tried to temper feelings of triumphalism lest there be a backlash in the Soviet Union, but the palpable sense of victory in the Cold War was a success that Republicans felt validated the aggressive foreign policies Reagan had espoused. As Haynes Johnson, one of his harshest critics admitted, "his greatest service was in restoring the respect of Americans for themselves and their own government after the traumas of Vietnam and Watergate, the frustration of the Iran hostage crisis and a succession of seemingly failed presidencies ''.
After the election of Democratic President Bill Clinton in 1992, the Republican Party, led by House Republican Minority Whip Newt Gingrich campaigning on a "Contract with America '', were elected to majorities to both Houses of Congress in the Republican Revolution of 1994. It was the first time since 1952 that the Republicans secured control of both houses of U.S. Congress, which with the exception of the Senate during 2001 -- 2002 was retained through 2006. This capture and subsequent holding of Congress represented a major legislative turnaround, as Democrats controlled both houses of Congress for the forty years preceding 1995, with the exception of the 1981 -- 1987 Congress in which Republicans controlled the Senate.
In 1994, Republican Congressional candidates ran on a platform of major reforms of government with measures such as a balanced budget amendment and welfare reform. These measures and others formed the famous Contract with America, which represented the first effort to have a party platform in an off - year election. The Contract promised to bring all points up for a vote for the first time in history. The Republicans passed some of their proposals, but failed on others such as term limits.
Democratic President Bill Clinton opposed some of the social agenda initiatives, but he co-opted the proposals for welfare reform and a balanced federal budget. The result was a major change in the welfare system, which conservatives hailed and liberals bemoaned. The Republican - controlled House of Representatives failed to muster the two - thirds majority required to pass a Constitutional amendment to impose term limits on members of Congress.
In 1995, a budget battle with Clinton led to the brief shutdown of the federal government, an event which contributed to Clinton 's victory in the 1996 election. That year, the Republicans nominated Bob Dole, who was unable to transfer his success in Senate leadership to a viable presidential campaign.
The incoming Republican majority 's promise to slow the rate of government spending conflicted with the president 's agenda for Medicare, education, the environment and public health, eventually leading to a temporary shutdown of the U.S. federal government. The shutdown became the longest - ever in U.S. history, ending when Clinton agreed to submit a CBO - approved balanced budget plan. Democratic leaders vigorously attacked Gingrich for the budget standoff and his public image suffered heavily.
During the 1998 midterm elections, Republicans lost five seats in the House of Representatives -- the worst performance in 64 years for a party that did not hold the presidency. Polls showed that Gingrich 's attempt to remove President Clinton from the office was widely unpopular among Americans and Gingrich suffered much of the blame for the election loss. Facing another rebellion in the Republican caucus, he announced on November 6, 1998 that he would not only stand down as Speaker, but would leave the House as well, even declining to take his seat for an 11th term once he was handily re-elected in his home district.
Some liberal Democratic intellectuals in the 1960s and 1970s who became disenchanted with the leftward movement of their party in domestic and foreign policy became "neoconservatives '' ("neocons ''). A number held major appointments during the five presidential terms under Reagan and the Bushes. They played a central role in promoting and planning the 2003 invasion of Iraq. Vice President Dick Cheney and Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld, while not identifying themselves as neoconservatives, listened closely to neoconservative advisers regarding foreign policy, especially the defense of Israel, the promotion of democracy in the Middle East and the buildup of American military forces to achieve these goals. Many early neoconservative thinkers were Zionists and wrote often for Commentary, published by the American Jewish Committee. The influence of the neocons on the White House faded during the Obama years, but it remains a staple in Republican Party arsenal.
George W. Bush, son of George H.W. Bush, won the 2000 Republican presidential nomination over Arizona Senator John McCain, former Senator Elizabeth Dole and others. With his highly controversial and exceedingly narrow victory in the 2000 election against the Vice President Al Gore, the Republican Party gained control of the Presidency and both houses of Congress for the first time since 1952. However, it lost control of the Senate when Vermont Senator James Jeffords left the Republican Party to become an independent in 2001 and caucused with the Democrats.
In the wake of the September 11 attacks on the United States in 2001, Bush gained widespread political support as he pursued the War on Terrorism that included the invasion of Afghanistan and the invasion of Iraq. In March 2003, Bush ordered for an invasion of Iraq because of breakdown of United Nations sanctions and intelligence indicating programs to rebuild or develop new weapons of mass destruction. Bush had near - unanimous Republican support in Congress plus support from many Democratic leaders.
The Republican Party fared well in the 2002 midterm elections, solidifying its hold on the House and regaining control of the Senate in the run - up to the war in Iraq. This marked the first time since 1934 that the party in control of the White House gained seats in a midterm election in both houses of Congress (previous occasions were in 1902 and following the Civil War). Bush was renominated without opposition as the Republican candidate in the 2004 election and titled his political platform "A Safer World and a More Hopeful America ''.
It expressed Bush 's optimism towards winning the War on Terrorism, ushering in an ownership society and building an innovative economy to compete in the world. Bush was re-elected by a larger margin than in 2000, but won the smallest share ever of the popular vote for a reelected incumbent president. However, he was the first Republican candidate since 1988 to win an outright majority. In the same election that year, the Republicans gained seats in both houses of Congress and Bush told reporters: "I earned capital in the campaign, political capital, and now I intend to spend it. It is my style ''.
Bush announced his agenda in January 2005, but his popularity in the polls waned and his troubles mounted. Continuing troubles in Iraq as well as the disastrous government response to Hurricane Katrina led to declining popular support for Bush 's policies. His campaign to add personal savings accounts to the Social Security system and make major revisions in the tax code were postponed. He succeeded in selecting conservatives to head four of the most important agencies, Condoleezza Rice as Secretary of State, Alberto Gonzales as Attorney General, John Roberts as Chief Justice of the United States and Ben Bernanke as Chairman of the Federal Reserve.
Bush failed to win conservative approval for Harriet Miers to the Supreme Court, replacing her with Samuel Alito, whom the Senate confirmed in January 2006. Bush and McCain secured additional tax cuts and blocked moves to raise taxes. Through 2006, they strongly defended his policy in Iraq, saying the Coalition was winning. They secured the renewal of the USA PATRIOT Act.
In the November 2005 off - year elections, New York City, Republican mayoral candidate Michael Bloomberg won a landslide re-election, the fourth straight Republican victory in what is otherwise a Democratic stronghold. In California, Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger failed in his effort to use the ballot initiative to enact laws the Democrats blocked in the state legislature. Scandals prompted the resignations of Congressional Republicans House Majority Leader Tom DeLay, Duke Cunningham, Mark Foley and Bob Ney. In the 2006 midterm elections, the Republicans lost control of both the House of Representatives and Senate to the Democrats in what was widely interpreted as a repudiation of the administration 's war policies. Exit polling suggested that corruption was a key issue for many voters. Soon after the elections, Donald Rumsfeld resigned as secretary of defense to be replaced by Bob Gates.
In the Republican leadership elections that followed the general election, Speaker Hastert did not run and Republicans chose John Boehner of Ohio for House Minority Leader. Senators chose whip Mitch McConnell of Kentucky for Senate Minority Leader and chose their former leader Trent Lott as Senate Minority Whip by one vote over Lamar Alexander, who assumed their roles in January 2007. In the October and November gubernatorial elections of 2007, Republican Bobby Jindal won election for governor of Louisiana, Republican incumbent Governor Ernie Fletcher of Kentucky lost and Republican incumbent Governor Haley Barbour of Mississippi won re-election.
With President Bush ineligible for a third term and Vice President Dick Cheney not pursuing the party 's nomination, Arizona Senator John McCain quickly emerged as the Republican Party 's presidential nominee, receiving President Bush 's endorsement on March 6, six months before official ratification at the 2008 Republican National Convention. On August 29, Senator McCain announced Governor Sarah Palin of Alaska as his running - mate, making her the first woman on a Republican Presidential ticket. McCain surged ahead of Obama in the national polls following the nominationm but amid a financial crisis and a serious economic downturn, McCain and Palin went on to lose the election to Democrats Barack Obama and running mate Joe Biden.
Following the 2008 elections, the Republican Party, reeling from the loss of the presidency, Congress and key state governorships, was fractured and leaderless. Michael Steele became the first black chairman of the Republican National Committee, but was a poor fundraiser and was replaced after numerous gaffes and missteps. Republicans suffered an additional loss in the Senate in April 2009, when Arlen Specter switched to the Democratic Party, depriving the GOP of a critical 41st vote to block legislation in the Senate. The seating of Al Franken several months later effectively handed the Democrats a filibuster - proof majority, but it was short - lived as the GOP took back its 41st vote when Scott Brown won a special election in Massachusetts in early 2010.
Republicans strongly opposed Obama 's 2009 economic stimulus package and 2010 health care reform bill. The Tea Party movement, formed in early 2009, provided a groundswell of conservative grassroots activism to oppose policies of the Obama administration. With an expected economic recovery being criticized as sluggish, the GOP was expected to make big gains in the 2010 midterm elections. However, establishment Republicans began to see themselves at odds with Tea Party activists, who sought to run conservative candidates in primary elections to defeat the more moderate establishment - based candidates. Incumbent senators such as Bob Bennett in Utah and Lisa Murkowski in Alaska lost primary contests in their respective states.
Republicans won back control of the House of Representatives in the November general election, with a net gain of 63 seats, the largest gain for either party since 1948. The GOP also picked up six seats in the Senate, falling short of retaking control in that chamber, and posted additional gains in state governor and legislative races. Boehner became Speaker of the House while McConnell remained as the Senate Minority Leader. In an interview with National Journal magazine about congressional Republican priorities, McConnell explained that "the single most important thing we want to achieve is for (Barack) Obama to be a one - term president ''.
In February 2011, several freshmen Republican governors began proposing legislation that would diminish the power of public employee labor unions by removing or negatively affecting their right to collective bargaining, claiming that these changes were needed to cut state spending and balance the states ' budgets. These actions sparked public - employee protests across the country. In Wisconsin, the veritable epicenter of the controversy, Governor Scott Walker fought off a labor - fueled recall election, becoming the first state governor in U.S. history to defeat a recall against him.
After leading a pack of minor candidates for much of 2010 and 2011, former Massachusetts Governor Mitt Romney, despite outmatching his opponents in both money and organization, struggled to hold on to his lead for the 2012 GOP nomination. As the presidential campaign season headed toward the voting stage in January 2012, one candidate after another surged past Romney, held the lead for a few weeks, then fell back. According to the RealClearPolitics 2012 polling index, five candidates at one time or another were the top choice of GOP voters: Texas Governor Rick Perry, motivational speaker Herman Cain, former Speaker Newt Gingrich, former Senator Rick Santorum and Romney himself.
After losing to Santorum in Iowa and Gingrich in South Carolina, Romney racked up a number of wins in later contests, emerging as the eventual frontrunner after taking the lion 's share of states and delegates in the crucial Super Tuesday contests, despite an embarrassing loss in the Colorado caucuses and near - upsets in the Michigan and Ohio primaries. Romney was nominated in August and chose Congressman Paul Ryan, a young advocate of drastic budget cuts, as his running mate. Throughout the summer polls showed a close race and Romney had a good first debate, but otherwise had trouble reaching out to ordinary voters. He lost to Obama 51 % to 47 % and instead of gaining in the Senate as expected, Republicans lost seats.
The party mood was glum in 2013 and one conservative analyst concluded:
It would be no exaggeration to say that the Republican Party has been in a state of panic since the defeat of Mitt Romney, not least because the election highlighted American demographic shifts and, relatedly, the party 's failure to appeal to Hispanics, Asians, single women and young voters. Hence the Republican leadership 's new willingness to pursue immigration reform, even if it angers the conservative base.
In March 2013, National Committee Chairman Reince Priebus gave a stinging postmortem on the GOP 's failures in 2012, calling on the party to reinvent itself and to endorse immigration reform and said: "There 's no one reason we lost. Our message was weak; our ground game was insufficient; we were n't inclusive; we were behind in both data and digital; and our primary and debate process needed improvement ''. Priebus proposed 219 reforms, including a $10 million marketing campaign to reach women, minorities and gays; a shorter, more controlled primary season; and better data collection and research facilities.
The party 's official opposition to same - sex marriage came under attack. Meanwhile, social conservatives such as Rick Santorum and Mike Huckabee remained opposed to same - sex marriage and warned that evangelicals would desert if the GOP dropped the issue. Many leaders from different factions spoke out in 2013 on the need for a new immigration policy in the wake of election results showing a sharp move away from the GOP among Hispanics and Asians, but the Republicans in Congress could not agree on a program and nothing was done. Republicans in Congress forced a government shutdown in late 2013 after narrowly averting similar fiscal crises in 2011 and 2012.
The Tea Party fielded a number of anti-establishment candidates in the 2014 Republican primaries, but scored very few notable wins. However, they managed to unseat House Majority Leader Eric Cantor in his Virginia primary race. GOP attacks on Obama 's unpopular administration resonated with voters and the party posted major gains around the country. They regained control of the Senate and increased their majorities in the House to the highest total since 1929. They took control of governorships, state legislatures and Senate seats in nearly all Southern states, except Florida and Virginia.
Great divisions in the House GOP conference were apparent after the 2014 midterm elections, with conservative members, many of them from the right - leaning Freedom Caucus, expressing dissatisfaction with congressional leadership. John Boehner 's surprise announcement in September 2015 that he would step down as Speaker sent shockwaves through the House. After Majority Leader Kevin McCarthy bowed out of the race to replace Boehner due to a lack of support, House Ways and Means Chair Paul Ryan announced he would run, with the Freedom Caucus ' support. Ryan was elected Speaker on October 29.
Businessman Donald Trump won the 2016 Republican primaries, representing a dramatic policy shift from traditional conservatism to a more aggressive populist theme. Numerous high - profile Republicans, including past nominees like Mitt Romney, announced their opposition to Trump, even after he was formally nominated as the GOP candidate for President. Trump went on to defeat Hillary Clinton in the 2016 presidential election, which is arguably the biggest upset in political history.
After the 2016 elections, Republicans maintained a majority in the Senate, House, Governorships and elected Trump as President. The Republican Party is set to control 69 of 99 state legislative chambers in 2017, the most it has held in history; and at least 33 governorships, the most it has held since 1922. The party will have total control of government (legislative chambers and governorship) in 25 states, the most since 1952, while the opposing Democratic Party will have full control in five states.
The voter base of the GOP has been changing in directions opposite from national trends. It has become older and less Hispanic or Asian than the general population. Jackie Calmes has reported a dramatic shift in the power base of the party, as it moves away from the Northeast and Pacific States and toward small - town America in the South and West. During the 2016 presidential election, the Republicans also gained significant support in the Midwest. It has become more populist in its distrust of large corporations and of state and federal governments.
In a shift over a half - century, the party base has been transplanted from the industrial Northeast and urban centers to become rooted in the South and West, in towns and rural areas. In turn, Republicans are electing more populist, antitax and antigovernment conservatives who are less supportive -- and even suspicious -- of appeals from big business. Big business, many Republicans believe, is often complicit with big government on taxes, spending and even regulations, to protect industry tax breaks and subsidies -- ' corporate welfare, ' in their view.
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where is the super cup final being played | 2017 UEFA Super Cup - wikipedia
The 2017 UEFA Super Cup was the 42nd edition of the UEFA Super Cup, an annual football match organised by UEFA and contested by the reigning champions of the two main European club competitions, the UEFA Champions League and the UEFA Europa League. The match featured Real Madrid, the title holders and winners of the 2016 -- 17 UEFA Champions League, and Manchester United, the winners of the 2016 -- 17 UEFA Europa League. The match was played at the Philip II Arena in Skopje, Macedonia, on 8 August 2017, and was the first UEFA final staged in the country.
Real Madrid won the match 2 -- 1 for their fourth UEFA Super Cup title.
The Philip II Arena was announced as the final venue on 30 June 2015, following the decision of the UEFA Executive Committee meeting in Prague, Czech Republic.
While the two teams had never met in the Super Cup, they had met 10 times in the European Champion Clubs ' Cup / UEFA Champions League; Real Madrid have the advantage in the teams ' previous meetings, with four wins, four draws and two losses.
With a stadium capacity of 30,500 for the match, a total amount of 23,000 tickets were available to fans and the general public, being available for sale to fans worldwide via UEFA.com from 13 June to 4 July 2017 in three price categories: € 50, € 30, and € 15. The remaining tickets were allocated to the local organising committee, UEFA and national associations, commercial partners and broadcasters.
Italian referee Gianluca Rocchi was announced as the referee by UEFA on 20 July 2017.
In the 16th minute, Casemiro headed against the bar after a corner from the left - hand side by Toni Kroos, before opening the scoring eight minutes later with a left - footed strike after a pass into the box from Dani Carvajal. Isco made it 2 -- 0 in the 52nd minute when he side - footed the ball into the bottom corner of the net from six yards after a pass from Gareth Bale. In the 61st minute, Bale hit the bar with a shot from the right of the penalty area. Romelu Lukaku pulled a goal back for Manchester United a minute later when he followed up on an initial shot from Nemanja Matić, which was parried back into his path by Keylor Navas.
The Champions League winners were designated as the "home '' team for administrative purposes.
Real Madrid v Manchester United
Man of the Match: Isco (Real Madrid)
Assistant referees: Elenito Di Liberatore (Italy) Mauro Tonolini (Italy) Fourth official: Clément Turpin (France) Additional assistant referees: Davide Massa (Italy) Massimiliano Irrati (Italy) Reserve assistant referee: Riccardo Di Fiore (Italy)
Match rules
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when was the cleveland browns last winning season | List of Cleveland Browns seasons - wikipedia
The Cleveland Browns were a charter member club of the All - America Football Conference (AAFC) when the league was founded in 1946. From 1946 to 1949, the Browns won each of the league 's four championships. The National Football League (NFL) does not recognize the Browns ' AAFC championships; however, the Pro Football Hall of Fame does recognize the team 's championships, which is reflected in this list. When the AAFC folded in 1949, the Browns were absorbed into the NFL in 1950. The Browns went on to win three NFL championships, nearly dominating the NFL in the 1950s, and won one more NFL championship in 1964. The team has yet to appear in a Super Bowl, however. Overall, the team has won eight championships: four in the AAFC, and four in the NFL.
In 1996, then - Browns owner Art Modell made the decision to move the team from Cleveland, Ohio to Baltimore, Maryland. An agreement between the city of Cleveland and the NFL kept the team 's history, name and colors in Cleveland, while Modell 's new team would be regarded as an expansion team. The Baltimore Ravens would begin play in 1996, and the Browns would return to the league in 1999. For record - keeping purposes, the Browns are considered to have suspended operations from 1996 to 1998, which is reflected in this list.
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who proved that tachyon is faster than light | Tachyon - wikipedia
A tachyon (/ ˈtækiɒn /) or tachyonic particle is a hypothetical particle that always moves faster than light. Most physicists believe that faster - than - light particles can not exist because they are not consistent with the known laws of physics. If such particles did exist, they could be used to build a tachyonic antitelephone and send signals faster than light, which (according to special relativity) would lead to violations of causality.
The possibility of particles moving faster than light was first proposed by O.M.P. Bilaniuk, V.K. Deshpande, and E.C.G. Sudarshan in 1962, although the term they used for it was "meta - particle ''. In the 1967 paper that coined the term, Gerald Feinberg proposed that tachyonic particles could be quanta of a quantum field with imaginary mass. However, it was soon realized that excitations of such imaginary mass fields do not in fact propagate faster than light, and instead represent an instability known as tachyon condensation. Nevertheless, in modern physics the term "tachyon '' often refers to imaginary mass fields rather than to faster - than - light particles. Such fields have come to play a significant role in modern physics.
The term comes from the Greek: ταχύ, tachy, meaning "rapid ''. The complementary particle types are called luxons (which always move at the speed of light) and bradyons (which always move slower than light); both of these particle types are known to exist.
Despite theoretical arguments against the existence of faster - than - light particles, experiments have been conducted to search for them, but no compelling evidence of their existence has been found.
In special relativity, a faster - than - light particle would have space - like four - momentum, in contrast to ordinary particles that have time - like four - momentum. Although in some theories the mass of tachyons is regarded as imaginary, in some modern formulations the mass is considered real, the formulas for the momentum and energy being redefined to this end. Moreover, since tachyons are constrained to the spacelike portion of the energy -- momentum graph, it could not slow down to subluminal speeds.
In a Lorentz invariant theory, the same formulas that apply to ordinary slower - than - light particles (sometimes called "bradyons '' in discussions of tachyons) must also apply to tachyons. In particular the energy -- momentum relation:
(where p is the relativistic momentum of the bradyon and m is its rest mass) should still apply, along with the formula for the total energy of a particle:
This equation shows that the total energy of a particle (bradyon or tachyon) contains a contribution from its rest mass (the "rest mass -- energy '') and a contribution from its motion, the kinetic energy. When v is larger than c, the denominator in the equation for the energy is "imaginary '', as the value under the radical is negative. Because the total energy must be real, the numerator must also be imaginary: i.e. the rest mass m must be imaginary, as a pure imaginary number divided by another pure imaginary number is a real number.
In some modern formulations of the theory, the mass of tachyons is regarded as real.
One curious effect is that, unlike ordinary particles, the speed of a tachyon increases as its energy decreases. In particular, E (\ displaystyle E) approaches zero when v (\ displaystyle v) approaches infinity. (For ordinary bradyonic matter, E increases with increasing speed, becoming arbitrarily large as v approaches c, the speed of light). Therefore, just as bradyons are forbidden to break the light - speed barrier, so too are tachyons forbidden from slowing down to below c, because infinite energy is required to reach the barrier from either above or below.
As noted by Einstein, Tolman, and others, special relativity implies that faster - than - light particles, if they existed, could be used to communicate backwards in time.
In 1985, Chodos proposed that neutrinos can have a tachyonic nature. The possibility of standard model particles moving at superluminal speeds can be modeled using Lorentz invariance violating terms, for example in the Standard - Model Extension. In this framework, neutrinos experience Lorentz - violating oscillations and can travel faster than light at high energies. This proposal was strongly criticized.
A tachyon with an electric charge would lose energy as Cherenkov radiation -- just as ordinary charged particles do when they exceed the local speed of light in a medium (other than a hard vacuum). A charged tachyon traveling in a vacuum, therefore, undergoes a constant proper time acceleration and, by necessity, its worldline forms a hyperbola in space - time. However reducing a tachyon 's energy increases its speed, so that the single hyperbola formed is of two oppositely charged tachyons with opposite momenta (same magnitude, opposite sign) which annihilate each other when they simultaneously reach infinite speed at the same place in space. (At infinite speed, the two tachyons have no energy each and finite momentum of opposite direction, so no conservation laws are violated in their mutual annihilation. The time of annihilation is frame dependent.)
Even an electrically neutral tachyon would be expected to lose energy via gravitational Cherenkov radiation, because it has a gravitational mass, and therefore increase in speed as it travels, as described above. If the tachyon interacts with any other particles, it can also radiate Cherenkov energy into those particles. Neutrinos interact with the other particles of the Standard Model, and Andrew Cohen and Sheldon Glashow recently used this to argue that the faster - than - light neutrino anomaly can not be explained by making neutrinos propagate faster than light, and must instead be due to an error in the experiment.
Causality is a fundamental principle of physics. If tachyons can transmit information faster than light, then according to relativity they violate causality, leading to logical paradoxes of the "kill your own grandfather '' type. This is often illustrated with thought experiments such as the "tachyon telephone paradox '' or "logically pernicious self - inhibitor. ''
The problem can be understood in terms of the relativity of simultaneity in special relativity, which says that different inertial reference frames will disagree on whether two events at different locations happened "at the same time '' or not, and they can also disagree on the order of the two events (technically, these disagreements occur when the spacetime interval between the events is ' space - like ', meaning that neither event lies in the future light cone of the other).
If one of the two events represents the sending of a signal from one location and the second event represents the reception of the same signal at another location, then as long as the signal is moving at the speed of light or slower, the mathematics of simultaneity ensures that all reference frames agree that the transmission - event happened before the reception - event. However, in the case of a hypothetical signal moving faster than light, there would always be some frames in which the signal was received before it was sent so that the signal could be said to have moved backward in time. Because one of the two fundamental postulates of special relativity says that the laws of physics should work the same way in every inertial frame, if it is possible for signals to move backward in time in any one frame, it must be possible in all frames. This means that if observer A sends a signal to observer B which moves faster than light in A 's frame but backwards in time in B 's frame, and then B sends a reply which moves faster than light in B 's frame but backwards in time in A 's frame, it could work out that A receives the reply before sending the original signal, challenging causality in every frame and opening the door to severe logical paradoxes. Mathematical details can be found in the tachyonic antitelephone article, and an illustration of such a scenario using spacetime diagrams can be found in Baker, R. (2003)
The reinterpretation principle asserts that a tachyon sent back in time can always be reinterpreted as a tachyon traveling forward in time, because observers can not distinguish between the emission and absorption of tachyons. The attempt to detect a tachyon from the future (and violate causality) would actually create the same tachyon and send it forward in time (which is causal).
However, this principle is not widely accepted as resolving the paradoxes. Instead, what would be required to avoid paradoxes is that unlike any known particle, tachyons do not interact in any way and can never be detected or observed, because otherwise a tachyon beam could be modulated and used to create an anti-telephone or a "logically pernicious self - inhibitor ''. All forms of energy are believed to interact at least gravitationally, and many authors state that superluminal propagation in Lorentz invariant theories always leads to causal paradoxes.
In modern physics, all fundamental particles are regarded as excitations of quantum fields. There are several distinct ways in which tachyonic particles could be embedded into a field theory.
In the paper that coined the term "tachyon '', Gerald Feinberg studied Lorentz invariant quantum fields with imaginary mass. Because the group velocity for such a field is superluminal, naively it appears that its excitations propagate faster than light. However, it was quickly understood that the superluminal group velocity does not correspond to the speed of propagation of any localized excitation (like a particle). Instead, the negative mass represents an instability to tachyon condensation, and all excitations of the field propagate subluminally and are consistent with causality. Despite having no faster - than - light propagation, such fields are referred to simply as "tachyons '' in many sources.
Tachyonic fields play an important role in modern physics. Perhaps the most famous is the Higgs boson of the Standard Model of particle physics, which has an imaginary mass in its uncondensed phase. In general, the phenomenon of spontaneous symmetry breaking, which is closely related to tachyon condensation, plays an important role in many aspects of theoretical physics, including the Ginzburg -- Landau and BCS theories of superconductivity. Another example of a tachyonic field is the tachyon of bosonic string theory.
Tachyons are predicted by bosonic string theory and also the Neveu - Schwarz (NS) and NS - NS sectors, which are respectively the open bosonic sector and closed bosonic sector, of RNS Superstring theory prior to the GSO projection. However such tachyons are not possible due to the Sen conjecture, also known as tachyon condensation. This resulted in the necessity for the GSO projection.
In theories that do not respect Lorentz invariance, the speed of light is not (necessarily) a barrier, and particles can travel faster than the speed of light without infinite energy or causal paradoxes. A class of field theories of that type is the so - called Standard Model extensions. However, the experimental evidence for Lorentz invariance is extremely good, so such theories are very tightly constrained.
By modifying the kinetic energy of the field, it is possible to produce Lorentz invariant field theories with excitations that propagate superluminally. However, such theories, in general, do not have a well - defined Cauchy problem (for reasons related to the issues of causality discussed above), and are probably inconsistent quantum mechanically.
The term "tachyon '' was coined by Gerald Feinberg in a 1967 paper titled "Possibility of Faster - Than - Light Particles ''. He had been inspired by the science - fiction story "Beep '' by James Blish. Feinberg studied the kinematics of such particles according to special relativity. In his paper he also introduced fields with imaginary mass (now also referred to as "tachyons '') in an attempt to understand the microphysical origin such particles might have.
The first hypothesis regarding faster - than - light particles is sometimes attributed to German physicist Arnold Sommerfeld in 1904, and more recent discussions happened in 1962 and 1969.
In September 2011, it was reported that a tau neutrino had traveled faster than the speed of light in a major release by CERN; however, later updates from CERN on the OPERA project indicate that the faster - than - light readings were resultant from "a faulty element of the experiment 's fibre optic timing system ''.
Tachyons have appeared in many works of fiction. They have been used as a standby mechanism upon which many science fiction authors rely to establish faster - than - light communication, with or without reference to causality issues. The word tachyon has become widely recognized to such an extent that it can impart a science - fictional connotation even if the subject in question has no particular relation to superluminal travel (a form of technobabble, akin to positronic brain).
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where was the movie night and day filmed | Knight and Day - Wikipedia
Knight and Day is a 2010 American action comedy film starring Tom Cruise and Cameron Diaz. The film, directed by James Mangold, is Cruise and Diaz 's second on - screen collaboration following the 2001 film Vanilla Sky. Diaz plays June Havens, a classic car restorer who unwittingly gets caught up with the eccentric secret agent Roy Miller, played by Cruise, who is on the run from the CIA.
The film 's investors offset funding costs by paying Cruise a lower advance fee and providing him a share of revenue only after the financiers were repaid their investment in the production. Filming took place in several locations, mainly in several cities located in Massachusetts, while other scenes were filmed in Spain and parts of Austria.
Knight and Day was released in the United States on June 24, 2010. The film received mixed reviews from film critics. It grossed over $261 million worldwide, recouping its $117 million budget.
The film was officially remade in Bollywood with Hrithik Roshan and Katrina Kaif in the lead roles titled Bang Bang! and released on 2 October 2014.
After colliding with Roy Miller (Tom Cruise) twice in the airport departure terminal on the way home from Wichita to pick up car parts, June Havens (Cameron Diaz) is told she has been bumped to a later flight. C.I.A. Agent John Fitzgerald (Peter Sarsgaard), believing Havens is working with Miller, puts her back on the plane. Completely taken with Miller, Havens goes to the restroom to prep herself up. Meanwhile, Miller fights and kills everyone else on the plane, even the pilots, who were all agents sent by Fitzgerald. After Havens reemerges and gives him a kiss, Miller crash - lands the plane in a cornfield. He drugs a shocked and confused Havens, warning her about the agents who will come after her and that she is not safe with them.
Waking up at home, Havens struggles through a day fitting a bridesmaid 's dress for her sister 's (Maggie Grace) wedding, and is shocked to learn her sister would like to sell their father 's 1966 Pontiac GTO tri-power, which Havens had planned on finishing as a wedding present. Havens is then picked up by a group of intelligence agents, led by Fitzgerald. Miller arrives and, through a long gunfight on the highway, kills several agents and reclaims Havens. She flees at the first opportunity and contacts Rodney (Marc Blucas), a firefighter and former boyfriend. Believing Havens is merely stressed and is playing out a fantasy, Rodney takes her out and she tells him everything that has happened to her, though he still does not understand. Miller then arrives and pretends to take Havens hostage while holding everyone else at gunpoint, fleeing with her.
Miller explains that Havens is safer with him and she agrees to follow him as they go to pick up Simon Feck (Paul Dano), a genius inventor who has created a perpetual energy battery called the Zephyr. Traveling to Brooklyn, Miller and Havens discover that Feck has fled from the warehouse he was hiding in, leaving a clue for Miller about his location. They are then attacked by henchmen sent by Spanish arms dealer, Antonio Quintana (Jordi Mollà). After again being drugged, Havens drifts in and out of consciousness between their capture and escape from Quintana 's men, and Miller brings her to an island that is off - the - grid, which Miller uses as a safe house. Accepting a call from her sister after leaving in frustration, Havens accidentally leads Quintana 's men straight to the hideaway. They try to kill Miller and Havens with an unmanned aerial vehicle. Before they escape by helicopter, Havens is knocked - out by Miller since she is afraid of flying.
Miller reunites with Feck and they, with Havens, get on a train heading for Austria. Havens is attacked by Bernard (Falk Hentschel), an assassin sent by Quintana to retrieve the Zephyr and Feck, and kill Miller. But Miller and Havens fight him and he is killed by another train. Arriving at Salzburg, the three check into a hotel. Miller later leaves to meet with Naomi (Gal Gadot), Quintana 's henchwoman, to make a deal. Havens follows him and listens to Miller 's conversation, mistaking that he does not care for her. She is then picked up by Fitzgerald and C.I.A. Director Isabel George (Viola Davis), who reveal that Miller was using her at the airport to smuggle in the Zephyr when they bumped into each other and convince her that he does n't love her. They also tell her that Miller is the traitor and plans to trade the battery with Quintana. Heartbroken, Havens allows the C.I.A. to find Miller back at the hotel. Miller escapes with the battery, but is seemingly shot on the rooftop and falls to his death in the river. Feck is taken into custody afterwards to Schwedelbach, Germany, though it is later revealed that Fitzgerald has been the real traitor all along and he captures Feck.
Returning home, Havens heads to an address she remembered from Miller 's iPhone, where she finds his parents and learns that his real name is Matthew Knight. They believe their son, a former Army sergeant and Eagle Scout, is dead; but they are fabulously wealthy from winning lotteries and sweepstakes they do n't remember entering. Leaving a message on her own answering machine that she has the Zephyr, she is captured by Quintana 's men and taken to Sevilla, Spain. She is drugged with a prototype truth serum before being rescued by Miller, who was tracking Fitzgerald, who was delivering Feck to Quintana.
Chaos erupts throughout the streets and Quintana is killed by a bull stampede. At the docks, Miller saves Feck from a bullet wound after handing over the Zephyr in a small pouch. Feck later reveals that the battery is unstable and it explodes, killing Fitzgerald. Miller collapses from the gunshot and is hospitalized in Washington D.C.. George apologizes to Miller about him and Fitzgerald, but tells him to let go of Havens and return to the C.I.A., however, she uses euphemisms that imply he will be killed by the agency the next day, saying he "will be safe '' and "he will be transferred to a secure location '' (code language revealed to Havens earlier in the film that means a person will be killed). Miller has a look of realization that the agency will not risk him possibly going rogue again and will likely kill him to prevent it. Shortly after George left the room, the nurse who was in the room (who heard the coded language) drugged Miller and is revealed to be Havens. After Havens breaks Miller out of the hospital, he wakes up in the rebuilt GTO that belonged to her father. After Miller asks what day it is, Havens kisses him and says it is someday. This is a reference from the start of the film that they both have things they want to do someday, and Havens begins to drive towards Cape Horn. As the credits begin to roll, Miller 's parents unwittingly receive tickets to Cape Horn in the mail and accept to go.
Before film director James Mangold signed on to Knight and Day, it was previously associated with director Tom Dey. More than 12 writers contributed to the film, and the Writers Guild of America, West decided due to this large number of contributors, to only credit Patrick O'Neill -- who had put in effort on the beginning layout of the script. Other writers that worked on the film 's script included Scott Frank, Laeta Kalogridis, Ted Griffin, Dana Fox, and Simon Kinberg.
The film changed lead cast members multiple times while the production was mired in "development hell ''. Prior to the finalization of actors Tom Cruise and Cameron Diaz, comedian and actor Adam Sandler was offered to star in the film when it was titled Wichita, but declined explaining, "I just do n't see me with a gun. '' Wichita was developed under production at Revolution Studios; the film was later moved to Sony Pictures. At Sony Pictures, actors Chris Tucker and Eva Mendes were slated to portray the two lead roles in the film; it was titled Trouble Man and intended as a romantic vehicle film for Tucker and Mendes.
After Tucker and Mendes dropped out of the lead roles, Diaz signed on to the film with Sony Pictures, and actor Gerard Butler met with production staff regarding starring opposite Diaz. Butler instead decided to take on the lead role in the film The Bounty Hunter, opposite actress Jennifer Aniston. Tom Cruise considered accepting a role in the film; at the time he was auditioning for parts in five films including Salt, and The Tourist. Cruise decided he wished to star in Knight and Day, and had a vision for the film which included modifying the male lead character with his own ideas. Other actors cast in the film included Maggie Grace, Peter Sarsgaard, Marc Blucas, Paul Dano, Viola Davis, and Jordi Mollà.
The film 's production partners, New Regency and Dune Entertainment, offset financing for the film by paying Tom Cruise a lower advance fee than he normally received. Cruise previously garnered $20 million or higher in an advance fee, but the Los Angeles Times reported he only received $11 million for Knight and Day. Cruise will also not receive "first dollar gross '', which was customary for him. This means that Cruise will not receive a share of the film 's revenue, until Knight and Day funding investors have first gained back their investment in the production. In total, production costs for the film exceeded $125 million.
Principal photography began in mid-September 2009 in Boston and Bridgewater, Massachusetts. Airport terminal scenes were filmed at Worcester Regional Airport. Filming also took place in Melrose, Danvers, and New Bedford, Massachusetts. Spanish cities Seville and Cadiz, as well as Austrian city Salzburg, were also chosen as locations.
The Black Eyed Peas recorded a theme song for the film, titled "Someday ''.
Knight and Day had been set for a June 25, 2010, release date, but FOX moved its debut up two days to June 23; in the face of poor initial tracking numbers. The New York Observer analyzed the marketing for the film, which included an attempt at pushing a "viral video '' of the two main stars; journalist Christopher Rosen commented on the desperation level of the publicity campaign, "the marketing for this thing has seemed more intrusive and desperate than any other big - ticket release in some time. '' Film producer Don Carmody commented negatively regarding the film 's trailer, calling it "dull '', and stated the film would not do well because of the age of its two stars, "Cameron Diaz I think was a star, but she 's no longer a star. Some of those stars are getting a little up there (in age). '' The Hollywood Reporter noted, "potential viewers remain startlingly indifferent to whether they actually end up seeing it. And attention thus far is still drawn mostly by those under 25, which indicates that the fans who grew up with star Tom Cruise have moved on. ''
FOX attempted to increase word of mouth advertising for the film by showing a sneak preview on June 19, 2010; the Los Angeles Times reported the same day that pre-release surveys determined that the film was likely to become a commercial flop. Projections indicated that the film would only make $20 million at the box office; the film cost $125 million to produce. FOX production President Emma Watts commented of the film 's commercial prospects, "We are n't exactly where we hoped we would be. '' Los Angeles Times noted, "In addition, Cruise and Diaz are not as popular with younger moviegoers, who often drive big opening weekends in the summer... Among teenage and college - age males, the movie is barely registering, according to people who have seen the survey results. '' New York Magazine reported the film was "tracking miserably '' prior to its first week. New York Magazine reported that an issue with Knight and Day was, "one of the film 's biggest handicaps: its star, Tom Cruise ''. A FOX official commented to New York Magazine regarding the film 's pre-release polling data, "at those numbers, we ca n't open the movie right now. Hopefully, they 'll change in the next few days. ''
Upon hearing that tracking data on June 22, 2010, showed the film was not likely to produce revenue over $30 million in its first five days on screen, a FOX executive told TheWrap he was "confounded '', and commented, "Tracking says one thing, but our sneak previews this weekend said something totally different... but if you look at the empirical data, we 're nowhere. '' New York Magazine reported that the day prior to the film 's release, a long scene from Knight and Day was made available on iTunes, in an attempt to improve the lackluster 28 -- 31 % "definite interest '' level of the movie. After results were reported from the film 's initial debut, FOX distribution executive Bruce Synder commented to The Hollywood Reporter, "It 's an adult movie opening on a Wednesday, but we opened it there and snuck it on Saturday because we believe the word - of - mouth will be good, so we 're set for a pretty good opening weekend. Remember, it 's an original, adult movie, which we expect will run for quite a while. ''
An ' extended cut ' which added eight minutes of footage, mostly extended versions of existing scenes, as well as a new opening scene that better established June Haven 's profession as a mechanic was released on Video On Demand in North America. As of January 2011 it had not been released in DVD region 1, though it had been released in regions 2, 3, and 4.
Knight and Day performed poorly at the box office in its debut, with a take of US $ 3.8 million the day after its initial June 23, 2010 release in revenue from ticket sales in the United States and Canada. This was less than the film Toy Story 3, which earned $13 million at the box office on the same day. Knight and Day did not place within the top 50 all - time Wednesday film openings. An analysis of the opening day results by Box Office Mojo noted it was the worst attended action film debut for Tom Cruise since his appearance in the 1986 Legend. It was the lowest - grossing opening day for Cruise in a leading role since his performance in the 1992 film Far and Away. Cruise 's last starring role prior to Knight and Day, in the 2008 film Valkyrie, generated $8.5 million on its opening day. The previous film with Cameron Diaz and Cruise as the lead roles, Vanilla Sky, garnered $8.9 million on its opening day. Moira Macdonald of The Seattle Times characterized the film 's initial revenue results as "a box - office disappointment ''; Lou Lumenick of New York Post commented, "Not great numbers ''; journalist Roger Friedman noted for Hollywood News, "Bad reviews did n't help. ' K&D ' has registered only 52 % on Rotten Tomatoes. Even those reviews counted as positive were n't so good. They were stretching. ''; Nicole Sperling of Entertainment Weekly noted, "audiences just are n't showing up the way Fox might have hoped ''; and Ben Fritz of Los Angeles Times called the film 's debut a "soft '' opening, and commented, "It was n't a good first day or night at the box office for ' Knight and Day. ' ''
The film 's revenues dropped nine percent on its second day of release, earning $3.5 million in ticket sales. During the same period that revenues dropped for Knight and Day, ticket sales for Toy Story only fell by three percent, The Karate Kid dropped by six percent; while other films increased revenues at the same time, including, Shrek Forever After, Sex and the City 2, Get Him to the Greek, Killers, and Robin Hood. In its first weekend, Knight and Day was paired up against Grown Ups, a comedy film starring Adam Sandler, Kevin James, Chris Rock, David Spade and Rob Schneider. The Friday of its first weekend after release, Knight and Day took third place at the box office, behind both Grown Ups and Toy Story 3. The film brought in a total of $6.4 million on its third day of release.
The film grossed $261.9 million.
Knight and Day received mixed reviews from critics. On Rotten Tomatoes the film has an approval rating of 52 % based 221 reviews with an average rating of 5.6 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads, "It 's pure formula, but thanks to its breezy pace and a pair of charming performances from Tom Cruise and Cameron Diaz, Knight and Day offers some agreeably middle - of - the - road summer action. '' On Metacritic, the film has a score of 46 out of 100 based on 38 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews ''. Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "B + '' on an A+ to F scale.
The film received a negative review in Variety; critic Justin Chang characterized the film as "a high - energy, low - impact caper - comedy that labors to bring a measure of wit, romance and glamour to an overworked spy - thriller template ''. Kirk Honeycutt of The Hollywood Reporter summarized his review of the film with, "Bottom Line: Logic and plausibility take a holiday in this nonstop actioner that counts on stars Tom Cruise and Cameron Diaz to sell the nonsense. '' Honeycutt wrote of the writing, "the script is too lazy to develop any of its characters -- and that includes the leads '', and commented, "laziness permeates the film from the inexplicable escapes to the neglected romance ''. Knight and Day received a rating of one and a half stars from a review by Michael Phillips in the Chicago Tribune; which criticized multiple aspects of the film, including its script, directing, cinematography, set pieces, and action sequences. Phillips concluded, "A 21st Century ' Charade ' pumped up on all the wrong steroids, ' Knight and Day ' may well suffice for audiences desperate for the bankable paradox known as the predictable surprise, and willing to overlook a galumphing mediocrity in order to concentrate on matters of dentistry. '' Lexi Feinberg of Big Picture Big Sound gave the film a rating of one and a half stars, and characterized it as an "asinine, action - adventure dud '', with a "stupid plot ''. Feinberg commented, "' Knight and Day ' is a ludicrous, large - scale failure ''.
In a review of the film for the New York Post, critic Lou Lumenick rated Knight and Day with one and a half out of four stars. Lumenick wrote, "this is a big, dumb summer movie with no apparent ambition other than plugging a hole in a studio 's schedule because its faded star happened to be available for a few weeks. '' American film critic and professor Emanuel Levy was critical of the film 's writing, calling it a "mindless flick ''; he noted, "The story moves at a breakneck speed, as if to conceal the incongruities in the storytelling. '' Levy gave the film a grade of "C '', and commented, "Preposterously plotted, the saga is dominated by long, energetic, uneven action sequences, but it lacks any logic and pays minimal attention to characterization. Repetitious in structure, and with humor that more often than not misses the mark, ' Knight and Day ' is characterized by nihilistic violence and amoral tone, which would n't have mattered had the movie been witty or fun to watch. '' Simon Abrams of Slant Magazine gave the film a rating of two stars out of four, and commented of the film 's director and writer, "Clearly O'Neill and Mangold are trying to give viewers what producers would undoubtedly like to sell as ' something for everybody, ' but there 's no consistency to the thing and no chemistry whatsoever between Cruise and Diaz, making the alternating tug - of - war between girly and manly elements of the film seem extraordinarily forced. '' In a review published in The Victoria Advocate, Robert Philpot of McClatchy Newspapers called the movie "disposable '', and singled out the film 's script as its "biggest problem '', commenting that it "feels lazy right from its lame - pun title ''. The Miami Herald film critic Rene Rodriguez wrote that there was "no chemistry between Cruise and Diaz '', and commented regarding Cruise 's acting, "Tom Cruise spends much of ' Knight and Day ' looking as if he 's waiting for someone to pour casting mold over his head to make an action figure. ''
Entertainment Weekly film critic Lisa Schwarzbaum gave Knight and Day a grade of "C + '', and compared it to the 2010 film Killers starring Katherine Heigl and Ashton Kutcher, "The producers assume that audience interest in movie stars is bigger than audience interest in characters. The conclusion is overdetermined, since Roy and June are such flimsy constructions... At least they 're not Katherine Heigl and Ashton Kutcher in Killers. '' Colin Covert of Star Tribune made a similar comparison, "The film looks unambitious, like a remake of ' Killers, ' the Ashton Kutcher - Katherine Heigl guns - and - giggles toss - off everyone has already forgotten, but with bigger stunts and more star wattage. '' The film received a rating of two stars out of four from critic Peter Howell in the Toronto Star; the reviewer commented, "There is supposed to be romance in Knight and Day -- and Diaz is up for it -- but Cruise still looks as if he 's taken charisma lessons from Al Gore. '' In a review for The Huffington Post, critic Marshall Fine observed, "the movie bubbles happily for almost an hour before it flags ''. Robert Bell of Exclaim! wrote of the script, "Sure, things slow down a bit around the midway point, making it clear that there is very little going on here aside from cheesy escapist fantasy, but things quickly pick up again, engaging us in the moment of a movie that knows exactly what mainstream trash cinema should be. '' In a review for the Orlando Sentinel, critic Roger Moore commented, "The blase plot devices (a gadget, the nerdy guy who invented it), the bland villains, the too - fast dash through exotic locales, do n't matter so long as Cruise and Diaz click and spark their scenes -- chases and embraces -- to life. And Cruise, hurling himself at this as if his Mission: Impossible future and indeed his whole career depended on it, makes sure they do. ''
The Wall Street Journal critic Joe Morgenstern commented, "' Knight and Day ' woke me up to just how awful some summer entertainments have become. It is n't that the film is harmful, except to moviegoers ' wallets and movie lovers ' morale, but that it is truly phenomenal for the purity of its incoherence. '' Writing for the Chicago Sun - Times, Roger Ebert rated the movie 3 stars out of 4 and wrote, "' Knight and Day ' aspires to the light charm of a romantic action comedy like ' Charade ' or ' Romancing the Stone, ' but would come closer if it dialed down the relentless action. The romance part goes without saying after a Meet Cute contrived in an airport, and the comedy seems to generate naturally between Tom Cruise and Cameron Diaz. But why do so many summer movies find it obligatory to inflict us with CGI overkill? I 'd sorta rather see Diaz and Cruise in action scenes on a human scale, rather than have it rubbed in that for long stretches, they 're essentially replaced by animation. '' Ty Burr of The Boston Globe stated, "The movie 's a piece of high - octane summer piffle: stylish, funny, brainless without being too obnoxious about it, and Cruise is its manic animating principle. '' Writing for the Associated Press, Christy Lemire commented, "Cruise 's presence also helps keep things light, breezy and watchable when the action -- and the story itself -- spin ridiculously out of control. '' Bill Goodykoontz of The Arizona Republic observed, "Mangold, working from a script by Patrick O'Neill, accelerates events in a way that is either a perfect representation of how current action films are made or a demonstration of everything that 's wrong with movies today. Maybe it 's both. '' Joshua Starnes of ComingSoon.net gave the film a rating of 6.5 out of 10, and concluded his review, "Instead of watching it, you 're better off putting "Knight and Day '' in a time capsule and singing some Don McLean, ' cause this is the day the movie star died. '' In a subsequent "mini review '', Edward Douglas of ComingSoon.net gave the film a rating of 8 out of 10, and concluded, "The entertainment comes from how much fun it is watching (Cruise and Diaz) on screen together and that 's what separates Knight and Day from previous attempts at mixing romance, comedy, and action. '' In a review for CNN, Tom Charity commented, "there 's a creeping anxiety about this project, a tendency to over-compensate that speaks to underlying inadequacies. ''
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what does it mean when an xbox 360 has a red ring | Xbox 360 technical problems - wikipedia
The Xbox 360 video game console is subject to a number of technical problems and failures that can render it unusable. However, many of the issues can be identified by a series of glowing red lights flashing on the face of the console; the three flashing red lights (nicknamed the "Red Ring of Death '' or the "RRoD '') being the most famous. There are also other issues that arise with the console, such as discs becoming scratched in the drive and "bricking '' of consoles due to dashboard updates. Since its release on November 22, 2005, many articles have appeared in the media portraying the Xbox 360 's failure rates, with the latest estimate by warranty provider SquareTrade to be 23.7 % in 2009, and currently the highest estimate being 54.2 % by a Game Informer survey.
There has been legal action taken attempting to hold Microsoft responsible for the Xbox 360 's failure rate and provide compensation for those affected.
Three flashing red lights around the Xbox 360 power button instead of the one to four green lights indicating normal operation represent an internal problem that requires service. This error was soon nicknamed the "Red Ring of Death '', echoing Windows ' Blue Screen of Death error. Warning signs may include freeze - ups, graphical problems in the middle of gameplay, such as checkerboard or pinstripe patterns on the screen, and sound errors; mostly consisting of extremely loud noises that can be affected by the volume control, the console only responding when the power button is pressed to turn it off. These events may happen once or several times until the hardware failure occurs, or not at all. If the console freezes occasionally, the error will not necessarily follow. The technical problems seem to affect some generations of consoles more than others, e.g. Xenon or Zephyr. Those problems may also cause some freezing screens.
This error code is usually caused by failure of one or more hardware components, although it can indicate that the console is not receiving enough power from the power supply, which can either be due to a faulty power supply or if the power supply cable is not fully inserted into the console. The 3 flashing lights can also be caused by power surges; if the console is connected to an outlet that receives a power surge, it may have a failure and the 3 lights will appear as long as the console is plugged into the outlet. Turning off the console, unplugging all power cables and plugging them back in, and restarting the console may fix this issue in some cases.
Distinct from the General Hardware Failure is a similar - looking, but much less serious, error warning where four red lights appear, in which case the console does not detect an AV cable is plugged in; however, this error code is not generated on models equipped with the HDMI connection. The four lights can sometimes also be seen when power surges or very brief power outages occur while the console is running, in which the console needs to be unplugged and plugged back in again to reset the error. Two red lights appear when the system is overheated.
On the Xbox 360 S model, the power button utilizes a different design that does not incorporate the same style of lighting that past models used. A flashing red light means that the console is overheating, similar to the two - light error code on the original model Xbox 360; however, an on - screen message also appears, telling the user that the console will automatically power off to protect itself from overheating. A solid red light is similar to the one - light error if an "E XX '' error message is displayed and a three - light error code if the error message is absent.
In the early months after the console 's launching, Microsoft stated that the Xbox 360 's failure rate was within the consumer electronics industry 's typical 3 % to 5 %. Nevertheless, Microsoft has not released its official statistics on the failure rate of the various versions of the console.
On July 5, 2007, Peter Moore, the Vice President of Microsoft 's Interactive Entertainment Business division published an open letter recognizing the console 's problems, as well as announcing a three - year warranty from the original date of purchase for every Xbox 360 console that experiences the "general hardware failure '' indicated by three flashing red LEDs on the console. A source that has been identified as a team leader and key architect in the creation of the Xbox and Xbox 360 and a founding member of the Xbox team provided insight as to the high rate of failures. The interviews suggest that Xbox 360 units that fail early in their life do so because of problems in the system design, parts supply, material reliability, and manufacturing issues as well as a system not tolerant to faults. These issues were alleged to be the end results of the decisions of management in Microsoft 's Xbox team and inadequate testing resources prior to the console 's release. A second source cited that, at one time, there was just a 32 % yield of one of the test production runs. 68 of every 100 test units were found to be defective.
Years after leaving Microsoft, Moore recalled preparing to tell then CEO of Microsoft, Steve Ballmer, of his planned response to the incident, "we 've got to tell Steve, here 's what we have to do: we need to FedEx an empty box to a customer who had a problem - they would call us up - with a FedEx return label to send your box, and then we would FedEx it back to them and fix it... I always remember $240 m of that was FedEx... It was sickening. I was doing a lot of interviews... We could n't figure it out... There was a theory. We had changed our solder, which is the way you put the GPU and the fans, to lead - free... We think it was somehow the heat coming off the GPU was drying out some of the solder, and it was n't the normal stuff we 'd used, because we had to meet European Standards and take the lead out... He said, ' what 's it going to cost? ' I remember taking a deep breath, looking at Robbie, and saying, ' we think it 's $1.15 bn, Steve. ' He said, ' do it. ' There was no hesitation... If we had n't made that decision there and then, and tried to fudge over this problem, then the Xbox brand and Xbox One would n't exist today. ''
On February 8, 2008, during the Game Developers Conference 2008, Microsoft announced that the "Failure rate has officially dropped '', but without mentioning any specifics. The same month, electronics warranty provider SquareTrade published an examination of 1040 Xbox 360 's and said that they suffered from a failure rate of 16.4 % (one in six). Of the 171 failures, 60 % were due to a general hardware failure (and thus fell under the 3 year extended warranty). And of the remaining 40 % which were not covered by the extended warranty, 18 % were disc read errors, 13 % were video card failures, 13 % were hard drive freezes, 10 % were power issues and 7 % were disc tray malfunctions. SquareTrade also stated that its estimates are likely significantly lower than reality due to the time span of the sample (six to ten months), the eventual failure of many consoles that did not occur within this time span and the fact that most owners did not deal with SquareTrade and had their consoles repaired directly through Microsoft via the much publicized extended RROD warranty.
People who experience the problem will find that they have to send the Xbox 360 away for repair or replacement and it may take up to 3 weeks to repair or replace. During the time of the Xbox being replaced, Microsoft and UPS will keep the client (s) updated with the current status of where the Xbox is and whether it is being repaired or replaced.
On October 17, 2008 a class action lawsuit was filed in California against Microsoft over the RROD problem.
On August 28, 2009, SquareTrade published a report saying that "early indications point to the RROD problem abating in 2009 '', projecting that 1 - year failure rates with the release of the Jasper chipsets might be below 4 %, with actual fail rates for RROD problems at slightly above 1 % in Q109, and total failure rates for all hardware problems at about 12 %.
In June 2010 Microsoft released a new "slimmer '' Xbox 360. These models indicate hardware failure differently from the original; The outer ring segments can not turn red anymore. Microsoft has said that henceforth errors will be displayed by the center of the power button changing from green to red. Additionally Microsoft will no longer give a 3 - year warranty for "general failure '' errors, because the Xbox 360 slim "constitutes a whole new design ''.
Microsoft has never officially released any information indicating the true cause of the problem. Therefore, any information available to the public has come only from third party analyses.
Electronics industry newspaper EE Times reported that the problems may have started in the graphics chip. Microsoft designed the chip in - house to cut out the traditional ASIC vendor with the goal of saving money in ASIC design costs. After multiple product failures, Microsoft went back to an ASIC vendor and had the chip redesigned so it would dissipate less heat.
German computer magazine c 't blamed the problem primarily on the use of the wrong type of lead - free solder, a type that when exposed to elevated temperatures for extended periods of time becomes brittle and can develop hair - line cracks that are almost irreparable. The article also revealed that representatives of the three largest Xbox 360 resellers in the world (EB Games, Gamestop and Best Buy) claimed that the failure rate of the Xbox 360 was between 30 % and 33 %, and that Micromart, the largest repair shop in the United Kingdom, stopped repairing Xbox 360s because it was unable to fully repair the defective systems. Because of the nature of the problem, Micromart could only make temporary repairs, which led to many of the "repaired '' systems failing again after a few weeks. At that time Micromart was receiving 2,500 defective consoles per day from the U.K. alone.
Some articles also suggest that the hardware condition may also be caused by using the new Xbox Kinect with the old Xenon generation Xbox.
Almost at the same time the Xbox 360 was released in late 2005, customers began reporting circumferential scratches found on discs used in their Xbox 360 consoles. Almost two years later, in February 2007, the Web site "The Llamma 's Adventures '' investigated the matter and concluded that some Xbox 360 disc drives lack a mechanism to secure the disc solidly in place. Tilting or moving consoles with these drives, when operating with a disc spinning inside, can potentially cause damage to the disc and in some cases rendering the disc unplayable as a result. Discs have also been scratched by stationary consoles during normal use. One side of the disc can also be scratched by the disc tray if it malfunctions by closing with the disc in an odd position. Also, technical engineers already knew about the problem before release confirm this with Microsoft with a list of solutions. According to Microsoft, decreasing the disc rotation would cause games to take too much time to load from the disc, and adding a bumper in the disc tray would cost 25 cents per console -- a total of about 11 million dollars and causing a delay of the Xbox 360 release. In 2005, they were accused of many technical Xbox 360 problems and a poor lack of solutions and warranty. According to reports in news media, the new Xbox 360 S design still scratches discs when the console is moved while spinning in operation. However, the Xbox 360 S and Xbox 360 E ships with a sticker informing users that moving the console while powered on poses risks, effectively removing responsibility from Microsoft.
Although discs scratched by the Xbox 360 are not covered under its warranty, Microsoft 's Xbox Disc Replacement Program will sell customers a new copy of discs scratched by the Xbox 360, if they are published in countries where the Xbox was originally sold, at a cost of $20. The published list of games that qualify, however, is limited. Halo 3 Limited Edition was replaced at no cost until February 1, 2008 according to the Xbox Disc Replacement Program 's main site. Other publishers can be contacted directly for a disc exchange, but it is unclear whether they will replace discs at no cost. Game publisher Electronic Arts details a specific program for this problem which requires the disc and original receipt, also the game must be purchased within 90 days of the request for a replacement disc, or will request a replacement charge of $20 or $25.
In December 2005 (shortly after the Xbox 360 's release in the United States and Canada on November 22, 2005 and around its release in Europe and Asia in early December 2005), reports of unidentifiable noises from the Xbox 360 were appearing on Internet message boards. In response to the problem, Microsoft offered in December 2005 to replace only the Perfect Dark Zero video game "even if it was not the game that was scratched. '' The scratched disc problem reportedly affected only a small percentage of Xbox 360 units, however it became apparent in December 2005, through message board reports and growing media coverage.
The Xbox 360 scratched disc problem received little media coverage in 2006; however, in February 2007, the Dutch television program Kassa investigated several complaints from Dutch consumers about circular scratches made in their Xbox 360 discs. Some of these consumers claimed that their discs became unreadable. Kassa investigation traced the problem to a design defect in which the Xbox 360 optical lens was not restrained sufficiently. In asserting that Microsoft or at least its chain of suppliers was aware of this problem, Kassa noted that Microsoft 's "TSST '' versions of the Samsung DVD - drive lack rubber cushions around the optical lens while identical Samsung drives sold for PCs did have these rubber cushions. Kassa also noted that the affected Xbox 360s all seem to have been produced towards the end of 2006.
During the February 2007 investigation report, Kassa stated that either not all Xbox 360s without protective pads would spontaneously scratch discs, or that the complaints were from Xbox 360 users who had moved their Xbox during use, or who used an unstable setup. Kassa 's February 2007 investigation left open the question of whether consumers contributed to the rounded scratch problem by moving their Xbox 360 (TSST version) during the playing of a disc. This resulted in Kassa receiving an additional 1,000 complaints over the subsequent two months, with many consumers denying the Xbox had moved when the scratching occurred, or that it had been placed in an unstable position.
Prompted by consumer reaction to its February 2007 report, Kassa performed several tests with Xbox 360 units from consumers who claimed their Xbox had the problem. Kassa stabilized these consoles and positioned them at a location remote from contact by anyone. The results of the laboratory conditions test revealed that one of the nine tested Xbox 360 units had spontaneously scratched a disc after five hours of gaming. The consoles were also tested standing upright, and the test revealed that three of the nine tested Xbox 360s significantly scratched discs. The video of the complete investigation, meticulously documenting the methodology, and all the relevant details of the tests, was made ready to be aired on April 14, 2007. The videos are also distributed with English subtitles, for those that are not Dutch Note that Kassa has produced and uploaded these videos itself, and therefore it is not a copyright violation to reproduce these links here. They can also be found on the Kassa Website together with some press information about the case (in English). The test setup details can be found online, and the complete movie of the Kassa TV program meticulously documenting the methodology used for the test can be found online (in Dutch) Weeks before it aired, however, Kassa solicited input from Microsoft Netherlands.
One day before the airing of the April 14, 2007 show, Kassa received a response from Microsoft Netherlands stating that "as a result of regular use it is possible that scratches on discs can arise '', and that Microsoft Netherlands "would seek a solution for the Dutch customers with this problem ''. Additionally, Microsoft released the following statement ten days after the show, on April 24, 2007:
"Due to the fact that we did not participate in the experiment done by Kassa and have little insight into the methodology that was used, we can not comment specifically on the outcome. While we are aware that discs can potentially be scratched through normal wear and tear, we have not received any widespread reports of the issue highlighted here. That said, it is important to us that all of our customers have the best gaming experiences possible, and these claims are obviously very concerning to us. We encourage any Xbox customer who believes that their discs have been scratched in the same manner as identified by Kassa, to contact us. We will examine the console and make appropriate repairs if necessary in order to restore the console to full working order, as well as provide customers with information on how to obtain replacement discs should they need them. ''
Microsoft Netherlands now accepts these complaints from users (while within the warranty period), and offers to replace the Xbox 360 free of charge. Whether Microsoft Netherlands will also replace scratched discs is still unclear. After the official broadcast, (in a continuation of the show which can be viewed on - line, about 28 minutes into the show) a customer is shown calling the Microsoft help - desk, who is told Microsoft will replace his Xbox 360 but is denied a promise to replace his scratched games. There are reports from some other regions that Microsoft will replace scratched discs if published by Microsoft.
On June 1, 2007, European Commissioner for Consumer Protection Meglena Kuneva, after talking with the producers of "Kassa '' and other Dutch consumer organizations, announced that the European Commission would investigate the Xbox scratching problems, and would ask Microsoft for an Xbox replacement program for the whole of Europe. She expected Microsoft 's answer within a week. Informal sources now say that Microsoft 's response was to deny the problem exists, stating that "the users are to blame ''. But Kuneva did not react to that response, and 18 months later (4th quarter 2008) the EC 's (Meglena Kuneva 's) news site was still silent about Microsoft 's response, or about the result of the "investigation ''.
A man has sued Microsoft claiming the Xbox 360 scratches game discs, saying the consoles are "negligently designed and manufactured. '' In the lawsuit filed on July 9, 2007 in a Florida federal court, Jorge Brouwer says Microsoft has received thousands of complaints but has not replaced all scratched discs. The lawsuit seeks class action status.
Three law firms in Fort Lauderdale, Florida; Los Angeles, California; and Seattle, Washington are investigating consumer complaints regarding the Xbox 360. The law firms have filed lawsuits in the United States District Court Western District of Washington at Seattle on behalf of a proposed nationwide class of customers who have suffered scratched game discs while using their Xbox 360. The lawsuit seeks class certification and reimbursement for customers for the cost of games damaged by the console; reimbursement for customers who have paid a $20 fee to Microsoft Corporation under a limited disc replacement program offered on ten Microsoft games; repair of consoles free of charge to prevent further disc scratching; and / or reimbursement for customers who have paid for an aftermarket repair solution.
On March 23, 2009, the BBC 's consumer interest programme Watchdog performed an investigation into how the console scratches its own discs, after Microsoft found no issues with multiple reportedly defective consoles. A sealed test, protected from any outside interference beyond accessing games, found no problems with either console. However, a further test which attempted to simulate normal household vibrations produced a disc scratch on the previously problematic console.
Currently, Microsoft still maintains that it is the user 's fault when discs are damaged, because it "makes clear with multiple warnings not to move the console with the disc inside. '' It also maintains that only a minority of customers are affected by this issue. However, the company did not comment on the lab tests.
An update patch released on November 1, 2006 was reported to "brick '' consoles, rendering them useless. The most obvious issue occurs after the installation of the patch, after which the console immediately reboots and shows an error message. Usually, error code E71 is shown during or directly after the booting animation.
In response to the November 2006 update error that "bricked '' his console, a California man filed a class action lawsuit against Microsoft in Washington federal court in early December 2006. The lawsuit seeks $5 million in damages and the free repair of any console rendered unusable by the update. This is the second such lawsuit filed against Microsoft, the first having been filed in December 2005, shortly after the 360 's launch.
Following Microsoft 's extension of the Xbox 360 warranty to a full year, from the previous 90 days, the California man 's attorney confirmed to the Seattle Post Intelligencer that the lawsuit had been resolved under confidential terms.
In mid 2007, technology and gaming blogs began reporting about new problems with the Xbox 360 losing video output. The problems are characterized by a blank, staticky, or grayscale video output with a proper functioning audio output and no flashing red lights on the console. The complete video failure is sometimes preceded by other graphical glitches such as an irregular saturation of green and / or red colors.
Others have complained about not being able to view certain movies / DVDs on their HDTV using the HDMI cable. This is likely caused by the HDTV being non-HDCP compliant.
The Nyko Intercooler has been reported to have led to a general hardware failure in a number of consoles, as well as scorching of the power DC input. Microsoft stated that the peripheral drains too much power from the console (the Intercooler power cord is installed between the Xbox 360 power supply and the console itself) and can cause faults to occur, and stated that consoles fitted with the peripheral will have their warranties null and void. Nyko has recently released an updated Intercooler that uses its own power source. Nyko claims this problem no longer occurs with new versions of this cooler. However, Microsoft still considers it an unlicensed add - on and will void the warranty of machines showing signs of its use. There is no data available to indicate whether the Intercooler really does decrease the chance of hardware failure. However, if the Intercooler fails, it can cause more overheating problems. The Intercooler can also melt itself onto the 360, melt the powercord inside of itself, or make itself extremely hard to remove.
On November 19, 2008, Microsoft released the "New Xbox Experience '' (NXE). This update provided streaming Netflix capability and avatars; however, some users have reported the update has caused their consoles to not properly read optical media. Others have reported that the update has disabled audio through HDMI connections. A Microsoft spokesperson stated the company is "aware that a handful of Xbox LIVE users are experiencing audio issues, and are diligently monitoring this issue and working towards a solution. '' Microsoft released a patch on February 3, 2009 for the HDMI audio issues.
An E74 error is indicated when the lower - right quadrant of the ring indicator flashes red and displays an error message in multiple languages: "System Error. Contact Xbox Customer Support '', with the code E74 at the bottom. The error is caused by a solder joint under the GPU or Video output chip becoming damaged. As of April 14, 2009, the E74 error is now covered by the three - year extended warranty, and customers who previously paid Microsoft for out - of - warranty service to correct the E74 error received a refund.
The E74 error has sometimes been described as a "Green Screen of Death '' and a "Black Screen of Death '' because early versions of these errors had an almost jet - black background with a hue of dark green. Later versions would show a completely jet - black background. Reports of impending Q4 red - light failure stem from users who report an abnormal display with poor, grainy video as well as black dots or artifacts appearing on the screen. Vertical green or red strokes on the screen can also indicate an E74.
Xbox 360 consoles which have a hardware failure will display a secondary error code by blinking a sequence of LEDs when the correct button sequence is pushed. An error code of 0001 may represent a defect in the power supply, rather than the Xbox itself, or a short within the Xbox, or a blown capacitor.
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who is the first living indian to feature in a postage stamp in india | Postage stamps and postal history of India - Wikipedia
This is a survey of the postage stamps and postal history of India.
Indian postal systems for efficient military and governmental communications had developed long before the arrival of Europeans. When the Portuguese, Dutch, French, Danish and British displaced The Marathas who had already defeated the Mughals, their postal systems existed alongside those of many somewhat independent states. The British East India Company gradually displaced other powers and brought into existence a British administrative system over most of India, with a need to establish and maintain both official and commercial mail systems.
Although the Indian Post Office was established in 1837, Asia 's first adhesive stamp, the Scinde Dawk, was introduced in 1852 by Sir Bartle Frere, the British East India Company 's administrator of the province of Sind. The Indian postal system developed into an extensive, dependable and robust network providing connectivity to almost all parts of India, Burma, the Straits Settlements and other areas controlled by the British East India Company (EIC). Based on the model postal system introduced in England by the reformer, Rowland Hill, efficient postal services were provided at a low cost and enabled the smooth commercial, military and administrative functioning of the EIC and its successor, the British Raj. The Imperial Posts co-existed with the several postal systems maintained by various Indian states, some of which produced stamps for use within their respective dominions, while British Indian postage stamps were required for sending mail beyond the boundaries of these states. Telegraphy and telephony made their appearance as part of the Posts before becoming separate departments. After the Independence of India in 1947, the Indian postal service continues to function on a countrywide basis and provides many valuable, low cost services to the public of India.
The history of India 's postal system begins long before the introduction of postage stamps. The antecedents have been traced to the systems of the Persian Empire instituted by Cyrus the Great and Darius I for communicating important military and political information. The Atharvaveda (or Arthveda) which is one of the oldest books in the world, records a messenger service in ancient India millenniums ago. Systems for collecting information and revenue data from the provinces are mentioned in Chanakya 's Arthashastra (meaning military strategy and skill) (c. 3rd century BCE).
In ancient times the kings (or Raja), emperors (or Maharaja), rulers, zamindars (or the feudal lords) protected their land through the intelligence services of specially trained police or military agencies and courier services to convey and obtain information through runners, messengers and even through pigeons in most parts of India. The chief of the secret service, known as the Daakpaal (postmaster), maintained the lines of communication... The people used to send letters to (their) distant relatives through their friends or neighbors.
For centuries it was rare for messages to be carried by any means other than a relay of runners on foot. A runner ran from one village or relay post to the next, carrying the letters on a pole with a sharp point. His was a dangerous occupation: the relay of postal runners worked throughout the day and night, vulnerable to attacks by bandits and wild animals. These mail runners were used chiefly by the rulers, for purposes of gathering information and wartime news. They were subsequently used by merchants for trade purpose. It was much later that mail runners came to be in use for the carriage of private mail.
The postal history of India primarily began with the overland routes, stretching from Persia to India. What began as mere foot - tracks that more than often included fords across the mountainous streams, gradually evolved over the centuries as highways, used by traders and military envoys on foot and horses, for carriage of missives.
The Arab influence of the Caliphate came about with the conquest of Sind by Muhammad bin Qasim in 712 A.D. (C.E.). Thereupon, the Diwan - i - Barid (or Department of Posts) established official communication across the far - flung empire. The swiftness of the horse messengers finds mention in many of the texts of that period.
The first Sultan of Delhi, after the Mughals colonised India, Qutb - ud - din Aybak was Sultan for only four years, 1206 -- 1210, but he founded the Mamluk Dynasty and created a messenger post system. This was expanded into the dak chowkis, a horse and foot runner service, by Alauddin Khalji in 1296. Sher Shah Suri (1541 -- 1545) replaced runners with horses for conveyance of messages along the northern Indian high road, today known as the Grand Trunk Road, which he constructed between Bengal and Sindh over an ancient trade route at the base of the Himalayas, the Uttarapatha. He also built 1700 ' serais ' where two horses were always kept for the despatch of the Royal Mail Akbar introduced camels in addition to the horses and runners.
In the South of India, in 1672 Raja Chuk Deo of Mysore began an efficient postal service which was further improved upon by Haider Ali.
The East India Company took constructive steps to improve the existing systems in India when, in 1688, they opened a post office in Bombay followed by similar ones in Calcutta and Madras. Lord Clive further expanded the services in 1766 and in 1774 Warren Hastings made the services available to the general public. The fee charged was two annas per 100 miles. The postmarks applied on these letters are very rare and are named ' Indian Bishop Marks ' after Colonel Henry Bishop, the Postmaster General of the United Kingdom who introduced this practice in Britain. The Post Office Department of the East India Company was first established on 31 March 1774 at Calcutta, followed in 1778 at Madras and in 1792 at Bombay. After 1793, when Cornwallis introduced the Regulation of the Permanent Settlement, the financial responsibility for maintaining the official posts rested with the zamindars. Alongside these, private dawk mail systems sprang up for the commercial conveyance of messages using hired runners. Also, the East India Company created its own infrastructure for the expansion and administration of military and commercial power. The runners were paid according to the distance they travelled and the weight of their letters.
Carrying the mail was dangerous work:
The Post Office Act XVII of 1837 provided that the Governor - General of India in Council had the exclusive right of conveying letters by post for hire within the territories of the East India Company. Section XX required all private vessels to carry letters at prescribed rates for postage. A handstamp was applied to preadhesive ship letters. The mails were available to certain officials without charge, which became a controversial privilege as the years passed. On this basis the Indian Post Office was established on 1 October 1837.
The urgent European mails were carried overland via Egypt at the isthmus of Suez. This route, pioneered by Thomas Waghorn, linked the Red Sea with the Mediterranean, and thence by steamer via Marseilles, Brindisi or Trieste to European destinations. The Suez Canal did not open until much later (17 November 1869). The time in transit for letters using the Overland Mail route was dramatically reduced. Waghorn 's route reduced the journey from 16,000 miles via the Cape of Good Hope to 6,000 miles; and reduced the time in transit from three months to between 35 and 45 days.
The use of the Scinde Dawk adhesive stamps to signify the prepayment of postage began on 1 July 1852 in the Scinde / Sindh district, as part of a comprehensive reform of the district 's postal system. A year earlier Sir Bartle Frere had replaced the postal runners with a network of horses and camels, improving communications in the Indus river valley to serve the military and commercial needs of the British East India Company.
The new stamps were embossed individually onto paper or a wax wafer. The shape was circular, with "SCINDE DISTRICT DAWK '' around the rim and the British East India Company 's Merchant 's Mark as the central emblem. The paper was either white or greyish white. The blue stamp was printed onto the paper by the die during the embossing, while the wax version was embossed on a red sealing wax wafer on paper; but all had the same value of 1 / 2 anna. They were used until October 1854, and then officially suppressed. These are quite scarce today, with valuations from US $700 to $10,000 for postally used examples. The unused red stamp was previously valued at £ 65,000.00 by Stanley Gibbons (basis 2006); however, it now appears that no unused examples have survived.
The first stamps valid for postage throughout India were placed on sale in October 1854 with four values: 1 / 2 anna, 1 anna, 2 annas, and 4 annas. Featuring a youthful profile of Queen Victoria aet. 15 years, all four values were designed and printed in Calcutta, and issued without perforations or gum. All were lithographed except for the 2 annas green, which was produced by typography from copper clichés or from electrotyped plates. The 4 annas value (illustrated) was one of the world 's first bicolored stamps, preceded only by the Basel Dove, a beautiful local issue.
These stamps were issued following a Commission of Inquiry which had carefully studied the postal systems of Europe and America. In the opinion of Geoffrey Clarke, the reformed system was to be maintained "for the benefit of the people of India and not for the purpose of swelling the revenue. '' The Commissioners voted to abolish the earlier practice of conveying official letters free of postage ("franking ''). The new system was recommended by the Governor - General, Lord Dalhousie, and adopted by the East India Company 's Court of Directors. It introduced "low and uniform '' rates for sending mail efficiently throughout the country within the jurisdiction of the East India Company. The basic rate was 1 / 2 anna on letters not more than 1 / 4 tola in weight. The stamps were needed to show the postage was prepaid, a basic principle of the new system, like the fundamental changes of the British system advocated by Rowland Hill and the Scinde reforms of Bartle Frere. These reforms transformed mail services within India.
The East India Company already had attempted a 1 / 2 anna vermilion stamp in April 1854, known as the "91⁄2 arches essay ''. This could not be produced in quantity because it required an expensive vermilion pigment not readily available from England, and the substituted Indian pigment destroyed the printing stones.
A new design for stamps, with Queen Victoria in an oval vignette inside a rectangular frame, was inscribed "EAST INDIA POSTAGE ''. These stamps were recess printed by De La Rue in England (who produced all the subsequent issues of British India until 1925). The first of these became available in 1855. They continued in use well after the British government took over the administration of India in 1858, following the 1857 Rebellion against the East India Company 's rule. From 1865 the Indian stamps were printed on paper watermarked with an elephant 's head.
The volume of mail moved by the postal system increased relentlessly, doubling between 1854 and 1866, then doubling again by 1871. The Post Office Act XIV introduced reforms by 1 May 1866 to correct some of the more apparent postal system deficiencies and abuses. Postal service efficiencies also were introduced. In 1863 new lower rates were set for "steamer '' mail to Europe at 6 annas 8 pies for a 1 / 2 ounce letter. Lower rates were introduced for inland mail, as well.
New regulations removed the special postal privileges which had been enjoyed by officials of the East India Company. Stamps for official use were prepared and carefully accounted for to combat the abuse of privileges by officials. In 1854 Spain had printed special stamps for official communications, but in 1866 India was the first country to adopt the simple expedient of overprinting ' Service ' on postage stamps and ' Service Postage ' on revenue stamps. This innovation became widely adopted by other countries in later years.
Shortages developed, so these stamps also had to be improvised. Some of the "Service Postage '' overprinted rarities of this year resulted from the sudden changes in postal regulations. New designs for the 4 annas and "6 annas 8 pies '' stamps were issued in 1866. Nevertheless, there was a shortage of stamps to meet the new rates. Provisional six annas stamps were improvised by cutting the tops and bottoms from a current Foreign Bill revenue stamp, and overprinting "POSTAGE ''.
Another four new designs appeared, one at a time, between 1874 and 1876.
A complete new set of stamps was issued in 1882 for the Empire of India that had been proclaimed five years earlier, in 1877. The designs consisted of the usual Victoria profile, in a variety of frames, inscribed "INDIA POSTAGE ''. The watermark also changed to a star shape. These stamps were heavily used and are still quite common today.
Three stamps, featuring a detail from Heinrich von Angeli 's 1885 portrait of Queen Victoria, in 2, 3 and 5 rupee denominations, were introduced in 1895. Other existing designs were reprinted in new colours in 1900.
British India had hundreds of Princely States, some 652 in all, but most of them did not issue postage stamps. The stamp - issuing States were of two kinds: the Convention States and the Feudatory States. The postage stamps and postal histories of these States provide great challenges and many rewards to the patient philatelist. Many rarities are to be found here. Although handbooks are available, much remains to be discovered.
The Convention States are those which had postal conventions (or agreements) with the Post Office of India to provide postal services within their territories. The adhesive stamps and postal stationery of British India were overprinted for use within each Convention State. The first Convention State was Patiala, in 1884, followed by others in 1885. The stamps of the Convention States all became invalid on 1 January 1951 when they were replaced with stamps of the Republic of India valid from 1 January 1950.
The Feudatory States maintained their own postal services within their territories and issued stamps with their own designs. Many of the stamps were imperforate and without gum, as issued. Many varieties of type, paper, inks and dies are not listed in the standard catalogues. The stamps of each Feudatory State were valid only within that State, so letters sent outside that State needed additional British India postage.
Both Faridkot and Jind, as feudatory states, issued their own stamps before they joined the Postal Convention. Faridkot joined on 1 January 1887. Jind joined in July 1885; its stamps from the feudatory period became invalid for postage, but they continued to be used for revenue purposes.
In 1902 a new series depicting King Edward VII generally reused the frames of the Victoria stamps, with some color changes, and included values up to 25 rupees. The higher values were often used for the payment of telegraph and parcel fees. Generally, such usage will lower a collector 's estimation of a stamp 's value; except those from remote or "used abroad '' offices.
The 1911 stamps of King George V were more florid in their design. It is reported that George V, a philatelist, personally approved these designs. In 1919 a 11⁄2 anna stamp was introduced, inscribed "ONE AND HALF ANNA '', but in 1921 this changed to "ONE AND A HALF ANNAS ''. In 1926 the watermark changed to a pattern of multiple stars.
The first pictorial stamps appeared in 1931. The set of six, showing the fortress of Purana Qila, Delhi and government edifices, was issued to mark the government 's move from Calcutta to New Delhi. Another pictorial set, also showing buildings, commemorated George V 's Silver Jubilee in 1935.
The stamps issued in 1937 depicted various forms of mail transports, with King George VI 's effigy appearing on the higher values. A new issue in 1941, constrained by the austerity of World War II, consisted of rather plain designs using minimal amounts of ink and paper. As Indian Post Offices annually required some billions of stamps for postage, as a measure of economy the large pictorial stamps were immediately withdrawn and smaller stamps were issued. Even this did not ease the paper situation and it was thought desirable to reduce the size even more.
A victory issue in 1946 was followed in November 1947 by a first Dominion issue, whose three stamps were the first to depict the Ashoka Pillar and the new flag of India (the third showed an aeroplane).
Postage stamps were generally issued separately from the revenue stamps. However, in 1906, the set of King Edward VII stamps were issued in two values, half anna and one anna with the caption "INDIA POSTAGE & REVENUE ''. The George V Series (1911 to 1933) added two more values, two annas and four annas to the Postage & Revenue stamps. These dual - purpose issues were an exception and generally the two types were issued separately.
From 1 January 1926 all printing and overprinting of India ' postage stamps was conducted at India Security Press, Nasik. The possibility of printing postage stamps and other security items in India had been enquired into before the First World War but could not be pursued at that time. In 1922, the feasibility of this issue was explored in England by Lt Col C.H. Willis, C.I.E., then master of the Bombay Mint, and Mr F.D. Ascoti, I.C.S., Controller of Printing, Stationery and Stamps. Their favourable report, followed by a successful demonstration of production techniques in Delhi in 1923, led to the decision of the Government to establish a security press at Nashik. The responsibility of setting up the Press was entrusted to none other than the London firm of Thomas De La Rue which already had a six - decade long association with Indian stamps. The construction began in 1924 at an original estimate of Rs 271⁄2 lakhs and was completed in 1925 with additional costs of Rs 67 and 1 / 400,000.
The printing of stamps at Nasik began in 1925. The first stamps produced were the definitive series of George V, printed using typography from the same plates used earlier in England by De La Rue, which were now transferred to India. The watermark was changed by the Press to multiple stars. Lithography was now re-introduced and the first stamps printed with this technique were the first Air Mail series of 1929. The Security Press continued to use typography for most stamps, reserving the lithographic process for the most important commemorative issues, the next being the 1931 series commemorating the inauguration of New Delhi as the seat of government in 1931. The one rupee stamp shows the Secretariat and Dominion Columns. This practice continued after independence. The first definitive series to be issued was the misnamed "Archaeological '' series of 16 values; the top four values were produced by lithography and the remaining values by typography.
The new technique of photogravure printing was installed in 1952. The October 1952 series of six values on the theme of Saints and Poets was the first to be so produced. However, these were not the first photogravure stamps of India, having been preceded by the first Gandhi series of 1948, which were printed by Courvoisier of Geneva using the photogravure technique. Since then, photogravure has been used to produce all Indian stamps; typography and lithography being reserved for service labels only.
The First Stamp of Independent India was issued on 21 November 1947. It depicts the Indian Flag with the patriots ' slogan, Jai Hind (Long Live India), on the top right hand corner. It was valued at three and one - half annas.
A memorial to Mahatma Gandhi was issued 15 August 1948 on the first anniversary of Independence. Exactly one year later a definitive series appeared, depicting India 's broad cultural heritage, mostly Hindu, Buddhist, Muslim, Sikh and Jain temples, sculptures, monuments and fortresses. A subsequent issue commemorated the inauguration of the Republic of India on 26 January 1950.
Definitives included a technology and development theme in 1955, a series all showing the map of India in 1957, denominated in naye paisa (decimal currency), and a series with a broad variety of images in 1965.
The old inscription of "INDIA POSTAGE '' was replaced in 1962 with "भारत INDIA '', though three stamps issued between December 1962 / January 1963 carried the earlier inscription.
India has printed stamps and postal stationery for other countries, mostly neighbours. Countries which have had stamps printed in India include Burma (before independence), Nepal, Bangladesh, Bhutan, Portugal, and Ethiopia.
The Department of Posts, operating as India Post, is a government - operated postal system, simply referred to within India as "the post office ''. With its far - flung reach and its presence in remote areas, the Indian postal service provides many services such as small savings banking and financial services. As of 31 March 2011, the Indian Postal Service has 154,866 post offices, of which 139,040 (89.78 %) are in rural areas and 15,826 (10.22 %) are in urban areas. It has 25,464 departmental POs and 129,402 ED BPOs. At the time of independence, there were 23,344 post offices, which were primarily in urban areas. Thus, the network has registered a sevenfold growth since Independence, with the expansion primarily in rural areas. On an average, a post office serves an area of 21.23 sq; km and a population of 7,114 people. India is believed to have the most widely distributed system in the world (China has 57,000, Russia 41,000 and the United States 38,000 offices). This proliferation of offices results from India 's history of having many disparate postal systems, eventually unified in the Indian Union after Independence.
India has been divided into 22 postal circles, each circle headed by a Chief Postmaster General. Each Circle is further divided into Regions comprising field units, called Divisions, headed by a Postmaster General, and further divided into units headed by SSPOs & SPOs and Sub Divisions headed by ASPs and IPS. Other functional units like Circle Stamp Depots, Postal Stores Depots and Mail Motor Service exist in various Circles and Regions. Besides the 22 circles, there is a special Base Circle to provide the postal services for the Armed Forces of India. The Base Circle is headed by an Additional Director General, Army Postal Service holding the rank of a Major General.
Gandhi, Nehru and other historic personalities continued to appear on the postal issues coming from the country since Independence, with almost half a century seeing the Gandhi definitives of denominations most frequently used in the era concerned, becoming synonymous with a postage stamp to the Indian people of that respective time period. New themes are now finding their place on Indian postage stamps, with some stamps issued jointly with postal agencies of other countries, renewable energy sources, the local flora and fauna and even the special annual issues wishing season 's greetings. On 9 March 2011 India Post launched an online e-post office. The portal provides electronic money orders, instant money orders, stamps for collectors, postal information, tracking of express and international shipments, PIN code search and registration of feedback and complaints online.
Mahatma Gandhi, Rajkot 1896.
The National Philatelic Museum of India was inaugurated on 6 July 1968 in New Delhi. It had its beginning at a meeting of the Philatelic Advisory Committee on 18 September 1962. Besides the large collection of India Postage stamps designed, printed and issued, it has a large collection of Indian states, both confederate and feudatory, early essays, proofs and colour trials, a collection of Indian stamps "used abroad '' and as well as early Indian postcards, postal stationery and thematic collections.
The museum was extensively renovated in 2009. It now includes more exhibits, a philatelic bureau and other postal objects such as beautiful Victorian post boxes.
An international philatelic exhibition was held from 12 -- 18 February 2011, on the centenary of India 's first official air mail. For the occasion of INDIPEX 2011 India Post brought out a special stamp on Gandhi Ji to commemorate the event. It is printed on "khadi '', the handspun cotton material that Gandhi Ji held out as the symbol of self - determination and self - reliance. The Presentation Pack was released by Pratibha Patil, the President of India on Saturday 12 February 2011 at INDIPEX 2011, the World Philatelic Exhibition held in New Delhi, the capital of India.
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where does the term french kiss come from | French kiss - wikipedia
In English informal speech, a French kiss, also known as a deep kiss, is an amorous kiss in which the participants ' tongues extend to touch each other 's lips or tongue. A "kiss with the tongue '' stimulates the partner 's lips, tongue and mouth, which are sensitive to the touch and induce physiological sexual arousal. The oral zone is one of the principal erogenous zones of the body. The implication is of a slow, passionate kiss which is considered intimate, romantic, erotic or sexual. Actually, the sensation when two or more tongues touch, also known as "tongue touching '', has been proven to stimulate endorphin release and reduce acute stress levels.
A French kiss is so - called because at the beginning of the 20th century, in the English - speaking world, the French had acquired a reputation for more adventurous and passionate sex practices. In France, it is referred to as un baiser amoureux ("a lover 's kiss '') or un baiser avec la langue ("a kiss with the tongue ''), even if in past times it was also known as baiser Florentin ("Florentine kiss ''). The Petit Robert 2014 French dictionary, released on May 30, 2013, added the French verb "se galocher '' -- slang for kissing with tongues -- making it the first time a single word described the practice (except in Quebec, where the verb "frencher '' means French kissing; Australia, where the term "pash '' is used; the German verb "knutschen ''; the Italian verb "limonare ''; and the Hungarian verb "megcsókol / csókolózik '').
French kissing carries moderate risk of HPV. The possibility of contracting HIV from French kissing is extremely low as transmission would require an open wound. The CDC considers transmission of Hepatitis B via French kissing to be an unlikely mode of infection. Occasionally syphilis can be passed through prolonged French kissing, but this usually requires contact with an active lesion. French kissing is an unlikely mode of transmission of infection by Hepatitis B or gonorrhea.
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who is the leader of new york colony | List of colonial Governors of New York - wikipedia
The territory which would later become the state of New York was settled by European colonists as part of the New Netherland colony (parts of present - day New York, New Jersey, Connecticut and Delaware) under the command of the Dutch West India Company in the Seventeenth Century. These colonists were largely of Dutch, Flemish, Walloon, and German stock, but the colony soon became a "melting pot. '' In 1664, at the onset of the Second Anglo - Dutch War, English forces under Richard Nicolls ousted the Dutch from control of New Netherland, and the territory became part of several different English colonies. Despite one brief year when the Dutch retook the colony (1673 -- 1674), New York would remain an English possession until the American colonies declared independence in 1776.
With the unification of the two proprietary colonies of East Jersey and West Jersey in 1702, the provinces of New York and the neighboring colony New Jersey shared a royal governor. This arrangement began with the appointment of Queen Anne 's cousin, Edward Hyde, Lord Cornbury as Royal Governor of New York and New Jersey in 1702, and ended when New Jersey was granted its own royal governor in 1738.
New Netherland (Dutch: Nieuw - Nederland) was the 17th - century colonial province of the Republic of the Seven United Netherlands and the Dutch West India Company. It claimed territories along the eastern coast of North America from the Delmarva Peninsula to southwestern Cape Cod. Settled areas of New Netherland are now constitute the states of New York, New Jersey, Delaware, and Connecticut, and parts of Pennsylvania and Rhode Island. The provincial capital New Amsterdam was located at the southern tip of the island of Manhattan at Upper New York Bay.
New Netherland was conceived as a private business venture to exploit the North American fur trade. By the 1650s, the colony experienced dramatic growth and became a major port for trade in the North Atlantic. The leader of the Dutch colony was known by the title Director or Director - General. On August 27, 1664, four English frigates commanded by Richard Nicolls sailed into New Amsterdam 's harbor and demanded the surrender of New Netherland. This event sparked the Second Anglo - Dutch War, which led to the transfer of the territory to England per the Treaty of Breda.
Apart from a short period between May 1688 and April 1689, during which New York was part of the Dominion of New England, the territory was known in this period as the Province of New York.
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who wrote i can only imagine mercy me | I Can Only Imagine (MercyMe song) - wikipedia
1999 and 2001 in the United States
"I Can Only Imagine '' (sometimes shortened to "Imagine '') is a single recorded by Christian rock band MercyMe. Written and composed by Bart Millard, the song, based around a main piano track, was inspired by the death of Millard 's father and considers what it would be like in Heaven and to be standing before God. The song was first issued as a track on MercyMe 's 1999 album The Worship Project, which was released on an independent record label. The song was re-recorded and included on their 2001 major - label debut album Almost There as the fifth song on the album.
"I Can Only Imagine '' was released in 2001 as the album 's lead single. It gained significant airplay on Christian radio formats before crossing over to mainstream radio formats such as adult contemporary and Top 40 in late 2003 and into 2004; to aid in promotion to these markets, a double A-side physical single (combined with "Word of God Speak '') was released in 2003. It charted on several formats, including the Billboard Adult Contemporary (where it peaked at No. 5) and the Hot 100 (where it peaked at No. 71). In 2002, "I Can Only Imagine '' earned the Dove Awards for ' Pop / Contemporary Recorded Song of the Year ' and ' Song of the Year '; Millard earned the Dove Award ' Songwriter of the Year ' at the same ceremony. The song has been certified 2x platinum RIAA for sales of over two million digital downloads, and is the first (and so far only) Christian single to reach that milestone.
"I Can Only Imagine '' was the debut single for United States contemporary Christian and Christian rock band MercyMe. The father of Bart Millard, the band 's vocalist, died in 1991. Millard was 18 at the time. Millard began writing the words "I can only imagine '' on items when he was thinking about his father. During the recording of the band 's 1999 independent album The Worship Project, MercyMe needed one more song to fill out the album. Millard, alone on a bus in the middle of the night, finally wrote the lyrics to the song by drawing on his thoughts and personal faith about what one would experience standing before God in Heaven. Millard attests that "(' I Can Only Imagine ') is one of the only songs I have ever written where there was n't any mistakes, it was just written the way it is and left at that '', and estimated that it took him only ten minutes to write the lyrics.
In writing the music for the song, however, the band faced more difficulty; Millard noted that "at first it was a fast song... it was all these random ideas ''. Keyboardist Jim Bryson noted that "we were literally tearing down the stuff... (Millard) and I were talking about arranging it differently and doing a slower version, so we just tried out a piano intro... it was literally the first thing I played. It was n't anything to do with me, I think it was just a God thing. (Millard) said ' here it is, this is what 's going to happen ', and we laid the song down in about five minutes. '' At that time, the other MercyMe members were Robby Shaffer on drums and percussion, Nathan Cochran on bass guitar and Michael Scheuchzer on guitar. This line - up recorded the first version of the song for The Worship Project. In 2006, it was included in the ' Platinum Edition ' of Almost There.
"I Can Only Imagine '' is a ballad with a length of four minutes and eight seconds. The song is set in the key of E major and has a moderately slow tempo of 80 beats per minute with a vocal range from B -- G ♯. The song opens up with only a piano, and builds up to include guitar and drums. Millard is credited with both the lyrics and music to the song. The song was produced by Pete Kipley, who had worked with MercyMe previously as well as with artists including Rebecca St. James, Phil Wickham and Lincoln Brewster.
The lyrics to the song are based around the narrator wondering what it will be like in Heaven and to be standing before God. Regarding this theme, Millard explained to Fox News that "I was always told that if he could choose, he would rather be in Heaven than here with me. As a Christian I believed that, but as an 18 - year - old it was a little hard to swallow. So the questions in the song came from me asking God what was so great about Him that my dad would rather be there. ''
"I Can Only Imagine '' was re-recorded for their major - label debut record Almost There and released as its lead single in 2001. The album was recorded in various locations: Ivy Park, The Indigo Room, Paradise Sound and IBC Studios. The single gained radio airplay on some contemporary Christian formats; by November, it peaked at number - one on the Radio & Records Christian AC format and in the top twenty of the Radio & Records Christian CHR chart.
In 2003, a Dallas mainstream radio station, 100.3 Wild - FM, first played the song on its morning show, The Fitz Radio Program. They had responded to a caller 's repeated requests and the urgings of the program 's producer, Todd Sheppard. The song soon became the most requested and most played song on the station. After hearing the song played on the station, Millard called - in and spoke with the crew; MercyMe then came in and played the song live.
As other stations around the country caught on, MercyMe 's label, INO Records, partnered with Curb Records. They marketed the single to wider audiences, such as Top 40 radio. In September, INO and Curb also released a double A-side physical single, "I Can Only Imagine / Word of God Speak ''. The latter track was co-written by Millard with the band 's producer, Kipley. Eventually, the song cracked into secular charts, including the Billboard Hot 100 and the Hot Adult Contemporary Tracks charts.
MercyMe did not expect "I Can Only Imagine '' to gain mainstream success, in part due to its explicit references to Jesus and Heaven. Millard noted that the band joked around about "the top five songs never to cross over, and they had included "I Can Only Imagine '' on that list. Millard also believed some radio stations were playing the song to prove it could not succeed on mainstream radio. The song had a significant effect on the band 's musical image; in an interview, Millard commented that "We were a rock band when we started 11 years ago. But we kind of became the ' adult contemporary poster child ' when ' I Can Only Imagine ' took off ''.
A music video was released for "I Can Only Imagine ''. Millard recalled the video 's inspiration: "I just kept seeing all these people holding picture frames (at MercyMe concerts) that are empty because we all carry these people with us in some way. I 've had so many people after a show pull out a picture of someone they 've lost. These people embrace these photos and I just thought how can we tap into that ''. The video features everyday people as well as several music artists including Michael Tait, Tammy Trent, Bob Herdman, and Jesse Katina, each holding an empty picture frame to signify their loss of a loved one; as the video progresses, they are holding pictures of their loved ones including Millard with his father 's photograph.
The video opens with a shot of an empty room and a chair, shifting to show a young boy climbing up a flight of stairs. The camera then shifts to the band before returning to the boy, now in an attic which is filled with many empty picture frames. The video alternates between shots of the boy and the band before shifting to individual shots of other people, each holding an empty picture frame. As the other instruments join in, the camera comes back to the band, focusing on them before returning to shots of the people, whose picture frames now contain pictures of deceased relatives. At the end of the video, the camera returns to the boy, now running down a street with an empty frame, climaxing with him lying down in a field with the empty frame.
Critical reception for "I Can Only Imagine '' was positive. Steve Losey of Allmusic commented that "(the song) is a passionate piano - driven ballad. The song considers what it would be like to be in the presence of God. Delivered with conviction, the song is emotionally compelling ''. Jesus Freak Hideout 's reviewer Kevin Chamberlin felt "The lyrics for the song are amazing. If you have n't listened to the lyrics, because you 're afraid of hearing pop music, get over it and listen to it. '' Kevin McNeese of NewReleaseTuesday commented that "The definite highlight on (Almost There) is the worship / ballad ' I Can Only Imagine '... The song starts out with just piano that instantly invokes chills and builds dynamically into a powerful display of drums and guitar. But what makes the song are the lyrics, penned by Bart Millard himself. The song speaks about that day that we all dream about when we finally meet Jesus... It 's a song that ca n't be listened to with eyes open ''.
"I Can Only Imagine '' debuted on the Billboard Hot 100 for the chart week of 11 October 2003 at No. 76. The song peaked at No. 71 for two weeks and spent 16 non-consecutive weeks on the Hot 100. On the Adult Contemporary chart, "I Can Only Imagine '' debuted at No. 29 for the chart week of 23 May 2003, with an eventual peak of No. 5 for the chart week of 8 September 2003; in all, "I Can Only Imagine '' spent 30 weeks on the chart.
On the Adult Top 40 chart, "I Can Only Imagine '' debuted at No. 39 for the chart week of 9 August 2003 and reached a peak position of No. 27, holding that spot for three consecutive weeks; in all, the song spent 26 weeks on the chart. On the Mainstream Top 40 chart, the song debuted at No. 37 for the chart week of 12 July 2003, reaching an eventual peak of No. 33. On the Country Songs chart, the song debuted at No. 58 for the chart week of 27 December 2003, reaching an eventual peak of No. 52, which it held for two weeks. According to Mike Curb on the Curb Records website, "I Can Only Imagine '' also peaked at No. 1 on the Billboard Hot 100 Singles Sales chart for 10 weeks, No. 1 on the Radio & Records Christian AC chart for two weeks, and No. 15 on the Christian CHR chart.
In April 2010, "I Can Only Imagine '' was certified platinum by the RIAA, signifying sales of over 1,000,000 digital downloads. It is the first single by any artist in the Christian music genre to go platinum. The song was certified 2x platinum in 2014.
"I Can Only Imagine '' earned two GMA Dove Awards in 2002; ' Pop / Contemporary Recorded Song of the Year ' and ' Song of the Year '. Millard also won ' Songwriter of the Year ' at the same ceremony. In November 2009, the song was played on board Space Shuttle Atlantis as a wake - up call for Barry E. Wilmore during STS - 129.
The original version of "I Can Only Imagine '' was a track on MercyMe 's 1999 independent release The Worship Project. In August 2006, both an acoustic and live form (as well as the original 1999 version) were included in the ' Platinum edition ' of Almost There. MercyMe recorded a version of the song for their iTunes Originals album. In 2009, two further variants were included on their compilation album 10; a ' symphony version ' featuring the London Symphony Orchestra, and a live version.
"I Can Only Imagine '' has also been covered by several artists. In 2002 Amy Grant released a reworked version of the song (titled "Imagine '' and paired with "Sing the Wondrous Love of Jesus '') on her album, Legacy... Hymns and Faith. In 2003, Jeff Carson and Kathryn Scott each issued variants of the song; Carson 's version peaked at No. 50 on the Country Songs chart. In 2005 Wynonna Judd issued her form of the song; while in 2007 Emerson Drive provided theirs. The song was covered again in 2010 by Marie Osmond and in 2013 by gospel artist Tamela Mann.
The song was performed live by Garwin Dobbins, a man struggling with fibrodysplasia ossificans progressiva, a crippling disease referred to as Stone Man 's syndrome, in which the body 's repair mechanism replaces muscle with bone, causing many joints to become permanently frozen in place. Dobbins, who died in 2004, sang the song on a broadcast of Austin Awakening, accompanied by pastor Randy Phillips of Phillips, Craig and Dean. Footage of the performance was featured in the finale of the Trevor Glass documentary "Suffer the Children. '' There is also a German version "Ich kann nur davon träumen ''.
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what led to the development of the global positioning system | Global Positioning system - wikipedia
The Global Positioning System (GPS), originally Navstar GPS, is a satellite - based radionavigation system owned by the United States government and operated by the United States Air Force. It is a global navigation satellite system that provides geolocation and time information to a GPS receiver anywhere on or near the Earth where there is an unobstructed line of sight to four or more GPS satellites. Obstacles such as mountains and buildings block the relatively weak GPS signals.
The GPS does not require the user to transmit any data, and it operates independently of any telephonic or internet reception, though these technologies can enhance the usefulness of the GPS positioning information. The GPS provides critical positioning capabilities to military, civil, and commercial users around the world. The United States government created the system, maintains it, and makes it freely accessible to anyone with a GPS receiver.
The GPS project was launched by the U.S. Department of Defense in 1973 for use by the United States military and became fully operational in 1995. It was allowed for civilian use in the 1980s. Advances in technology and new demands on the existing system have now led to efforts to modernize the GPS and implement the next generation of GPS Block IIIA satellites and Next Generation Operational Control System (OCX). Announcements from Vice President Al Gore and the White House in 1998 initiated these changes. In 2000, the U.S. Congress authorized the modernization effort, GPS III. During the 1990s, GPS quality was degraded by the United States government in a program called "Selective Availability '', however, this is no longer the case, and was discontinued in May 2000 by law signed by President Bill Clinton. New GPS receiver devices using the L5 frequency to begin release in 2018 are expected to have a much higher accuracy and pinpoint a device to within 30 centimeters or just under one foot.
The GPS system is provided by the United States government, which can selectively deny access to the system, as happened to the Indian military in 1999 during the Kargil War, or degrade the service at any time. As a result, a number of countries have developed or are in the process of setting up other global or regional navigation systems. The Russian Global Navigation Satellite System (GLONASS) was developed contemporaneously with GPS, but suffered from incomplete coverage of the globe until the mid-2000s. GLONASS can be added to GPS devices, making more satellites available and enabling positions to be fixed more quickly and accurately, to within two meters. China 's BeiDou Navigation Satellite System is due to achieve global reach in 2020. There are also the European Union Galileo positioning system, and India 's NAVIC. Japan 's Quasi-Zenith Satellite System (scheduled to commence in November 2018) will be a GPS satellite - based augmentation system to enhance GPS 's accuracy.
The GPS project was launched in the United States in 1973 to overcome the limitations of previous navigation systems, integrating ideas from several predecessors, including a number of classified engineering design studies from the 1960s. The U.S. Department of Defense developed the system, which originally used 24 satellites. It was initially developed for use by the United States military and became fully operational in 1995. Civilian use was allowed from the 1980s. Roger L. Easton of the Naval Research Laboratory, Ivan A. Getting of The Aerospace Corporation, and Bradford Parkinson of the Applied Physics Laboratory are credited with inventing it.
The design of GPS is based partly on similar ground - based radio - navigation systems, such as LORAN and the Decca Navigator, developed in the early 1940s.
When the Soviet Union launched the first artificial satellite (Sputnik 1) in 1957, two American physicists, William Guier and George Weiffenbach, at Johns Hopkins University 's Applied Physics Laboratory (APL) decided to monitor its radio transmissions. Within hours they realized that, because of the Doppler effect, they could pinpoint where the satellite was along its orbit. The Director of the APL gave them access to their UNIVAC to do the heavy calculations required.
The next spring, Frank McClure, the deputy director of the APL, asked Guier and Weiffenbach to investigate the inverse problem -- pinpointing the user 's location, given that of the satellite. (At the time, the Navy was developing the submarine - launched Polaris missile, which required them to know the submarine 's location.) This led them and APL to develop the TRANSIT system. In 1959, ARPA (renamed DARPA in 1972) also played a role in TRANSIT.
TRANSIT was first successfully tested in 1960. It used a constellation of five satellites and could provide a navigational fix approximately once per hour.
In 1967, the U.S. Navy developed the Timation satellite, which proved the feasibility of placing accurate clocks in space, a technology required for GPS.
In the 1970s, the ground - based OMEGA navigation system, based on phase comparison of signal transmission from pairs of stations, became the first worldwide radio navigation system. Limitations of these systems drove the need for a more universal navigation solution with greater accuracy.
While there were wide needs for accurate navigation in military and civilian sectors, almost none of those was seen as justification for the billions of dollars it would cost in research, development, deployment, and operation for a constellation of navigation satellites. During the Cold War arms race, the nuclear threat to the existence of the United States was the one need that did justify this cost in the view of the United States Congress. This deterrent effect is why GPS was funded. It is also the reason for the ultra secrecy at that time. The nuclear triad consisted of the United States Navy 's submarine - launched ballistic missiles (SLBMs) along with United States Air Force (USAF) strategic bombers and intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs). Considered vital to the nuclear deterrence posture, accurate determination of the SLBM launch position was a force multiplier.
Precise navigation would enable United States ballistic missile submarines to get an accurate fix of their positions before they launched their SLBMs. The USAF, with two thirds of the nuclear triad, also had requirements for a more accurate and reliable navigation system. The Navy and Air Force were developing their own technologies in parallel to solve what was essentially the same problem.
To increase the survivability of ICBMs, there was a proposal to use mobile launch platforms (comparable to the Russian SS - 24 and SS - 25) and so the need to fix the launch position had similarity to the SLBM situation.
In 1960, the Air Force proposed a radio - navigation system called MOSAIC (MObile System for Accurate ICBM Control) that was essentially a 3 - D LORAN. A follow - on study, Project 57, was worked in 1963 and it was "in this study that the GPS concept was born. '' That same year, the concept was pursued as Project 621B, which had "many of the attributes that you now see in GPS '' and promised increased accuracy for Air Force bombers as well as ICBMs.
Updates from the Navy TRANSIT system were too slow for the high speeds of Air Force operation. The Naval Research Laboratory continued advancements with their Timation (Time Navigation) satellites, first launched in 1967, and with the third one in 1974 carrying the first atomic clock into orbit.
Another important predecessor to GPS came from a different branch of the United States military. In 1964, the United States Army orbited its first Sequential Collation of Range (SECOR) satellite used for geodetic surveying. The SECOR system included three ground - based transmitters from known locations that would send signals to the satellite transponder in orbit. A fourth ground - based station, at an undetermined position, could then use those signals to fix its location precisely. The last SECOR satellite was launched in 1969.
With these parallel developments in the 1960s, it was realized that a superior system could be developed by synthesizing the best technologies from 621B, Transit, Timation, and SECOR in a multi-service program. However, satellite orbital position errors, induced by variations in the gravity field and radar refraction among others, had to be resolved. A team led by Harold L Jury of Pan Am Aerospace Division in Florida from 1970 -- 1973, used real - time data assimilation and recursive estimation to do so; modeling the systematic and residual errors down to a manageable level to permit accurate navigation.
During Labor Day weekend in 1973, a meeting of about twelve military officers at the Pentagon discussed the creation of a Defense Navigation Satellite System (DNSS). It was at this meeting that the real synthesis that became GPS was created. Later that year, the DNSS program was named Navstar, or Navigation System Using Timing and Ranging. With the individual satellites being associated with the name Navstar (as with the predecessors Transit and Timation), a more fully encompassing name was used to identify the constellation of Navstar satellites, Navstar - GPS. Ten "Block I '' prototype satellites were launched between 1978 and 1985 (an additional unit was destroyed in a launch failure).
The effects of the ionosphere on radio transmission through the ionosphere was investigated within a geophysics laboratory of Air Force Cambridge Research Laboratory. Located at Hanscom Air Force Base, outside Boston, the lab was renamed the Air Force Geophysical Research Lab (AFGRL) in 1974. AFGRL developed the Klobuchar Model for computing ionospheric corrections to GPS location. Of note is work done by Australian Space Scientist Elizabeth Essex - Cohen at AFGRL in 1974. She was concerned with the curving of the path of radio waves traversing the ionosphere from NavSTAR satellites.
After Korean Air Lines Flight 007, a Boeing 747 carrying 269 people, was shot down in 1983 after straying into the USSR 's prohibited airspace, in the vicinity of Sakhalin and Moneron Islands, President Ronald Reagan issued a directive making GPS freely available for civilian use, once it was sufficiently developed, as a common good. The first Block II satellite was launched on February 14, 1989, and the 24th satellite was launched in 1994. The GPS program cost at this point, not including the cost of the user equipment, but including the costs of the satellite launches, has been estimated at about USD 5 billion (then - year dollars).
Initially, the highest quality signal was reserved for military use, and the signal available for civilian use was intentionally degraded (Selective Availability). This changed with President Bill Clinton signing a policy directive to turn off Selective Availability May 1, 2000 to provide the same accuracy to civilians that was afforded to the military. The directive was proposed by the U.S. Secretary of Defense, William Perry, because of the widespread growth of differential GPS services to improve civilian accuracy and eliminate the U.S. military advantage. Moreover, the U.S. military was actively developing technologies to deny GPS service to potential adversaries on a regional basis.
Since its deployment, the U.S. has implemented several improvements to the GPS service including new signals for civil use and increased accuracy and integrity for all users, all the while maintaining compatibility with existing GPS equipment. Modernization of the satellite system has been an ongoing initiative by the U.S. Department of Defense through a series of satellite acquisitions to meet the growing needs of the military, civilians, and the commercial market.
As of early 2015, high - quality, FAA grade, Standard Positioning Service (SPS) GPS receivers provide horizontal accuracy of better than 3.5 meters, although many factors such as receiver quality and atmospheric issues can affect this accuracy.
GPS is owned and operated by the United States government as a national resource. The Department of Defense is the steward of GPS. The Interagency GPS Executive Board (IGEB) oversaw GPS policy matters from 1996 to 2004. After that the National Space - Based Positioning, Navigation and Timing Executive Committee was established by presidential directive in 2004 to advise and coordinate federal departments and agencies on matters concerning the GPS and related systems. The executive committee is chaired jointly by the Deputy Secretaries of Defense and Transportation. Its membership includes equivalent - level officials from the Departments of State, Commerce, and Homeland Security, the Joint Chiefs of Staff and NASA. Components of the executive office of the president participate as observers to the executive committee, and the FCC chairman participates as a liaison.
The U.S. Department of Defense is required by law to "maintain a Standard Positioning Service (as defined in the federal radio navigation plan and the standard positioning service signal specification) that will be available on a continuous, worldwide basis, '' and "develop measures to prevent hostile use of GPS and its augmentations without unduly disrupting or degrading civilian uses. ''
8 satellites from Block IIA are placed in reserve USA - 203 from Block IIR - M is unhealthy For a more complete list, see list of GPS satellite launches
On February 10, 1993, the National Aeronautic Association selected the GPS Team as winners of the 1992 Robert J. Collier Trophy, the nation 's most prestigious aviation award. This team combines researchers from the Naval Research Laboratory, the USAF, the Aerospace Corporation, Rockwell International Corporation, and IBM Federal Systems Company. The citation honors them "for the most significant development for safe and efficient navigation and surveillance of air and spacecraft since the introduction of radio navigation 50 years ago. ''
Two GPS developers received the National Academy of Engineering Charles Stark Draper Prize for 2003:
GPS developer Roger L. Easton received the National Medal of Technology on February 13, 2006.
Francis X. Kane (Col. USAF, ret.) was inducted into the U.S. Air Force Space and Missile Pioneers Hall of Fame at Lackland A.F.B., San Antonio, Texas, March 2, 2010 for his role in space technology development and the engineering design concept of GPS conducted as part of Project 621B.
In 1998, GPS technology was inducted into the Space Foundation Space Technology Hall of Fame.
On October 4, 2011, the International Astronautical Federation (IAF) awarded the Global Positioning System (GPS) its 60th Anniversary Award, nominated by IAF member, the American Institute for Aeronautics and Astronautics (AIAA). The IAF Honors and Awards Committee recognized the uniqueness of the GPS program and the exemplary role it has played in building international collaboration for the benefit of humanity.
The GPS concept is based on time and the known position of GPS specialized satellites. The satellites carry very stable atomic clocks that are synchronized with one another and with the ground clocks. Any drift from true time maintained on the ground is corrected daily. In the same manner, the satellite locations are known with great precision. GPS receivers have clocks as well, but they are less stable and less precise.
GPS satellites continuously transmit data about their current time and position. A GPS receiver monitors multiple satellites and solves equations to determine the precise position of the receiver and its deviation from true time. At a minimum, four satellites must be in view of the receiver for it to compute four unknown quantities (three position coordinates and clock deviation from satellite time).
Each GPS satellite continually broadcasts a signal (carrier wave with modulation) that includes:
Conceptually, the receiver measures the TOAs (according to its own clock) of four satellite signals. From the TOAs and the TOTs, the receiver forms four time of flight (TOF) values, which are (given the speed of light) approximately equivalent to receiver - satellite ranges. The receiver then computes its three - dimensional position and clock deviation from the four TOFs.
In practice the receiver position (in three dimensional Cartesian coordinates with origin at the Earth 's center) and the offset of the receiver clock relative to the GPS time are computed simultaneously, using the navigation equations to process the TOFs.
The receiver 's Earth - centered solution location is usually converted to latitude, longitude and height relative to an ellipsoidal Earth model. The height may then be further converted to height relative to the geoid (e.g., EGM96) (essentially, mean sea level). These coordinates may be displayed, e.g., on a moving map display, and / or recorded and / or used by some other system (e.g., a vehicle guidance system).
Although usually not formed explicitly in the receiver processing, the conceptual time differences of arrival (TDOAs) define the measurement geometry. Each TDOA corresponds to a hyperboloid of revolution (see Multilateration). The line connecting the two satellites involved (and its extensions) forms the axis of the hyperboloid. The receiver is located at the point where three hyperboloids intersect.
It is sometimes incorrectly said that the user location is at the intersection of three spheres. While simpler to visualize, this is only the case if the receiver has a clock synchronized with the satellite clocks (i.e., the receiver measures true ranges to the satellites rather than range differences). There are significant performance benefits to the user carrying a clock synchronized with the satellites. Foremost is that only three satellites are needed to compute a position solution. If this were an essential part of the GPS concept so that all users needed to carry a synchronized clock, then a smaller number of satellites could be deployed. However, the cost and complexity of the user equipment would increase significantly.
The description above is representative of a receiver start - up situation. Most receivers have a track algorithm, sometimes called a tracker, that combines sets of satellite measurements collected at different times -- in effect, taking advantage of the fact that successive receiver positions are usually close to each other. After a set of measurements are processed, the tracker predicts the receiver location corresponding to the next set of satellite measurements. When the new measurements are collected, the receiver uses a weighting scheme to combine the new measurements with the tracker prediction. In general, a tracker can (a) improve receiver position and time accuracy, (b) reject bad measurements, and (c) estimate receiver speed and direction.
The disadvantage of a tracker is that changes in speed or direction can only be computed with a delay, and that derived direction becomes inaccurate when the distance traveled between two position measurements drops below or near the random error of position measurement. GPS units can use measurements of the Doppler shift of the signals received to compute velocity accurately. More advanced navigation systems use additional sensors like a compass or an inertial navigation system to complement GPS.
In typical GPS operation as a navigator, four or more satellites must be visible to obtain an accurate result. The solution of the navigation equations gives the position of the receiver along with the difference between the time kept by the receiver 's on - board clock and the true time - of - day, thereby eliminating the need for a more precise and possibly impractical receiver based clock. Applications for GPS such as time transfer, traffic signal timing, and synchronization of cell phone base stations, make use of this cheap and highly accurate timing. Some GPS applications use this time for display, or, other than for the basic position calculations, do not use it at all.
Although four satellites are required for normal operation, fewer apply in special cases. If one variable is already known, a receiver can determine its position using only three satellites. For example, a ship or aircraft may have known elevation. Some GPS receivers may use additional clues or assumptions such as reusing the last known altitude, dead reckoning, inertial navigation, or including information from the vehicle computer, to give a (possibly degraded) position when fewer than four satellites are visible.
The current GPS consists of three major segments. These are the space segment, a control segment, and a user segment. The U.S. Air Force develops, maintains, and operates the space and control segments. GPS satellites broadcast signals from space, and each GPS receiver uses these signals to calculate its three - dimensional location (latitude, longitude, and altitude) and the current time.
The space segment (SS) is composed of 24 to 32 satellites in medium Earth orbit and also includes the payload adapters to the boosters required to launch them into orbit.
The space segment (SS) is composed of the orbiting GPS satellites, or Space Vehicles (SV) in GPS parlance. The GPS design originally called for 24 SVs, eight each in three approximately circular orbits, but this was modified to six orbital planes with four satellites each. The six orbit planes have approximately 55 ° inclination (tilt relative to the Earth 's equator) and are separated by 60 ° right ascension of the ascending node (angle along the equator from a reference point to the orbit 's intersection). The orbital period is one - half a sidereal day, i.e., 11 hours and 58 minutes so that the satellites pass over the same locations or almost the same locations every day. The orbits are arranged so that at least six satellites are always within line of sight from almost everywhere on the Earth 's surface. The result of this objective is that the four satellites are not evenly spaced (90 °) apart within each orbit. In general terms, the angular difference between satellites in each orbit is 30 °, 105 °, 120 °, and 105 ° apart, which sum to 360 °.
Orbiting at an altitude of approximately 20,200 km (12,600 mi); orbital radius of approximately 26,600 km (16,500 mi), each SV makes two complete orbits each sidereal day, repeating the same ground track each day. This was very helpful during development because even with only four satellites, correct alignment means all four are visible from one spot for a few hours each day. For military operations, the ground track repeat can be used to ensure good coverage in combat zones.
As of February 2016, there are 32 satellites in the GPS constellation, 31 of which are in use. The additional satellites improve the precision of GPS receiver calculations by providing redundant measurements. With the increased number of satellites, the constellation was changed to a nonuniform arrangement. Such an arrangement was shown to improve reliability and availability of the system, relative to a uniform system, when multiple satellites fail. About nine satellites are visible from any point on the ground at any one time (see animation at right), ensuring considerable redundancy over the minimum four satellites needed for a position.
The control segment (CS) is composed of:
The MCS can also access U.S. Air Force Satellite Control Network (AFSCN) ground antennas (for additional command and control capability) and NGA (National Geospatial - Intelligence Agency) monitor stations. The flight paths of the satellites are tracked by dedicated U.S. Air Force monitoring stations in Hawaii, Kwajalein Atoll, Ascension Island, Diego Garcia, Colorado Springs, Colorado and Cape Canaveral, along with shared NGA monitor stations operated in England, Argentina, Ecuador, Bahrain, Australia and Washington DC. The tracking information is sent to the Air Force Space Command MCS at Schriever Air Force Base 25 km (16 mi) ESE of Colorado Springs, which is operated by the 2nd Space Operations Squadron (2 SOPS) of the U.S. Air Force. Then 2 SOPS contacts each GPS satellite regularly with a navigational update using dedicated or shared (AFSCN) ground antennas (GPS dedicated ground antennas are located at Kwajalein, Ascension Island, Diego Garcia, and Cape Canaveral). These updates synchronize the atomic clocks on board the satellites to within a few nanoseconds of each other, and adjust the ephemeris of each satellite 's internal orbital model. The updates are created by a Kalman filter that uses inputs from the ground monitoring stations, space weather information, and various other inputs.
Satellite maneuvers are not precise by GPS standards -- so to change a satellite 's orbit, the satellite must be marked unhealthy, so receivers do n't use it. After the satellite maneuver, engineers track the new orbit from the ground, upload the new ephemeris, and mark the satellite healthy again.
The operation control segment (OCS) currently serves as the control segment of record. It provides the operational capability that supports GPS users and keeps the GPS operational and performing within specification.
OCS successfully replaced the legacy 1970s - era mainframe computer at Schriever Air Force Base in September 2007. After installation, the system helped enable upgrades and provide a foundation for a new security architecture that supported U.S. armed forces.
OCS will continue to be the ground control system of record until the new segment, Next Generation GPS Operation Control System (OCX), is fully developed and functional. The new capabilities provided by OCX will be the cornerstone for revolutionizing GPS 's mission capabilities, enabling Air Force Space Command to greatly enhance GPS operational services to U.S. combat forces, civil partners and myriad domestic and international users. The GPS OCX program also will reduce cost, schedule and technical risk. It is designed to provide 50 % sustainment cost savings through efficient software architecture and Performance - Based Logistics. In addition, GPS OCX is expected to cost millions less than the cost to upgrade OCS while providing four times the capability.
The GPS OCX program represents a critical part of GPS modernization and provides significant information assurance improvements over the current GPS OCS program.
On September 14, 2011, the U.S. Air Force announced the completion of GPS OCX Preliminary Design Review and confirmed that the OCX program is ready for the next phase of development.
The GPS OCX program has missed major milestones and is pushing the GPS IIIA launch beyond April 2016.
The user segment (US) is composed of hundreds of thousands of U.S. and allied military users of the secure GPS Precise Positioning Service, and tens of millions of civil, commercial and scientific users of the Standard Positioning Service (see GPS navigation devices). In general, GPS receivers are composed of an antenna, tuned to the frequencies transmitted by the satellites, receiver - processors, and a highly stable clock (often a crystal oscillator). They may also include a display for providing location and speed information to the user. A receiver is often described by its number of channels: this signifies how many satellites it can monitor simultaneously. Originally limited to four or five, this has progressively increased over the years so that, as of 2007, receivers typically have between 12 and 20 channels. Though there are many receiver manufacturers, they almost all use one of the chipsets produced for this purpose.
GPS receivers may include an input for differential corrections, using the RTCM SC - 104 format. This is typically in the form of an RS - 232 port at 4,800 bit / s speed. Data is actually sent at a much lower rate, which limits the accuracy of the signal sent using RTCM. Receivers with internal DGPS receivers can outperform those using external RTCM data. As of 2006, even low - cost units commonly include Wide Area Augmentation System (WAAS) receivers.
Many GPS receivers can relay position data to a PC or other device using the NMEA 0183 protocol. Although this protocol is officially defined by the National Marine Electronics Association (NMEA), references to this protocol have been compiled from public records, allowing open source tools like gpsd to read the protocol without violating intellectual property laws. Other proprietary protocols exist as well, such as the SiRF and MTK protocols. Receivers can interface with other devices using methods including a serial connection, USB, or Bluetooth.
While originally a military project, GPS is considered a dual - use technology, meaning it has significant military and civilian applications.
GPS has become a widely deployed and useful tool for commerce, scientific uses, tracking, and surveillance. GPS 's accurate time facilitates everyday activities such as banking, mobile phone operations, and even the control of power grids by allowing well synchronized hand - off switching.
Many civilian applications use one or more of GPS 's three basic components: absolute location, relative movement, and time transfer.
The U.S. government controls the export of some civilian receivers. All GPS receivers capable of functioning above 18 km (60,000 feet) altitude and 515 m / s (1,000 knots), or designed or modified for use with unmanned air vehicles like, e.g., ballistic or cruise missile systems, are classified as munitions (weapons) -- which means they require State Department export licenses.
This rule applies even to otherwise purely civilian units that only receive the L1 frequency and the C / A (Coarse / Acquisition) code.
Disabling operation above these limits exempts the receiver from classification as a munition. Vendor interpretations differ. The rule refers to operation at both the target altitude and speed, but some receivers stop operating even when stationary. This has caused problems with some amateur radio balloon launches that regularly reach 30 km (100,000 feet).
These limits only apply to units or components exported from the United States. A growing trade in various components exists, including GPS units from other countries. These are expressly sold as ITAR - free.
As of 2009, military GPS applications include:
GPS type navigation was first used in war in the 1991 Persian Gulf War, before GPS was fully developed in 1995, to assist Coalition Forces to navigate and perform maneuvers in the war. The war also demonstrated the vulnerability of GPS to being jammed, when Iraqi forces installed jamming devices on likely targets that emitted radio noise, disrupting reception of the weak GPS signal.
The navigational signals transmitted by GPS satellites encode a variety of information including satellite positions, the state of the internal clocks, and the health of the network. These signals are transmitted on two separate carrier frequencies that are common to all satellites in the network. Two different encodings are used: a public encoding that enables lower resolution navigation, and an encrypted encoding used by the U.S. military.
Each GPS satellite continuously broadcasts a navigation message on L1 (C / A and P / Y) and L2 (P / Y) frequencies at a rate of 50 bits per second (see bitrate). Each complete message takes 750 seconds (12 1 / 2 minutes) to complete. The message structure has a basic format of a 1500 - bit - long frame made up of five subframes, each subframe being 300 bits (6 seconds) long. Subframes 4 and 5 are subcommutated 25 times each, so that a complete data message requires the transmission of 25 full frames. Each subframe consists of ten words, each 30 bits long. Thus, with 300 bits in a subframe times 5 subframes in a frame times 25 frames in a message, each message is 37,500 bits long. At a transmission rate of 50 - bit / s, this gives 750 seconds to transmit an entire almanac message (GPS). Each 30 - second frame begins precisely on the minute or half - minute as indicated by the atomic clock on each satellite.
The first subframe of each frame encodes the week number and the time within the week, as well as the data about the health of the satellite. The second and the third subframes contain the ephemeris -- the precise orbit for the satellite. The fourth and fifth subframes contain the almanac, which contains coarse orbit and status information for up to 32 satellites in the constellation as well as data related to error correction. Thus, to obtain an accurate satellite location from this transmitted message, the receiver must demodulate the message from each satellite it includes in its solution for 18 to 30 seconds. To collect all transmitted almanacs, the receiver must demodulate the message for 732 to 750 seconds or 12 1 / 2 minutes.
All satellites broadcast at the same frequencies, encoding signals using unique code division multiple access (CDMA) so receivers can distinguish individual satellites from each other. The system uses two distinct CDMA encoding types: the coarse / acquisition (C / A) code, which is accessible by the general public, and the precise (P (Y)) code, which is encrypted so that only the U.S. military and other NATO nations who have been given access to the encryption code can access it.
The ephemeris is updated every 2 hours and is generally valid for 4 hours, with provisions for updates every 6 hours or longer in non-nominal conditions. The almanac is updated typically every 24 hours. Additionally, data for a few weeks following is uploaded in case of transmission updates that delay data upload.
All satellites broadcast at the same two frequencies, 1.57542 GHz (L1 signal) and 1.2276 GHz (L2 signal). The satellite network uses a CDMA spread - spectrum technique where the low - bitrate message data is encoded with a high - rate pseudo-random (PRN) sequence that is different for each satellite. The receiver must be aware of the PRN codes for each satellite to reconstruct the actual message data. The C / A code, for civilian use, transmits data at 1.023 million chips per second, whereas the P code, for U.S. military use, transmits at 10.23 million chips per second. The actual internal reference of the satellites is 10.22999999543 MHz to compensate for relativistic effects that make observers on the Earth perceive a different time reference with respect to the transmitters in orbit. The L1 carrier is modulated by both the C / A and P codes, while the L2 carrier is only modulated by the P code. The P code can be encrypted as a so - called P (Y) code that is only available to military equipment with a proper decryption key. Both the C / A and P (Y) codes impart the precise time - of - day to the user.
The L3 signal at a frequency of 1.38105 GHz is used to transmit data from the satellites to ground stations. This data is used by the United States Nuclear Detonation (NUDET) Detection System (USNDS) to detect, locate, and report nuclear detonations (NUDETs) in the Earth 's atmosphere and near space. One usage is the enforcement of nuclear test ban treaties.
The L4 band at 1.379913 GHz is being studied for additional ionospheric correction.
The L5 frequency band at 1.17645 GHz was added in the process of GPS modernization. This frequency falls into an internationally protected range for aeronautical navigation, promising little or no interference under all circumstances. The first Block IIF satellite that provides this signal was launched in May 2010. On February 5th 2016, the 12th and final Block IIF satellite was launched. The L5 consists of two carrier components that are in phase quadrature with each other. Each carrier component is bi-phase shift key (BPSK) modulated by a separate bit train. "L5, the third civil GPS signal, will eventually support safety - of - life applications for aviation and provide improved availability and accuracy. ''
In 2011, a conditional waiver was granted to LightSquared to operate a terrestrial broadband service near the L1 band. Although LightSquared had applied for a license to operate in the 1525 to 1559 band as early as 2003 and it was put out for public comment, the FCC asked LightSquared to form a study group with the GPS community to test GPS receivers and identify issue that might arise due to the larger signal power from the LightSquared terrestrial network. The GPS community had not objected to the LightSquared (formerly MSV and SkyTerra) applications until November 2010, when LightSquared applied for a modification to its Ancillary Terrestrial Component (ATC) authorization. This filing (SAT - MOD - 20101118 - 00239) amounted to a request to run several orders of magnitude more power in the same frequency band for terrestrial base stations, essentially repurposing what was supposed to be a "quiet neighborhood '' for signals from space as the equivalent of a cellular network. Testing in the first half of 2011 has demonstrated that the impact of the lower 10 MHz of spectrum is minimal to GPS devices (less than 1 % of the total GPS devices are affected). The upper 10 MHz intended for use by LightSquared may have some impact on GPS devices. There is some concern that this may seriously degrade the GPS signal for many consumer uses. Aviation Week magazine reports that the latest testing (June 2011) confirms "significant jamming '' of GPS by LightSquared 's system.
Because all of the satellite signals are modulated onto the same L1 carrier frequency, the signals must be separated after demodulation. This is done by assigning each satellite a unique binary sequence known as a Gold code. The signals are decoded after demodulation using addition of the Gold codes corresponding to the satellites monitored by the receiver.
If the almanac information has previously been acquired, the receiver picks the satellites to listen for by their PRNs, unique numbers in the range 1 through 32. If the almanac information is not in memory, the receiver enters a search mode until a lock is obtained on one of the satellites. To obtain a lock, it is necessary that there be an unobstructed line of sight from the receiver to the satellite. The receiver can then acquire the almanac and determine the satellites it should listen for. As it detects each satellite 's signal, it identifies it by its distinct C / A code pattern. There can be a delay of up to 30 seconds before the first estimate of position because of the need to read the ephemeris data.
Processing of the navigation message enables the determination of the time of transmission and the satellite position at this time. For more information see Demodulation and Decoding, Advanced.
The receiver uses messages received from satellites to determine the satellite positions and time sent. The x, y, and z components of satellite position and the time sent are designated as (x, y, z, s) where the subscript i denotes the satellite and has the value 1, 2,..., n, where n ≥ 4. When the time of message reception indicated by the on - board receiver clock is t̃, the true reception time is t = t̃ − b, where b is the receiver 's clock bias from the much more accurate GPS clocks employed by the satellites. The receiver clock bias is the same for all received satellite signals (assuming the satellite clocks are all perfectly synchronized). The message 's transit time is t̃ − b − s, where s is the satellite time. Assuming the message traveled at the speed of light, c, the distance traveled is (t̃ − b − s) c.
For n satellites, the equations to satisfy are:
where d is the geometric distance or range between receiver and satellite:
Defining pseudoranges as p i = (t ~ i − s i) c (\ displaystyle p_ (i) = \ left ((\ tilde (t)) _ (i) - s_ (i) \ right) c), we see they are biased versions of the true range:
Since the equations have four unknowns (x, y, z, b) -- the three components of GPS receiver position and the clock bias -- signals from at least four satellites are necessary to attempt solving these equations. They can be solved by algebraic or numerical methods. Existence and uniqueness of GPS solutions are discussed by Abell and Chaffee. When n is greater than 4 this system is overdetermined and a fitting method must be used.
The amount of error in the results varies with the received satellites ' locations in the sky, since certain configurations (when the received satellites are close together in the sky) cause large errors. Receivers usually calculate a running estimate of the error in the calculated position. This is done by multiplying the basic resolution of the receiver by quantities called the geometric dilution of position (GDOP) factors, calculated from the relative sky directions of the satellites used. The receiver location is expressed in a specific coordinate system, such as latitude and longitude using the WGS 84 geodetic datum or a country - specific system.
The GPS equations can be solved by numerical and analytical methods. Geometrical interpretations can enhance the understanding of these solution methods.
The measured ranges, called pseudoranges, contain clock errors. In a simplified idealization in which the ranges are synchronized, these true ranges represent the radii of spheres, each centered on one of the transmitting satellites. The solution for the position of the receiver is then at the intersection of the surfaces of three of these spheres. If more than the minimum number of ranges is available, a near intersection of more than three sphere surfaces could be found via, e.g. least squares.
If the pseudorange between the receiver and satellite i and the pseudorange between the receiver and satellite j are subtracted, p − p, the common receiver clock bias (b) cancels out, resulting in a difference of distances d − d. The locus of points having a constant difference in distance to two points (here, two satellites) is a hyperbola on a plane and a hyperboloid of revolution in 3D space (see Multilateration). Thus, from four pseudorange measurements, the receiver can be placed at the intersection of the surfaces of three hyperboloids each with foci at a pair of satellites. With additional satellites, the multiple intersections are not necessarily unique, and a best - fitting solution is sought instead.
The receiver position can be interpreted as the center of a inscribed sphere (insphere) of radius bc, given by the receiver clock bias b (scaled by the speed of light c). The insphere location is such that it touches other spheres (see Problem of Apollonius # Applications). The circumscribing spheres are centered at the GPS satellites, whose radii equal the measured pseudoranges p. This configuration is distinct from the one described in section # Spheres, in which the spheres ' radii were the unbiased or geometric ranges d.
The solution space (x, y, z, b) can be seen as a four - dimensional geometric space. In that case each of the equations describes a spherical cone, with the cusp located at the satellite, and the base a sphere around the satellite. The receiver is at the intersection of four or more of such cones.
When more than four satellites are available, the calculation can use the four best, or more than four simultaneously (up to all visible satellites), depending on the number of receiver channels, processing capability, and geometric dilution of precision (GDOP).
Using more than four involves an over-determined system of equations with no unique solution; such a system can be solved by a least - squares or weighted least squares method.
Both the equations for four satellites, or the least squares equations for more than four, are non-linear and need special solution methods. A common approach is by iteration on a linearized form of the equations, such as the Gauss -- Newton algorithm.
The GPS was initially developed assuming use of a numerical least - squares solution method -- i.e., before closed - form solutions were found.
One closed - form solution to the above set of equations was developed by S. Bancroft. Its properties are well known; in particular, proponents claim it is superior in low - GDOP situations, compared to iterative least squares methods.
Bancroft 's method is algebraic, as opposed to numerical, and can be used for four or more satellites. When four satellites are used, the key steps are inversion of a 4x4 matrix and solution of a single - variable quadratic equation. Bancroft 's method provides one or two solutions for the unknown quantities. When there are two (usually the case), only one is a near - Earth sensible solution.
When a receiver uses more than four satellites for a solution, Bancroft uses the generalized inverse (i.e., the pseudoinverse) to find a solution. However, a case has been made that iterative methods (e.g., Gauss -- Newton algorithm) for solving over-determined non-linear least squares (NLLS) problems generally provide more accurate solutions.
Leick et al. (2015) states that "Bancroft 's (1985) solution is a very early, if not the first, closed - form solution. '' Other closed - form solutions were published afterwards, although their adoption in practice is unclear.
GPS error analysis examines error sources in GPS results and the expected size of those errors. GPS makes corrections for receiver clock errors and other effects, but some residual errors remain uncorrected. Error sources include signal arrival time measurements, numerical calculations, atmospheric effects (ionospheric / tropospheric delays), ephemeris and clock data, multipath signals, and natural and artificial interference. Magnitude of residual errors from these sources depends on geometric dilution of precision. Artificial errors may result from jamming devices and threaten ships and aircraft or from intentional signal degradation through selective availability, which limited accuracy to ≈ 6 -- 12 m, but has been switched off since May 1, 2000.
Integrating external information into the calculation process can materially improve accuracy. Such augmentation systems are generally named or described based on how the information arrives. Some systems transmit additional error information (such as clock drift, ephemera, or ionospheric delay), others characterize prior errors, while a third group provides additional navigational or vehicle information.
Examples of augmentation systems include the Wide Area Augmentation System (WAAS), European Geostationary Navigation Overlay Service (EGNOS), Differential GPS (DGPS), inertial navigation systems (INS) and Assisted GPS. The standard accuracy of about 15 meters (49 feet) can be augmented to 3 -- 5 meters (9.8 -- 16.4 ft) with DGPS, and to about 3 meters (9.8 feet) with WAAS.
Accuracy can be improved through precise monitoring and measurement of existing GPS signals in additional or alternative ways.
The largest remaining error is usually the unpredictable delay through the ionosphere. The spacecraft broadcast ionospheric model parameters, but some errors remain. This is one reason GPS spacecraft transmit on at least two frequencies, L1 and L2. Ionospheric delay is a well - defined function of frequency and the total electron content (TEC) along the path, so measuring the arrival time difference between the frequencies determines TEC and thus the precise ionospheric delay at each frequency.
Military receivers can decode the P (Y) code transmitted on both L1 and L2. Without decryption keys, it is still possible to use a codeless technique to compare the P (Y) codes on L1 and L2 to gain much of the same error information. However, this technique is slow, so it is currently available only on specialized surveying equipment. In the future, additional civilian codes are expected to be transmitted on the L2 and L5 frequencies (see GPS modernization). All users will then be able to perform dual - frequency measurements and directly compute ionospheric delay errors.
A second form of precise monitoring is called Carrier - Phase Enhancement (CPGPS). This corrects the error that arises because the pulse transition of the PRN is not instantaneous, and thus the correlation (satellite -- receiver sequence matching) operation is imperfect. CPGPS uses the L1 carrier wave, which has a period of 1 s 1575.42 × 10 6 = 0.63475 n s ≈ 1 n s (\ displaystyle (\ frac (1 \, \ mathrm (s)) (1575.42 \ times 10 ^ (6))) = 0.63475 \, \ mathrm (ns) \ approx 1 \, \ mathrm (ns) \), which is about one - thousandth of the C / A Gold code bit period of 1 s 1023 × 10 3 = 977.5 n s ≈ 1000 n s (\ displaystyle (\ frac (1 \, \ mathrm (s)) (1023 \ times 10 ^ (3))) = 977.5 \, \ mathrm (ns) \ approx 1000 \, \ mathrm (ns) \), to act as an additional clock signal and resolve the uncertainty. The phase difference error in the normal GPS amounts to 2 -- 3 meters (7 -- 10 ft) of ambiguity. CPGPS working to within 1 % of perfect transition reduces this error to 3 centimeters (1.2 in) of ambiguity. By eliminating this error source, CPGPS coupled with DGPS normally realizes between 20 -- 30 centimeters (8 -- 12 in) of absolute accuracy.
Relative Kinematic Positioning (RKP) is a third alternative for a precise GPS - based positioning system. In this approach, determination of range signal can be resolved to a precision of less than 10 centimeters (4 in). This is done by resolving the number of cycles that the signal is transmitted and received by the receiver by using a combination of differential GPS (DGPS) correction data, transmitting GPS signal phase information and ambiguity resolution techniques via statistical tests -- possibly with processing in real - time (real - time kinematic positioning, RTK).
While most clocks derive their time from Coordinated Universal Time (UTC), the atomic clocks on the satellites are set to GPS time (GPST; see the page of United States Naval Observatory). The difference is that GPS time is not corrected to match the rotation of the Earth, so it does not contain leap seconds or other corrections that are periodically added to UTC. GPS time was set to match UTC in 1980, but has since diverged. The lack of corrections means that GPS time remains at a constant offset with International Atomic Time (TAI) (TAI − GPS = 19 seconds). Periodic corrections are performed to the on - board clocks to keep them synchronized with ground clocks.
The GPS navigation message includes the difference between GPS time and UTC. As of January 2017, GPS time is 18 seconds ahead of UTC because of the leap second added to UTC on December 31, 2016. Receivers subtract this offset from GPS time to calculate UTC and specific timezone values. New GPS units may not show the correct UTC time until after receiving the UTC offset message. The GPS - UTC offset field can accommodate 255 leap seconds (eight bits).
GPS time is theoretically accurate to about 14 nanoseconds, due to the clock drift that atomic clocks experience in GPS transmitters. However, most receivers lose accuracy in the interpretation of the signals and are only accurate to 100 nanoseconds.
As opposed to the year, month, and day format of the Gregorian calendar, the GPS date is expressed as a week number and a seconds - into - week number. The week number is transmitted as a ten - bit field in the C / A and P (Y) navigation messages, and so it becomes zero again every 1,024 weeks (19.6 years). GPS week zero started at 00: 00: 00 UTC (00: 00: 19 TAI) on January 6, 1980, and the week number became zero again for the first time at 23: 59: 47 UTC on August 21, 1999 (00: 00: 19 TAI on August 22, 1999). To determine the current Gregorian date, a GPS receiver must be provided with the approximate date (to within 3,584 days) to correctly translate the GPS date signal. To address this concern the modernized GPS navigation message uses a 13 - bit field that only repeats every 8,192 weeks (157 years), thus lasting until the year 2137 (157 years after GPS week zero).
Another method that is used in surveying applications is carrier phase tracking. The period of the carrier frequency multiplied by the speed of light gives the wavelength, which is about 0.19 meters for the L1 carrier. Accuracy within 1 % of wavelength in detecting the leading edge reduces this component of pseudorange error to as little as 2 millimeters. This compares to 3 meters for the C / A code and 0.3 meters for the P code.
However, 2 millimeter accuracy requires measuring the total phase -- the number of waves multiplied by the wavelength plus the fractional wavelength, which requires specially equipped receivers. This method has many surveying applications. It is accurate enough for real - time tracking of the very slow motions of tectonic plates, typically 0 -- 100 mm (0 -- 4 inches) per year.
Triple differencing followed by numerical root finding, and a mathematical technique called least squares can estimate the position of one receiver given the position of another. First, compute the difference between satellites, then between receivers, and finally between epochs. Other orders of taking differences are equally valid. Detailed discussion of the errors is omitted.
The satellite carrier total phase can be measured with ambiguity as to the number of cycles. Let φ (r i, s j, t k) (\ displaystyle \ \ phi (r_ (i), s_ (j), t_ (k))) denote the phase of the carrier of satellite j measured by receiver i at time t k (\ displaystyle \ \ t_ (k)). This notation shows the meaning of the subscripts i, j, and k. The receiver (r), satellite (s), and time (t) come in alphabetical order as arguments of φ (\ displaystyle \ \ phi) and to balance readability and conciseness, let φ i, j, k = φ (r i, s j, t k) (\ displaystyle \ \ phi _ (i, j, k) = \ phi (r_ (i), s_ (j), t_ (k))) be a concise abbreviation. Also we define three functions,: Δ r, Δ s, Δ t (\ displaystyle \ \ Delta ^ (r), \ Delta ^ (s), \ Delta ^ (t)), which return differences between receivers, satellites, and time points, respectively. Each function has variables with three subscripts as its arguments. These three functions are defined below. If α i, j, k (\ displaystyle \ \ alpha _ (i, j, k)) is a function of the three integer arguments, i, j, and k then it is a valid argument for the functions,: Δ r, Δ s, Δ t (\ displaystyle \ \ Delta ^ (r), \ Delta ^ (s), \ Delta ^ (t)), with the values defined as
Also if α i, j, k a n d β l, m, n (\ displaystyle \ \ alpha _ (i, j, k) \ and \ \ beta _ (l, m, n)) are valid arguments for the three functions and a and b are constants then (a α i, j, k + b β l, m, n) (\ displaystyle \ (a \ \ alpha _ (i, j, k) + b \ \ beta _ (l, m, n))) is a valid argument with values defined as
Receiver clock errors can be approximately eliminated by differencing the phases measured from satellite 1 with that from satellite 2 at the same epoch. This difference is designated as Δ s (φ 1, 1, 1) = φ 1, 2, 1 − φ 1, 1, 1 (\ displaystyle \ \ Delta ^ (s) (\ phi _ (1, 1, 1)) = \ phi _ (1, 2, 1) - \ phi _ (1, 1, 1))
Double differencing computes the difference of receiver 1 's satellite difference from that of receiver 2. This approximately eliminates satellite clock errors. This double difference is:
Triple differencing subtracts the receiver difference from time 1 from that of time 2. This eliminates the ambiguity associated with the integral number of wavelengths in carrier phase provided this ambiguity does not change with time. Thus the triple difference result eliminates practically all clock bias errors and the integer ambiguity. Atmospheric delay and satellite ephemeris errors have been significantly reduced. This triple difference is:
Triple difference results can be used to estimate unknown variables. For example, if the position of receiver 1 is known but the position of receiver 2 unknown, it may be possible to estimate the position of receiver 2 using numerical root finding and least squares. Triple difference results for three independent time pairs may be sufficient to solve for receiver 2 's three position components. This may require a numerical procedure. An approximation of receiver 2 's position is required to use such a numerical method. This initial value can probably be provided from the navigation message and the intersection of sphere surfaces. Such a reasonable estimate can be key to successful multidimensional root finding. Iterating from three time pairs and a fairly good initial value produces one observed triple difference result for receiver 2 's position. Processing additional time pairs can improve accuracy, overdetermining the answer with multiple solutions. Least squares can estimate an overdetermined system. Least squares determines the position of receiver 2 that best fits the observed triple difference results for receiver 2 positions under the criterion of minimizing the sum of the squares.
In the United States, GPS receivers are regulated under the Federal Communications Commission 's (FCC) Part 15 rules. As indicated in the manuals of GPS - enabled devices sold in the United States, as a Part 15 device, it "must accept any interference received, including interference that may cause undesired operation. '' With respect to GPS devices in particular, the FCC states that GPS receiver manufacturers, "must use receivers that reasonably discriminate against reception of signals outside their allocated spectrum. '' For the last 30 years, GPS receivers have operated next to the Mobile Satellite Service band, and have discriminated against reception of mobile satellite services, such as Inmarsat, without any issue.
The spectrum allocated for GPS L1 use by the FCC is 1559 to 1610 MHz, while the spectrum allocated for satellite - to - ground use owned by Lightsquared is the Mobile Satellite Service band. Since 1996, the FCC has authorized licensed use of the spectrum neighboring the GPS band of 1525 to 1559 MHz to the Virginia company LightSquared. On March 1, 2001, the FCC received an application from LightSquared 's predecessor, Motient Services, to use their allocated frequencies for an integrated satellite - terrestrial service. In 2002, the U.S. GPS Industry Council came to an out - of - band - emissions (OOBE) agreement with LightSquared to prevent transmissions from LightSquared 's ground - based stations from emitting transmissions into the neighboring GPS band of 1559 to 1610 MHz. In 2004, the FCC adopted the OOBE agreement in its authorization for LightSquared to deploy a ground - based network ancillary to their satellite system -- known as the Ancillary Tower Components (ATCs) -- "We will authorize MSS ATC subject to conditions that ensure that the added terrestrial component remains ancillary to the principal MSS offering. We do not intend, nor will we permit, the terrestrial component to become a stand - alone service. '' This authorization was reviewed and approved by the U.S. Interdepartment Radio Advisory Committee, which includes the U.S. Department of Agriculture, U.S. Air Force, U.S. Army, U.S. Coast Guard, Federal Aviation Administration, National Aeronautics and Space Administration, Interior, and U.S. Department of Transportation.
In January 2011, the FCC conditionally authorized LightSquared 's wholesale customers -- such as Best Buy, Sharp, and C Spire -- to only purchase an integrated satellite - ground - based service from LightSquared and re-sell that integrated service on devices that are equipped to only use the ground - based signal using LightSquared 's allocated frequencies of 1525 to 1559 MHz. In December 2010, GPS receiver manufacturers expressed concerns to the FCC that LightSquared 's signal would interfere with GPS receiver devices although the FCC 's policy considerations leading up to the January 2011 order did not pertain to any proposed changes to the maximum number of ground - based LightSquared stations or the maximum power at which these stations could operate. The January 2011 order makes final authorization contingent upon studies of GPS interference issues carried out by a LightSquared led working group along with GPS industry and Federal agency participation. On February 14, 2012, the FCC initiated proceedings to vacate LightSquared 's Conditional Waiver Order based on the NTIA 's conclusion that there was currently no practical way to mitigate potential GPS interference.
GPS receiver manufacturers design GPS receivers to use spectrum beyond the GPS - allocated band. In some cases, GPS receivers are designed to use up to 400 MHz of spectrum in either direction of the L1 frequency of 1575.42 MHz, because mobile satellite services in those regions are broadcasting from space to ground, and at power levels commensurate with mobile satellite services. However, as regulated under the FCC 's Part 15 rules, GPS receivers are not warranted protection from signals outside GPS - allocated spectrum. This is why GPS operates next to the Mobile Satellite Service band, and also why the Mobile Satellite Service band operates next to GPS. The symbiotic relationship of spectrum allocation ensures that users of both bands are able to operate cooperatively and freely.
The FCC adopted rules in February 2003 that allowed Mobile Satellite Service (MSS) licensees such as LightSquared to construct a small number of ancillary ground - based towers in their licensed spectrum to "promote more efficient use of terrestrial wireless spectrum. '' In those 2003 rules, the FCC stated "As a preliminary matter, terrestrial (Commercial Mobile Radio Service ("CMRS '')) and MSS ATC are expected to have different prices, coverage, product acceptance and distribution; therefore, the two services appear, at best, to be imperfect substitutes for one another that would be operating in predominately different market segments... MSS ATC is unlikely to compete directly with terrestrial CMRS for the same customer base... ". In 2004, the FCC clarified that the ground - based towers would be ancillary, noting that "We will authorize MSS ATC subject to conditions that ensure that the added terrestrial component remains ancillary to the principal MSS offering. We do not intend, nor will we permit, the terrestrial component to become a stand - alone service. '' In July 2010, the FCC stated that it expected LightSquared to use its authority to offer an integrated satellite - terrestrial service to "provide mobile broadband services similar to those provided by terrestrial mobile providers and enhance competition in the mobile broadband sector. '' However, GPS receiver manufacturers have argued that LightSquared 's licensed spectrum of 1525 to 1559 MHz was never envisioned as being used for high - speed wireless broadband based on the 2003 and 2004 FCC ATC rulings making clear that the Ancillary Tower Component (ATC) would be, in fact, ancillary to the primary satellite component. To build public support of efforts to continue the 2004 FCC authorization of LightSquared 's ancillary terrestrial component vs. a simple ground - based LTE service in the Mobile Satellite Service band, GPS receiver manufacturer Trimble Navigation Ltd. formed the "Coalition To Save Our GPS. ''
The FCC and LightSquared have each made public commitments to solve the GPS interference issue before the network is allowed to operate. However, according to Chris Dancy of the Aircraft Owners and Pilots Association, airline pilots with the type of systems that would be affected "may go off course and not even realize it. '' The problems could also affect the Federal Aviation Administration upgrade to the air traffic control system, United States Defense Department guidance, and local emergency services including 911.
On February 14, 2012, the U.S. Federal Communications Commission (FCC) moved to bar LightSquared 's planned national broadband network after being informed by the National Telecommunications and Information Administration (NTIA), the federal agency that coordinates spectrum uses for the military and other federal government entities, that "there is no practical way to mitigate potential interference at this time ''. LightSquared is challenging the FCC 's action.
Other satellite navigation systems in use or various states of development include:
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when did the first earthquake happen in the world | 1960 Valdivia earthquake - wikipedia
The 1960 Valdivia earthquake (Spanish: Terremoto de Valdivia) or Great Chilean earthquake (Gran terremoto de Chile) of 22 May is the most powerful earthquake ever recorded. Various studies have placed it at 9.4 -- 9.6 on the moment magnitude scale. It occurred in the afternoon (19: 11 GMT, 15: 11 local time), and lasted approximately 10 minutes. The resulting tsunami affected southern Chile, Hawaii, Japan, the Philippines, eastern New Zealand, southeast Australia and the Aleutian Islands.
The epicenter of this megathrust earthquake was near Lumaco, approximately 570 kilometres (350 mi) south of Santiago, with Valdivia being the most affected city. The tremor caused localised tsunamis that severely battered the Chilean coast, with waves up to 25 metres (82 ft). The main tsunami raced across the Pacific Ocean and devastated Hilo, Hawaii. Waves as high as 10.7 metres (35 ft) were recorded 10,000 kilometres (6,200 mi) from the epicenter, and as far away as Japan and the Philippines.
The death toll and monetary losses arising from this widespread disaster are not certain. Various estimates of the total number of fatalities from the earthquake and tsunamis have been published, ranging between 1,000 and 7,000 killed. Different sources have estimated the monetary cost ranged from US $ 400 million to 800 million (or $3.31 billion to $6.62 billion today, adjusted for inflation).
The 1960 Chilean earthquakes were a sequence of strong earthquakes that affected Chile between 21 May and 6 June 1960. The first was the 8.1 M Concepción earthquake at 06: 02 UTC - 4 on 21 May 1960. Its epicenter was near Curanilahue. Telecommunications to southern Chile were cut off and President Jorge Alessandri cancelled the traditional ceremony of the Battle of Iquique memorial holiday to oversee the emergency assistance efforts. The second and third Concepción earthquakes occurred the next day at 06: 32 UTC - 4 and 14: 55 UTC - 4 on May 22. These earthquakes formed a southward migrating foreshock sequence to the main Valdivia shock, which occurred just 15 minutes after the third event.
The earthquake interrupted and effectively ended Lota 's coal miners march on Concepción as they demanded higher salaries.
The Valdivia earthquake occurred at 15: 11 UTC - 4 on 22 May, and affected all of Chile between Talca and Chiloé Island, more than 400,000 square kilometres (150,000 sq mi). Coastal villages, such as Toltén, were struck. At Corral, the main port of Valdivia, the water level rose 4 m (13 ft) before it began to recede. At 16: 20 UTC - 4, a wave of 8 m (26 ft) struck the Chilean coast, mainly between Concepción and Chiloé. Another wave measuring 10 m (33 ft) was reported ten minutes later.
Hundreds of people were already reported dead by the time the tsunami struck. One ship, Canelos, starting at the mouth of Valdivia River, sank after being moved 1.5 km (0.93 mi) backward and forward in the river; as of 2005, its mast was still visible from the road to Niebla.
A number of Spanish - colonial fortifications were completely destroyed. Soil subsidence also destroyed buildings, deepened local rivers, and created wetlands in places like the Río Cruces and Chorocomayo, a new aquatic park north of the city. Extensive areas of the city were flooded. The electricity and water systems of Valdivia were totally destroyed. Witnesses reported underground water flowing up through the soil. Despite the heavy rains of 21 May, the city was without a water supply. The river turned brown with sediment from landslides and was full of floating debris, including entire houses. The lack of potable water became a serious problem in one of Chile 's rainiest regions.
The earthquake did not strike all the territory with the same strength; measured with the Mercalli scale, tectonically depressed areas suffered heavier damage. The two most affected areas were Valdivia and Puerto Octay, near the northwest corner of Llanquihue Lake. Puerto Octay was the center of a north - south elliptical area in the Central Valley, where the intensity was at the highest outside the Valdivia Basin. East of Puerto Octay, in a hotel in Todos los Santos Lake, stacked plates were reported to have remained in place. Excepting poor building sites, the zone of Mercalli scales intensities of VII or more all lay west of the Andes in a strip running from Lota (37 ° S) southwards. The area of intensities of VII or more did not penetrate into the Central Valley in north of Lleulleu Lake (38 ° S) and south of Castro (42.5 ° S).
Two days after the earthquake Cordón Caulle, a volcanic vent close to Puyehue volcano, erupted. Other volcanoes may also have erupted, but none were recorded due to the lack of communication in Chile at the time. The relatively low death toll in Chile (5,700) is explained in part by the low population density in the region, and by building practices that took into account the area 's high geological activity.
The earthquake was a megathrust earthquake resulting from the release of mechanical stress between the subducting Nazca Plate and the South American Plate, on the Peru -- Chile Trench. The focus was relatively shallow at 33 km (21 mi), considering that earthquakes in northern Chile and Argentina may reach depths of 70 km (43 mi).
Subduction zones are known to produce the strongest earthquakes on earth, as their particular structure allows more stress to build up before energy is released. Geophysicists consider it a matter of time before this earthquake will be surpassed in magnitude by another. The earthquake 's rupture zone was 800 km (500 mi) long, stretching from Arauco (37 ° S) to Chiloé Archipelago (43 ° S). Rupture velocity, the speed at which a rupture front expands across the surface of the fault, has been estimated as 3.5 km (2.2 mi) per second.
While the Valdivia earthquake was extraordinarily large, the 2016 Chiloé earthquake hints that it did not unleash all available slip.
Earthquake - induced tsunamis affected southern Chile, Hawaii, Japan, the Philippines, China, eastern New Zealand, southeast Australia and the Aleutian Islands. Some localized tsunamis severely battered the Chilean coast, with waves up to 25 m (82 ft). The main tsunami crossed the Pacific Ocean at a speed of several hundred km / h and devastated Hilo, Hawaii, killing 61 people. Most of the tsunami - related deaths in Japan occurred in the northeast Sanriku region of Honshu.
The Chilean coast was devastated by a tsunami from Mocha Island (38 ° S) to Aysén Region (45 ° S). Across southern Chile the tsunami caused huge loss of life, damage to port infrastructure and the loss of many small boats. Further north, the port of Talcahuano did not suffer any major damage, only some flooding. Some tugboats and small sailboats were stranded on Rocuant Island near Talcahuano.
After the May 21 Concepción earthquake, people in Ancud sought refuge in boats. A carabinero (police) boat, Gloria, was towing a few of these boats when the second earthquake struck on 22 May. As the sea regressed Gloria became stranded between Cerro Guaiguén and Cochinos Island. The stranded boat was wrecked when a tsunami wave came engulfing it.
All the new infrastructure of the small port of Bahía Mansa was destroyed by the tsunami, that reached heights of up to 10 metres above sea level there. The boat Isabella that was at that time in Bahía Mansa quickly left the port but lost its anchors.
In Valdivia River and Corral Bay several vessels were wrecked due to the earthquake, among them Argentina, Canelos, Carlos Haverbeck, Melita and the salvaged remnants of Penco. Canelos was anchored at Corral and filling a cargo of wood and other products destined to northern Chile when the quake struck. The engine of Canelos was warmed up after the earthquake. After hours of drifting around in Corral Bay and Valdivia River the ship was wrecked and subsequently abandoned by its crew at 18.00 PM. Two men on board of Canelos died in the incident. As of 2000 the remnants of Canelos were still visible.
Santiago, another ship anchored at Corral at the time of the quake, managed to leave Corral in a bad state but was wrecked off the coast of Mocha Island on 24 May. The schooner La Milagrosa departed from Queule on 22 May to load a cargo of Fitzroya wood shingles in a small port south of Corral. La Milagrosa was battered by the currents and waves of the tsunami for four days while moving south. Outside Corral the crew rescued six nearly unconscious and dehydrated children on board two boats. The boats found were used to navigate in Valdivia River and Corral Bay but had drifted into the high sea.
At the coastal town of Queule a carabinero reported hundreds of people to be dead or missing some days after the tsunami. Historians Yoselin Jaramillo and Ismael Basso report that people in Queule decades later know about 50 people to have died because of the earthquake and tsunami.
The earthquake triggered numerous landslides, mainly in the steep glacial valleys of the southern Andes. Within the Andes, most landslides occurred on forested mountain slopes around the Liquiñe - Ofqui Fault. Some of these areas remain sparsely vegetated while others have naturally developed more or less pure stands of Nothofagus dombeyi. These landslides did not cause many fatalities nor significant economic losses because most of the areas were uninhabited, with only minor roads.
One landslide caused destruction and alarm following its blockage of the outflow of Riñihue Lake (see "Riñihuazo '' section below). About 100 km (62 mi) south of Riñihue Lake, landslides in the mountains around Golgol River caused the river to dam up; when it burst through the earthen dam, it created a flood down to Puyehue Lake. The Golgol landslides destroyed parts of international Route 215 - CH, which connects to Bariloche in Argentina through Cardenal Antonio Samoré Pass.
While most landslides clustered around north - south strips in the Andes, other areas that were affected by a large numbers of earthquakes were the coast, mainly the foot of the Chilean Coast Range, and the shores of Llanquihue Lake.
A seiche of more than 1 meter was observed on Panguipulli Lake following the earthquake. On 22 May, a seiche occurred also in Nahuel Huapi Lake, on the Argentinean side of the Andes, more than 200 km away from Valdivia. The wave, most likely produced by an earthquake - triggered sediment slide at the lake bottom, killed two people and destroyed a pier in San Carlos de Bariloche city.
During the Great Chilean earthquake, several landslides west of Tralcán Mountain blocked the outflow of Riñihue Lake. Riñihue Lake is the lowest of the Seven Lakes chain and receives a constant inflow from the Enco River. The blocked San Pedro River, which drains the lake, passes through several towns before reaching the city of Valdivia near the coast.
As the San Pedro River was blocked, the water level of Riñihue Lake started to rise quickly. Each meter the water level rose was equivalent to 20 million cubic meters, which meant that 480 million cubic meters of water would release into the San Pedro River (easily overpowering its flow capacity of 400 cubic metres (14,000 cu ft) per second if it rose above the final, 24 - meter - high dam. This potential disaster would have violently flooded all the settlements along the course of the river in less than five hours, with more dire consequences if the dam suddenly broke.
About 100,000 people lived in the affected zone. Plans were made to evacuate Valdivia, and many people left. To avoid the destruction of the city, several military units and hundreds of workers from ENDESA, CORFO, and MOP started an effort to control the lake. Twenty - seven bulldozers were put into service, but they had severe difficulties moving in the mud near the dams, so dykes had to be constructed with shovels from June onwards. The work was not restricted to the lake; drainages from other parts of the Seven Lakes were dammed to minimize additional flow into Riñihue Lake. These dams were removed later, with the exception of Calafquén Lake, which still retains its dam.
By 23 June, the main dam had been lowered from 24 to 15 m (79 to 49 ft), allowing 3 billion cubic metres of water to leave the lake gradually, but still with considerable destructive power. The team was led by ENDESA engineer Raúl Sáez.
On May 24, 38 hours after the main shock of the 1960 Valdivia earthquake, the Cordón Caulle volcano erupted. The eruption was believed to have been triggered by the earthquake. Between two sparsely populated and isolated Andean valleys, the eruption had few eyewitnesses and received little attention by local media, which was preoccupied with the severe and widespread damage and losses caused by the earthquake. The eruption was first noticed and reported as an explosion by the crew of an United States Air Force plane that was heading to Santiago from Puerto Montt.
The eruption fed a 5.5 km long and N135 ° trending fissure where 21 individual vents have been found. These vents produced an output of about 0.25 km DRE both in form of lava flows and tephra. The eruption ended on 22 July.
As a result of an evacuation plan there are no reported human deaths associated with the eruption.
The levels of material damage were relatively low given the high magnitude of the earthquake. Part of the reason behind this was the limited infrastructure development of the region next to the rupture zone. Structures that had been designed to resist earthquakes performed well during the earthquake, chiefly suffering damage when affected by soil subsidence or small fault movements. Houses built by their owners fared badly. In the regions of Maule and Bío Bío, houses built from adobe and masonry proved weak, while from Araucanía to the south weak houses were mainly those built with inappropriate wood that had decayed over time.
It has been estimated that about 40 percent of the houses in Valdivia were destroyed, leaving 20,000 people homeless. The most affected structures were those built of concrete, which in some cases collapsed completely due to lack of earthquake engineering. Traditional wooden houses fared better; although many were uninhabitable if they did not collapse. Houses built upon elevated areas suffered considerably less damage compared to those on the lowlands, which absorbed great amounts of energy. Many city blocks with destroyed buildings in the city center remained empty until the 1990s and 2000s, with some of them still used as parking lots. Before the earthquake, some of these blocks had modern concrete buildings built after the Great Valdivia fire of 1909.
In terms of urban development, Valdivia suffered the loss of the minor but significant Cau - Cau bridge, a bridge that has not been rebuilt. The other bridges suffered only minor damage. Land subsidence in Corral Bay improved navigability as shoal banks, produced earlier by sediments from Madre de Dios and other nearby gold mines, sank and were compacted. As the earthquake destroyed Valdivia 's flood barriers, general land subsidence exposed new areas to flooding.
The United States quickly set up a field hospital following the earthquake. Aided by the United States, a geological survey of Valdivia was done following the earthquake and resulted in the city 's first geological map. Mexico built and donated the public school Escuela México after the earthquake.
The earthquakes damaged an area that had suffered a long period of economic decline, which began with shifts in trade routes, due to the expansion of railroads in southern Chile and the opening of the Panama Canal in 1914.
Unlike Valdivia, Osorno was saved from major destruction. In Osorno only about 20 houses were totally destroyed, although many firewalls and chimneys collapsed.
Puerto Montt, a major city today, had in the early 1960s about 49,500 inhabitants. The bulk of the damage in Puerto Montt was located in the neighborhood of Barrio Modelo and the northern part of Bahía Angelmó, where artificial fills subsided. Angelmó and other coastal areas of Puerto Montt were among the few urban areas that suffered "total destruction '' by the earthquake.
The tsunami that struck the coast of southern Chile destroyed seaside farms, killing numerous livestock and people. Barns and industrial structures were destroyed by the quake. The dairy industry was among the few industries of the affected zone that received subsidies and investment after the earthquake. It received state support through a long - term policy after the earthquake.
As a result of the earthquake, an international technological cooperation programme was established in the dairy sector. More specifically, the German and Danish governments helped to create the Centro Tecnológico de la Leche (the Milk Technological Centre) in the Southern University of Chile. The scholar Erik Dahmén believes that the earthquake resulted in a "creative destruction '' for farmers of Southern Chile.
The economy of the coastal town of Queule had during the 1950s developed significantly. Its economy based on fishing, agriculture and industry had grown. Queule was connected by road in 1957 to the rest of the country and the town had developed into a balneario. This era of prosperity ended with the 1960 earthquake.
Further north the earthquake destroyed numerous houses in the coal - mining town of Lebu.
After the 1960 Valdivia earthquake, a committee was formed to solve problems caused by the earthquake. It continued to operate, to develop approaches for national emergencies. In 1974, after the 1971 eruption of Villarrica volcano, the committee was officially founded as ONEMI (Spanish acronym for Ministry of Interior National Emergency Office) when it was authorized by law as an independent governmental office.
In the coastal village Collileufu, native Lafkenches carried out a ritual human sacrifice during the days following the main earthquake. Collileufu, located in the Budi Lake area, south of Puerto Saavedra, was in 1960 highly isolated. The Mapuche spoke primarily Mapudungun. The community had gathered in Cerro La Mesa, while the lowlands were struck by successive tsunamis. Juana Namuncura Añen, a local machi, demanded the sacrifice of the grandson of Juan Painecur, a neighbor, in order to calm the earth and the ocean. The victim was 5 - year - old José Luis Painecur, an "orphan '' (huacho) whose mother had gone to work as a domestic worker in Santiago and left her son under the care of her father.
The sacrifice was learned about by authorities after a boy in the commune of Nueva Imperial denounced to local leaders the theft of two horses; these were allegedly eaten during the sacrifice ritual. Two men were charged with the crime of murder and confessed, but later recanted. They were released from prison after 2 years. A judge ruled that those involved had "acted without free will, driven by an irresistible natural force of ancestral tradition ''. The story was mentioned in a Time magazine article, although with little detail.
There is evidence that a similar earthquake and landslide occurred in 1575 in Valdivia. This earthquake was of similar strength and also caused a Riñihuazo. According to the chronicle of Mariño de Lobera, corregidor of Valdivia in 1575, a landslide blocked the outflow of the lagoon of Renigua. Several months later in April, it caused a flood. He said that the Spanish settlers had evacuated and waited on high ground until after the dam burst, but many aboriginals died in the flood waters. While the 1575 earthquake is considered the one most similar to that of 1960, it differed in not having caused any tsunami in Japan.
Other lesser earthquakes that preceded the 1960 event occurred in 1737 and 1837.
On 27 February 2010 at 03: 34 local time, an 8.8 magnitude earthquake occurred just to the north (off the coast of the Maule region of Chile, between Concepción and Santiago). This quake was reported to be centered approximately 35 kilometres (22 mi) deep and several miles off shore. This 2010 Chile earthquake may be related or consequential to the 1960 tremor.
Bibliography
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why am i hearing music in my head | Auditory hallucination - wikipedia
A paracusia, or auditory hallucination, is a form of hallucination that involves perceiving sounds without auditory stimulus.
A common form of auditory hallucination involves hearing one or more talking voices. This may be associated with psychotic disorders, and holds special significance in diagnosing these conditions. However, individuals without any psychiatric disease whatsoever may hear voices.
There are three main categories into which the hearing of talking voices often fall: a person hearing a voice speak one 's thoughts, a person hearing one or more voices arguing, or a person hearing a voice narrating his / her own actions. These three categories do not account for all types of auditory hallucinations.
Other types of auditory hallucination include exploding head syndrome and musical ear syndrome. In the latter, people will hear music playing in their mind, usually songs they are familiar with. This can be caused by: lesions on the brain stem (often resulting from a stroke); also, sleep disorders such as narcolepsy, tumors, encephalitis, or abscesses. This should be distinguished from the commonly experienced phenomenon of getting a song stuck in one 's head. Reports have also mentioned that it is also possible to get musical hallucinations from listening to music for long periods of time. Other reasons include hearing loss and epileptic activity.
In the past, the cause of auditory hallucinations has been attributed to cognitive suppression by way of executive function failure of the fronto - parietal sulcus. Newer research has found that they coincide with the left superior temporal gyrus, suggesting that they are better attributed to speech misrepresentations. It is assumed through research that the neural pathways involved in normal speech perception and production, which are lateralized to the left temporal lobe, also underlie auditory hallucinations. Auditory hallucinations correspond with spontaneous neural activity of the left temporal lobe, and the subsequent primary auditory cortex. The perception of auditory hallucinations correspond to the experience of actual external hearing, despite the absence of physical acoustic output.
Robert Schumann, a famous music composer, spent the end of his life experiencing auditory hallucinations. Schumann 's diaries state that he suffered perpetually from imagining that he had the note A5 sounding in his ears. The musical hallucinations became increasingly complex. One night he claimed to have been visited by the ghost of Schubert and wrote down the music that he was hearing. Thereafter, he began making claims that he could hear an angelic choir singing to him. As his condition worsened, the angelic voices developed into demonic ones.
Brian Wilson, songwriter and co-founder of the Beach Boys, has schizoaffective disorder that presents itself in the form of disembodied voices. They formed a major component of Bill Pohlad 's Love & Mercy (2014), a biographical film which depicts Wilson 's hallucinations as a source of musical inspiration, constructing songs that were partly designed to converse with them. Wilson has said of the voices: "Mostly (they 're) derogatory. Some of it 's cheerful. Most of it is n't. '' To combat them, his psychiatrist advised that he "talk humorously to them '', which he says has helped "a little bit ''.
The onset of delusional thinking is most often described as being gradual and insidious. Patients described an interest in psychic phenomena progressing to increasingly unusual preoccupations and then to bizarre beliefs "in which I believed wholeheartedly ''. One author wrote of their hallucinations: "they deceive, derange and force me into a world of crippling paranoia ''. In many cases, the delusional beliefs could be seen as fairly rational explanations for abnormal experiences: "I increasingly heard voices (which I 'd always call ' loud thoughts ')... I concluded that other people were putting these loud thoughts into my head ''. Some cases have been described as an "auditory ransom note ''.
The ancient world viewed hallucinations as it did most of the natural world, with awe and superstition. As such, it was viewed as either a gift or curse by God, or the gods (depending on the specific culture). During the reign of Tiberius (A.D. 14 -- 37), a sailor named Thamus heard a voice that told him the God Pan was dead. The oracles of ancient Greece were known to experience auditory hallucinations while breathing in certain neurologically active vapors (such as the smoke from bay leaves), while the more pervasive delusions and symptomology were often viewed as possession by demonic forces as punishment for misdeeds.
Treatment in the ancient world is ill documented, but there are some cases of therapeutics being used to attempt treatment, while the common treatment was sacrifice and prayer in an attempt to placate the gods. The Dark Ages saw the most horrific accounts where those with auditory hallucinations were subjected to trepanning or trial as a witch. In other cases of extreme symptomatology individuals were seen as being reduced to animals by a curse, these individuals were either left on the streets or imprisoned in insane asylums. It was the latter response that eventually led to modern psychiatric hospitals.
Auditory hallucinations were rethought during the enlightenment. As a result, the predominant theory in the western world beginning in the late 18th century was that auditory hallucinations were the result of a disease in the brain (e.g. mania), and treated as such.
There were no effective treatments for hallucinations at this time. Conventional thought was that clean food, water, and air would allow the body to heal itself (Sanatorium). Beginning in the 16th century Insane Asylums were first introduced in order to remove "the mad dogs '' from the streets and left them chained to walls and living in their own filth. These asylums acted as prisons until the late 18th century. This is when doctors began the attempt to treat patients. Often attending doctors would douse patients in cold water, starve them, or spin patients on a wheel. Soon, this gave way to brain specific treatments with the most famous examples including Lobotomies, shock therapy and branding the skull with hot iron.
In 2015 a small survey reported voice hearing in persons with a wide variety of DSM - 5 diagnoses, including:
However, numerous persons surveyed reported no diagnosis. In his popular 2012 book Hallucinations, neurologist Oliver Sacks describes voice hearing in patients with a wide variety of medical conditions, as well as his own personal experience of hearing voices.
In the case of psychotic patients the premier cause of auditory hallucinations is schizophrenia. In schizophrenia, patients show a consistent increase in activity of the thalamic and strietal subcortical nuclei, hypothalamus, and paralimbic regions; confirmed via PET scan and fMRI. Other research shows an enlargement of temporal white matter, frontal gray matter, and temporal gray matter volumes (those areas crucial to both inner and outer speech) when compared to control patients. This implies both functional and structural abnormalities in the brain, both of which may have a genetic component, can induce auditory hallucinations.
Auditory hallucinations attributed to an external source, rather than internal, are considered the defining factor for the diagnoses of schizophrenia. The voices hear are generally destructive and emotive, adding to the state of artificial reality and disorientation seen in psychotic patients. The causal basis of hallucinations has been explored on the cellular receptor level. The glutamate hypothesis, proposed as possible cause for schizophrenia, may also have implications in auditory hallucinations, which are suspected to be triggered by altered gultamatergic transmission.
Studies using dichotic listening methods suggest that Schizophrenic patients have major deficits in the functioning of the left temporal lobe by showing that patients do not generally exhibit what is a functionally normal right ear advantage. Inhibitory control of hallucinations in patients have been shown to involve failure of top - down regulation of resting - state networks and up - regulation of effort networks, further impeding normal cognitive functioning.
Mood disorders have also been known to correlate with auditory hallucinations, but tend to be milder than their psychosis induced counterpart. Auditory hallucinations are a relatively common sequelae of Major Neurocognitive Disorders (formerly dementia) such as Alzheimer 's disease.
Auditory hallucinations have been known to manifest as a result of intense stress, sleep deprivation, drug use, and errors in development of proper psychological processes. Genetic correlation has been identified with auditory hallucinations, but most work with non-psychotic causes of auditory hallucinations is still ongoing.
High caffeine consumption has been linked to an increase in the likelihood of experiencing auditory hallucinations. A study conducted by the La Trobe University School of Psychological Sciences revealed that as few as five cups of coffee a day could trigger the phenomenon.
The primary means of treating auditory hallucinations is antipsychotic medications which affect dopamine metabolism. If the primary diagnosis is a mood disorder (with psychotic features), adjunctive medications are often used (e.g., antidepressants or mood stabilizers). These medical approaches may allow the person to function normally but are not a cure as they do not eradicate the underlying thought disorder.
Cognitive - Behavioral Therapy has been shown to help decrease the frequency and distressfulness of auditory hallucinations, particularly when other psychotic symptoms were presenting. Enhanced Supportive Therapy has been shown to reduce the frequency of auditory hallucinations, the violent resistance the patient displayed towards said hallucinations, and an overall decrease in the perceived malignancy of the hallucinations. Other cognitive and behavioral therapies have been used with mixed success.
Electroconvulsive therapy or ECT has been shown to reduce psychotic symptoms associated with schizophrenia, mania, and depression, and is often used in psychiatric hospitals.
In recent years, repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) has been studied as a biological method of treatment for auditory hallucinations. rTMS plays a role in altering neural activity over language cortical regions. Studies have shown that when rTMS is used as an adjunct to antipsychotic medication in treatment - resistant cases, the frequency and severity of auditory hallucinations can be reduced.
Another source of non-conventional techniques to cope with the voices are provided by the research and findings of the Hearing Voices Movement
There is on - going research that supports the prevalence of auditory hallucinations, with a lack of other conventional psychotic symptoms (such as delusions, or paranoia), particularly in pre-pubertal children. These studies indicate a remarkably high percentage of children (up to 14 % of the population sampled) experienced sounds or voices without any external cause, although "sounds '' are not considered by psychiatrists to be examples of auditory hallucinations. Differentating actual auditory hallucinations from "sounds '' or a normal internal dialogue is important since the latter phenomena are not indicative of mental illness.
To explore the auditory hallucinations in schizophrenia, experimental neurocognitive use approaches such as dichotic listening, structural fMRI, and functional fMRI. Together, they allow insight into how the brain reacts to auditory stimulus, be it external or internal. Such methods allowed researchers to find a correlation between decreased gray matter of the left temporal lobe and difficulties in processing external sound stimulus in hallucinating patients.
Functional neuroimaging has shown increased blood and oxygen flow to speech related areas of the left temporal lobe, including Broca 's area and the thalamus.
The causes of auditory hallucinations are unclear.
It is suspected that deficits in the left temporal lobe attribute that lead to spontaneous neural activity cause speech misrepresentations that account for auditory hallucinations.
Charles Fernyhough, of the University of Durham poses one theory among many but stands as a reasonable example of the literature. Given standing evidence towards involvement of the inner voice in auditory hallucinations, he proposes two alternative hypotheses on the origins of auditory hallucinations in the non-psychotic. They both rely on an understanding of the internalization process of the inner voice.
The internalization process of the inner voice is the process of creating an inner voice during early childhood, and can be separated into four distinct levels.
Level one (external dialogue) involves the capacity to maintain an external dialogue with another person, i.e. a toddler talking with their parent (s).
Level two (private speech) involves the capacity to maintain a private external dialogue, as seen in children voicing the actions of play using dolls or other toys, or someone talking to themselves while repeating something they had written down.
Level three (expanded inner speech) is the first internal level in speech. This involves the capacity to carry out internal monologues, as seen in reading to oneself, or going over a list silently.
Level four (condensed inner speech) is the final level in the internalization process. It involves the capacity to think in terms of pure meaning without the need to put thoughts into words in order to grasp the meaning of the thought.
A disruption could occur during the normal process of internalizing one 's inner voice, where the individual would not interpret their own voice as belonging to them; a problem that would be interpreted as level one to level four error.
Alternatively, the disruption could occur during the process of re-externalizing one 's inner voice, resulting in an apparent second voice that seems alien to the individual; a problem that would be interpreted as a level four to level one error.
Psychopharmacological treatments include anti-psychotic medications. Psychology research shows that first step in treatment is for the patient to realize that the voices they hear are creation of their own mind. This realization is argued to allow patients to reclaim a measure of control over their lives. Some additional psychological interventions might allow for the process of controlling these phenomena of auditory hallucinations but more research is needed.
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the internal lining of the gastrointestinal tract is the | Gastrointestinal wall - wikipedia
The gastrointestinal wall surrounding the lumen of the gastrointestinal tract is made up of four layers of specialised tissue -- from the lumen outwards:
The epithelium, the most exposed part of the mucosa, is a glandular epithelium with many goblet cells. Goblet cells secrete mucus, which lubricates the passage of food along and protects the intestinal wall from digestive enzymes. In the small intestine, villi are folds of the mucosa that increase the surface area of the intestine. The villi contain a lacteal, a vessel connected to the lymph system that aids in the removal of lipids and tissue fluids. Microvilli are present on the epithelium of a villus and further increase the surface area over which absorption can take place. Numerous intestinal glands as pocket - like invaginations are present in the underlying tissue. In the large intestines, villi are absent and a flat surface with thousands of glands is observed. Underlying the epithelium is the lamina propria, which contains myofibroblasts, blood vessels, nerves, and several different immune cells, and the muscularis mucosa which is a layer of smooth muscle that aids in the action of continued peristalsis and catastalsis along the gut.
The submucosa contains nerves including the submucous plexus (Meissner 's plexus), blood vessels and elastic fibres with collagen, that stretches with increased capacity but maintains the shape of the intestine.
Surrounding this is the muscular layer, which comprises both longitudinal and circular smooth muscle that also helps with continued peristalsis and the movement of digested material out of and along the gut. In between the two layers of muscle lies the myenteric plexus (Auerbach 's plexus).
Lastly, there is the serosa / adventitia which is made up of loose connective tissue and coated in mucus so as to prevent any friction damage from the intestine rubbing against other tissue. Holding all this in place are the mesenteries which suspend the intestine in the abdominal cavity and stop it being disturbed when a person is physically active.
The gastrointestinal tract has a form of general histology with some differences that reflect the specialization in functional anatomy.
The mucosa is the innermost layer of the gastrointestinal tract. It surrounds the lumen of the tract, and comes into direct contact with digested food (chyme). The mucosa itself is made up of three layers:
The mucosae are highly specialized in each organ of the gastrointestinal tract to deal with the different conditions. The most variation is seen in the epithelium:
Transition between the different types of epithelium occurs at the junction between the oesophagus and stomach; between the stomach and duodenum, between the ileum and caecum, and at the pectinate line of the anus.
The submucosa consists of a dense and irregular layer of connective tissue with blood vessels, lymphatics, and nerves branching into the mucosa and muscular layer. It contains the submucous plexus, and enteric nervous plexus, situated on the inner surface of the muscular layer.
The muscular layer (also known as the muscularis propria) consists of two layers of muscle, the inner and outer layer. The muscle of the inner layer is arranged in circular rings around the tract, whereas the muscle of the outer layer is arranged longitudinally. The stomach has an extra layer, an inner oblique muscular layer. Between the two muscle layers are the myenteric or Auerbach 's plexus. This controls peristalsis. Activity is initiated by the pacemaker cells (interstitial cells of Cajal). The gut has intrinsic peristaltic activity (basal electrical rhythm) due to its self - contained enteric nervous system. The rate can of course be modulated by the rest of the autonomic nervous system.
The layers are not truly longitudinal or circular, rather the layers of muscle are helical with different pitches. The inner circular is helical with a steep pitch and the outer longitudinal is helical with a much shallower pitch.
The coordinated contractions of these layers is called peristalsis and propels the food through the tract. Food in the GI tract is called a bolus (ball of food) from the mouth down to the stomach. After the stomach, the food is partially digested and semi-liquid, and is referred to as chyme. In the large intestine the remaining semi-solid substance is referred to as faeces. The circular muscle layer prevents food from travelling backward and the longitudinal layer shortens the tract.
The thickness of the muscular layer varies in each part of the tract:
The outermost layer of the GI tract consists of several layers of connective tissue and is either adventitia or serosa.
Intraperitoneal regions of the digestive tract (aka those parts suspended by peritoneum) are covered with serosa. This structure consists of connective tissue covered by a simple squamous epithelium, called the mesothelium, which reduces frictional forces during digestive movements. The intraperitoneal regions include most of the stomach, first part of the duodenum, all of the small intestine, caecum and appendix, transverse colon, sigmoid colon and rectum. In these sections of the gut there is clear boundary between the gut and the surrounding tissue. These parts of the tract have a mesentery.
Retroperitoneal regions of the digestive tract (aka those parts that are firmly attached to surrounding structures by connective tissue fibers) parts are covered with adventitia. They blend into the surrounding tissue and are fixed in position (for example, the retroperitoneal section of the duodenum usually passes through the transpyloric plane). The retroperitoneal regions include the oral cavity, esophagus, pylorus of the stomach, distal duodenum, ascending colon, descending colon and anal canal.
Inflammatory bowel disease affects the layers of the gastrointestinal tract in different ways. Ulcerative colitis involves the colonic mucosa. Crohn 's disease may produce inflammation in all layers in any part of the gastrointestinal tract and so can result in transmural fistulae.
A perforated ulcer is one that has eroded through the layers of the gastrointestinal tract.
Invasion of tumours through the layers of the gastrointestinal wall is used in staging of tumour spread. This is associated with prognosis.
The normal thickness of the small intestinal wall is 3 - 5 mm, and 1 - 5 mm in the large intestine. Focal, irregular and asymmetrical gastrointestinal wall thickening suggests a malignancy. Segmental or diffuse gastrointestinal wall thickening is most often due to ischemic, inflammatory or infectious disease.
General organisation of GI tract
The wall of the stomach.
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what time can you buy beer in hamilton county tennessee | Alcohol laws of Tennessee - wikipedia
The Alcohol laws of Tennessee are distinct in that they vary considerably by county.
Local government jurisdictions (counties & municipalities) in Tennessee by default are dry and do not allow the sales of liquor or wine. These governments must amend the laws to allow for liquor - by - the - drink sales and retail package stores. In many cases, the county may be dry, but a municipality is wet. Selling beer does not impact a dry or wet designation. This list may not reflect recent changes.
In a "dry County '', the sale of alcohol and alcoholic beverages is prohibited or restricted -- 14 out of Tennessee 's 95 counties are completely dry.
The designation of a "wet county '' applies to jurisdictions where the sale of alcohol and alcoholic beverages is permitted -- 11 out of Tennessee 's 95 counties are wet. The state 's four largest cities, Memphis (Shelby), Nashville (Davidson), Knoxville (Knox), and Chattanooga (Hamilton), are located in "wet counties ''.
In a "moist county '', the sale of alcohol and alcoholic beverages in certain jurisdictions is permitted. This designation applies to 70 out of Tennessee 's 95 counties.
By 1810, registered distilleries numbered 14,191 and were producing 25.5 million gallons of whiskey. In 2009, the Tennessee General Assembly amended the statute that had for many years limited the distillation of drinkable spirits to just three counties (Lincoln, Moore, and Coffee). The revised law allows distilleries to be established in 41 additional counties (counties in which liquor - by - the - drink was legal). This change was expected to lead to the establishment of small distilleries, thus increasing the number of producers of Tennessee whiskey. As of March 2013, there are five brands with at least one Tennessee whiskey on the market, and several with whiskey in the barrel awaiting release. By state law, distilleries may sell one commemorative product on location regardless of local statutes.
Tennessee Alcoholic Beverage Commission
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where is the femoral artery located in the human body | Femoral artery - wikipedia
The femoral artery is a large artery in the thigh and the main arterial supply to the leg. It enters the thigh from behind the inguinal ligament as the common femoral artery, a continuation of the external iliac artery. Injuries to the femoral artery can require reattachment surgery.
Here, it lies midway between the anterior superior iliac spine and the symphysis pubis. The common femoral artery gives off the profunda femoris artery and becomes the superficial femoral artery to descend along the anteromedial part of the thigh in the femoral triangle. It enters and passes through the adductor canal, and becomes the popliteal artery as it passes through an opening in adductor magnus near the junction of the middle and distal thirds of the thigh.
Its first three or four centimetres are enclosed, with the femoral vein, in the femoral sheath. The relations of the femoral artery are as follows:
The femoral artery gives off several branches in the thigh which include;
In clinical parlance, the part of the femoral artery proximal to the origin of profunda femoris is often termed the common femoral artery, while that distal to the origin of the profunda is termed the superficial femoral artery.
As the femoral artery can often be palpated through the skin, it is often used as a catheter access artery. From it, wires and catheters can be directed anywhere in the arterial system for intervention or diagnostics, including the heart, brain, kidneys, arms and legs. The direction of the needle in the femoral artery can be against blood flow (retro - grade), for intervention and diagnostic towards the heart and opposite leg, or with the flow (ante - grade or ipsi - lateral) for diagnostics and intervention on the same leg. Access in either the left or right femoral artery is possible and depends on the type of intervention or diagnostic.
The site for optimally palpating the femoral pulse is in the inner thigh, at the mid-inguinal point, halfway between the pubic symphysis and anterior superior iliac spine. Presence of a femoral pulse has been estimated to indicate a systolic blood pressure of more than 50 mmHg, as given by the 50 % percentile.
The femoral artery can be used to draw arterial blood when the blood pressure is so low that the radial or brachial arteries can not be located.
The femoral artery is susceptible to peripheral arterial disease. When it is blocked through atherosclerosis, percutaneous intervention with access from the opposite femoral may be needed. Endarterectomy, a surgical cut down and removal of the plaque of the femoral artery is also common. If the femoral artery has to be ligated surgically to treat a popliteal aneurysm, blood can still reach the popliteal artery distal to the ligation via the genicular anastomosis. However, if flow in the femoral artery of a normal leg is suddenly disrupted, blood flow distally is rarely sufficient. The reason for this is the fact that the genicular anastomosis is only present in a minority of individuals and is always undeveloped when disease in the femoral artery is absent.
Textbook illustrations of the genicular anastomosis, such as that shown in the sidebox, all appear to have been derived from the idealized image first produced by Gray 's Anatomy in 1910. Neither the 1910 illustration, nor any subsequent version, was made of an anatomical dissection but rather from the writings of John Hunter (surgeon) and Astley Cooper which described the genicular anastomosis many years after ligation of the femoral artery for Popliteal aneurysm. The genicular anastomosis has not been demonstrated even with modern imaging techniques such as X-ray computed tomography or angiography.
Structures surrounding right hip - joint.
Femoral sheath laid open to show its three compartments.
The femoral artery.
The spermatic cord in the inguinal canal.
Front of right thigh, showing surface markings for bones, femoral artery and femoral nerve.
Schema of arteries of the thigh.
Femoral artery and its major branches - right thigh, anterior view.
Illustration depicting main leg arteries (anterior view).
Femoral artery - deep dissection.
Femoral artery - deep dissection.
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who does kristen stewart play in into the wild | Into the Wild (film) - wikipedia
Into the Wild is a 2007 American biographical survival film written, co-produced, and directed by Sean Penn. It is an adaptation of Jon Krakauer 's 1996 nonfiction book of the same name, based on the travels of Christopher McCandless across North America and his experiences in the Alaskan wilderness in the early 1990s. The film stars Emile Hirsch as McCandless, and Marcia Gay Harden and William Hurt as his parents, and features Jena Malone, Catherine Keener, Vince Vaughn, Kristen Stewart, and Hal Holbrook.
The film premiered during the 2007 Rome Film Fest and later opened outside Fairbanks, Alaska on September 21, 2007. It was nominated for two Golden Globes and won the award for Best Original Song: "Guaranteed '' by Eddie Vedder. It was also nominated for two Academy Awards, namely Best Editing and Best Supporting Actor: Hal Holbrook.
In April 1992, Christopher McCandless arrives in a remote area just north of the Denali National Park and Preserve in Alaska. Noting Chris ' unpreparedness, the stranger who drops him off lends him a pair of boots. Chris travels into the wilderness and sets up a campsite in an abandoned city bus, which he calls "The Magic Bus ''. At first, McCandless is content with the isolation, the beauty of nature around him, and the thrill of living off the land. He hunts with a. 22 caliber rifle, reads books, and keeps a diary of his thoughts as he prepares himself for a new life in the wild.
Two years earlier, in May 1990, McCandless graduates with high honors from Emory University. Shortly afterwards, McCandless rejects his conventional life by destroying all of his credit cards and identification documents. He donates nearly all of his savings to Oxfam and sets out on a cross-country drive in his Datsun B210 to experience life in the wilderness. McCandless does not tell his parents, Walt and Billie McCandless, or his sister Carine what he is doing or where he is going. He refuses to keep in touch with them after his departure, causing his parents to become increasingly anxious and eventually desperate.
At Lake Mead, McCandless ' car is caught in a flash flood, causing him to abandon it and begin hitchhiking. He burns what remains of his cash and assumes a new name: "Alexander Supertramp. '' In Northern California, McCandless encounters a hippie couple named Jan Burres and Rainey. Rainey tells McCandless about his failing relationship with Jan, which McCandless helps rekindle. In September, McCandless arrives in Carthage, South Dakota and works for a contract harvesting company owned by Wayne Westerberg. He is forced to leave after Westerberg is arrested for satellite piracy.
McCandless then travels on the Colorado River and, though told by park rangers that he may not kayak down the river without a license, ignores their warnings and paddles downriver until he eventually arrives in Mexico. There, his kayak is lost in a dust storm, and he crosses back into the United States on foot. Unable to hitch a ride, he travels on freight trains to Los Angeles. Not long after arriving, however, he starts feeling "corrupted '' by modern civilization and decides to leave. Later, he is forced to resume hitchhiking, after being beaten by railroad police.
In December 1991, McCandless arrives at Slab City, in the Imperial Valley, and encounters Jan and Rainey again. There, he also meets Tracy Tatro, a teenage girl who shows interest in McCandless, but he rejects her because she is underage. After the holidays, McCandless decides to continue heading for Alaska. One month later, camping near Salton City, McCandless encounters Ron Franz, a retired man who recounts the story of the loss of his family in a car accident while he was serving in the United States Army. He now occupies his time in a workshop as an amateur leather worker. Franz teaches McCandless the craft of leatherwork, resulting in the making of a belt that details McCandless ' travels. After spending two months with Franz, McCandless decides to leave for Alaska, despite this upsetting Franz, who has become quite close to McCandless. On a parting note, Franz gives McCandless his old camping and travel gear, along with the offer to adopt him as his grandchild, but McCandless simply tells him that they should discuss this after he returns from Alaska.
Four months later, at the abandoned bus, life for McCandless becomes harder, and he begins to make poor decisions. As his supplies begin to run out, he realizes that nature is also harsh and uncaring. McCandless concludes that true happiness can only be found when shared with others, and he seeks to return from the wild to his friends and family. However, he finds that the stream he had crossed during the winter has become wide, deep, and violent due to the snow thaw, and he is unable to cross. Saddened, he returns to the bus. In a desperate act, McCandless is forced to gather and eat roots and plants. He confuses similar plants and eats a poisonous one, falling sick as a result. Slowly dying, he continues to document his process of self - realization and imagines his family for one last time. He writes a farewell to the world and crawls into his sleeping bag to die. Two weeks later, his body is found by moose hunters. Shortly afterwards, Carine returns to Virginia with her brother 's ashes in her backpack.
The scenes of graduation from Emory University in the film were shot in the fall of 2006 on the front lawn of Reed College. Some of the graduation scenes were also filmed during the actual Emory University graduation on May 15, 2006. The Alaska scenes depicting the area around the abandoned bus on the Stampede Trail were filmed 50 miles (80 km) south of where McCandless actually died, in the tiny town of Cantwell. Filming at the actual bus would have been too remote for the technical demands of a movie shoot. A replica bus used in the movie is now a tourist attraction at a restaurant in Healy, Alaska.
The review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes reports that 82 % of 194 reviews of the film were positive, resulting in a "Certified Fresh '' rating. Its consensus read: "With his sturdy cast and confident direction, Sean Penn has turned a complex work of nonfiction like Into the Wild into an accessible and poignant character study. '' Metacritic assigned the film an average score of 73 out of 100 based on 38 reviews from mainstream critics.
Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun - Times gave the film four stars out of four and described it as "spellbinding. '' Ebert wrote that Emile Hirsch gives a "hypnotic performance, '' commenting: "It is great acting, and more than acting. '' Ebert added, "The movie is so good partly because it means so much, I think, to its writer - director, Sean Penn. ''
The American Film Institute listed the film as one of ten AFI Movies of the Year for 2007.
National Board of Review named it one of the Top Ten Films of the Year.
Into the Wild also ranks 473rd in Empire magazine 's 2008 list of the 500 greatest movies of all time.
The film appeared on many critics ' top ten lists of the best films of 2007.
In North America, Into the Wild initially opened in limited release, in four theaters and grossed $212,440, posting a per - theater average of $53,110. For the next several weeks, the film remained in limited release until it expanded to over 600 theaters on October 19, 2007; in its first weekend of wide release, the film grossed just $2.1 million for a per - theater average of $3,249. As of December 25, 2008, the film grossed $18,354,356 domestically and $37,281,398 internationally. In total, the film has grossed $55,635,754 worldwide.
Into the Wild was released on March 4, 2008 on standard DVD, Two - Disc Special Collector 's Edition DVD, and standard HD DVD. The special edition DVD and HD DVD contain two special features entitled The Story, The Characters and The Experience. The Blu - ray Disc edition was released in France on July 16, 2008. The Blu - ray edition for the US was released on December 16, 2008.
The songs on the soundtrack were performed by Eddie Vedder, lead singer of Pearl Jam, and Jerry Hannan. Vedder won a Golden Globe for Best Original Song for the song "Guaranteed ''. The score was written and performed by Michael Brook and Kaki King. The music at the end of the theatrical trailer is "Acts of Courage '' by X-Ray Dog, a company that supplies music for many movie trailers. Eddie Vedder said whilst writing the songs on the album "I spent three days giving him (Sean Penn) colors that I could paint with. Different sounds. It would be pump organ and vocal, or it would be an uptempo song. I just gave him 25 minutes of music, stuff I felt that were colors on the palette. And I really did n't think anything was gon na come out of it. Maybe a little piece or something ''.
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describe the shift in ions when the ph is acidotic | Acidosis - wikipedia
Acidosis is a process causing increased acidity in the blood and other body tissues (i.e., an increased hydrogen ion concentration). If not further qualified, it usually refers to acidity of the blood plasma.
The term acidemia describes the state of low blood pH, while acidosis is used to describe the processes leading to these states. Nevertheless, the terms are sometimes used interchangeably. The distinction may be relevant where a patient has factors causing both acidosis and alkalosis, wherein the relative severity of both determines whether the result is a high, low, or normal pH.
Acidosis is said to occur when arterial pH falls below 7.35 (except in the fetus -- see below), while its counterpart (alkalosis) occurs at a pH over 7.45. Arterial blood gas analysis and other tests are required to separate the main causes.
The rate of cellular metabolic activity affects and, at the same time, is affected by the pH of the body fluids. In mammals, the normal pH of arterial blood lies between 7.35 and 7.50 depending on the species (e.g., healthy human - arterial blood pH varies between 7.35 and 7.45). Blood pH values compatible with life in mammals are limited to a pH range between 6.8 and 7.8. Changes in the pH of arterial blood (and therefore the extracellular fluid) outside this range result in irreversible cell damage.
Nervous system involvement may be seen with acidosis and occurs more often with respiratory acidosis than with metabolic acidosis. Signs and symptoms that may be seen in acidosis include headaches, confusion, feeling tired, tremors, sleepiness, flapping tremor, and dysfunction of the cerebrum of the brain which may progress to coma if there is no intervention.
Metabolic acidosis may result from either increased production of metabolic acids, such as lactic acid, or disturbances in the ability to excrete acid via the kidneys, such as either renal tubular acidosis or the renal acidosis of renal failure, which is associated with an accumulation of urea and creatinine as well as metabolic acid residues of protein catabolism.
An increase in the production of other acids may also produce metabolic acidosis. For example, lactic acidosis may occur from:
A rise in lactate out of proportion to the level of pyruvate, e.g., in mixed venous blood, is termed "excess lactate '', and may also be an indicator of fermentation due to anaerobic metabolism occurring in muscle cells, as seen during strenuous exercise. Once oxygenation is restored, the acidosis clears quickly. Another example of increased production of acids occurs in starvation and diabetic ketoacidosis. It is due to the accumulation of ketoacids (via excessive ketosis) and reflects a severe shift from glycolysis to lipolysis for energy needs.
Acid consumption from poisoning such as methanol ingestion, elevated levels of iron in the blood, and chronically decreased production of bicarbonate may also produce metabolic acidosis.
Metabolic acidosis is compensated for in the lungs, as increased exhalation of carbon dioxide promptly shifts the buffering equation to reduce metabolic acid. This is a result of stimulation to chemoreceptors, which increases alveolar ventilation, leading to respiratory compensation, otherwise known as Kussmaul breathing (a specific type of hyperventilation). Should this situation persist, the patient is at risk for exhaustion leading to respiratory failure.
Mutations to the V - ATPase ' a4 ' or ' B1 ' isoforms result in distal renal tubular acidosis, a condition that leads to metabolic acidosis, in some cases with sensorineural deafness.
Arterial blood gases will indicate low pH, low blood HCO, and normal or low PaCO. In addition to arterial blood gas, an anion gap can also differentiate between possible causes.
The Henderson - Hasselbalch equation is useful for calculating blood pH, because blood is a buffer solution. In the clinical setting, this equation is usually used to calculate HCO from measurements of pH and PaCO2 in arterial blood gases. The amount of metabolic acid accumulating can also be quantitated by using buffer base deviation, a derivative estimate of the metabolic as opposed to the respiratory component. In hypovolemic shock for example, approximately 50 % of the metabolic acid accumulation is lactic acid, which disappears as blood flow and oxygen debt are corrected.
Treatment of uncompensated metabolic acidosis is focused upon correcting the underlying problem. When metabolic acidosis is severe and can no longer be compensated for adequately by the lungs or kidneys, neutralizing the acidosis with infusions of bicarbonate may be required.
In the fetus, the normal range differs based on which umbilical vessel is sampled (umbilical vein pH is normally 7.25 to 7.45; umbilical artery pH is normally 7.18 to 7.38). Fetal metabolic acidemia is defined as an umbilical vessel pH of less than 7.20 and a base excess of less than − 8.
Respiratory acidosis results from a build - up of carbon dioxide in the blood (hypercapnia) due to hypoventilation. It is most often caused by pulmonary problems, although head injuries, drugs (especially anaesthetics and sedatives), and brain tumors can cause this acidemia. Pneumothorax, emphysema, chronic bronchitis, asthma, severe pneumonia, and aspiration are among the most frequent causes. It can also occur as a compensatory response to chronic metabolic alkalosis.
One key to distinguish between respiratory and metabolic acidosis is that in respiratory acidosis, the CO is increased while the bicarbonate is either normal (uncompensated) or increased (compensated). Compensation occurs if respiratory acidosis is present, and a chronic phase is entered with partial buffering of the acidosis through renal bicarbonate retention.
However, in cases where chronic illnesses that compromise pulmonary function persist, such as late - stage emphysema and certain types of muscular dystrophy, compensatory mechanisms will be unable to reverse this acidotic condition. As metabolic bicarbonate production becomes exhausted, and extraneous bicarbonate infusion can no longer reverse the extreme buildup of carbon dioxide associated with uncompensated respiratory acidosis, mechanical ventilation will usually be applied.
In the fetus, the normal range differs based on which umbilical vessel is sampled (umbilical vein pH is normally 7.25 to 7.45; umbilical artery pH is normally 7.20 to 7.38). In the fetus, the lungs are not used for ventilation. Instead, the placenta performs ventilatory functions (gas exchange). Fetal respiratory acidemia is defined as an umbilical vessel pH of less than 7.20 and an umbilical artery PCO of 66 or higher or umbilical vein PCO of 50 or higher.
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taming of the shrew richard burton elizabeth taylor | The Taming of the Shrew (1967 film) - wikipedia
The Taming of the Shrew (Italian: La Bisbetica domata) is a 1967 film based on the play of the same name by William Shakespeare about a courtship between two strong - willed people. The film was directed by Franco Zeffirelli and stars Elizabeth Taylor and Richard Burton as Shakespeare 's Kate and Petruchio.
Baptista Minola is attempting to marry off his two daughters; however, he will marry off his youngest, Bianca only if someone will marry his eldest, Katharina. Katharina is an ill - tempered shrewish woman but a lusty young nobleman, Petruchio, takes on the challenge of taming and marrying her. A subplot involves the wooing of Bianca by several suitors including handsome Lucentio, foppish Hortensio, and elderly Gremio.
The film, made in English but shot in Italy, cuts much of the original dialogue, including much of the subplot of Lucentio and Bianca, and all of the Christopher Sly framing device.
Taylor plays Kate 's final, controversial speech without any obvious irony (such as Mary Pickford 's wink in the 1929 film); however, her taming is apparently undercut by her quick exit from the banquet, which forces Burton 's Petruchio to chase after her amid jeers from the other men. According to Harold Bloom 's take on the play, Katherina is "advising women how to rule absolutely, while feigning obedience ''.
The film was originally intended to be a vehicle for Sophia Loren and Marcello Mastroianni. Taylor and Burton put over a million dollars into the production and, instead of a salary, took a percentage of profits. The film made $12 million worldwide and was generally liked by the critics.
The film received two Academy Award nominations, for Best Costume Design (Danilo Donati and Irene Sharaff), and Best Art Direction (Lorenzo Mongiardino, John DeCuir, Elven Webb, Giuseppe Mariani, Dario Simoni and Luigi Gervasi).
The Taming of the Shrew grossed $8 million in North America, earning $3,540,000 in theatrical rentals during 1967, making it the 25th highest grossing picture of 1967. The film grossed $12 million worldwide.
The film received positive reviews from modern critics. Review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes reports that 85 % of professional critics gave the film a positive review, with a rating average of 7.5 out of 10 and the site 's consensus stating: "It may not be reverent enough for purists, but this Taming of the Shrew is too funny -- and fun -- for the rest of us to resist. ''
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who won the most states in the 2016 presidential election | United states presidential Election, 2016 - Wikipedia
Barack Obama Democratic
Donald Trump Republican
The United States presidential election of 2016 was the 58th quadrennial American presidential election, held on Tuesday, November 8, 2016. In a surprise victory, the Republican ticket of businessman Donald Trump and Indiana Governor Mike Pence defeated the Democratic ticket of former Secretary of State Hillary Clinton and U.S. Senator from Virginia Tim Kaine despite losing the plurality of the popular vote. Trump took office as the 45th President, and Pence as the 48th Vice President, on January 20, 2017. Incumbent Democratic President Barack Obama was ineligible to be elected to a third term due to the term limits established by the 22nd Amendment. Concurrent with the presidential election, Senate, House, and many gubernatorial and state and local elections were also held on November 8.
Clinton secured the Democratic nomination after fending off a primary challenge from Senator Bernie Sanders. Amidst a wide Republican field, Trump emerged as the front - runner, defeating Ted Cruz, Marco Rubio, John Kasich, Jeb Bush and other candidates. Clinton ran on a platform of continuing and expanding President Obama 's policies, emphasizing issues of racial, LGBT, and women 's rights, and "inclusive capitalism ''; whereas Trump promised to "Make America Great Again '' by implementing a populist and nationalist agenda, opposing political correctness, illegal immigration, and many free - trade agreements. The tone of the general election campaign was widely characterized as divisive and negative, with both candidates beleaguered by controversy. Trump made numerous controversial remarks about race and immigration, was accused of inciting violence against protestors at his rallies, and faced multiple allegations of sexual misconduct (which he denied), but was also able to garner extensive free media coverage. Clinton, whose public approval ratings had declined sharply since the end of her tenure as Secretary of State, was dogged by an FBI investigation of her improper use of a private email server, while her assertion that "half '' of Trump 's supporters were bigoted "deplorables '' met with polarized reactions. Nevertheless, Clinton held the lead in nearly every pre-election nationwide poll and in most swing states.
Voters selected members of the Electoral College in each state, in most cases by "winner - takes - all '' plurality; those state electors in turn voted for a new president and vice president on December 19, 2016. While Clinton received about 2.9 million more votes nationwide, a margin of 2.1 %, Trump won 30 states with a total of 306 electors, or 57 % of the 538 available. He won the three perennial swing states of Florida, Ohio, and Iowa, as well as the three "blue wall '' stronghold states of Michigan, Pennsylvania, and Wisconsin. He also won Maine 's 2nd congressional district, which had not been won by a Republican presidential candidate since 1988. Leading up to the election, a Trump victory was considered unlikely by almost all media forecasts. After his victory was assured, some commentators compared the election to President Harry S. Truman 's victorious campaign in 1948 as one of the greatest political upsets in modern American history.
In the Electoral College vote on December 19, seven electors voted against their pledged candidates: two against Trump and five against Clinton. A further three electors attempted to vote against Clinton but were replaced or forced to vote again. Ultimately, Trump received 304 electoral votes and Clinton garnered 227, while Colin Powell won three, and John Kasich, Ron Paul, Bernie Sanders, and Faith Spotted Eagle each received one. Trump is the fifth person in U.S. history to become president while losing the nationwide popular vote. He is the first president without any prior experience in public service or the military, as well as the wealthiest and the oldest at inauguration, while Clinton was the first woman to be the presidential nominee of a major American party.
On January 6, 2017, the United States government 's intelligence agencies concluded that the Russian government interfered in the 2016 United States elections. A joint U.S. intelligence community review ordered by President Barack Obama stated with high confidence that "Russian President Vladimir Putin ordered an influence campaign in 2016 aimed at the US presidential election. Russia 's goals were to undermine public faith in the US democratic process, denigrate Secretary Clinton, and harm her electability and potential presidency. '' Investigations about potential collusion between the Trump campaign and Russian officials were started by the Federal Bureau of Investigation, the Senate Intelligence Committee, and the House Intelligence Committee.
Former FBI Director Robert Mueller was appointed as special counsel in May 2017 by Acting Attorney General Rod Rosenstein to oversee the ongoing investigation into links between Donald Trump 's 2016 presidential campaign and the Russian government as part of the election interference and any related illegal acts. President Donald Trump has repeatedly criticized these intelligence claims, citing a lack of evidence and repeatedly calling the claims a "hoax '' and "fake news ''.
Article Two of the United States Constitution provides that the President and Vice President of the United States must be natural - born citizens of the United States, at least 35 years old, and residents of the United States for a period of at least 14 years. Candidates for the presidency typically seek the nomination of one of the political parties, in which case each party devises a method (such as a primary election) to choose the candidate the party deems best suited to run for the position. Traditionally, the primary elections are indirect elections where voters cast ballots for a slate of party delegates pledged to a particular candidate. The party 's delegates then officially nominate a candidate to run on the party 's behalf. The general election in November is also an indirect election, where voters cast ballots for a slate of members of the Electoral College; these electors in turn directly elect the President and Vice President.
President Barack Obama, a Democrat and former U.S. Senator from Illinois, was ineligible to seek reelection to a third term due to the restrictions of the Twenty - second Amendment; in accordance with Section I of the Twentieth Amendment, his term expired at noon on January 20, 2017.
The series of presidential primary elections and caucuses took place between February and June 2016, staggered among the 50 states, the District of Columbia and U.S. territories. This nominating process was also an indirect election, where voters cast ballots for a slate of delegates to a political party 's nominating convention, who in turn elected their party 's presidential nominee.
Speculation about the 2016 campaign began almost immediately following the 2012 campaign, with New York magazine declaring the race had begun in an article published on November 8, two days after the 2012 election. On the same day, Politico released an article predicting the 2016 general election would be between Clinton and former Florida Governor Jeb Bush, while a New York Times article named New Jersey Governor Chris Christie and Senator Cory Booker from New Jersey as potential candidates.
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With seventeen major candidates entering the race, starting with Ted Cruz on March 23, 2015, this was the largest presidential primary field for any political party in American history.
Prior to the Iowa caucuses on February 1, 2016, Perry, Walker, Jindal, Graham and Pataki withdrew due to low polling numbers. Despite leading many polls in Iowa, Trump came in second to Cruz, after which Huckabee, Paul and Santorum withdrew due to poor performances at the ballot box. Following a sizable victory for Trump in the New Hampshire primary, Christie, Fiorina and Gilmore abandoned the race. Bush followed suit after scoring fourth place to Trump, Rubio and Cruz in South Carolina. On March 1, 2016, the first of four "Super Tuesday '' primaries, Rubio won his first contest in Minnesota, Cruz won Alaska, Oklahoma and his home of Texas and Trump won the other seven states that voted. Failing to gain traction, Carson suspended his campaign a few days later. On March 15, 2016, the second "Super Tuesday '', Kasich won his only contest in his home state of Ohio and Trump won five primaries including Florida. Rubio suspended his campaign after losing his home state.
Between March 16 and May 3, 2016, only three candidates remained in the race: Trump, Cruz and Kasich. Cruz won the most delegates in four Western contests and in Wisconsin, keeping a credible path to denying Trump the nomination on first ballot with 1,237 delegates. Trump then augmented his lead by scoring landslide victories in New York and five Northeastern states in April, followed by a decisive victory in Indiana on May 3, 2016, securing all 57 of the state 's delegates. Without any further chances of forcing a contested convention, both Cruz and Kasich suspended their campaigns. Trump remained the only active candidate and was declared the presumptive Republican nominee by Republican National Committee chairman Reince Priebus on the evening of May 3, 2016.
Major candidates were determined by the various media based on common consensus. The following were invited to sanctioned televised debates based on their poll ratings.
Trump received 14,010,177 total votes in the primary. Trump, Cruz, Rubio and Kasich each won at least one primary, with Trump receiving the highest number of votes and Ted Cruz receiving the second highest.
Trump turned his attention towards selecting a running mate after he became the presumptive nominee on May 4, 2016. In mid-June, Eli Stokols and Burgess Everett of Politico reported that the Trump campaign was considering New Jersey Governor Chris Christie, former Speaker of the House Newt Gingrich from Georgia, Senator Jeff Sessions of Alabama, and Oklahoma Governor Mary Fallin. A June 30 report from The Washington Post also included Senators Bob Corker from Tennessee, Richard Burr from North Carolina, Tom Cotton from Arkansas, Joni Ernst from Iowa, and Indiana Governor Mike Pence as individuals still being considered for the ticket. Trump also stated that he was considering two military generals for the position, including retired Lieutenant General Michael Flynn.
In July 2016, it was reported that Trump had narrowed his list of possible running mates down to three: Christie, Gingrich, and Pence.
On July 14, 2016, several major media outlets reported that Trump had selected Pence as his running mate. Trump confirmed these reports in a message on Twitter on July 15, 2016, and formally made the announcement the following day in New York. On July 19, the second night of the 2016 Republican National Convention, Pence won the Republican vice presidential nomination by acclamation.
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Former Secretary of State Hillary Clinton, who also served in the U.S. Senate and was the First Lady of the United States, became the first woman to formally launch a major candidacy for the presidency. Clinton made the announcement on April 12, 2015, via a video message. While nationwide opinion polls in 2015 indicated that Clinton was the front - runner for the 2016 Democratic presidential nomination, she faced extreme challenges from Independent Senator Bernie Sanders of Vermont, who became the second major candidate when he formally announced on April 30, 2015, that he was running for the Democratic nomination. September 2015 polling numbers indicated a narrowing gap between Clinton and Sanders. On May 30, 2015, former Governor of Maryland Martin O'Malley was the third major candidate to enter the Democratic primary race, followed by former Independent Governor and Republican Senator of Rhode Island Lincoln Chafee on June 3, 2015, former Virginia Senator Jim Webb on July 2, 2015, and former Harvard law professor Lawrence Lessig on September 6, 2015.
On October 20, 2015, Webb announced his withdrawal from the Democratic primaries, and explored a potential Independent run. The next day Vice-President Joe Biden decided not to run, ending months of speculation, stating, "While I will not be a candidate, I will not be silent. '' On October 23, Chafee withdrew, stating that he hoped for "an end to the endless wars and the beginning of a new era for the United States and humanity ''. On November 2, after failing to qualify for the second DNC - sanctioned debate after adoption of a rule change negated polls which before might have necessitated his inclusion in the debate, Lessig withdrew as well, narrowing the field to Clinton, O'Malley, and Sanders.
On February 1, 2016, in an extremely close contest, Clinton won the Iowa caucuses by a margin of 0.2 points over Sanders. After winning no delegates in Iowa, O'Malley withdrew from the presidential race that day. On February 9, Sanders bounced back to win the New Hampshire primary with 60 % of the vote. In the remaining two February contests, Clinton won the Nevada caucuses with 53 % of the vote and scored a decisive victory in the South Carolina primary with 73 % of the vote. On March 1, 11 states participated in the first of four "Super Tuesday '' primaries. Clinton won Alabama, Arkansas, Georgia, Massachusetts, Tennessee, Texas, and Virginia and 504 pledged delegates, while Sanders won Colorado, Minnesota, Oklahoma and his home state of Vermont and 340 delegates. The following weekend, Sanders won victories in Kansas, Nebraska and Maine with 15 -- 30 - point margins, while Clinton won the Louisiana primary with 71 % of the vote. On March 8, despite never having a lead in the Michigan primary, Sanders won by a small margin of 1.5 points and outperforming polls by over 19 points, while Clinton won 83 % of the vote in Mississippi. On March 15, the second "Super Tuesday '', Clinton won in Florida, Illinois, Missouri, North Carolina and Ohio. Between March 22 and April 9, Sanders won six caucuses in Idaho, Utah, Alaska, Hawaii, Washington and Wyoming, as well as the Wisconsin primary, while Clinton won the Arizona primary. On April 19, Clinton won the New York primary with 58 % of the vote. On April 26, in the third "Super Tuesday '' dubbed the "Acela primary '', she won contests in Connecticut, Delaware, Maryland and Pennsylvania, while Sanders won in Rhode Island. Over the course of May, Sanders accomplished another surprise win in the Indiana primary and also won in West Virginia and Oregon, while Clinton won the Guam caucus and Kentucky primary.
On June 4 and 5, Clinton won two victories in the Virgin Islands caucus and Puerto Rico primary. On June 6, 2016, the Associated Press and NBC News reported that Clinton had become the presumptive nominee after reaching the required number of delegates, including pledged delegates and superdelegates, to secure the nomination, becoming the first woman to ever clinch the presidential nomination of a major United States political party. On June 7, Clinton secured a majority of pledged delegates after winning primaries in California, New Jersey, New Mexico and South Dakota, while Sanders only won in Montana and North Dakota. Clinton also won the final primary in the District of Columbia on June 14. At the conclusion of the primary process, Clinton had won 2,204 pledged delegates (54 % of the total) awarded by the primary elections and caucuses, while Sanders had won 1,847 (46 %). Out of the 714 unpledged delegates or "superdelegates '' who were set to vote in the convention in July, Clinton received endorsements from 560 (78 %), while Sanders received 47 (7 %).
Although Sanders had not formally dropped out of the race, he announced on June 16, 2016, that his main goal in the coming months would be to work with Clinton to defeat Trump in the general election. On July 8, appointees from the Clinton campaign, the Sanders campaign, and the Democratic National Committee negotiated a draft of the party 's platform. On July 12, Sanders formally endorsed Clinton at a rally in New Hampshire in which he appeared with her.
The following candidates were frequently interviewed by major broadcast networks and cable news channels, or were listed in publicly published national polls. Lessig was invited to one forum, but withdrew when rules were changed which prevented him from participating in officially sanctioned debates.
Clinton received 16,849,779 votes in the primary.
In April 2016, the Clinton campaign began to compile a list of 15 to 20 individuals to vet for the position of running mate, even though Sanders continued to challenge Clinton in the Democratic primaries. In mid-June, The Wall Street Journal reported that Clinton 's shortlist included Representative Xavier Becerra from California, Senator Cory Booker from New Jersey, Senator Sherrod Brown from Ohio, Housing and Urban Development Secretary Julián Castro from Texas, Mayor of Los Angeles Eric Garcetti from California, Senator Tim Kaine from Virginia, Labor Secretary Tom Perez from Maryland, Representative Tim Ryan from Ohio, and Senator Elizabeth Warren from Massachusetts. Subsequent reports stated that Clinton was also considering Secretary of Agriculture Tom Vilsack, retired Admiral James Stavridis, and Governor John Hickenlooper of Colorado. In discussing her potential vice presidential choice, Clinton stated that the most important attribute she looked for was the ability and experience to immediately step into the role of president.
On July 22, Clinton announced that she had chosen Senator Tim Kaine from Virginia as her running mate. The delegates at the 2016 Democratic National Convention, which took place July 25 -- 28, formally nominated the Democratic ticket.
Third party and independent candidates that have obtained more than 100,000 votes nationally and one percent of the vote in at least one state, are listed separately.
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Ballot access to all 538 electoral votes
Nominees
Political Parties
Ballot access to 480 electoral votes (522 with write - in): -- map
Nominees
Ballot access to 84 electoral votes (451 with write - in): -- map
In some states, Evan McMullin 's running mate was listed as Nathan Johnson on the ballot rather than Mindy Finn, although Nathan Johnson was intended to only be a placeholder until an actual running mate was chosen.
Ballot access to 207 electoral votes (451 with write - in): -- map
Nominees
(Alabama, Arizona, Connecticut, Delaware, Indiana, Kansas, Maryland, Missouri, Nebraska, New York, Oregon, Pennsylvania, Virginia, Washington, West Virginia)
Peace and Freedom Liberty Union Party
(Alabama, Connecticut, Delaware, Kansas, Maryland, Minnesota, New Hampshire, New York, Oregon, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, West Virginia)
(Alabama, Iowa, New Hampshire, Oregon, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, Vermont)
(Alabama, Indiana, Idaho, Iowa, Kansas, Massachusetts, Michigan, Montana, New Hampshire, New, York, Ohio, Oregon, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, Texas, Vermont, Washington, West Virginia)
Natural Law Party
(Alabama, Indiana, Iowa, Maryland, Minnesota, Montana, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New York, Oregon, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, Texas, Utah, Vermont, Wisconsin)
(Alabama, Idaho, Iowa, Kansas, Maryland, Montana, New Hampshire, New Jersey, Oregon, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, Vermont, West Virginia)
(Alabama, Alaska, Arizona, Connecticut, Delaware, Georgia, Idaho, Iowa, Kansas, Kentucky, Maryland, Minnesota, Montana, New Hampshire, New Jersey, Ohio, Oregon, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, Utah, Vermont, Virginia, Washington. West Virginia)
(Alabama, Alaska, Delaware, Florida, Idaho, Indiana, Iowa, Kentucky, Maryland, Minnesota, Montana, Nebraska, New Hampshire, New Jersey, Oregon, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, Vermont, West Virginia)
(Alabama, Alaska, Arizona, California, Connecticut, Florida, Georgia, Idaho, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kentucky, Maine, Maryland, Massachusetts, Michigan, Minnesota, Missouri, Montana, New Hampshire, New Jersey, North Dakota, Ohio, Oregon, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, Tennessee, Texas, Utah, Vermont, Virginia, Washington, West Virginia, Wisconsin)
(Alabama, Alaska, Arizona, Connecticut, Delaware, Georgia, Idaho, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kansas, Kentucky, Maryland, Michigan, Minnesota, Missouri, Montana, Nebraska, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New York, Ohio, Oregon, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, Tennessee, Texas, Utah, Vermont, Virginia, Washington, West Virginia, Wisconsin)
(Alabama, Alaska, Idaho, Iowa, Kentucky, Minnesota, Nebraska, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New York, Ohio, Oregon, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, Vermont, Virginia, Washington, Wisconsin)
(Alabama, New Hampshire, New Jersey, Oregon, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, Vermont)
(Alabama, Delaware, Idaho, Kansas, Maryland, Minnesota, Montana, Nebraska, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New York, Oregon, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, Vermont, Washington, West Virginia)
(Alabama, Alaska, California, Georgia, Idaho, Iowa, Kansas, Kentucky, Maryland, Michigan, Minnesota, Nebraska, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New York, North Dakota, Ohio, Oregon, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, Texas, Vermont, Virginia, Washington, Wisconsin)
(Alabama, Alaska, Arizona, Connecticut, Delaware, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kentucky, Maryland, Minnesota, Montana, Nebraska, New Hampshire, New Jersey, Ohio, Oregon, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, Vermont, Washington, West Virginia, Wisconsin)
(Alabama, Delaware, Iowa, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New York, Oregon, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, Vermont)
(Alabama, Connecticut, Iowa, New Hampshire, New Jersey, Oregon, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, Vermont)
(Alabama, Iowa, New Hampshire, New Jersey, Oregon, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, Vermont)
(Alabama, Iowa, New Hampshire, New Jersey, Oregon, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, Vermont)
(Alabama, Iowa, New Hampshire, New Jersey, Oregon, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, Vermont)
(Alabama, Iowa, New Hampshire, New Jersey, Oregon, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, Vermont)
(Alabama, California, Delaware, Iowa, Kentucky, Maryland, Minnesota, New Hampshire, New Jersey, Oregon, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, Vermont, West Virginia)
(Alabama, Iowa, New Hampshire, New Jersey, Oregon, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, Vermont)
(Alabama, Iowa, Kansas, New Hampshire, New Jersey, Oregon, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, Vermont)
(Alabama, Iowa, New Hampshire, New Jersey, Oregon, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, Vermont)
Gary Johnson Libertarian Party (campaign)
Jill Stein Green Party (campaign)
Evan McMullin Independent (campaign)
Darrell Castle Constitution Party (campaign)
Hillary Clinton focused her candidacy on several themes, including raising middle class incomes, expanding women 's rights, instituting campaign finance reform, and improving the Affordable Care Act. In March 2016, she laid out a detailed economic plan basing her economic philosophy on inclusive capitalism, which proposed a "clawback '' which would rescind tax relief and other benefits for companies that move jobs overseas; with provision of incentives for companies that share profits with employees, communities and the environment, rather than focusing on short - term profits to increase stock value and rewarding shareholders; as well as increasing collective bargaining rights; and placing an "exit tax '' on companies that move their headquarters out of America in order to pay a lower tax rate overseas. Clinton promoted equal pay for equal work to address current alleged shortfalls in how much women are paid to do the same jobs men do, promoted explicitly focus on family issues and support of universal preschool, expressed support for the right to same - sex marriage, and proposed allowing undocumented immigrants to have a path to citizenship stating that it "(i) s at its heart a family issue. ''
Donald Trump 's campaign drew heavily on his personal image, enhanced by his previous media exposure. The primary slogan of the Trump campaign, extensively used on campaign merchandise, was Make America Great Again. The red baseball cap with the slogan emblazoned on the front became a symbol of the campaign, and has been frequently donned by Trump and his supporters. Trump 's right - wing populist positions -- reported by The New Yorker to be nativist, protectionist, and semi-isolationist -- differ in many ways from traditional conservatism. He opposed many free trade deals and military interventionist policies that conservatives generally support, and opposed cuts in Medicare and Social Security benefits. Moreover, he has insisted that Washington is "broken '' and can only be fixed by an outsider. Trump support was high among working and middle - class white male voters with annual incomes of less than $50,000 and no college degree. This group, particularly those with less than a high - school education, suffered a decline in their income in recent years. According to The Washington Post, support for Trump is higher in areas with a higher mortality rate for middle - age white people. A sample of interviews with more than 11,000 Republican - leaning respondents from August to December 2015 found that Trump at that time found his strongest support among Republicans in West Virginia, followed by New York, and then followed by six Southern states.
Clinton had an uneasy, and at times adversarial relationship with the press throughout her life in public service. Weeks before her official entry as a presidential candidate, Clinton attended a political press corps event, pledging to start fresh on what she described as a "complicated '' relationship with political reporters. Clinton was initially criticized by the press for avoiding taking their questions, after which she provided more interviews.
In contrast, Trump benefited from free media more than any other candidate. From the beginning of his campaign through February 2016, Trump received almost $2 billion in free media attention, twice the amount that Clinton received. According to data from the Tyndall Report, which tracks nightly news content, through February 2016, Trump alone accounted for more than a quarter of all 2016 election coverage on the evening newscasts of NBC, CBS and ABC, more than all the Democratic campaigns combined. Observers noted Trump 's ability to garner constant mainstream media coverage "almost at will ''. However, Trump frequently criticized the media for writing what he alleged to be false stories about him and he has called upon his supporters to be "the silent majority ''. Trump also said the media "put false meaning into the words I say '', and says he does not mind being criticized by the media as long as they are honest about it.
Both Clinton and Trump were seen unfavorably by the general public, and their controversial nature set the tone of the campaign.
Clinton 's practice during her time as Secretary of State of using a private email address and server, in lieu of State Department servers, gained widespread public attention back in March 2015. Concerns were raised about security and preservation of emails, and the possibility that laws may have been violated. After allegations were raised that some of the emails in question fell into this so - called "born classified '' category, an FBI probe was initiated regarding how classified information was handled on the Clinton server. The FBI probe was concluded on July 5, 2016, with a recommendation of no charges, a recommendation that was followed by the Justice Department. On October 28, eleven days before the election, FBI Director James Comey informed Congress that the FBI was analyzing additional emails obtained during its investigation of an unrelated case. On November 6, he notified Congress that the new emails did not change the FBI 's earlier conclusion.
Also, on September 9, 2016, Clinton stated: "You know, just to be grossly generalistic, you could put half of Trump 's supporters into what I call the basket of deplorables. They 're racist, sexist, homophobic, xenophobic, Islamaphobic -- you name it. '' Donald Trump criticized Clinton 's remark as insulting his supporters. The following day Clinton expressed regret for saying "half '', while insisting that Trump had deplorably amplified "hateful views and voices ''. Previously on August 25, 2016, Clinton gave a speech criticizing Trump 's campaign for using "racist lies '' and allowing the alt - right to gain prominence.
On the other side, on October 7, 2016, video and accompanying audio were released by The Washington Post in which Trump referred obscenely to women in a 2005 conversation with Billy Bush while they were preparing to film an episode of Access Hollywood. The audio was met with a reaction of disbelief and disgust from the media. Following the revelation, Trump 's campaign issued an apology, stating that the video was of a private conversation from "many years ago ''. The incident was condemned by numerous prominent Republicans like Reince Priebus, Mitt Romney, John Kasich, Jeb Bush and the Speaker of the House Paul Ryan. By October 8 several dozen Republicans had called for Trump to withdraw from the campaign and let Pence head the ticket. Trump insisted he would never drop out.
The ongoing controversy of the election made third parties attract voters ' attention. On March 3, 2016, Libertarian Gary Johnson addressed the Conservative Political Action Conference in Washington DC, touting himself as the third - party option for anti-Trump Republicans. In early May, some commentators opined that Johnson was moderate enough to pull votes away from both Hillary Clinton and Donald Trump who were very disliked and polarizing. Both conservative and liberal media noted that Johnson could get votes from "Never Trump '' Republicans and disaffected Bernie Sanders supporters. Johnson also began to get time on national television, being invited on ABC News, NBC News, CBS News, CNN, Fox News, MSNBC, Bloomberg, and many other networks. In September and October 2016, Johnson suffered a "string of damaging stumbles when he has fielded questions about foreign affairs. '' On September 8, Johnson, when he appeared on MSNBC 's Morning Joe, was asked by panelist Mike Barnicle, "What would you do, if you were elected, about Aleppo? '' (referring to a war - torn city in Syria). Johnson responded, "And what is Aleppo? '' Johnson 's "what is Aleppo? '' question prompted widespread attention, much of it negative. Later that day, Johnson said that he had "blanked '' and that he did "understand the dynamics of the Syrian conflict -- I talk about them every day. ''
On the other hand, Green Party candidate Jill Stein stated that the Democratic and Republican parties are "two corporate parties '' that have converged into one. Concerned by the rise of the far right internationally and the tendency towards neoliberalism within the Democratic Party, she has said, "The answer to neofascism is stopping neoliberalism. Putting another Clinton in the White House will fan the flames of this right - wing extremism. ''
In response to Johnson 's growing poll numbers, the Hillary Clinton campaign and Democratic allies increased their criticism of Johnson in September 2016, warning that "a vote for a third party is a vote for Donald Trump '' and deploying Senator Bernie Sanders (Clinton 's former primary rival, who supported her in the general election) to win over voters who might be considering voting for Johnson or for Stein.
This is an overview of the money used in the campaign as it is reported to Federal Election Commission (FEC) and released in September 2016. Outside groups are independent expenditure only committees -- also called PACs and SuperPACs. The sources of the numbers are the FEC and Center for Responsive Politics. Some spending totals are not available, due to withdrawals before the FEC deadline. As of September 2016, ten candidates with ballot access have filed financial reports with the FEC.
Clinton was endorsed by The New York Times, the Los Angeles Times, the Houston Chronicle, the San Jose Mercury News, the Chicago Sun - Times and the New York Daily News editorial boards. Trump, who has frequently criticized the mainstream media, was not endorsed by the vast majority of newspapers, with the Las Vegas Review - Journal, The Florida Times - Union, and the tabloid National Enquirer his highest profile supporters. Several papers which endorsed Clinton, such as the Houston Chronicle, The Dallas Morning News, The San Diego Union - Tribune, The Columbus Dispatch and The Arizona Republic, endorsed their first Democratic candidate for many decades. USA Today, which had not endorsed any candidate since it was founded in 1982, broke tradition by giving an anti-endorsement against Trump, declaring him "unfit for the presidency ''. The Atlantic, which has been in circulation since 1857, gave Clinton its third - ever endorsement (after Abraham Lincoln and Lyndon Johnson).
Other traditionally Republican papers, including the New Hampshire Union Leader, which had endorsed the Republican nominee in every election for the last 100 years, The Detroit News, which had not endorsed a non-Republican in its 143 years, and the Chicago Tribune, endorsed Gary Johnson.
On December 9, 2016, the Central Intelligence Agency issued an assessment to lawmakers in the US Senate, stating that a Russian entity hacked the DNC and John Podesta 's emails to assist Donald Trump. The Federal Bureau of Investigation agreed. President Barack Obama ordered a "full enquiry '' into such possible intervention. Director of National Intelligence James R. Clapper in early January 2017 testified before a Senate committee that Russia 's meddling in the 2016 presidential campaign went beyond hacking, and included disinformation and the dissemination of fake news, often promoted on social media.
President - elect Trump originally called the report fabricated, and Wikileaks denied any involvement by Russian authorities. Days later, Trump said he could be convinced of the Russian hacking "if there is a unified presentation of evidence from the Federal Bureau of Investigation and other agencies. ''
Several U.S. senators -- including Republicans John McCain, Richard Burr, and Lindsey Graham -- demanded a congressional investigation. The Senate Intelligence Committee announced the scope of their official inquiry on December 13, 2016, on a bipartisan basis; work began on January 24, 2017.
The Commission on Presidential Debates (CPD), a non-profit organization, hosted debates between qualifying presidential and vice-presidential candidates. According to the commission 's website, to be eligible to opt to participate in the anticipated debates, "... in addition to being Constitutionally eligible, candidates must appear on a sufficient number of state ballots to have a mathematical chance of winning a majority vote in the Electoral College, and have a level of support of at least 15 percent of the national electorate as determined by five selected national public opinion polling organizations, using the average of those organizations ' most recently publicly - reported results at the time of the determination. ''
The three locations chosen to host the presidential debates, and the one location selected to host the vice presidential debate, were announced on September 23, 2015. The site of the first debate was originally designated as Wright State University in Dayton, Ohio; however, due to rising costs and security concerns, the debate was moved to Hofstra University in Hempstead, New York.
On August 19, Trump 's campaign manager confirmed that he would participate in a series of three debates. Trump had complained that two of the scheduled debates, one on September 26 and the other October 9, will have to compete for viewers with National Football League games, referencing the similar complaints made regarding the dates with low expected ratings during the Democratic Party presidential debates.
The Free & Equal Elections Foundation announced plans to host an open debate among all presidential candidates who had ballot access sufficient to represent a majority of electoral votes. In October 2016 Free & Equal extended the invitation to all candidates with ballot lines representing at least 15 % of the electoral vote. The nominees of the Democratic, Republican, Libertarian, Green, Constitution, Reform, and Socialism and Liberation parties, as well as independent candidate Evan McMullin, were invited to participate. The debate was held at the University of Colorado Boulder 's Macky Auditorium on October 25, 2016. It was moderated by Ed Asner and Christina Tobin, with Darrell Castle, Rocky De La Fuente, and Gloria La Riva participating.
PBS hosted a debate moderated by Tavis Smiley between Libertarian candidate Gary Johnson and Green Party candidate Jill Stein.
The election was held on November 8, 2016. Clinton cast her vote in Chappaqua, Westchester County, New York, while Trump voted in a Manhattan public school. Throughout the day, the election process went more smoothly than many had expected, with only a few reports of long lines and equipment problems.
The news media and election experts were surprised twice, at Trump 's winning the GOP nomination and in winning the electoral college. English political scientist Lloyd Gruber says, "One of the major casualties of the 2016 election season has been the reputation of political science, a discipline whose practitioners had largely dismissed Donald Trump 's chances of gaining the Republican nomination. '' The final polls showed a lead by Clinton -- and indeed she did win more popular votes. Trump himself expected to lose the election based on polling, and rented a small hotel ballroom to make a brief concession speech; "I said if we 're going to lose I do n't want a big ballroom '', he said. The Republican candidate performed surprisingly well in all battleground states, especially Florida, Iowa, Ohio and North Carolina. Even Wisconsin, Pennsylvania, and Michigan, states that had been predicted to vote Democratic, were won by Trump. Cindy Adams, present at Trump Tower, reported that "Trumptown knew they 'd won by 5: 30. Math, calculations, candidate dislike causing voter abstention begat the numbers. '' Trump said that he was surprised by how "that map was getting red as hell. That map was bleeding red... I always used to believe in (polls). I do n't believe them anymore. ''
On November 9, 2016, at 3: 00 AM Eastern Time, Trump secured over 270 electoral votes, the majority of the 538 electors in the Electoral College, enough to make him the president - elect of the United States.
According to the authors of Shattered: Inside Hillary Clinton 's Doomed Campaign, by late Tuesday night the White House had decided that Trump had won the election. Obama aide David Simas called Clinton campaign manager Robby Mook to unsuccessfully persuade Clinton to concede the election. Obama then called Clinton herself, citing the importance of continuity of government, to publicly acknowledge that Trump had won; believing that she was still unwilling to concede the president called Podesta, telling him that the election was over, but the call to Clinton had likely already persuaded her. Clinton called Trump early on Wednesday morning to concede defeat, and later that day asked her supporters to accept the result and hoped that Trump would be "a successful president for all Americans. '' In his victory speech Trump appealed for unity saying "it is time for us to come together as one united people '' and praised Clinton who was owed "a major debt of gratitude for her service to our country. ''
Six states plus a portion of Maine that Obama won in 2012 switched to Trump. These are (with Electoral College votes in parentheses): Florida (29), Pennsylvania (20), Ohio (18), Michigan (16), Wisconsin (10), Iowa (6), and Maine 's second congressional district (1). Initially, Trump won exactly 100 more Electoral College votes than Mitt Romney in 2012, with two lost to faithless electors the following month. Thirty - nine states swung more Republican compared to the previous Presidential election, while eleven states and the District of Columbia swung more Democratic.
Based on U.S. Census Bureau estimates of the voting age population (VAP), turnout of voters casting a vote for President was nearly 1 % higher than 2012. Examining overall turnout in the 2016 election, University of Florida Prof. Michael McDonald estimated that 138.8 million Americans cast a ballot in 2016. 65.9 million of those ballots have been counted for Clinton and just under 63 million for Trump, representing 20.3 % (Clinton) and 19.4 % (Trump) of a census estimate of U.S. population that day of 324 million. Considering a VAP of 250.6 million people and voting eligible population (VEP) of 230.6 million people, this is a turnout rate of 55.4 % VAP and 60.2 % VEP. Based on this estimate, voter turnout was up compared to 2012 (54.1 % VAP) but down compared to 2008 (57.4 % VAP). A FEC report of the 2016 Presidential General Election recorded an official total of 136.7 million votes cast for President -- more than any prior election.
Data scientist Azhar Hamdan, working to explain the paradoxes the 2016 outcome, "chief among them the discrepancy between the popular vote, which Hillary Clinton won by 2.8 million votes, and the electoral college, where Trump won 304 - 227 '', compared Trump 's 30 states against Clinton 's 20 states and the District of Columbia. He said that Trump outperformed Mitt Romney 's 2012 results, while Clinton only just matched Barack Obama 's 2012 totals. Hamdan also said that Trump was "the highest vote earner of any Republican candidate ever, '' exceeding George W. Bush 's 62.04 million votes in 2004, though neither reached Clinton 's 65.9 million, nor Obama 's 69.5 million votes in 2008, the overall record. He concluded, with help from The Cook Political Report, that the election hinged not on Clinton 's large 2.8 million overall vote margin over Trump, but rather on about 78,000 votes from only three counties in Wisconsin, Pennsylvania, and Michigan. Trump 's margin over Clinton was less than the total votes cast for Jill Stein in each of these three states. Thus if all Stein voters in Wisconsin, Pennsylvania, and Michigan had instead voted for Clinton, the result would have been a Trump defeat in the Electoral College by ten electoral votes.
Source (Popular Vote):
Nationwide: Leip, David. "2016 Presidential Election Results ''. Dave Leip 's Atlas of U.S. Presidential Elections. Retrieved February 4, 2018.
For Bernie Sanders and John Kasich: CA: and NH: VT: NC: PA: RI:
Received electoral vote (s) from a faithless elector.
Two faithless electors from Texas cast their presidential votes for Ron Paul and John Kasich, respectively. Chris Suprun stated that he cast his presidential vote for John Kasich and his vice presidential vote for Carly Fiorina. The other faithless elector in Texas, Bill Greene, cast his presidential vote for Ron Paul but cast his vice presidential vote for Mike Pence, as pledged. John Kasich received recorded write - in votes in Alabama, Georgia, Illinois, New Hampshire, North Carolina, Pennsylvania, and Vermont.
Candidate received votes as a write - in. The exact numbers of write - in votes for Sanders have been published for three states. In California, his official running mate was Tulsi Gabbard and in New Hampshire and Vermont there was not a running mate attached to Sanders. It was possible to vote Sanders as a write - in candidate in 14 states.
A total of 29 third party and independent presidential candidates appeared on the ballot in at least one state. Former Governor of New Mexico Gary Johnson and physician Jill Stein repeated their 2012 roles as the nominees for the Libertarian Party and the Green Party, respectively. With ballot access to the entire national electorate, Johnson received nearly 4.5 million votes (3.27 %), the highest nationwide vote share for a third - party candidate since Ross Perot in 1996, while Stein received almost 1.45 million votes (1.06 %), the most for a Green nominee since Ralph Nader in 2000.
Independent candidate Evan McMullin, who appeared on the ballot in 11 states, received over 732,000 votes (0.53 %). He won 21.4 % of the vote in his home state of Utah, the highest share of the vote for a third - party candidate in any state since 1992. Despite dropping out of the election following his defeat in the Democratic primary, Senator Bernie Sanders received 5.7 % of the vote in his home state of Vermont, the highest write - in draft campaign percentage for a presidential candidate in American history. Johnson and McMullin were the first third party candidates since Nader to receive at least 5 % of the vote in one or more states, with Johnson crossing the mark in 11 states and McMullin crossing it in two.
Aside from Florida and North Carolina, the states which secured Trump 's victory are situated in the Great Lakes / Rust Belt region. Wisconsin went Republican for the first time since 1984, while Pennsylvania and Michigan went Republican for the first time since 1988. Stein petitioned for a recount in these states. The Clinton campaign pledged to participate in the Green Party recount efforts, while Trump backers challenged them in court. Meanwhile, American Delta Party / Reform Party presidential candidate Rocky De La Fuente petitioned for and was granted a partial recount in Nevada.
Electoral methods
Two states (Maine and Nebraska) allow for their electoral votes to be split between candidates. The winner within each congressional district gets one electoral vote for the district. The winner of the statewide vote gets two additional electoral votes. Results are from The New York Times.
Red denotes states (or congressional districts whose electoral votes are awarded separately) won by Republican Donald Trump; blue denotes those won by Democrat Hillary Clinton.
States where the margin of victory was under 1 % (50 electoral votes; 46 won by Trump, 4 by Clinton):
States / districts where the margin of victory was between 1 % and 5 % (83 electoral votes; 56 won by Trump, 27 by Clinton):
States where the margin of victory was between 5 % and 10 % (96 electoral votes; 78 won by Trump, 18 by Clinton):
Most media outlets announced the beginning of the presidential race about twenty months prior to Election Day. Soon after the first contestants declared their candidacy, Larry Sabato listed Virginia, Colorado, Iowa, New Hampshire, Florida, Nevada, and Ohio as the seven states most likely to be contested in the general election. After Donald Trump clinched the Republican presidential nomination, many pundits felt that the major campaign locations might be different from what had originally been expected.
Rust Belt states such as Pennsylvania, Wisconsin, and even Michigan were thought to be in play with Trump as the nominee, while states with large minority populations, such as Colorado and Virginia, were expected to shift towards Clinton. By the conventions period and the debates, however, it did not seem as though the Rust Belt states could deliver a victory to Trump. According to Politico and the 538 online blog, his path to victory went though states such as Florida, North Carolina, Nevada, New Hampshire, and possibly Colorado.
Early polling indicated a closer - than - usual race in former Democratic strongholds such as Washington, Delaware, New Jersey, Connecticut, Maine (for the two statewide electoral votes), and New Mexico. Meanwhile, research indicators from inside of a host of Republican - leaning states such as Arizona, Indiana, Georgia, South Carolina, Alaska, Utah, Texas, Kansas, Mississippi, Missouri, Montana, and South Dakota reported weaker support for Trump than expected, although the nominee 's position solidified in a few other areas. Some reviews took this information as evidence of an expanded ' swing - state map '.
A consensus among political pundits developed throughout the primary election season regarding swing states. From the results of presidential elections from 2004 through to 2012, the Democratic and Republican parties would generally start with a safe electoral vote count of about 150 to 200. However, the margins required to constitute a swing state are vague, and can vary between groups of analysts. It was thought that left - leaning states in the Rust Belt could become more conservative, as Trump had strong appeal among many blue - collar workers. They represent a large portion of the American populace and were a major factor in Trump 's eventual nomination. Trump 's primary campaign was propelled by victories in Democratic states, and his supporters often did not identify as Republican. In addition, local factors may come into play. For example, Utah was the reddest state in 2012, although the Republican share was boosted significantly by the candidacy of Mormon candidate Mitt Romney. Despite its partisan orientation, some reports suggested a victory there by independent candidate Evan McMullin, particularly if there was a nationwide blowout.
Media reports indicated that both candidates planned to concentrate on Florida, Pennsylvania, Ohio and North Carolina. Among the Republican - leaning states, potential Democratic targets included Nebraska 's second congressional district, Georgia, and Arizona. Trump 's relatively poor polling in some traditionally Republican states, such as Utah, raised the possibility that they could vote for Clinton, despite easy wins there by recent Republican nominees. However, many analysts asserted that these states were not yet viable Democratic destinations. Several sites and individuals publish electoral predictions. These generally rate the race by the likelihood for each party to win a state. The "tossup '' label is usually used to indicate that neither party has an advantage, "lean '' to indicate a party has a slight edge, "likely '' to indicate a party has a clear but not overwhelming advantage, and "safe '' to indicate a party has an advantage that can not be overcome.
As the parameters of the race established themselves, analysts converged on a narrower list of contested states, which were relatively similar to those of recent elections. On November 7, the Cook Political Report categorized Arizona, Colorado, Florida, Iowa, Michigan, Nevada, New Hampshire, North Carolina, Ohio, Pennsylvania, and Wisconsin as states with close races. Additionally, a district from each of Maine and Nebraska were considered to be coin flips. Meanwhile, FiveThirtyEight listed twenty - two states as potentially competitive about a month before the election -- Maine 's two at - large electoral votes, New Mexico, Minnesota, Michigan, Colorado, Virginia, Wisconsin, Pennsylvania, New Hampshire, Nevada, Florida, North Carolina, Ohio, Iowa, Arizona, Georgia, Alaska, South Carolina, Texas, Indiana, Missouri, and Utah -- as well as Maine 's second and Nebraska 's second congressional districts. Nate Silver, the publication 's editor - in - chief, subsequently removed Texas, South Carolina, Missouri, and Indiana from the list after the race tightened significantly. These conclusions were supported by models such as the Princeton Elections Consortium, the New York Times Upshot, and punditry evaluations from Sabato 's Crystal Ball and the Cook Political Report.
Clinton won states like New Mexico by less than 10 percentage points. Among the states where the candidates finished at a margin of within 7 percent, Clinton won Virginia (13 electoral votes), Colorado (9), Maine (2), Minnesota (10), and New Hampshire (4). On the other hand, Trump won Michigan (16), Pennsylvania (20), Wisconsin (10), Florida (29), North Carolina (15), Arizona (11), Nebraska 's second district (1), and Georgia (16). States won by Obama in the 2012 contest, such as Ohio (18), Iowa (6), and Maine 's second district (1), were also won by Trump. The close result in Maine was not expected by most commentators, nor were Trump 's victory of over 10 points in the second district and their disparities. The dramatic shift of Midwestern states towards Trump were contrasted in the media against the relative movement of Southern states towards the Democrats. For example, former Democratic strongholds such as Minnesota leaned towards the GOP and Iowa voted more Republican than Texas did, while Arizona and Georgia were more Democratic than Ohio. Trump 's smaller victories in Alaska and Utah, also took some experts by surprise.
After the conventions of the national parties, candidates from the main parties carried out trips to the states: Florida - 72, Pennsylvania - 59, North Carolina - 52, Ohio - 43, Virginia - 25, Michigan - 24, Iowa - 23, New Hampshire - 22, Colorado - 19, Nevada - 16, Wisconsin - 15, Arizona - 10.
Results by state, shaded according to winning candidate 's percentage of the vote
Results by vote distribution among states. Each state 's pie chart is proportional to the number of electoral votes they have.
Results by county. Red denotes counties that went to Trump; blue denotes counties that went to Clinton.
Results by county, shaded according to winning candidate 's percentage of the vote
Results by county, shaded according to winning candidate 's percentage of the vote (Red - Purple - Blue view)
Results by state and DC, scaled by number of Electors per state.
United States presidential election, 2016 cartogram
United States presidential election, 2016 cartogram
Results of 2016 U.S. presidential election by congressional district, shaded by vote margin
County swing from 2012 to 2016
Results by county, shaded according to percentage of the vote for Trump
Results by county, shaded according to percentage of the vote for Clinton
Results by county, shaded according to percentage of the vote for Johnson (0 % -- 10 % scale)
Voter demographic data for 2016 were collected by Edison Research for the National Election Pool, a consortium of ABC News, CBS News, MSNBC, CNN, Fox News and the Associated Press. The voter survey is based on exit polls completed by 24,537 voters leaving 350 voting places throughout the United States on Election Day, in addition to 4,398 telephone interviews with early and absentee voters. Trump 's crucial victories in the Midwest were aided in large part by his strong margins among non-college whites -- while Obama lost those voters by a margin of 10 points in 2012, Clinton lost this group by 20 percent. The election also represented the first time that Republicans performed better among lower - income whites than among affluent white voters. To some analysts ' surprise, Trump narrowed Clinton 's margin compared to Obama by 7 points among blacks and African - Americans, 8 points among Latinos, and 11 points among Asian - Americans. Meanwhile, Trump increased his lead with non-Hispanic white voters through 1 percent over Mitt Romney 's performance, and American Indians, Alaska Natives, and Pacific Islanders shifted their support towards the Republican candidate using the same relative amount. Additionally, although 74 percent of Muslim voters supported Clinton, Trump nearly doubled his support there compared to Mitt Romney, according to the Council on American -- Islamic Relations exit poll.
However, "more convincing data '' from the polling firm Latino Decisions indicates that Clinton received a higher share of the Hispanic vote, and Trump a lower share, than the Edison exit polls showed. Using wider, more geographically and linguistically representative sampling, Latino Decisions concluded that Clinton won 79 % of Hispanic voters (also an improvement over Obama 's share in 2008 and 2012), while Trump won only 18 % (lower than previous Republicans such as Romney and McCain). Additionally, the 2016 Cooperative Congressional Election Study found that Clinton 's share of the Hispanic vote was 1 percentage point higher than Obama 's in 2012, while Trump 's was 7 percentage points lower than Romney 's.
Similarly, a large, multi-lingual study by the Asian American Legal Defense and Education Fund found that Clinton won 79 % of Asian - American voters, higher than the Edison exit poll showed, while Trump only won 18 %, a decrease from McCain 's and Romney 's numbers. Furthermore, according to the AALDEF 's report, Trump received merely 2 % of the Muslim - American vote, whereas Clinton received 97 %.
Various methods were used to forecast the outcome of the 2016 election. For the 2016 election, there were many competing election forecast approaches including Nate Silver 's FiveThirtyEight, The Upshot at The New York Times, Daily Kos, Princeton Election Consortium, Cook Political Report, Rothenberg and Gonzales, PollyVote, Sabato 's Crystal Ball and Electoral - Vote. These models mostly showed a Democratic advantage since the nominees were confirmed, and were supported by pundits and statisticians, including Nate Silver of FiveThirtyEight, Nate Cohn at The New York Times, and Larry Sabato from the Crystal Ball newsletter, who predicted a Democratic victory in competitive presidential races and projected consistent leads in several battleground states around the country. The near - unanimity of forecasters in predicting a Clinton victory may have been the result of groupthink. However, FiveThirtyEight 's model pointed to the possibility of an Electoral College - popular vote split widening in the final weeks based on Trump 's improvement in swing states like Florida or Pennsylvania. This was due to the demographics targeted by Trump 's campaign which lived in big numbers there, in addition to Clinton 's poor performance in several of those swing states in comparison with Obama 's performance in 2012, as well as having a big number of her potential voters in very populated traditionally ' blue ' states, but also in some very populated states traditionally ' red ', like Texas, which were projected safe for Trump.
Early exit polls generally favored Clinton. After the polls closed and some of the results came in, the forecasts were found to be inaccurate, as Trump performed better in the competitive Midwestern states, such as Iowa, Ohio, and Minnesota, than expected. Three states (Pennsylvania, Wisconsin and Michigan) which were considered to be part of Clinton 's firewall, were won by Trump. Of the states in the Great Lakes region, Clinton won the swing state of Minnesota by 1 point, as well as traditional Democratic strongholds such as New York and Illinois with populous urban centers. This result stands in contrast to the 2012 results, when President Obama won all but Indiana, which he carried in 2008. This table displays the final polling average published by Real Clear Politics on November 7, the actual electoral margin, and the over-performance by either candidate relative to the polls.
Pollsters were puzzled by the failure of mainstream forecasting models to predict the 2016 election outcome. Forbes magazine contributor astrophysicist Ethan Siegel performed a scientific analysis and raised whether the statistical population sampled for the polling was inaccurate, and cited the cautionary adage "Garbage in, garbage out ''. He concluded there may have been sampling bias on the part of the pollsters. Siegel, along with journalists from other media outlets, compared the 2016 election to the failure of prognosticator Arthur Henning in the "Dewey Defeats Truman '' incident from the 1948 presidential election. Sean Trende, writing for RealClearPolitics, wrote that many of the polls were accurate, but that the pundits ' interpretation of these polls neglected polling error. Nate Silver found that the high number of undecided and third - party voters in the election was neglected in many of these models, and that many of these voters decided to vote for Trump.
According to a February 2018 study by Public Opinion Quarterly, the main sources of polling error were "a late swing in vote preference toward Trump and a pervasive failure to adjust for over-representation of college graduates (who favored Clinton), '' whereas the share of "shy '' Trump voters (who declined to admit their support for Trump to the pollsters) proved to be negligible.
FiveThirtyEight 's final polls - plus forecast predicted 18 states, plus the second congressional districts of Maine and Nebraska, with an interval of confidence lower than 90 %. However, every major forecaster, including FiveThirtyEight, the New York Times Upshot, prediction markets aggregator PredictWise, ElectionBettingOdds from Maxim Lott and John Stossel, the DailyKos, the Princeton Election Consortium, the Huffington Post, the Cook Political Report, Larry Sabato 's Crystal Ball, and the Rothenberg and Gonzales Report, called every state the same way (although Cook and Rothenberg - Gonzales left two and five states as toss - ups, respectively). The sole exception was Maine 's 2nd congressional district. Of the forecasters who published results on the district, the Times gave Trump a 64 % chance of winning and PredictWise a 52 % chance, FiveThirtyEight gave Clinton a 51 % chance of winning in polls - only and 54 % in polls - plus, Princeton gave her a 60 % chance, Cook labelled it a toss - up, and Sabato leaned it towards Trump. The following table displays the final winning probabilities given by each outlet, along with the final electoral result. The states shown have been identified by Politico, WhipBoard, the New York Times, and the Crystal Ball as battlegrounds.
Legend
Total television viewers 8: 00 to 11: 00 PM Eastern
Total cable TV viewers 2: 00 to 3: 00 AM Eastern
Cable TV viewers 25 to 54 2: 00 to 3: 00 AM Eastern
Trump 's victory, considered unlikely by most forecasts, was characterized as an "upset '' and as "shocking '' by the media.
Following the announcement of Trump 's election, large protests broke out across the United States with some continuing for several days.
Protesters have held up a number of different signs and chanted various shouts including "Not my president '' and "We do n't accept the president - elect ''. The movement organized on Twitter under the hashtags # Anti-trump and # NotMyPresident.
High school and college students walked out of classes to protest. The protests were peaceful for the most part. At some protests fires were lit, flags and other items were burned and people yelled derogatory remarks about Trump. Rioters also broke glass at certain locations. Celebrities such as Madonna, Cher, and Lady Gaga took part in New York. Some protesters took to blocking freeways in Los Angeles, San Diego, and Portland, Oregon, and were dispersed by police in the early hours of the morning. In a number of cities, protesters were dispersed with rubber bullets, pepper spray and bean - bags fired by police. In New York City, calls were made to continue the protests over the coming days after the election. Former New York mayor Rudy Giuliani called protesters "a bunch of spoiled cry - babies. '' Los Angeles mayor Eric Garcetti expressed understanding of the protests and praised those who peacefully wanted to make their voices heard.
After the election, computer scientists, including J. Alex Halderman, the director of the University of Michigan Center for Computer Security and Society, urged the Clinton campaign to request an election recount in Wisconsin, Michigan, and Pennsylvania (three swing states where Trump had won narrowly) for the purpose of excluding the possibility that the hacking of electronic voting machines had influenced the recorded outcome. However, statistician Nate Silver performed a regression analysis which demonstrated that the alleged discrepancy between paper ballots and electronic voting machines "completely disappears once you control for race and education level ''. On November 25, 2016, the Obama administration said the results from November 8 "accurately reflect the will of the American people. '' The following day, the White House released another statement, saying: "the federal government did not observe any increased level of malicious cyberactivity aimed at disrupting our electoral process on Election Day. ''
On November 23, Green Party presidential candidate Jill Stein launched a public fundraiser to pay for recounts in Wisconsin, Michigan, and Pennsylvania, asserting that the election 's outcome had been affected by hacking in those states; Stein did not provide evidence for her claims. Changing the outcome of these three states would make Clinton the winner, and this would require showing that fewer than 60 000 votes had been counted for Trump which should have been counted for Clinton. Stein filed for a recount in Wisconsin on November 25, after which Clinton campaign general counsel Marc Elias stated that their campaign would join Stein 's recount efforts in that state and possibly others "in order to ensure the process proceeds in a manner that is fair to all sides. '' Stein subsequently filed for a recount in Pennsylvania on November 28, and in Michigan on November 30. Concurrently, American Delta Party / Reform Party presidential candidate Rocky De La Fuente sought and was granted a partial recount in Nevada that was unrelated to Stein 's efforts.
President - elect Donald Trump issued a statement denouncing Stein 's Wisconsin recount request saying, "The people have spoken and the election is over. '' Trump further commented that the recount "is a scam by the Green Party for an election that has already been conceded. '' The Trump campaign and Republican Party officials moved to block Stein 's three recount efforts through state and federal courts.
U.S. District Judge Mark Goldsmith ordered a halt to the recount in Michigan on December 7, dissolving a previous temporary restraining order against the Michigan Board of Elections that allowed the recount to continue, stating in his order: "Plaintiffs have not presented evidence of tampering or mistake. Instead, they present speculative claims going to the vulnerability of the voting machinery -- but not actual injury. '' On December 12, U.S. District Judge Paul Diamond rejected an appeal by the Green Party and Jill Stein to force a recount in Pennsylvania, stating that suspicion of a hacked Pennsylvania election "borders on the irrational '' and that granting the Green Party 's recount bid could "ensure that no Pennsylvania vote counts '' given the December 13, 2016, federal deadline to certify the vote for the Electoral College. Meanwhile, the Wisconsin recount was allowed to continue as it was nearing completion and had uncovered no significant irregularities.
The recounts in Wisconsin and Nevada were completed on schedule, resulting in only minor changes to vote tallies. A partial recount of Michigan ballot found some precinct imbalances in Detroit, which were corrected. A subsequent state audit found no evidence of voter fraud and concluded that the mistakes, which were "almost entirely '' caused by poll - worker mistakes attributed to poor training, did not impair "the ability of Detroit residents to cast a ballot and have their vote counted. '' The overall outcome of the election remained unchanged by the recount efforts.
Intense lobbying (in one case involving claims of harassment and death threats) and grass - roots campaigns have been directed at various GOP electors of the United States Electoral College to convince a sufficient number of them (37) to not vote for Trump, thus precluding a Trump presidency. Members of the Electoral College themselves started a campaign for other members to "vote their conscience for the good of America '' in accordance with Alexander Hamilton 's Federalist Paper No. 68. This group 's members may have become faithless electors in the presidential election.
On December 5, former candidate Lawrence Lessig and attorney Laurence Tribe established The Electors Trust under the aegis of EqualCitizens.US to provide pro bono legal counsel as well as a secure communications platform for members of the Electoral College who are regarding a vote of conscience against Trump.
On December 6, Colorado Secretary of State Wayne W. Williams castigated Democratic electors who had filed a lawsuit in Federal court to have the state law binding them to the popular vote (in their case for Hillary Clinton) overturned.
On December 10, ten electors, in an open letter headed by Christine Pelosi to the Director of National Intelligence James Clapper, demanded an intelligence briefing in light of Russian interference in the election to help Trump win the presidency. Fifty - eight additional electors subsequently added their names to the letter, bringing the total to 68 electors from 17 different states. On December 16, the briefing request was denied.
On December 19, several electors voted against their pledged candidates: two against Trump and five against Clinton. A further three electors attempted to vote against Clinton but were replaced or forced to vote again.
The 115th United States Congress officially certified the results on January 6, 2017.
In the Electoral College vote on December 19, for the first time since 1808, multiple faithless electors voted against their pledged qualified presidential candidate. Five Democrats rebelled in Washington and Hawaii, while two Republicans rebelled in Texas. Two Democratic electors, one in Minnesota and one in Colorado, were replaced after voting for Bernie Sanders and John Kasich, respectively. Electors in Maine conducted a second vote after one of its members voted for Sanders; the elector then voted for Clinton.
Likewise, for the first time since 1896, multiple faithless electors voted against the pledged qualified vice presidential candidate.
Of the faithless votes, Colin Powell and Elizabeth Warren were the only two to receive more than one; Powell received three electoral votes for President and Warren received two for Vice President. Receiving one valid electoral vote each were Sanders, John Kasich, Ron Paul and Faith Spotted Eagle for President, and Carly Fiorina, Susan Collins, Winona LaDuke and Maria Cantwell for Vice President. Sanders is the first Jewish American to receive an electoral vote for President. LaDuke is the first Green Party member to receive an electoral vote, and Paul is the third member of the Libertarian Party to do so, following the party 's presidential and vice-presidential nominees each getting one vote in 1972. It is the first election with faithless electors from more than one political party. The seven people to receive electoral votes for president were the most in a single election since 1796, and more than any other election since the enactment of the Twelfth Amendment in 1804.
Trump, at 70 years, 147 days of age on election day, became the oldest ever president - elect, surpassing Ronald Reagan, who was 69 years, 272 days at the time of his 1980 election victory. (Hillary Clinton, at 69 years, 13 days of age on November 8, would have been the second - oldest after Reagan.)
As with Bill Clinton and George W. Bush before him, Trump was born in 1946, the first year of the post -- World War II baby boom. This is the first time in American history that three presidents were born in the same calendar year.
Trump is the fifth president to be born in New York, after Martin Van Buren, Millard Fillmore, Theodore Roosevelt, and Franklin Roosevelt; and the second born in New York City after Theodore Roosevelt. He is also the third president, after James K. Polk in 1844, and Woodrow Wilson in 1916 to win an election despite losing his home state. Additionally, in 2016, both major - party candidates were from the state of New York for the first time since Franklin D. Roosevelt and Thomas E. Dewey in 1944. The 2016 election was the fourth presidential election in which the two major parties nominated candidates from the same state, and was the third election in which both candidates were from New York.
Trump is the first person since Dwight D. Eisenhower in 1952 to be elected president without having been elected to any other previous office, and the only individual elected president without any prior political or military experience. Among other presidents with limited military or political experience, William Howard Taft never served in the military and had been elected to political office only once, as an Ohio state judge, although he later held a number of appointed federal government positions, including in the Cabinet of his predecessor, Theodore Roosevelt. Herbert Hoover did not serve in the military and never held elected office, but he led two federal government agencies during and after World War I and served in the Cabinets of his immediate predecessors, Warren G. Harding and Calvin Coolidge.
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download mp3 songs of movie kahin pyar na ho jaye | Kahin Pyaar Na Ho Jaaye (2000 film) - Wikipedia
Kahin Pyaar Na Ho Jaaye (Translated into English as "Beware, you might fall in love '') is a 2000 Indian Hindi - language romantic drama film starring Salman Khan and Rani Mukerji and directed by K. Muralimohana Rao. The movie was declared an above average grosser by Box office India.
The film tells the story of Prem, a talented and happy - go - lucky singer who earns his livelihood by performing at weddings and functions as part of a small troupe. His parents being long dead, he lives with his married sister Neelu and has bonded closely with her husband, Vinod.
Prem is in love with Nisha and even the wedding date has been fixed. However, fate has something else in store for him. On the wedding day, even as Prem waits at the altar, his bride fails to show up. It emerges that Nisha is now betrothed to marry a rich and successful NRI who lives in the USA. Prem is heartbroken and takes to drink; as a result, his career suffers. His support and mainstay is his brother - in - law, who understands his situation and empathizes with him.
Priya moves to the neighbourhood to stay with her cousin Mona, an aspiring actress. Priya wants to make a career for herself as a videographer, but her widowed mother (who lives in Pune) wants to see her married and settled into a family. She has only very reluctantly permitted Priya to move to Mumbai for a brief period. Mona, who is friends with Prem 's sister, suggests that Priya be accepted into Prem 's troupe to do videography work for weddings and events. This happens, and slowly, and as they work together, Prem starts getting attracted to Priya. However, he does not express his feelings. Priya is also vaguely attracted to Prem but his whole profile is of a man still deeply in love with his former fiancée, and she has no way of knowing that he has any feelings for her.
Meanwhile, Priya 's mother has been busy searching for an alliance, and finally her prayers seem to have been answered: a well - settled guy from a decent, US - based family has been identified. After some meetings between the two families, the marriage is arranged in the usual Indian manner and Priya is betrothed to Rahul. It turns out that Rahul is none other than the rich guy who Nisha was supposed to marry. Why did she not marry him eventually? It is revealed that Nisha had dumped Prem very unwillingly, and only because she needed money to arrange medical care for her kid brother, who suffers from cancer. The only way to raise funds, as Nisha saw it, was by marrying a wealthy man. When Rahul discovers this, he chooses to pay for the boy 's treatment without any strings attached, and refuses to marry a girl who was in love with someone else. The boy undergoes his cancer surgery and becomes completely cured. Nevertheless, by this time, Rahul and Priya are engaged to marry each other (as arranged by their parents) and therefore, after the surgery, Nisha thinks of returning to Prem.
Nisha reaches Prem 's house at a time when Priya is there and the latter surmises, correctly, that Nisha wants to get back with Prem. She also assumes that Prem is willing to accept Nisha back, because he is now aware of the motivation behind Nisha 's previous betrayal. Priya is strangely distraught. She runs immediately to Rahul and demands that he should marry her the very next day, instead of several months later (as planned by the parents). Meanwhile, Prem is telling Nisha that things can never be the same between them again; he is a changed man, and he is secretly in love with Priya. It is his sad fate that Priya also is about to marry Rahul; perhaps happiness is not in his destiny; but in all events, he feels that he can not marry Nisha. He bids her good luck and goodbye.
The very next day, Nisha has a business appointment in Agra and catches a flight to that city. On the plane, she bumps into Rahul and Priya. They tell her that they are going to the Taj Mahal for the wedding. Nisha wishes them all the best, and in turn, Priya congratulates Nisha on getting reconciled with Prem, and wishes them all the best also. Nisha immediately tells Priya that in fact, Prem has rebuffed her and told her that he is in love with someone else. Priya is amazed and elated. Who on earth is Prem in love with? Nisha says that she does not know; but Priya knows in her heart of hearts that she is the girl who Prem secretly loves.
By an amazing coincidence, Prem and his family (sister and brother - in - law) are also aboard the same flight, trying to stop Priya and Rahul 's marriage. Prem sings a meaningful love - song, which Priya realizes is for her. By the time the flight lands in Agra, Prem and Priya are united with each other while Rahul and Nisha also get together with each other.
The entire Music has been composed by Himesh Reshammiya
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what type of calendar was used in biblical times | Hebrew calendar - wikipedia
The Hebrew or Jewish calendar (הַלּוּחַ הָעִבְרִי , Ha - Luah ha - Ivri) is a lunisolar calendar used today predominantly for Jewish religious observances. It determines the dates for Jewish holidays and the appropriate public reading of Torah portions, yahrzeits (dates to commemorate the death of a relative), and daily Psalm readings, among many ceremonial uses. In Israel, it is used for religious purposes, provides a time frame for agriculture and is an official calendar for civil purposes, although the latter usage has been steadily declining in favor of the Gregorian calendar.
The present Hebrew calendar is the product of evolution, including a Babylonian influence. Until the Tannaitic period (approximately 10 -- 220 CE), the calendar employed a new crescent moon, with an additional month normally added every two or three years to correct for the difference between twelve lunar months and the solar year. When to add it was based on observation of natural agriculture - related events in Israel. Through the Amoraic period (200 -- 500 CE) and into the Geonic period, this system was gradually displaced by the mathematical rules used today. The principles and rules were fully codified by Maimonides in the Mishneh Torah in the 12th century. Maimonides ' work also replaced counting "years since the destruction of the Temple '' with the modern creation - era Anno Mundi.
The Hebrew lunar year is about eleven days shorter than the solar year and uses the 19 - year Metonic cycle to bring it into line with the solar year, with the addition of an intercalary month every two or three years, for a total of seven times per 19 years. Even with this intercalation, the average Hebrew calendar year is longer by about 6 minutes and 40 seconds than the current mean tropical year, so that every 216 years the Hebrew calendar will fall a day behind the current mean tropical year; and about every 231 years it will fall a day behind the mean Gregorian calendar year.
The era used since the Middle Ages is the Anno Mundi epoch (Latin for "in the year of the world ''; Hebrew: לבריאת העולם , "from the creation of the world ''). As with Anno Domini (A.D. or AD), the words or abbreviation for Anno Mundi (A.M. or AM) for the era should properly precede the date rather than follow it.
AM 5778 began at sunset on 20 September 2017 and will end at sunset on 9 September 2018.
The Jewish day is of no fixed length. The Jewish day is modeled on the reference to "... there was evening and there was morning... '' in the creation account in the first chapter of Genesis. Based on the classic rabbinic interpretation of this text, a day in the rabbinic Hebrew calendar runs from sunset (start of "the evening '') to the next sunset. In most populated parts of the world this is always approximately 24 standard hours, but, depending on the season of the year, it can be slightly less or slightly more. Halachically, a day ends and a new one starts when three stars are visible in the sky. The time between true sunset and the time when the three stars are visible (known as ' tzait ha'kochavim ') is known as ' bein hashmashot ', and there are differences of opinion as to which day it falls into for some uses. This may be relevant, for example, in determining the date of birth of a child born during that gap.
There is no clock in the Jewish scheme, so that the local civil clock is used. Though the civil clock, including the one in use in Israel, incorporates local adoptions of various conventions such as time zones, standard times and daylight saving, these have no place in the Jewish scheme. The civil clock is used only as a reference point -- in expressions such as: "Shabbat starts at... ''. The steady progression of sunset around the world and seasonal changes results in gradual civil time changes from one day to the next based on observable astronomical phenomena (the sunset) and not on man - made laws and conventions.
In Judaism, an hour is defined as 1 / 12 of the time from sunrise to sunset, so, during the winter, an hour can be much less than 60 minutes, and during the summer, it can be much more than 60 minutes. This proportional hour is known as a sha'ah z'manit (lit. a timely hour). A Jewish hour is divided into 1080 halakim (singular: helek) or parts. A part is 31⁄3 seconds or / minute. The ultimate ancestor of the helek was a small Babylonian time period called a barleycorn, itself equal to / of a Babylonian time degree (1 ° of celestial rotation). These measures are not generally used for everyday purposes.
Instead of the international date line convention, there are varying opinions as to where the day changes. One opinion uses the antimeridian of Jerusalem. (Jerusalem is 35 ° 13 ' east of the prime meridian, so the antimeridian is at 144 ° 47 ' W, passing through eastern Alaska.) Other opinions exist as well. (See International date line in Judaism.)
The weekdays start with Sunday (day 1, or Yom Rishon) and proceed to Saturday (day 7), Shabbat. Since some calculations use division, a remainder of 0 signifies Saturday.
While calculations of days, months and years are based on fixed hours equal to / of a day, the beginning of each halachic day is based on the local time of sunset. The end of the Shabbat and other Jewish holidays is based on nightfall (Tzeth haKochabim) which occurs some amount of time, typically 42 to 72 minutes, after sunset. According to Maimonides, nightfall occurs when three medium - sized stars become visible after sunset. By the 17th century, this had become three - second - magnitude stars. The modern definition is when the center of the sun is 7 ° below the geometric (airless) horizon, somewhat later than civil twilight at 6 °. The beginning of the daytime portion of each day is determined both by dawn and sunrise. Most halachic times are based on some combination of these four times and vary from day to day throughout the year and also vary significantly depending on location. The daytime hours are often divided into Sha'oth Zemaniyoth or "Halachic hours '' by taking the time between sunrise and sunset or between dawn and nightfall and dividing it into 12 equal hours. The nighttime hours are similarly divided into 12 equal portions, albeit a different amount of time than the "hours '' of the daytime. The earliest and latest times for Jewish services, the latest time to eat chametz on the day before Passover and many other rules are based on Sha'oth Zemaniyoth. For convenience, the modern day using Sha'oth Zemaniyoth is often discussed as if sunset were at 6: 00 pm, sunrise at 6: 00 am and each hour were equal to a fixed hour. For example, halachic noon may be after 1: 00 pm in some areas during daylight saving time. Within the Mishnah, however, the numbering of the hours starts with the "first '' hour after the start of the day.
Shavua (שבוע) is a weekly cycle of seven days, mirroring the seven - day period of the Book of Genesis in which the world is created. The names for the days of the week, like those in the creation account, are simply the day number within the week, with Shabbat being the seventh day. Each day of the week runs from sunset to the following sunset and is figured locally.
The Hebrew calendar follows a seven - day weekly cycle, which runs concurrently with but independently of the monthly and annual cycles. The names for the days of the week are simply the day number within the week. In Hebrew, these names may be abbreviated using the numerical value of the Hebrew letters, for example יום א ׳ (Day 1, or Yom Rishon (יום ראשון )):
Yom Shabbat (יום שבת ) is also known as Yom Shabbat Kodesh -- יום שבת קודש meaning "holy rest day. ''
The names of the days of the week are modeled on the seven days mentioned in the creation story. For example, Genesis 1: 5 "... And there was evening and there was morning, one day ''. One day (יוֹם אֶחָד ) in Genesis 1: 15 is translated in JPS as first day, and in some other contexts (including KJV) as day one. In subsequent verses, the Hebrew refers to the days using ordinal numbers, e.g., ' second day ', ' third day ', and so forth, but with the sixth and seventh days the Hebrew includes the definite article ("the '').
The rest day, Shabbat, has a special role in the Jewish weekly cycle as being a special and set apart day, where no work is done. There are many special rules that relate to Shabbat, discussed more fully in the Talmudic tractate Shabbat.
In (Talmudic) Hebrew, the word Shabbat (שַׁבָּת ) can also mean "week '', so that in ritual liturgy a phrase like "Yom Reviʻi bəShabbat '' means "the fourth day in the week ''.
The period from 1 Adar (or Adar II, in leap years) to 29 Marcheshvan contains all of the festivals specified in the Bible -- Purim (14 Adar), Pesach (15 Nisan), Shavuot (6 Sivan), Rosh Hashanah (1 Tishrei), Yom Kippur (10 Tishrei), Sukkot (15 Tishrei), and Shemini Atzeret (22 Tishrei). This period is fixed, during which no adjustments are made.
There are additional rules in the Hebrew calendar to prevent certain holidays from falling on certain days of the week. (See Rosh Hashanah postponement rules, below.) These rules are implemented by adding an extra day to Marcheshvan (making it 30 days long) or by removing one day from Kislev (making it 29 days long). Accordingly, a common Hebrew calendar year can have a length of 353, 354 or 355 days, while a leap Hebrew calendar year can have a length of 383, 384 or 385 days.
The Hebrew calendar is a lunisolar calendar, meaning that months are based on lunar months, but years are based on solar years. The calendar year features twelve lunar months of twenty - nine or thirty days, with an intercalary lunar month added periodically to synchronize the twelve lunar cycles with the longer solar year. (These extra months are added seven times every nineteen years. See Leap months, below.) The beginning of each Jewish lunar month is based on the appearance of the new moon. Although originally the new lunar crescent had to be observed and certified by witnesses, the moment of the true new moon is now approximated arithmetically as the molad, which is the mean new moon to a precision of one part.
The mean period of the lunar month (precisely, the synodic month) is very close to 29.5 days. Accordingly, the basic Hebrew calendar year is one of twelve lunar months alternating between 29 and 30 days:
In leap years (such as 5774) an additional month, Adar I (30 days) is added after Shevat, while the regular Adar is referred to as "Adar II. ''
The insertion of the leap month mentioned above is based on the requirement that Passover -- the festival celebrating the Exodus from Egypt, which took place in the spring -- always occurs in the (northern hemisphere 's) spring season. Since the adoption of a fixed calendar, intercalations in the Hebrew calendar have been assigned to fixed points in a 19 - year cycle. Prior to this, the intercalation was determined empirically:
The year may be intercalated on three grounds: ' aviv (i.e. the ripeness of barley), fruits of trees, and the equinox. On two of these grounds it should be intercalated, but not on one of them alone.
From very early times, the Mesopotamian lunisolar calendar was in wide use by the countries of the western Asia region. The structure, which was also used by the Israelites, was based on lunar months with the intercalation of an additional month to bring the cycle closer to the solar cycle, although there is no evidence of a thirteenth month mentioned anywhere in the Hebrew Bible.
Num 10: 10 stresses the importance in Israelite religious observance of the new month (Hebrew: ראש חודש , Rosh Chodesh, "beginning of the month ''): "... in your new moons, ye shall blow with the trumpets over your burnt - offerings... '' Similarly in Num 28: 11. "The beginning of the month '' meant the appearance of a new moon, and in Exod 12: 2. "This month is to you ''.
According to the Mishnah and Tosefta, in the Maccabean, Herodian, and Mishnaic periods, new months were determined by the sighting of a new crescent, with two eyewitnesses required to testify to the Sanhedrin to having seen the new lunar crescent at sunset. The practice in the time of Gamaliel II (c. 100 CE) was for witnesses to select the appearance of the moon from a collection of drawings that depicted the crescent in a variety of orientations, only a few of which could be valid in any given month. These observations were compared against calculations.
At first the beginning of each Jewish month was signaled to the communities of Israel and beyond by fires lit on mountaintops, but after the Samaritans began to light false fires, messengers were sent. The inability of the messengers to reach communities outside Israel before mid-month High Holy Days (Succot and Passover) led outlying communities to celebrate scriptural festivals for two days rather than one, observing the second feast - day of the Jewish diaspora because of uncertainty of whether the previous month ended after 29 or 30 days.
In his work Mishneh Torah (1178), Maimonides included a chapter "Sanctification of the New Moon '', in which he discusses the calendrical rules and their scriptural basis. He notes,
"By how much does the solar year exceed the lunar year? By approximately 11 days. Therefore, whenever this excess accumulates to about 30 days, or a little more or less, one month is added and the particular year is made to consist of 13 months, and this is the so - called embolismic (intercalated) year. For the year could not consist of twelve months plus so - and - so many days, since it is said: throughout the months of the year (Num 28: 14), which implies that we should count the year by months and not by days. ''
Both the Syrian calendar, currently used in the Arabic - speaking countries of the Fertile crescent, and the modern Assyrian calendar share many of the names for months with the Hebrew calendar, such as Nisan, Iyyar, Tammuz, Ab, Elul, Tishri and Adar, indicating a common origin. The origin is thought to be the Babylonian calendar. The modern Turkish calendar includes the names Şubat (February), Nisan (April), Temmuz (July) and Eylul (September). The former name for October was Tesrin.
Biblical references to the pre-exilic calendar include ten months identified by number rather than by name. In parts of the Torah portion Noach ("Noah '') (specifically, Gen 7: 11, 8: 3 -- 4, 8: 13 -- 14) it is implied that the months are thirty days long. There is also an indication that there were twelve months in the annual cycle (1 Kings 4: 7, 1 Chronicles 27: 1 -- 15). Prior to the Babylonian exile, the names of only four months are referred to in the Tanakh:
All of these are believed to be Canaanite names. These names are only mentioned in connection with the building of the First Temple. Håkan Ulfgard suggests that the use of what are rarely used Canaanite (or in the case of Ethanim perhaps Northwest - semitic) names indicates that "the author is consciously utilizing an archaizing terminology, thus giving the impression of an ancient story... ''.
In a regular (kesidran) year, Marcheshvan has 29 days and Kislev has 30 days. However, because of the Rosh Hashanah postponement rules (see below) Kislev may lose a day to have 29 days, and the year is called a short (chaser) year, or Marcheshvan may acquire an additional day to have 30 days, and the year is called a full (maleh) year. The calendar rules have been designed to ensure that Rosh Hashanah does not fall on a Sunday, Wednesday or Friday. This is to ensure that Yom Kippur does not directly precede or follow Shabbat, which would create practical difficulties, and that Hoshana Rabbah is not on a Shabbat, in which case certain ceremonies would be lost for a year. Hebrew names and romanized transliteration may somewhat differ, as they do for Marcheshvan / Cheshvan (חשוון ) or Kislev (כסלו ): the Hebrew words shown here are those commonly indicated, for example, in newspapers.
The solar year is about eleven days longer than twelve lunar months. The Bible does not directly mention the addition of "embolismic '' or intercalary months. However, without the insertion of embolismic months, Jewish festivals would gradually shift outside of the seasons required by the Torah. This has been ruled as implying a requirement for the insertion of embolismic months to reconcile the lunar cycles to the seasons, which are integral to solar yearly cycles.
When the observational form of the calendar was in use, whether or not an embolismic month was announced after the "last month '' (Adar) depended on ' aviv (i.e., the ripeness of barley), fruits of trees, and the equinox. On two of these grounds it should be intercalated, but not on one of them alone. It may be noted that in the Bible the name of the first month, Aviv, literally means "spring ''. Thus, if Adar was over and spring had not yet arrived, an additional month was observed.
Traditionally, for the Babylonian and Hebrew lunisolar calendars, the years 3, 6, 8, 11, 14, 17, and 19 are the long (13 - month) years of the Metonic cycle. This cycle forms the basis of the Christian ecclesiastical calendar and the Hebrew calendar and is used for the computation of the date of Easter each year
During leap years Adar I (or Adar Aleph -- "first Adar '') is added before the regular Adar. Adar I is actually considered to be the extra month, and has 30 days. Adar II (or Adar Bet -- "second Adar '') is the "real '' Adar, and has the usual 29 days. For this reason, holidays such as Purim are observed in Adar II, not Adar I.
Chronology was a chief consideration in the study of astronomy among the Jews; sacred time was based upon the cycles of the Sun and the Moon. The Talmud identified the twelve constellations of the zodiac with the twelve months of the Hebrew calendar. The correspondence of the constellations with their names in Hebrew and the months is as follows:
Some scholars identified the 12 signs of the zodiac with the 12 sons of Jacob / twelve tribes of Israel. It should be noted that the 12 lunar months of the Hebrew calendar are the normal months from new moon to new: the year normally contains twelve months averaging 29.52 days each. The discrepancy compared to the mean synodic month of 29.53 days is due to Adar I in a leap year always having thirty days. This means that the calendar year normally contains 354 days.
The Hebrew calendar year conventionally begins on Rosh Hashanah. However, other dates serve as the beginning of the year for different religious purposes.
There are three qualities that distinguish one year from another: whether it is a leap year or a common year, on which of four permissible days of the week the year begins, and whether it is a deficient, regular, or complete year. Mathematically, there are 24 (2 × 4 × 3) possible combinations, but only 14 of them are valid. Each of these patterns is called a keviyah (Hebrew קביעה for "a setting '' or "an established thing ''), and is encoded as a series of two or three Hebrew letters. See Four gates.
In Hebrew there are two common ways of writing the year number: with the thousands, called לפרט גדול ("major era ''), and without the thousands, called לפרט קטן ("minor era '').
In 1178 CE, Maimonides wrote in the Mishneh Torah, Sanctification of the Moon (11.16), that he had chosen the epoch from which calculations of all dates should be as "the third day of Nisan in this present year... which is the year 4938 of the creation of the world '' (March 22, 1178). He included all the rules for the calculated calendar and their scriptural basis, including the modern epochal year in his work, and beginning formal usage of the anno mundi era. From the eleventh century, anno mundi dating became dominant throughout most of the world 's Jewish communities. Today, the rules detailed in Maimonides ' calendrical code are those generally used by Jewish communities throughout the world.
Since the codification by Maimonides in 1178, the Jewish calendar has used the Anno Mundi epoch (Latin for "in the year of the world, '' abbreviated AM or A.M., Hebrew לבריאת העולם ), sometimes referred to as the "Hebrew era '', to distinguish it from other systems based on some computation of creation, such as the Byzantine calendar.
There is also reference in the Talmud to years since the creation based on the calculation in the Seder Olam Rabbah of Rabbi Jose ben Halafta in about 160 CE. By his calculation, based on the Masoretic Text, Adam was created in 3760 BCE, later confirmed by the Muslim chronologist al - Biruni as 3448 years before the Seleucid era. An example is the c. 8th century Baraita of Samuel.
According to rabbinic reckoning, the beginning of "year 1 '' is not Creation, but about one year before Creation, with the new moon of its first month (Tishrei) to be called molad tohu (the mean new moon of chaos or nothing). The Jewish calendar 's epoch (reference date), 1 Tishrei AM 1, is equivalent to Monday, 7 October 3761 BC / BCE in the proleptic Julian calendar, the equivalent tabular date (same daylight period) and is about one year before the traditional Jewish date of Creation on 25 Elul AM 1, based upon the Seder Olam Rabbah. Thus, adding 3760 before Rosh Hashanah or 3761 after to a Julian year number starting from 1 CE (AD 1) will yield the Hebrew year. For earlier years there may be a discrepancy (see: Missing years (Jewish calendar)).
The Seder Olam Rabbah also recognized the importance of the Jubilee and Sabbatical cycles as a long - term calendrical system, and attempted at various places to fit the Sabbatical and Jubilee years into its chronological scheme.
Occasionally, Anno Mundi is styled as Anno Hebraico (AH), though this is subject to confusion with notation for the Islamic Hijri year.
Before the adoption of the current AM year numbering system, other systems were in use. In early times, the years were counted from some significant historic event. (e.g., 1 Kings 6: 1) During the period of the monarchy, it was the widespread practice in western Asia to use era year numbers according to the accession year of the monarch of the country involved. This practice was also followed by the united kingdom of Israel (e.g., 1 Kings 14: 25), kingdom of Judah (e.g., 2 Kings 18: 13), kingdom of Israel (e.g., 2 Kings 17: 6), Persia (e.g., Nehemiah 2: 1) and others. Besides, the author of Kings coordinated dates in the two kingdoms by giving the accession year of a monarch in terms of the year of the monarch of the other kingdom, (e.g., 2 Kings 8: 16) though some commentators note that these dates do not always synchronise. Other era dating systems have been used at other times. For example, Jewish communities in the Babylonian diaspora counted the years from the first deportation from Israel, that of Jehoiachin in 597 BCE, (e.g., Ezekiel 1: 1 -- 2). The era year was then called "year of the captivity of Jehoiachin ''. (e.g., 2 Kings 25: 27)
During the Hellenistic Maccabean period, Seleucid era counting was used, at least in the Greek - influenced area of Israel. The Books of the Maccabees used Seleucid era dating exclusively (e.g., 1 Maccabees 1: 54, 6: 20, 7: 1, 9: 3, 10: 1). Josephus writing in the Roman period also used Seleucid era dating exclusively. During the Talmudic era, from the 1st to the 10th century, the center of world Judaism was in the Middle East, primarily in the Talmudic Academies of Iraq and Palestine. Jews in these regions used Seleucid era dating (also known as the "Era of Contracts ''). The Avodah Zarah states:
Rav Aha b. Jacob then put this question: How do we know that our Era (of Documents) is connected with the Kingdom of Greece at all? Why not say that it is reckoned from the Exodus from Egypt, omitting the first thousand years and giving the years of the next thousand? In that case, the document is really post-dated! Said Rav Nahman: In the Diaspora the Greek Era alone is used. He (the questioner) thought that Rav Nahman wanted to dispose of him anyhow, but when he went and studied it thoroughly he found that it is indeed taught (in a Baraita): In the Diaspora the Greek Era alone is used.
The use of the era of documents (i.e., Seleucid era) continued till the 16th century in the East, and was employed even in the 19th century among the Jews of Yemen.
Occasionally in Talmudic writings, reference was made to other starting points for eras, such as destruction era dating, being the number of years since the 70 CE destruction of the Second Temple. In the 8th and 9th centuries, as the center of Jewish life moved from Babylonia to Europe, counting using the Seleucid era "became meaningless ''. There is indication that Jews of the Rhineland in the early Middle Ages used the "years after the destruction of the Temple '' (e.g., Mainz Anonymous).
Exodus 12: 2 and Deut 16: 1 set Aviv (now Nisan) as "the first of months '':
Nisan 1 is referred to as the ecclesiastical new year.
In ancient Israel, the start of the ecclesiastical new year for the counting of months and festivals (i.e., Nisan) was determined by reference to Passover. Passover is on 15 Nisan, (Leviticus 23: 4 -- 6) which corresponds to the full moon of Nisan. As Passover is a spring festival, it should fall on a full moon day around, and normally just after, the vernal (northward) equinox. If the twelfth full moon after the previous Passover is too early compared to the equinox, a leap month is inserted near the end of the previous year before the new year is set to begin. According to normative Judaism, the verses in Exodus 12: 1 -- 2 require that the months be determined by a proper court with the necessary authority to sanctify the months. Hence the court, not the astronomy, has the final decision.
According to some Christian and Karaite sources, the tradition in ancient Israel was that 1 Nisan would not start until the barley is ripe, being the test for the onset of spring. If the barley was not ripe, an intercalary month would be added before Nisan.
The day most commonly referred to as the "New Year '' is 1 Tishrei, which actually begins in the seventh month of the ecclesiastical year. On that day the formal New Year for the counting of years (such as Shmita and Yovel), Rosh Hashanah ("head of the year '') is observed. (see Ezekiel 40: 1, which uses the phrase "beginning of the year ''.) This is the civil new year, and the date on which the year number advances. Certain agricultural practices are also marked from this date.
In the 1st century, Josephus stated that while --
Moses... appointed Nisan... as the first month for the festivals... the commencement of the year for everything relating to divine worship, but for selling and buying and other ordinary affairs he preserved the ancient order (i.e. the year beginning with Tishrei). ''
Edwin Thiele has concluded that the ancient northern Kingdom of Israel counted years using the ecclesiastical new year starting on 1 Aviv (Nisan), while the southern Kingdom of Judah counted years using the civil new year starting on 1 Tishrei. The practice of the Kingdom of Israel was also that of Babylon, as well as other countries of the region. The practice of Judah is still followed.
In fact the Jewish calendar has a multiplicity of new years for different purposes. The use of these dates has been in use for a long time. The use of multiple starting dates for a year is comparable to different starting dates for civil "calendar years '', "tax or fiscal years '', "academic years '', "religious cycles '', etc. By the time of the redaction of the Mishnah, Rosh Hashanah 1: 1 (c. 200 CE), jurists had identified four new - year dates:
The 1st of Nisan is the new year for kings and feasts; the 1st of Elul is the new year for the tithe of cattle... the 1st of Tishri is the new year for years, of the years of release and jubilee years, for the planting and for vegetables; and the 1st of Shevat is the new year for trees - so the school of Shammai; and the school of Hillel say: On the 15th thereof.
The month of Elul is the new year for counting animal tithes (ma'aser behemah). Tu Bishvat ("the 15th of Shevat '') marks the new year for trees (and agricultural tithes).
For the dates of the Jewish New Year see Jewish and Israeli holidays 2000 -- 2050 or calculate using the section "Conversion between Jewish and civil calendars ''.
The Jewish calendar is based on the Metonic cycle of 19 years, of which 12 are common (non-leap) years of 12 months and 7 are leap years of 13 months. To determine whether a Jewish year is a leap year, one must find its position in the 19 - year Metonic cycle. This position is calculated by dividing the Jewish year number by 19 and finding the remainder. For example, the Jewish year 5778 divided by 19 results in a remainder of 2, indicating that it is year 2 of the Metonic cycle. Since there is no year 0, a remainder of 0 indicates that the year is year 19 of the cycle.
Years 3, 6, 8, 11, 14, 17, and 19 of the Metonic cycle are leap years. To assist in remembering this sequence, some people use the mnemonic Hebrew word GUCHADZaT "גוחאדז '' ט ", where the Hebrew letters gimel - vav - het aleph - dalet - zayin - tet are used as Hebrew numerals equivalent to 3, 6, 8, 1, 4, 7, 9. The keviyah records whether the year is leap or common: פ for peshuta (פשוטה), meaning simple and indicating a common year, and מ indicating a leap year (me'uberet, מעוברת).
Another memory aid notes that intervals of the major scale follow the same pattern as do Jewish leap years, with do corresponding to year 19 (or 0): a whole step in the scale corresponds to two common years between consecutive leap years, and a half step to one common year between two leap years. This connection with the major scale is more plain in the context of 19 equal temperament: counting the tonic as 0, the notes of the major scale in 19 equal temperament are numbers 0 (or 19), 3, 6, 8, 11, 14, 17, the same numbers as the leap years in the Hebrew calendar.
A simple rule for determining whether a year is a leap year has been given above. However, there is another rule which not only tells whether the year is leap but also gives the fraction of a month by which the calendar is behind the seasons, useful for agricultural purposes. To determine whether year n of the calendar is a leap year, find the remainder on dividing ((7 × n) + 1) by 19. If the remainder is 6 or less it is a leap year; if it is 7 or more it is not. For example, the remainder on dividing ((7 × 5778) + 1) by 19 is 15, so the year 5778 is not a leap year. The remainder on dividing ((7 × 5779) + 1) by 19 is 3, so the year 5779 is a leap year. This works because as there are seven leap years in nineteen years the difference between the solar and lunar years increases by 7 / 19 - month per year. When the difference goes above 18 / 19 - month this signifies a leap year, and the difference is reduced by one month.
To calculate the day on which Rosh Hashanah of a given year will fall, it is necessary first to calculate the expected molad (moment of lunar conjunction or new moon) of Tishrei in that year, and then to apply a set of rules to determine whether the first day of the year must be postponed. The molad can be calculated by multiplying the number of months that will have elapsed since some (preceding) molad whose weekday is known by the mean length of a (synodic) lunar month, which is 29 days, 12 hours, and 793 parts (there are 1080 "parts '' in an hour, so that one part is equal to 3 ⁄ seconds). The very first molad, the molad tohu, fell on Sunday evening at 11.11 ⁄, or in Jewish terms Day 2, 5 hours, and 204 parts.
In calculating the number of months that will have passed since the known molad that one uses as the starting point, one must remember to include any leap month (s) that falls within the elapsed interval, according to the cycle of leap years. A 19 - year cycle of 235 synodic months has 991 weeks 2 days 16 hours 595 parts, a common year of 12 synodic months has 50 weeks 4 days 8 hours 876 parts, while a leap year of 13 synodic months has 54 weeks 5 days 21 hours 589 parts.
The two months whose numbers of days may be adjusted, Marcheshvan and Kislev, are the eighth and ninth months of the Hebrew year, whereas Tishrei is the seventh month (in the traditional counting of the months, even though it is the first month of a new calendar year). Any adjustments needed to postpone Rosh Hashanah must be made to the adjustable months in the year that precedes the year of which the Rosh Hashanah will be the first day.
Just four potential conditions are considered to determine whether the date of Rosh Hashanah must be postponed. These are called the Rosh Hashanah postponement rules, or deḥiyyot:
The first of these rules (deḥiyyah molad zaken) is referred to in the Talmud. Nowadays, molad zaken is used as a device to prevent the molad falling on the second day of the month. The second rule, (deḥiyyah lo ADU), is applied for religious reasons.
Another two rules are applied much less frequently and serve to prevent impermissible year lengths. Their names are Hebrew acronyms that refer to the ways they are calculated:
At the innovation of the sages, the calendar was arranged to ensure that Yom Kippur would not fall on a Friday or Sunday, and Hoshana Rabbah would not fall on Shabbat. These rules have been instituted because Shabbat restrictions also apply to Yom Kippur, so that if Yom Kippur were to fall on Friday, it would not be possible to make necessary preparations for Shabbat (such as candle lighting). Similarly, if Yom Kippur fell on a Sunday, it would not be possible to make preparations for Yom Kippur because the preceding day is Shabbat. Additionally, the laws of Shabbat override those of Hoshana Rabbah, so that if Hoshana Rabbah were to fall on Shabbat certain rituals that are a part of the Hoshana Rabbah service (such as carrying willows, which is a form of work) could not be performed.
To prevent Yom Kippur (10 Tishrei) from falling on a Friday or Sunday, Rosh Hashanah (1 Tishrei) can not fall on Wednesday or Friday. Likewise, to prevent Hoshana Rabbah (21 Tishrei) from falling on a Saturday, Rosh Hashanah can not fall on a Sunday. This leaves only four days on which Rosh Hashanah can fall: Monday, Tuesday, Thursday, and Saturday, which are referred to as the "four gates ''. Each day is associated with a number (its order in the week, beginning with Sunday as day 1). Numbers in Hebrew have been traditionally denominated by Hebrew letters. Thus the keviyah uses the letters ה, ג, ב and ז (representing 2, 3, 5, and 7, for Monday, Tuesday, Thursday, and Saturday) to denote the starting day of the year.
The postponement of the year is compensated for by adding a day to the second month or removing one from the third month. A Jewish common year can only have 353, 354, or 355 days. A leap year is always 30 days longer, and so can have 383, 384, or 385 days.
Whether a year is deficient, regular, or complete is determined by the time between two adjacent Rosh Hashanah observances and the leap year. While the keviyah is sufficient to describe a year, a variant specifies the day of the week for the first day of Pesach (Passover) in lieu of the year length.
A Metonic cycle equates to 235 lunar months in each 19 - year cycle. This gives an average of 6939 days, 16 hours, and 595 parts for each cycle. But due to the Rosh Hashanah postponement rules (preceding section) a cycle of 19 Jewish years can be either 6939, 6940, 6941, or 6942 days in duration. Since none of these values is evenly divisible by seven, the Jewish calendar repeats exactly only following 36,288 Metonic cycles, or 689,472 Jewish years. There is a near - repetition every 247 years, except for an excess of about 50 minutes (905 parts).
The annual calendar of a numbered Hebrew year, displayed as 12 or 13 months partitioned into weeks, can be determined by consulting the table of Four gates, whose inputs are the year 's position in the 19 - year cycle and its molad Tishrei. The resulting type (keviyah) of the desired year in the body of the table is a triple consisting of two numbers and a letter (written left - to - right in English). The left number of each triple is the day of the week of 1 Tishrei, Rosh Hashanah (2 3 5 7); the letter indicates whether that year is deficient (D), regular (R), or complete (C), the number of days in Chesvan and Kislev; while the right number of each triple is the day of the week of 15 Nisan, the first day of Passover or Pesach (1 3 5 7), within the same Hebrew year (next Julian / Gregorian year). The keviyah in Hebrew letters are written right - to - left, so their days of the week are reversed, the right number for 1 Tishrei and the left for 15 Nisan. The year within the 19 - year cycle alone determines whether that year has one or two Adars.
This table numbers the days of the week and hours for the limits of molad Tishrei in the Hebrew manner for calendrical calculations, that is, both begin at 6 pm, thus 7d 18h 0p is noon Saturday. The years of a 19 - year cycle are organized into four groups: common years after a leap year but before a common year (1 4 9 12 15); common years between two leap years (7 18); common years after a common year but before a leap year (2 5 10 13 16); and leap years (3 6 8 11 14 17 19), all between common years. The oldest surviving table of Four gates was written by Saadia Gaon (892 -- 942). It is so named because it identifies the four allowable days of the week on which 1 Tishrei can occur.
Comparing the days of the week of molad Tishrei with those in the keviyah shows that during 39 % of years 1 Tishrei is not postponed beyond the day of the week of its molad Tishrei, 47 % are postponed one day, and 14 % are postponed two days. This table also identifies the seven types of common years and seven types of leap years. Most are represented in any 19 - year cycle, except one or two may be in neighboring cycles. The most likely type of year is 5R7 in 18.1 % of years, whereas the least likely is 5C1 in 3.3 % of years. The day of the week of 15 Nisan is later than that of 1 Tishrei by one, two or three days for common years and three, four or five days for leap years in deficient, regular or complete years, respectively.
See Jewish and Israeli holidays 2000 -- 2050
The Tanakh contains several commandments related to the keeping of the calendar and the lunar cycle, and records changes that have taken place to the Hebrew calendar.
It has been noted that the procedures described in the Mishnah and Tosefta are all plausible procedures for regulating an empirical lunar calendar. Fire - signals, for example, or smoke - signals, are known from the pre-exilic Lachish ostraca. Furthermore, the Mishnah contains laws that reflect the uncertainties of an empirical calendar. Mishnah Sanhedrin, for example, holds that when one witness holds that an event took place on a certain day of the month, and another that the same event took place on the following day, their testimony can be held to agree, since the length of the preceding month was uncertain. Another Mishnah takes it for granted that it can not be known in advance whether a year 's lease is for twelve or thirteen months. Hence it is a reasonable conclusion that the Mishnaic calendar was actually used in the Mishnaic period.
The accuracy of the Mishnah 's claim that the Mishnaic calendar was also used in the late Second Temple period is less certain. One scholar has noted that there are no laws from Second Temple period sources that indicate any doubts about the length of a month or of a year. This led him to propose that the priests must have had some form of computed calendar or calendrical rules that allowed them to know in advance whether a month would have 30 or 29 days, and whether a year would have 12 or 13 months.
Between 70 and 1178 CE, the observation - based calendar was gradually replaced by a mathematically calculated one. Except for the epoch year number, the calendar rules reached their current form by the beginning of the 9th century, as described by the Persian Muslim astronomer al - Khwarizmi (c. 780 -- 850 CE) in 823.
One notable difference between the calendar of that era and the modern form was the date of the epoch (the fixed reference point at the beginning of year 1), which at that time was one year later than the epoch of the modern calendar.
Most of the present rules of the calendar were in place by 823, according to a treatise by al - Khwarizmi. Al - Khwarizmi 's study of the Jewish calendar, Risāla fi istikhrāj taʾrīkh al - yahūd "Extraction of the Jewish Era '' describes the 19 - year intercalation cycle, the rules for determining on what day of the week the first day of the month Tishrī shall fall, the interval between the Jewish era (creation of Adam) and the Seleucid era, and the rules for determining the mean longitude of the sun and the moon using the Jewish calendar. Not all the rules were in place by 835.
In 921, Aaron ben Meïr proposed changes to the calendar. Though the proposals were rejected, they indicate that all of the rules of the modern calendar (except for the epoch) were in place before that date. In 1000, the Muslim chronologist al - Biruni described all of the modern rules of the Hebrew calendar, except that he specified three different epochs used by various Jewish communities being one, two, or three years later than the modern epoch.
There is a tradition, first mentioned by Hai Gaon (died 1038 CE), that Hillel b. R. Yehuda "in the year 670 of the Seleucid era '' (i.e., 358 -- 359 CE) was responsible for the new calculated calendar with a fixed intercalation cycle. Later writers, such as Nachmanides, explained Hai Gaon 's words to mean that the entire computed calendar was due to Hillel b. Yehuda in response to persecution of Jews. Maimonides, in the 12th century, stated that the Mishnaic calendar was used "until the days of Abaye and Rava '', who flourished c. 320 -- 350 CE, and that the change came when "the land of Israel was destroyed, and no permanent court was left. '' Taken together, these two traditions suggest that Hillel b. Yehuda (whom they identify with the mid-4th - century Jewish patriarch Ioulos, attested in a letter of the Emperor Julian, and the Jewish patriarch Ellel, mentioned by Epiphanius) instituted the computed Hebrew calendar because of persecution. H. Graetz linked the introduction of the computed calendar to a sharp repression following a failed Jewish insurrection that occurred during the rule of the Christian emperor Constantius and Gallus. A later writer, S. Lieberman, argued instead that the introduction of the fixed calendar was due to measures taken by Christian Roman authorities to prevent the Jewish patriarch from sending calendrical messengers.
Both the tradition that Hillel b. Yehuda instituted the complete computed calendar, and the theory that the computed calendar was introduced due to repression or persecution, have been questioned. Furthermore, two Jewish dates during post-Talmudic times (specifically in 506 and 776) are impossible under the rules of the modern calendar, indicating that its arithmetic rules were developed in Babylonia during the times of the Geonim (7th to 8th centuries). The Babylonian rules required the delay of the first day of Tishrei when the new moon occurred after noon.
The Talmuds do, however, indicate at least the beginnings of a transition from a purely empirical to a computed calendar. According to a statement attributed to Yose, an Amora who lived during the second half of the 3rd century, the feast of Purim, 14 Adar, could not fall on a Sabbath nor a Monday, lest 10 Tishrei (Yom Kippur) fall on a Friday or a Sunday. This indicates that, by the time of the redaction of the Jerusalem Talmud (c. 400 CE), there were a fixed number of days in all months from Adar to Elul, also implying that the extra month was already a second Adar added before the regular Adar. In another passage, a sage is reported to have counseled "those who make the computations '' not to set the first day of Tishrei or the Day of the Willow on the sabbath. This indicates that there was a group who "made computations '' and were in a position to control, to some extent, the day of the week on which Rosh Hashanah would fall.
Early Zionist pioneers were impressed by the fact that the calendar preserved by Jews over many centuries in far - flung diasporas, as a matter of religious ritual, was geared to the climate of their original country: the Jewish New Year marks the transition from the dry season to the rainy one, and major Jewish holidays such as Sukkot, Passover, and Shavuot correspond to major points of the country 's agricultural year such as planting and harvest.
Accordingly, in the early 20th century the Hebrew calendar was re-interpreted as an agricultural rather than religious calendar.
After the creation of the State of Israel, the Hebrew calendar became one of the official calendars of Israel, along with the Gregorian calendar. Holidays and commemorations not derived from previous Jewish tradition were to be fixed according to the Hebrew calendar date. For example, the Israeli Independence Day falls on 5 Iyar, Jerusalem Reunification Day on 28 Iyar, and the Holocaust Commemoration Day on 27 Nisan.
Nevertheless, since the 1950s usage of the Hebrew calendar has steadily declined, in favor of the Gregorian calendar. At present, Israelis -- except for the religiously observant -- conduct their private and public life according to the Gregorian calendar, although the Hebrew calendar is still widely acknowledged, appearing in public venues such as banks (where it is legal for use on cheques and other documents, though only rarely do people make use of this option) and on the mastheads of newspapers.
The Jewish New Year (Rosh Hashanah) is a two - day public holiday in Israel. However, since the 1980s an increasing number of secular Israelis celebrate the Gregorian New Year (usually known as "Silvester Night '' -- "ליל סילבסטר '') on the night between 31 December and 1 January. Prominent rabbis have on several occasions sharply denounced this practice, but with no noticeable effect on the secularist celebrants.
Wall calendars commonly used in Israel are hybrids. Most are organised according to Gregorian rather than Jewish months, but begin in September, when the Jewish New Year usually falls, and provide the Jewish date in small characters.
Outside of Rabbinic Judaism, evidence shows a diversity of practice.
Karaites use the lunar month and the solar year, but the Karaite calendar differs from the current Rabbinic calendar in a number of ways. The Karaite calendar is identical to the Rabbinic calendar used before the Sanhedrin changed the Rabbinic calendar from the lunar, observation based, calendar to the current, mathematically based, calendar used in Rabbinic Judaism today.
In the lunar Karaite calendar, the beginning of each month, the Rosh Chodesh, can be calculated, but is confirmed by the observation in Israel of the first sightings of the new moon. This may result in an occasional variation of a maximum of one day, depending on the inability to observe the new moon. The day is usually "picked up '' in the next month.
The addition of the leap month (Adar II) is determined by observing in Israel the ripening of barley at a specific stage (defined by Karaite tradition) (called aviv), rather than using the calculated and fixed calendar of rabbinic Judaism. Occasionally this results in Karaites being one month ahead of other Jews using the calculated rabbinic calendar. The "lost '' month would be "picked up '' in the next cycle when Karaites would observe a leap month while other Jews would not.
Furthermore, the seasonal drift of the rabbinic calendar is avoided, resulting in the years affected by the drift starting one month earlier in the Karaite calendar.
Also, the four rules of postponement of the rabbinic calendar are not applied, since they are not mentioned in the Tanakh. This can affect the dates observed for all the Jewish holidays in a particular year by one day.
In the Middle Ages many Karaite Jews outside Israel followed the calculated rabbinic calendar, because it was not possible to retrieve accurate aviv barley data from the land of Israel. However, since the establishment of the State of Israel, and especially since the Six Day War, the Karaite Jews that have made aliyah can now again use the observational calendar.
Many of the Dead Sea (Qumran) Scrolls have references to a unique calendar, used by the people there, who are often assumed to be Essenes.
The year of this calendar used the ideal Mesopotamian calendar of twelve 30 - day months, to which were added 4 days at the equinoxes and solstices (cardinal points), making a total of 364 days.
There was some ambiguity as to whether the cardinal days were at the beginning of the months or at the end, but the clearest calendar attestations give a year of four seasons, each having three months of 30, 30, and 31 days with the cardinal day the extra day at the end, for a total of 91 days, or exactly 13 weeks. Each season started on the 4th day of the week (Wednesday), every year. (Ben - Dov, Head of All Years, pp. 16 -- 17)
With only 364 days, it is clear that the calendar would after a few years be very noticeably different from the actual seasons, but there is nothing to indicate what was done about this problem. Various suggestions have been made by scholars. One is that nothing was done and the calendar was allowed to change with respect to the seasons. Another suggestion is that changes were made irregularly, only when the seasonal anomaly was too great to be ignored any longer. (Ben - Dov, Head of All Years, pp. 19 -- 20)
The writings often discuss the moon, but the calendar was not based on the movement of the moon any more than indications of the phases of the moon on a modern western calendar indicate that that is a lunar calendar.
Calendrical evidence for the postexilic Persian period is found in papyri from the Jewish colony at Elephantine, in Egypt. These documents show that the Jewish community of Elephantine used the Egyptian and Babylonian calendars.
The Sardica paschal table shows that the Jewish community of some eastern city, possibly Antioch, used a calendrical scheme that kept Nisan 14 within the limits of the Julian month of March. Some of the dates in the document are clearly corrupt, but they can be emended to make the sixteen years in the table consistent with a regular intercalation scheme. Peter, the bishop of Alexandria (early 4th century CE), mentions that the Jews of his city "hold their Passover according to the course of the moon in the month of Phamenoth, or according to the intercalary month every third year in the month of Pharmuthi '', suggesting a fairly consistent intercalation scheme that kept Nisan 14 approximately between Phamenoth 10 (March 6 in the 4th century CE) and Pharmuthi 10 (April 5). Jewish funerary inscriptions from Zoar, south of the Dead Sea, dated from the 3rd to the 5th century, indicate that when years were intercalated, the intercalary month was at least sometimes a repeated month of Adar. The inscriptions, however, reveal no clear pattern of regular intercalations, nor do they indicate any consistent rule for determining the start of the lunar month.
In 1178, Maimonides included all the rules for the calculated calendar and their scriptural basis, including the modern epochal year in his work, Mishneh Torah. Today, the rules detailed in Maimonides ' code are those generally used by Jewish communities throughout the world.
A "new moon '' (astronomically called a lunar conjunction and, in Hebrew, a molad) is the moment at which the sun and moon are aligned horizontally with respect to a north - south line (technically, they have the same ecliptical longitude). The period between two new moons is a synodic month. The actual length of a synodic month varies from about 29 days 6 hours and 30 minutes (29.27 days) to about 29 days and 20 hours (29.83 days), a variation range of about 13 hours and 30 minutes. Accordingly, for convenience, a long - term average length, identical to the mean synodic month of ancient times (also called the molad interval) is used. The molad interval is 765433 25920 (\ displaystyle (\ tfrac (765433) (25920))) days, or 29 days, 12 hours, and 793 "parts '' (1 "part '' = / minute; 3 "parts '' = 10 seconds) (i.e., 29.530594 days), and is the same value determined by the Babylonians in their System B about 300 BCE and was adopted by the Greek astronomer Hipparchus in the 2nd century BCE and by the Alexandrian astronomer Ptolemy in the Almagest four centuries later (who cited Hipparchus as his source). Its remarkable accuracy (less than one second from the true value) is thought to have been achieved using records of lunar eclipses from the 8th to 5th centuries BCE.
This value is as close to the correct value of 29.530589 days as it is possible for a value to come that is rounded off to whole "parts ''. The discrepancy makes the molad interval about 0.6 seconds too long. Put another way, if the molad is taken as the time of mean conjunction at some reference meridian, then this reference meridian is drifting slowly eastward. If this drift of the reference meridian is traced back to the mid-4th century, the traditional date of the introduction of the fixed calendar, then it is found to correspond to a longitude midway between the Nile and the end of the Euphrates. The modern molad moments match the mean solar times of the lunar conjunction moments near the meridian of Kandahar, Afghanistan, more than 30 ° east of Jerusalem.
Furthermore, the discrepancy between the molad interval and the mean synodic month is accumulating at an accelerating rate, since the mean synodic month is progressively shortening due to gravitational tidal effects. Measured on a strictly uniform time scale, such as that provided by an atomic clock, the mean synodic month is becoming gradually longer, but since the tides slow Earth 's rotation rate even more, the mean synodic month is becoming gradually shorter in terms of mean solar time.
The mean year of the current mathematically based Hebrew calendar is 365 days 5 hours 55 minutes and 25 + / seconds (365.2468 days) -- computed as the molad / monthly interval of 29.530594 days × 235 months in a 19 - year metonic cycle ÷ 19 years per cycle. In relation to the Gregorian calendar, the mean Gregorian calendar year is 365 days 5 hours 49 minutes and 12 seconds (365.2425 days), and the drift of the Hebrew calendar in relation to it is about a day every 231 years.
Although the molad of Tishrei is the only molad moment that is not ritually announced, it is actually the only one that is relevant to the Hebrew calendar, for it determines the provisional date of Rosh Hashanah, subject to the Rosh Hashanah postponement rules. The other monthly molad moments are announced for mystical reasons. With the moladot on average almost 100 minutes late, this means that the molad of Tishrei lands one day later than it ought to in (100 minutes) ÷ (1440 minutes per day) = 5 of 72 years or nearly 7 % of years.
Therefore, the seemingly small drift of the moladot is already significant enough to affect the date of Rosh Hashanah, which then cascades to many other dates in the calendar year and sometimes, due to the Rosh Hashanah postponement rules, also interacts with the dates of the prior or next year. The molad drift could be corrected by using a progressively shorter molad interval that corresponds to the actual mean lunar conjunction interval at the original molad reference meridian. Furthermore, the molad interval determines the calendar mean year, so using a progressively shorter molad interval would help correct the excessive length of the Hebrew calendar mean year, as well as helping it to "hold onto '' the northward equinox for the maximum duration.
When the 19 - year intercalary cycle was finalised in the 4th century, the earliest Passover (in year 16 of the cycle) coincided with the northward equinox, which means that Passover fell near the first full moon after the northward equinox, or that the northward equinox landed within one lunation before 16 days after the molad of Nisan. This is still the case in about 80 % of years; but, in about 20 % of years, Passover is a month late by these criteria (as it was in AM 5765 and 5768, the 8th and 11th years of the 19 - year cycle = Gregorian 2005 and 2008 CE). Presently, this occurs after the "premature '' insertion of a leap month in years 8, 11, and 19 of each 19 - year cycle, which causes the northward equinox to land on exceptionally early Hebrew dates in such years. This problem will get worse over time, and so beginning in AM 5817 (2057 CE), year 3 of each 19 - year cycle will also be a month late. If the calendar is not amended, then Passover will start to land on or after the summer solstice around AM 16652 (12892 CE). (The exact year when this will begin to occur depends on uncertainties in the future tidal slowing of the Earth rotation rate, and on the accuracy of predictions of precession and Earth axial tilt.)
The seriousness of the spring equinox drift is widely discounted on the grounds that Passover will remain in the spring season for many millennia, and the text of the Torah is generally not interpreted as having specified tight calendrical limits. Of course, the Hebrew calendar also drifts with respect to the autumn equinox, and at least part of the harvest festival of Sukkot is already more than a month after the equinox in years 1, 9, and 12 of each 19 - year cycle; beginning in AM 5818 (2057 CE), this will also be the case in year 4. (These are the same year numbers as were mentioned for the spring season in the previous paragraph, except that they get incremented at Rosh Hashanah.) This progressively increases the probability that Sukkot will be cold and wet, making it uncomfortable or impractical to dwell in the traditional succah during Sukkot. The first winter seasonal prayer for rain is not recited until Shemini Atzeret, after the end of Sukkot, yet it is becoming increasingly likely that the rainy season in Israel will start before the end of Sukkot.
No equinox or solstice will ever be more than a day or so away from its mean date according to the solar calendar, while nineteen Jewish years average 6939d 16h 33m 03 ⁄ s compared to the 6939d 14h 26m 15s of nineteen mean tropical years. This discrepancy has mounted up to six days, which is why the earliest Passover currently falls on 26 March (as in AM 5773 / 2013 CE).
Given the length of the year, the length of each month is fixed as described above, so the real problem in determining the calendar for a year is determining the number of days in the year. In the modern calendar, this is determined in the following manner.
The day of Rosh Hashanah and the length of the year are determined by the time and the day of the week of the Tishrei molad, that is, the moment of the average conjunction. Given the Tishrei molad of a certain year, the length of the year is determined as follows:
First, one must determine whether each year is an ordinary or leap year by its position in the 19 - year Metonic cycle. Years 3, 6, 8, 11, 14, 17, and 19 are leap years.
Secondly, one must determine the number of days between the starting Tishrei molad (TM1) and the Tishrei molad of the next year (TM2). For calendar descriptions in general the day begins at 6 p.m., but for the purpose of determining Rosh Hashanah, a molad occurring on or after noon is treated as belonging to the next day (the first deḥiyyah). All months are calculated as 29d, 12h, 44m, 3 ⁄ s long (MonLen). Therefore, in an ordinary year TM2 occurs 12 × MonLen days after TM1. This is usually 354 calendar days after TM1, but if TM1 is on or after 3: 11: 20 a.m. and before noon, it will be 355 days. Similarly, in a leap year, TM2 occurs 13 × MonLen days after TM1. This is usually 384 days after TM1, but if TM1 is on or after noon and before 2: 27: 16 ⁄ p.m., TM2 will be only 383 days after TM1. In the same way, from TM2 one calculates TM3. Thus the four natural year lengths are 354, 355, 383, and 384 days.
However, because of the holiday rules, Rosh Hashanah can not fall on a Sunday, Wednesday, or Friday, so if TM2 is one of those days, Rosh Hashanah in year 2 is postponed by adding one day to year 1 (the second deḥiyyah). To compensate, one day is subtracted from year 2. It is to allow for these adjustments that the system allows 385 - day years (long leap) and 353 - day years (short ordinary) besides the four natural year lengths.
But how can year 1 be lengthened if it is already a long ordinary year of 355 days or year 2 be shortened if it is a short leap year of 383 days? That is why the third and fourth deḥiyyahs are needed.
If year 1 is already a long ordinary year of 355 days, there will be a problem if TM1 is on a Tuesday, as that means TM2 falls on a Sunday and will have to be postponed, creating a 356 - day year. In this case, Rosh Hashanah in year 1 is postponed from Tuesday (the third deḥiyyah). As it can not be postponed to Wednesday, it is postponed to Thursday, and year 1 ends up with 354 days.
On the other hand, if year 2 is already a short year of 383 days, there will be a problem if TM2 is on a Wednesday. because Rosh Hashanah in year 2 will have to be postponed from Wednesday to Thursday and this will cause year 2 to be only 382 days long. In this case, year 2 is extended by one day by postponing Rosh Hashanah in year 3 from Monday to Tuesday (the fourth deḥiyyah), and year 2 will have 383 days.
The attribution of the fixed arithmetic Hebrew calendar solely to Hillel II has, however, been questioned by a few authors, such as Sasha Stern, who claim that the calendar rules developed gradually over several centuries.
Given the importance in Jewish ritual of establishing the accurate timing of monthly and annual times, some futurist writers and researchers have considered whether a "corrected '' system of establishing the Hebrew date is required. The mean year of the current mathematically based Hebrew calendar has "drifted '' an average of 7 -- 8 days late relative to the equinox relationship that it originally had. It is not possible, however, for any individual Hebrew date to be a week or more "late '', because Hebrew months always begin within a day or two of the molad moment. What happens instead is that the traditional Hebrew calendar "prematurely '' inserts a leap month one year before it "should have been '' inserted, where "prematurely '' means that the insertion causes the spring equinox to land more than 30 days before the latest acceptable moment, thus causing the calendar to run "one month late '' until the time when the leap month "should have been '' inserted prior to the following spring. This presently happens in 4 years out of every 19 - year cycle (years 3, 8, 11, and 19), implying that the Hebrew calendar currently runs "one month late '' more than 21 % of the time.
Dr. Irv Bromberg has proposed a 353 - year cycle of 4366 months, which would include 130 leap months, along with use of a progressively shorter molad interval, which would keep an amended fixed arithmetic Hebrew calendar from drifting for more than seven millennia. It takes about 3 ⁄ centuries for the spring equinox to drift an average of ⁄ th of a molad interval earlier in the Hebrew calendar. That is a very important time unit, because it can be cancelled by simply truncating a 19 - year cycle to 11 years, omitting 8 years including three leap years from the sequence. That is the essential feature of the 353 - year leap cycle ((9 × 19) + 11 + (9 × 19) = 353 years).
Religious questions abound about how such a system might be implemented and administered throughout the diverse aspects of the world Jewish community.
The list below gives a time which can be used to determine the day the Jewish ecclesiastical (spring) year starts over a period of nineteen years:
Every nineteen years this time is 2 days, 16 hours, 33 1 / 18 minutes later in the week. That is either the same or the previous day in the civil calendar, depending on whether the difference in the day of the week is three or two days. If 29 February is included fewer than five times in the nineteen -- year period the date will be later by the number of days which corresponds to the difference between the actual number of insertions and five. If the year is due to start on Sunday, it actually begins on the following Tuesday if the following year is due to start on Friday morning. If due to start on Monday, Wednesday or Friday it actually begins on the following day. If due to start on Saturday, it actually begins on the following day if the previous year was due to begin on Monday morning.
The table below lists, for a Jewish year commencing on 23 March, the civil date of the first day of each month. If the year does not begin on 23 March, each month 's first day will differ from the date shown by the number of days that the start of the year differs from 23 March. The correct column is the one which shows the correct starting date for the following year in the last row. If 29 February falls within a Jewish month the first day of later months will be a day earlier than shown.
For long period calculations, dates should be reduced to the Julian calendar and converted back to the civil calendar at the end of the calculation. The civil calendar used here (Exigian) is correct to one day in 44,000 years and omits the leap day in centennial years which do not give remainder 200 or 700 when divided by 900. It is identical to the Gregorian calendar between 15 October 1582 CE and 28 February 2400 CE (both dates inclusive).
To find how many days the civil calendar is ahead of the Julian in any year from 301 BCE (the calendar is proleptic (assumed) up to 1582 CE) add 300 to the year, multiply the hundreds by 7, divide by 9 and subtract 4. Ignore any fraction of a day. When the difference between the calendars changes the calculated value applies on and from March 1 (civil date) for conversions to Julian. For earlier dates reduce the calculated value by one. For conversions to the civil date the calculated value applies on and from February 29 (Julian date). Again, for earlier dates reduce the calculated value by one. The difference is applied to the calendar one is converting into. A negative value indicates that the Julian date is ahead of the civil date. In this case it is important to remember that when calculating the civil equivalent of February 29 (Julian), February 29 is discounted. Thus if the calculated value is − 4 the civil equivalent of this date is February 24. Before 1 CE use astronomical years rather than years BCE. The astronomical year is (year BCE) -- 1.
Up to the 4th century CE, these tables give the day of the Jewish month to within a day or so and the number of the month to within a month or so. From the 4th century, the number of the month is given exactly and from the 9th century the day of the month is given exactly as well.
In the Julian calendar, every 76 years the Jewish year is due to start 5h 47 14 / 18m earlier, and 3d 18h 12 4 / 18m later in the week.
On what civil date does the eighth month begin in CE 20874 - 5?
20874 = 2026 + (248x76). In (248x76) Julian years the Jewish year is due to start (248x3d 18h 12 4 / 18m) later in the week, which is 932d 2h 31 2 / 18m or 1d 2h 31 2 / 18m later after removing complete weeks. Allowing for the current difference of thirteen days between the civil and Julian calendars, the Julian date is 13 + (248x0d 5h 47 4 / 18m) earlier, which is 72d 21h 28 16 / 18m earlier. Convert back to the civil calendar by applying the formula.
So, in 20874 CE, the Jewish year is due to begin 87d 2h 31 2 / 18m later than in 2026 CE and 1d 2h 31 2 / 18m later in the week. In 20874 CE, therefore, the Jewish year is due to begin at 11.30 3 / 18 A.M. on Friday, 14 June. Because of the displacements, it actually begins on Saturday, 15 June. Odd months have 30 days and even months 29, so the starting dates are 2, 15 July; 3, 13 August; 4, 12 September; 5, 11 October; 6, 10 November; 7, 9 December, and 8, 8 January.
The rules are based on the theory that Maimonides explains in his book "Rabbinical Astronomy '' -- no allowance is made for the secular (centennial) decrease of 1⁄2 second in the length of the mean tropical year and the increase of about four yards in the distance between the earth and the moon resulting from tidal friction because astronomy was not sufficiently developed in the 12th century (when Maimonides wrote his book) to detect this.
723 -- 730.
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The Indiana Pacers have selected the following players in the National Basketball Association Draft.
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when did the british empire become the british commonwealth | British Empire - wikipedia
The British Empire comprised the dominions, colonies, protectorates, mandates and other territories ruled or administered by the United Kingdom and its predecessor states. It originated with the overseas possessions and trading posts established by England between the late 16th and early 18th centuries. At its height, it was the largest empire in history and, for over a century, was the foremost global power. By 1913, the British Empire held sway over 412 million people, 7001230000000000000 ♠ 23 % of the world population at the time, and by 1920, it covered 35,500,000 km (13,700,000 sq mi), 7001240000000000000 ♠ 24 % of the Earth 's total land area. As a result, its political, legal, linguistic and cultural legacy is widespread. At the peak of its power, the phrase "the empire on which the sun never sets '' was often used to describe the British Empire, because its expanse around the globe meant that the sun was always shining on at least one of its territories.
During the Age of Discovery in the 15th and 16th centuries, Portugal and Spain pioneered European exploration of the globe, and in the process established large overseas empires. Envious of the great wealth these empires generated, England, France, and the Netherlands began to establish colonies and trade networks of their own in the Americas and Asia. A series of wars in the 17th and 18th centuries with the Netherlands and France left England and then, following union between England and Scotland in 1707, Great Britain, the dominant colonial power in North America. It then became the dominant power in the Indian subcontinent after the East India Company 's conquest of Mughal Bengal at the Battle of Plassey in 1757.
The independence of the Thirteen Colonies in North America in 1783 after the American War of Independence caused Britain to lose some of its oldest and most populous colonies. British attention soon turned towards Asia, Africa, and the Pacific. After the defeat of France in the Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars (1792 -- 1815), Britain emerged as the principal naval and imperial power of the 19th century. Unchallenged at sea, British dominance was later described as Pax Britannica ("British Peace ''), a period of relative peace in Europe and the world (1815 -- 1914) during which the British Empire became the global hegemon and adopted the role of global policeman. In the early 19th century, the Industrial Revolution began to transform Britain; so that by the time of the Great Exhibition in 1851, the country was described as the "workshop of the world ''. The British Empire expanded to include most of India, large parts of Africa and many other territories throughout the world. Alongside the formal control that Britain exerted over its own colonies, its dominance of much of world trade meant that it effectively controlled the economies of many regions, such as Asia and Latin America.
In Britain, political attitudes favoured free trade and laissez - faire policies and a gradual widening of the voting franchise. During the 19th Century, Britain 's population increased at a dramatic rate, accompanied by rapid urbanisation, which caused significant social and economic stresses. To seek new markets and sources of raw materials, the Conservative Party under Benjamin Disraeli launched a period of imperialist expansion in Egypt, South Africa, and elsewhere. Canada, Australia, and New Zealand became self - governing dominions.
By the start of the 20th century, Germany and the United States had begun to challenge Britain 's economic lead. Subsequent military and economic tensions between Britain and Germany were major causes of the First World War, during which Britain relied heavily upon its empire. The conflict placed enormous strain on the military, financial and manpower resources of Britain. Although the British Empire achieved its largest territorial extent immediately after World War I, Britain was no longer the world 's pre-eminent industrial or military power. In the Second World War, Britain 's colonies in Southeast Asia were occupied by Japan. Despite the final victory of Britain and its allies, the damage to British prestige helped to accelerate the decline of the empire. India, Britain 's most valuable and populous possession, achieved independence as part of a larger decolonisation movement in which Britain granted independence to most territories of the empire. The transfer of Hong Kong to China in 1997 marked for many the end of the British Empire. Fourteen overseas territories remain under British sovereignty.
After independence, many former British colonies joined the Commonwealth of Nations, a free association of independent states. The United Kingdom is now one of 16 Commonwealth nations, a grouping known informally as the Commonwealth realms, that share a monarch, Queen Elizabeth II.
The foundations of the British Empire were laid when England and Scotland were separate kingdoms. In 1496, King Henry VII of England, following the successes of Spain and Portugal in overseas exploration, commissioned John Cabot to lead a voyage to discover a route to Asia via the North Atlantic. Cabot sailed in 1497, five years after the European discovery of America, but he made landfall on the coast of Newfoundland, and, mistakenly believing (like Christopher Columbus) that he had reached Asia, there was no attempt to found a colony. Cabot led another voyage to the Americas the following year but nothing was ever heard of his ships again.
No further attempts to establish English colonies in the Americas were made until well into the reign of Queen Elizabeth I, during the last decades of the 16th century. In the meantime the 1533 Statute in Restraint of Appeals had declared "that this realm of England is an Empire ''. The subsequent Protestant Reformation turned England and Catholic Spain into implacable enemies. In 1562, the English Crown encouraged the privateers John Hawkins and Francis Drake to engage in slave - raiding attacks against Spanish and Portuguese ships off the coast of West Africa with the aim of breaking into the Atlantic slave trade. This effort was rebuffed and later, as the Anglo - Spanish Wars intensified, Elizabeth I gave her blessing to further privateering raids against Spanish ports in the Americas and shipping that was returning across the Atlantic, laden with treasure from the New World. At the same time, influential writers such as Richard Hakluyt and John Dee (who was the first to use the term "British Empire '') were beginning to press for the establishment of England 's own empire. By this time, Spain had become the dominant power in the Americas and was exploring the Pacific Ocean, Portugal had established trading posts and forts from the coasts of Africa and Brazil to China, and France had begun to settle the Saint Lawrence River area, later to become New France.
Although England trailed behind other European powers in establishing overseas colonies, it had been engaged during the 16th century in the settlement of Ireland with Protestants from England and Scotland, drawing on precedents dating back to the Norman invasion of Ireland in 1169. Several people who helped establish the Plantations of Ireland also played a part in the early colonisation of North America, particularly a group known as the West Country men.
In 1578, Elizabeth I granted a patent to Humphrey Gilbert for discovery and overseas exploration. That year, Gilbert sailed for the Caribbean with the intention of engaging in piracy and establishing a colony in North America, but the expedition was aborted before it had crossed the Atlantic. In 1583 he embarked on a second attempt, on this occasion to the island of Newfoundland whose harbour he formally claimed for England, although no settlers were left behind. Gilbert did not survive the return journey to England, and was succeeded by his half - brother, Walter Raleigh, who was granted his own patent by Elizabeth in 1584. Later that year, Raleigh founded the Roanoke Colony on the coast of present - day North Carolina, but lack of supplies caused the colony to fail.
In 1603, James VI, King of Scots, ascended (as James I) to the English throne and in 1604 negotiated the Treaty of London, ending hostilities with Spain. Now at peace with its main rival, English attention shifted from preying on other nations ' colonial infrastructures to the business of establishing its own overseas colonies. The British Empire began to take shape during the early 17th century, with the English settlement of North America and the smaller islands of the Caribbean, and the establishment of joint - stock companies, most notably the East India Company, to administer colonies and overseas trade. This period, until the loss of the Thirteen Colonies after the American War of Independence towards the end of the 18th century, has subsequently been referred to by some historians as the "First British Empire ''.
The Caribbean initially provided England 's most important and lucrative colonies, but not before several attempts at colonisation failed. An attempt to establish a colony in Guiana in 1604 lasted only two years, and failed in its main objective to find gold deposits. Colonies in St Lucia (1605) and Grenada (1609) also rapidly folded, but settlements were successfully established in St. Kitts (1624), Barbados (1627) and Nevis (1628). The colonies soon adopted the system of sugar plantations successfully used by the Portuguese in Brazil, which depended on slave labour, and -- at first -- Dutch ships, to sell the slaves and buy the sugar. To ensure that the increasingly healthy profits of this trade remained in English hands, Parliament decreed in 1651 that only English ships would be able to ply their trade in English colonies. This led to hostilities with the United Dutch Provinces -- a series of Anglo - Dutch Wars -- which would eventually strengthen England 's position in the Americas at the expense of the Dutch. In 1655, England annexed the island of Jamaica from the Spanish, and in 1666 succeeded in colonising the Bahamas.
England 's first permanent settlement in the Americas was founded in 1607 in Jamestown, led by Captain John Smith and managed by the Virginia Company. Bermuda was settled and claimed by England as a result of the 1609 shipwreck of the Virginia Company 's flagship, and in 1615 was turned over to the newly formed Somers Isles Company. The Virginia Company 's charter was revoked in 1624 and direct control of Virginia was assumed by the crown, thereby founding the Colony of Virginia. The London and Bristol Company was created in 1610 with the aim of creating a permanent settlement on Newfoundland, but was largely unsuccessful. In 1620, Plymouth was founded as a haven for Puritan religious separatists, later known as the Pilgrims. Fleeing from religious persecution would become the motive of many English would - be colonists to risk the arduous trans - Atlantic voyage: Maryland was founded as a haven for Roman Catholics (1634), Rhode Island (1636) as a colony tolerant of all religions and Connecticut (1639) for Congregationalists. The Province of Carolina was founded in 1663. With the surrender of Fort Amsterdam in 1664, England gained control of the Dutch colony of New Netherland, renaming it New York. This was formalised in negotiations following the Second Anglo - Dutch War, in exchange for Suriname. In 1681, the colony of Pennsylvania was founded by William Penn. The American colonies were less financially successful than those of the Caribbean, but had large areas of good agricultural land and attracted far larger numbers of English emigrants who preferred their temperate climates.
In 1670, Charles II incorporated by royal charter the Hudson 's Bay Company (HBC), granting it a monopoly on the fur trade in the area known as Rupert 's Land, which would later form a large proportion of the Dominion of Canada. Forts and trading posts established by the HBC were frequently the subject of attacks by the French, who had established their own fur trading colony in adjacent New France.
Two years later, the Royal African Company was inaugurated, receiving from King Charles a monopoly of the trade to supply slaves to the British colonies of the Caribbean. From the outset, slavery was the basis of the British Empire in the West Indies. Until the abolition of its slave trade in 1807, Britain was responsible for the transportation of 3.5 million African slaves to the Americas, a third of all slaves transported across the Atlantic. To facilitate this trade, forts were established on the coast of West Africa, such as James Island, Accra and Bunce Island. In the British Caribbean, the percentage of the population of African descent rose from 25 % in 1650 to around 80 % in 1780, and in the Thirteen Colonies from 10 % to 40 % over the same period (the majority in the southern colonies). For the slave traders, the trade was extremely profitable, and became a major economic mainstay for such western British cities as Bristol and Liverpool, which formed the third corner of the triangular trade with Africa and the Americas. For the transported, harsh and unhygienic conditions on the slaving ships and poor diets meant that the average mortality rate during the Middle Passage was one in seven.
In 1695, the Parliament of Scotland granted a charter to the Company of Scotland, which established a settlement in 1698 on the Isthmus of Panama. Besieged by neighbouring Spanish colonists of New Granada, and afflicted by malaria, the colony was abandoned two years later. The Darien scheme was a financial disaster for Scotland -- a quarter of Scottish capital was lost in the enterprise -- and ended Scottish hopes of establishing its own overseas empire. The episode also had major political consequences, persuading the governments of both England and Scotland of the merits of a union of countries, rather than just crowns. This occurred in 1707 with the Treaty of Union, establishing the Kingdom of Great Britain.
At the end of the 16th century, England and the Netherlands began to challenge Portugal 's monopoly of trade with Asia, forming private joint - stock companies to finance the voyages -- the English, later British, East India Company and the Dutch East India Company, chartered in 1600 and 1602 respectively. The primary aim of these companies was to tap into the lucrative spice trade, an effort focused mainly on two regions; the East Indies archipelago, and an important hub in the trade network, India. There, they competed for trade supremacy with Portugal and with each other. Although England ultimately eclipsed the Netherlands as a colonial power, in the short term the Netherlands ' more advanced financial system and the three Anglo - Dutch Wars of the 17th century left it with a stronger position in Asia. Hostilities ceased after the Glorious Revolution of 1688 when the Dutch William of Orange ascended the English throne, bringing peace between the Netherlands and England. A deal between the two nations left the spice trade of the East Indies archipelago to the Netherlands and the textiles industry of India to England, but textiles soon overtook spices in terms of profitability, and by 1720, in terms of sales, the British company had overtaken the Dutch.
Peace between England and the Netherlands in 1688 meant that the two countries entered the Nine Years ' War as allies, but the conflict -- waged in Europe and overseas between France, Spain and the Anglo - Dutch alliance -- left the English a stronger colonial power than the Dutch, who were forced to devote a larger proportion of their military budget on the costly land war in Europe. The 18th century saw England (after 1707, Britain) rise to be the world 's dominant colonial power, and France becoming its main rival on the imperial stage.
The death of Charles II of Spain in 1700 and his bequeathal of Spain and its colonial empire to Philippe of Anjou, a grandson of the King of France, raised the prospect of the unification of France, Spain and their respective colonies, an unacceptable state of affairs for England and the other powers of Europe. In 1701, England, Portugal and the Netherlands sided with the Holy Roman Empire against Spain and France in the War of the Spanish Succession, which lasted until 1714.
At the concluding Treaty of Utrecht, Philip renounced his and his descendants ' right to the French throne and Spain lost its empire in Europe. The British Empire was territorially enlarged: from France, Britain gained Newfoundland and Acadia, and from Spain, Gibraltar and Menorca. Gibraltar became a critical naval base and allowed Britain to control the Atlantic entry and exit point to the Mediterranean. Spain also ceded the rights to the lucrative asiento (permission to sell slaves in Spanish America) to Britain.
During the middle decades of the 18th century, there were several outbreaks of military conflict on the Indian subcontinent, the Carnatic Wars, as the English East India Company (often known simply as "the Company '') and its French counterpart, the French East India Company (Compagnie française des Indes orientales), struggled alongside local rulers to fill the vacuum that had been left by the decline of the Mughal Empire. The Battle of Plassey in 1757, in which the British, led by Robert Clive, defeated the Nawab of Bengal and his French allies, left the British East India Company in control of Bengal and as the major military and political power in India. France was left control of its enclaves but with military restrictions and an obligation to support British client states, ending French hopes of controlling India. In the following decades the British East India Company gradually increased the size of the territories under its control, either ruling directly or via local rulers under the threat of force from the British Indian Army, the vast majority of which was composed of Indian sepoys.
The British and French struggles in India became but one theatre of the global Seven Years ' War (1756 -- 1763) involving France, Britain and the other major European powers. The signing of the Treaty of Paris (1763) had important consequences for the future of the British Empire. In North America, France 's future as a colonial power effectively ended with the recognition of British claims to Rupert 's Land, and the ceding of New France to Britain (leaving a sizeable French - speaking population under British control) and Louisiana to Spain. Spain ceded Florida to Britain. Along with its victory over France in India, the Seven Years ' War therefore left Britain as the world 's most powerful maritime power.
During the 1760s and early 1770s, relations between the Thirteen Colonies and Britain became increasingly strained, primarily because of resentment of the British Parliament 's attempts to govern and tax American colonists without their consent. This was summarised at the time by the slogan "No taxation without representation '', a perceived violation of the guaranteed Rights of Englishmen. The American Revolution began with rejection of Parliamentary authority and moves towards self - government. In response Britain sent troops to reimpose direct rule, leading to the outbreak of war in 1775. The following year, in 1776, the United States declared independence. The entry of France into the war in 1778 tipped the military balance in the Americans ' favour and after a decisive defeat at Yorktown in 1781, Britain began negotiating peace terms. American independence was acknowledged at the Peace of Paris in 1783.
The loss of such a large portion of British America, at the time Britain 's most populous overseas possession, is seen by some historians as the event defining the transition between the "first '' and "second '' empires, in which Britain shifted its attention away from the Americas to Asia, the Pacific and later Africa. Adam Smith 's Wealth of Nations, published in 1776, had argued that colonies were redundant, and that free trade should replace the old mercantilist policies that had characterised the first period of colonial expansion, dating back to the protectionism of Spain and Portugal. The growth of trade between the newly independent United States and Britain after 1783 seemed to confirm Smith 's view that political control was not necessary for economic success.
The war to the south influenced British policy in Canada, where between 40,000 and 100,000 defeated Loyalists had migrated from the new United States following independence. The 14,000 Loyalists who went to the Saint John and Saint Croix river valleys, then part of Nova Scotia, felt too far removed from the provincial government in Halifax, so London split off New Brunswick as a separate colony in 1784. The Constitutional Act of 1791 created the provinces of Upper Canada (mainly English - speaking) and Lower Canada (mainly French - speaking) to defuse tensions between the French and British communities, and implemented governmental systems similar to those employed in Britain, with the intention of asserting imperial authority and not allowing the sort of popular control of government that was perceived to have led to the American Revolution.
Tensions between Britain and the United States escalated again during the Napoleonic Wars, as Britain tried to cut off American trade with France and boarded American ships to impress men into the Royal Navy. The US declared war, the War of 1812, and invaded Canadian territory. In response Britain invaded the US, but the pre-war boundaries were reaffirmed by the 1814 Treaty of Ghent, ensuring Canada 's future would be separate from that of the United States.
Since 1718, transportation to the American colonies had been a penalty for various offences in Britain, with approximately one thousand convicts transported per year across the Atlantic. Forced to find an alternative location after the loss of the Thirteen Colonies in 1783, the British government turned to the newly discovered lands of Australia. The western coast of Australia had been discovered for Europeans by the Dutch explorer Willem Janszoon in 1606 and was later named New Holland by the Dutch East India Company, but there was no attempt to colonise it. In 1770 James Cook discovered the eastern coast of Australia while on a scientific voyage to the South Pacific Ocean, claimed the continent for Britain, and named it New South Wales. In 1778, Joseph Banks, Cook 's botanist on the voyage, presented evidence to the government on the suitability of Botany Bay for the establishment of a penal settlement, and in 1787 the first shipment of convicts set sail, arriving in 1788. Britain continued to transport convicts to New South Wales until 1840. The Australian colonies became profitable exporters of wool and gold, mainly because of gold rushes in the colony of Victoria, making its capital Melbourne for a time the richest city in the world and the second largest city (after London) in the British Empire.
During his voyage, Cook also visited New Zealand, first discovered by Dutch explorer Abel Tasman in 1642, and claimed the North and South islands for the British crown in 1769 and 1770 respectively. Initially, interaction between the indigenous Māori population and Europeans was limited to the trading of goods. European settlement increased through the early decades of the 19th century, with numerous trading stations established, especially in the North. In 1839, the New Zealand Company announced plans to buy large tracts of land and establish colonies in New Zealand. On 6 February 1840, Captain William Hobson and around 40 Maori chiefs signed the Treaty of Waitangi. This treaty is considered by many to be New Zealand 's founding document, but differing interpretations of the Maori and English versions of the text have meant that it continues to be a source of dispute.
Britain was challenged again by France under Napoleon, in a struggle that, unlike previous wars, represented a contest of ideologies between the two nations. It was not only Britain 's position on the world stage that was at risk: Napoleon threatened to invade Britain itself, just as his armies had overrun many countries of continental Europe.
The Napoleonic Wars were therefore ones in which Britain invested large amounts of capital and resources to win. French ports were blockaded by the Royal Navy, which won a decisive victory over a Franco - Spanish fleet at Trafalgar in 1805. Overseas colonies were attacked and occupied, including those of the Netherlands, which was annexed by Napoleon in 1810. France was finally defeated by a coalition of European armies in 1815. Britain was again the beneficiary of peace treaties: France ceded the Ionian Islands, Malta (which it had occupied in 1797 and 1798 respectively), Mauritius, Saint Lucia, and Tobago; Spain ceded Trinidad; the Netherlands Guyana, and the Cape Colony. Britain returned Guadeloupe, Martinique, French Guiana, and Réunion to France, and Java and Suriname to the Netherlands, while gaining control of Ceylon (1795 -- 1815).
With the advent of the Industrial Revolution, goods produced by slavery became less important to the British economy. Added to this was the cost of suppressing regular slave rebellions. With support from the British abolitionist movement, Parliament enacted the Slave Trade Act in 1807, which abolished the slave trade in the empire. In 1808, Sierra Leone Colony and Protectorate was designated an official British colony for freed slaves. Parliamentary reform in 1832 saw the influence of the West India Committee decline. The Slavery Abolition Act, passed the following year, abolished slavery in the British Empire on 1 August 1834, finally bringing the Empire into line with the law in the UK (with the exception of St. Helena, Ceylon and the territories administered by the East India Company, though these exclusions were later repealed). Under the Act, slaves were granted full emancipation after a period of four to six years of "apprenticeship ''. The British government compensated slave - owners.
Between 1815 and 1914, a period referred to as Britain 's "imperial century '' by some historians, around 10,000,000 square miles (26,000,000 km) of territory and roughly 400 million people were added to the British Empire. Victory over Napoleon left Britain without any serious international rival, other than Russia in Central Asia. Unchallenged at sea, Britain adopted the role of global policeman, a state of affairs later known as the Pax Britannica, and a foreign policy of "splendid isolation ''. Alongside the formal control it exerted over its own colonies, Britain 's dominant position in world trade meant that it effectively controlled the economies of many countries, such as China, Argentina and Siam, which has been described by some historians as an "Informal Empire ''.
British imperial strength was underpinned by the steamship and the telegraph, new technologies invented in the second half of the 19th century, allowing it to control and defend the empire. By 1902, the British Empire was linked together by a network of telegraph cables, called the All Red Line.
The East India Company drove the expansion of the British Empire in Asia. The Company 's army had first joined forces with the Royal Navy during the Seven Years ' War, and the two continued to co-operate in arenas outside India: the eviction of the French from Egypt (1799), the capture of Java from the Netherlands (1811), the acquisition of Penang Island (1786), Singapore (1819) and Malacca (1824), and the defeat of Burma (1826).
From its base in India, the Company had also been engaged in an increasingly profitable opium export trade to China since the 1730s. This trade, illegal since it was outlawed by the Qing dynasty in 1729, helped reverse the trade imbalances resulting from the British imports of tea, which saw large outflows of silver from Britain to China. In 1839, the confiscation by the Chinese authorities at Canton of 20,000 chests of opium led Britain to attack China in the First Opium War, and resulted in the seizure by Britain of Hong Kong Island, at that time a minor settlement.
During the late 18th and early 19th centuries the British Crown began to assume an increasingly large role in the affairs of the Company. A series of Acts of Parliament were passed, including the Regulating Act of 1773, Pitt 's India Act of 1784 and the Charter Act of 1813 which regulated the Company 's affairs and established the sovereignty of the Crown over the territories that it had acquired. The Company 's eventual end was precipitated by the Indian Rebellion, a conflict that had begun with the mutiny of sepoys, Indian troops under British officers and discipline. The rebellion took six months to suppress, with heavy loss of life on both sides. The following year the British government dissolved the Company and assumed direct control over India through the Government of India Act 1858, establishing the British Raj, where an appointed governor - general administered India and Queen Victoria was crowned the Empress of India. India became the empire 's most valuable possession, "the Jewel in the Crown '', and was the most important source of Britain 's strength.
A series of serious crop failures in the late 19th century led to widespread famines on the subcontinent in which it is estimated that over 15 million people died. The East India Company had failed to implement any coordinated policy to deal with the famines during its period of rule. Later, under direct British rule, commissions were set up after each famine to investigate the causes and implement new policies, which took until the early 1900s to have an effect.
During the 19th century, Britain and the Russian Empire vied to fill the power vacuums that had been left by the declining Ottoman Empire, Qajar dynasty and Qing Dynasty. This rivalry in Central Asia came to be known as the "Great Game ''. As far as Britain was concerned, defeats inflicted by Russia on Persia and Turkey demonstrated its imperial ambitions and capabilities and stoked fears in Britain of an overland invasion of India. In 1839, Britain moved to pre-empt this by invading Afghanistan, but the First Anglo - Afghan War was a disaster for Britain.
When Russia invaded the Turkish Balkans in 1853, fears of Russian dominance in the Mediterranean and Middle East led Britain and France to invade the Crimean Peninsula to destroy Russian naval capabilities. The ensuing Crimean War (1854 -- 56), which involved new techniques of modern warfare, was the only global war fought between Britain and another imperial power during the Pax Britannica and was a resounding defeat for Russia. The situation remained unresolved in Central Asia for two more decades, with Britain annexing Baluchistan in 1876 and Russia annexing Kirghizia, Kazakhstan, and Turkmenistan. For a while it appeared that another war would be inevitable, but the two countries reached an agreement on their respective spheres of influence in the region in 1878 and on all outstanding matters in 1907 with the signing of the Anglo - Russian Entente. The destruction of the Russian Navy by the Japanese at the Battle of Port Arthur during the Russo - Japanese War of 1904 -- 05 also limited its threat to the British.
The Dutch East India Company had founded the Cape Colony on the southern tip of Africa in 1652 as a way station for its ships travelling to and from its colonies in the East Indies. Britain formally acquired the colony, and its large Afrikaner (or Boer) population in 1806, having occupied it in 1795 to prevent its falling into French hands during the Flanders Campaign. British immigration began to rise after 1820, and pushed thousands of Boers, resentful of British rule, northwards to found their own -- mostly short - lived -- independent republics, during the Great Trek of the late 1830s and early 1840s. In the process the Voortrekkers clashed repeatedly with the British, who had their own agenda with regard to colonial expansion in South Africa and to the various native African polities, including those of the Sotho and the Zulu nations. Eventually the Boers established two republics which had a longer lifespan: the South African Republic or Transvaal Republic (1852 -- 77; 1881 -- 1902) and the Orange Free State (1854 -- 1902). In 1902 Britain occupied both republics, concluding a treaty with the two Boer Republics following the Second Boer War (1899 -- 1902).
In 1869 the Suez Canal opened under Napoleon III, linking the Mediterranean with the Indian Ocean. Initially the Canal was opposed by the British; but once opened, its strategic value was quickly recognised and became the "jugular vein of the Empire ''. In 1875, the Conservative government of Benjamin Disraeli bought the indebted Egyptian ruler Isma'il Pasha 's 44 % shareholding in the Suez Canal for £ 4 million (equivalent to £ 350 million in 2016). Although this did not grant outright control of the strategic waterway, it did give Britain leverage. Joint Anglo - French financial control over Egypt ended in outright British occupation in 1882. The French were still majority shareholders and attempted to weaken the British position, but a compromise was reached with the 1888 Convention of Constantinople, which made the Canal officially neutral territory.
With competitive French, Belgian and Portuguese activity in the lower Congo River region undermining orderly colonisation of tropical Africa, the Berlin Conference of 1884 -- 85 was held to regulate the competition between the European powers in what was called the "Scramble for Africa '' by defining "effective occupation '' as the criterion for international recognition of territorial claims. The scramble continued into the 1890s, and caused Britain to reconsider its decision in 1885 to withdraw from Sudan. A joint force of British and Egyptian troops defeated the Mahdist Army in 1896, and rebuffed an attempted French invasion at Fashoda in 1898. Sudan was nominally made an Anglo - Egyptian condominium, but a British colony in reality.
British gains in Southern and East Africa prompted Cecil Rhodes, pioneer of British expansion in Southern Africa, to urge a "Cape to Cairo '' railway linking the strategically important Suez Canal to the mineral - rich south of the continent. During the 1880s and 1890s, Rhodes, with his privately owned British South Africa Company, occupied and annexed territories subsequently named after him, Rhodesia.
The path to independence for the white colonies of the British Empire began with the 1839 Durham Report, which proposed unification and self - government for Upper and Lower Canada, as a solution to political unrest which had erupted in armed rebellions in 1837. This began with the passing of the Act of Union in 1840, which created the Province of Canada. Responsible government was first granted to Nova Scotia in 1848, and was soon extended to the other British North American colonies. With the passage of the British North America Act, 1867 by the British Parliament, Upper and Lower Canada, New Brunswick and Nova Scotia were formed into the Dominion of Canada, a confederation enjoying full self - government with the exception of international relations. Australia and New Zealand achieved similar levels of self - government after 1900, with the Australian colonies federating in 1901. The term "dominion status '' was officially introduced at the Colonial Conference of 1907.
The last decades of the 19th century saw concerted political campaigns for Irish home rule. Ireland had been united with Britain into the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland with the Act of Union 1800 after the Irish Rebellion of 1798, and had suffered a severe famine between 1845 and 1852. Home rule was supported by the British Prime minister, William Gladstone, who hoped that Ireland might follow in Canada 's footsteps as a Dominion within the empire, but his 1886 Home Rule bill was defeated in Parliament. Although the bill, if passed, would have granted Ireland less autonomy within the UK than the Canadian provinces had within their own federation, many MPs feared that a partially independent Ireland might pose a security threat to Great Britain or mark the beginning of the break - up of the empire. A second Home Rule bill was also defeated for similar reasons. A third bill was passed by Parliament in 1914, but not implemented because of the outbreak of the First World War leading to the 1916 Easter Rising.
By the turn of the 20th century, fears had begun to grow in Britain that it would no longer be able to defend the metropole and the entirety of the empire while at the same time maintaining the policy of "splendid isolation ''. Germany was rapidly rising as a military and industrial power and was now seen as the most likely opponent in any future war. Recognising that it was overstretched in the Pacific and threatened at home by the Imperial German Navy, Britain formed an alliance with Japan in 1902 and with its old enemies France and Russia in 1904 and 1907, respectively.
Britain 's fears of war with Germany were realised in 1914 with the outbreak of the First World War. Britain quickly invaded and occupied most of Germany 's overseas colonies in Africa. In the Pacific, Australia and New Zealand occupied German New Guinea and Samoa respectively. Plans for a post-war division of the Ottoman Empire, which had joined the war on Germany 's side, were secretly drawn up by Britain and France under the 1916 Sykes -- Picot Agreement. This agreement was not divulged to the Sharif of Mecca, who the British had been encouraging to launch an Arab revolt against their Ottoman rulers, giving the impression that Britain was supporting the creation of an independent Arab state.
The British declaration of war on Germany and its allies also committed the colonies and Dominions, which provided invaluable military, financial and material support. Over 2.5 million men served in the armies of the Dominions, as well as many thousands of volunteers from the Crown colonies. The contributions of Australian and New Zealand troops during the 1915 Gallipoli Campaign against the Ottoman Empire had a great impact on the national consciousness at home, and marked a watershed in the transition of Australia and New Zealand from colonies to nations in their own right. The countries continue to commemorate this occasion on Anzac Day. Canadians viewed the Battle of Vimy Ridge in a similar light. The important contribution of the Dominions to the war effort was recognised in 1917 by the British Prime Minister David Lloyd George when he invited each of the Dominion Prime Ministers to join an Imperial War Cabinet to co-ordinate imperial policy.
Under the terms of the concluding Treaty of Versailles signed in 1919, the empire reached its greatest extent with the addition of 1,800,000 square miles (4,700,000 km) and 13 million new subjects. The colonies of Germany and the Ottoman Empire were distributed to the Allied powers as League of Nations mandates. Britain gained control of Palestine, Transjordan, Iraq, parts of Cameroon and Togoland, and Tanganyika. The Dominions themselves also acquired mandates of their own: the Union of South Africa gained South West Africa (modern - day Namibia), Australia gained New Guinea, and New Zealand Western Samoa. Nauru was made a combined mandate of Britain and the two Pacific Dominions.
The changing world order that the war had brought about, in particular the growth of the United States and Japan as naval powers, and the rise of independence movements in India and Ireland, caused a major reassessment of British imperial policy. Forced to choose between alignment with the United States or Japan, Britain opted not to renew its Japanese alliance and instead signed the 1922 Washington Naval Treaty, where Britain accepted naval parity with the United States. This decision was the source of much debate in Britain during the 1930s as militaristic governments took hold in Japan and Germany helped in part by the Great Depression, for it was feared that the empire could not survive a simultaneous attack by both nations. The issue of the empire 's security was a serious concern in Britain, as it was vital to the British economy.
In 1919, the frustrations caused by delays to Irish home rule led the MPs of Sinn Féin, a pro-independence party that had won a majority of the Irish seats in the 1918 British general election, to establish an independent parliament in Dublin, at which Irish independence was declared. The Irish Republican Army simultaneously began a guerrilla war against the British administration. The Anglo - Irish War ended in 1921 with a stalemate and the signing of the Anglo - Irish Treaty, creating the Irish Free State, a Dominion within the British Empire, with effective internal independence but still constitutionally linked with the British Crown. Northern Ireland, consisting of six of the 32 Irish counties which had been established as a devolved region under the 1920 Government of Ireland Act, immediately exercised its option under the treaty to retain its existing status within the United Kingdom.
A similar struggle began in India when the Government of India Act 1919 failed to satisfy demand for independence. Concerns over communist and foreign plots following the Ghadar Conspiracy ensured that war - time strictures were renewed by the Rowlatt Acts. This led to tension, particularly in the Punjab region, where repressive measures culminated in the Amritsar Massacre. In Britain public opinion was divided over the morality of the massacre, between those who saw it as having saved India from anarchy, and those who viewed it with revulsion. The subsequent Non-Co - Operation movement was called off in March 1922 following the Chauri Chaura incident, and discontent continued to simmer for the next 25 years.
In 1922, Egypt, which had been declared a British protectorate at the outbreak of the First World War, was granted formal independence, though it continued to be a British client state until 1954. British troops remained stationed in Egypt until the signing of the Anglo - Egyptian Treaty in 1936, under which it was agreed that the troops would withdraw but continue to occupy and defend the Suez Canal zone. In return, Egypt was assisted in joining the League of Nations. Iraq, a British mandate since 1920, also gained membership of the League in its own right after achieving independence from Britain in 1932. In Palestine, Britain was presented with the problem of mediating between the Arabs and increasing numbers of Jews. The 1917 Balfour Declaration, which had been incorporated into the terms of the mandate, stated that a national home for the Jewish people would be established in Palestine, and Jewish immigration allowed up to a limit that would be determined by the mandatory power. This led to increasing conflict with the Arab population, who openly revolted in 1936. As the threat of war with Germany increased during the 1930s, Britain judged the support of Arabs as more important than the establishment of a Jewish homeland, and shifted to a pro-Arab stance, limiting Jewish immigration and in turn triggering a Jewish insurgency.
The right of the Dominions to set their own foreign policy, independent of Britain, was recognised at the 1923 Imperial Conference. Britain 's request for military assistance from the Dominions at the outbreak of the Chanak Crisis the previous year had been turned down by Canada and South Africa, and Canada had refused to be bound by the 1923 Treaty of Lausanne. After pressure from the Irish Free State and South Africa, the 1926 Imperial Conference issued the Balfour Declaration of 1926, declaring the Dominions to be "autonomous Communities within the British Empire, equal in status, in no way subordinate one to another '' within a "British Commonwealth of Nations ''. This declaration was given legal substance under the 1931 Statute of Westminster. The parliaments of Canada, Australia, New Zealand, the Union of South Africa, the Irish Free State and Newfoundland were now independent of British legislative control, they could nullify British laws and Britain could no longer pass laws for them without their consent. Newfoundland reverted to colonial status in 1933, suffering from financial difficulties during the Great Depression. The Irish Free State distanced itself further from the British state with the introduction of a new constitution in 1937, making it a republic in all but name.
Britain 's declaration of war against Nazi Germany in September 1939 included the Crown colonies and India but did not automatically commit the Dominions of Australia, Canada, New Zealand, Newfoundland and South Africa. All soon declared war on Germany, but Ireland chose to remain legally neutral throughout the war.
After the Fall of France in June 1940, Britain and the empire stood alone against Germany, until the German invasion of Greece on 7 April 1941. British Prime Minister Winston Churchill successfully lobbied President Franklin D. Roosevelt for military aid from the United States, but Roosevelt was not yet ready to ask Congress to commit the country to war. In August 1941, Churchill and Roosevelt met and signed the Atlantic Charter, which included the statement that "the rights of all peoples to choose the form of government under which they live '' should be respected. This wording was ambiguous as to whether it referred to European countries invaded by Germany and Italy, or the peoples colonised by European nations, and would later be interpreted differently by the British, Americans, and nationalist movements.
In December 1941, Japan launched, in quick succession, attacks on British Malaya, the United States naval base at Pearl Harbor, and Hong Kong. Churchill 's reaction to the entry of the United States into the war was that Britain was now assured of victory and the future of the empire was safe, but the manner in which British forces were rapidly defeated in the Far East irreversibly harmed Britain 's standing and prestige as an imperial power. Most damaging of all was the Fall of Singapore, which had previously been hailed as an impregnable fortress and the eastern equivalent of Gibraltar. The realisation that Britain could not defend its entire empire pushed Australia and New Zealand, which now appeared threatened by Japanese forces, into closer ties with the United States. This resulted in the 1951 ANZUS Pact between Australia, New Zealand and the United States of America.
Though Britain and the empire emerged victorious from the Second World War, the effects of the conflict were profound, both at home and abroad. Much of Europe, a continent that had dominated the world for several centuries, was in ruins, and host to the armies of the United States and the Soviet Union, who now held the balance of global power. Britain was left essentially bankrupt, with insolvency only averted in 1946 after the negotiation of a $ US 4.33 billion loan from the United States, the last instalment of which was repaid in 2006. At the same time, anti-colonial movements were on the rise in the colonies of European nations. The situation was complicated further by the increasing Cold War rivalry of the United States and the Soviet Union. In principle, both nations were opposed to European colonialism. In practice, however, American anti-communism prevailed over anti-imperialism, and therefore the United States supported the continued existence of the British Empire to keep Communist expansion in check. The "wind of change '' ultimately meant that the British Empire 's days were numbered, and on the whole, Britain adopted a policy of peaceful disengagement from its colonies once stable, non-Communist governments were available to transfer power to. This was in contrast to other European powers such as France and Portugal, which waged costly and ultimately unsuccessful wars to keep their empires intact. Between 1945 and 1965, the number of people under British rule outside the UK itself fell from 700 million to five million, three million of whom were in Hong Kong.
The pro-decolonisation Labour government, elected at the 1945 general election and led by Clement Attlee, moved quickly to tackle the most pressing issue facing the empire: Indian independence. India 's two major political parties -- the Indian National Congress (led by Mahatma Gandhi) and the Muslim League (led by Muhammad Ali Jinnah) -- had been campaigning for independence for decades, but disagreed as to how it should be implemented. Congress favoured a unified secular Indian state, whereas the League, fearing domination by the Hindu majority, desired a separate Islamic state for Muslim - majority regions. Increasing civil unrest and the mutiny of the Royal Indian Navy during 1946 led Attlee to promise independence no later than June 30, 1948. When the urgency of the situation and risk of civil war became apparent, the newly appointed (and last) Viceroy, Lord Mountbatten, hastily brought forward the date to 15 August 1947. The borders drawn by the British to broadly partition India into Hindu and Muslim areas left tens of millions as minorities in the newly independent states of India and Pakistan. Millions of Muslims subsequently crossed from India to Pakistan and Hindus vice versa, and violence between the two communities cost hundreds of thousands of lives. Burma, which had been administered as part of the British Raj, and Sri Lanka gained their independence the following year in 1948. India, Pakistan and Sri Lanka became members of the Commonwealth, while Burma chose not to join.
The British mandate in Palestine, where an Arab majority lived alongside a Jewish minority, presented the British with a similar problem to that of India. The matter was complicated by large numbers of Jewish refugees seeking to be admitted to Palestine following the Holocaust, while Arabs were opposed to the creation of a Jewish state. Frustrated by the intractability of the problem, attacks by Jewish paramilitary organisations and the increasing cost of maintaining its military presence, Britain announced in 1947 that it would withdraw in 1948 and leave the matter to the United Nations to solve. The UN General Assembly subsequently voted for a plan to partition Palestine into a Jewish and an Arab state.
Following the defeat of Japan in the Second World War, anti-Japanese resistance movements in Malaya turned their attention towards the British, who had moved to quickly retake control of the colony, valuing it as a source of rubber and tin. The fact that the guerrillas were primarily Malayan - Chinese Communists meant that the British attempt to quell the uprising was supported by the Muslim Malay majority, on the understanding that once the insurgency had been quelled, independence would be granted. The Malayan Emergency, as it was called, began in 1948 and lasted until 1960, but by 1957, Britain felt confident enough to grant independence to the Federation of Malaya within the Commonwealth. In 1963, the 11 states of the federation together with Singapore, Sarawak and North Borneo joined to form Malaysia, but in 1965 Chinese - majority Singapore was expelled from the union following tensions between the Malay and Chinese populations. Brunei, which had been a British protectorate since 1888, declined to join the union and maintained its status until independence in 1984.
In 1951, the Conservative Party returned to power in Britain, under the leadership of Winston Churchill. Churchill and the Conservatives believed that Britain 's position as a world power relied on the continued existence of the empire, with the base at the Suez Canal allowing Britain to maintain its pre-eminent position in the Middle East in spite of the loss of India. However, Churchill could not ignore Gamal Abdul Nasser 's new revolutionary government of Egypt that had taken power in 1952, and the following year it was agreed that British troops would withdraw from the Suez Canal zone and that Sudan would be granted self - determination by 1955, with independence to follow. Sudan was granted independence on 1 January 1956.
In July 1956, Nasser unilaterally nationalised the Suez Canal. The response of Anthony Eden, who had succeeded Churchill as Prime Minister, was to collude with France to engineer an Israeli attack on Egypt that would give Britain and France an excuse to intervene militarily and retake the canal. Eden infuriated US President Dwight D. Eisenhower, by his lack of consultation, and Eisenhower refused to back the invasion. Another of Eisenhower 's concerns was the possibility of a wider war with the Soviet Union after it threatened to intervene on the Egyptian side. Eisenhower applied financial leverage by threatening to sell US reserves of the British pound and thereby precipitate a collapse of the British currency. Though the invasion force was militarily successful in its objectives, UN intervention and US pressure forced Britain into a humiliating withdrawal of its forces, and Eden resigned.
The Suez Crisis very publicly exposed Britain 's limitations to the world and confirmed Britain 's decline on the world stage, demonstrating that henceforth it could no longer act without at least the acquiescence, if not the full support, of the United States. The events at Suez wounded British national pride, leading one MP to describe it as "Britain 's Waterloo '' and another to suggest that the country had become an "American satellite ''. Margaret Thatcher later described the mindset she believed had befallen Britain 's political leaders as "Suez syndrome '' where they "went from believing that Britain could do anything to an almost neurotic belief that Britain could do nothing '', from which Britain did not recover until the successful recapture of the Falkland Islands from Argentina in 1982.
While the Suez Crisis caused British power in the Middle East to weaken, it did not collapse. Britain again deployed its armed forces to the region, intervening in Oman (1957), Jordan (1958) and Kuwait (1961), though on these occasions with American approval, as the new Prime Minister Harold Macmillan 's foreign policy was to remain firmly aligned with the United States. Britain maintained a military presence in the Middle East for another decade. On 16 January 1968, a few weeks after the devaluation of the pound, Prime Minister Harold Wilson and his Defence Secretary Denis Healey announced that British troops would be withdrawn from major military bases East of Suez, which included the ones in the Middle East, and primarily from Malaysia and Singapore by the end of 1971, instead of 1975 as earlier planned. By that time over 50,000 British military personnel were still stationed in the Far East, including 30,000 in Singapore. The British withdrew from Aden in 1967, Bahrain in 1971, and the Maldives in 1976.
Macmillan gave a speech in Cape Town, South Africa in February 1960 where he spoke of "the wind of change blowing through this continent ''. Macmillan wished to avoid the same kind of colonial war that France was fighting in Algeria, and under his premiership decolonisation proceeded rapidly. To the three colonies that had been granted independence in the 1950s -- Sudan, the Gold Coast and Malaya -- were added nearly ten times that number during the 1960s.
Britain 's remaining colonies in Africa, except for self - governing Southern Rhodesia, were all granted independence by 1968. British withdrawal from the southern and eastern parts of Africa was not a peaceful process. Kenyan independence was preceded by the eight - year Mau Mau Uprising. In Rhodesia, the 1965 Unilateral Declaration of Independence by the white minority resulted in a civil war that lasted until the Lancaster House Agreement of 1979, which set the terms for recognised independence in 1980, as the new nation of Zimbabwe.
In the Mediterranean, a guerrilla war waged by Greek Cypriots ended in 1960 leading to an independent Cyprus, with the UK retaining the military bases of Akrotiri and Dhekelia. The Mediterranean islands of Malta and Gozo were amicably granted independence from the UK in 1964 and became the country of Malta, though the idea had been raised in 1955 of integration with Britain.
Most of the UK 's Caribbean territories achieved independence after the departure in 1961 and 1962 of Jamaica and Trinidad from the West Indies Federation, established in 1958 in an attempt to unite the British Caribbean colonies under one government, but which collapsed following the loss of its two largest members. Barbados achieved independence in 1966 and the remainder of the eastern Caribbean islands in the 1970s and 1980s, but Anguilla and the Turks and Caicos Islands opted to revert to British rule after they had already started on the path to independence. The British Virgin Islands, Cayman Islands and Montserrat opted to retain ties with Britain, while Guyana achieved independence in 1966. Britain 's last colony on the American mainland, British Honduras, became a self - governing colony in 1964 and was renamed Belize in 1973, achieving full independence in 1981. A dispute with Guatemala over claims to Belize was left unresolved.
British territories in the Pacific acquired independence in the 1970s beginning with Fiji in 1970 and ending with Vanuatu in 1980. Vanuatu 's independence was delayed because of political conflict between English and French - speaking communities, as the islands had been jointly administered as a condominium with France. Fiji, Tuvalu, the Solomon Islands and Papua New Guinea chose to become Commonwealth realms.
In 1980, Southern Rhodesia, Britain 's last African colony, became the independent nation of Zimbabwe. The New Hebrides achieved independence (as Vanuatu) in 1980, with Belize following suit in 1981. The passage of the British Nationality Act 1981, which reclassified the remaining Crown colonies as "British Dependent Territories '' (renamed British Overseas Territories in 2002) meant that, aside from a scattering of islands and outposts, the process of decolonisation that had begun after the Second World War was largely complete. In 1982, Britain 's resolve in defending its remaining overseas territories was tested when Argentina invaded the Falkland Islands, acting on a long - standing claim that dated back to the Spanish Empire. Britain 's ultimately successful military response to retake the islands during the ensuing Falklands War was viewed by many to have contributed to reversing the downward trend in Britain 's status as a world power. The same year, the Canadian government severed its last legal link with Britain by patriating the Canadian constitution from Britain. The 1982 Canada Act passed by the British parliament ended the need for British involvement in changes to the Canadian constitution. Similarly, the Constitution Act 1986 reformed the constitution of New Zealand to sever its constitutional link with Britain, and the Australia Act 1986 severed the constitutional link between Britain and the Australian states. In 1984, Brunei, Britain 's last remaining Asian protectorate, gained its independence.
In September 1982 the Prime Minister, Margaret Thatcher, travelled to Beijing to negotiate with the Chinese government, on the future of Britain 's last major and most populous overseas territory, Hong Kong. Under the terms of the 1842 Treaty of Nanking, Hong Kong Island itself had been ceded to Britain in perpetuity, but the vast majority of the colony was constituted by the New Territories, which had been acquired under a 99 - year lease in 1898, due to expire in 1997. Thatcher, seeing parallels with the Falkland Islands, initially wished to hold Hong Kong and proposed British administration with Chinese sovereignty, though this was rejected by China. A deal was reached in 1984 -- under the terms of the Sino - British Joint Declaration, Hong Kong would become a special administrative region of the People 's Republic of China, maintaining its way of life for at least 50 years. The handover ceremony in 1997 marked for many, including Charles, Prince of Wales, who was in attendance, "the end of Empire ''.
Britain retains sovereignty over 14 territories outside the British Isles, which were renamed the British Overseas Territories in 2002. Three are uninhabited except for transient military or scientific personnel; the remaining eleven are self - governing to varying degrees and are reliant on the UK for foreign relations and defence. The British government has stated its willingness to assist any Overseas Territory that wishes to proceed to independence, where that is an option, and three territories have specifically voted to remain under British sovereignty (Bermuda in 1995, Gibraltar in 2002 and the Falkland Islands in 2013).
British sovereignty of several of the overseas territories is disputed by their geographical neighbours: Gibraltar is claimed by Spain, the Falkland Islands and South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands are claimed by Argentina, and the British Indian Ocean Territory is claimed by Mauritius and Seychelles. The British Antarctic Territory is subject to overlapping claims by Argentina and Chile, while many countries do not recognise any territorial claims in Antarctica.
Most former British colonies and protectorates are among the 52 member states of the Commonwealth of Nations, a non-political, voluntary association of equal members, comprising a population of around 2.2 billion people. Sixteen Commonwealth realms voluntarily continue to share the British monarch, Queen Elizabeth II, as their head of state. These sixteen nations are distinct and equal legal entities -- the United Kingdom, Australia, Canada, New Zealand, Antigua and Barbuda, The Bahamas, Barbados, Belize, Grenada, Jamaica, Papua New Guinea, Saint Kitts and Nevis, Saint Lucia, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, Solomon Islands and Tuvalu.
Decades, and in some cases centuries, of British rule and emigration have left their mark on the independent nations that arose from the British Empire. The empire established the use of English in regions around the world. Today it is the primary language of up to 460 million people and is spoken by about one and a half billion as a first, second or foreign language.
The spread of English from the latter half of the 20th century has been helped in part by the cultural and economic influence of the United States, itself originally formed from British colonies. Except in Africa where nearly all the former colonies have adopted the presidential system, the English parliamentary system has served as the template for the governments for many former colonies, and English common law for legal systems.
The British Judicial Committee of the Privy Council still serves as the highest court of appeal for several former colonies in the Caribbean and Pacific. British Protestant missionaries who travelled around the globe often in advance of soldiers and civil servants spread the Anglican Communion to all continents. British colonial architecture, such as in churches, railway stations and government buildings, can be seen in many cities that were once part of the British Empire.
Individual and team sports developed in Britain -- particularly golf, football, cricket, rugby, netball, lawn bowls, hockey and lawn tennis -- were also exported. The British choice of system of measurement, the imperial system, continues to be used in some countries in various ways. The convention of driving on the left hand side of the road has been retained in much of the former empire.
Political boundaries drawn by the British did not always reflect homogeneous ethnicities or religions, contributing to conflicts in formerly colonised areas. The British Empire was also responsible for large migrations of peoples. Millions left the British Isles, with the founding settler populations of the United States, Canada, Australia and New Zealand coming mainly from Britain and Ireland. Tensions remain between the white settler populations of these countries and their indigenous minorities, and between white settler minorities and indigenous majorities in South Africa and Zimbabwe. Settlers in Ireland from Great Britain have left their mark in the form of divided nationalist and unionist communities in Northern Ireland. Millions of people moved to and from British colonies, with large numbers of Indians emigrating to other parts of the empire, such as Malaysia and Fiji, and Chinese people to Malaysia, Singapore and the Caribbean. The demographics of Britain itself was changed after the Second World War owing to immigration to Britain from its former colonies.
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how many athletes are competing under the olympic flag | Independent Olympians at the Olympic Games - wikipedia
Athletes have competed as Independent Olympians at the Olympic Games for various reasons, including political transition, international sanctions, suspensions of National Olympic Committees, and compassion. Independent athletes have come from the Republic of Macedonia, East Timor, South Sudan and Curaçao following geopolitical changes in the years before the Olympics, from the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (present - day Kosovo, Montenegro and Serbia) as a result of international sanctions, from India and Kuwait due to the suspensions of their National Olympic Committees, and Russia for mass violations of anti-doping rules.
Medals were won by Independent Olympians at the 1992 and 2016 Olympics, both times in shooting. The naming and country code conventions for these independent Olympians have not been consistent. Independent Paralympians have participated at Paralympic Games for the same reasons as Independent Olympians.
Prior to the 1906 Intercalated Games, entry was not restricted to teams nominated by National Olympic Committees (NOCs). Mixed - nationality teams competed in some team events. Participants in individual events are retrospectively credited to their nationality of the time.
The 1940 Winter Olympics was reassigned to Garmisch - Partenkirchen in spring 1939. In concert with Nazi German claims on Czechoslovakia, the organisers refused to recognise the Czechoslovakia NOC; however they were prepared to allow its athletes to enter under the Olympic flag. In any event, the Games were cancelled because of World War II.
In the Cold War, some athletes who emigrated from Communist European countries were unable to compete at the Olympics, as their original state 's NOC neither wanted them on its own team nor gave them permission to transfer nationality. Some applied to compete as individuals in 1952 and 1956, but were refused.
When Guyana joined the 1976 Olympic boycott, its sprinter James Gilkes asked the IOC to be allowed to compete as an individual, but was refused.
The IOC first made provision for athletes to compete under the Olympic flag in time for the 1980 Summer Olympics in Moscow. Some NOCs, mostly from Western Europe, wished to attend the Games despite their governments ' supporting the American - led boycott. The NOCs hesitated to use national symbols without government approval, so the IOC relaxed this requirement: 14 NOCs competed under the Olympic flag, while three, New Zealand, Spain and Portugal, competed under their respective NOCs ' flag.
During the 1992 Summer Olympics, athletes from the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia and the Republic of Macedonia competed as Independent Olympic Participants. Macedonian athletes could not appear under their own flag because their National Olympic Committee (NOC) had not been formed. The Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (Serbia and Montenegro) was under United Nations sanctions which prevented the country from taking part in the Olympics. However, individual Yugoslav athletes were allowed to take part as Independent Olympic Participants. 58 athletes competed as Independent Olympic Participants, winning three medals.
The former Soviet Union competed under the Olympic flag at the 1992 Winter Olympics and 1992 Summer Olympics as a Unified Team.
At the 2000 Summer Olympics, four athletes from East Timor competed as Individual Olympic Athletes during the country 's transition to independence.
Four athletes competed as Independent Olympic Athletes at the 2012 Summer Olympics.
After the dissolution of the Netherlands Antilles and subsequent withdrawal of the country 's National Olympic Committee, three athletes from the country who qualified for the Games were allowed to compete independently. Several others competed for either Aruba or the Netherlands.
The National Olympic Committee for South Sudan was not established between the formation of that state and the 2012 Olympic qualifying. One athlete from South Sudan, Guor Marial, qualified for the Games, and was allowed to compete as an independent.
Athletes from Kuwait were originally allowed to compete as Independent Olympic Athletes as well, because their National Olympic Committee (NOC) was suspended. However, the NOC was reinstated allowing the athletes to compete under their own flag. Kuwait competed under the Olympic flag at the 2010 Summer Youth Olympics and 2010 Asian Games.
The Indian Olympic Association was suspended from the IOC in December 2012, due to problems with its electoral process. New elections were scheduled for 9 February 2014, two days after the start of the 2014 Winter Olympics. Therefore, the three Indian athletes who qualified for the Games were scheduled to compete as Independent Olympic Participants.
On 8 and 9 February, Shiva Keshavan participated in the luge competition and received 38th place. He would end up being the only athlete to officially participate as an Independent Olympic Participant.
On 11 February 2014 the IOC reinstated the Indian Olympic Association after Narayana Ramachandran, the president of the World Squash Federation, was voted in as the new president of the Indian Olympic Association, allowing the two remaining athletes to compete under the Indian flag rather than as independent athletes. This was the first time such a reinstatement of an NOC occurred as an Olympic Games were underway.
Kuwaiti athletes competed as independent, as the Kuwait Olympic Committee was suspended by the International Olympic Committee due to governmental interference. This was the second suspension in five years; the first suspension resulted in Kuwaiti athletes being forced to compete under the Olympic flag as Athletes from Kuwait for the 2010 Asian Games. Fehaid Al - Deehani became the first Independent Olympic Athlete to win a gold medal. Like with gold medalists of the Unified Team at the 1992 Winter and Summer Olympics, the Olympic Hymn was played in the victory ceremony.
Refugees were allowed to compete under the Olympic Flag at the 2016 Summer Olympics, under the label Refugee Olympic Team. Ten athletes from four countries competed for this team.
Due to widespread state - controlled doping in Russia, the International Association of Athletic Federations suspended the All - Russia Athletic Federation in November 2015. As a result, no Russian athlete would able to compete internationally, including the 2016 Olympics, until the suspension was lifted. The IAAF announced a path for athletes who train outside the Russia system and could prove themselves to be clean, as well as those who have helped in the fight against doping, to be eligible to compete as neutral athletes at the 2016 Olympics. Two athletes, Darya Klishina and Yuliya Stepanova were initially cleared for competition, as Independent Athletes.
Although Yulia Stepanova was cleared by IAAF because of her revelations regarding Russia 's systemic doping program, and IOC 's recognition of her ' contribution to the protection and promotion of clean athletes, ' she was banned by the IOC in line with decision to ban all Russian athletes with previous doping convictions. IOC also rejected the suggestion that ' neutral ' athletes could compete outside of national selection. Klishina was subsequently confirmed as competing under Russian colors, their only competitor in athletics at the 2016 Olympics.
On December 5, 2017, the IOC announced that Russia would be banned from the 2018 Winter Olympics over its state - sponsored doping program. Russian athletes were allowed to participate under the Olympic flag as "Olympic Athletes from Russia '' (OAR) if they were cleared by a panel, which was chaired by Valerie Fourneyron and had representatives from the IOC, the World Anti-Doping Agency, and the Doping Free Sport Unit of the Global Association of International Sports Federations.
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